Encyclopaedia Britannica [32, 10 ed.]

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THE NEW YOLUMES OF THE

ENCYCLOPiEDIA BBITANNICA

THE

NEW VOLUMES OF THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA CONSTITUTING IN COMBINATION WITH THE EXISTING VOLUMES OF THE NINTH EDITION

THE TENTH EDITION OF THAT WORK, AND ALSO SUPPLYING

A NEW, DISTINCTIVE, AND INDEPENDENT

LIBRARY OF REFERENCE DEALING WITH RECENT EVENTS AND DEVELOPMENTS

THE

EIGHTH

OF

THE

NEW

VOLUMES,

BEING

VOLUME XXXII OF

THE

COMPLETE

WORK

PUBLISHED BY

ADAM & CHARLES . BLACK, EDINBURGH & LONDON . . .

‘THE TIMES’ . PRINTING HOUSE SQUARE, LONDON MCMII

THE EDITOKS ARTHUR T. HADLEY,

SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE,

LL.D.,

PRESIDENT OF YALE.

K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O.

HUGH CHISHOLM, B.A. C.C.C. OXFORD)

(FORMERLY SCHOLAR OF

THE DEPAETMENTAL EDITOES FOR LAW AND GOVERNMENT : THE HON.

SIR JOHN SCOTT,

K.C.M.G.,

Deputy Judge-Advocate-General.

FOR GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS : J.

SCOTT LL.D.,

FOR MILITARY AFFAIRS : SIR GEORGE SYDENHAM CLARKE, K.C.M.G.,

KELTIE,

F.S.S.,

FOR ZOOLOGY: G.

HERBERT FOWLER, PH.D.

’ FOR NAVAL AFFAIRS :

F.S.A.SCOT.,

Sec. Roy. Geog. Soc.

JAS. RICHARD THURSFIELD, M.A.

FOR BIOGRAPHY:

FOR ASTRONOMY:

F.R.S.

RICHARD GARNETT, C.B., LL.D. SIMON NEWCOMB, PH.D., LL.D.

FOR LITERATURE:

FOR MEDICAL SCIENCE : D.

FOR MATHEMATICS :

NOEL PATON, M.D., B.SC., F.R.C.P.ED. JOSEPH

FOR THEOLOGY: REV. W. E. COLLINS, M.A., Prof, of Ecclesiastical Hist, at King’s Coll., Lond.

D.SC., SEC.R.S.,

FOR ELECTRICITY :

M. HOWE, A.M., Prof, of Metallurgy at Columbia University.

HENRY

FOR BOTANY: D. H. SCOTT, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S., Hon. Keeper, Jodrell Laboratory, Kew.

M.A.,

University Lecturer in Mathematics, Cambridge.

J.

FOR MINING:

LARMOR,

EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.

A. FLEMING, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S., Prof, of Electrical Engineering, Univ. Coll., London.

FOR ECONOMICS: WYNNARD HOOPER, M.A.

FOR RAILWAYS: MAJOR HENRY G. PROUT, Editor of Railroad Gazette, N.Y. FOR MUSIC: J. A.

M, H.

FOR ART: Editor of the

SPIELMANN,

Maga-

FULLER MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A.

FOR GAMES AND SPORTS: Editor of the Badmin-

ALFRED WATSON,

ton Library.

zine of Art.

THE ASSOCIATE EDITOKS PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, H. M. ROSS,

DR. JUR.

B.A.

I

FRANKLIN H. HOOPER, A.B.

I

E. H. WILLIAMS,

M.D.

THE SUB-EDITORS JAMES A. MANSON.

G. B. LYNES,

Copyright, 1902, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.

A.M.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. VOLUME XXXII (PRIBILOFF ISLANDS—STOWMARKET). PRINCIPAL

CONTENTS.

PREFATORY ESSAY: THE FUNCTION OF SCIENCE IN THE MODERN STATE. F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, University College, London.

KARL PEARSON,

PRIMROSE LEAGUE. The Rt. Hon. Sir HENRY DRUMMOND WOLFF, G.C.B., G.C.M.G. PRINGSHEIM. D. H. SCOTT, F.R. S., Honorary Keeper of the Jodrell Laboratory, Kevv. PRINTING PRESSES. THEODORE L. DE VINNE, Author of “The Invention of Printing.” PRISON DISCIPLINE. Major ARTHUR GRIFFITHS, formerly H.M. Inspector of Prisons. PROCESS. EDWIN BALE. PROCTOR, R. A. A. A. RAMBAUT, D.Sc., F.R.S., Radcliffe Observer, Oxford. PROPELLANTS. Major F. L. NATHAN, R.A., Superintendent of the Royal Gunpowder Factory, Waltham Abbey. PROSTITUTION. A. SHADWELL, M.D. PROTECTION. EDMUND J. JAMES, Ph.D., President of the North-Western University, U.S.A. PROTECTORATES. JOHN MACDONELL, LL.D., C.B., Master of the Supreme Court. PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH. The Rt. Rev. HENRY C. POTTER, D.D., Bishop of the Diocese of New York. PROTOPLASM. E. A. MINCHIN, Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, University College, London. PROYENQAL LITERATURE.

H. OELSNER,

Ph.D.

PSYCHICAL RESEARCH. ANDREW LANG, LL.D. PSYCHOLOGY. JAMES WARD, LL.D., D.Sc., Professor of Mental Philosophy, Cambridge University. PTERIDOPHYTA. W. H. LANG, D.SC., Lecturer in Botany, Queen Margaret’s College, Glasgow. PUBLIC HEALTH. A. WOOD RENTON, Puisne Judge of Mauritius. PUBLISHING. J. SHAYLOR. PUVIS DE CHAYANNES. HENRI FRANTZ. QUARRYING. The Hon. F. J. H. MERRILL, Ph.D., New York State Geologist. QUEENSLAND. Physical Characteristics and Statistics, J. V. CHAT AWAY (the late), Secretary for Agriculture, Queensland; History, J. T. CRITCHELL, Author of “Guide to Queensland.” RADIATION, THEORY OF. J. LARMOR, D.SC., Sec. R.S., Lecturer in Mathematics, Cambridge University. RAID. T. BARCLAY, Ph.D., Vice-President of the International Law Association. RAILWAYS. General History and Statistics, Construction, Major H. G. PROUT, Editor of the “ Railroad Gazette ” (New York); Economics and Legislation, A. T. HADLEY, LL.D., President of Yale University ; British Railway Legislation, Statistics of Accidents, Lt.-Col. H. A. YORKE, R.E., Chief Inspecting Officer of Railways to the Board of Trade ; General Financial Organization and Locomotives, JOHN GREENOUGH ; Signalling, B. B. ADAMS ; Rolling Stock, Major H. G. PROUT and R. H. SOULE ; Intra-Urban Railways, W. BARCLAY PARSONS, Chief Engineer of the Underground Railway, New York; Tramways, T. C. MARTIN, Editor of the “Electrical World,” New York ; Light Railways, Maj.-Gen. C. E. WEBBER, C.B., Past President of the Institution of Electrical Engineers ; Mountain Railways, S. J. BERG, A.M.I.C.E.

RANGE-FINDER. Major F. M. LOWE, R.A., formerly Gunnery Instructor, Coast Defence School. RANKE. J. W. HEADLAM, formerly Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge. RED SEA. H. N. DICKSON, Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford University. REFRIGERATING AND ICE-MAKING MACHINERY. T B. LIGHTFOOT, M.Inst.C.E., Author of “The Mechanical Refrigeration of Air.” REGENERATION OF LOST PARTS. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL, D.SC., Author of “Outlines of Biology.” REGISTRATION OF VOTERS. L. L. SHADWELL, Revising Barrister for Middlesex. RENAN. A. M. F. ROBINSON (Madame Duclaux) Authoress of “ Life of Renan.” REPRODUCTION. J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A., Regius Professor of Natural History, Aberdeen University. REPTILES. A. SMITH WOODWARD, F.R.S., Keeper of Geology, British Museum. RESERVATION OF THE EUCHARIST. The Rev. W. E. COLLINS, Professor of Ecclesiastical History, King’s College, London. RHODE ISLAND. W. H. MUNRO, A.M., Professor of European History, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island. RHODES, CECIL. FLORA L. SHAW (LADY LUGARD). RHODESIA (SOUTH). Geography and Statistics, A. H. KEANE ; History, ALFRED P. HILLIER, M.D. RIFLE. Sir H. SETON-KARR, M.P. RIOT. W. F. CRAIES, Barrister-at-Law. RIVER-ENGINEERING. L. F. VERNON-HARCOURT, M.Inst. C.E., Professor of Civil Engineering, University College, London. ROAD-MAKING. Capt. T. BLASHILL. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. H.E. Cardinal VAUGHAN, D.D., Archbishop of Westminster; United States, H.E. Cardinal GIBBONS, Archbishop of Baltimore, U.S.A. ROMAN WALLS. F. J. HAVERFIELD, Student and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. ROME. Recent History, MARION CRAWFORD ; Archaeology, Professor RICHARD NORTON, American School of Archaeology, Rome. ROSSETTI, CHRISTINA. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL. F. G. STEPHENS. ROULETTE. A. E. T. WATSON, Editor of the “Badminton Library.” ROWING. C. M. PITMAN ; United States, WALTER CAMP, Author of “Book of College Sports.” RUBINSTEIN. R. H. LEGGE, Editor of “Music in the Nineteenth Century.” RUMANIA. Lieut.-Col. HENRY TROTTER, H.M. ConsulGeneral for Rumania. RUSKIN. FREDERIC HARRISON. RUSSELL OF KILLOWEN, LORD. The Hon. Sir W. RANN KENNEDY, Judge of the King’s Bench Division. RUSSIA. Geography and Statistics, Prince KROPOTKIN ; Recent History, SirD. MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E.,' K.C.V.O. ; Literature, W. R. MORFILL, Professor of Russian, Oxford University. SACHS. S. H. VINES, D.SC., F.R.S., Sherardian Professor of Botany, Oxford University.

CONTENTS

VI

SACRAMENTARY OF SERAPION. The Rev. F. E. BRIGHT MAN, Pusey Librarian, Oxford University. SAFES AND VAULTS. H. H. SUPLEE, Editor of “The Engineering Magazine,” New York. SAHARA. E. HEAWOOD, Librarian of the Royal Geographical Society. ST LOUIS. MARSHALL S. SNOW, A.M., Professor of History, Washington University, St Louis, Mi. SALE OF GOODS. M. D. CHALMERS, C.S.I. SALVAGE. Civil, T. G. CARVER, K.C., Author of “On the Law relating to the Carriage of Goods by Sea ; Military, MICHAEL BRETT. SALVAGE CORPS. Major C. J. Fox, of the London Salvage Corps. SALVATION ARMY. The Rev. G. E. NEWSOM, Reader at the Temple Church, London. SAN FRANCISCO. The Hon. JAMES D. PHELAN, formerly Mayor of San Francisco. SAVINGS BANKS. United States, The Hon. BRADFORD RHODES, Editor of “The Banker’s Magazine,” New York. SCHLIEMANN. D. G. HOGARTH, Director of the Cretan Exploration Fund. SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. British, M. H. SPIELMANN, Editor of the “Magazine of Art”; France, LEONCE BENADITE ; Bdgiv.m, FERNAND KHNOPFF ; Other European Countries, Dr RICHARD MUTHER, Professor of Art History, University of Breslau ; United States, Professor J. C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D. SCOTLAND. W. WALLACE, LL.D. SCULPTURE. British, M. H. SPIELMANN ; French, LkONCE BENEDITE ; United States, RUPERT HUGHES. SEA, COMMAND OF THE. Vice-Admiral Sir CYPRIAN BRIDGE, K.C.B. SEA-FISHING. “JOHN BICKERDYKE.” SEAL. DAVID STARR JORDAN, Ph.D., LL.D., President of Leland Stanford Junior University; Author of “Fisheries of North and Middle America,” and G. A. CLARK.

SEA - POWER. Vice - Admiral Sir CYPRIAN BRIDGE, K.C.B. SELBORNE, LORD. The Right Hon. Sir EDWARD FRY, D.C.L., F.R.S., formerly Lord Justice of Appeal. SERVIA. History, CH. MIJATOVITCH, formerly Servian Minister to the Court of St James. SERVO-BULGARIAN WAR. Sir GEORGE S. CLARKE, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., Governor of Victoria. SEWAGE DISPOSAL. SANTO CRIMP (the late), M.Inst.C.E., Author of “Sewage Disposal Works.” SEXTANT. Captain A. MOSTYN FIELD, R.N., of the British Hydrographic Survey. SHERIDAN, GENERAL PHILIP H. General HENRY M. CIST. SHERMAN, GENERAL WILLIAM T. General J. D. Cox (the late). SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING. PHILIP WATTS, F.R.S., Director of Naval Construction. SHOOTING. P. STEPHENS. SIAM. Geography, and Statistics, H. WARINGTON SMYTH, Author of “Five Years in Siam” ; History, J. G. D. CAMPBELL, formerly Educational Adviser to the King of Siam. SIBERIA. Prince KROPOTKIN. SIGNALS (ARMY). Capt. G. A. BRAMWELL, Deputy Assistant Adjutant-General for Signalling. SIGNALS (NAVAL). Commander A. F. EVERETT, R.N., Signal School, H.M.S. Victory, Portsmouth. SILCHESTER. F. J. HAVERFIELD. SILVER. H. 0. HOFMAN, Ph. D., Professor of Metallurgy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. SIPUNCULOIDEA. A. E. SHIPLEY, F.Z.S., Lecturer on Advanced Morphology of the Invertebrata, Cambridge University. SISTERHOODS. The Rev. J. 0. NASH, of the Community of the Resurrection.

SKATING. C. EDGINGTON, President, Oxford University Speed Skating Club. SLAUGHTER-HOUSE. SHIRLEY F. MURPHY, M.D., Medical Officer of Health for the County of London. SMALL ARMS. British and Foreign—Major H. W. BARLOW, R.A., Secretary to the Chief Superintendent, Royal Oi’dnance Factories, Woolwich ; U.S.A.—Capt. J. T. THOMPSON. SMITH, W. ROBERTSON. A. E. SHIPLEY. SOCIALISM. JAMES BONAR, LL.D., Senior Examiner to the Civil Service Commission. SOCIAL PROGRESS IN GREAT BRITAIN. General, Baths, Clubs, Amusements, Clothing, Food, and Holidays, The Rev. Canon S. A. BARNETT, Founder and Warden of Toynbee Hall, Whitechapel, and Mrs H. 0. BARNETT ; Housing and Pauperism, Canon S. A. BARNETT ; Crime, C. E. TROUP, C.B. ; Drunkenness, A. SHERWELL ; Health, J. EDWARD SQUIRE, M.D. ; Open Spaces, Mrs. BASIL HOLMES ; Public Libraries, THOMAS GREENWOOD ; Wages and Hours of Labour, E. AVES, M.A. SOCIOLOGY. BENJAMIN KIDD, Author of “Social Evolution.” SOMALILAND. Professor A. H. KEANE ; French, PAUI LOUIS ; Italian, LUIGI MERCATELLI. SOUNDING. Captain A. MOSTYN FIELD, R.N. SOUTH AFRICA. Geography and Statistics, Professor A. H. KEANE ; History, ALFRED P. HILLIER, M.D. SOUTH AUSTRALIA. The Hon. Sir JOHN A. COCKBURN, K. and T. A. COGHLAN. SOUTH CAROLINA. EDWARD M‘GRADY. SOUTH DAKOTA. The Hon. BARTLETT TRIPP. SOVEREIGNTY. JOHN MACDONELL, C.B., LL.D. SPAIN. Geography and History, A. E. HOUGHTON, Author of “Restoration of the Bourbons in Spain” ; Recent Literature, JAMES FITZMAURICE KELLY, Author of “ A History of Spanish Literature.” SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. Captain F. E. CHADWICK, U.S.A. SPECTROSCOPY. Professor GEORGE E. HALE, Director of the Yerkes Observatory, University of Chicago. SPECULUM PERFECTIONIS. The Rev. W. E. COLLINS, Professor of Ecclesiastical History, King’s College, London. SPHERES LL.D.

OF INFLUENCE.

J.

MACDONELL,

C.B.,

SPHERICAL HARMONICS. E. W. HOBSON, D.Sc., F.R.S., Lecturer in Mathematics, Cambridge University. SPIRITS. P. SCHIDROWITZ, Ph.D. SPITSBERGEN. Sir W. MARTIN CONWAY, Author of “The First Crossing of Spitsbergen.” SPONGES. E. A. MINCHIN, Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, University College, London. SPOROZOA. ALPHONSE LABBE, Chief of the Laboratory of Zoology, University of Paris. STAGE MECHANISM AND SPECTACLE. E. 0.SACHS, Author of “ Stage Construction ” ; and C. WILHELM, Author of “Essays on Ballets and Spectacle.” STAMP REVENUE. Sir G. H. MURRAY, K.C.B., formerly Chairman of the Board of Inland Revenue. STATE. THOMAS BARCLAY, Ph.D. STEAM-SHIP LINES. B. W. GINSBURG, LL.D., Secretary of the Royal Statistical Society of Great Britain ; and W. B. DUFFIELD, Barrister-at-Law. STEPHEN, SIR J. F. Sir FREDERICK POLLOCK, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L., Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence, Oxford University. STEVENSON, ROBERT L.

EDMUND GOSSE,

LL.D.

STOCK MARKETS. WYNNARD HOOPER M.A. STOWE, HARRIET E. (BEECHER). HORACE SCUDDER, Litt.D. (the late).

E.

PREFATORY ESSAY. THE FUNCTION OF SCIENCE IN THE MODERN STATE.' By Karl Pearson.

I.

Science and the Structure of the Modern State.

IEFOPLE the second half of the 19 th century aa true theory of the state was impossible. Xi3K>n WUUUI K~ ~— 7- “““ A tneory ot me state was impossible. A sound idea of mankind as but one among many types of life, even if the highest type, had hardly entered men s minds—they were accustomed to contrast “ nature ” and “ man.” But had it entered, they knew so little about the laws governing any form of life, that they would not have gained much by extending the

Biological

llttle kriown

to man

-

Not till the publication of Darwin’s epoch-making works was a real

of Position the evolution of living forms possible, and with this appreciation all the old theories of the state became practically idle—landmarks only in the study, ever-interesting to man, of the history of human thoughts and theories. A complete revolution was wrought in the ideas of those who read and understood Darwin, both as to the nature of the state and as to its functions. The theory of the state could no longer be treated from either the philosophical or the purely logistic standpoint. The state was the product of an historical evolution; the nation was a unity evolved by the struggle of one living type under the same laws as applied to other phases of life. The theory of the state became biological: one of the most complex and difficult branches of biology no doubt * but still it was a great step to remove this theory from philosophy-or even from metaphysics, as in the’ case of Hegel—and transfer it to its true class. It is little wonder, perhaps, that the first investigators in this new field went widely astray. They extended without due thought fascinating biological hypotheses to the case of man. They found the struggle of individual against individual in many vital fields, and they extended the survival of the fitter as a governing principle to all individual life within human communities; they did not stay to inquire why and how communities had themselves come into existence; they neglected the suggestions of the hive and the herd, and reached (as in the cases of both Spencer and Huxley) fallacious conclusions as to the functions of the state and the sources of social conduct. In short, they over-emphasized the intra-racial struggle, and under-emphasized the inter-racial contest, as factors producing and developing the political and moral characteristics in man. Other state theorists, again, accepted without qualification some doctrine like that of panmixia, unproven or even disproven for the lower types of life, and heedlessly applied it to civilized man. Nor were these over-hasty conclusions to be entirely condemned: by the disco\eiy of the doctrine of evolution by natural selection, an absolutely new country had been thrown open, with endless possibilities for thought and action. What wonder if publicists, with no

^heSate.

man

in

’s

thi is th briefest sketch ® ® of a vast and all-important subject, where the writer has not been able at y urn to develop detailed plans, but only to outline suggestion and criticism.

vii

S. VIII. — b

vm

PREFATORY ESSAY

sound biological training, indeed no scientific training whatever, rushed in with jubilation to be among the early settlers ? What wonder that biologists, with small historical knowledge, even without intimate acquaintance with the exact social history of any human community for the briefest of periods, extended at once great vital principles beyond their legitimate limits ? We can scarcely be surprised that some false views as to man and the state were propounded under the new impetus, or that some mistakes were made even in social legislation. Reaction was certain to come, and the cycle was completed, as usual, by a German professor demonstrating all Darwinian theory to be snare and delusion. Let us then at the present moment take "stock and see where we actually stand. The main principle of evolution by natural selection is based upon four factors:—(a) That characters are variable. Darwinian (&) That characters are inherited, (c) That there is a selective death-rate, i.e., that individuals theory and possessing characters or combinations of characters in a higher or less degree than other man ‘ individuals die, on the whole, sooner or later than the latter, (d) That those individuals who die early leave fewer offspring than those who die late. How far are these factors demonstrable truths in the case of civilized man ? (d) This is beyond question for both physique and intelligence in man. (b) This is absolutely certain for both the mental and physical characters in man. Both these are sensibly inherited at the same rate and, further, with such a degree of intensity that three, or at most four, generations of selection will suffice to establish a race in man which will breed true to itself under a stable environment. (c) By observations on the death-rate of relatives—i.e., of groups of individuals possessing like characters or combinations of characters—it has been demonstrated that 50 to 80 per cent, of the deaths among mankind are selective. {d) This has been statistically demonstrated for both sexes in Great Britain, America, and Australia. We are forced, then, to the conclusion that the Darwinian theory in the case of mankind is a law arid not a “ plausible hypothesis.” It is a different problem to measure the rate at which evolution works. What sensible modifications can be made within 200, or even 8000, years in a human race by evolution ? Recent craniological investigations seem to show that, even within the shorter of these periods, such changes can occur in the shape of the skull of a single race that 50,000 years or less would suffice' to have modified the cranium from a type which any modem anatomist would hesitate to call human. The argument is not that the human skull has always gone forward at this rate, but that it could do so under apparently quite ordinary conditions. In other words, the biologist’s demand for time must not be looked upon as indefinitely exceeding what the geologist is prepared to grant. Such is our modern stock-taking—a possibility of the work done between 1890 and 1902—of the relation of the Darwinian theory to man. But if we only apply the principle that all life progresses by the struggle of individual against individual to the history of man, we find half the facts of both social and political history wholly unintelligible. We have missed the great point, that man has largely progressed because The inters he is gregarious; we cannot describe on such a basis the evolution of morality, the origins national struggle of tribal customs, tribal worship, national institutions, national religions, and, ultimately, of for existence. the modern state. We might as well attempt, on the basis of the survival of the fitter individual, a satisfactory, explanation of why Sir Harry Johnston’s African ant gave forth, when trodden on, a most appalling stench, so skunk-like that the destroyer fled from the spot. The welfare of the whole has controlled in this case, as in others, the development of the individual. The community in its entirety is struggling against its vital and physical environments. As soon as we interpret the facts of history in the light of progress by inter-racial struggle, and only in a secondary manner by intra-racial competition, those facts become deeply suggestive and significant for our guidance. We see both Roman and Hebrew nations arising from very small beginnings by successful variations in tribal custom and belief. We no longer mourn over the apparent waste of power in the continuous wars of the small Greek communities: we see in that strife the probable source of their rapid progress

PREFATORY ESSAY

.ix

in intelligence and physique. Nay, modern Europe itself at once becomes the stage whereon the drama of evolution is being played out amid the hum of factories, the clash of armaments, and the buzz of youth in the playing-field and the lecture-room. History has painted for us the ever-present strife of nations: m the lower stages we see the victory of brute-force and of cunning; in somewhat higher stages we find the dominance of strength, valour, and discipline; at the present the factors of mastery are possession of material sources and the skill to turn them to account,—the copious store of knowledge, the -power to increase it at will, and the intelligence to apply it for the national profit. The struggle of nations is the commonplace of history; but the realization that this struggle is a factor in human development,—that big battalions or an armada are not sufficient insurance for success in it, but that organization and intelligence in every function of national life are requisite for victory,—this is the special truth that dawned upon us at the end of the 19th century. Formerly territory was blindly seized, trade routes and commercial markets blindly opened or controlled, manufacturing processes and means of transit developed or not, according as they might seem profitable or not to individuals. The bearing of these things and a multitude of others—such as the physique of the nation, the skill of its craftsmen, the intelligence of its trade-leaders, the activity of its educators, the organization and preservation of its material resources—was unrecognized in their relation to national fitness for the international struggle. The politician could tell the nation that it must have more ships or more rifles for the national safety, or he could emphasize the importance of the “ open door ” for national welfare, but he did not provide for the intelligent building of the ships, the intelligent sighting of the rifles, the intelligent training of the merchants who were to enter the open door amid the great international crush to get inside. He did not see that ultimately the training of even the apparently most insignificant workers in the community, the fitness for its purpose of the simplest manufacturing or agricultural process, may be vital to a nation in the evenly balanced contest of modern civilization. To stand still for a moment to depend only on the possession of material resources, of the existing trade routes, or of means of transit is to lose points in the game. Where all are pressing forward, not to advance is to fall behind. Let us consider for a moment some of the factors of national welfare. First, the physical powers of the nation—vital: its numbers and effective fertility, its health and sanitation, the energy, vigour, and Factors of strength of individuals; material: mineral wealth, sources of mechanical energy, (joal, national oil, water power, water and rail transit, docks, coaling stations; equipment: power to seize Secondly, the mental powers of a nation—power to carry out mechanical and power to hol(p work quickly and effectively; power to discover and power to imagine, to incite and to stimulate: morale and patriotism; power to resist long strain, to avoid epochs of national hysteria, to follow for years definite policies with only future profit in view, to govern effectively, or ultimately assimilate divergent racial groups.- On examination, each one of these and other factors of national efficiency will be found to require intelligent handling: they demand training and knowledge—science in its broadest sense— if the stability of the state is to be maintained and increased, if the nation is to contribute its full share to the total progress of human activity. The future is to the nations which not only realize the international struggle in all fields of activity, but consciously develop all the factors of national efficiency with this end in view. This is the theory Trained intelligence

national

life which Preseiits itself at the beginning of the 20th century. It connotes immense development of the functions of science in both legislature and executive. It

sh uld

lead

to

11 ew

conce t

ns

^/national ° P i° and new scope for, patriotism, and a revised attitude fitness. to wauls state action and state service. Brute force, strength and bravery, material wealth,

have in turn been dominant in the state; to-morrow will be marked by the dominance of intelligence. The most intelligent nations will be victorious in the struggle; and it befits each state that would be great to-morrow as well as to-day to educate and organize itself, from the statesmen at the top to the ploughboys and factory hands at the basis. In the future it will not be possible either to organize and lead a nation or to make a cheese effectively without training—without a knowledge of what science has to say about men or milk.

X

PREFATORY ESSAY

The education of the nation, from statesman to dairymaid, is a task of great magnitude—more especially in old countries, where the institutions have developed historically, and often preserved features of earlier periods, when other factors than intelligence were dominant in national life. On canceo/ class and

other hand, the older nations possess traditions and divisions which are not without service as rough results of experience. Caste and class may be exaggerated so much that they do far

more harm than good, but to a certain extent they may serve for differentiating workers within the community. The nation stands equally in need of its ploughmen, its craftsmen, its traders, its brain-workers, and its leaders; and it is desirable to have some preliminary classification of what work an individual is best suited for. While, on the one hand, it is most important that all capacity which will be of special social service in performing a particular function shall find that function within its reach, it is, on the other hand, not only undesirable, but impossible, to subject every individual in the nation to a test of fitness for every possible calling. With rough practical efficiency a man’s work in life is settled by his caste or class. This is not so undesirable as it might at first sight appear; it is a largely unconscious differentiation of the nation into workers of different types, who marry within their caste, and—if we remember how few generations are needful for a special human group to breed true —thus preserve to a large extent their special usefulness. We need a net which will be widely cast to drag upwards, and a similar net to drag downwards, but the meshes of neither of these nets should be too small. It is cruel to the individual, it serves no social purpose, to drag a man of only moderate intellectual power from the hand-working to the brain-working group; yet this seems too often the result of the present system. If there be a moderately capable worker, the state should strive, in the first place, that he should be trained to better craftsmanship. Do not let it assume that he will turn out a Faraday because he shows some relative capacity. In at least nine cases out of ten disappointment will be in store for the state if it does. Let there be a ladder from class to class, and occupation to occupation, but let it not be a very easy ladder to climb; great ability will get up, and that is all that is socially advantageous. We have to remember, for example, that the middle class in England, which stands there for intellectual culture and brain-work, is the product of generations of selection from other classes and of in-marriage. A hundred men of this class, quite apart from training and tradition, will provide a greater percentage of men capable of doing brain-work, than a hundred men from the farming class, or a hundred craftsmen.1 These in their turn (if we do not regard training and tradition, though there is no reason why we should not) will produce a larger proportion of men suited for colonists or for the workshop than the former, and for precisely the same reasons—long selection and in-marriage. Again, we assert, the gradation of the body social is not a mere historical anomaly; it is largely the result of long-continued selection, economically differentiating the community into classes roughly fitted to certain types of work. And here we reach the first fundamental principle in the education of a community: the education must be specialized for each individual class of workers—all intelligence must not be driven through the same mill. The system under which local colleges ape universities, polytechnics ape local colleges, nightschools ape polytechnics, and all think it the highest merit to get their students stamped with a degree of one kind or another, is an utterly fallacious one; it is educational chaos, and has not the slightest approach to that harmonious system of education differentiated to class-function and class-intelligence, which must be at the basis of national fitness, i.e., the readiness of each group in the community to do its specialized work efficiently. Let there be a ladder then, that indisputable capacity may climb to the place where it is most wanted, but the nation needs that the great bulk of its members shall work at the same tasks as their forefathers, only with increased intelligence and more highly developed craftsmanship. 1 The cry for “ an easy ladder ” is a most mistaken one, especially as long as any false feeling of gentility attaches to one or another class of workers. During the last few years the writer has come largely in contact with a number of young men and women whom the county councils up and down the country are educating at the national expense. These county council scholars are on the average not up to the mean middle-class intelligence. It is very rarely that one could not pick out for any given post better, often many better, middle-class candidates. In this case the meshes of the net are far too small: ten per cent, of the scholarships would have sufficed to procure the really capable men and women whom it was of social value to educate for intellectual pursuits. The rest want either the originality, the power of self-assertion, or the physique which would enable them to force their way forward in a new sphere. The bitterness of failure is upon those, who, scholarships ended, sink to usherdom in small private schools, or to second-rate draughtsmen in engineering works. Taught in true craft-schools, they might well have been leaders in their own class, instead of failures in another.

PREFATORY ESSAY

xi

Make it easy for the Michael Faradays to climb, but only for such as he was ; the increase of the intellectual proletariat is a sign not of efficiency but of chaos in national education. If national education at the present day be a sine qud non of national fitness for success in the world-struggle, it must none the less be a specialized education suited to develop the intelligence of each caste and class. Training is essential to a nation, but it must be specialized to each social Need of specializa= activity, if it is to perform its function. How is this truth to be brought home to the statestion in. men, the permanent officials, or the politicians, who alone can bring order into educational chaos ? The statesmen of the old school, blamelessly ignorant of the laws of national development, were inclined to look upon race-progress as due to mighty forces beyond human control, and thus to believe that executive and legislature could do little to make or mar national welfare. But as we learn to understand better the laws ruling living organisms, our appreciation of the factors in human history changes: man cannot modify the law of gravitation, but he can make its effects subserve his own ends; and this is equally true of the laws which rule organic and inorganic material. Unfortunately the training of the statesman himself is often sadly defective; he rarely stands at the summit of the knowledge of his day, or has the instinct to select his subordinates for real organizing Training Power- In a democratic state the process by which the statesman is chosen is at best a risky of the one. His requirements are, first, ample private resources ; secondly, power to impress a possibly statesman. wei]_meaning put largely ignorant democratic electorate; and lastly, ready debating power and personal influence on the somewhat narrow group, chiefly of his own type, which is to be found in the average representative assembly. There is no security in these requisites for a training in statecraft. The race-leaders and potential empire-builders rarely find their way into representative assemblies. The men who could organize a great national department, or even organize the nation itself, devote their energies to the building up of world-wide commercial enterprises to their own profit, or to the profit of a narrow circle. And when such men have convinced the world of their business capacity, of the shrewdness with which they can appreciate new ideas and forestall the future, they are already beyond their prime. They have no longer the inclination to learn the complex routine of parliamentary life, or the power to stand its physical strain. One of the most difficult problems for the democratic state is to make state service in its highest branches a career for such men in their youth, and thus allow the nation to exploit at once and directly their power of initiation and organization. Still more difficult, perhaps, is the selection of statesmen in the case of an oligarchy. The nation which bred and traine’d a specialized class of men solely for statesmanship would undoubtedly be best governed under such a true aristocracy. But in practice the existing false aristocracies fall far short of serving any such state function. There is no security that the dominant caste represents either the intelligence or the organizing power of the community. Even if the caste be based on wealth-accumulating power or stateservice of ancestry, there is no security for the brain-power indicated in past success being preserved by inheritance, unless the maintenance of family ability becomes a far more conscious guide in the arrangement of matrimonial alliances than it appears to be in any aristocracy of the present day. Further, little, if any, specialized training has hitherto been provided for such a class beyond the educative experience of men and manners—which may legitimately be considered a trifle narrow—to be gained in a parliamentary career and the earlier stages of executive life. Without proper selection or fitting training the statesmen of the oligarchy may forget inter-racial competition under the bias of class interest, and the intra-racial dominance of a caste become the chief object of a false statecraft. A secure autocracy hardly affords a like foothold for intra-racial struggle weakening the effective response of a nation to its environment. But its success depends so entirely on a single throw of the dice—the discovery of a man with unique powers of selecting intelligence and organizing ability in his immediate subordinates—that it need hardly be considered as a practical form of government. The discovery of the ideal dictator is a problem which finds not even an approximate solution in elected presidents, still less in hereditary autocrats. It is true that revolutionary processes by which the really strong man comes to the top may occasionally aid a nation at a time of crisis, but they are too expensive in other ways to be aught but a counsel of despair. Historical evolution has left most civilized nations,

xii

PREFATORY ESSAY

after a rough and tumble experience, with a democratic government more or less tempered by oligarchic and autocratic institutions. This may be the best practical solution of the problem in the present stage of national development, but such a system is terribly cumbersome in its processes for ensuring that the keenest brains and the best organizing power of individuals shall be secured as the brains and the organizing power of the nation at large. If the best trained, the most intelligent community is destined to be the surviving type of the present century, then the cry must not only be: Educate your democracy! but also : Select and train your aristocracy for statecraft! If we may assume, and there is small doubt that we safely may assume, that all qualities in man are inherited, and inherited at such a rate that very few—two to four—generations suffice for selection to produce a class breeding true to itself, then the selection of an aristocracy even by the rough process of ennobling great ability or great wealth (acquired by the owner) is intelligible. But the continuous support by the nation of members of an oligarchic class who have ceased to be of service for aristocratic purposes is futile. In the fourth generation at latest such members should drop out, unless the stock has again proved its capacity by effective national service. The absence of such service will be a sure sign that the original ability was sporadic, that the stock has not bred true, has wasted its intellectual patrimony, or has neglected to train itself for its special functions. The net—meshes not too small, let us remember—must drag downwards as well as upwards. The training of an oligarchic class in statecraft is the first and perhaps hardest task of the modern state. Much, very much no doubt, can be learnt from municipal, parliamentary, and minor executive experience man w 0 rom Need fora ^7 ^ f youth upwards has resources and leisure. But such a training alone school of is very narrow; it may be supplemented by leisurely travel, and the somewhat superficial statescraft. pnow}ec[ge thus gained of the men of other races, their institutions, aims, and modes of thought.

As a preliminary, however, to both travel and political experience, a specialized academic training is really needed. There is a demand for a school of statecraft. The idea is not so absurd as it may at first sight appear; nor, on the other hand, are the chances of its success so great that every university, local college, and night school should rush to establish a lectureship in statecraft! Special schools are best localized at one or at most two centres; they should grow up naturally by the development in a definite direction of an existing educational centre, which to some extent already attracts the class of men to be catered for. We want a specialization and a modernization, in the light of current biological science, of some existing History School. There should be one school at least,-where the political institutions of Germany and France are as well known as those of Greece and Borne; where the chief phases of Indian religious development are as closely appreciated as the theological currents of 16th-century Europe; where the 19th-century “ discovery of Africa ” would be discussed and interpreted in its relation to modern European politics, like Columbus’s discovery of America has been dealt with as marking the end of the Middle Ages and the collapse of the mediaeval system. There should be one school at least where colonial institutions, ambitions, and developments are studied and appreciated; where national customs, racial prejudices, the foreign press, its powers and limitations, are calmly, and apart from political intrigue, investigated and weighed in the balance ; where the students’ own nation, its comparative power and influence, its morale, and its policy are all dealt with in an atmosphere comparatively free from party strife, and at an age when the mental judgment has not had its roadway worn into ruts by the continual traffic of men and affairs. Sketchy as such a scheme must seem,—its realization could only be a growth,—yet the absence of such a school of statecraft is a partial, if not complete, excuse for ignorance on the part of the leisured and ruling class of more than one modern nation. A class of great ability and organizing power has not only to be gathered together by the drag-net cast over the other classes of the community, but once formed it must have a high tradition in its choice of mates, and a really effective training provided for its members. The form of government, the right selection of statesmen, is far more important in its bearing upon the true function of science in the state than might at first sight appear. Unless we have the statesman of insight, who recognizes that every function of the state, every phase of national life, has a theory of its own; that there is a right and a wrong way of conducting all state business, whether it be concerned with the wealth, the physique, the intellectual efficiency, or the morale of a nation;—we cannot

PREFATORY ESSAY

xiii

place knowledge—science in its broadest and truest sense—in its rightful position of consultant alongside the executive. We must have stored knowledge, science theoretical or empirical, at the service of the state or(linary routine of every department of national activity; we must also have thinkers Statesman^01 Ship and and discoverers ready to meet new needs and sudden emergencies; there must be in reserve science. trained brains and deft organizers both of material resources and of living workers, not only for the constant drain of progressive national development, but, above all, to give the community confidence and reasoned guidance in times of national crisis. The universal rivalry of nations at all points of the globe, the rapidity and ease of modern communications, do not give any nation time to wait for the right man for a particular task to turn up. He must be there fully trained and equipped, so that the executive, the commerce, or the commonality of the nation can seize and exploit him at once. If he is not immediately forthcoming, the fruit will drop into the mouth of the nation that had the luck or the foresight to have its man ready for the occasion. Readiness for pioneer-work is one of the best tests for efficiency in the modern state. The mineral wealth, the climate, the agricultural resources of a new territory are to be reported upon with a view to its incorporation or development: the men to do this effectively must be ready trained and at hand. A troublesome native tribe is to be tutored by the touch of the masterhand: the man who can guide them with experience, with knowledge of their language, of their religion and their customs, cannot be reared—he must be forthcoming on the spot. The trade-rivals of a nation discover a chemical process which threatens some national industry of a second: the chemical or agricultural experts of the latter must be immediately prepared with a process for cheaper manufacture or more intensive production. Another nation invents a smokeless powder or a submarine boat: no neighbouring state can afford to start de novo with years of experimental inquiry ; its experts—if they have failed, as it is not creditable to have failed, to be first in the field—must be ready with an immediate and effective reply. No nation can nowadays risk being a single step behindhand in its offensive or defensive services, in its methods of production, of trade or of transit, or in the general education of its citizens, —their craftsmanship and their ingenuity,—or, again, in their average physique and reproductive power. In the days of old the battle of life was won by the nation with physique, and intelligence enough to guide that physique. To-day victory is to the nation with intelligence, and physique enough to keep Survival the most

intelligence in healthy activity. In past times the chief store of national power was manual labour: to-day it is the machine that does the work, and not the man; the important

are ^rain which organizes and the intelligence which creates and guides the machine. Mineralogical, chemical, engineering knowledge achieve to-day what muscle and brain did a thousand years ago; the chief function of physique is now to maintain the brain in order, and not to act as a machine at the bidding of brain. The old order has changed; from statesman at the helm to craftsman in the shop, modern conditions demand special training, not haphazard selection. Here is the wide function of science in the state. How under existing conditions can science serve the state ? How provide guidance in executive, reserves of knowledge, of discovering power, and quick response for emergencies; how train the craftsman, the agriculturalist, the engineer, to be one and all efficient for the international contest ? To touch upon these things will be the object of the second section of this paper. II. Science as Educator.

^nation6^

The subject of primary education is not one on which much can be profitably said here. Its thorny character arises partly from theological difficulties, and partly from the widespread delusion in the minds of those who have received a primary, or even a more advanced education, that this fact ^education.

a one

^ constitutes them educational experts. Neither aspect of the case is satisfactory from the crucial standpoint of national efficiency: both involve immense waste in time, energy, a,ru\. personnel. Sooner or later the primary schools must fall absolutely into the hands of the state, and, free from direct local control, be managed by a single council of education and a minister responsible to the national assembly. Every other system is merely tinkering at best; there are not sufficient real educational experts in the country to provide the capacity which is needful on innumerable school boards, to say nothing of parish

XIV

PREFATORY ESSAY

committees and district councils. Local vigilance committees may well be organized to see that the national system is effectively carried out locally, but local bodies are not in the intellectual position to draft an efficient system; nor, if they could do so, are they able either to put it into practice economically, or to avoid the friction of local sectarian feeling. If intelligence be the keynote to national fitness for the international struggle, the organization of even the primary stages of the nation’s training is as much a national affair as the equipment of the nation’s forces for offence and defence : it cannot be left to local management, but must be removed to a higher plane of both criticism and executive organization. But state control of primary schools is not only essential from this aspect, but also from the importance which must be attached to the nation having a complete and uniform record of the physical condition of its children. Is the stamina of the nation being not only maintained but record of nation’s children.

strengthened ? This is a question to which the statesman ought to be able to give at once a satisfactory answer. He ought to be in a position to tell us whether fifteen to twenty years jience we Hpan be as strong and active a nation as we have been in the past. We are too apt

to forget the changes that have taken place not only in the nature of the food supplies, but in the very atmosphere our citizens are breathing. What are the effects of urban or suburban dwellings on increasing numbers of the population ; of a frozen meat supply kept for months and possibly years ; of foreign ground flour; and of innumerable articles of food and medicine prepared in factories, here or abroad, by processes not wholly scientific, and now sold over the whole country ? Possibly but little knowledge of the direct effects of such new factors could be obtained by straightforward inquiry, but a systematic anthropometric record of the schools would tell us whether our children progress or not from generation to generation, and what is the nature of the special precautions, if any, to be taken with regard not only to individuals but to whole localities. Very little extension of the system of observation and measurement would teach the state the effect of particular trades on parentage; the districts where special diseases have to be combated; the localities where special physical or mental aptitudes are to be found; and where it is most desirable to establish secondary and craft schools of a specialized character. In Great Britain we have not only many local races, but many mixtures in diverse proportions of these races. How far are such groups particularly suited to specialized activities ? It does not follow that because certain industries have sprung up in the neighbourhood of material resources or of means of transit, that the local population is best fitted to carry on these industries; the sorting and sifting of population, the creation of a local subrace, suitable to a developing local industry, is by no means so rapid as it ought to be.1 An effective record, made on a common system, of the physique and intelligence of the children of the nation would immensely assist the quest for suitable types of manual labour or of special intelligence. Or, again, at a time of national stress it may be important to answer a definite question, which could be at once answered from primary school records. We may be struck by some defect in our training, we may attribute want of intelligence in our officers or soldiers to the over-emphasis given in our athletics school system to athletic sports. We may be stirred by ringing phrases like “ the flannelled to intelli- fool at the wicket ” and “ the muddied oaf at the goal,” not to change the bat for the rifle, nor gence. ^he pad for the pigskin, but to condemn sports in the school as lessening the training required for intellectual development. We may attempt to remedy wrongly an admitted national failure through ignorance as to its true source. Here, again, the schools can aid with a proper record. What are the characteristics with which we find the athletic tendency associated in the schoolboy ? Science is now ready with an answer,2 which would be far more definite and complete if we could draw our statistics from the wide material of a national record. Association between qualities is measured scientifically by the so-called coefficient of correlation, which is really a measure of the average relationship between two qualities—it can take every value between zero and unity. When it is zero, we say the qualities have no relation to each other; when it is unity, we consider the relationship perfect or 1 The man who wants horses for a particular type of work, to go at a definite speed, or with a definite load, or on a particular type of metal, will generally be able to find a part of the country where horses suitable for his purpose are bred. 2 The results given below are based upon measurements and observations of between 5000 to 6000 school children which have been taken for the writer during the last five or six years by the help of school teachers. The inquiry has been aided by a grant from the Royal Society Government Grant Committee.

PREFATORY ESSAY

xv

causal.1 When it is positive, the two qualities increase together ; when it is negative, the one qualityincreases as the other decreases, and vice versd. Premising so much, let us inquire in what degree our school record shows the athletic character to be increasingly related to admittedly desirable characteristics. We find, if we define the athletic group to consist of boys not only keen on games but proficient at them, that the relationship between the characters is expressed as follows:— Athletics and good health ...... Athletics and intelligence ...... Athletics and quick temper .....

’dd '21 *22

Athletics and noise Athletics and popularity Athletics and self-consciousness .

•35 •33 •08

Thus we see that the athletic lad has associated with this character in a very sensible degree: good health, quick temper, and intelligence. His ability in games makes him slightly self-conscious, comparatively noisy, and, as we might expect, popular. He is also rarely sullen. Nor is this character substantially the result of his having good health; for we find that the healthy, as distinct from the athletic, have less than half ('09) the association with intelligence, and a scarcely sensible correlation ('03) instead of a fairly high correlation with quick temper. Nor is it a matter of race; for soundness of health is very slightly related to dark eye ('07) and dark hair (‘01) colours, but the fair are just sensibly the more athletic ('04). The athletic schoolboy who rejoices in cricket and football is distinctly neither “ fool ” nor “ oaf,” but the healthy, intelligent, rather quick-tempered lad who should make a good soldier. Clearly games and aptitude for games ought to be encouraged in the primary school. When and for what they should be laid aside as we approach the real work of life, with its national and industrial demands on the citizen, cannot be profitably studied until we have ample data of the above kind for youth both in the factory and at the university. To the observer of childhood playing and questioning are its natural functions, and the teacher in the primary school has to develop nascent intelligence on these lines. Playing skilfully means intelligent use e e an Aims of 7 d hand,—it is the basis of efficient craftsmanship in the future. Questioning primary profitably as to the meaning of what is seen, is the basis of discovery by observation—it provides education. ^ principia of scientific training. To turn the ceaseless movements of the healthy child into

the co-operative work of eye, hand, and leg, and its too often meaningless “ why ” into reasoned inquiry, is the first and most difficult task of the primary-school teacher. Organized games developing into the elements of craftsmanship, inquiry into things observed expanding as time goes on into a conception of the methods of science: these must be the essential features of the state primary schools of the future. Pacts are to be secondary, methods of the first importance; the intelligent man knows where and how to find hia facts, but he retains no more in his head than he finds economical for everyday practice.2 His brain is an instrument for work, not a lumber-room. Hence when once the barest essentials of elementary knowledge—the power to read, to write, and to do simple calculations—have been attained,3 let us adopt largely heuristic methods—collect facts only as aids to intelligent observation and inquiry, and use biology or mechanics, or history or physiography, according to the aptitude of the teacher and the environment of the school, as a means of training intelligence, and not as a store of facts worth remembering for their own sakes. Let the child come out of the primary school able to formulate its questions intelligibly; able to put eye, hand, and leg into co-operative action; able to read, write, and count;—and the first stage in the training of its intelligence to national ends has been attained. 1

The following series indicates the closeness of correlation in various qualities for purposes of comparison

High Correlation, 1 to -75. Right and left femurs in man Bone length, right and left little fingers in man Stature and femur in man .... Left middle finger and foot in man

•96 •90 ’80 ’76

Considerable Correlation, -75 to '5. Stature and foot length in man Weight and length of new-born infants Vaccination and recovery in cases of smallpox Statures of father and son ....

•74 •63 •60 •51

Moderate Correlation, -5 to '25. Out-relief rates and pauperism '48 Degree of foveation and severity of smallpox attack in vaccinated persons ‘40 Coat colours of horse and grandsire ‘SO Winter barometric heights in Lisbon and Valentia .... ’25 Low Correlation, 25 to 00. Strength of pull and stature in women ‘22 Lengths of lives of mother and adult daughter -15 Sizes of family for mother and daughter ‘11 Size of head and ability in man ‘06

2 Not to know the capital of Servia, the tributaries of the Don, or the constituents of the atmosphere, is no sign of defective education. “ Facts ” change from generation to generation ; but skill in manipulating facts is the fundamental sign of a trained intelligence, of a true education, which survives all modifications of its material. 3 From the standpoint of economy a certain amount of rote teaching must be admitted in the case of the three R’s. It is loss of time to apply the heuristic method to English spelling, or to every stage in the multiplication table. Nature-study—physical or biological— offers far more profitable material than adding nines to nines up to 108!

S. VIII. — c

XVI

PEEFATORY ESSAY

But let it realize in the simplest way that this development of intelligence is not for selfish ends. Bring before it from the earliest day the habits of the herd and the hive as illustrations of united work to a common end ; let it see that man is lord of all life because he is the most intelligent gregarious animal ; teach the child by practice and example the effect of combination, the struggle of the social group against its environment, and the progress man has made in effective resistance by coSocial action as operation. Let the child very gradually become conscious of the fact that man is fittest not as a product individual, but as society. In the broadest outline let it see evolution at work on man, and of evolu= why the social is “ right ” and the anti-social “ wrong.” Let it realize that the strong nation is tion. the intelligent nation ; and let it early grasp school-teaching as the first stage to good citizenship, and that only the intelligent man can successfully perform the duties which society and the nation demand from each of their members. Here is a broad enough basis for primary schools in teaching the fundamentals of morality, which each sect may supplement in its own special manner. The state, as unsectarian, has first to inculcate the social duties : to emphasise the need of developing the physique, the intelligence, and the spirit of co-operative action as essentials of true patriotism. From primary we may pass to secondary education, wherein we shall find that far greater changes will be needed in the future than seem at all to be anticipated to-day. For while the subject matter of primary education may well be the same for all classes in the nation, modern requirements urgently ^ducat ion ^emand specialization in secondary education, and to a large extent a differentiation of groups, according to the nature of the work they are to undertake in life. This does not necessarily mean a differentiation of method, nor perhaps of location, but certainly of the subject and of the apparatus used to illustrate method. The great bulk of the population are already at fourteen employed in work or in seeking employment. For this portion, at any rate, there ought to be the elements of a secondary education specialized to their calling in life. Besides the state primary schools, there ought to be craft-schools. Secondary Possibly separate for the two sexes, thickly strewn over the country. These schools, while largely craft= under state control, ought to be subject to a much greater local influence than the primary schoo Is schools, partly because theological problems will have been for the most part settled at an earlier stage, partly because the needs of local industries are often best appreciated in their immediate neighbourhood. In these craft-schools we do not want university graduates lecturing upon mechanics or chemistry as they have learnt those subjects in academic text-books or laboratories. We do not want the higher theory of agriculture or engineering such as may be given to the directors and leaders of labour in technical colleges. What is needed is an extension of the object-lesson method of the primary school to the basal forms of labour on which the social fabric ultimately rests. We want to give a system of secondary education to the great bulk of workers, which will make the individual worker an intelligent instrument for his allotted task ; we do not require, in the first place, a system which leaves the majority untouched, but raises an artisan here and there to a higher caste. We need a system of education for the bulk of men, who follow, entirely independent of the system requisite for the minority, who organize and lead. The craft-school, in the few years in which it can handle its material, must achieve two things, both tending to strengthen the national fitness for survival, namely, it must lay the basis (1) of good craftsRural craft=

manship and (2) of good citizenship. Under the first heading no form of labour is to be considered beneath educational treatment. Taking first the rural craft-schools, no agricultural or horticultural process is or ought to be without a basis of scientific theory ; hedging and ditching, ploughing, hay-making, harvesting, care and handling of horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs, all that falls to the lot of farm-labourer, shepherd, hind, and groom, can be treated intelligently. They can all be dealt with by the object-lesson method,—observation, and deduction from what is observed. On the girls side, milk, butter, cheese, poultry, household work of every description, can be used in the same way as material for showing how to do things intelligently. Education is in no case to leave the feeling that it is finer to follow one trade than another, but is to develop the consciousness that it is a disgrace to follow any craft without intelligent appreciation of the why of its processes. The victory is to the intelligent nation; that nation is intelligent in which each member performs his allotted task with appreciation of how and why it is done.

PREFATORY ESSAY

The pure scientist technical education be entirely in the right; method on the material

xvn

still occasionally speaks with contempt of the technical side of education. If merely a knowledge of the facts and formulae used in special industries, he is if, on the other hand, technical education means the illustration of scientific and appliances used in a particular trade or craft, he is hopelessly wrong. It is

Pure and as Poss^Jle 1° giye scientific instruction on the apparatus of a craft as upon the delicate toys technical of the academic physical laboratory. The horse and the pig, the growing crop and the vegetable science. gar(ien, are as replete with lessons in scientific method as zoological or botanical laboratories with their microtomes and microscopes. The science of elasticity may be as effectively studied with the 60-ton testing machine on the materials of construction as with pound-weights on the rods and wires of the physical laboratory ; thermodynamics is, perhaps, as instructive a science when illustrated on the steamer gas-engine as when a diagrammatic air-engine appears on the lecture-room table ; and there is a reality about the inertia of machinery in motion which illustrates momentum and energy in a somewhat more convincing way than the falling weights and the rolling balls of the academic mechanical laboratory. We have diverged here far beyond the humble limits of our craft-school, but it seemed necessary to insist once and for all on the great principle : that technical instruction can be scientific in the best and highest sense; scientific method can be inculcated and illustrated on the material and apparatus of any special craft or employment as well as with the costly buildings and delicate apparatus now demanded for academic purposes. If it be said that apprenticeship is the true craft-school, the argument is ppren= ticeship valid, so far as many facts and empirical rules have still to be learnt in the shop, on the farm, and craft= or at the bench. But our secondary craft-school is to be preliminary to work in field and factory, it is to inculcate what the master or fellow-workman has not the time, nor usually the power, to do, namely, to emphasize the importance of intelligently following out each craft-process. The secondary craft-school must inspire its pupils with a desire to know the reason for the rote which apprenticeship is sure to thrust upon them. The secondary craft-school is not to be too specialized—at least not in rural districts ; its pupils must spend much of their time on the farm, in the local factory, in the carpenter’s shop, and at the smithy. They should not be required to learn the elements of mechanics out of examination text-books ; nor be pushed on to the extraction of cube roots, as if that were the crowning feat of mathematical instruction. Let the pupils measure a plot of garden ground intelligently, the capacity of a barn with reference to the size of crop it will hold, or the cubic feet of air in a stable or stall with reference to the air-space necessary for healthiness of cattle; the approximate amount of *half-inch planking to be obtained from an unfelled tree (to be tested after it has passed through the local sawmill) —these and many other exercises will occur to the intelligent teacher. Let his or her work be supplemented, too, by occasional lessons from the highly-trained artisan, the carpenter or millwright, the headgardener, the shepherd or the dairymaid, or from the workers in any other crafts which are locally available and offer craft-workers of experience. The intelligent craftsmen may be scarce at present, but as the secondary craft-schools pass more and more of their pupils into local activities, and possibly keep touch with them through the higher craft-schools, through continuation and night-schools, the material to draw upon for occasional lessons, and possibly for permanent teachers, will become more extensive and better. In the town districts the secondary craft-schools ought to be more specialized; some of their work is already being done by so-called technical schools and polytechnics. But these places and their courses are largely chaotic at present. They have not settled whether it is their function Urban to give secondary craft-education to boys and girls, to give higher craft-education to the craft* schools: non-commissioned officers of industry, to train the commissioned officers themselves—the present proper work of the higher technical colleges,—or to provide cheaply a one-sided and, in chaos. nine cases out of ten, inferior academic education for young men and women who believe their success and standing in life will be assured if they are hall-marked with a university degree. It cannot be too emphatically asserted that absolute differentiation in function is essential for success in technical education, especially in urban districts. There must be secondary craft-schools which will supplement primary education, by illustration of scientific method on the elementary processes of most forms of labour. Boys and girls will leave these schools not later than thirteen to fifteen, roughly pre-

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pared to follow intelligently the lower grades of industry. There must be higher craft-schools, with much more specialized instruction, for the non-commissioned officers of industry. There must be technical colleges for the leaders of industry, and universities or university-colleges for pure science, literature, and other types of brain-work; these again must be supplemented by professional schools for medicine, law, actuarial training, &c. &c. There must be for the most capable pupils a possible passage from secondary to higher craft-school, and from the latter to the technical college, or in special cases, where pure scientific capacity is noted, a transition to the university. But the nation which fondly imagines that one class of teacher and one building will serve for all these diverse purposes, and calls it a polytechnic or a university-college, is only excelled in folly by the nation which clubs a dozen such hybrid institutions together and supposes that they form a working university! Such a nation has not learnt the principia of educational theory, and the sooner it learns from the nations that have, the better for its welfare if that depends upon industrial efficiency. The secondary craft-school, the higher craft-school, the technical college, and the university serve quite diverse functions, educate for different careers and occupations in life; if economy or convenience bring any two under one roof, then there should be a differentiation of teachers; if even this be not possible, there should be at the very least a differentiation of material and of plan of instruction.1 Otherwise, there is the greatest danger that instead of intelligent workers in the ranks, the secondary schools turn out a superfluity of incompetent non-commissioned officers ; the polytechnics provide non-commissioned officers who know only the duties of the subaltern, and the colleges subalterns with the making of pure scientists, but not of technical leaders. In urban districts, from the higher grade or continuation board-schools, and from one side of the polytechnic teaching, must arise the perfectly distinct secondary craft-school, educating boys and girls Scope of k0 intelligent workers in the ranks of specialized industry. It must go no further than secondary the attempt to show that all forms of manual labour can be performed intelligently: its craftaim is the real, or at any rate the idealized, craftsman of the Middle Ages, the man who schools. loved his work, because he realized the why of it, and its relation to a greater whole. There is no doubt that the highly-differentiated character of some branches of modern factory labour—by no means all—tells against intelligent craftsmanship. For this reason the secondary craft-school must not be too specialized, even in urban districts. The demand of the state for intelligent citizens is equally important with its demand for intelligent craftsmen. Hence it should be a sine qud non of every craft-school, whether secondary or higher, that each pupil should study one branch of pure science, or one literature, or one historical period, apart from his technical studies, as a field for rational enjoyment in adult life. Let it be done as recreation, not as task; but let its effectiveness be a condition of any state or municipal support to a craft-school. It has been in the past such a noteworthy characteristic of the British race to produce amateurs, following professions, trades, or even handicrafts, who have done first-class historical or scientific work, that we may hope that the absolute need for differentiation in education and the specialization of the smallest branches of knowledge will not finally check this production. The encouragement in the craft-schools of a special recreative study might be of most material importance in this direction. If care be taken that not facts and formulae, but the scientific method and spirit, are illustrated on the subject and appliances peculiar to the craft, very little time or energy will be expended in merely applying the notions of scientific observation and reasoning thus obtained to the recreative study. In the higher craft-schools and technical colleges, lecturers of the university-extension type would find a most useful field for their energy and enthusiasm in teaching recreative branches of literature or science, and above all in showing the pleasures of a library, apart from its value as a store for facts and formulae, its most important function on the technical side. In the secondary craft-schools, also, the “ citizenship ” teaching should certainly be carried a stage further: both boys and girls should learn a little, if only a little be possible, of the reason for and history of the institutions national, municipal, and social—which, as citizens, they will have to work under and develop. To give a man control of a higher craft-school because he has taken a brilliant university degree in pure science is a common illustration of the present chaos in technical education in England. It is hardly excelled by the offers of teaching posts which the high wrangler receives the day after the appearance of the class lists.

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xix

Lastly, in no secondary craft-school ought the need for athletic exercises to be disregarded. The anthropometric record of the primary schools should be continued, that it may serve as a control for comparative physical progress. But a certain portion of the time devoted to athletic exercises in should now be applied to developing qualities which may hereafter be of service for national secondary offence or defence. The rural lads should be taught the elements of drill, rough road-making A 'fhjQ'tiCS

the ready use of pick and shovel, and the fun of scouting games; where possible, rifle practice should be introduced, and swimming and even riding be taught. For the lads of urban secondary schools some of these matters are difficult enough; but the plan of holiday camps in the summer may be widely extended,1 rough map-making and scouting can often be practised on suburban heaths, and opportunities for drill and swimming, rough carpenter’s, saddler’s, or shoemaker’s work can nearly always be found. In all these cases let it be recognized by the lads themselves that these things are not craft-training, but are taught to fit them for duties which a strong nation demands of all its citizens in one form or another. In the case of the girls the horizon must appear somewhat narrower, and it is, perhaps, only their teachers and elders who can realize the national importance of those forms of physical training which may aid them to be the healthy mothers of a strong race. Still it is highly important that they should realize that they belong to a larger whole: that they have a function in the state as well as a relation to individuals. Bandaging, first-aid, the elements of nursing, the care of infants—and of the aged— may all be taught as extensions of household economy, and the social value of such work inculcated. But they are not essentially outdoor physical exercises, and the latter, whatever be their real import, must bear for the girls the aspect of mere games, not of sports obviously directed to national ends. To sum up, then, our conclusions as to the functions of the secondary craft-school: it is intended for the rank-and-file workers in all the industries and crafts of the country. It should provide: (i.) Training for the intelligence, by illustrating scientific method upon the material and appliances of General functions every craft. As the elements only of the craft will be considered, many crafts will be comof second bined in one school, but greater specialization may be possible in urban than in rural districts, ary craft* (ii.) Recreative Studies, (iii.) Citizenship Course, and (iv.) Athletic Exercises. The bulk of the schools. instruction will fall to the lot of the permanent teachers under (i.); subjects (ii.) and (iii.) may well be undertaken by a specially trained class of peripatetic teachers; while (iv.) might largely be aided by volunteer workers, whose labours should be guided and systematized by district advisers, who would travel from school to school, suggesting and organizing the service with a keen eye for local possibilities. If from the secondary education of the rank-and-file workers we turn to that of the leaders, we have at once the differentiation into the two classes of non-commissioned officers or foremen, and of the commissioned officers, or the leaders of industry, the brain-workers, thinkers, and educators of education the nation. Probably the first class will be largely drawn from those who have shown marked of middle capacity in the secondary craft-schools; these should be passed on to the higher craft-schools, classes* • • • • • • the work of which will be dealt with later. When we consider, however, the provision hitherto made for the nation’s intellectual leaders in the matter of secondary education, one is surprised, not that the nation has gone relatively backward, but that it has survived at all in the keen competition of modern times. A nation needs organizers, leaders, thinkers, not only in commerce, but in manufactures, the technical arts, transit, colonization and exploitation, pure science, professional and literary pursuits. Up to the immediate present hardly any secondary education at all has been provided suitable in the least degree for a college training in any one of these matters except the last. Our commercial and technical leaders have rarely had any scientific training at all; they have grown up without it, and held their own owing to the political and economic conditions of their country relative to its rivals. Such will be an absolute impossibility in the future, now that the equal or superior sources of power of our rivals are being worked, and the plant is created and the labour trained which is requisite for production. Granted that resources and machinery are alike,—they are now far from being in our favour,—it is only 1 The camp-holiday system, which has flourished a good deal under voluntary effort during the last few years, ought not only to be developed and widely extended, but supplemented, if possible, by short summer cruises on training brigs, where the lads would receive a different kind of drill and learn a little, if the veriest little, of what the sea means.

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the most highly trained intelligence which can turn the balance to our side, or even equalize it. Yet what has happened ? The movement for technical education has led to the establishment of a number of technical colleges, where a more or less efficient technical higher education can be obtained, but it has not provided the essential stepping-stones to this education : namely, secondary schools up and down the country specializing in commercial, technical, and scientific instruction. Occasionally the modern side of a large school may be found doing good work, but its existence at all is an exception, and it is an exception among exceptions if it gives a training useful for technical purposes. A Cambridge wrangler, who teaches to an occasional student an arid text-book on the calculus, with a view of his getting a scholarship; academic laboratory work of a physical or biological character, boiled down and sterilized to suit the youthful digestion; formuke from algebra, facts from mechanics: all these exist. But in nine cases out of ten no direct and conscious training in scientific method, no teaching to observe, classify, and reason on facts collected by the lads themselves.1 No specialization by trained teachers for commercial, technical, and scientific pursuits is in the majority of cases thought of; and since it would largely have to be provided by men not educated in the ruts of the older academic methods, there is small doubt that both teachers and taught would be looked down upon as of a lower caste. Desirable as it is to associate lads who are about to follow very diverse callings in life, there is small hope of efficient secondary education, specialized for commercial, technical, and scientific pursuits, being provided in the majority of our great public schools, Need for Wltl1 tlieir traditions and systems centuries old. These modern schools will have to be founded modern de novo, or developed out of the large day-schools of urban districts, or the decadent rural schools. grammar schools, which up and down the country may be found, atrophied under a system which was, perhaps, a vigorous reform in the second half of the 16 th century, but supplies no urgent national need of to-day. Let there be no doubt, however, about the nature even of the commercial education we are considering; it is not intended to turn out commercial travellers and clerks, who fall into the class we have termed non-commissioned officers. Bor these the secondary and higher craft schools should provide. The scheme is intended for the leaders of industry, for the men who will be manufacturers, merchants, shippers, engineers, the organizers and thinkers. These are the men who will pass on to the technical colleges and the commercial universities of the future. As the German technical universities 2 draw their students from the Realschulen and not the Gymnasien, so our technical colleges need an effective technical and scientific secondary education antecedent to their work. We have the German experience to draw from and to learn from, and we ought to be able to create schools which will turn out a lad with all the healthy traditions of English public-school life, but who has replaced its classical education by an effective training in the methods, not the results, of scientific inquiry. To the general outline of these schools much that we have said of the secondary craft-schools will apply. The teaching will have to a considerable extent to be specialized—commercial, technical, and purely scientific departments being provided with different teachers and methods. In each junctions case the of modern primary object will not be to give the lad information useful to him in his future Calling but t0 develo his ’ P intelligence by the application of scientific method to the material and processes with which he will later be concerned.3 Again, to prevent narrowness we must have the recreative study; and to strengthen social stability, the citizenship lessons. Athletic exercises, culminating in some knowledge useful for purposes of national offence or defence, must not of course be omitted. But as the secondary education of the classes we are considering will last at least two or three years longer, the extent of these secondary studies can be considerably increased. Thus the ground-

schools'*

1 Every teacher in a technical college knows well the average public-school lad : personally delightful, athletic, popular, he cannot draw, his geometry is a rapidly disappearing acquaintance with Euclid I. to III., his algebra a formula for quadratics, and his arithmetical accuracy sadly inferior to that of a shilling slide-rule. His secondary education has to be undertaken over again, and even then he will probably end in the South African Constabulary. The Geiman PolytcchniJcum, technische Hochschule, is not for the moment to be confused with our polytechnic, which ought to be a higher craft-school and is a hotch-potch of a dozen stages of education. It corresponds more to our technical college, but is ten times as complete. It usually represents the complete technical university, and by government decree its teachers and students are placed on an academic footing. One man may learn how to use his reasoning powers from a teacher who adopts Greek grammar as his medium, another from a teacher whose material is provided by the hedgerow, and the powers gained in either way may be turned from one to another subject; but there are obvious advantages in selecting for the object-lesson material at least akin to what the reason is ultimately to deal with.

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work of a true culture—the superstructure of which must always be self-culture—can be laid in the technical college or science school. An important addition, however, should be made to the teaching of such modern secondary schools, not as part of the recreative but as part of the bread studies, a reading knowledge of one, and a speaking knowledge of a second language should be insisted upon. The doorway into another race’s scientific laboratory, its methods of work and of expression, is as important an opening for the mind as the doorway provided by a knowledge of its language into its institutions, literature, and folk-feelings. To grasp how a great investigator works needs presence at his lectures or in his laboratory, or at least the study of his papers,—it is an education which can never be obtained from text-books. In any specialized branch of science there are rarely at any given epoch more than two or three masterminds, and these are diverse in country and in tongue. To follow these personally or in the written word is an impossibility without linguistic knowledge, and science-abstracts and text-books are a deadening and nigh worthless substitute for direct contact with a master-mind. We shall insist later on the national importance of the Wanderjahre, but to profit by such years the young apprentice must have received in his secondary school the groundwork of at least one language, and maintained and developed that knowledge at college. The pure scientist or the professional engineer who cannot directly study the work of contemporary foreign investigators is most heavily handicapped, and in many cases a tenth of the time and energy he will spend in finding out how to do things already done would have given him a reading knowledge of foreign literature. The speaking knowledge of a language serves a different purpose: it is essential to the pioneer in commerce, exploitation, and transit.1 Started in the secondary school, it may be completed in the Wanderjahre ; it is a practical instrument of a man’s calling—like the multiplication table, he requires to be sure of it, but he will not, like the philologist, make it a means, in the first place, of intellectual training. It would be out of place here to give even outline curricula for the secondary modern schools wo have in view. If the curriculum of the secondary classical school has only been crystallized out in the Nature of course of many generations, no new scheme for science schools will in itself be wholly satisteachers. factory, or work without initial difficulties and friction. In the first place, the teachers, to do the work effectively, have largely to be made. In the next place, parents have to be convinced that the secondary modern school is not going to provide knowledge useful in professional life. It is going, like the classical school, to develop the intellectual powers, but it will take as its material not the dead languages, but the living sciences which bear most closely on commercial or professional work. There will be, undoubtedly, specialization and differentiation. The biologist and the physicist receive their intellectual education in observing and reasoning on a certain class of facts—they need mathematics as an instrument of investigation. The mathematician who insists that they shall have it as an intellectual education only is going beyond his legitimate sphere. In the same way, the engineer receives his intellectual training in a field very unfamiliar to most physicists and mathematicians, and the teachers of mathematics and physics who insist upon these subjects being taught to him as intellectual exercises from the pure-science standpoint are the bane of technical education. Secondary schools, like the higher craft-schools, will do little t*o improve technical instruction if this point be not kept in view: the teachers of pure science required for the technical side must be men trained in a technical college, and having touch with the needs of practical life. Such men ought to be distinct from the teachers of pure science on the science side, who ought to be men who have been through research schools and laboratories, and whose first aim will be pure science as an education, not as an instrument. Lastly, if we consider the secondary education given in the public and large day-schools as they at present exist, in many ways well fitted, perhaps, for professional and literary careers, we can only hope 0 en n U Secondary P i g P of large secondary modern schools, turning out pupils of equal intelligence classical and better fitted for modern commercial, mercantile, and technical pursuits, will serve as a stimulus to quicken and, above all, humanize their activities. They will certainly decrease in 1

While French and German for the English-speaking races are the more valuable languages for the storehouses of method and knowledge they throw open, Spanish and Dutch are perhaps at present most useful for pioneering. But it is nationally important to have a great range of choice in the spoken languages among workers in both the commercial and technical fields.

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number, but this does not necessarily mean in efficiency; and where the endowment allows of a complete duplication of staff and educational apparatus, the running of modern and classical schools side by side would have all the advantage which the admixture of men of different callings, modes of thought, and social standpoint provides in after-life. Before the renascence, teachers of the old monastic learning would have denied that it was possible to improve their methods, or to change with advantage the subjects taught. Yet within fifty years the Humanists reconstructed the school-education of all Europe. They achieved it by raising an enthusiasm in youth, which demanded that instruction should be for both teachers and taught a vitalizing process and not a drudgery. A small minority of teachers with the new ideas, and a widespread rebellion of the taught, swept the old system and its professors swiftly and forever away. The abuses of to-day do not perhaps justify, nor the tutelage under which young people now stand1 permit, of quite such a drastic reformation. Yet the pressure of competing modern schools ought assuredly to modernize classical and philological studies. We want to train the intelligence of each future citizen to observe and reason about facts, and this power can never be fully developed when the material dealt with is isolated from all relationship with present experience or living modes of thought. The scholar has to realize that he is merely a unit in a living nation, which is one among many nations, each with a history of its own. The study of a special literature or language may be very harmful if it is not seen in perspective. It leads to the spirit which supposes that philosophy was summed up in Aristotle, that style culminated in Cicero, that there is only one great religious work, and that Euclid provided once and for all what is needful for geometrical instruction. Comparative history, folk-lore, and custom,—the discrimination of what is peculiar and what is universal in the institutions of the special people studied,—are all needed if the scholar is to be saved from narrowness. The Odyssey is not only a great epic, it is intensely exciting as an object-lesson in the early stages of civilization, in the growth of mankind from boyhood to adolescence. The institutions of early Rome are unintelligible without comparison with Teutonic, Slavonic, and even African folk-customs and religious practices. Style and taste are never to be despised; but what we want the cultured lad of to-day to understand is what man now is and how he has come to be what he is. The over-emphasis of one period, one literature, one art or language, may be dangerous if it tends to obscure the fundamental principle that man is the product of an evolution, under vital forces of which science knows something and is daily learning more. No nation was ever without rivals, moulding and modifying its development; no literature without a growth ; no art or craft without an historic evolution ; no human product, judged from either the artistic or intellectual standpoint, final. The schoolmaster who forgets these things is not truly preparing lads to be thinkers and leaders for the nation; the academic teacher who does not make them the thread of his exegesis will aid little towards the much-needed humanization of the older forms of study. Neither religious thought nor educational theories can stand aloof from the growth of scientific knowledge. One and all react upon each other. We cannot stand now where Virchow did in 1877 : the pressure of foreign commercial competition has been a conclusive object-lesson in the survival of the fitter. We must base national education on the need for national reaction against a changing environment; we must consciously prepare for the struggle, and by an intelligent study of human evolution arouse the patriotism and race pride of the ybung to assist directly in developing their intelligence for national ends. Before we pass to the specialized college education, a word ought to be said of the higher craftschools, which should supplement secondary craft-schools in the preparation of the non-commissioned officers of industry. Hitherto these schools have either been wholly wanting or supplied by private Higher craft schools.

enterprise bent on personal profit. The keynote to such a school should be intelligent instruction in a craft suitable to lads of fourteen to seventeen who hope to be foremen workers. It should lay more stress on technical knowledge than the secondary craft-school, where the development of the intelligence is the first requisite; but it must, like all true education, appeal to the reason as a guide. It must also be far more specialized. We need higher craft-schools in plumbing, 1 In mediaeval times the lad of fourteen to seventeen might wander across Europe seeking for the school reputed for its methods, or attracted by the vigorous teacher. The Wanderjahre for the schoolboy are, perhaps, wisely abolished; they will, let us hope, be reinstituted for the undergraduate.

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XXUL

farriery, cabinet-making, textile industries, metal-plate work, and a dozen other different things. As usual, we began with the wrong end—establishing examinations in these subjects, rather than model schools. Nor have the so-called polytechnics and technical schools of the county councils—good although the work has been in some cases—wholly made up the leeway. The technical school or polytechnic, instead of throwing itself body and soul into a special branch of craft or industry, has aped the university. It prided itself on getting a few students labelled B.Sc., or on producing a small piece of pure-science research having no bearing whatever on the national industries. It aimed at turning out second-rate engineers, rather than first-rate machinists. The result has not been, and cannot be, that great increase of craft efficiency which we might expect from the amount of money expended on technical education. The polytechnic may become a centre for a mild form of general instruction and amusement, or it may become a specialized higher craft-school. It cannot effectively fulfil both functions. In the first case it will probably fail, as the mechanics’ institutes of last century have failed; in the second case it will become not only of local but of national importance. Let one technical school devote itself to smith’s work, another to the printing and lithographic arts, a third to the glass industries, a fourth to bookbinding, and so on,1 not duplicating their work and teaching many things superficially. Some large towns may maintain a considerable variety of specialized schools, but it is the student who ought to wander; repetition of staff and teaching material at a dozen centres means waste Need for an(^ i116®016110^* ^ Birmingham founds a higher craft-school for electroplating work, local Wolverhampton may reply with a metal-plate-work school; if the Whitechapel higher craftspeclaliza= school specializes in cabinet-making, Clerkenwell may find a wide enough sphere in the glass trades. The bane of technical, indeed of all education of an advanced kind in England, is the unreasonable overlapping of institutions, teachers, spheres, and methods. The higher craft-school has nothing to do with academic training, therefore we appoint academic scientists to teach in it, and place them on university faculties; the technical college has a separate but coequal function with the university, therefore we mix them up, thinking one method of teaching and one teacher will serve for both. We send peripatetic teachers out to fulfil the all-important function of raising the general culture of the people : we fancy it academic extension, and demand that it shall lead to a university degree. Nay, a degree having come to be looked upon as a mark of caste or gentility, the branding-iron is, in the true democratic state, to be brought to every man’s chamber. At the basis of every science are real philosophical and intellectual difficulties; in its structure, endless lessons in observation and in method; at its summit, the prospect into still untrodden lands. Not one of these things can be indicated by an examination schedule; they are scarcely touched by any text-book which follows such a schedule. They are appreciated only when the student comes into personal contact with the creator of knowledge, and sees how' he observes and reasons. Here is the field of true academic work; no branding-iron brought to a man’s chamber can testify that he has been in contact with this vivifying atmosphere. Nor can we bring science and learning in their highest expression to each student’s door. He must go out on his Wanderjahre in pursuit of the master-teacher, or of the school which has specialized in his chosen study. What is true of the university is equally true of the higher craft-school: the student must seek the specialized teacher and the specialized school, and not trust a local polytechnic to be an effective educational omnium gatherum. Besides schools for the more mechanical crafts, we need higher schools for the lower ranks of headworkers, for the lower branches of civil and municipal employ, for shorthand and clerks’ work, for postal, Higher telegraph, and railway service. Some of these employments—where students will pay to be commercial got through an examination—are at present provided for by private enterprise. But such schools want organizing as a comprehensive system, and should not be based on the question of immediate profits derivable from some small section of the work. To such schools the government, the municipality, companies, and private employers would very soon learn to turn for a specially-trained class of employee, and we might hope that in the first instance they would ultimately replace the Chinese system of selecting by examination. 1

To some extent this has been begun with the textile schools in the North of England, and the photographic and optical instrument schools in London, but these are the merest beginnings only.

S. VIII. — d

XXIV

PREFATORY ESSAY

We now turn to the highest forms of education, which, whatever we may hope for in a distant future, can at present only be organized for the brain-workers of the community—for its thinkers and leaders. Here we find much the same educational chaos as we have had to note lower down in the Higher With as great, if not greater, need for it, there is even less organization and specializascale. education. tion. As a first classification, we may consider our subject under four headings : (i.) the university proper; (ii.) the technical, college; (iii.) professional schools; (iv.) the commercial university. How far these four phases of advanced education can be advantageously united into a single university system is not easily determined. In Great Britain the advantages of union are: first, that as education becomes more specialized, the larger funds accumulated during many generations for the university proper may be shared by the younger branches of study;1 secondly, it is of immense gain that both students and teachers of specialized studies should mingle together, and share traditions common to all. This is what must take place in later life, and the joint university provides, from student to professor, an excellent training in toleration,—a characteristic as important in science as in theology. On the other hand, the union of the four schools in one locality and institution is likely to disguise the absolute need for entirely independent staffs, and for completely specialized methods of study. The doctor and the engineer require mechanics and chemistry, but to teach medical and engineering students in the pure-science laboratories of these subjects is an evil only sanctioned by absolute want of funds, and solely due to the haphazard growth of British systems of education. Look at the specialized staff of one of the great German polytechnics,—a dozen professors and double as many more lecturers and assistants,—and then compare such staff with the roll presented by any university or technical college in Great Britain ! Nine out of ten of these colleges think it sufficient to provide a so-called professor of engineering, and send their students to pick up what mathematics, what physics, what chemistry they can under teachers who have had no special technical training, who have never studied the special needs of engineering students, nor published a single memoir dealing with technical problems. The result. of such a system is manifest: we have no research in the sciences preliminary to engineering ; not even first-class text-books, for the preliminary science teachers in the engineering schools are, if not overdone with teaching, workers in pure science. It is very little better in the matter of engineering research pure and simple. The professors are not able to specialize, partly because they have to teach too many subjects, owing to want of colleagues and of the fitting secondary and preliminary scientific training in their students, and partly because they have not been themselves educated in an atmosphere of research. We do not think there is exaggeration in this statement of the case ; we have not overlooked certain text-books on the strength of materials, machine-design, or the steam-engine. Bather these illustrate our text: they show that want of knowledge of the modern theory of elasticity, of kinematics, or even of foreign contemporary work, which indicates how pressing the need of an effective research training may be in even the highest places under our present system. We are undoubtedly far better off now than we were a generation ago; the technical schools up and down the country are doing good work, but they are not in any case comparable with a German polytechnic, nor with the technical university which we must hope to see ultimately established here. The University of London, for example, comprises three or four engineering schools, each duplicating much preliminary work ; combine their staffs, specialize their individual teachers, give them leisure and laboratories suitable for research, and there would be only the foundations of one real technical university. Yet no other university or technical college in the country could produce as much. We have started again on the wrong system—multiplication of little centres, doing their individual best no doubt, but not what is best for the nation. Three or four technical universities would suffice for the whole nation, but we have established fifteen or twenty technical colleges, on the theory that knowledge, like milk, must be delivered at each man’s door. The result is that all the schools are, broadly speaking, doing the same elementary work, and there is no specialization. No one school devotes itself entirely to civil engineering, naval engineering, hydraulics, municipal work, gas, electric lighting, or haulage, &c. &c. The elements of many colleges

1

Thus it is satisfactory to hear of College dissertations.

fellowships at Cambridge being given to engineering students

for technical

PREFATORY ESSAY

XXV

things are touched on, but the higher teaching and the atmosphere of research are largely absent. What then is needed ? The development of three or four only of the technical colleges of the country into technical universities, with specialized departments of mechanical, civil, electrical, &c. engineering and of chemical industry. The remaining schools should disappear or be converted into higher craft-schools. Tbe technical Use their staff or buildings, where possible, for special- departments of the university, but university. rec0gnp,e once an(j for an that under the stress of modern competition these are matters of national importance ; and that to bring our technical intelligence up to the level of that of our neighbours, we do not want local engineering professors, or local colleges, but national technical universities, each with ten or more complete laboratories, a score of special technical professors, and with equipment and funds comparable only with those of the whole of the pure-science faculty of a first-class modern university. Such universities would train not only the nation’s industrial leaders, but the teachers for the secondary and higher craft-schools; and by bringing both classes into touch with actual knowledgemaking, indicate on the one hand how the problems of practical life, on the other the problems of craft education, may be met and solved. If we pass from the technical university to the university proper, by which we are to understand the corporation of teachers which deals with training in pure science or scholarship, without regard to the needs of special industries or professions, its work in the future seems likely to become more university specialized. There will always be minds for wdiich the best intellectual training, independent of and its future calling, will be an end in itself. Senior Wranglers may make good judges; senior classics, excellent doctors; and double-firsts, capable statesmen. But in the case of modern nations specialization of the individual appears to be a progressive feature, and as soon as it becomes a recognized principle that the intelligence can be trained and developed by observation, and reasoning on observation, applied to technical or professional subjects, much of the monopoly value of pure academic studies will disappear. The study of yeasts may be as good an intellectual training as that of the gases of the atmosphere; bacteria are as mentally exciting as snails; the vibrations of a bridge lead to more aspects of physical science than those of the tuning-fork, and examples may be multiplied to show that technical or professional education is not one-sided or intellectually inadequate. It seems likely, therefore, that academic studies, whether purely scientific, literary, linguistic, historical, or philosophical, will tend to be recognized more and more as a training for specialized careers, namely, for statesmen, scientists, historians, literary men, educators, and makers of all forms of knowledge,—in short, for the intellectual leaders of the nation. With this recognition, academic studies will become more intense and definite in character. Above all, the research training will more and more supplant the examination training. In actual life it is the problem which comes to us ; stores of facts are accessible—we want the training which enables us to apply these facts and solve the problem. The' recognition of this fundamental fact is the reformation which must take place in academic studies. Examination is by no means the best process for testing the power to observe, classify, and reason Re forma tion of academic

0n

°^serva^onknown itself may be made the subject of a formally new inquiry, and a monograph may be written showing data, classification, and deduction;—the method is equally applicable in physics, biology, or history. It forms the basis on which the capable instructor

can point out the sources of information, the proper method of arranging it, the logical results which flow from it. Scientific method, the true spirit of inquiry, is better learnt by criticism and suggestion applied to two or three such monographs by the master-investigator, than by months of labour devoted to learning the known for examination purposes. We cannot too often repeat that for the purposes of education what we need is a training in method, and not, in the first place, a mere knowledge ■of facts, nor even of the laws under which these facts may be classified. It is so easy to provide facts and formulae, so difficult to give insight into method, that text-books, degree schedules, and examination papers invariably turn to the former; and the latter, to be learnt only from direct touch with the investigator or from the classical memoir of the master, is thrust ruthlessly aside. Treat the known as unknown, to be rediscovered, or bring the student rapidly to the real unknown on the confines of the

XXVI

PREFATORY ESSAY

discovered, then true training in method becomes a possibility. Every nation is daily being confronted with new problems; they may be material, or they may be social, or they may be intellectual Admit progressive evolution, and this statement is an obvious truth. The nation’s brain-workers, whether their role be great or small, have to be prepared to meet and answer these new’ problems. Training for examination is but feeble equipment, certificate of examination success very one-sided evidence of competence for this essential function in a nation’s thinkers. ISTor is the reader to suppose these remarks apply only to the training of master-investigators in any branch of human knowledge; the academic training is that upon which the great majority of secondary educators depends, and their present failure to apply, or rightly apply, heuristic methods is largely due to the examination system not having brought them into close touch with the methods of research. Nay, our professional and commercial classes suffer in international competition from much the same want—definite training in observing and reasoning upon facts. The university of the future will bring its undergraduates, not into touch with an army of tutors and “ coaches,” nor with their impedimenta of examination schedules and text-books, but directly into the field, the library, the laboratory, where the material of knowledge is accumulated and classified, and into personal touch with the men who make it. The problem of the professional college or school of academic rank and its relation to the university is one of considerable complexity, and can hardly be dealt with at length here. Specialization is the The professional college.

emphatic note of modern national development; it has to be met, not by protest, but by providing for training in method, even when a special or somewhat narrow class of facts is dealt The establishment of technical colleges for engineering, metallurgy, chemical industries,

navigation, agriculture, and forestry1 indicates to some extent the direction in which the older academic faculties of law, theology, and medicine must develop. It is fundamental that the preliminary linguistic or scientific studies should be, as in the case of the technical colleges, in the hands of a special staff, distinct from that of the pure academic studies.2 It is difficult to understand why great law schools do not thrive in this country. No other nation can present such living object-lessons in comparative law: it rules in different parts of the world under nearly every present or past legal system, and by innumerable forms of folk-custom, which school^

exhibit legal institutions in almost each stage of progressive evolution. Yet comparative and historical knowledge is very largely lacking in our practical lawyers; but few of them are acquainted with the French, Dutch, or German codes, or have gained insight by a study of the development of the early Teutonic and mediaeval systems. The result is a want of imagination in our own domestic legislation, and too little sympathy in dealing with the legal institutions of subject or assimilated races. The law schools have thus partially failed to create the class of men needed by the nation for its legal work in all corners of the globe. The broad idea of satisfying a national want has not been a primary consideration, and to this extent they urgently require that humanization which is demanded in the history school, if it is to become a school of statecraft. Perhaps in the case of the professional schools the most complete chaos in educational matters is to be found on the medical side. In the first place, it cannot be doubted that the hospital system itself must soon suffer a profound modification. It is impossible that the present system The medical of support by fluctuating charity can permanently continue. Alongside the public charities have arisen infirmaries, fever hospitals, and asylums supported by public funds, and in 1

In the last three cases the colleges should be for the scientific experts, not for mariners, farmers, and foresters, who require, in the first place, higher craft-colleges. What might be achieved in the science of navigation at present by an expert school can he well realized by a study of the first fifty years of Gresham College, London. The merchants and traders of London, in the first flush of newworld discovery, turned to Sir Thomas Gresham’s professors for their instruments of, and treatises on, navigation. - It is not to be inferred that mechanics or biology is to be taught by medical men waiting for a chance to get on to the clinical staff of a hospital school. On the contrary, we want a specialized class of teachers, who devote their leisure to research in biophysics and kindred subjects. The mechanism of the jaw is quite as good an object-lesson in the fundamental principles of mechanics as the screw and the systems of pullies, while the principle of energy and the laws of elasticity are subject to variations in living forms which are apt to be overlooked by the pure physicist. The range of linguistic studies required for canon and mediaeval law, for Weisthumer and folkcustom, are scarcely those of the academic classical scholar or the Teutonic philologist. Nor does the university philosopher find anything profitable between Aristotle and Descartes,—although it was the age of fathers and schoolmen, who directly or indirectly gave rise to all modern European philosophico-theological systems.

PREFATORY ESSAY

xxvii

many cases but little used for clinical instruction. The medical schools thrive or not according to the success of their hospitals in attracting charitable subscriptions, and this again depends indirectly on skilful advertisement. The result is overlapping, rivalry, want of specialization, and the predominance of pecuniary instead of purely scientific interests. General municipal control of the whole hospital system must sooner or later be the rule, and with the wider clinical material thus placed at the disposal of medical instruction must come a diminution in the dominance of individual medical schools over individual hospital management. The overlapping of the preliminary teaching, and of much of the more theoretical and scientific branches of medicine and surgery, must be avoided. The direct and sufficient payment of all forms of medical teaching must attach men to academic work and experimental medical research as a profession, and such teaching not be undertaken as a step to a consulting practice. The competition of the medical faculties of different universities, and of the medical schools of the same university, would be perfectly healthy if it depended solely upon the reputation of the teachers; but it depends largely on the flow of public subscriptions to individual hospitals, the success with which the school may be used as a step towards a professional reputation, and the skill of one or two men in effective advertisement of the special wants of their individual hospital, or its special fitness to deal with a disease for the time looming large in the popular mind. The municipal control of the hospitals, the utilization of all clinical material, the wider separation of the academic teaching of medicine from its purely professional pursuit—these are the points which arise in the mind of one who views the present chaos from an outside standpoint. But if the observer be an outsider, he is a sympathetic one, who beheves largely in the academic future of experimental and scientific medicine. Yet here the very instruments of knowledge (such as vivisection) and of experiment (like inoculation) demand the most careful and diplomatic procedure. The storms of the past in these matters are as nothing compared with what we may experience in the near future; and if sure progress is to be made, there must be no hasty adoption of tentative treatments, when no strong scientific arguments in their favour are adducible; there must be no “ fishing ” inquiries on living forms; in other words, each experiment sanctioned must be directed to answering a definite question, which in the opinion of scientifically trained minds there is reasonable hope might be answered by the investigation proposed, and, if answered, would be of substantial service to medical or surgical treatment. Lastly, a greater knowledge of the nature of scientific method and of scientific proof must in some manner be provided for by academic medical training.1 Medicine, and Need for scientific

even sur er g y> must to a large extent be, and remain, empirical; but it is just the empirical sciences in which, for example, an accurate theory of statistics is of most importance. It

sa me lca medicfne" ^ n°^ ^°0 muc^ ^ ^ ^ statistics are at present in a most rudimentary condition; definite conclusions are over and over again drawn from short series of cases, where the trained statistician realizes that the emphasized differences are well within the limits of random sampling; or, again, A and C are found statistically to be associated with B, and it is argued that A and C must be themselves associated. The recent vaccination legislation has produced most instructive object-lessons in this direction. It has very unfortunately created a large class of men with pecuniary interests in the maintenance of vaccination. These men have had, in the press and at public meetings, to face a strong opposition, partly sceptical, largely fanatic. It is not too much to say that from the standpoint of science the medical defendants’ handling of statistics has been excelled in inadequacy only by that of their opponents’. Much of the strength of proof in medical science depends entirely on statistics j copious raw material can be obtained from hospital practice, but this is rather too largely drawn from special classes of the community. The bulk of data from all classes either escapes written record, or remains “ unstandardized ” in case-books; here it is monopolized as “ experience,” when by co-operative action it might be statistically generalized into proof. The quantitative value of the correlation between environment, age, or physical characters and the special features or virulence of any disease is probably unknown at the present day in a single instance; and yet it is hard to conceive that clinical prognosis 1 In the coarse of the past twenty years the writer has received a scarcely intermitted flow of papers and letters from pseudoscientists, circle-squarers, perpetual-motion mongers, heredity-theorists, neo-Darwinists, and others. The common feature of all these productions is the failure to grasp the elements of a real scientific proof. If the authors were classified by profession, the general medical practitioner would lead in numbers, the engineer being second, and the theologian a comparatively poor third.

prefatory essay

xxviii

would not be greatly advanced, especially among the younger members of the profession, by a quantitative knowledge of this kind. An authoritative body standardizing records, collecting individual experience and reducing it by adequate statistical theory, seems almost a necessity for medical progress at the present day An elementary training in the handling of statistics and an insistance on the nature of scientific reasoning and statistical proof seems an urgent need, which ought to he, but is not, provided for in the preliminary scientific education of the medical profession. Passing from professional schools1 to the commercial university, we see at the present moment a great experiment being made in this direction. Birmingham has wisely entered on an unoccupied field. It may be desirable that one or, at most, two large centres should follow its lead, but it is most mercer sincerely to be hoped that every university and university-college in the kingdom will not now university. app0int a professor of commerce and advertise a commercial department because they think it will pay They have neither the funds nor the experience requisite for success. What is needed, from the national standpoint, is at most two or three perfectly efficient, fully manned, and fully equipped commercial universities, attracting students from the whole area of the empire. There are plenty of unoccupied fields for other institutions and colleges to specialize m, to the national profit, without the creation of innumerable small rivals in a new sphere. This is, of course, on the supposition that those who have first taken the work in hand will do it thoroughly, even if their progress be gradual and tentative at stages. Let it be remembered that it is not a mere professor of commerce that is required, but ultimately a staff of ten or a dozen such, with a large auxiliary force of lecturers and assistants. The man who can effectively deal with preferential tariffs and the general fiscal policy of the empire is not necessarily the man who has special knowledge of commercial interests and transit possibilities m China. A fundamental rule of the commercial university ought to be the “ third free year ” of the Russian academic system, and this means that only two-thirds of the senior staff will at any given time be actually engaged in teaching. The “ third free year ” is only free from teaching work; the lecturer is expected to travel for the purposes of research.2 Especially, owing to the rapidly altering, ever contracting and developing processes of commerce, will it be needful for the teacher to keep in touch with current progress and methods. Nor can a man rear men to be pioneers unless he has done pioneering work himself. It is a big task which the commercial university sets before itself, full of difficulties and, possibly, pitfalls, but one of essential national importance to-day, when our commercial leadership has been more than threatened. We have to rear a new type of worker, who will see in trade not only a source of individual profit, but a patriotic duty. Developing commerce on the Yangtse, or struggling against fever in West Afiica, 01 starting new industrial enterprises in the Argentine, the trader must realize the relation of his efforts and those o°f his colleagues to thousands of handworkers at home, whose bread must come from over the sea by exchange. He must recognize that on his intelligence, on his linguistic and local knowledge, on his readiness to adapt goods and transit to environment, depends, to a far larger extent than has been dreamt of in the past, the national fitness to survive. The leeway of the nation has to be made up by increased intelligence, first in production and then both in distribution and exchange; the former need has to be met by higher craft-schools and improved technical colleges; the latter, by the creation of commercia universities. Can any training help the nation to the skilful merchant and the fully-equipped pioneer ? Those who believe in education and modern scientific methods can only reply: Yes, if you train the intelligence by the heuristic method, and exercise it on the materials of its future work. It is a great task which Birmingham has set itself; let us hope that it realizes its magnitude and difficulty—above all, that it understands that failure, from want of efficient staff or of equipment, or from lack of internal or external enthusiasm, would be little short of a national disaster. It would discredit for years, if not indefinitely, the systematic training of intelligence in one of the most important fields of national activity. 1

The range of professional schools wants considerable widening. One profession certainly ripe for a great professional science school is that of the actuaries, and a little study of official reports will show that a school for government statists is a nec y 2

Started in the commercial university, we might hope that this wise custom would extend to the pure-science medicine,^nd engineering faculties, where it is as important to seek new material, test foreign methods, and critically examine curre p commerce.

PREFATORY ESSAY

XXIX

Commercial universities, again, suggest the great importance of further extending the Wanderjahre custom. We have already discussed the need for local colleges, schools, and universities to specialize, and The Wan= the advantage of the student wandering in search of his subject and the master-teacher. To derjahre. the commercial university a relatively considerable number of studentships should be attached, the holders of which should be compelled to travel and report on foreign and colonial commercial methods and possibilities. These reports should in the first place be looked upon as exercises, but selected reports might well deserve publication as monographs of commercial research. Past holders of such scholarships, the pick of academic training, with their minds freed from insular method and local custom by the insight of travel, would undoubtedly be in constant demand for pioneer work. They would form a class such as is being rapidly formed in pure science 1 by the 1851 Exhibition scholars, men compelled to wander in search of research training. A percentage of failures there has been, and probably must be, but the next generation of physicists and chemists will undoubtedly show how markedly advantageous has been the system. The Wanderjahre with the research studentship must be widely extended to all fields of work. Any Oxford or Cambridge college which insists on its fellowships being held only on Wanderjahre research conditions will quickly realize the profit which must flow from the increased reputation of its members and the broadened views and activity of its fellowship-lecturers. The older universities can distribute their fellowships without the special limitations set in the case of the 1851 studentships to which we have already referred: they could yearly send out men to study the flora and fauna of almost untouched districts; to learn the native languages, religions, and customary laws of British and other possessions; to study under the masters of pure science, history, or philosophy who exist outside their own walls ; and to return, as the American travelling fellows have done from the European universities, to develop their home institutions and widen their educational system by leaps and bounds. Without such Wanderjahre training, no academic post ought to be open to the teacher of the future. III. Science in the Direct Service of the State. A slender sketch like the present does not permit of our dealing at length with another class of science school of vital importance to the state, namely, Government Schools training directly for special Government schools.

branches of state service. Here the maximum efficiency possible both in staff and equipment is absolutely essential for national safety, and yet the routine, almost a necessity, of official institutions is excessively apt to check just the very variations of individuality and the genius on

which discovery in science and progress in its practical applications almost invariably depend. For this reason it is very desirable that the government schools should be limited to those branches of instruction which are needed only for the national service. Eor example, schools of offence and defence—naval colleges, staff colleges, artillery and military engineering colleges; to these ought probably to be added, schools for home and imperial civil service:—for consuls, native state residents, and the lower branches of the diplomatic service. It seems, but for the historic evolution,2 a curiously anomalous process to select for many of the latter services men who have obtained examination distinction in classics and pure science, often taught by crammers, and with no special relation to the future work of the taught. It would probably be a great advantage to place these colleges, where feasible, near to one or other university. Thus while specialization in training and study should be insisted upon, both teachers and taught would have the widening influence of contact with other forms of work and play. The want of this “ touch ” undoubtedly tells on the efficiency of certain service colleges: their professors are too isolated; and necessary as is specialization, and valuable as is esprit de corps, the creation of a caste among the students, with caste habits and amusements, is far from an unmixed good. Without rivalry, and free from comparison with 1 Comparatively few of these scholarships appear now to be given for essentially technical research,—which was possibly the original intention. 2 The origin of the all-pervading state-examination system in the United Kingdom was the desire to check nepotism in government appointments ; to hinder one type of inefficient is not equivalent to selecting the fittest and training them effectively for their specialized uork. Even the examination system has probably been adapted, by artificial “ adjustment of marks,” to pass into the service not individuals, but types of men who appear best suited for the work in the eyes of certain commissioners. In other words, we are trusting very considerably to personal judgment as to a fit type ; and this fact, be it good or bad, is screened behind a complex system of examination-marking.

XXX

PREFATORY ESSAY

any but foreign schools, the government service school is liable to run in grooves; in many cases the staff does not appear to he numerous enough or sufficiently specialized to have leisure or inclination to study new problems or foreign methods. The pay of a government professor and the honour of the position should be such as to attract the highest teaching and organizing talent to the state service, and the leisure at present sometimes devoted to external teaching and examination work should be monopolized for specialized research work in the national service. Lastly, the government schools should be confined to those branches of the service where the specialized training required by government servants is not already being provided on an adequate scale Relation of ^ other educational bodies. A government civil engineering college, for example, may be governperfectly efficient in its own line, but the men it turns out see only one group of teachers and schools to technical colleges.

one form of

instruction. The whole service may thus run far too much in one groove, which would be impossible if its members were the picked students of the various technical schools The same criticism applies, if to a less extent, to naval engineering and anci universities.

architecture. The Admiralty, which occasionally does draw on external supplies, rarely gets the best students of the technical colleges, because it draws by an examination schedule which none of the more efficient engineering schools would be likely to adopt for its curriculum; and if they did, it would be, under present arrangements, devoting their energies to a small and very uncertain class of student. It would be an interesting experiment—and we believe a successful one—if the government gave for a trial number of years a limited number of engineering appointments to the pick of the technical college students, and compared their work with that of the men reared in their own schools. We believe that the wider field of selection would lead to a greater variety in capacity, talent, and training being made available for the government service. From government schools we naturally pass to government research institutions, and the position of science as consultant in the modern state. The position accorded to science in the past in this respect has been a very defective one. The state needs quite as much scientific as legal advisers • Govern. . o j ment indeed, under present circumstances, they are perhaps even more essential. Not only problems research in offence and defence, but in development, transit, industry, disease, sanitation, reproduction x institutes. i j- -I i • t t ’ and medico-legal matters arise daily, and the government wants not only to know where to turn for immediate advice, but to be sure that it will get what for the great bulk of cases is sound advice. Beyond this, the progressive state ought always to be on the look-out for and seeking to encourage discoveries or inventions which will increase national efficiency either for war or in peace. Something of this latter function may be fulfilled by permanent government research institutions and consultative scientists. But not only is the incentive to discovery greatest in the young man with his future to make, but the power to discover great things rapidly diminishes with age. There is the born scientist, who The two scientific

researches for the keen intellectual pleasure of the work, and would go on, whatever his income or post; and there is the man for whom research or science is a means to a living and a position. He pursues it to a competency and his D.Sc., to his F.B.S. or to his K.C.B., as the desire impels. He retires on his laurels, spending his life on committees, emphasizing the needs of pure science, the importance of technical education, and scaring us with the German bogie.1 It would be unreasonable to condemn this man ; for he belongs to the type which forms the bulk of humanity, whether occupied with science or any other pursuit. He has probably done good work, and his experience is of value for consultative, if no longer for research, purposes. We have only to remember that science has and can have no high priests, for it is always progressive and advancing. It is hardly too much to say that the moment a scientist reaches celebrity as a man, he has ceased to be a discoverer. For he can hardly attain fame before middle life, and already the younger man is on his shoulders reaching higher, for he starts with his elder’s knowledge and with the unspent energy of youth. One of the greatest dangers of science, and especially science in the consultative service of the state, is the possible creation of a scientific All honour to Germany s scientific work ! Her specialist has organized his science and made research a trade, yet his product lacks too often the real insight, the lucidity, the touch of genius characteristic of the best French work ; rarely, too, does the German break entirely novel ground, as was done by the three great scientists of the English type—Newton, Faraday, and Darwin.

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XXXI

hierarchy, resting on past achievement and believing itself at the summit of scientific knowledge As soon as a man ceases to research, he has fallen behindhand ; his tools grow rusty, and he ceases to grasp new methods and new possibilities. Hence one of the greatest problems of the state is how to draw into its service not only those who have achieved as consultants, but those who are achieving as Prize system.

discoverers at v lazes

Possibly an extension to our country of the French system of substantial pecuni■ P > with not too-closely defined limitations, would turn more of the research work of the country to national ends. A prize every two or three years of four or five thousand pounds foi a markedly useful contribution to the country’s means of naval defence ; a like sum for the most valuable work tending to develop the chemical industries of the country, or to improve its sea or land transit; or, again, equally substantial prizes for medical or sanitary discoveries—these would draw the energy of many youthful scientists into channels of national value. A yearly government offer, not necessarily an expenditure, of £10,000 to £20,000 in such prizes would be no extravagant sum, and might well have enabled this country to lead in at least some of the recent fields of discovery, such as smokeless powders submarine boats, motor cars, wireless telegraphy, &c. &c. Such prizes and research should be independent of national laboratories and government consultants, to whom more specialized problems and routine difficulties should be submitted for solution or advice. In the one case the appeal is made to the energy of the youthful scientist, in the other to the experience of the consultant, to the store of current knowledge. Considering more closely science institutions in the direct service of the state, it will be found that the ideas of men on this point are at present somewhat chaotic. Such institutions as exist have arisen Stale

Partly

from th

e immediate exigencies of executive, and partly from the outside pressure of pure

SCleEtlsts askin ’ S for government assistance, or for public support on the ground of a private institution fulfilling a crying national need. This haphazard origin accounts for the want of organization and specialization ; private institutions are partially doing national work, and national institutions which should be doing specialized industrial work have fallen to some extent into the hands of pure scientists. Here, as in other fields, a differentiation of pure and applied science is necessary. It is perfectly true that none can tell how soon a result of pure science will be applicable to industry; but the type of mind that can apply such results is rare, and the bulk of applied science problems are first formulated and afterwards the extension of pure science which leads to their solution worked out.' In the first place therefore a nation needs laboratories for its industries—for standardizing the implements, testing the materials and distributing knowledge with regard to the processes of its manufactures. There must be institutions

Institutes

which, free of every bias, will test and compare the products of all manufacturers seeking government contracts, or will advise Boards of Trade and state or municipal authorities as to regulations for factories, transit, ood and sanitation. These needs stretch far beyond any existing institution, and cannot be satisfactorily dealt with except by technical specialists having control of independent laboratories. Thus the nation’s wants comprise: (i.) JYatmml Enyineerimj Laboratory. — This must be subdivided into mechanical, civil, and naval departments. The first would test materials and machinery for government National use’ °r apply Rtall':l:ud tests iu the case of corporations or private individuals. It should keep engineer* a hold on the industries of the country by reports on the quality of materials of construction m tlie °Pen market, and their quality relative to foreign productions. It should undertake engine and other tests for manufacturers, and report to them on the relative efficiency of British and foreign machinery. In fact, in every way within its sphere it should apply and circulate current knowledge. The second, or civil engineering department should deal in a like manner with docks, railways and general transit, water and sewerage, &c. It should be prepared to advise the government unicipalities on the conditions to be satisfied in bridge structure, to criticize development plans rom the national and from local standpoints, to provide tests for dam efficiency, data for the flow of fluids, and a multitude of other matters which come daily before civil and municipal engineers. The naval depart-

laboratory.

Univ rea1 lfc 18 stn,iln analysis axenow and then of ® ’ gly illustrated in pure and applied enriChed mathematics. Developments of pure by aI l5 SiS direCtly inVmted for the solution of special physicalTevrteLS proMemT11'8 ^ 0V'r ^^ “‘ ’

S. VIII. — e

xxxii

PREFATORY ESSAY

ment should lay down the conditions for testing the machinery of ships, the strength of their plating and rivetin'?, and keep shipbuilders in constant touch with foreign developments, as well as help to maintain a high standard of efficiency in home work. It should assist indirectly or directly in the registration or classification of ships. Of course much of all this is done at present by various government inspectors or departments by private corporations like the two Institutions of Engineers and Lloyd’s. But it is not done m a systematic manner. When a pressing need arises, a commission is appointed, which investigates or experiments for a time on iron, boilers, or bridges. It has to do this in a more or less haphazard sort of wav with a temporary staff, and without a properly equipped centre, or even without direct experiment by comparing the conflicting evidence of too often interested witnesses. These defects of existing procedure result in grave delays, much expense, and general inefficiency. A trained staff accustomed to experiment, with apparatus and locus provided, ought to be at the constant service of such commissions ; m many cases such a staff would be already prepared with the unbiassed information necessary for a judgment an would be the centre from which government and private individuals could at once ascertain what was known here or abroad on the problems ever arising in progressive construction. (ii) In close touch with the Engineering Laboratory should be a Laboratory for Ekctro-Techmml Industries. This is especially needful in the case of electric transit. But electro-technology opens up sue an immense field of activity in transit, lighting, telegraphy, telephony,power, and the smaller arts, c, that the laboratory ought to be differentiated from that for engineering proper. Here there is laboratory. at sent aud, a wide amount of work necessary in standardization, testing, regulation, and control for public safety, that the early establishment of such a laboratory is almost more urgent than that of any othen unnecessary to discuss the importance of a National Chemical Laboratory. This is to some extent already provided for in separate government departments.^ What is neede is . , centralization, departmental differentiation, and complete and efficient equipment. It must be “I, in no sense an institute for research in pure science, but it has to answer the —rable laboratory. ohemical It must do for the blems 0f the state, both on the organic and inorganic sides. chemical industries what the engineering laboratory does in its own field-standardize, test purity repor fc an watch foreign rivals ; deal with colonial produce, poisons, adulteration of food, and an infinity other pioblems which suggest many sub-departments, and ultimately differentiation into separate national institute^ (iv) There must be at least one institute to deal with those smaller industries which demand a high standard of scientific efficiency. The work done in the old Kew Laboratory was excellent of its kind, and kept fairly in view the industrial factor; the testing of watches, chronometers, barometers, and National thermometers must be supplemented by work on microscopes, theodolites telescopes, and a institute multitude of optical instruments used in pure or applied scientific work. The Admiralty or for the smaller industries. War Office should know at once where to turn for a report on telescopes or telemeters, and upon the reliability of instrument makers, here or abroad. Nor does the above list by any means complete the round of important smaller industries where scientific control, standardizing, testing, or advice is desirable. As the scientific training of the nation, from the handworkers to the organizing leaders of each specialized industry goes on, the need for national institutes, as centres for collecting maintaining high standards of production and controlling the relations of industry to the state will grow more and more pressing, and the differentiation of the above institutes and the foundation of new ones must be taken in hand. It will be clear that it is not possible to deal satisfactorily from the industrial side, with such consultant bodies as we have sketched when they are merely sub-departments of a National Physical Laboratory. They must be placed in the hands of leading and independent technical authorities. (v.) National Astronomical Observatory. (vi.) National Meteorological Office. (vii.) National Geographical and Geological Survey Office. _ The institutes comprised under (v.), (vi.), and (vii.) have been for years in effective existence but perhaps have hardly been developed on a sufficiently wide or imperial basis. The Imk between the centra

PREFATORY ESSAY

XXXlll

home observatories and those in the colonies and dependencies has hardly been strong enough, nor the whole chain of institutes systematized; and this is particularly the case in the meteorological service. There is 110 F ^ central authority for collecting and storing the meteorological data of the empire. In some national cases records are taken at scientifically important stations, but no returns are made, still less institutes printed. Often months or years of record will be omitted. In other cases returns are made of science* by the naval authorities, by the army medical service, by colonial botanical superintendents, &c. •&c., and returns have to be sought for at the Admiralty, Yetley, Kew, or vainly at the Colonial Office. Colonial data, unless printed, rarely reach this country, which from the imperial standpoint is far behind Meteorological service.

Portugal in the systematization of its meteorological service. It must never be forgotten that the meteorological condition of the world at any given time is a complex unity, and the state of ^ atmosphere in Northern Norway is correlated with the contemporary conditions even of St

Helena and the Cape. The world-wide extent of the British Empire presents opportunities in this direction which are far from utilized at the present time, and the extension and “ imperialization ” of all three of the institutes just referred to must be an important task for the immediate future. Thus far we have dealt chiefly with the inorganic or physical sciences applied to the service of the state. In several of these sciences there have been, and undoubtedly will in future be, demands for state institutions for research in pure science. Now although the boundaries of pure and applied science The state are m -i t # and pure = some cases ill-defined, yet we believe a working distinction can be made, especially if we science remember that the first, if not, however, the whole function of a national institute is to collect institutes* data and apply existing knowledge. It is to the academic bodies that we should look for real advance in pure science, and this will become the more feasible the sooner it is recognized that it is the function of these bodies to teach by research, and that the members of their staff who merely teach and do not research are not teaching in the proper manner. Hence any cry for national laboratories for pure science must weaken the legitimate demand of the universities for effective municipal and state support for their laboratories. The university laboratories for research and post-graduate students are, and ought to be, the true national laboratories for pure science. Of course they want, especially on the biological side, wide extension and development. Turning now to the organic side, we see at once the fundamental importance of: (viii.) National Institute for Preventive Medicine and (ix.) National Institute for Sanitary Science.—Here again there are innumerable questions to which municipalities, or home and colonial governments, need answers, and an( Medical ^ PromPt answers. It is little good, after an army has been decimated by enteric, to and appoint a commission to inquire into the causes of it: advice and control on the point should have sanitary peen provided before the army started. Pollution of rivers, provision of vaccine and antitoxin, the institutes. . .. treatment of malarial districts, are not topics to be left on one side until public attention forces the government to action; they and many other matters are not effectively dealt with by private corporations, individual research, or hurriedly constituted commissions; the staff of government institutes should have been steadily pegging away at them, collecting data and experimenting, so as to be ripe with information when the state demands aid, or popular interest, tardily excited, calls for expert opinion. (x.) National Institute for Anthropology.—With possibly more races under the British flag than under any other imperial symbol since the days of the Boman eagle, we have yet entirely failed to

National institute t

s s ema ze an y^ ti d nationalize our study of those races. There is no national museum or institute where one may learn the cranial, anthropometric, and physical characters of the various races

pologylr°= un of cordite, until a sufficient number of boxes to form a lot have been filled. This number is subdivided into batches, the number of boxes in a batch varying with the size of cordite, and the cordite in each batch of boxes is blended, by taking a few sticks from each box of the batch and packing them into another set of boxes, filling one box at a time until the whole of the original boxes have been emptied. A box of the blended material is then taken from each batch, and the contents of these boxes are again blended, as above described, so as to form when completed a uniform lot, the number of boxes forming a lot varying with the nature of the cordite. Cordite is packed in wooden boxes holding from 50 to 115 lb, according to the size of the box and the nature of the cordite. Cordite for blank ammunition and for Webley pistol cartridges.— Cordite for blank ammunition is prepared from size 20. After the cordite has been dried it is wound on reels. These reels are mounted on a stand in front of a machine which automatically feeds about 40 strands at a time through rows of holes in a fixed plate, in front, of which, and close up against it, a disc revolves at a very high rate of speed. Attached to this disc are four knives, set at right angles to one another, which take thin slices off the strands as they are fed through the plate, the principle of the machine much

prossnit Z —p rostitution ♦ 25 resembling that of a chaff-cutter. The flakes should vary in thickelementary attributes of living things, namely, the will to ness between 0"-008 and 0"-003. It is designated —. live and the instinct of reproduction. The one represents Cordite for the Webley pistol is prepared by Slicing size 1 the interest of the individual, the other that of the race • cordite m a machine similar in principle to the one used for and the essential character of prostitution is that it utilizes making —. It is designated the latter to satisfy the former, whereas in true sexual Tests.—The tests for finished cordite are as follows •— passion, as Schopenhauer has pointed out, the advantage 1. Analysis.—To ascertain that the percentage composition is of the individual is subordinated to the needs of the correct. 2. Moisture test.—To ascertain that it does not contain more race. In practical language, prostitution offers, through than a certain percentage of volatile matter varying& with the size abuse of the sexual instinct, a means of livelihood which ot the cordite. a certain proportion of women prefer to other means. It 3. - Heat test for stability.—This test is brieflyis asoften follows—20 assumed by philanthropic moralists that no other grains of finely ground cordite are placed in a test tube provided means are open to them. That may be so in cases in which with a stopper, through which passes a glass rod terminating in a hook. A Piece of filter paper saturated with a solution of starch deception or constraint has been used, and adverse circumand potassium iodide, and dried, is attached to the hook, and the stances such as lack of friends and a harsh social code upper half of the paper moistened, when about to be used with a close the door to other occupations; but to suppose that solution of glycerine in water _ The paper is inserted in the test such cases account for prostitution is to misapprehend the tube, and the test tube placed m a water bath heated to 180° F. the test is completed when the faint brown line, which after a time problem. The detailed investigations of various observers makes its appearance at the margin between the wet and dry and the experience of rescue societies prove that the great portions of the test paper, equals in depth of tint the brown line drawn on a standard test paper. This test with slight modifica- majority of prostitutes prefer that means of livelihood to tions is the one m general use for testing the purityJ of all nitro- others entailing regular work, discipline, and self-control When they really cease to prefer the life, they leave it explosives. 4. Ballistic proof Each size of cordite is fired in the small arm voluntarily.1 Otherwise there is extreme difficulty in reor piece of ordnance with which it is intended to be used, under claiming even the few who will consent to try, and permanent certain fixed conditions as to weight of charge and projectile, success is only attained with a small proportion of them. &c., and must give velocities and pressures within certain defined The earliest attempt at reclamation met with the same limits. Authorities. — J. Friedrich. Schiesspulver und Krieqs- result. It was carried out by the Roman Empress Theofeuerwerlcerie. Vienna, 1878.-M. H^iAne. La poudre d cannon dora, wife of Justinian, herself a prostitute in early et les nouveaux corps explosifs. Paris, 1878.—Noble and life. She established a home for 500 women on the Abel. Researches on Explosives, Fired Gunpowder, part ii London, 1880.-M Berthelot. Sur la force des matieres ex- Bosphorus, but after a time they could not bear the plosifs. Paris 1883.-J. P. Wisser. Short Historical Sketch of restraint; some threw themselves into the sea, and eventGunpowder. New York, 1883.-P. F. Chalon. Les explosifs ually the scheme was abandoned. The preference is due modernes. Paris, 1886.—W. H. Wardell. Handbook of Gun- to several causes, of which indolence is the chief. Prospowder, and Gun-Cotton. London, 1888.—J. P. Cukdill A titutes are drawn mainly from the lower classes: the life Dictionary of Explosives. London, 1889.—M. Eissler A Hand book of Modern Explosives. London, 1890.—J. A. Longridge. offers them an escape from the toil which would otherwise be their lot. Women who present themselves to the police Smokeless Powder and its Influence an Gun Construction. London RTIALTX> for inscription on the Continent frequently give as their *°ri tvt P^sp Dictionnaire des explosifs. Paris, 1892.' —L. Jn apier Hake and AY. Macnab. Explosives and their Power. reason for embracing the life, that they do not intend to London, 1892.—A Noble. Preliminary Note on the Pressure work any more. Other causes are love of excitement and developed by some New Explosives. London, 1892. G. Coralys Les explosifs. Paris, 1893. —M. Eissler. The Modern High dislike of restraint. The same qualities make the criminal Explosives. New York, 1893.—A. Pouteaux. La poudre sans and the wastrel. In addition, a large proportion have jumee et les poudres anciennes. Paris, 1893.—F. Salvati Vocabo- the sexual appetite developed in an abnormal degree. Of lario di polveri ed explosivi. Rome, 1893.—0. Guttmann The Manufacture of Explosives. London, 1895.-S. J. von Romocki. 3505 women interrogated by M. Buis in Brussels, 1118 GeschuMeder Sprengstoffchemie, der Sprengtechnik und des Torvedo- admitted le gout pour l honinxe. The foregoing are primary wesens bis zum Begmn der neuster Zeit. Berlin, \^b.—Treatise on causes. External conditions which foster any of these Service Explosives, published by order of the Secretary of State for War. London 1895.—J. P. Cundill and J. H. Thomson. A tendencies, or destroy the self-respect and sense of modesty Dictionary of Explosives. London, 1895.—P. G. Sanford. Nitro- which are their natural antidotes, are secondary causes of Explosives London,1896 —L. Gody. Traitt thiorique et pratique prostitution. The more important are: (1) difficulty of f r Ex ™plosifs. 1896. _S. J. von Romocki. finding employment; (2) excessively laborious and ill-paid losivsto Namur, work; (3) harsh treatment of girls at home; (4) promisloos 7iR. D t fe ; die rauchschwachen Pulver. Berlin 1896. Wille.P Der Plastomenite. Berlin, 1898. cuous and indecent mode of living among the overcrowded (f. L. N.) poor;. (5) the aggregation of people together in large comProssnitz (Czech, Prostejov), chief town of a munities and factories, whereby the young are brought government district in the fertile plain of Hanna, in into constant contact with demoralized companions; (6) Moravia, Austria. _ It has important textile, malt, and the example of luxury, self-indulgence, and loose manners sugar industries, distilling, brewing, and milling, manu- set by the wealthier classes; (7) demoralizing literature factures of agricultural implements and lucifer matches. and amusements; (8) the arts of profligate men and their . eese are bred m large numbers, and there is a brisk trade agents. Alcohol is often an aid to prostitution, but it in corn. Population (1890), 19,512; (1900), 24,054. can hardly be called a cause, for the practice flourishes even more in the most abstemious than in the most Prostitution. Prostitution may be defined as drunken countries. These observations apply to the West. promiscuous unchastity for gain. In German law it is In Oriental countries girls are commonly born into or described. as Gewerbsmasdge Unzucht. It has always brought up to the trade, and in that case have no choice. the ancient nations of the East, with the excep*awofancmarriage, * custom and fromfrom concubinage which is an inferior state adultery tionAmong of the Jews, prostitution appears to have been conand other irregular sexual relations, in which the motive is nected with religious worship, and to have been not merely passion Prostitution has existed in all civilized countries 1 from the earliest times, and has always been subject to The number of those who do so is considerable. In Copenhagen regulation by law or by custom. In Christian countries from 1871 to 1896 33 per cent, of the registered prostitutes were reattempts have repeatedly been made to suppress it, but moved from the register by marriage and by returning to their friends. Many women resort to prostitution occasionally, in alternation with without success.^ Its ultimate basis lies in the two most work. S. VIII. — 4

26

P R O S T I T U T I O N

tolerated but encouraged. From the Mosaic ordinances were compelled to wear a distinctive dress, and, so far and the narrative of the Old Testament it is clear that the from being connected with religion, they were not allowed separation of the Jews as the chosen people, and to take part in religious services. These laws do not History. the maintenance of their faith, were always felt seem to have been carried out at all effectually, and were presently relaxed. After the Persian wars more stringent by Moses and by the later prophets to be chiefly endangered regulations were again introduced. The dicteriades were by the vicious attractions of the religious rites practised placed under police control, and were liable to prosecution around them. The code of sexual morality laid down m for various offences, such as ruining youths, committing the Book of Leviticus is prefaced by the injunction not to sacrilege, and treason against the State. It is clear, howdo after the doings of the land of Egypt, nor after the ever, that as time went on the Athenian authorities doings of the land of Canaan, where all the abominations experienced the difficulties encountered by modern adminisforbidden to the Jews were practised; and whenever the trations in carrying out State regulation. There were Israelites lapsed from their faith and “went a-whoring grades of prostitution, socially though not legally recogafter strange gods,” the transgression was always associated nized, and women of a superior order were too powerful with licentious conduct. In Egypt, Phoenicia, Assyria, for the law, which failed to maintain the ban against Chaldea, Canaan, and Persia, the worship of Isis, Moloch, them. The Greek hetcerce, who were prostitutes, not “ misBaal, Astarte, Mylitta, and other deities consisted of the tresses,” and the most gifted and most brilliant members most extravagant sensual orgies, and the temples were their class known to history, wielded great and open merely centres of vice. In Babylon some degree of pros- of influence. The test case of Phryne, in which the stern titution appears to have been even compulsory and imposed upon all women in honour of the goddess Mylitta. In attitude previously maintained by the Areopagus broke established their triumph over the law, deprived India the ancient connexion between religion and prosti- down, tution 'still survives; but that is not the case in China, virtuous women of their sole advantage, and opened the door to general laxity. In later times any one could set a most licentious country, and, considering the antiquity a dicterion on payment of the tax. In other Greek of its civilization, and its conservatism, we may perhaps up cities extreme licence prevailed. At Corinth, which was conclude that it formed an exception in this respect among famous sensual practices, a temple, with a huge staff of the ancient nations. Among the Jews, who stood apart commonfor prostitutes for attendants, wras established in honour from the surrounding peoples, the object of the Mosaic Aphrodite and for the accommodation of the sailors law was clearly to preserve the purity of the race and the of religion. Prostitution in itself was not forbidden, but it frequenting the port. The worship of this goddess became was to be confined to foreign women. Jewish fathers generally debased into an excuse for sexual excesses. The Romans united the Jewish pride of race with the were forbidden to turn their daughters into prostitutes Greek regard for public decency, and in addition upheld (Lev. xix. 29), and the daughters of Israel were forbidden to become prostitutes (Deut. xxiii. 17), but no penalty a standard of r austerity all their own. In early days was attached to disobedience, except in the case .of a female virtue w as highly honoured and strenuously mainpriest’s daughter, who was to be burnt (Lev. xxi. 9). tained among them, of which the institution of the vestal This distinction is significant of the attitude of Moses, virgins was a visible sign. Their attitude towards prostibecause the heathen “ priestesses ” were nothing but pros- tution differed, accordingly, from that of other ancient titutes. Similarly, he forbade groves, a common adjunct nations. Among them, alone, it was considered disgraceful of heathen temples and a convenient cover for debauchery. to a man to frequent the company of prostitutes ; and this Again, his purpose is shown by the severe penalties imposed traditional standard of social conduct, which markedly on adultery (death) and on unchastity in a betrothed distinguished them from the Greeks, retained sufficient damsel (death by stoning), as contrasted with the mild force down to the later days of the Republic to furnish prohibition of prostitution. So long as it did not touch Cicero with a weapon of rhetorical attack against his the race or' the religion, he tolerated it; and even this political opponents, whom he denounced as scortatores. degree of disapproval was not maintained, for Jephthah Prostitution was more severely regulated by them than by was the son of a harlot (Judg. xi. 1). There is abundant any other ancient race. They introduced the system of evidence in the Old Testament that prostitution prevailed police registration, which is the leading feature of Conextensively in Palestine, even in the earlier and more tinental administration to-day. From the earliest days of puritan days. The women were forbidden Jerusalem and the Republic prostitutes were required to register at the places of worship; they infested the waysides, and there sediles’ office, where licences were issued to them on payis some evidence of a distinctive dress or bearing, which ment of a tax. They were placed under stringent control, was a marked feature of the trade among the Greeks and had to wear a distinctive dress, dye their hair or wear Romans. In the later period of aggrandizement that yellow wigs, and were subject to various civil disabilities; increase of licentious indulgence which Moses had foreseen but the severest feature of the system was that, once took place, associated with infidelity. The people plunged registered, their names were never erased, and consequently into debauchery, the invariable sign of national decadence, remained for ever under an indelible staim As in our which has always accompanied over-prosperity and security, times, registration became ineffective, and neither law nor and has always heralded national destruction. Before tradition could check the demoralizing influence of ease leaving the Jews, it may be noted as an interesting fact and luxury when once external conquest left the Romans that the remarkable series of ordinances laid down by free to devote their energies to the pursuit of pleasure. Moses in the interest of public health contains unmistak- An attempt was made, by the enactment of severer laws able recognition of venereal disease and its contagious against prostitution, to stem the rising tide of immorality, which threatened to taint the best blood in Rome with the character (Lev. xv.). Passing on to the ancient Greeks, we find prostitution basest elements in the later days of the Republic. Citizens treated at Athens on a new principle. The regulations of were prohibited from marrying the descendants or relatives Solon were designed to preserve public order and decency. of prostitutes, daughters of equestrians were forbidden to He established houses of prostitution (dicteria), which become prostitutes, and married women who did so were were a State monopoly and confined to certain quarters. liable to penalties. More stringent regulations were also The dicteriades were forbidden the superior parts of the imposed on prostitutes themselves, in addition to the old town, and were placed under various disabilities. They disabilities and police system, which remained in force. If

PROSTITUTION 27 these laws had any effect at all, it was to promote the the latter to enter the cloister.” In spite of such efforts, general prevalence of immorality; they certainly did not and of occasional spasms of severity by individual rulers' diminish prostitution. The profligacy of imperial Rome prostitution flourished everywhere throughout the Middle has never been surpassed for gross and obscene sensuality. Ages. It was not merely tolerated, but licensed and The greatest change introduced by Christianity with re- regulated by law. In London there was a row of gard to prostitution was the adoption of a more charitable “ bordells ” (brothels) or “ stews ” in the Borough near attitude towards these social and legal outcasts. The London Bridge. They were originally licensed by the Roman state tax, which had descended to the emperors Bishops of Winchester, according to John Noorthouck, and and had been further regulated under Caligula, was partly subsequently sanctioned by Parliament. Stow quotes the given up in the 4th century by Theodosius, on the repre- regulations enacted in the year 1161, during the reign of sentations of Florentius, a wealthy patrician, who offered Henry II. These were rather protective than repressive, to make good the loss of revenue out of his own pocket. as they settled the rent which women had to pay for the It was fully and finally abolished by Anastasius I. in rooms, and forbade their compulsory detention. The Act the next century, and the old registers were destroyed. was afterwards confirmed in the reigns of Edward III. and Then some of the civil disabilities of prostitutes were Richard II. In 1383 the bordells belonged to William removed by Justinian in the 6th century. Gibbon, who Walworth, Lord Mayor of London, who farmed them out, never gave credit for a good motive when a base one could probably on behalf of the Corporation, according to Conbe found, attributes Justinian’s action solely to his desire tinental analogy. They were closed in 1506, but reopened to marry Theodora, whose life had been notorious • and no until 1546, when they were abolished by Henry VIII. doubt she influenced him in the matter, but it is per- In London we get the earliest known regulations directed missible to assume a good motive. Even Gibbon is con- against the spread of venereal disease. The Act of 1161 strained to admit her virtue after marriage, and to give forbade the bordell-keepers to have women suffering from her credit for “ the most benevolent institution ” of Jus- the “ perilous infirmity of burning ”; and by an Order of tinian s reign, the rescue home for fallen women in 1430 they were forbidden to admit men suffering from an Constantinople, which was at any rate disinterested. infirmitas nefanda. Probably it was by virtue of this Though it did not succeed, it marks a turning-point in Order that in 1439 two keepers were condemned to eleven the treatment of a class which had never met with public days’ imprisonment and banishment from the city. In sympathy before. At the same time procuration and con- 14/3, again, it is recorded that bawds and strumpets were nivance were severely punished, which is in keeping with severely handled by Lord Mayor Hampton. On the Conthe Christian attitude. The early Christian Church laid tinent much the same state of things prevailed during great stress on chastity, which probably suggested to its the same period. Prostitution was both protected and Roman persecutors the horrible punishment of forcibly regulated, and in many places it constituted a source of prostituting Christian maidens. Such malignity enhanced public revenue. In France prostitutes were distinguished the glory of martyrdom without shaking the constancy of by a badge, and forbidden to wear jewels and fine stuffs its victims; and the triumph of purity in an age of un- and to frequent certain parts of the town. Public brothels bounded licence was conspicuously recognized by Alaric, on a large scale were established at Toulouse, Avignon, the Gothic conqueror, who gave strict orders in the sack and Montpellier. At Toulouse the profits were shared of Rome that the virtue of Christian women was to be between the city and the university; at Montpellier and respected. The Church, however, was not severe upon Avignon the trade was a municipal monopoly, and farmed prostitutes, to whom the altar was open upon repentance, out to individuals j at Avignon, where the establishment and some of the fathers explicitly recognized their trade was kept up during the whole period of the popes’ residence, as a necessary evil. Among them was St Augustine, a the inmates were subjected to a weekly examination. In man of the world, who saw that its suppression would 1254 Louis IX. issued an edict exiling prostitutes and stimulate more destructive forms of immorality. Gradually brothel-keepers ] but it was repealed two years later, though charity degenerated into patronage. Rome, conquered in this and the succeeding century procuration was punished spiritually by Christianity and materially by the Northern with extreme severity. In some parts of France prostitutes barbarians, sapped the virtue of both. Before the Middle paid a tax to the seigneur. In Germany, according to Ages the institutions and ministers of the Church became Fiducin, the public protection of Lust-Dirnen was a regular a by-word for vice. Charlemagne made an effort to thing in all the large towns during the Middle Ages. suppress the prevailing disorder, but his private life was “ Frauenhauser,” similar to those in London and in France, licentious, and his capitularies, which ordained the scourg- existed in many places. They are mentioned in Hamburg ing of prostitutes and panders, were not inspired by any in 1292; and from later records it appears that they were regard for morality. A period of reform followed. The built by the corporation, which farmed them. So also in rise of - chivalry, with its lofty idealization of women, and Ulm, where special regulations were issued in 1430. We the wave of Christian fervour connected with the Crusades, find them existing at Regensburg in 1306, at Zurich in inspired a vigorous and high-minded campaign against an 1314, at Basel in 1356, and Vienna in 1384. According all-prevalent evil. The Church became exceedingly active to Henne-am-Rhyn, admission to these houses was forbidden in prevention and rescue work, and was assisted by a to married • men, clergy,. and Jews, and on Sundays and devout and zealous laity. Rescue missions were organized, saints’ days they were closed. The laws of the Emperor convents were founded everywhere for the reception of Frederick II. in the 13th century contain some curious penitents, and dowries were subscribed to procure them provisions. Any one convicted of a criminal assault on a husbands. Fulke de Neuilly was a conspicuous figure in prostitute against her will was liable to be beheaded; if this work. He held missions, preached, and collected large she made a false accusation, she was subject to the same sums for marriage dowries. Pope Innocent HI. (1198- penalty. Any one not going to the assistance of a woman 1216) pronounced it a praiseworthy act to marry a calling for help was liable to a heavy fine. In these prostitute; and Gregory IX., a few years later, wrote to ordinances the influence of chivalry may be detected. At Germany that brothel-keepers were not to prevent pros- the same time prostitutes were forbidden to live among retitutes from attending missions, and that clergy and laity spectable women or go to the baths with them. Hospitality who drew profit from prostitution were banned. “ Urge to important guests included placing the public Frauenhauser bachelors,” he wrote, “to marry repentant girls, or induce at their disposal. So King (afterwards Emperor) Sigismund

28

PROSTITUTION

was treated at Bern*in 1414 and at Ulm in 1434, so much to his satisfaction that he publicly complimented his hosts on it. Besides the municipal Frauenhauser, there were “ Winkelhauser,” which were regarded as irregular competitors. In 1492 the licensed women of Nuremberg complained to the mayor of this unfair competition, and in 1508 they received his permission to storm the obnoxious Winkelhaus, which they actually did. In Italy and Spain the system appears to have been very much the same. At Bologna prostitutes had to wear a distinctive dress, in Venice they were forbidden to frequent the wine-shop, and in Ravenna they were compelled to leave a neighbourhood on the complaint of other residents. At Naples a Court of Prostitutes was established, having jurisdiction over everything connected with prostitution. It led to great abuses, was reformed in 1589, and abolished about a century later. Such was the state of things in the Middle Ages. In the 15th and 16th centuries a great change took place. It was due to two very different causes : (1) fear of disease; (2) the Reformation. With regard to the first, there can be little doubt that both the slighter and graver forms of venereal disease existed in very remote times, but until the 15th century they attracted comparatively little attention. The constitutional character of syphilis was certainly not understood,—which is by no means surprising, since its pathology has only been elucidated during the last half century and is still extremely obscure,—but one would still have expected to find more notice taken of it by historical, moral, and medical writers in classical and mediaeval times. Nor is it possible to explain their reticence by prudery, in view of the unbounded literary licence permitted in those ages. One can only conclude that the evil was less widely spread or less virulent than it afterwards became. At the end of the 15th century it attracted so much notice that it was supposed to have originated then de novo, or to have been brought from the West Indies by Columbus—both untenable hypotheses; and, as usual, each country accused some other of bringing the contagion within its borders. To speculate on the causes of this increased prevalence would be idle; it is enough to note the fact and its consequences. It was immediately followed by the Reformation, and the two together led to a general campaign against the system of licensed prostitution. The last Frauenhaus was closed in Ulm in 1531, in Basel in 1534, and in Nuremberg in 1562. In London, as already noted, the bordells were abolished in 1546. In Paris an ordinance was issued in 1560 prohibiting these establishments, and later all prostitutes were required to leave the city within twenty-four hours. These instances will suffice to show the general character of the movement. Nor were municipal brothels ever tolerated again. It is observed by Henne-am-Rhyn — no friend of toleration — that their suppression was followed by the appearance of the crime of infanticide, by the establishment of hospitals for foundlings and for syphilis. This suggests an indictment against humanity which is hardly justified by the facts. Infanticide was no new thing, and foundling hospitals date from the beginning of the 13th century. Their marked increase and the establishment of syphilitic hospitals came a century later than the Reformation campaign against the Frauenhauser. The suppression of the latter did not affect the prevalence of prostitution. In the 17 th century another spasm of severity occurred. In 1635 an edict was issued in Paris condemning men concerned in the traffic to the galleys for life; women and girls to be whipped, shaved, and banished for life, without formal trial. These ordinances were modified by Louis XIV. in 1684. The Puritan enactments in England were equally

savage. Fornication was punishable by three months’ imprisonment, followed by bail for good behaviour. Bawds were condemned to be whipped, pilloried, branded, and imprisoned for three years; the punishment for a second offence was death. In Hamburg all brothels were pulled down and the women expelled from the town. If these measures had any effect, it was speedily lost in a greater reaction; but they have some historical interest, as the present system was gradually evolved from them. It would be tedious and unprofitable to follow all the steps, the shifts and turns of policy, adopted in different countries during the 18th century for the suppression or control of an incurable evil. They involve no new principle, and merely represent phases in the evolution of the more settled and more systematic procedure in force at the present time. Its chief feature, as compared with the past, is the establishment of an organized police force, to which the control of prostitution is entrusted, coupled with a general determination to put the subject out of sight and ignore it as far as possible. The procedure on the continent of Europe is virtually a return to the old Roman system of registration and supervision, except that there is no State tax, and names can be removed from the register. The objects are the same, namely, public order and decency, with one important addition, which has given rise to much controversy. This is the protection of health. From what has gone before, the reader will have gathered that it is not, as frequently supposed, a new thing. Already in the Middle Ages the question occupied the attention of Parliament in England, and a weekly examination of public women by the barber (the surgeon of that time) was instituted at Avignon. The practice was adopted in Spain from about 1500, and later in many other places. But the abolition of licensed brothels, and the consequent growth of private prostitution, rendered it a dead letter. To meet the difficulty, registration was devised. It was first suggested in France in 1765, but was not adopted until 1778. The present regulations in Francs are based on the ordinances of that year and of 1780, which in their turn were borrowed from those of the 16th and 17th centuries, previously mentioned. The theory of the modern attitude towards prostitution is clearly laid down by successive ordinances issued in Berlin. Those of 1700 stated that “ this traffic is not permitted, but merely tolerated ”; the more precise ones of 1792 pronounced the toleration of prostitution a necessary evil, “ to avoid greater disorders which are not to be restrained by any law or authority, and which take their rise from an inextinguishable natural appetite”; and the regulations of 1850 and 1876 are headed “ Polizeiliche Vorschriften zur Sicherung der Gesundheit, der offentlichen Ordnung und des offentlichen Anstandes.” This embraces the whole theory oi present administration, and if Gesundheit be omitted, is not less applicable to the United Kingdom than to the Continent. The last attempt to suppress prostitution in Germany is worth noting, as it occurred so late as 1845. Registration was stopped and the tolerated houses were closed in Berlin, Halle, and Cologne. The attempt was a complete failure, and it was abandoned in 1851 in favour of the previous system. We proceed to state the present condition of the law in France, Germany, Austria, and the United Kingdom. France.—The French criminal law takes no cognizance of prostitution. The subject was omitted from the penal code drawn up by the first Republic, and was preseat never restored, although many attempts were iaws, made to introduce legislation, on account of the great disorder which arose. Procuration is to a certain extent a criminal offence. Paragraph 334 of the code for-

PROSTITUTION 29 bids the exciting, favouring, or facilitating habitually the also to a journey fund, which is applied to sending strangers debauch of girls or boys under twenty-one years of age; the to their homes. Brothels are absolutely illegal throughout penalty is imprisonment for six months to two years, and Germany. Paragraph 180 of the Imperial Code (1876) a fine of 50 to 500 francs. If the offence is committed makes Kuppelei a penal offence. Kuppelei is defined as by parents, guardians, or other persons in a tutelary posi- promoting prostitution, either by procuration or by protion, imprisonment is from .two to five years, and the viding facilities of any kind. There is (1) ordinary fine 300 to 1000 francs. The regulation of prostitution Kuppelei, or simply assisting prostitution for gain, and rests on the law of 1790, which entrusted the preservation (2) aggravated Kuppelei, which includes false pretences of public tranquillity to the administrative authorities; and procuration by parents, guardians, teachers, &c. The these are in Paris the prefect of police, and in • other penalty for the former is a short term of imprisonment communes the mayor. The Parisian regulations have and police supervision; for the latter, penal servitude been built up by the decrees of successive prefects. They up. to five years. It is obvious that if this law were are based on those of 1778, which fell into abeyance at strictly enforced, it would amount to suppression, for every the Revolution, were reintroduced in 1816, amended in householder or houseowner who harboured a prostitute 1823, and made more complete in 1830 and 1841. Those would be liable to prosecution. Its actual interpretation, adopted in other towns do not differ in any essential however, is very elastic. A law passed in Prussia in 1900 particular. The more important points are: (1) registra- has for its object the reclamation of the young. Girls tion of prostitutes, which is either voluntary, or compulsory under eighteen may be placed under control until they are after repeated arrest; (2) recognized brothels, which are twenty-one. of two classes — maisons de tolerance (residential) and Austria.—The Austrian law goes further than the Germaisons de passe (houses of call); (3) medical examina- man, and is still more inconsistent with the existing tion, which is weekly at the maisons de tolerance, while practice. By paragraph 5 of the Criminal Act of 1885 other registered prostitutes must present themselves fort- prostitution is actually forbidden, but permission is given nightly at the dispensary; (4) hospital treatment of those to the police to tolerate it under conditions, and to prefound diseased; (5) rules with regard to solicitation, the scribe regulations according to circumstances. Power to frequenting of public places, &c. A small fee is paid for punish is also given to the police. Only certain cases examination. The penalty for infraction of regulations of prostitution are liable to criminal prosecution, namely, is imprisonment; offences are divided into two classes: when continued after police punishment, with disregard (1) slight, (2) grave, and the term of imprisonment varies of regulations, when practised by persons suffering from accordingly from fourteen days to one year. Names may venereal disease, and when accompanied by public scandal. be erased from the register on the following grounds : (Seduction of the young is punishable by imprisonment, (1) marriage, (2) organic disease such as to render the eight days to six months; living on the prostitution of calling impossible, (3) return to relations and proof of others, by eight days to three months. Kuppelei is a good behaviour. The whole procedure appears to rest on penal offence. Simple Kuppelei includes (1) harbouring grounds of doubtful legality. Prostitution never comes prostitutes for the purpose of pursuing their trade, (2) before the courts which alone can try offences and pro- procuration, (3) having any connexion with the traffic nounce sentence. The police have no power to do so, —penalty, three to six months’ imprisonment; qualified yet they both try and sentence these women. That is Kuppelei is (1) procuration of innocent persons (equivalent to say, the whole system depends on their doing, by some to use of false pretences), (2) procuration by parents, verbal quibble, what they have no power to do. The guardians, &c.—penalty, one to five years. The police question came before the court of Rheims in 1876, in regulations and procedure are similar to those in Germany, the case of. two women who refused to submit to medical but less strict. In all these countries a special service examination, and the judge decided in their favour. He of police is employed. was dismissed in consequence, which does not make the Great Britain.—The English law differs markedly from situation more satisfactory. the foregoing. It regards prostitution solely as a public Germany.—The German law is more explicit and more nuisance, and dates from the middle of the 18th logical. Prostitution is not forbidden, but by paragraph century. The principal Act (25 Geo. II.) was passed in 361 of the Imperial Code women are liable to arrest for prac- 1755, making perpetual a previous Act of 1752. It is tising prostitution without being under police control, and for entitled “An Act for encouraging prosecutions against contravening regulations after they have been placed under persons keeping bawdy-houses,” and provides that two such control. This brings the traffic completely under ratepayers, on giving notice to a constable, may go with the police, and gives legal sanction to their regulations. him before a .justice and obtain an order for proceeding These vary to some extent in different places, but their against the persons in question. A further Act was passed general tenor is the same. They include compulsory in 1763, fixing the penalties; and a third in 1818 (58 registration and weekly or semi-weekly medical examina- Geo. III.), enabling the overseers of the parish to take tion, together with rules, for the most part extremely the requisite proceedings. Thus machinery was provided strict, with regard to public demeanour and conditions for dealing with brothels, but it was left to the public of life. . In Hamburg, for instance, prostitutes are confined to put it in motion. The Vagrancy Act of 1824 enables to certain streets or houses, forbidden to share lodgings the police to proceed against “ common prostitutes for with persons not registered, to have female servants under behaving in a riotous or indecent manner,” and also fortwenty-five years of age, to keep children after school bids indecent literature. This was strengthened by a age, to admit young men under twenty, to make a noise or special Act (2 and 3 Viet.), applying to London only, for quarrel, to attract attention in any way, to go out between the prevention of “loitering for the purpose of prostitwo and five in summer, to frequent certain parts of the tution or solicitation, to the annoyance of passengers or town, or public balls, or superior seats in the theatre, to inhabitants.” Other large towns have since obtained private remain out after 11 p.m. (Regulations of 1886). On Acts for the same purpose. The penalties are fines and short proved reclamation, supervision may be relaxed or names terms of imprisonment. In 1847 an Act was passed making struck off the register. Generally, the women are com- it an offence for publicans to allow “ common prostitutes pelled to contribute a fixed sum to a sick fund, for defray- to assemble and continue” in licensed premises. The ing the cost of medical examination; and in some places Licensing Act of 1872 contains a provision to the same

PROSTITUTION effect. The previous law for dealing with brothels by indictment was strengthened by the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1885 (48 and 49 Yict. c. 69), which renders “ any person who keeps, manages or acts or assists in the management of a brothel,” and any owner or occupier who knowingly permits the same, liable to summary conviction under the Summary Jurisdiction Act; penalties for first offence, a fine up to £20, or imprisonment up to three months, increased for second offence to £40 and four months respectively. The same Act also strengthened the law, which had previously been very weak, for the protection of the young and the prevention of procuration. It makes the procuration or attempted procuration of any girl or woman u to become a common prostitute a misdemeanour punishable by two years’ imprisonment, and places the following offences on the same footing : procuring defilement by threats, fraud, or drugs; compulsory detention for defilement or in a brothel; procuring the defilement of girls under twenty-one; inducing them to leave the kingdom or to leave home and go to a brothel, with intent. The defilement of girls under sixteen and over thirteen years of age is also a misdemeanour, and subject to the same penalty; the defilement of girls under thirteen is felony, punishable by penal servitude from five years up to a life-sentence. Owners or occupiers of premises conniving at these offences are equally liable. No account of the law in the United Kingdom would be complete without some reference to the partial adoption of the Continental system in 1864-83. In 1864 a Contagious Diseases Prevention Act was passed, providing for the compulsory medical examination of prostitutes, and detention in hospital of those found diseased, in the following garrison towns:—Portsmouth, Plymouth, Woolwich, Chatham, Sheerness, Aldershot, Colchester, Shorncliffe, the Curragh, Cork, and Queenstown. The legal machinery was a justices’ order granted on sworn information that the woman named was a common prostitute. “The Act having proved very inefficacious” (Judge Advocate-General in House of Commons, April 1883), it was amended in 1866 and extended to Windsor. Two years later an important memorial was drawn up by the Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons in favour of the Acts and their extended application, and in 1869 they were further amended and applied to Canterbury, Dover, Gravesend, Maidstone, Southampton, and Winchester—eighteen places in all. A popular agitation, based on humanitarian and moral grounds, and continuously carried on against the measure, led to the appointment of a Royal Commission in 1871 and a Select Committee in 1879. The direct evidence was strongly in favour of the Acts, alike with regard to the diminution of disease among the troops in the protected towns, the absence of complaints, and the good effect on public order, to which clergymen and other residents testified. The majority of the Committee reported accordingly after three years’ inquiry; but in 1883 the House of Commons passed a resolution, by 182 to 110 votes, condemning the compulsory examination of women. As this would have entailed refusal to vote the money required to carry on the system, it was immediately dropped, and the officers of the metropolitan police to whom its execution had been entrusted were recalled. In 1886 the Acts were repealed. In India the system was introduced for military cantonments in 1865, partially suspended at the end of 1884, and stopped in 1888 on account of the action of the House of Commons. A new Cantonment Act was applied in 1889, and an amending Act in 1893, by which the compulsory or periodical examination of women was prohibited. In consequence of the enormous increase of syphilis which followed, a new Order was made in 1897,

which gave power (1) to call on persons suffering from a contagious disease to attend the dispensary, (2) to remove brothels, (3) to prevent the residence or loitering of prostitutes near cantonments. The foregoing summary of existing laws and regulations sufficiently indicates the present methods of dealing with prostitution. All Western nations broadly follow one or other of the systems described, though the local regulations may vary somewhat in minor details. The French system of recognized houses, with registration, 'police des moeurs, Ac., obtains in Belgium, Russia, Hungary, Spain, and Portugal; Italy adopted it in 1855, but abandoned it in 1888 for a modi- actually118 fied system; in the Dutch towns maisons de exjstjag. tolerance are permitted with or without a service des moeurs; Norway has abandoned registration, except in Bergen and Trondhjem, but otherwise Scandinavia rather follows the German principle of non-recognition, with more or less vigorous policing; of the Swiss cantons, some have the French, others the German system; while the United States and the British self-governing colonies incline more to the English model of comparative freedom, without a moral police or one possessing arbitrary executive powers independent of the courts of justice. All the systems have their defects; all fail to fulfil their purpose in the great cities. The most modest aim is to preserve public order and propriety. This object is better secured on the Continent than elsewhere, but at the cost of submitting to an arbitrary police rule, intolerable to a free people. There appears to be less prostitution, both visible and actual, in Italy than in other countries. Under the English system the streets can be, and sometimes are, kept orderly in provincial towns by an energetic police; but in London the mass of prostitution is so great that the police seem totally unable to cope with it. Important thoroughfares and centres are frequented by large numbers of prostitutes in broad daylight, and choked by them at night. The law with regard to loitering is a dead letter, for these women do nothing but loiter. Flagrant solicitation is to some extent repressed, but for the most part the police content themselves with preventing positive tumults, and do not always succeed in that. On the other hand, the less obvious but more pernicious nuisance of the brothel prevails to a far greater extent on the Continent.1 Under the French system it is, of course, encouraged, in preference to “ surreptitious ” prostitution; but under the German it is forbidden. The facts here afford a proof of the impotence of the law no less striking than the condition of the London streets. By the German and Austrian criminal law, quoted above, brothels are prohibited, yet they abound in both countries. In Austria they are recognized, and perhaps the logic of the law is saved by permissive police clauses. In Germany it is not so. Paragraph 180 absolutely disposes of the question, and in Berlin it is acted on. Elsewhere brothels not only existed, but were recognized by authority for years after the passing of the law against Kuppelei. It was not until 1886 and 1889 that they were nominally abolished in Hamburg and Saxony respectively. Yet they still exist in most or all of the large towns, with the knowledge and consent, if not with the permission, of the police. In some they are even authorized. Berlin, which is more severely policed than any town outside Russia, is an exception. There brothels are not openly winked at, but the police have to deal annually with 16,000 or 17,000 charges of Kuppelei, and the number remains very con1 Dublin furnishes an exception to the usual practice in the United Kingdom. In that city the police permit open brothels, confined to one street, but carried on more publicly than even in the south of Europe or in Algeria.

PROSTITUTION 31 stant, from which it may be inferred that the law, even following, which gives the average admissions per 1000 for when logically and energetically carried out, is quite the three years 1890-92 :— ineffective. The Continental system of registration is still more delusive. In Russia, where the authorities have the AusBritish British Dutch German. French. Russian. trian. Italian. U.S.A. (Home). means of knowing the movements and habits of every (India). (Indies). individual, it may be possible to compel the registration of 27-2 43-6 43-0 63-5 71-3 77"4 203-6 438-0 455-6 the majority of prostitutes, but in other countries it is impossible. The police everywhere complain of the amount of clandestine prostitution, wdiich they cannot It is clear at once that troops in the East stand upon control, and which tends always to increase, under the an entirely different footing from those in the West, the system, while the roll of inscribed women dwindles. The Dutch figures being even higher than the British; we numbers alone are sufficient to prove the failure of the may therefore put them aside for the moment. Comparprocedure; for instance, 311 and 270 in Dresden and ing the rest, we notice that not only are the British figures Munich respectively (Zehnder, 1891), both capital towns enormously higher than the Continental, but the latter and cities of pleasure containing over 300,000 inhabitants. also, show very large discrepancies; and since all the Cologne, with only half the population, had double the foreign troops are under the same protective system, we number on the register at the same time. In Paris, which may conclude that other factors must be taken into may be called the headquarters of Western vice, the dis- account. The discipline maintained, the character of the proportion between registered and clandestine prostitution soldiers themselves, and the procedure with regard to has reduced the whole system to an absurdity. The admission into hospital, no doubt all affect the returns. number of women on the roll is not a tenth of the esti- Further, a sort of epidemic rise and fall is to be noted. mated number of prostitutes; nor is Berlin, with about All the returns given in the first table show a simultaneous 3000 on the register, any better off. In Bordeaux, Brest, rise for several years, beginning with 1876; and having Lille, Lyons, and Marseilles the same process is going on reached a maximum, each shows a progressive fall, likewise (Reuss). It follows that the protection of health, which lasting over several years. This points to another disis the object aimed at by registration, is delusive in an turbing factor. It is convincingly shown by the figures equal degree. There are no means of ascertaining the for the protected districts in the United Kingdom before, amount of venereal disease existing in any town or country, during, and after the period of protection. In 1864 that except in Norway, and consequently no data for comparing is, just before the first Contagious Diseases Act came into one period or one place with another; but we know that all operation the proportional figure was 260 ; ten years later forms of such disease are still very prevalent in all large it had fallen to 126;- but in 1883 it had risen again to Continental towns, in spite of the system. The only exact 234, in spite of the protection. Then, protection being figures available are the military returns, which are of some removed, it rose to 276, but afterwards fell again provalue. It is in garrison towns of moderate size that com- gressively to 191 in 1895, without any protection. It is pulsory registration is likely to be most efficiently carried therefore evident that in interpreting the statistics allowout and to produce the most decided results, because the ance must be made for large fluctuations due to causes women with whom soldiers consort are by their character quite independent of the protective system. The margin and habits least able to elude the vigilance of the police. ' of difference, however, between the British and ConThe following table gives the proportion of admissions to tinental returns is so large that, when all allowances have hospital from all forms of venereal disease in the German, been made, it is impossible to doubt that a considerable French, Austrian, and British forces since 1876. It may degree of real protection is afforded to soldiers by the be added that the proportion in the Russian army is system. This conclusion is confirmed by the comparatively almost identical with the French, while the Italian figures high returns for the somewhat exotic army of the United are slightly higher than the Austrian. It is therefore States, and still more by the Indian statistics. They rose unnecessary to give them :— gradually, it is true, during the cantonment system, but when that was dropped disease increased with shocking Admissions per 1000 in European Armies. rapidity. Between 1887 and 1895 the admissions for Year. British German. French. Austrian. British primary syphilis rose from 75-5 to 174-1 per 1000, and (Home). (India). those for secondary syphilis from 29-4 to 84-9. 1876 28-8 The broad conclusion is that under special conditions, 57-0 65-8 146-5 203-5 1877 30-0 578 66'9 153-2 and when rigidly enforced, registration and medical exam224-4 1878 36-0 597 75-4 175-5 291-6 ination do to a considerable extent fulfil the purpose of 1879 38637 81-4 5 179-5 253-3 1880 protecting health. Their failure to do so among the popu34-9 65-8 757 245-9 249-0 1881 392 lation at large and under the 5 ordinary conditions of life is 60-6 79 0 245259-6 1882 41-0 62-0 73-7 not surprising when we regard the amount of venereal 2460 265-5 1883 38-2 589 73-3 260-0 271-3 disease which still occurs even among soldiers protected by 1884 34-5 52-1 73-5 270-7 293-5 the most rigorous measures and under the most favourable 1885 32-6 507 69-0 275-4 342-6 1886 29-7 conditions. 49-6 65-8 267-1 385-8 1887 28-6 516 644 A general view of the whole subject suggests no pleasant 252-9 361-4 1888 26-3 467 654 224-5 372-2 or hopeful conclusions. Prostitution appears to be 1889 26-7 45-8 65-3 212-1 481-5 inseparable from human society in large communities. In 1890 267 438 65-4 212-4 503-6 1891 27different countries and ages it has in turn been patronized 437 637 2 197-4 400-7 1892 27-9 440 61-6 and prohibited, ignored and recognized, tolerated and con201-2 409-9 1893 42-8 64-5 194-6 466-0 demned, regulated and let alone, flaunted and concealed. 1894 40-9 64 8 182-4 511-4 Christianity, the greatest moral force in the history of 1895 173-8 522-3 mankind, has repeatedly and systematically attacked it The most striking thing in this table is the enormous with a scourge in one hand and balm in the other; but the effect has been trifling or transient. Nor have all the difference between the Continental and the British figures. social and administrative resources of modern civilization Io make the comparison more complete, we will add the availed to exercise an effective control. The elementary

P R O T E C T I O N laws on which prostitution rests are stronger than the persons attacked in the course of a year is at the very least 500,000 Prussia alone (vide Hygienische Rundschau, April 1902). artificial codes imposed by moral teaching, conventional in Authorities.—Amos. State Regulation of Vice.—Committee standards, or legislatures; and attempts at repression of Fifteen (New York). The Social Evil.—Conference Interonly lead to a change of form, not of substance. It nationale (Brussels, 1899). Comptes Rendus.—Fiaux. La Prosurvives all treatment • and though it may coexist with stitution en Belgique.—Gibbon. Decline and Fall of the Roman Die Gebrechen der Sitten-polizei. national vigour, its extravagant development is one of the Empire.—Henne-am-Rhyn. Parent-Duchatelet. De la Prostitution dans la ville de Paris. signs of a rotten and decaying civilization. In Western —Reuss. La Prostitution.—Von Raumer. Geschichte der communities the traffic is not carried on so openly as in Hohenstaufen.—Sanger. History of Prostitution.—Schlegel. the East, nor is it exploited for purposes of public revenue, Histoire de la Prostitution en Chine.—Schrank. Die Prostituin Wien.—Sturmer. Die Prostitution in Russland.—Taras among the ancients and in the Middle Ages; a veil of tion nowsky. La Prostitution. — Zehnder. Die Gefahren der reticence and secrecy, for the most part of a transparently Prostitution. (a. Sl. ) flimsy character, is thrown over it; but whatever is gained Protection.—Protectionism includes a system of in public decency is counterbalanced by other attendant evils. Two, in particular, are fostered by the policing of commercial policy and a body of economic doctrine, which prostitution. One is the system of blackmail levied by in their modern forms are the outgrowth of the ^ ^ ^ the executive. The scandal has been most notorious in commercial and industrial development of the policy. the United States, but it exists everywhere, and is a con- past century. The common definition of prostant source of profound corruption. The other is the tection as a policy is the attempt to develop a manufacgrowth of the most degraded class that ever disgraced the turing industry by a system of discriminating duties upon name of man—the creatures who live upon the earnings manufactured goods imported from foreign countries. But of individual prostitutes, with whom they cohabit. They this is far too narrow a definition to suit the modern use are called souteneurs in France, louis in Germany, cadets of the term, though the notion of discriminating tariffs is in New York, and by various slang names in Great Britain. common and, we may say, basal to all definitions. ProThey are all criminals. They flourish chiefly on the tection as a policy includes not only discriminating tariffs, Continent, where they exist in large and ever-increasing but also a large number of other features supplementary numbers; but they find their way everywhere, and are a to this fundamental one and designed to emphasize its dangerous menace to society. They are not altogether purpose. Thus a scheme of bounties and premiums, new. The Elizabethan drama is full of references to men of rebates and drawbacks, is everywhere considered an who took toll of prostitutes in return for protective essential element of the protective system. Nor is it any services in the old days of persecution; but they have longer limited to the encouragement of manufactures, but been greatly fostered by the modern system, under which includes as well the protection of agriculture, forestry, women find it necessary or convenient to have the cover of mining, fishing, shipping, &c. In short, one cannot give a man, who can pass for a husband and baffle the police. a comprehensive and satisfactory definition of protection Thus the law is evaded on the one hand by the corruption to-day without giving it a much wider scope than that of of those who administer it, and on the other by the appear- a system of protective duties upon manufacturing industry. Many of its advocates claim, and with some show of ance of a class of criminal idlers more degraded than any other—both greater evils than the traffic which the law reason, that the term protection, as now used to describe is intended, but fails, to control. There are no data for the commercial policy of a nation, should be so defined comparing the extent of profligacy at present existing in as to include all the means by which a country undertakes Western communities with that in other countries or in to secure through the positive efforts of the Government former times, but the unmentionable facts which come the complete industrial and commercial development of all constantly to the knowledge of the 'police des moeurs, and its resources and of all its parts. As its object is thus less frequently to the ear of doctors and lawyers, leave comprehensive, its justification is to be found in a series no doubt that in intensity of vice the great centres of of arguments based upon political, economic, and social modern civilization have nothing whatever to learn from considerations. From this point of view the protective Corinth, imperial Rome, ancient Egypt, or modern China. policy embraces not merely the system of discriminating The classical obscenities dug up and relegated to museums import duties in favour of home products—industrial, are far surpassed by the photographic abominations pre- agricultural, and mining, with which the policy began in pared to-day in Paris or in Amsterdam. The gross per- the United States, for example—but also the system of version and abuse of the sexual instinct implied by these bounties offered for the introduction and establishment of excesses may be a passing phase, but it is a phase which new industries; the policy of restricted immigration of has always marked the decadence of great nations. It is the less desirable classes of labourers, combined with the undoubtedly accompanied by a general tendency towards positive inducements to the skilled labour of other countries increase of the volume of prostitution. Improvement in to transfer itself to the one in question; the system of the conditions of life among the poor ought to tend in the discriminating or prohibitive tonnage duties, known as opposite direction, by removing one of the most potent Navigation Acts; the system of developing foreign marcauses of the traffic, but it is more than counterbalanced kets by an active policy directed towards securing advanby the rising standard of luxury and comfort which tages for home products in foreign countries. In a word, accompanies it, by the aggregation of the people more and all those pecuniary or other sacrifices which a country may more into great cities, and by their craving for amusement. make in order to develop its material resources and estabThe growth of prostitution has already left its marks on lish, develop, and foster industry and commerce. In this the marriage- and birth-rates of the most highly civilized wide sense the comprehensive policy adopted by the United States, for example, includes the making of a Western communities. In 1900 the Prussian Government made an attempt, with the careful geological and botanical survey of the whole co-operation of the medical corporations, to ascertain the amount country in order to discover and open up the vast natural of venereal disease prevalent in the kingdom. Circular questions wealth of its domain in its mines, forests, and fields; the were addressed to all members of the medical profession requesting establishment of experiment stations to test the usefulness them to report the number of patients suffering from those dis- of new crops or means of making old crops more valuable; orders in their practice at the date of 1st April. Answers were sent in by 63 per cent., and the aggregate number of patients was the stocking of its rivers with fish and the afforesting of 40,902. From this datum it is calculated that the number of I its mountains; the introduction of new or more valuable 32

PROTECTION 33 breeds of live stock; the building of railways and canals, manipulation of the tariff duties in the interest of special and the offering of inducements to private parties to industries There was general agreement, however, that undertake similar enterprises; the deepening of its rivers it would be desirable to develop a manufacturing industry and harbours, &c.; and, finally, the development, at public m the colonies if it were practicable. A high degree of expense, of a scheme of technical and commercial education natural protection was already afforded by the cost of —lower and higher—adapted to discover and train all transportation. It was felt, therefore, that a small duty on the talent in the community available for developing the manufactures would probably serve the purpose, since the industry and commerce of the country. development of the manufactures would favour the proIf such an account of the features of a protective policy duction of raw material, which would therefore need no is objected to on the ground that free trade countries like special encouragement. It was also felt that a small duty Great Britain have also adopted some of them, it may be continued for a few years, would result in the establishment replied, that in so far as they have done so, they have ot the industry on such a firm basis that all duties might adopted the principle of protection, namely, that Government be abolished. The introduction of this form of protection shall adopt a positive policy looking towards the develop- fc.e., discriminating duties upon imported goods, was ment, by Government aid if necessary, of new branches of greatly assisted, if not originally caused, by the fact that commerce and industry and the firmer establishment of the new Government needed money, which could most old branches. It may further be pointed out that the easily be obtained by customs duties. Thus all those countries which have adopted the protective policy most parties which were opposed to direct taxes joined their fully the United States, France, Germany, and Russia efforts with those interested in securing protective duties have most consistently followed out the policy here indi- m order to commit the Government to the policy of basing cated, and in all these countries it has been the so-called its revenue system on a tariff on imports. To these protectionist party which has identified itself most fully considerations must be added the further one, that the with the comprehensive policy here suggested. country had just thrown off political dependence on Europe, As a doctrine, protection is the set of principles by and felt that it must now become industrially independent which this policy of Government aid to industry is justified, also, if it were to be a great nation. These influences, Economic ^nd these PrinciPles llave been elaborated hand then, namely, firstly, the desire of the statesmen of the time doctrine. hand with the development of the so-called to create a revenue system for the Federal Government protective policy, sometimes outrunning its actual which would make it absolutely independent of the states; application and advocating its further extension, more secondly, the wish to develop an industry which would serve often lagging behind and seeking for means of explaining the needs of the new country while it promoted its comand defending what had already been done. The present plete independence of the Old World, conspired to commit development of the system and theory of protection is a the Federal Government from the beginning to a policy of result of the growing predominance of capitalism in modern protection based upon a system of discriminating duties. society, combined with the tendency of modern politics At the same time a system of discriminating tonnage dues towards the organization and development of great national and prohibitory regulations relating to foreign shipping states, with the resulting desire to secure their industrial in the coasting trade was adopted to promote and foster the as well as their political independence. It has been further shipping interest. favoured in certain ways by the fact that the financial Industry and commerce began to thrive as never before, needs of modern states require a resort to indirect taxation, largely because of the absolute free trade which the constithus making it easier for the capitalistic forces to exploit tution had secured among the states of the Union. The the tax system for their own benefit; while the wars of long struggle between France and Great Britain, extending the 19th century have favoured in many ways the from 1806 to 1812, for the possession of the commerce tendency towards the adoption of special means, like high and the trade of the world, combined with the retaliatory discriminating duties, to accomplish this end. Hand in hand with this has gone a steady tendency to see in the measures of the American Government itself, practically destroyed American commerce for a time, and finally led state a powerful means of promoting the development of to the British-American war of 1812, which closed in trade and industry, and a growing disbelief in the more 1815. The financial system of the Federal Government extreme forms of the free trade doctrine, such as the type during this war was based on getting the largest possible known as Manchesterism, the theory of the laissez faire, returns from the customs, so that the duties were screwed laissez passer school of economics and politics. up still higher. The ten years period of non-intercourse, Protection, both as a doctrine and policy, can be best while it had seriously injured American commerce, had understood by examining the course of its development in fostered the growth of American manufacturing; and when those countries adopting it most consistently. Germany the close of the war of 1812 brought with it an enormous and the United States offer the two most striking examples o great modern nations adopting a system of protection influx of foreign goods, particularly from the plethoric and developing under its influence. They may in a warehouses and factories of England, it looked for a time certain sense serve as types of the kind of state which as though the new American industries were destined to m tue 19th century has accepted and defended, in its vanish as rapidly as they had grown up. And now for politics at any rate, the so-called protective system. In the first time appeared a strong, well-developed, capitalistic party, which was, in spite of some drawbacks, destined to both cases the high protective system was associated with grow until it became one of the most characteristic features the development of nationality, of industry, of capitalism, and ol a financial system which favoured the growth of of the politics of the republic. The manufacturers of the country determined the tariff certain elements of the protective policy. The protective system in the United States began with policy of the country, and with few reverses pursued a tne adoption of the Constitution in 1789, and found its steadily advancing course of victory down to the close of the 19th century. They secured the maintenance of high United ^orma^ defence in the celebrated report of duties at the close of the war of 1812, and managed to inStates. Alexander Hamilton on manufactures. The ar- crease them steadily until the reaction of 1830-33, when gument and the movement were largely academic. As there was no strong manufacturing interest in existence, they were forced to content themselves with a lower rate so there was no organized capitalistic effort to secure which continued, with a slight interruption in 1842-46' until the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861. This was an S. VIII. — 5

34

PROTECTION

opportunity which they knew how to utilize to the greatest advantage. During the war, when the Government was forced to exploit every possible source of revenue, the protectionist party knew how to turn the necessities^ of the Government to its advantage. The rate of duties was pressed ever higher; and when the war closed, and the taxes could again be lowered, the protectionist managers knew how to lower or remit altogether the non-protectiye duties, and thus keep high, and even advance to a still higher point, the duties which protected them from foreign competition. In the meantime the country was turning from agriculture to manufactures at an unprecedented rate. The manufacturing party was becoming ever stronger and more aggressive. As it had also been the national party, it profited by the enormous development of the nationalist sentiment during and after the war. It now became patriotic to favour the development of a national industry. It was treason to advocate free trade—that had been the policy of the slave-holders’ party, and the Slave-Holders’ Rebellion, as the Civil War was called, had drawn its strength largely from the free trade sentiment. The policy of the protectionist party had expanded with the growth of the country and the necessity of coming to terms with the antagonistic elements. Thus at first the platform of the protectionists had been one of reasonably low duties on manufactured commodities, low duties on half-manufactured, and no duties at all on raw material. But as the country advanced, and it was seen how the interests of manufacturing had been quickened by the policy of discrimination, those engaged in producing raw materials and half-manufactured commodities demanded that they too should be considered. As this concession had to be made by the manufacturers, they were compelled to justify it by other arguments than those used at first. The infant-industry argument gave place to the proposition, that as long as the prices of raw materials and labour were higher in America than abroad, it would be necessary to maintain countervailing duties at least equal to this difference, in order to protect American industry. One branch after another of manufacturing or agriculture was included and given the benefit of protection. In order to have a satisfactory theoretical basis for such a policy, the theory was advanced that foreign trade was a necessary evil, to be diminished as much as possible. The ideas were advanced and spread throughout the country: that the home market should be reserved for home products; that the labourers should be protected against the influx of foreign cheap labour (Chinese Exclusion Acts; restrictive immigration laws); that prices should be kept high, so as to enable employers to pay high wages ; that shipping should be encouraged by subsidies, the sugar industries by bounties; that the nation should become ever more independent of foreign nations for all its industrial products, and capable of holding its own against the world in industry as well as in arms. The protective party has been the national party during a time when the greatest question before the American people was whether it was to be one nation, or two, or twenty, and it naturally profited by the inevitable victory of nationalism ; it has always stood for honest payment of national and state debts, if not in the standard according to which they were contracted, in a still better one, and it has profited naturally by this attitude in a country where the development of trade and industry was rapidly and steadily towards a capitalistic state of society in which such policy is favoured; it has stood for a vigorous and active independence in the field of world politics, and it has naturally profited by this fact in a country which was rapidly forging ahead to take its place among the greatest

of existing nations, and with an ever-increasing self-consciousness was ready to assert itself among the nations of the world; it has stood for free labour against slave labour, and consequently profited here again in a country whose greatest conflict turned upon the question whether the system of slave labour should be extended or not; it has stood for high wages for American labourers, and in words at any rate has advocated a policy directed to protecting them against competition with the “ pauper labour ” of the Old World. It has stood for Government activity in the direction of developing railways and canals ; of establishing education upon national lines, making it free, in all grades from the kindergarten to the university, to all citizens of the republic, and it has profited by this association in a country where all influences were telling in favour of this tendency. In short, whatever one may think of the wisdom or folly of trying to develop national industry by a system of discriminating duties, the protective party as such in the United States has been on the progressive side of so many of the deep questions of national importance that it has obtained and kept the allegiance of thousands of men who would have been glad to see a change, or indeed a reversal, in the tariff policy of the party. The history of the tariff policy in Germany has been very similar to that of the United States. Beginning with the establishment of absolute trade . ^ • jfree i v uermany. among the various German states m the earlier customs union, it extended this policy, by the establishment of the North German Confederation and the new German Empire, to all the states now included in the federation. The long-wished-for political union meant political independence, and when political independence was once achieved, industrial and commercial independence were next desired. Within the empire itself it was necessary, if the new organization were to be strong and vigorous, that the central government should become independent of the individual states; and this could be best i effected by giving it a revenue system based upon import duties, which in the long run has enabled the central government to subsidize the state governments, and thus bring them still further under its influence. To develop this system the political support of some strong party was needed. This party was found in the protectionist elements, which have thus again become the national party in a state which was being rapidly nationalized; the industrial party in a society which was rapidly passing from the agricultural to the industrial condition; the capitalistic party in a society which was rapidly becoming capitalistic in all its tendencies. It stood for industrial and commercial, as well as political, independence of other countries, and thus satisfied the longing for national unity and independence of a people which had suffered for centuries from disunion and dependence. These two examples may serve to explain how the two most powerful industrial nations next to Great Britain have become and remained highly protectionist in sentiment and in action for the last generation, and how they both opened the 20th century with a more openly declared and a more fully developed system of protection than ever before. Protection as a theory or doctrine is to a certain extent an outgrowth or modification of the old doctrines of mercantilism. In its modern form, however, it M0(]ern dates really from the celebrated Report on advocates Manufactures made by Alexander Hamilton and when Secretary of the U.S. Treasury in the year crittcs% 1791. The views there advanced have been further developed by Friedrich List and Henry C. Carey, and have of late years been carried along somewhat different lines to their logical conclusions by Simon N. Patten and George

PROTECTION 35 Gunton. Starting from an argument in favour of temburdens—but burdens which might well be temporarily porary duties on manufactured goods imported from borne for the sake of the ultimate advantage arising from abroad until such time as the infant industry might take cheaper goods and diversified industries. He emphasized firm root, the development proceeded through List, who also the advantage of a home market for agricultural profavoured the maintenance of such duties until the country ducts, and seemed to think that the United States had to had passed into the manufacturing stage as a whole and pay the cost of transportation both on the agricultural then through Carey to Patten and Gunton, who maintain products it exported and the manufactured goods it imthat a protective policy, extended to cover agriculture, trade, ported. This report remained the armoury from which and mining, should be preserved as the permanent policy the protectionists drew their weapons of offence and of the country until the entire world is one nation, or all defence for two generations, and it has not yet ceased to nations have reached the same level of political, economic, be the centre around which the theoretical contest is and social efficiency. The protective policy, which a waged even to-day in Germany and France as well as in century ago was to be, in the view of its advocates, the United States. temporary and partial, has become to-day, in the argu, The next great theorist in this field was the German ments of its apologists, permanent and comprehensive. Friedrich List, who, while an exile in the United States’ We must content ourselves here with a brief statement of became imbued with protectionist ideas, and List the arguments of the leading and most successful defenders after doing substantial service for them in the ' of modern protectionism. country of his adoption, returned to Germany to do battle Alexander Hamilton, at that time Secretary of the Treathem there. He published his National System of sury, submitted his celebrated Report on Manufactures to 1forohtical Economy in Germany in the year 1841. It had tlie Con ress of Hamilton. g the United States on the 5th of great and immediate success, and has exercised a wide December 1/91. It is in a certain sense the first influence in Europe on theoretical discussion as well as on formulation of the modern doctrine of protection, and all practical politics. List, like Hamilton, looked on proteclater developments start from it as a basis. It is a tion as a temporary system designed to facilitate the positive argument directed to proving that the existence of passage of a country from an agricultural to a manufacturmanufacturing is necessary to the highest development of ing state. He accepted free trade as generally and pera nation, and that it may be wisely promoted by various manently true, but suited for actual adoption only in that means, of which the most important is a system of dis- cosmopolitan era towards which the world is progressing. criminating duties upon foreign imports. Among the But in order to prepare for this cosmopolitan period it is objects to be attained by the development of a flourishing first necessary for each nation to develop its own resources manufactui ing industry are mentioned :—(T j Independence in a complete and harmonious manner. A comprehensive of foreign nations for military and other essential supplies. group of national economies is the fundamental condition (“) positive augmentation of the produce and revenue of a desirable world economy; otherwise there would be a of society growing out of (a) division of labour, (b) extenpredominance of one or of a few nations, which would of sive use of machinery, (c) additional employment to itself constitute an imperfect civilization. Protection is a classes of the community not ordinarily engaged in busi- means, of educating a nation, of advancing it from a lower ness. (3) An increase in the immigration of skilled to a higher state. He admits that it may involve a loss, labourers from foreign countries. (4) A greater scope for but only in the sense that money expended for an educathe diversity of talents and dispositions which discriminate tion or an educational system is a loss, or that money men from each other. (5) A more ample and various spent for seed corn is a loss. To the cosmopolitan system field for enterprise. (6) In many cases a new, and in all of Adam Smith, List opposes the national system as a a more certain and steady, demand for the surplus pro- preliminary and necessary stage. He favours the imposiduce of the soil. (7) A more lucrative and prosperous tion of duties as the most efficient means of effecting the trade than if the country were solely agricultural. protection which he has in mind. Agriculture will be Among the feasible means of promoting the development sufficiently protected by the constant demand for its proof such an industry he mentions the following :—(1) Protect- ducts. The essence of his larger work is contained in a ive duties, or duties on foreign articles which are the rivals of the domestic ones, to be encouraged. (2) Prohibition of pamphlet published in Philadelphia in 1827, entitled of American Political Economy. It is, in fact, rival articles or duties equivalent to prohibition. (3) Prohibi- aOutlines series^ of letters advocating the further development /'n*1 rf ^ie. exi)0rtati01_1 of the materials of manufactures. of the protective system already adopted in the United ' / ecuniary bounties. (5) Premiums. (6) Exemption •of the materials of manufactures from duty. (7) Draw- States. The third great name in the history of protection is backs of the duties which are imposed on the materials of that of. Henry C. Carey, an American, in some ways the manufactures. (8) The encouragement of new inventions most distinguished and most influential of the followers of and. discoveries at home, and the introduction into the Hamilton and List. He was at first a strong free trader, United States of such as may have been made in other then a protectionist who believed in protection ■countries; particularly those which relate to machinery. as a preparation for free trade, and finally an Carey: (9) Judicious regulations for the inspection of manufacattea ' tured commodities. (10) The facilitating of the pecuniary unconpromising advocate of protection in all circumstances and for all nations. In him and in Simon remittances from place to place. U. Patten, the last, and in many respects the ablest, of the The above suggestions contain the outline of a comapologists for protection, we have the theoretical developprehensive scheme for developing the manufacturing ment corresponding to the practical outcome of protection resources of the country, and the United States has sub- as a comprehensive all-embracing scheme extending prosequently adopted, in one form or another, almost all of these propositions. Hamilton considered that the duties, tection to all branches of industry alike—agriculture manufacturing, and mining—and aiming to be permanent . , would not have to be very high nor very long con- in its form and policy. As Patten expresses it: “ Protectmued in order to accomplish their legitimate ends, after tion now changes from a temporary expedient to gain winch they would become unnecessary, and would naturally be abolished. He conceded that, generally speaking, specific ends (such as the establishment of manufactures), to a consistent endeavour to keep society dynamic and import duties were taxes on the consumer, and therefore progressive. Protection has become part of a fixed

36

PROTECTORATES

national policy to increase the value of labour with the increase of productive power, and to aid in the spread of knowledge and skill, and in the adjustment of a people to its environment.” The object of protection has now become, in the view of the theoretical American protectionist, not an approximation to European industrial conditions, but as great a differentiation from them. as possible. Carey’s works were translated into the leading European languages, and contributed doubtless to the spread of protectionist ideas, though the extreme form in which his views were expressed, and the rambling illogical method of exposition, repelled many who might otherwise have been attracted by the course of his thought. Economists of other schools, with the exception of the British, have allowed a relative validity to the doctrines of List; and even among British economists, Mill and some of his disciples have conceded the logical possibility of quickening the development of an industry by import duties in such a way as to result in more good than harm, though they have hardly been willing to acknowledge that it is practically possible. The historical school of political economists have generally admitted the reasonableness of protective policies at certain times and places, though usually finding the justification in political and social considerations rather than in economic. Authorities.—Alexander Hamilton. Report on the Subject of Manufactures, communicated to the House of Representatives, 5th December 1791.—Friedrich List. Das nationale System der politischen Oekonomie, 7th ed. Introduction by Eheberg. Stuttgart, 1883. Cotta. English translation by S. Lloyd, 1885.—Henry C. Carey. Principles of Social Science. 3 vols. Philadelphia, 1858-59. Lippincott; Harmony of Interests—Agricultural, Manufacturing, and Commercial. Philadelphia. 3rd ed., 1872. Baird.— Duhring. Kritische Grundlegung der Volkswirthschaftslehre, 1886; Kursus der National-und Socialokonomie, 1873.—Francis Bowen. American Political Economy. New York, 1875.— Edmund J. James. Studien uber den Amerikanischen Zolltarif. Jena, 1877. Hermann Dufft.—Robert Ellis Thompson. Political Economy. Philadelphia, 1882. Porter and Coates. Protection to Home Industries. New York, 1886. Appleton.—Ellis H. Roberts. Government Revenue, especially the American System. An argument for industrial freedom against the fallacies of free trade. Boston, 1884. Houghton, Mifflin and Co.—Henry M. Hoyt. Protection v. Free Trade. The scientific validity and economic operation of defensive duties in the United States. New York, 1886. Appleton.—George Gunton. Wealth and Progress. New York, 1887. Appleton; Principles of Social Economy. New York, 1891. G. P. Putnam’s Sons.—Simon N. Patten. Economic Basis of Protection. Philadelphia, 1890. Lippincott.—Ugo Rabbeno. The American Commercial Policy. London, 1895. Macmillan and Co.—Ganilh. Theorie de VEconomic Politique, 1822.—Dumesnil-Marigny. Les libre-echangistes et les protectionistes concilies, 1860. (e. J. J.) Protectorates.—“Protectorate,” which 'was a few years ago rarely named in books on international law, is now a common term to describe the relation between two states, one of which exercises control, great or small, direct or indirect, over the other. It is significant of the rare use of the term until recent times, that the word does not occur in Sir G. C. Lewis’s book on The Government of Dependencies. Yet the relation is very ancient. There have always been states which dominated their neighbours, but which did not think fit to annex them formally. It has always been politic for powerful states to facilitate and hide schemes of aggrandizement under euphemistic expressions; to cloak subjection or dependence by describing it in words inoffensive or strictly applicable to other relations. A common problem has been how to reduce a state to submission or subordination while ostensibly preserving its independence or existence; to obtain power while escaping responsibility and the expenditure attending the establishment of a regular administration. Engelhardt (Les Protectorats Anciens et Modernes) and other writers on the subject have collected a large number

of instances in antiquity in which a true protectorate existed, even though the name was not used. Thus the Hegemony of Athens as it existed about 467 b.c. was a form of protectorate) though the subject states were termed allies, the so-called “ allies ” must in all important legal matters resort to Athens (Meyer, Geschichte der Alterthums, iii. s. 274). In dealing with dependent nations Rome used terms which veiled subjection (Gairal, Les Protectorats Internationaux, 26). Thus the relationship of subject or dependent cities to the dominant Power was described as that of clientes to the patronus (Marquardt, Rumische Staatsvemvaltung, 2nd ed., i. 80). Such cities might also be described as civitates fcederatoe or civitates libercB. Another expression of the same fact was that certain communities had come under the power of the Roman people; in deditionem or in fidem populi Romani venire (Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, i. 73, 81). The kingdoms of Numidia, Macedonia, Syria, and Pergamum were examples of protected states, their rulers being termed inservientes. The Romans drew a distinction between foedera cequa and foedera iniqua. The latter created a form of protectorate. But the protected state remained free. This is explained in a passage of the Digest, 49. 15. 7 : “Liber autem populus est is, qui nullius alterius populi potestati est subjectus, sive is foederatus est; item sive sequo fcedere in amicitiam venit, sive foedere comprehensum est, ut is populus alterius populi majestatem comiter conservaret. Hoc enim adjicitur, ut intelligatur alterum populum superiorem esse: non ut intelligatur alterum non esse liberum ” (Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, 2nd ed., i. p. 46, and the instances collected by Puffendorf, 8. c. 9. 4). In mediaeval times this relation existed, and the term protection was in use. But the relation of subordination of one state to another was generally expressed in terms of feudal law. One state was deemed the vassal of another ; the ruler of one did homage to the ruler of another. In his book De la Republique Bodin treats of Geux qui sont en protection (1. c. 7), or, as the Latin text has it, de patrocinio et clientela. In Bodin’s view such states retain their sovereignty (1. c. 8). Discussing the question whether a prince who becomes a cliens of another loses his majestas, he concludes that, unlike the true vassal, the cliens is not deprived of sovereignty: “ Nihilominus in foederibus et pacis actionibus, quae inter principes aut populos societate et amicitia conjunctissimos sancientur; earn vim habet, ut nec alter alter! pareat, nec imperet: sed ut alter alterius majestatem observare, sine ulla majestatis minutione tenea, tur. Itaque jus illud clientelare seu protectionis omnium maximum ac pulcherrimum inter principes censetur ” (1. c. 7). Elsewhere Bodin remarks, “ le mot de protection est special et n’emporte aucune subjection de celuy qui est en protection.” He distinguishes the relation of seigneur and vassal from that of protecteur and adherent. As to whether the protected state or prince is sovereign, lie remarks, “je tiens qu’il demeure soverain, et n’est point subject.” He makes clear his conception of protection by adding, “ 1’advoue ou adherant doit estre exempte de la puissance du protecteur s’il contrevient aux traictes de protection. Yoila done la plus grande seurete de la protection, e’est empescher s’il est possible que les protecteurs ne soyent saisis des fortresses,” &c. (p. 549, ed. 1580). Sometimes, letters of protection were granted by a prince to a weak state; thus Louis XIII. granted in 1641 such letters to the Prince of Monaco (Gairal, 81). Reverting to the distinction in Roman law, Grotius and Puffendorf, in common with many other writers, treat protection as an instance of unequal treaties; that is, “ when either the promises are unequal, or when either of

PROTECTORATES 37 the parties is obliged to harder conditions ” (Be Jure Belli India to establish on the frontiers, as elsewhere proet Pads, 1. c. 13. 21 • I)e Jure Naturae, 8. c. 9). tectorates. The political advantages of the system are The following are some definitions of “ protectorate ” • “ Principis privilegium, quo ne alicui vis inferatur, cavetur, pointed out in Sir A. Lyall’s Rise and Expansion of the British Dominion in India. It Indian eumque in protectionem suscipit.” Ducantre • is a system “ whereby the great conquering or ProtectorOf pro■ Situation ci un etat a 1 egard d’un autre moins commercial peoples masked, so to speak, their 3teS' tectorate. Puissanf auquel il a promis son appui d’une irresistible advance ”; it was much practised by the Romans maniere permanent ” (M. Gairal, 52) ; a definition in Africa and Asia; it has been chiefly applied in modern applicable only to certain simple forms of this relation “Pour le protege, une condition de mi-souverainete sub- times in India (p. 326). The Indian states are somestituee a la pleine independence que comporte le regime de times described as “Feudatory States,” sometimes simple protection” (p. 58). “La situation respective de “Independent and Protected States” (Twiss), sometimes ^ Mediatized States ” (Chesney), sometimes “ Halfdeux etats de puissance inegale, dont Tun contracte Sovereign,” sometimes as in a position of “subordinate Tobligation permanente de defendre Tautre, et en outre de alliance” (Lord Parliamentary Papers, 1897 le diriger ” (p. 62). “ Unter einem Protektorat versteht [c. 8700], p. 27). Salisbury, The Interpretation Act, 1889 (52 and man em Schutzverhaltniss zwischen zwei Staaten des 53 Viet. c. 63, c. 18), refers to the Indian native princes Inhalts, das der eine Staat, der Oberstaat oder schutz- as under the “ suzerainty ” of the British Crown. These herrliche Staat, zum dauernde Schutze des anderen states are really sui generis, and their precise position can be Staates—des Schutzstaates oder Understaates—verpfiichtest ist; wofiir ihm ein mehr oder weitgehender Einfluss understood only by a private examination of the treaties auf die auswartigen. Angelegenheiten desselben und affecting them. The following are the chief points as to which Indian states are subject to English law: (1) the theilweise auch dessen innere Verhaltnisse eingeraiimt ist ” Governor-General is empowered to make laws for servants (von Stengel, Die deutschen Schutzgebiete, 11). “ The mark of the British Government and European and native Indian of a protected state or people, whether civilized or unsubjects of his Majesty; (2) British laws are in force in civilized, is that it cannot maintain political intercourse certain parts of the native states, e.g., in cantonments; with foreign powers except through or by permission of (3) native princes have adopted certain British laws, e rotec n „ .P fi g state ” (Hall, Foreign Jurisdiction of the v.g., the Indian Penal Code; (4) they have no external British Crown, 218). “A British protectorate is a country which is not within British dominions, but as regards its relations with foreign states; (5) the king is the donor of (6) Acts of Parliament affect them indirectly foreign relations is under the exclusive control of the honours; by directly affecting the British agent; (7) they receive King, so that its Government cannot hold direct comadvice, which may be akin to commands. (See also munication with any other foreign Power, nor a foreign Ilbert’s Government of India, 142.) Power with that Government” (Jenkyns, British Rule Among the chief British protectorates are : the African and Jurisdiction beyond the Seas, 165). group, consisting of British Central Africa, East Africa, The term is used very loosely. Often it designates a relation which it is deemed politic to leave indefinite: Uganda and Zanzibar, Basutoland, and British a state desires to obtain the reality of conquest without Bechuanaland; the Indian group, consisting of Existing rotector the responsibilities attaching thereto. It may mean the protected chiefs near Aden, and the island of P3 eS Socotra and Somali; the Malay group, consisting ‘ no more than what it says, “ One state agrees to of the Malay States in the Borneo peninsula and in protect or guarantee the safety of another.” The term is Borneo, the protectorates of North Borneo, Brunei, and also employed to describe any relation of a political superior to an inferior state. It is also used as the Sarawak; the Pacific group, consisting of a few islands, includnig Harvey Islands protectorate and Gilbert Islands. equivalent of suzerainty. As appears from the article France possesses several protectorates, of which the chief buzERAiNTY, the terms are distinguishable. But both imply a desire to carry out changes without friction and are Tunis, Annam, and Tongking. Her policy appears to not to break up ancient forms; both proceed on the plan be to transform them into French territory. Such change of securing the substance of power while allowing the has taken place as to Tahiti and Madagascar, and such in effect is the position of the Indo-China protectorates. weaker state a semblance of its old constitution. The chief German protectorates are South-West Africa, Certain protectorates originate in treaties; others have Togoland and Cameroon, German East Africa, Kaiser been imposed by force. Some are accompanied by occupation, in which case it is difficult to distinguish them from Wilhelm Island, and Kiaochow. There.are two principal divisions of protectorates; the annexation. Thus the treaty of May 1881, Article 21 between France and Tunis, provides for the occupation of first being those exercised generally by treaty over civilized countries. Of the first, the chief are : (a) that strategical points by the army of the protecting state. of Cracow, which was recognized by the Treaty of Vienna he establishment of a protectorate may be akin to a guarantee. . Generally, however, the former implies a as a free and independent state, and placed under the closer relation than a guarantee; and the two relations protection of Russia. It was incorporated with Austria may be widely different, as may be seen by comparing in 1846. (Calvo, 1. 2. s. 42.) (b) Andorra, protected by treaties of guarantee with the treaty establishing the Spain and France as successor of the Counts de Foix (Freeman’s Historical Geography, 1.343, 537). (c) The protectorate of Tunis. Ionian Islands, placed under the protection of Great Britain Strictly speaking, a protectorate cannot exist over a omam uninhabited or ruled by no organized state; in by the Treaty of Paris of 1815. ( numerical strength. This is due largely to the fact that she stands for these five things: historic continuity, liturgical worship, equal rights for clergy and laity, absolute separation of Church and State, and the carrying of religion into the daily life of the people. The liturgy is substantially that of the Church of England, with additions from the liturgy of the Church of Scotland, or changes suggested by the test of experience. From 1880 to 1892 a work of liturgical revision was carried on by the General Convention with two objects in view, “liturgical enrichment and increased flexibility of use.” The American Church, both in its diocesan and in its general conventions, has recognized fully the right of both clergy and laity not only to legislate about temporal matters, but also to settle questions touching the faith and worship of the Church. Her early experience in colonial days helped the Church to realize the advantage of a separation from the State; yet it was long before the older traditions were laid aside. It was not until 1838 that permission was given to divide a state so as to provide for an additional diocese—and it was not until 1898 that the General Convention abandoned civil lines in arranging and distributing its missionary jurisdictions. It had already refused to accept Government aid for its work among the Indians. Since 1850 the growth of this Church has been especially marked in the older states and the larger cities; but throughout the whole country she has more than kept pace with the increase in the population, so that while in 1850 she had one communicant in every 300 of the population, she had in 1900, roughly speaking, one in every 100.

1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900

Population.

Communicants.

23,347,884 31,442,960 38,555,983 50,152,866 62,480,540 76,295,220

79,987 146,600 220,000 344,789 509,149 700,458

This numerical increase represents very inadequately the real change in her position. The years since 1880 have been marked also by great changes within the Church, in her methods of work, and in the multiplication and enrichment of her services; but the greatest of all has been the dying out of the old party spirit, the broadening and deepening of every school of thought, and the coming together of men of many minds to work for great common ends. Side by side with this, and partly as a result of it, has been the upbuilding of the great city parish. Instead of an unwise multiplication of new parishes, there has been seen a judicious strengthening of the old. Nowhere has this been more marked than in New York City. In 1875 there were only five parishes in the old city of New York claiming each over 600 communicants; now there are nearly a score, reporting each over 1000 communicants, while old Trinity has over 7000, and St George’s nearly 5000. The organization of the Church covers now every state and territory within the United States, while her missionary work extends to Africa, China, and Japan, and she is lending a helping hand in Porto Rico, Cuba, the Philippines, Mexico, and Brazil. In every organized diocese there is an annual convention or council, presided over by the bishop and composed of the clergy and lay delegates from the various parishes, and having power to legislate on all local matters. Once in three years the General Convention meets as the supreme legislative body. This is composed of two houses, the House of Bishops, in which each bishop has a seat, and the House of Clerical and Lay Deputies, in which each diocese is represented by four clerical and four lay deputies. The following table will give some idea of the present condition of the Church and its growth since 1880 :—

Protoplasm.—The importance of protoplasm, as the physical and material basis of life, has caused it to be the subject in recent years of much minute and laborious research. Mysterious indeed are the powers and activities manifested by the minute speck of matter which circulates within a plant-cell or creeps freely about as an Amoeba, or the “microcosmic subtlety” whereby the tiny spermatozoon transmits to the next generation the qualities and peculiarities which go to make up a human personality. It seems obvious that matter so peculiarly endowed must possess a complexity of structure and organization far exceeding that which at first sight meets the eye. Some biologists have attacked the problem of the ultimate constitution of protoplasm from a purely theoretical standpoint, and have framed hypotheses of an ultramicroscopic constitution sufficient, in their opinion, to explain, or at least to throw light upon, the vital activities of the living substance. Others, proceeding by more empirical methods,

PROTO PLASM 41 have attempted to lay bare the structure of protoplasm by the least, doubtful; and, thirdly, that the observations means of the refinements of modern microscopical tech- of the vast majority of competent microscopists furnish nique, or to solve the question of its constitution by means abundant support for the statement that granules of protoof chemical and physiological investigation. Hence a con- plasm do not lie free in a structureless matrix, but are venient distinction, not always easy, however, to maintain embedded in the substance of a minute and delicate framein practice, is drawn between speculative and empirical work or morphoplasm, which in its turn is bathed by a theories of protoplasm. wTatery fluid or enchylema permeating the whole substance. (1) Speculative theories have come with the greatest The upholders of the granular theory deny the existence frequency from those who have attempted to find a of the framework, or explain it as due to an arrangement material explanation for the phenomena of heredity of the granules, or as an optical effect produced by the {q.v.). As instances may be mentioned more particularly matrix between the granules. Amongst those, on the the “gemmules” of Darwin, the “pangenes” of de Tries, other hand, who assert the existence of a framework disthe “ plastidules ” of Haeckel, and the “biophores” of tinct from granules and enchylema, the utmost diversity Weismann. These theories have been ably brought to- of opinion prevails with regard to the true structural gether and discussed by Delage, who has included them relations of these three parts and the r61e played by each all under the term “ micromerism,” since they agree in the in the exercise of vital functions. Some have regarded assumption that the living substance contains, or consists the framework as made up of a tangle of separate fibrillse of, a vast number of excessively minute particles—i.e., {filar theory)—a view more especially connected with the aggregates or combinations of molecules, which give to the name of Flemming—but most are agreed that it represents protoplasm its specific properties and tendencies (“idio- the appearance of a reticulum or network with excessively plasm ” of Nageli). In other cases the assumption of fine meshes, usually from ^ to 1 p. in diameter. The retiinvisible protoplasmic units has been inspired by a desire culum carries the granules at its nodal points, and is bathed either to explain the general vital and assimilative powers everywhere by the enchylema. Even with so much in of protoplasm, as, for example, the “micellae” of Nageli common, however, opinions are still greatly at variance. and the “plasonies” of Wiesner, or to elucidate the In the first place, the majority of observers interpret the mechanism of some one function, such as the “ inotagmas ” reticulum as the expression of an actual spongy frameof Engelmann, assumed to be the agents of contractility. work, a network of minute fibrillse ramifying in all planes. In general, it may be said of all these speculations, either While, however, Heitzmann, following the speculations of that they can only be extended to all vital phenomena by Brficke, considered the framework itself to be actively the help of so many subordinate hypotheses and assump- contractile, and the seat of all protoplasmic movement, an tions that they become unworkable and unintelligible, or opposite point of view is represented by the writings of that they only carry the difficulties a step farther back, Leydig, Schafer, and others, who regard the reticulum and really explain nothing. Thus it is postulated for merely as a kind of supporting framework or spongioplasm, Wiesner’s hypothetical plasomes that they possess the power in which is lodged the enchylema or hyaloplasm, considered of assimilation, growth, and reproduction by division; in to be itself the primary motile and living substance. other words, that they are endowed with just those properties Butschli, on the other hand, has pointed out the grave which constitute the unexplained mystery of "living matter. difficulties that attend the interpretation of the reticulum (2) Empirical theories of protoplasm differ according as as a fibrillar framework, in view of the distinctly fluid their authors seek to find one universal type of structure consistence of, at any rate, most samples of protoplasm. or constitution common to all conditions or differentiations For if the substance of the framework be assumed to be of the living substance, or, on the contrary, are of opinion of a firm, solid nature, then the protoplasm as a whole that it may vary fundamentally in different places or at could not behave as a fluid, any more than could a sponge different times. From these two points of view protoplasm soaked in water. On the other hand, the hypothesis of a may be regarded either as monomorphic or polymorphic fluid fibrillar framework leads to a physical impossibility, (Fischer). The microscopical investigation of protoplasm since one liquid cannot be permanently suspended in reveals at the first glance a viscid, slimy, or mucilaginous another in the form of a network. Butschli therefore substance, in which is embedded an immense number of interprets the universally present reticulum as a meshwork granules, for the most part very tiny. Very rarely are of minute lamellae, forming a honeycombed or alveolar these granules absent, and then only from a portion of the structure, similar to the arrangement of fluid lam elite in protoplasm, and only temporarily. Hence many authorities a fine foam or lather, in which the interstices are filled not have regarded the minute granules—the “ microsomes ” of with air but with another fluid; in other words, the strucHanstein—as themselves the ultimate living units of pro- ture of protoplasm is that of an exceedingly fine emulsion toplasm, in opposition to those who would regard them of two liquids not miscible with one another. merely as “ metaplastic ” substances, i.e., as the heteroIt may be claimed for the alveolar theory of Biitschli that it geneous by-products of metabolism and vital activity. The throws light upon many known facts relating to protoplasm. It granular theory, as this conception of the living substance interprets the reticulum as the optical section of a minute foam-like is called, has received its extreme elaboration at the hands structure, and permits the formation of protoplasmic striations and of Altmann, whose standpoint may be taken as typical of of apparent fibrillse as the result of linear or radiating dispositions this class of theories. After demonstrating the universal of the alveolar framework ; it reconciles with the laws of physics combination of a framework with a fluid or semifluid aggregate occurrence of granules in protoplasm, Altmann has com- the condition, while variations in the fluidity of the framework are pared each individual granule to a free-living bacterium, compatible with a stiffening of the protoplasm almost to the pitch and thus regards a cell as a colony of minute organisms, of rigidity, as seen, for example, in nervous tissue; and, finally, it namely, the granules or bioblasts, as he has termed them, explains many characteristic structural peculiarities of protoplasm, as the superficial layer of radiately arranged alveoli, the spherliving embedded in a common matrix, like a zoogloea such ical form of vacuoles, the continuous wall or pellicle which limits colony of bacteria. Of this theory it may be remarked, both the vacuoles and the protoplasm as a whole, and many other firstly, that it brings us no nearer to an explanation of vital points not intelligible on the theory of a sponge-like structure. phenomena than do the plasomes of Wiesner; secondly, Butschli has succeeded, moreover, in producing artificial foams of structure, which not only mimic the appearance of protothat to consider bacteria as equivalent, not to cells, but to minute plasm, but can be made to exhibit streaming and amoeboid movecell granules, is to assume for this class of organisms a ments very similar to those of simple protoplasmic organisms, position with regard to the cell theory which is, to say ihcidentally these experiments have shown that many of the S. Till. — 6

42

PROVENgAL

apparent granulations and ‘ ‘ microsomes ” are an optical effect produced by the nodes of the minute framework. In his most recent works Biitschli has extended his theory of alveolar structure to many other substances, and has tried to prove that it is a universal characteristic of colloid bodies, a view strongly combated, however, by Fischer. While it cannot be claimed that Biitschli’s theory furnishes in any way a complete explanation of life, leaving untouched, as it does, the fundamental question of assimilation and metabolism, he at least draws attention to a very important class of facts, which, if demonstrated to be of universal occurrence, must be reckoned with in future treatment of the protoplasm question, and would form an indispensable preliminary to all speculations upon the mechanism of the living substance. In opposition to the above-mentioned monomorphic theories of protoplasm, all of which agree in assuming the existence of some fundamental type of structure in all living substance, attempts have been made at various times to show that the structural appearances seen in protoplasm are in reality artificial products, due to precipitation or coagulation caused by reagents used in the study or preparation of living objects. These views have been developed by Fischer, who by experimenting upon various proteids with histological fixatives, has shown that it is possible to produce in them a granular, reticular, or alveolar structure, according to treatment, and, further, that granules so produced may be differentially stained according to their size and absorptive powers. Fischer therefore suggests that many structural appearances seen in protoplasm may be purely artificial, but does not extend this view to all such structures, which would indeed be impossible, in view of the frequency with which reticular or alveolar structures have been observed during life. He suggests, however, that such structures may be temporary results of vital precipitation of proteids within the organism, and that protoplasm may have at different times a granular, reticular, or alveolar structure, or may be homogeneous. Fischer’s conception of living protoplasm is therefore that of a polymorphic substance, and a similar view is held at the present time by Flemming, Wilson, and others. Strassburger also regards protoplasm as composed of two portions : a motile kinoplasm which is fibrillar, and a nutritive trophoplasm which is alveolar, in structure. The chemical investigation of protoplasm labours at the outset under the disadvantage that it cannot deal with the living substance as a whole, since no analysis can be performed upon it without destroying the life. Protoplasm consists, to the extent of about 60 per cent, of its total mass, of a mixture of various nucleo-proteids—that is to say, of those substances which, in molecular structure and chemical composition, are the most complex bodies known. In association with them are always found varying amounts of fats, carbohydrates, and other bodies, and such compounds are always present in the living substance to a greater or less degree as products of both upward and downward metabolism. Protoplasm also contains a large but variable percentage of water, the amount of which present in any given case affects largely its fluid or viscid aggregate condition. Especial interest attaches to the remarkable class of bodies known as ferments or enzymes, which when prepared and isolated from the living body are capable of effecting in other substances chemical changes of a kind regarded as specifically vital. It is from their study, and from that of the complex proteids found in the living body, that the greatest advances towards an explanation of the properties of living matter may be expected at the present time. (See article Physiology ; also Buchner, “Alcoholic Fermentation without Yeast Cells,” Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges. vol. xxx., xxxi., and xxxii.; Yerworn, General Physiology, London, 1891, p. 304; Reynolds Green, The Soluble Ferments and Fermentation, Cambridge, 1899.) The question may be raised how far it is probable that there is

LITERATURE one universal living substance, which could conceivably be isolated or prepared in a pure state, and which would then exhibit the phenomena characteristic of vital activity. It is sufficiently obvious, in the first place, that protoplasm, as we know it, exhibits infinite diversity of character, and that no two samples of protoplasm are absolutely similar in all respects. Chemical differences must be assumed to exist not only between the vital fabrics of allied species of organisms, but even between those of individuals of the same species. Kassowitz regards this variability as compatible with the assumption of a gigantic protoplasmic molecule in which endless variations arise by changes in the combinations of a vast number of atoms and atom complexes. It is difficult to conceive, however, of any single substance, however complex in its chemical constitution, which could perform all the functions of life. To postulate a universal living substance is to proceed along a path which leads inevitably to the assumption of biophores, plastidules, or other similar units, since the ultimate living particles must then be imagined as endowed at the outset with many, if not all, of the fundamental properties and characteristic actions of living bodies. Such a conception has as its logical result a vitalistic standpoint, which may or may not embody the correct mental attitude with regard to the study of life, but which at any rate tends to check any further advance towards an explanation or analysis of elementary vital phenomena. We may rather, with Kolliker, Yerworn, and others, ascribe the activities of protoplasm to the mutual interaction of many substances, no single one of which can be considered as living in itself, but only in so far as it forms an indispensable constituent of a living body. From this point of view life is to be regarded, not as the property of a single and definite substance, but as the expression of the ever-changing relations existing between the many substances which make up the complex and variable congeries known to us as protoplasm. Authorities.—For exhaustive historical summaries of the protoplasm question, with full bibliographical references, the reader may be referred to the following works, especially the first five:— Butschli. Investigations on Microscopic Foams and Protoplasm. London, 1894 ; Untersuchungen uber Strukturen. Leipzig, 1898 ; “Meine Ansicht iiber die Struktur des Protoplasmas und einige ihrer kritiken,” Arch. f. Entwickelungsmechanik. d. Org. xi. pp. 499-584, pi. xx. (1901).—Delage. La Structure du Protoplasms et les Theories sur Vlleridite. Paris, 1895.—Wilson. The Cell. 2nd ed. London, 1900.—Fischer. Fixirung, Fdrbung, und Bau des Protoplasmas. Leipzig, 1899.—Kassowitz. Allgemeine Biologic. Vienna, 1899. (e. a. M.) Provencal Literature (Modern: 1350-1900).1 Literature in the South of France never died out entirely. Indeed, we have a link which, though too much importance may easily be attached to it, yet undoubtedly connects the products of the troubadours with the Provencal poetry of the present day. The Academy of Toulouse, founded in 1324, was flourishing in the 14th century, and, after many vicissitudes, is flourishing still. [The poets crowned by this body between 1324 and 1498 stand in the same relation to the troubadours as the Meistersinger do to the Minnesdnger: academic correctness takes the place of inspiration. The institution flourished, even to the extent of establishing branches in Catalonia and Majorca; and in 1484, when its prosperity was threatened, a semi-fabulous person, Clemence Isaure, is said to have brought about a revival by instituting fresh prizes. The town of Toulouse never ceased to supply funds of some kind. In 1513 French poems were first admitted in the competitions, and under Louis XIY. (from 1679) these were alone held eligible. This unfair arrangement, by which some of the leading poets of northern France profited, held good till 1893, when the town very properly transferred its patronage to a new Escolo Moundino? but very soon restored its support to the older institution, on learning that Provencal poetry was again to be encouraged.] In the two centuries that followed the glorious mediaeval period we have a succession of works, chiefly of a didactic and edifying character, which scarcely belong to the realm of literature proper, but at 1 In accordance with general usage, we are employing the term Provencal for the whole of the South of France, save where special reservation is made. 2 Moundino, i. e., of Toulouse ; a common designation, derived from Raymond, the familiar name of the Counts of Toulouse.

PROVENgAL least served to keep alive some kind of literary tradition. This dreary interval was relieved by a number of religious mystery plays, which, though dull to us, probably gave keen enjoyment to the people, and represent a more popular genre; the latest that have come down to us may be placed between the years 1450-1515. Not only did the literature deteriorate during this period, but dialects took the place of the uniform literary language employed by the troubadours, while the spoken tongue yielded more and more to French. In 1539 Frangois I. forbade the use of Provengal in official documents—a fact that is worthy of note only as being significant in itself, not as an important factor in the decadence of Provengal letters. On the contrary, just abont this time there are signs of a revival. In 1565 the Gascon, Pey de Garros, translated the Psalms into his dialect, and two years later published a volume of poems. His love for his native tongue is genuine, and his command over it considerable; he deplores its neglect, and urges others to follow his example. Auger Gaillard (c. 1530-1595) does infinitely less credit to his province: the popularity of his light pieces was probably due to their obscenity. More in the spirit of Garros is the charming trilingual Salut composed by the famous du Bartas in honour of a visit of Marguerite de Valois to Nerac (1579): three nymphs dispute as to whether she should be welcomed in Latin, French, or Gascon, and the last, of course, wins the day. Provence proper gave birth to a poet of considerable importance in Louis Bellaud de la Bellaudiere (1532—1588), of Grasse, who, after studying at Aix, enlisted in the royal armies, and was made a prisoner at Moulins in 1572. During his captivity he wrote poems inspired by real love of liberty and of his native country (Don-Don infernal, 1584 or 1585). At Aix Bellaud subsequently became the centre of a literary circle which included most of the local celebrities; all of these paid their tribute to the poet’s memory in the edition of his works published by his uncle, Pierre Paul, himself the author of pieces of small value, included in the same volume (Lous Dassatens, Obros et rimos, &c., Marseilles, 1595). Even when Bellaud is wholly frivolous, and intent on worldly pleasures only, his work has interest as reflecting the merry, careless life of the time. A writer very popular in Provence for the light-hearted productions of his youth was Claude Brueys (1570-1650), remarkable chiefly for comedies that deal largely with duped husbands (Jardin deys Musos provensalos, not published till 1628). There is a certain charm, too, in the comedies of Claude’s disciple, Gaspard Zerbin (La Perlo deys musos et coumedies prouvensalos, 1655); and those critics who have read the plays of Jean de Cabanes (16531712) and of Seguin (of Tarascon, c. 1640), still in MS., speak highly of them. The most consistently popular form of poetry in the South of France was always the noel. There has been no limit to the production of these; but very rarely does the author deserve special mention. An exception must be made in the case of Nicholas Saboly (1614-1675), who produced the best pieces of this class, both as regards beauty of language and the devotion they breathe. They have deservedly maintained their popularity to the present day. In Languedoc four poets have been cited as the best of the age—Goudelin, Michel, Sage, and Bonnet. This is certainly so in the case of Pierre Goudelin (province Goudouli, 1579—1649), of Toulouse, the most distinguished name in South French literature between the period of the troubadours and that of Jasmin. He had a good classical education, traces of which appear m all his poetry, his language and his manner being always admirable, even where his matter is lacking in depth. He is often called “the Malherbe of the South,” but resembles that writer only in form : his poetry, taken

LITERATURE

43 as a whole, has far more sap. Goudelin essayed and was successful in almost every short genre (Lou Ramelet Moundi, 1617, republished with additions till 1678), the piece of his which is most generally admired being the stanzas to Henri IV., though others will prefer him in his gayer moods. He enjoyed enormous popularity (extending to Spain and Italy), but never prostituted his art to cheap effects. His influence, especially but not exclusively in Provence, has been deep and lasting. The fame of Jean Michel, of Nimes, rests on the Embarras de lafoire de Beaucaire, a poem of astonishing vigour, but deficient in taste. Daniel Sage, of Montpellier (Las Foulies, 1650), was a man of loose morals, which are reflected in nearly all his works: his moments of genuine inspiration from other causes are rare. More worthy of being bracketed with Goudelin is the avocat Bonnet, author of the best among the open-air plays that were annually performed at Beziers on Ascension Day: a number of these (dated 1616—1657) were subsequently collected, but none can compare with the opening one, Bonnet’s Jugement de Paris. Another very charming poet is Nicolas Fizes, of Frontignan, whose vaudeville, the Opera de Frontignan (1670), dealing with a slight love intrigue, and an idyllic poem on the fountain of Frontignan, show a real poetic gift. A number of Toulouse poets, mostly laureats of the Academy, may be termed followers of Goudelin: of these, Frangois Boudet deserves mention, who composed an ode, Le trinfe del Moundi (1678), in honour of his native dialect. The classical revival that may be noted about this time is also generally ascribed to Goudelin’s influence. Its most distinguished representative was Jean de Vales, of Montech, who made excellent translations from Virgil and Persius, and wrote a brilliant burlesque of the former in the manner of Scarron (Virgile deguisat, 1648; only four books published). He also composed a pastoral idyll, which, though too long and inclined to obscenity, contains much tender description. The greatest of the pastoral poets was Frangois de Cortete (1571-1655), of Prades, Avhose comedies, Ramounet and Miramoundo (published, unfortunately with alterations, by his son in 1684), are written with such true feeling and in so pure a style that they can be read with real pleasure. A comedy of his dealing with Sancho Panza in the palace of the Duke is being edited. It is difficult to understand the enormous popularity of Daubasse (1664-1727), of Quercy, who belonged to the working classes; he was patronized by the nobility in exchange for panegyrics. Gascony produced two typical works in the 17th century: Ader’s Gentilhomme gascoun (1610) and Dastros’s Trinfe de la langue gascoune (1642). The former depicts a regular boasting Gascon, who distinguishes himself in everything; while the latter is a plea in favour of the Gascon tongue, inspired by a genuine love of country. Gabriel Bedout (Parterre gascoun, 1642) is chiefly noted for his amorous solitari, called forth by the sufferings he endured from a hard-hearted mistress. Louis Baron (b. 1612), living peacefully in his native village of Pouyloubrin, celebrated it with great tenderness. In the 18th century the number of authors is much larger, but the bulk of good work produced is not equally great in proportion. The priests are mainly responsible for the literary output of Languedoc. Claude Peyrot (1709-1795), one of them, celebrates his county with true rural spirit in the Printemps rouergat and Quatre Sosous. But the chief of the band is the Abbe Favre (1727-1783), the prior of Celleneuve, whose Sermoun de Moussu Sistre, delivered by a drunken priest against intemperance, is a masterpiece. He also wrote a successful mock-heroic poem (Siege de Caderousse), travesties of Homer and Virgil, a prose novel depicting the country

44

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LITERATURE

manners of the time (Histoire de Jean Vont pris), and two and narrative, continue to find favour with men of thecomedies, which likewise give a vivid picture of the village highest culture and literary attainments, as with the life he knew so well. Two genuine poets are the brothers villagers for whom they were primarily intended. While much of this literature was still in the making, Rigaud, of Montpellier: Auguste’s (1760-1835) description of a vintage is deservedly famous; and Cyrille (1750- an event took place which was destined to eclipse in im1824) produced an equally delightful poem in the Amours portance any that had gone before. In 1845 Joseph de Mounpeie. Pierre Hellies, of Toulouse (d. 1724), a poet Roumanille (1818-1891), a gardener’s son, of Saint-Remy became usher in a small school at of the people, whose vicious life finds an echo in his (Bouches-du-Rhone), r works, has a certain rude charm, at times distantly recall- Avignon, which w as attended by Frederic Mistral (q.v.), ing Villon. In the Provence Toussaint Gros (1698-1748), a native of the same district, then fifteen years of age. of Lyons, holds undisputed sway. His style and language The former, feeling the germs of poetry within him, had are admirable, but unfortunately he wasted his gifts composed some pieces in French; but, finding that his largely on trivial pieces d’occasion. Coye’s (1711—1777) old mother could not understand them, he was greatly comedy, the Fiance. parey\s bright and still popular, while distressed, and determined thenceforth to write in his Germain’s description of a visit paid by the ancient gods native dialect only. These poems revealed a new world to Marseilles (La Bourrido dei Dious, 1760) has con- to young Mistral, and spurred him on to the resolve that siderable humour. In Gascony the greatest poet is Cyrien became the one purpose of his life—de remettre en lumiere Despourrins (1698-1755), whose pastoral idylls and et conscience de sa gloire cette noble race qu'en plein ’89 mournful chansons, which he himself set to music, are Mirabeau nomme encore la nation Provengale. There is imbued with tenderness and charm (most of them were no doubt that Mistral’s is the more puissant personality, and that his finest work towers above that of his fellows; collected at Pan, in 1828). The Revolution produced a large body of literature, but but in studying the Provencal renaissance, Roumanille’s nothing of lasting interest. However, it gave an impetus great claims should not be overlooked, and they have to thought in the South of France, as elsewhere; and never been put forward with more force than by Mistral there, as elsewhere, it called forth a spirit of independence himself (in the preface to his Isclos d’oro). Roumanille’s that was all in favour of a literary revival. Scholars of the secular verse cannot fail to appeal to every lover of pure stamp of Raynouard (1761-1863), of Aix, occupied them- and sincere poetry (Li Margaritedo, 1836-1847; Li selves with the brilliant literary traditions of the Middle Sounjarello, 1852 ; Li Flour de Sauvi, 1850-1859, Ac.), Ages ; newspapers sprang up (the Provencal Bouil-Abaisso, his noels are second only to those of Saboly, his prose started by Desanat, and the bilingual Lou Tambourin et works (such as Lou mege de Cucugnan, 1863) sparkling le Menestrel, edited by Bellot, both in 1841) ; poets banded with delightful humour. He it was who in 1852 collected together and collected their pieces in volume form (thus, and published Li Prouvencalo, an anthology in which all the nine troubaire who published Lou Bouquet prouvencaou the names yet to become famous, and most of those famous in 1823). Much has been written about the precurseurs already (such as Jasmin), are represented. In 1853 he du Felibrige, and critics are sorely at variance as to the wras one of the enthusiastic circle that had gathered round writers that most deserve this appellation. We shall not go J. B. Gaut at Aix, and whose literary output is contained far wrong if we include in the list Hyacinthe Morel (1756- in the Poumavagi dei Troubaire and in the shortlived 1829), of Avignon, whose collection of poems, Lou Saboulet, journal Lou gay saber (1854). At the same time the first has been republished by Mistral; Louis Aubanel (1758- attempt at regulating the orthography of Provencal was. 1842), of Nunes, the successful translator of Anacreon’s made by him (in the introduction to his play, La Part Odes; Auguste Tandon, “ the troubadour of Montpellier,” dou bon Dieu, 1853). And in 1854 he was one of thewho wrote Fables, contes et autres pieces en vers (1800); seven poets wrho, on May 21st, forgathered at the castle of Fabre d’Olivet (1767-1825), the versatile litterateur who Fontsegugne, near Avignon, and founded the Felibrige.. in 1803 published Le Troubadour: Poesies occitaniques, [The etymology of this word has given rise to much speculawhich, in order to secure their success, he gave out as the tion : the one thing certain about the word is that Mistral work of some mediaeval poet; Diouloufet (1771-1840), came across it in an old Provencal poem, which tells how the who wrote a didactic poem, in the manner of Virgil, relat- Virgin meets Jesus in the temple, among the seven felibres ing to silkworm-breeding (Leis magnans); Jacques Azais of the law. The outlines of the constitution, as finally (1778-1856), author of satires, fables, &c.; D’Astros (1780- settled in 1876, are as follows : The region of the Felibrige 1863) , a writer of fables inis Lafontaine’s Castildivided intomanner; four mantenen^o (Provence, Languedoc* Blaze (1784-1857), who found time, amidst his musical Aquitaine, and Catalonia 2). At the head of all is a conpursuits, to compose Provencal poems, intended to be set sistori of fifty (called majourau), presided over by the to music; the Marquis de Fare-Alais (1791-1846), author Capoulie, who is chief of the entire Felibrige. The head of some light satirical tales (Las Castagnados). While of each mantenen^o is called sendi (who is at the samethese writers were all more or less academic, and appealed time a majourau); and at the head of each “ school ” (as to the cultured few, four poets of the people addressed a the subdivisions of the mantenengo are called) is a cabisfar wider public: Verdie (1779-1820), of Bordeaux, who coUi, The ordinary members, unlimited in number, are wrote comic and satirical pieces; Jean Reboul (1796- manteneire. Annual meetings and fetes are organized. 1864) , the baker of Nimes,The whomost neverwidely surpassed readhisof first the Felibrige publications iseffort, Tange et Venfant (1828)1; Victor Gelu (1806- the Armana Prouvencau, which has appeared annually 1885), relentless and brutal, but undeniably powerful of since 1855, maintaining all the while its original scope his kind (Fenian et Grouman; Dix chansons provencales, and purpose; and though unpretentious in form, it con1840); and, greatest of them all, the true and acknow- tains much of the best work of the school.3] The other ledged forerunner of th.e felibres, Jacques Jasmin (17982 1864), the hairdresser of Agen, whose poems, both lyrical One of the most pleasing features of the movement is the spirit of fraternity maintained by the felibres with the poets and literary men 1 One . of his chief titles to fame is that, together with Alphonse of northern France, Spain, Italy, Rumania, Germany, and other Dumas, he drew the attention of Lamartine to Mistral’s Mireio. countries. 3 Roumanille and Mistral showed their gratitude by republishing the In common with so many other productions of the Felibnge, this best pieces of these two precurseurs, together with those of Castil- Almanac is published by the firm J. Roumanille, Libraire-Editour, Blaze and others, in Tin Liame de Rasin, 1865. Avignon.

P R O V I six were Mistral, Aubanel, A. Mathieu (a schoolfellow of Mistral’s at Avignon), E. Garcin, A. Tavan, and P. Giera (owner of the castle). Of these, Theodore Aubanel (1829-1886, of Avignon, son of a printer and following the same calling) has alone proved himself worthy to rank with Mistral and Roumanille. “ Zani,” the girl of his youthful and passionate love, took the veil; and this event cast a shadow over his whole life, and determined the •character of all his poetry (Lou miougrano entre-duberto, 1860; Li fiho d’Avignoun, 1883). His is, without a doubt, the deepest nature and temperament among the felibres, and his lyrics are the most poignant. He has a keen sense of physical beauty in woman, and his verse is replete with suppressed passion, but he never sinks to sensuality. His powerful love drama Lou pau dou peccat was received with enthusiasm at Montpellier in 1878, and successfully produced (some years later in Arene’s version) by Antoine at his Theatre Libre—no mean criterion. It is the only play of real consequence that the school has yet produced. We need not do more than glance at the work of the fourth of the group of poets who alone, amidst the numerous writers of lyrics and other works that attain a high level of excellence, appear to us to have so far secured permanent fame by the magnitude of their achievement. Felix Gras (1844—1891) settled at Avignon in his youth. His rustic epic, Li Carbounie (1876) is full of elemental passion and abounds in fine descriptions of scenery, but it lacks proportion. The heroic geste of Toloza (1882), in which Simon de Montfort’s invasion of the South is depicted with unbounded vigour and intensity, shows a great advance in art. Li lioumancero provengal (1887) is a collection of poems instinct with Provencal lore, and in Li Papalino (1891) we have some charming prose tales that bring to life again the Avignon of the popes, linally, the poet gave us three tales dealing with the period of the Revolution (Li Rouge dou Miejour, Ac.); their realism and literary art called forth general admiration.1 A few lines must suffice for some of the general aspects of the movement. It goes without saying that all is not perfect harmony; but, on the whole, the differences are differences of detail only, not of principle. While Mistral and many of the best felibres employ the dialect of the Bouches-du-Rhone, others, who have since seceded as the L elibrige latin (headed by Roque-Ferrier), prefer to use the dialect of Montpellier, owing to its central position. A third class favour the dialect of Limousin, as having been the literary vehicle of the troubadours; but their claim is of the slenderest, for the felibres are in no sense of the word the direct successors of the troubadours. Nearly all the leaders of the Felibrige are Legitimists and Catholics, their faith being the simple faith of the people, undisturbed by philosophic doubts. There are exceptions, however, chief among them the Protestant Gras, whose Toloza clearly reflects his sympathy with the Albigenses. let this did not stand in the way of his election as Fapoulie a proof, if proof were needed, that literary merit outweighs all other considerations in this artistic body of men. Finally, it may be noted that the felibres have often been accused of lack of patriotism towards northern I ranee, of schemes of decentralization, and other heresies; but none of these charges holds good. The spirit of the movement, as represented by its leaders, has never been expressed with greater terseness, force, and Gras was Capoulie from 1891 till 1901, succeeding his brother-inlaw, Eoumanille, who held the office from 1888 till 1891. The first Capoulie was, of course, Mistral (1876-1888). Gras’s successor was Pierre Devoluy, of Die (appointed in April 1901), who has done good work, hut has yet to prove himself worthy of the supreme distinction conferred on him by his fellow-poets.

D E N C E

45

truth than in the three verses set by Felix Gras at the head of his Carbounie : “ I love my village more than thy village; I love my Provence more than thy province; I love France more than all.” Authorities.—Las Joyas del gay saber, edited by Noulet (vol. iv. of Gatien-Arnoult’s Monumens de la litterature romane, d-c., Toulouse, 1849).—Noulet. Essai e sur I'histoire litter aire des patois du midi de lae France aux xvi et arm® siecles^ (Paris, 1859) and . . . au xviii siecle (Paris, 1877).—Gaut. “ Etude sur la littera ture et la poesie proven9ales ” {Memoires de VAcademie des Sciences, d:c., d'Aix, tome ix. pp. 247-344, Aix, 1867).—Mary - Lafon. Histoire UtUraire du Midi de la France. Paris, 1882.—Restori. Letteraturaprovenzale. Milano, 1891 (pp. 200-214).—MariiHon’s articles on Provencal and Filbirige in the Grande Encyclopedic.— Donnadieu. Les Precurseurs des Felibres (1800-1855). Paris, 1888.—Jourdanne. Histoire du Felibrige (1854-1896). Avignon, 1897.—Hennion. Les Fleursfelibresques. Paris, 1883.—Portal. La letteratura provenzale moderna. Palermo, 1893.—Koschwitz. Ueber die provenzalischen Feliber und Hire Vorgdnger. Berlin, 1894.—Mari^ton. La Terre provenqale. Paris, 1894. (h. o.) Providence, a city of the United States, capital of the state of Rhode Island, is situated at the head of Narragansett Bay, in 41° 49' 22" N. and 71° 24' 48" W. Its area is 18’2 9 square miles. Its surface is hilly, rising to the height of 204 feet on the “ East Side.” The park area is 542 acres. Roger Williams Park (102 acres) is the largest. Its population in 1900 was 175,597, of whom 55,855 were foreign-born and 4817 were negroes. Among 53,131 adult males 3830 were illiterate (unable to write), of whom 3384 were foreign-born. The deathrate in 1900 was 19’9 ; in 1890 it was 21T. Brown University, seventh in age of the colleges of the United States, is the chief educational institution. Other institutions are the Rhode Island School of Design, the Rhode Island Normal School, four high schools, the Friends’ Boarding School, and the Roman Catholic Academy of the Sacred Heart. The University Library and the Providence Public Library number about 125,000 volumes each. The Providence Athenaeum contains 70,000 volumes. Most noteworthy is the library of Americana, now the property of Brown University, begun by John Carter Brown—the most complete collection in the world of books relating to early American history. Of benevolent institutions the most noted are the Dexter asylum for the poor, the Butler hospital for the insane, and the Rhode Island hospital. The oldest edifice for religious purposes is the First Baptist Meeting House, erected in 1775 “for the public worship of Almighty God, and also to hold Commencements in.” The largest is the Roman Catholic Cathedral. There are in all 129 places of worship. Of these, 21 are Baptist, 10 Congregational, 14 Episcopal, 18 Methodist, 16 Roman Catholic, 4 Unitarian, 3 Universalist, and 4 Presbyterian. Of public buildings there are the City Hall, the Providence County Court House, and the Rhode Island Normal School. The old State House (1762) is a fair specimen of colonial architecture. The finest building in the city is the State Capitol. With its approaches it cost about $3,500,000. Seven railways, all controlled by one corporation, enter the city. Besides steamboats plying upon Narragansett Bay and to New York, steamships sail regularly to Philadelphia, Baltimore, Norfolk, Savannah, and Kingston, Jamaica. The city is a great distributing centre for central New England. Providence is one of the great manufacturing centres of the Union. It is the leading city in the manufacture of jewellery, the total product of which in 1900 was valued at $12,719,124. In all industries in 1900 there were 1933 manufacturing establishments, having a capital of $83,513,679, and employing an average number of 42,693 wage-earners, who received wages amounting to $19,998,362. The total products were valued at $88,168,897. Among these products the most important, apart from jewellery, were: worsted goods ($16,603,252), silver ware ($3,834,408), foundry and machine-shop products, rubber and elastic goods,

P R O V O —P RUSSIA

46

cotton and woollen goods, and oleomargarine. It is the growth of manufacturing which accounts for the fact that the population, once almost wholly native-born, has received an element. of foreigners amounting to almost one-third. In 1899 the valuation placed upon real estate was $146,701,900. Upon personal property the valuation was $41,799,880. The revenue of the municipality was $3,878,439. The net debt 1st April 1900 was $14,008,484. It is a banking centre for a region of mammoth factories. There are nineteen national banks, with a total capital of $15,113,523 and deposits of $14,609,832 ; two state banks, with a capital of $320,000 and deposits of $446,743 ; five trust companies, with a capital of $4,150,000 and deposits of $27,745,108, make a total capital for all banking and trust companies of $19,583,523 and total deposits of $42,801,684. There are five savings banks, with deposits of $38,855,589. The clearings for the year ending 30th June 1900 were $338,132,500. (w. H. Mu.) Provo, a city of Utah, U.S.A., capital of Utah county, at the west base of the Wasatch mountains, on the Provo river, and on the Oregon Short Line and the Rio Grande Western railways, near the east shore of Utah Lake, north of the centre of the state, at an altitude of 4532 feet. It has a level site and a regular plan, and is divided into five wards. It contains the insane asylum of Utah. Population (1880), 3432; (1890), 5159; (1900), 6185, of whom 1176 were foreign-born. Prussia., the principal state of Germany, ranking first in both area and population, though only twentieth in respect of density of population. More than 5 per cent, of the entire surface of Prussia consists of moorland, some of it high (heathy) moors, some of it (the smaller portion) low boggy moors. Hanover—more particularly the districts of Osnabriick, Stade, Luneburg, and Aurich (East Friesland) —and Schleswig-Holstein possess between them nearly 3000 square miles of this variety of surface. Another 1100 square miles are in East Prussia; and the rest, about 1500 square miles in all, occur chiefly in the provinces of Pomerania, Brandenburg, Posen, and Saxony. Since 1870 the Prussian Government, as well as the authorities of the province of Hanover, and various private persons, have started several more or less successful schemes for the reclamation of these waste tracts. The region to which the Prussian Government has principally directed its

attention is the great Bourtanger Moor, between the Ems and the Dutch frontier, in the north-west of the province of Hanover. There colonies were established as long ago as the first half of the 17th century—Papenburg, for example (1630)—chiefly for the purpose of cutting turf for fuel; and in East Friesland, in the first place at the instigation of Frederick the Great, over eighty similar colonies, aggregating in all 20,000 persons, were planted between 1765 and 1800, but nothing effective was done for the real reclamation of the moorland. But in 1870 the Prussian Government turned its attention to the matter, and proceeded to cut navigable canals through the moorland, and appointed a special commission to deal with its reclamation generally. These efforts received a further impulse from the founding of an experimental station near Bremen in 1877. In consequence of the work done in the laboratory attached to this station, as well as of experiments conducted on the moors themselves, the province of Hanover organized a new system of colonization in 1887. Having bought some 1100 acres beside the main canal which traverses the Bourtanger Moor from north to south, they drained the land and divided it into 25-acre plots, which they granted to occupiers free, with the option of purchase, the principal condition being that the grantees should first reclaim 5 acres. This project proving successful, induced the Prussian Government in 1899 to embark in similar enterprises on the Wiseder Moor (Marcardsmoor) along the line of the Ems-Jade canal, between Aurich and Jade Bay. In 1902 Prussian estimates embraced an item of over £131,000 for these and similar improvements. Other private ventures of some importance have been made at Friedrich-Wilhelmsdorf near Loxstedt, a few miles south-east of Bremerhafen, on the Kehdinger Moor, on the west side of the estuary of the Elbe, in Schleswig-Holstein, and in East Prussia. In 1883 a national society was founded for the reclamation and cultivation of the moorlands of Germany.1 Population.—The following table gives particulars of the area and population of the several provinces of the kingdom in the years 1890, 1895, and 1900, as well as the chief religious statistics for 1895 :—

Provinces.

Area in sq. miles.

Population, 1890.

Population, 1895.

Population, 1900.

East Prussia West Prussia Berlin (city) Brandenburg Pomerania Posen Silesia Saxony Schleswig-Holste: Hanover . Westphalia Hesse-Nassau Rhine Province Hohenzollern Total .

14,278 9,852 25 15,376 11,625 11,181 15,561 9,747 7,335 14,865 7,801 6,058 10,420 441 134,565

1,958,663 1,433,681 1,578,794 2,541,783 1,520,889 1,751,642 4,224,458 2,580,010 1,219,523 2,278,361 2,428,661 1,664,426 4,710,391 66,085 29,957,367

2,006,689 1,494,360 1,677,304 2,821,695 1,574,147 1,828,658 4,415,309 2,698,549 1,286,416 2,422,020 2,701,420 1,756,802 5,106,002 65,752 31,855,123

1,996,626 1,563,658 1,888,848 3,108,554 1,634,832 1,887,275 4,668,857 2,832,616 1,387,968 2,590,939 3,187,777 1,897,981 5,759,798 66,780 34,472,509

Between 1880, when the total population numbered 27,279,111, and 1900 there was an increase of 7,193,398 persons, or at the rate of 26-4 per cent, per annum. For the period 1890-99 the marriage-rate averaged 8'2 per 1000 inhabitants, the birth-rate 38-1 per 1000, and the death-rate 23-3 per 1000. In respect of illegitimacy, while for the same period the percentage of illegitimate births to total births was as much as 14-25 in the city of Berlin, and between 10 and 11 per cent, in each of the provinces of Pomerania, Brandenburg, and Saxony, the average for the whole kingdom was only 7'76. The densely-peopled manufacturing and mining provinces of Westphalia and

Density per sq. mile, 1900. 139 159 75,554 202 140 168 300 290 189 174 409 313 552 151 256

Protestants, 1895. 1,724,374 715,581 1,426,591 2,681,637 1,530,003 561,201 1,980,552 2,498,748 1,257,454 2,094,604 1,298,852 1,224,021 1,434,715 2,566 20,430,899

Roman Catholics, Jews, 1895. 1895. 266,641 14,364 758,168 20,238 86,152 155,363 18,394 118,265 31,739 11,661 40,019 1,227,197 2,384,754 47,593 187,559 7,850 24,184 3,702 15,065 311,457 1,378,676 19,359 482,752 45,725 3,610,142 49,018 62,608 576 10,999,505 379,716

the Rhineland have by far the best record in this respect, their averages being 2'61 and 3-87. The present population is concentrated most densely (300 to 552 inhabitants per square mile) in the manufacturing districts of Rhenish Prussia, Westphalia, the adjacent Hesse-Nassau, and in the extreme south-east of the kingdom, the coal and zinc and iron region of Silesia. The average density in the 1 See the annual Mitteilungen of this society (published at Berlin); Fleischer, Die Besiedelung der nordwestdeutschen Hochmoore (Berlin, 1894) ; Rimpau, Die Bewirthschaftung des Rittergutes Cunrau (Berlin, 1887) ; and F. P. Koenig, Agriculture in Germany {Brit. Cons. Report, Misc. Series, No. 452, 1898).

P R U S S I A agricultural provinces of East and West Prussia, Posen, Pomerania, Brandenburg, Saxony, Hanover, and SchleswigHolstein varies between 139 and 290 inhabitants per square mile, or, roughly, one-half of the density in the manufacturing provinces. According to the census returns of 1900, there were 1031 females for every 1000 males, as compared with 1037 females in 1880. In 1900 there were in Prussia one city with a population exceeding one million inhabitants, seven towns between 200,000 and 500,000; fourteen between 100,000 and 200,000; twenty-four between 50,000 and 100,000; and eighty-nine between 20,000 and 50,000. The emigration decreased from 145,679 in 1881 to 50,461 in 1886; then, after going up to 76,196 in 1892, it rapidly declined to 12,471 in 1900. The number of suicides varies from 5000 to 6500 annually, the average being 19 for every 100,000 inhabitants, or one less than the average for all Germany. In 1890 the island of Heligoland was ceded by Great Britain to Germany, and in the following year it was administratively attached to the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. Of the total population in 1900, 55-6 per cent, were classed as urban and 44*4 as rural, i.e., as living in places of less than 2000 inhabitants each. In 1895 the foreign residents embraced 63,289 natives of Austria-Hungary, 47,715 natives of Holland, 18,998 of Russia, 24,389 of Denmark, 10,062 of Switzerland, 8120 of Great Britain, 7327 Armenians, 6564 of Belgium, 6301 of Norway and Sweden, and 2127 of France. Adverting to the religious statistics, it will be seen that 64T4 per cent, of the entire population belonged (1895) to the Protestant State Church, 34-53 per cent, to the Roman Catholic Church; and 1T9 were Jews. Of races other than Teutonic the population of Prussia embraced 2,922,475 Slavs (Masurians, Cassubians), 117,637 Lithuanians, 64,254 Wends, and 74,069 Bohemians and Moravians. In 1895, 11,113,794 persons, or 34‘9 per cent, of the population, were engaged in agriculture, cattle and sheep breeding, &c.; 12,196,352, or 38-3 per cent., in mining and industry; 3,585,430, or 11-3 per cent., in commerce and trade; 1,671,827, or 5’2 per cent., in the learned professions; 658,896 in domestic service; 261,302 in forestry, fishing, &c.; and 2,002,714, or 6-3 per cent., had no profession. Agriculture.—Out of the total area of cultivable land in the German empire, fully 66 per cent, belongs to Prussia, namely, 53,002,600 acres (1895). Of this total less than 5 per cent, was divided into farms of less than 5 acres each, 32-14 per cent, amongst farms ranging from 5 to 50 acres, 32-01 per cent, amongst farms ranging from 50 to 250 acres, and the rest amongst farms exceeding 250 acres. The provinces in which large estates (up to 2500 acres and more) are the rule, are Pomerania, Posen, Silesia, East Prussia, Brandenburg, West Prussia, and Saxony, in the order named. The estates of the old landed gentry {Rittergiiter) of 1 russia, taking the estates above 500 acres each, aggregate in all some 13,428,000 acres. Small estates (peasant holdings) prevail principally in the Rhine province, Hesse-Xassau, and Westphalia, and to some extent also in Hanover, Silesia, and Saxony; but mrge peasant holdings (50 to 250 acres) exist only in SchleswigHolstein, Hanover, East Prussia, Westphalia, Saxony, and Brandenburg. Notwithstanding the continuous decline in prices, and other drawbacks from which agriculture suffered in all the older countries of Europe during the last quarter of the 19th century, the Prussian farmers have on the whole fairly well maintained their position, TWJ”! mainly _fp fbe fact that they have been both eager and skilful m availing themselves of the opportunities offered by the progress of agricultural knowledge. One of the latest departures in this field has been the establishment of central stations for the distribution of electric power to the estates in its neighbourhood^ the power to be used for driving both fixed and movable machinery (mills, chaff-cutters, threshing machines, ploughs, &c.), tor lighting buildings and houses, for cooking and heating, and on large estates for giving signals and conveying orders. The cultivation of the beetroot for sugar has had a far-reaching effect upon trussian agriculture, especially in the provinces of Saxony, Silesia, Posen, Hanover, West Prussia, Pomerania, Brandenburg, the Rhine Province, and other parts of the kingdom, where the beetroot is extensively cultivated. Owing to the deep cultivation of the soil

47

and the incessant hoeing which the beet crop requires, the three or four crops which follow it are invariably good, and the liability to failure of the immediately succeeding crop is reduced to a minimum. Moreover, the fiscal policy of the Prussian Government has been of first-rate assistance to the Prussian farmer. And hand in hand with the cultivation of the beetroot has gone the cultivation of barley and chicory, crops of scarcely inferior value from the cultivator’s point of view. Barley is grown on more than 11J million acres. The Prussian province of Saxony produces one-half of the total quantity of chicory yielded every year throughout the empire ; the principal centres for its manufacture in Prussia are Magdeburg’ Berlin, and Breslau. The Prussian Government, in conjunction with the provincial authorities, also gives encouragement to the breeding of live stock, which it endeavours to improve by subsidizing and maintaining stud-farms. It is, however, the breeding of horses to which it especially devotes itself, supporting about two dozen stud-farms for this end, of which the most famous are at Trakehnen in East Prussia, at Graditz near Torgau in the province of Saxony, and at Beberbeck between Cassel and Hbxter. The only stud, however, where thoroughbred stallions are kept is at Graditz. The most noticeable features in connexion with the live stock of Prussia are the altogether unusual diminution in the number of sheep (caused in la,rge_part by the fall in the price of wool), the even greater relative increase in the number of pigs, and the increase, though at a much smaller rate, in the numbers of the cattle and horses. For instance, sheep in 1873 numbered 19,666,800, but in 1900 not more than 6,989,400. Pigs, however, increased from 4,294,900 in the former year to 10,954,000 in the latter ; cattle from 8,639,500 to 10,865,300 ; and horses from 2,282,400 to 2,913,000. In the matter of freights also the Government renders material assistance to the Prussian farmer. The State owns the railways, and carries agricultural produce, especially such as is destined for export, at lower preferential rates. See further under Communications below. The crops chiefly grown are potatoes (5,477,095 acres in 1900), hay (8,025,230 acres), beetroot, rye (11,277,340 acres), oats (6,710,930 acres), wheat (2,999,860 acres), and barley (2,205,625 acres). In 1900 some 11,500 acres were planted with tobacco, the yield of which (about 10,000 tons) was valued at £420,000 ; about 5500 acres were planted with hops. In 1899-1900 there were 308 sugar factories at work, their total production being 1,339,270 tons of sugar; 5103 breweries produced 690,250,000 gallons of beer, and 6331 distilleries produced 67,598,900 gallons of pure alcohol. Wheat is grown more especially in Silesia, Saxony, the Rhine Province, East Prussia, and Hanover ; barley in Silesia and Saxony ; oats in Silesia, East Prussia, Hanover, the'Rhine Province, and the northern provinces generally ; potatoes in Silesia, Brandenburg, and Posen ; and rye commonly in every province of the kingdom. Brandenburg produces about one-half of the tobacco ; the hops are chiefly grown in Posen. Of the entire area about 23 per cent, is covered with forests. Viticulture.—The principal wine-growing districts of Prussia are the Rheingau and the Rhine Province, though wine is also produced in Silesia, Westphalia, and a few other districts. The valleys of the Nahe, Saar, Moselle, and Ahr all produce excellent wine. The total area planted with vines in 1900 was 45,400 acres, and on this the yield was 6,752,000 gallons, valued at £767,235, as compared with an average of 50,000 acres planted and a yield of 5,500,000 gallons during the period 1880-90. The Prussian State owns several vineyards in the Rhine district, including 240 acres of the choicest vineyards in the Rheingau—Rauenthal, Eltville, Marcobrunn, Steinberg, Erbach, Riidesheim, and Assmannshausen; and it has also bought several acres of vineyards along the Moselle. During the last two or three years of the 19th century the German vine-growers suffered, in common with vine-growers in other countries of Europe, from the attacks of diseases and insect pests—e.g., Peronospora viticola, Oidium Tuckeri, and Phylloxera vastatrix. The last named alone has already cost the Imperial Government £400,000 in efforts to stamp it out. This industry, being so near the great mining and manufacturing districts of western Prussia, naturally suffers from the increasing scarcity and dearness of manual labour. These hindrances the vintagers counteract to some extent by forming associations for the co-operative manufacture, storage, sale, and advertising of their wine. The principal school of viticulture in Prussia is at Geisenheim in the Rheingau. The best wines of the Rhine and Moselle region which come into commerce are largely sold by public auction. Mining and Metal Industries.—Prussia still retains her preeminence as the largest producer of coal, zinc, salt, lead, and copper amongst the states of the German empire, though in respect of iron she comes second to Alsace-Lorraine. Of the aggregate German output of coal Prussia now supplies over 93 per cent., namely, the huge total of 101,966,158 tons, valued at £43,912,500 in 1900, as compared with some 47,000,000 tons in 1882, representing an increase of about 117 per cent. Westphalia produces the largest quantity, namely, 42,557,146 tons, valued at £17,958,000,

P R U S s.l A in 1900 ; next comes the Rhine Province, that is, the Saar, Aachen, of scientific discoveries and the power of taking advantage of Diisseldorf, and Roer coal-fields, with 29,010,089 tons, of the value scientific progress generally ; the national aptitude for giving of £14,149,500 ; and then the Silesian coal-field, with 29,596,788 conscientious attention to minutiae, and for thoroughness and tons, valued at £11,420,500. Since the high prices of 1900 the mastery of detail; the extensive employment of commercial Prussian Government has spent £1,250,000 in the purchase of travellers, having command of languages, in all parts of the coal-fields so as to be independent of market fluctuations, temporary world ; and an earnest desire to find out and meet the wants and scarcity, and the manipulations of middlemen. The Prussian tastes of customers. Moreover, the social and economic condiState is a large owner of mines and salines ; these in 1902 were tions of the people have been in their favour. Wages have on the estimated to yield a revenue of 9J millions sterling. An extremely whole been lower than, for example, in England, though since important role is played in the coal industry of Prussia by the 1896 they have shown a strong upward tendency, and the standard Rhenish-Westphalian Coal Syndicate, which has its headquarters of comfort, and even in many cases the standard of living, has at Essen, and which from the bulk of its output (about 40 per been lower. Litigation, too, is more expeditious and less costly. cent, of the total German output) has succeeded in regulating the But the Prussian manufacturer has derived no small measure of production and price of the coal-fields generally. Out of a total advantage from the fact that he has come into the field somewhat output of lignite for the entire German empire of 40,498,019 tons later than his foreign rivals. He has been enabled to utilize their in 1900, Prussia yielded no less than 84 per cent., or a total of experience, to profit from their drawbacks, faults, and deficiencies, 34,007,542 tons, valued at £4,012,900, showing an annual increase and to make a clean start in the light of this extremely valuable of over 24 million tons and of 3^ millions sterling since 1882. acquired knowledge. And his interests have also been materially Almost the whole of the zinc produced in Germany comes out of promoted by the commercial and fiscal policies of his Government. The chief industrial districts are, of course, those which yield the Silesian mines, the amount being 636,068 tons in 1900, valued at £1,279,600, or nearly six times the amount mined in coal, with, in addition, the great cities—Berlin, Magdeburg, 1882. The iron production of Prussia amounted in 1900 to only Hanover, Breslau, Gorlitz, Stettin. Essen, Dortmund, Elberfeld33 per cent, of the aggregate production of Germany, or a total of Barmen, Diisseldorf, Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, Crefeld, Halle, 4,268,069 tons, valued at £1,884,300, the increase over the output Hanover, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Saarbriicken, Hbchst, Solingen, in 1882 being little more than a quarter of a million tons. The Remscheid, Hagen, Konigsberg, Danzig, and many others. The chief iron-producing regions are the Rhine Province, Westphalia, iron and metal industries, especially the making of machinery, Hessc-Nassau, and Silesia. But in the production of lead Prussia electrical plant, tramway plant, and the production of articles in enjoys almost an unchallenged monopoly, in that in 1900 she wrought copper and brass, rank in the very forefront, not only in produced 147,042 tons out of 148,257, the value being £890,000 ; virtue of their magnitude, but also because of the remarkable in 1882 the output amounted to 88,300 tons. And the Prussian rate at which they have increased and grown. In these branches Berlin, and more lately its suburbs, as well as Magdeburg and output of manganese occupies an exactly analogous position, Cologne, have played an active role, though the old centres of amounting to 58,016 tons, valued at £33,000, out of 59,204 tons. In the same year 169,447 tons of pyrites, valued at £60,750, and the metallurgical and iron and steel industries in the Rhine Pro•some cobalt were mined. Salt, one of the most valuable of the vince and Westphalia have also expanded in an extraordinary degree. The growth of the chemical industries, which are essenmineral products of the country, was in its various forms, but principally in the form of rock-salt, obtained to the extent tially a German speciality, must also be mentioned in the front of 2,476,867 tons, valued at £1,410,650, in 1900, as compared rank. The genius of men like Liebig, Wohler, Bunsen, Runge, Hofmann, Bottiger, Kekule, Fischer, and their pupils has made with some 550,000 tons in 1882. Ordinary salt is mined printhe German chemical manufacturer pre-eminent in his own special cipally in the province of Saxony (Stassfurt, Aschersleben, Erfurt, lines throughout the world. The branches in which his supremacy Halle, Merseburg, Sangerhausen), the kali salts near Magdeburg, and Glauber salts in the Rhine Province and Hesse-Nassau. The stands unrivalled are those which produce aniline dyes, artificial furnaces, forges, salt-works, and similar establishments for the indigo, illuminants (acetylene gas, Welsbach mantles, &c.), exconversion of the raw ores into manufactured or semi-manufactured plosives, various chemical salts, pharmaceutical preparations,1 products yielded in 1900 5,781,892 tons of pig iron, valued at cellulose, glycerine, artificial (chemical) manures, and perfumes. £19,113,400, as compared with a yield of 2,467,500 tons, valued at A third branch of industry in which German genius has won £7,490,000, in 1882 ; 155,760 tons of zinc, valued at £3,102,600 ; triumphs of the very highest kind is shipbuilding. Here the 112,170 tons of lead, of the value of £1,880,300 ; copper to the advance has been materially assisted by the admission free of extent of 27,157 tons and the value of £2,069,700 ; silver to the duty of materials needed for the building of ships, preferential extent of 6,920,150 oz., valued at £1,084,350, approximately low railway rates for the carriage of materials of native German equivalent in value to the output twenty years earlier; and origin, and by an indirect bounty on shipments made to the 566,368 tons of sulphuric acid, valued at £727,350. The iron was Levant, East Africa, and elsewhere, in German-built, or at least worked principally in the districts of Arnsberg, Diisseldorf, Oppeln German-owned, vessels. in Silesia, Treves, and Coblenz, and gave employment to 25,686 Communications.—Between 1880 and 1886 the State-owned lines hands; the zinc, for the most part near Oppeln in Silesia, the of railway increased by 9240 miles, the increase being principally number of hands employed being 10,779 ; the lead and the due to the policy of buying up private lines ; and since 1886 there silver near Aachen, Oppeln, and Wiesbaden, the hands em- has been a further increase of 6000 miles. By law the Prussian ployed numbering 2716 ; and the sulphuric acid in all the State enjoys the right to buy up lines privately constructed mining districts, as well as near Potsdam, Breslau, Magdeburg, after an interval of 30 years, though in many cases the interval and Merseburg, and the number of hands 2969. Further, a has been shortened to 15 or even 10 years. In 1900 the State total of 203,700 persons were employed in some 1000 foundries, lines amounted to a total of 18,859 miles, with about 950 in puddling-mills, rolling-mills, and so forth, and they produced iron process of construction ; and the private lines to 1872 miles. and steel materials to the weight of 1,612,000 tons and a combined The former total includes 590 miles in Hesse-Darmstadt, the value of £13,383,150. Petroleum (27,731 tons in 1900) is extracted railways of this grand-duchy having been incorporated with the to a limited extent at a couple of places in the province of Hanover. Prussian railways in 1896. The building of the railways in Down to 1899, in which year the monopoly was bought out by the Prussia has in almost every case been determined, or at any rate Prussian Government, 150 to 250 tons of amber were mined in influenced, by military requirements ; and this applies also to the East Prussia. A little is also collected on the coast near Pillau. making of private lines. The most important trunk line of Other Manufacturing Industries, Commerce.—During the last Prussia is that which enters the western frontier at Herbesthal, quarter of the 19th century Prussia developed into a great manu- and runs through Cologne, Diisseldorf, Hanover, Berlin, Dirschau, facturing country. Between 1882 and 1895 it was estimated that and Konigsberg, and leaves the eastern boundary at Eydtkuhnen the number of persons employed in manufacturing and kindred for St Petersburg. Generally speaking, the principal lines of the pursuits increased in the aggregate at the rate of 34£ per cent., country either radiate from Berlin or run alongside the frontiers but the number employed in trade and commerce increased at a and boundaries. To the former category belong the lines which vastly greater rate, namely, 60£ per cent, or from 771,323 in the connect the capital with Hamburg and Kiel, with Stettin, with iirst-mentioned year to 1,237,882 in 1895. Amongst the causes Danzig and Konigsberg, with Posen and Breslau (dividing at which have been mainly instrumental in fostering the industrial Frankfort-on-Oder), with Dresden, with Leipzig and Bavaria, with development in Prussia are those which have also contributed to Frankfort-on-the-Main md Halle and Erfurt, with Coblenz via the progress of Prussian agriculture, such as the fostering care of Cassel, and with Cologne vid Magdeburg and Brunswick. The the Government (at once energetic, comprehensive, and watchful), second category embraces lines from Hamburg to Stettin, from co-operation and organization, which has been immensely facili- Stettin to Posen and Breslau, and from Breslau to Halle ; the ring tated by the habits of prompt obedience and order learnt in the is again taken up at Frankfort-on-the-Main, and continues up the course of the military training; the generally high intellectual Rhine (on both banks) to Cologne, and thence through Munster level and technical and artistic skill of the workmen, due in part and Bremen to Hamburg. Besides these there are two other to the enforcement of sound elementary education and in part to the 1 fostering care of the excellent technical high schools, trades ‘ ‘ conSee Dr Frederick Rose, “Chemical Instruction and Chemical tinuation schools,” and hosts of special schools in which the arts Industries in Germany, 1901-02,” being Nos. 561 and 573 of the and crafts are thoroughly and systematically taught; the use made Miscellaneous Series of British Diplomatic and Consular Reports.

48

PRUSSIA, important lines, one connecting Hamburg with Frankfort-on-theMain vid Hanover and Cassel, the other linking Hanover with Halle. The capital invested in the State railways of Prussia increased from £7,211,150 in 1854 to £311,878,540 in 1889, and to £390,550,100 in 1899 (including £12,369,800 for the Hessian railways). In the last-mentioned year the expenditure amounted to £38,816,820^ and the revenue to £66,987,740, showing a net profit of £28,170,920, or sufficient to pay interest at the rate of 7i per cent., as compared with 2£ per cent, in 1854 and 6J per cent, in 1889. The estimated revenue from the State railways for the year 1902-03 was put at £70,602,000, against which there were expected to rank an ordinary expenditure of £44,188,000, and an extraordinary expenditure of £4,582,000. Besides these, “light railways” have been built in increasingly greater numbers since 1892. In this year they totalled 643 miles, but in 1900 reached a length of about 4350 miles, the capital invested in them amounting to nearly 30J millions sterling. Prussia possesses also an extensive and admirably arranged system of natural and artificial waterways, and the latter are being constantly extended and improved. For instance, in the 'period 1880-93 the Prussian Government spent no less than £11,677,750 upon the maintenance and construction of locks, canals, canal buildings, bridges, roadways, &c. Besides this there was a special vote of £6,197,600 for the construction of the Dortmund-Ems Canal and the improvement of the navigation of the Oder, Vistula, Spree, and other waterways in Brandenburg. The most important of the canals recently constructed, or still under construction are the North Sea and Baltic Canal (officially the Emperor William Canal), the Trave-Elbe Canal (to give Liibeck access to the Elbe), the Dortmund-Ems Canal, and its continuation, the Dortmund-It'hine Canal, both intended to serve the coal and iron districts of Westphalia and the Rhineland ; and there are also projects, which have not yet taken definite shape, for constructing a canal between Stettin and Berlin, another between Kiel and the Elbe vid the Plbn lakes and a gigantic scheme known as the Midland Canal for connecting the rivers Rhine, Elbe, Weser, and Oder. The object of this last is avowedly to facilitate the transmission of the corn and other amcuRural food products of the east of the kingdom to the populous manufacturing districts of the west. The mercantile marine of Prussia amounted in 1900 to 2074 vessels of an aggregate of 406,657 register tonnage. The largest ship-owning ports are Flensburg, Stettin, Kiel, Rostock, and Danzig; and Geestemiinde owns the largest deep-sea fishing fleet. (Compare also Hamburg.) The harbours of the kingdom were in 1898 entered by 64,329 sea-goin^ vessels of 7,310,013 tons. The bulk of this traffic belonged to the ports of Danzig, Konigsberg, Stettin, Rostock, Kiel, Altona, and Geestemunde. Sassnitz, Norddeich, Heligoland, Norderney, and Warnemunde all have heavy passenger traffic. Education.—All fees are now entirely abolished in the elementary schools. The subjoined table gives statistics of the schools and universities of the kingdom in the years named :— Institution.

No.

Universities (1900). 11 Classical and pro-classical schools(1897-98) 327 Mixed classical and modern schools, and higher modern schools (1897-98) 145 Modern schools (1897-98) 106 Elementary schools (1896) 36,138 Private elementary schools (1896)..... 404 Middle schools (1896) . ] 1,703 Normal schools (1897) . . 126

1,503

No. of Students or Pupils. 17,407

4,994

95,196

2,170 1,139 82,182

46,214 27,820 5,236,826

5M51 929

17,876 225,497 11,782

Teaching Staff.

The total number of children of school age (six to fourteen years) in 1896 was returned as 5,654,918. The number of public elementary schools increased from 32,613 in 1878 to 36,138 in 1896. Ihe steady progress of education is attested by the decrease in the percentage of illiterates amongst the military and naval recruits in the annual levy, the decrease going from 2-33 per cent, in 1880 to 0T per cent, in 1900. Finances. As in all civilized countries, the national accounts of I russia expand by leaps and bounds, and they do this in spite of the advantage which the State derives from the possession of valuable revenue-yielding properties. Of these the most important are the railways. Next in point of revenue come the mines and salines, with an estimated yield in 1902-03 of 9^ millions sterling, then follow the State forests, yielding over 4 millions sterling in the same year, and the landed domains, yielding about £1,300,000, though the income from this source is rapidly decreasing as agri1

In the public middle schools only.

RHENISH 49 culture declines. For 1902-03 the public revenue was estimated at £130,/08,360 and the expenditure at the same, as compared with a revenue and expenditure of £86,981,000 in 1890, equivalent to an increased’66£ per cent, in 12years. The principal sources of revenueare the railways, £70,816,400 (1902); domains and forests, £5,354 000 • State lottery, £4,413,200 ; mines, £9,529,700 ; direct taxes (principally income-tax), £10,705,000; indirect taxes, £4 360 850administrative receipts, £6,995,350 ; and from the general financial control, £18,806,500. The chief items of the expenditure consist of payments for religion and education, £9,529,700 ; for justice, £6,061,700 ; expenses of administration, including £44,188,000 for working the State railways, £67,050,900 ; interest, &c., on public debt, £13,923,170; the matricular contribution to the imperial exchequer, £17,395,600; the ministry of finance, £5,771,750and the ministry of the interior, £3,880,300. The minimum of income upon which income-tax is levied was raised from £21 to in the direction of their motion until the moment of the hence ®2 = &2-^-m2, which is of the type above stated. restoring torque arising from the suspension of the case had absorbed the angular momentum in the system. Dynamical systems of this kind are illustrated by the Experiment showed that this was what happened. The Lagrangean linear system of connected bodies, such as, for important part played by the residual air in the globe had example, a row of masses fixed along a tense cord, and also been deduced by Osborne Keynolds from observing each subject to a restoring elastic force of its own in that on turning off the light, the vanes came to rest very addition to the tension of the cord. A single spectral line much sooner than the friction of the pivot alone would might thus be transformed into a band of this type as the account for j in fact, the rapid subsidence is an illustration effect of disturbance arising from slight elastic connexions of Maxwell’s great theoretical discovery that viscosity in a established in the molecule between a system of similar gas (as also diffusion both of heat and of the gas itself) is vibrators. But the series in line-spectra are of entirely sensibly independent of the density. different constitution; thus for the series expressed by the The origin of these phenomena was recognized, among formula y>2 =p02 - Bmr2 the corresponding period-equation the first by O. Reynolds, and by Tait and Dewar, as a may be expressed in the formjsin &(£>2-y>02)_* = constant, consequence of the kinetic theory of the constitution of which belongs to no type of vibrator hitherto analysed. gaseous media. The temperature of a gas is measured by The original memoirs by the writers above mentioned are mostly the mean energy of translation of its molecules, which are in Wiedemann’s Annalen der PhysiJc; references are given by P. independent of each other except during the brief intervals Drude, Lehrbuch der Optik, Leipzig, 1900. There are important of collision; and collision of the separate molecules with reports by the same writers in the collection issued by the In- the blackened surface of a vane, warmed by the radiation, ternational Congress of Physics, Paris, 1900. See also Lord Rayleigh’s Scientific Papers; and Larmor, in Brit. Assoc. Reports, imparts heat to them, so that they rebound from it with 1900, f902. In spectrum analysis Kayser’s elaborate treatise is the greater velocity than they approached. This increase of standard authority. Winckelmann’s Handbuch der Physik, vol. ii. velocity implies an increase of the reaction on the surface, (by Kayser, Drude, &c.), may also be consulted. (j. L*.) the black side of a vane being thus pressed with greater Radiometer.—It has been remarked at various force than the bright side. In air of considerable density times, amongst others by Fresnel, that bodies delicately the mean free path of a molecule, between its collisions suspended within a partial vacuum are subject to apparent with other molecules, is exceedingly small, and any such repulsion by radiation. The question was definitely increase of gaseous pressure in front of the black surface investigated by Sir W. Crookes, who had found that some would be immediately neutralized by flow of the gas from delicate weighings in vacuo were vitiated by this cause. places of high to places of low pressure. But at high It appeared that a surface blackened so as to absorb the exhaustions the free path becomes comparable with the radiant energy directed on it was repelled relatively to a dimensions of the glass bulb, and this equalization is only polished surface. He constructed an apparatus in illustra- partial. The general nature of the phenomena is thus easily tion, which he called a radiometer or light-mill, by pivot- understood; but the problem of the stresses in ga,seous ing a vertical axle carrying equidistant vertical vanes inside media arising from inequalities of temperature, which is an exhausted glass bulb, one side of each vane being thereby opened out, involves some of the most delicate blackened and the other side bright, the blackened sides considerations in molecular physics. It remains practically all pointing the same way round the axle. When the rays as it was left in 1879 by two memoirs communicated to of the sun or a candle, or dark radiation from a warm the Philosophical Transactions by Osborne Reynolds and body, are incident on the vanes, the dark side of each by Clerk Maxwell. The method of the latter investigator vane is repelled more than the bright side, and thus the was purely a priori. He assumed that the distribution of vanes are set into rotation with accelerated speed, which molecules and of their velocities, at each point, was becomes uniform when the forces produced by the radiation slightly modified, from the exponential law belonging to a are balanced by the friction of the pivot and of the residual uniform condition, by the gradient of temperature. in the air in the globe. The name radiometer arose from an idea gas (see Diffusion of Gases). The hypothesis that that the final steady speed of rotation might be utilized as a the state was steady, so that interchanges arising from convection and collisions of the molecules produced no rough measure of the intensity of the exciting radiation. The problem of the cause of these striking and novel aggregate result, enabled him to interpret the new conphenomena at first produced considerable perplexity. A stants involved in this law of distribution, in terms of the

which each group of elements lies along this same ascending or descending branch: the chemical elements thus being built up in a series of types or groups, so that the individuals in successive groups correspond one to one in a regular progression, which may be put in evidence by connecting them by transverse curves. The frequencies of the series of very close lines which constitute a single band in a banded spectrum are connected by a law of quite different type, namely, m the simpler cases n2 = A- Bm2. It may be remarked that this is the kind of relation that would apply to a row ot independent similar vibrators in which the ne^S ours exert slight mutual influence of elastic type. If £ denote displacement and x distance along the row, the equation

R A D N O R —R A D O M temperature and its spacial differential coefficients, and thence to express the components of the stress at each point in the medium in terms of these quantities. As far as the order to which he carried the approximations, the result was that the equations of motion of the gas, considered as subject to viscous and thermal stresses, could be satisfied by a state of equilibrium under a modified internal pressure equal in all directions. If, therefore, the walls of the enclosure held the gas that is directly in contact with them, this equilibrium would be the actual state of affairs; and it would follow from the principle of Archimedes that, when extraneous forces such as gravity are not considered, the gas would exert no resultant force on any body immersed in it. On this ground Maxwell inferred that the forces acting in the radiometer are connected with gliding of the gas along the unequally heated boundaries; and as the laws of this slipping, as well as the constitution of the adjacent layer, are uncertain, the problem becomes very intricate. Reynolds, introducing no new form of law of distribution of velocities, uses a linear quantity, proportional to the mean free path of the gaseous molecules, which he takes to represent (somewhat roughly) the average distance from which molecules directly affect, by their convection, the state of the medium; the gas not being uniform on account of the gradient of temperature, the change going on at each point is calculated from the elements contributed by the parts at this particular distance in all directions. He lays stress on the dimensional relations of the problem, pointing out that the phenomena which occur with large vanes in highly rarefied gas could also occur with proportionally smaller vanes in gas at higher pressure. The results coincide with Maxwell’s so far as above stated, though the numerical coefficients do not agree. According to Maxwell, priority in showing the necessity for slipping over the boundary rests with Reynolds, who also discovered the cognate fact of thermal transpiration, meaning thereby that gas travels up the gradient of temperature in a capillary tube, owing to surface-actions, until it establishes such a gradient of pressure (extremely minute) as will prevent further flow. In later memoirs Reynolds followed up this subject by proceeding to establish definitions of the velocity and the momentum and the energy at an element of volume of the molecular medium, with the precision necessary in order that the dynamical equations of the medium in bulk, based in the usual manner on these quantities alone, without directly considering thermal stresses, shall be strictly valid, ■—& discussion in which the relation of ordinary mechanics to a complete molecular theory is involved. (j. L*.) Radnor, an inland county of South Wales, bounded on the N. by Montgomery, on the N.E. by Shropshire, on the E. by Hereford, on the S. and S.W. by Brecknock, and on the W. by Cardigan. Area and Population.—The area of the ancient and administrative county is 301,164 acres, or 471 square miles, with a population in 1881 of 23,528, in 1891 of 21,791, and in 1901 of 23,263, the number of persons per square mile being 49, and of acres to a person 12'8. The area of the registration county is 238,715 acres, with a population in 1891 of 17,119. Between 1881 and 1891 the population decreased at the rate of 7'58 per cent., but between 1891 and 1901 there was a recovery, although the total at the latter date was still a fraction less than in 1881. The following table gives the numbers of marriages, births, and deaths, with the number and percentage of illegitimate births, for 1880, 1890, and 1898 :— Year. Marriages. Births. Deaths. Illegitimate Births. No. Per cent. 1880 130 554 319 74 13'3 1890 103 452 299 58 12'6 1898 173 591 309 35 6'0 The percentage of illegitimacy has greatly diminished. In 1891 there were in the county 52 natives of Scotland, 32 natives of

129 Ireland, and 22 foreigners, while 15,270 persons could speak English, 75 Welsh only, and 924 English and Welsh. Constitution and Government.—The county returns one member to Parliament. It has neither a parliamentary nor a municipal borough, but the ancient town of Radnor (405) is governed by the provisions of an old charter. The urban districts are Knighton (2139), Llandrindod Wells (1827), and Presteigne (1237). Radnor is in the South Wales and Chester circuit, and assizes are held at Presteigne. The ancient county, which is partly in the diocese of Hereford and partly in that of St Davids, contains 41 entire ecclesiastical parishes and districts and parts of 5 others. Education.—The total number of elementary schools in the county on 31st August 1899 was 51, of which 10 were hoard and 41 voluntary schools, the latter including 36 National Church of England schools, and 5 “British and other.” The average attendance at board schools was 439, and at voluntary schools 2483. The total school board receipts for the year ended 29th March 1899 were over £1663. The income under the Agricultural Rates Act was over £325. Agriculture and Industry.—More than half the total area of the county is under cultivation, but of this nearly three-fourths is in permanent pasture, in addition to which about 117,000 acres of hill pasturage are grazed, chiefly by sheep, which are largely kept. About 700 acres are under orchards, and about 11,000 acres under woods. Oats are the principal corn crop, occupying more than threefifths of that area, while wheat and bailey, each having about the same acreage, occupy together less than two-fifths. Turnips occupy five-sixths of the area under green crops, the acreage under potatoes being insignificant. The following table gives the larger main divisions of the cultivated area at intervals from 1880 :— Total Area under Corn Green Permanent Year. CultivaCrops. Crops. Clover. Pasture. Fallow. tion. 1880 155,895 23,070 7334 15,961 107,370 2160 1885 157,483 21,129 7129 14,055 113,652 1518 1890 163,442 20,407 7305 13,933 120,433 1359 1895 162,550 18,858 7035 14,270 121,619 764 1900 163,240 18,937 6752 16,173 120,718 654 The following table gives particulars regarding the principal live stock for the same years :— or Heifers Total Total Cows Year. Horses. in Milk or in Sheep. Pigs. Cattle. Calf. 1880 8,879 29,855 9,482 245,559 5131 1885 9,398 32,297 10,706 257,965 6371 1890 9,604 31,493 10,712 272,325 6530 1895 10,266 32,633 10,266 270,761 5692 1900 9,677 34,538 283,590 4909 11,048

In 1898, 65,814 tons of sandstone were raised, 35,372 tons of limestone, and 36,560 tons of igneous rocks. Authorities.—Ince. Views Illustrating the County of Radnor. London, 1832.—Williams. The History of Radnorshire (reprinted from the Archceologia Gambrensis'). Tenby, 1858.—Guide-books to South Wales. Radom, a southern frontier government of Russian Poland, bordering on Galicia. It has an area of 4765 square miles, and a population which numbered 820,363 in 1897, when there were 409,624 women, and the urban population numbered 94,318. Poles formed 80 per cent, of the population, and Jews 17 per cent. The province is divided into 7 districts, the chief towns of which are Radom (see below), Hza (4168), Konsk (8235), Kozenice (5327), Opatow (6942), Opoczno (6022), and Sgdomierz (6534). In 1899 there were 4 gymnasia for boys and girls and 154 primary schools—altogether, 440 schools, including the Jewish hedars, with about 20,000 pupils. The soil is mostly fertile, and agriculture, the main occupation of the people, is in good condition; out of 2,461,700 acres of land in 1896, 1,383,600 were under cultivation and 874,000 under woods. The crops in 1900 were: wheat, 805,000 cwt.; rye, 2,548,000 cwt.; barley, 896,000 cwt.; oats, 1,540,000 cwt.; and potatoes, 11,724,000 cwt., chiefly cultivated for distilleries. Grain is exported. Live stock is kept in large numbers, there being, in 1897, 116,000 horses, 241,000 horned cattle, 175,000 sheep, and 120,000 swine. Manufactures have S. VIII.— 17

130

RADOM—RAID

considerably developed of late years, the province being rich in iron ore. The iron industry occupies more than 60 000 workmen, and in 1898, 2,013,873 cwt. of pig iron, 501,117 cwt. of iron, and 1,058,296 cwt. of steel were produced. There are also several sugar works. The total return from all industries in 1898 was 19,899,000 roubles. Radom, the capital of the above province, situated 65 miles south of Warsaw, on the railway from Minsk to Vienna. It has several iron and agricultural machinery works and tanneries. Population (1897), 28,^49. Radomysl (formerly Mychek), a district town of Russia, in the government and 64 miles north-west of the town of Kieff, on the Tetereff river. It is a very old town, and was mentioned in the annals in 1150; in the 18th century it was the residence of the metropolitans of the United Church. It has several tanneries and flour mills, and exports timber, corn, and mushrooms. Population (1897), 18,154. Bareli, a town and district of British India, in the Lucknow division of Oudh. The town is on the river Sai 48 miles south-east of Lucknow, and has a railway station. Population (1881), 11,781 ; (1891), 18,798 ; municipal income (1897-98), Rs.27,133, two-thirds derived from octroi; registered death-rate (1897), 75'65 per^thousand. The district of Rae Bareli has an area of 1/51 square miles. Population (1881), 951,905; (1891), 1,036,521, showing an increase of 9 per cent., compared with a decrease of 4 per cent, in the preceding twelve years; average density, 592 persons per square mile. In 1901 the population was 1,033,948, showing a slight decrease. The land revenue and rates are Rs. 15,58,430, the incidence of assessment being R. 1.5.7 per acre; cultivated area (1896-97), 459,608 acres, of which 285,998 were irrigated from wells, &c.; number of police, 2850; vernacular schools, 136, with 5724 pupils; registered death-rate (1897), 50 per thousand. The principal crops are rice, pulse, wheat, barley, millet, and opium. Rae Bareli town is connected with Lucknow by a branch of the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway, which in 1898 was extended to Benares. There are no Government canals. Ra.gfa.tz, a watering-place in the Swiss canton of St Gall, 12t,- miles by rail north of Coire. In 1900 the population was 1861. Prom Ragatz a funicular railway runs up in ten minutes to the Wartenstein Hotel, above the ruins of the 14th-century ruined castle of that name. A short distance beyond the hotel are the buildings of the ancient abbey of Pfaffers, now turned into a lunatic asylum and hospital. Pfaffers is 2697 feet above the sea. RagfUSa, a city of the province of Syracuse, Sicily, Italy. It embraces two separate communes, Ragusa Superiore, 76 miles west by south of Syracuse on the railway to Licata, and Ragusa Inferiore, 3 miles by rail farther to the east. There are several old churches and rock caves, and various industries, such as asphalt and limestone quarries, cotton, macaroni, and cheese factories. Population of Ragusa Superiore (1881), 24,236; (1899), about 23,000; of Ragusa Inferiore (1889), 6260; (1899), about 8000. l^^gruSc&j a city on the east coast of the Adriatic, in the Austrian province of Dalmatia. Population (1890) of city, 7143, and of commune, 11,177; in 1900, 13,174, including a garrison of 1122 men. Of these, it is estimated that 93 per cent, are Serbo-Croatians, 4 per cent. Italians, and 3 per cent. Germans; and that 92 per cent, are Catholic, 5 per cent. Protestant, and 3 per cent. Jewish. The industries include the manufacture of oil, silks, leather, and liqueurs. There is some transit trade. with Herzegovina. The city is now connected with its hinter-

land by an extension of the Bosnian railway system to Gravosa, the harbour of Ragusa. Ragusavecchia, a market-place in the government district of Ragusa, in Dalmatia, about 6 miles southeast of the latter city. It occupies the site of ^the ancient Epidaurum, destroyed by the Slavs in the /th century, and contains the ruins of a bath and aqueduct of the Roman period. Population (1890) of village, 723, and of commune, 9949; (1900) 10,690, Serbo-Croatians. Rahway, a city of Union county, Hew Jersey, U.S.A. It is situated in 40° 37' N. and 74° 17' W., on the Rahway river and on the Pennsylvania Railroad, in the north-eastern part of the state. Its site is level, and the street plan regular. To some extent it serves as a residential suburb of New York, which is distant but 19 miles. It has carriage factories, publishing houses, woollen mills, and other manufactures. Population (1895), 7915 ; (1900), 7935, of whom 1345 were foreign-born and 349 negroes. Raid.—A raid, in the language of international law, is an invasion by armed forces, unauthorized and' unrecognized by any State, of the territory of a State which is at peace. Piracy is the attack on the high sea of any vessel by an armed vessel, not authorized or recognized by any State, for the purpose of robbery. A raid for the purpose of carrying off movable property and converting it to the use of the captors would still be distinguishable from piracy, because it was committed on territory subject to an exclusive territorial jurisdiction. Where the attack or invasion by an armed ship not authorized or recognized by any State is not for the purpose of capturing property, it is properly speaking a raid and not piracy. An attack though in time of peace, by armed forces authorized or recognized by a regular Government is not a raid but an act of war, there being a Government responsible for the act committed. The fact of any act being authorized, not by the supreme Government, but by a chartered company, or by its governing officer, makes no difference in international law, the directorate of a chartered company exercising its powers by delegation of the State under which it holds its charter. The acts of its aimed forces cannot in reason be distinguished from the acts of the armed forces of the State Government. Thus compensation is just as much due for them as for the deliberate acts of the State itself, and any claim of an injured State can only be preferred against the State to which the company belongs. Invasion by the regular forces of a State, or by the regular forces of its delegated authority, being an act of wrar, the laws of war apply to it, and, on capture, such forces, or any members or part of such forces, are prisoners of war. On the other hand, the State whose subordinate authorities commit acts. of war against a friendly State has the option of follow ing them up as a commencement of hostilities, or of giving satisfactory compensation to the invaded State. Where the invasion is not by forces subject to the orders of a State, the invaded State has the right to apply its. own laws for the repression of disturbances in its territory. Thus, in the so-called Jameson Raid, the Transvaal Government had no right to treat Dr Jameson, an officer holding his powers under the British Government, and his subordinates, as outlaws, and it was probably so advised, and the British Government owed proper compensation for an act for the consequences of which, under international law, it was responsible. British domestic law punishes raiding under the Foreign Enlistment Act, 1870 (33 & 34 Yict. c. 90). Section 11 of this Act provides as follows :—“ If any person within the limits of His Majesty’s dominions, and without the licence of His Majesty, prepares or fits out any naval or military

R A I G A R H — RAILWAYS ■expedition to proceed against the dominions of any friendly State, the following consequences shall ensue : (1) Every person engaged in such preparation or fitting out, or assisting therein, or employed in any capacity in such expedition, shall be guilty of an offence against this Act, and shall be punishable by fine and imprisonment or either of such punishments, at the discretion of the Court before which the offender is convicted; and imprisonment, if awarded, may be either with or without hard labour. (2) All ships and their equipments, and all arms and munitions of war, used in or forming part of such expedition, shall be forfeited to His Majesty.” Section 12 provides for the punishment of accessories as principal offenders, and section 13 limits the term of imprisonment for any offence under the Act to two years. In the Sandoval case (1886), in which Colonel Sandoval, who was not a British subject, bought guns and ammunition and shipped them to Antwerp, where they were put on board a vessel, which afterwards made an attack on Venezuela, it was held that the offence of fitting out and preparing an expedition within British territory against a friendly State, under this section, is sufficiently constituted by the purchase of guns and ammunition in the British Empire, and their shipment for the purpose of being put on board a ship in a foreign port, with knowledge of the purchaser and shipper that they are KAIL1 Statistics. FOR the early history of railways, a sketch of their development, statistics of the earlier stages of that development, and a picture of the state of the art of ■carriage by rail as it was in 1883 to 1885, the reader may consult the Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. xx. The present article will deal with railways as they were in the year 1900, showing something of their place in modern society, of their relations to each other and to the citizen, of the work they do, and of the present development in building, equipping, and working them. Part of this subject, however, will be covered by articles that are placed alphabetically in other volumes. Thus train brakes are treated in the article Brakes. At the end of 1885 there were in the world 302,887 miles of railway; by the end of 1898 the length was 466,524 miles. (In reading and using these figures, and some other general figures which will appear in this article, the fact must be recognized that it is impossible that they should be strictly accurate. They must be in error by some scores or even hundreds; but they are accurate enough for most purposes.) The increase in thirteen years was 54 per cent. ; and absolutely it was more than all the railways built in the world from the beginning, in 1828, up to 1872. The increase in the United Kingdom was at less than one-fourth the average rate of the world, namely, 12f per cent., for the very good reason that the territory had been well occupied early in the history of railway building. By Table I. it will be seen that, relatively to area, the United Kingdom has more miles of railway than any other country except Belgium. The rate of increase in the United States was considerably below the average, namely, 441,- per cent., that country having also been very enterprising in the early years, and having more railways relatively to population than any other great nation. But the length of railway there had become so great by 1885 that an addition of 44Jr per cent, made 35 per cent, of all the increase in the world in the thirteen years. In all Europe the increase was 38 per cent., while m European Russia it was 60 per cent., but that was

131

to be used in a hostile demonstration against such State, though the shipper takes no part in any overt act of war, and the ship is not fully equipped for the expedition within any British port. Under the same section, Dr Jameson, administrator of the British South Africa Company, and his confederates were tried before the Central Criminal Court and sentenced to different terms of imprisonment. The offence committed under a British Act is, of course, that of preparing and fitting out an expedition on British territory. Any acts subsequently committed by any British expedition on foreign soil are beyond the operation of domestic legislation, and fall to be dealt with by the domestic legislation of the State within which they occur, or by diplomacy, as the case may be. (t. ba.) Raigarh, a feudatory state of India, in the Chhattisgarh division of the Central Provinces. Area, 1486 square miles. Population (1891), 168,525; (1901), 174,911, showing an increase of 4 per cent., compared with an increase of 31 per cent, in the previous decade. Estimated revenue, Rs.1,27,870; tribute, Rs.4000. The chief belongs to the old Gond royal family. The state is traversed by the Bengal-Nagpur Railway, with a station at Raigarh town, 338 miles east of Nagpur. Iron ore is said to abound. r

A Y S.

from a small mileage. The greatest relative growths were : Australia, 80 per cent.; British India, 83fr per cent.; Japan, 750 per cent.; and all Asia, 141 per cent. But in all these cases the mileage in 1885 was but small: in Japan it was only 348 miles. By Table I. it will be seen that in those countries now fairly well supplied with railways the rate of increase is still falling, as one would expect; and the decline in the United States is a fact of tremendous importance to the whole world. For years railway building was one of the chief industries of that country, and absorbed a great part of all the capital available for investment. Probably the railways built in the United States in the four years ending 1883 cost at least $1,000,000,000 more than those built in the four years ending 1898. The release of this vast capital for other uses must affect profoundly the industries and commerce of the civilized world. The student of statistics of railways may consult the yearly census of railways of the world which appears in the May-June issue of the Archiv fiir Eisenbahnwesen, a periodical publication of the Prussian Ministry of Public Works. That census is brought up to two years before the year of its publication, and now covers many years. This publication also gives regularly, throughout each year, special studies of the railways of every nation, which are of great value. It has been said that nothing is so cheap as the carriage of goods. It is not worth while to try to prove this— perhaps it is not absolutely true; but it is quite true that the transportation of goods is very cheap. The most instructive examples of the charges for carriage by rail may be found in the United States, for several reasons. The length of railway there is 11 per cent, more than the railways of all Europe, including the United Kingdom. The tons of freight carried are 112 per cent, more than in the United Kingdom, and the average haul is much longer than in any other great country. Furthermore, the statistics of the railways of Great Britain do not give the traffic units, tons-one-mile and passengers-one-mile,1 so that it 1 The North-Eastern Railway has decided to compile and publish these particulars, which it is believed have been prepared by the London and North-Western for the use of its own officials for some

132

[statistics

RAILWAYS

is impossible to get the average cost of service there. We find, then, in the United States examples of transportation on a great scale, covering a variety of conditions ■ and because the United States is the most important food - producing country, it is perhaps true that the cost of transportation in the United States more closely affects the rest of the world than the cost of carriage in any other country. In the United States in 1899 the average charge for carrying one ton one mile was O'(24 cent. In 1888 the charge was I'OOl cent. This difference of twenty-eight hundredths of a cent on each ton carried one mile made a prodigious sum in the aggregate. If the freight rates in 1899 had been as high as they were in 1888, shippers and consumers would have paid to the railways of the United States $342,000,000 more than they did pay in fact. We cannot get the average for all of the lines for any year much further back, but the figures of two representative systems of railway, one in the East and one in the West, will illustrate the fall in freight rates for the whole country. In 1870 the Pennsylvania Railroad received 1 '55 cents for one ton one mile, and in 1899, 0'469 cent. In 1870 the Chicago and North-Western received 3'09 cents, and in 1899, 0'878 cent. The rates of 1870 corrected for the premium on gold would have been about 1'35 and 2'69-cents respectively . in the money of 1899. This apparent decrease of about two-thirds is partly due to the greater relative growth of low-class traffic, but still it is a rough measure of the benefit which the people of the United States have enjoyed from the fall in freight rates, —a benefit which has been shared by all the world, more particularly because the United States is the great foodproducing country. We may better understand the social meaning of very cheap freight rates if we consider a few commodities of prime necessity to mankind. In 1899 a barrel of flour was carried by rail from the mills at ^Minneapolis to the warehouse in New York for about 52 cents on the average. The distance is 1332 miles by one of the shortest rail routes. This means that the transportation charge on an ordinary loaf of bread for 1332 miles of carriage is about one-third of a cent. The charge for carrying a barrel of flour from Minneapolis to Liverpool was about 70 cents in 1899. Rates and wages vary somewhat year by year, but in general terms we may say that the supply of bread and meat for one man one year is carried from Chicago to Liverpool for a mechanic’s wages for one day. In 1899 the charge for one ton of bituminous coal from the mines of West Virginia to deep water at Newport News was $1 '00 for a haul of 400 miles. Anthracite coal was carried from the mines in Pennsylvania to tide-water, 200 miles, for $1 -00 a ton. In the same year a quart of milk was carried into New York from gathering grounds 260 miles away for T^ths of a cent. Such examples might be multiplied indefinitely, and might be found in different degrees in all countries which have railways. For railways have immeasurably enlarged the market in which a man may sell his products, and they have equally broadened the field from which he may draw his sustenance. They have made modern society possible. All this is true, to a less degree, of the cost of passenger movement. That has fallen, but not so fast or so far as the charges for goods, nor are low passenger rates so necessary to society as low goods rates. Low passenger rates are important within what may be called suburban zones, that is, in the areas in which people may live and go daily to and from a city. time. Among English railway managers, however, there is a widespread opinion that, in the conditions which exist in the United Kingdom, such particulars are not of great practical value, or at least are not essential for the proper conduct of a railway’s traffic.—Ed. E.B.

In ideal conditions the homes of the people, and especially of the poor, must be in the country. Air, light, low rent, ground to till, and wholesome recreation for children can only be had by scattering the working population of a city into the surrounding country to sleep; and the lower the passenger rates and the faster and more frequent the trains, the broader is the zone over which the population of any given city may be scattered. In the United States from to T\ cent a mile are the common suburban rates, good for all trains and all hours. In England the ordinary rate for working men’s suburban tickets is probably not far from \ cent a mile. The use of these tickets is, however, restricted to certain trains and hours. Season ticket rates in England work out considerably higher than suburban rates in the United States. Enough has been said to suggest the place of railways in civilization: the relative supply and use of railways are one measure of the relative civilization of two countries. In order to indicate the basis for such a comparison, certain statistics are collected in the following tables. The figures, however, change from year to year, and those who wish to make comparative studies should look for information in the annual statistical publications of the various countries. The tables are intended to suggest methods, rather than to serve as material for actual study. Table I. shows miles of railway, absolute and relative, for several countries for the year 1898. It is obvious that such figures must be subject to some correction, for the reasons (among others) that statistical years and calendar years do not always coincide, and that censuses are not made every year. The table is, however, accurate enough for practical purposes. The countries in this table have been selected (1) to show the relative situation in the great nations, and (2) to compare some of the most important of the British possessions. This table also shows the rate of increase in the various countries from 1894 to 1898. It is not safe to try to reason from this increase in the past to the increase in the future, as accidental conditions may have affected the growth abnormally in any one of these countries : in the United States, for instance, the rate of increase in these four years was perhaps abnormally small, owing to the great business depression which followed the panic of 1893. Table I. —Miles of Railway in Several Countries at the end of 1898. Country. United Kingdom . United States (not in eluding Alaska) Germany Belgium France Russia in Europe (in eluding Finland) Austria-Hungary. British North America British India New South Wales

Per Cent, Miles of of Railway Population Miles of Increase, 100 per Mile of Railway. 1894 to per Square Railway. Miles. 1898. 21,659

3'0

17'83

1,856

186,396 30,771 3,781 25,898

3'9 9'0 9'8 4'3

6'26 14'74 33'20 12-68

399 1,699 1,764 1,488

26,414 21,805 16,870 21,475 2,691

19'6 16'9 7'0 17'1 3'0

1-26 8-33 0-51 1-35 0-86

4,020 2,059 308 14,340 490

Table II. compares the work done by the railways of a few of the great nations; from this the United Kingdom must be omitted, since the figures of passenger-miles and ton-miles are not obtainable. Table II. gives results for 1898 in the United States and Germany, and for 1897 in the other countries. Further, the miles of line doing the work in the United States and Germany are not exactly the same as the miles in Table I., for

statistics]

RAILWAYS 133 complete traffic returns were not gathered from all of the The same is true, though in a less degree, of comparisons railways. The returns of Belgium are from the State between locomotives. By combining Table II. and Table railways only, or about seventy per cent, of the whole III. a notion may be obtained of the work done by a unit Belgian mileage. The columns of passenger-miles and of equipment in various countries. ton-miles in Table II. show millions, six ciphers being Table IV. shows the capital of the railways of several omitted. These columns give a notion of the prodigious countries, absolute and per mile, giving the latest figures amount of work done by the railways, but the column of available at the time of writing, which will, however, daily movement each way (3 and 4) shows the relative suffice for the purposes for which it is inserted here, density of the work. These give the passengers and the namely, to give a comparison at a particular period. tons that must be moved each way, every day, over the Table IV.—Capital of the Railways of Certain Countries. whole mileage in each country, to make up the totals in (Gieat Britain from Board of Trade Returns ; United States from columns 1 and 2. Here we discover that the density of Interstate Commerce Commission ; other countries from the Archiv passenger traffic is least in the United States and greatest fur Eisenbahnwesen.) in Belgium, which is precisely what one would expect from the relative density of population of the various Country. Year. Total. Per Mile. countries. Columns 5 and 6 show the work done relatively to the population. Germany 1897-98 £580,225,000 £19,927 Austria . 1897 230,053,000 21,260 Table II.— Work done by the Railways of Several Countries— Hungary; State roads 1897 84,970,000 17,900 Absolute and Relative. {United States and Germany, 1898 ; France ; Main lines 1897 640,186,000 24,790 other countries, 1897.) United Kingdom 1898 1,134,468,462 52,400 United States 1898 2,221,470,000 12,390 Moved each Yearly MoveBritish North America 1898 Way every Day ment per 193,343,000 11,470 New South Wales . Million Million over the whole Inhabitant. 1898 38,424,000 14,280 Mileage. Passenger- Ton-Miles Miles (000,000 (000,000 Passen- TonTrans-Continental Railways.—*-A railway line across omitted). omitted.) Passenger- Miles. gers. Tons. Miles North America was first completed in 1869, when the (2) (1) (3) (4) (5) (6) Union Pacific, building from the Missouri river at Omaha (1400 miles west of New York), met the Central Pacific, United States 13,380 101,855 99 748 180 1,376 Germany which built from San Francisco eastwards, making a line 10,934 17,958 500 820 209 343 France 7,228 8,482 386 454 188 1848 miles long through a country then for the most part 221 Austria 2,506 5,830 318 740 98 228 uninhabited. This was followed by the Southern Pacific Hungary 1,320 2,423 181 332 70 129 in 1881, from San Francisco to New Orleans, 2489 miles; Belgium 1,240 1,711 849 1,170 190 262 the Northern Pacific, from St Paul to Portland, Or., in 1883 ; the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe, from Kansas Table III. gives the rolling stock of a few countries, City to San Diego; and the Great Northern, from St Paul showing not only the absolute number of locomotives and to Seattle and New Westminster in 1893. Meanwhile cars, but the number for each 100 miles of railway. It the Canadian Pacific, a true trans-continental line, was is not seriously misleading to compare the equipment per built from Montreal, on Atlantic tide-water, to the Pacific mile in the European countries and Hew South Wales, at Vancouver, 2906 miles. But these lines have been for the capacity of each unit of rolling stock is about the dwarfed since 1891 by the Siberian Railway, built by the same. It would be misleading, however, to make such a Russian Government entirely across the continent of Asia comparison with British India, because of the large pro- from Cheliabinsk (1769 miles by rail east of St Petersburg) portion of narrow gauge stock; and it would be very to Vladivostok, a distance of 4073 miles, with a branch misleading to make a comparison between the United about 500 miles long to the Chinese ports Dalny and Port States and other countries. As will be shown in the Arthur. The part of this railway in China had construcsection on Rolling Stock, the average freight car of the tion trains running over its full length early in 1902, but United States probably carries three times as much as was not to be ready for public traffic until much later; and the average freight car of Europe. On that assumption there remains to be built about 170 miles in very difficult the freight equipment of the United States is much more country around the south end of Lake Baikal, communicaper mile than that of France or Germany, but only tion being now maintained by ferry-boats, which convey all the carriages of a train across the lake, more than 40 Table III.—Rolling Stock in Several Countries—Absolute and miles, when the ice permits. Besides its connexion with per 100 Miles of Railway. the Chinese Eastern Railway, the Siberian Railway reaches Year . 1898. 1897. 1897. 1897-98. a navigable branch of the Amur at Sryetensk, from which a 1900. large fleet of light-draught steamboats maintain communiNew United United France. Germany. India. South cation with Vladivostok by means of a railway from that States. Kingdom. Wales place north-east 478 miles to the Amur at Khabarovsk. The extent of country made accessible by the Siberian Locomotives . 36,234 19,479 10,611 16,884 4,537 Locomotives per Railway is greatly increased by the thousands of miles of 100 miles . 20 91 42 57 19 17 navigable rivers which it crosses—the Ob, the Tom, the Passenger cars 33,595 44,053 27,179 33,664 13,263 1,025 Passenger cars per Irtysh, and the Yenisei west of Lake Baikal, and the 100 miles . 18 206 107 114 37 Freight cars . Sungari in Manchuria. Down to 1902 the new railway 1,•292,579 664,833 279,534 361,506 89,108 10,929 Freight cars per had brought about a million Russian immigrants into 100 miles . 700 3,044 1,096 1,230 375 Siberia, and a beginning had been made towards exploiting the coal, copper, and other mines of the country. Mr. a out two-thirds that of the United Kingdom. German Rhodes’s project of the Cape-to-Cairo Railway, if ever s atistics often give not only the number of cars but also realized, is likely to serve almost exclusively for local and e number of axles. Even that does not give an exact not for trans-continental traffic, because the sea affords a asis of comparison, for the load on one axle is considerably very much cheaper and, for nearly all purposes, a much greater in the United States than in any other country. better route. A trans-continental line was long ago

[economics RAIL WAYS undertaken across South America from Buenos Aires to when passenger rates are arranged on any other plan. In the Chilian coast. The continent here is only about 900 freight schedules it has been completely abandoned. A somewhat better theory of rate regulation was then miles wide. A short section remains to be built, but framed, which divided railway expenditures into movement that is over and through the Andes, and will be very expense, connected with the line in general, and terminal costly. (H- G- p-) expense, which connected itself with the stations and Railway Economics and Legislation. station service. Under this system each consignment of It was at one time an axiom of law and of political freight is compelled to p&y ibs share of the terminal economy that prices should be determined by free com- expense, independently of distance, plus a mileage charge petition. But in the development of the railway business proportionate to the length of the journey or haul. There it soon became evident that no such dependence on free has been also a further attempt in England to divide competition was possible, either in practice or in theory. terminal charges into station and service terminals, accordThis difficulty is not peculiar to railways; but it was in ing to the nature of the work for which compensation is the history of railway economy and railway control that sought. But none of these classifications of expense reaches certain characteristics which are now manifesting them- the root of the matter. A system of charges which comselves in all directions where large investments of fixed pels each piece of traffic to pay its share of the charges for capital are involved were first brought prominently to track and for stations overlooks the fundamental fact that a very large part of the expenses of a railway more than public notice. For a large number of those who use a railway, com- half—is not connected either with the cost of moving petition in its more obvious forms does not and cannot traffic or of handling traffic at stations, but with the cost exist. Independent carriers cannot run trains over the of maintaining the property as a whole. Of this character same line and underbid one another in offering trans- are the expenditures necessary for maintenance of way, for portation services. It would be practically impossible for general administration, and for interest on capital bora line thus used by different carriers to be operated either rowed, which are almost independent of the total amount with safety, or with economy, or with the advantage to of business done, and quite independent of any individual the public which a centralized management affords. It is piece of business. To say that all traffic must bear its equally impossible for the majority of shippers to enjoy share of these interest and maintenance charges is to the competition of parallel lines. Such duplication of impose upon the railways a rate which would cut off much railways involves a waste of capital. If parallel lines of the long-distance traffic, and much of the traffic in compete at all points, they cause ruin to the investors. If cheap articles, which is of great value to the public, they compete at some points and not at others, they pro- and which, from its very magnitude, is a thing that duce a discrimination or preference with regard to rates railways could not afford to lose. It is also a fact that and facilities, which builds up the competitive points at with each recurring decade these general expenses (also the expense of the non-competitive ones. Such partial called indirect, undistributed, or fixed charges) have an competition, with the discrimination it involves, is apt to increased importance as compared with the particular be worse for the public than no competition at all. It (direct, distributed, or operating) expense attaching naturincreases the tendency, already too strong, towards concen- ally to the particular portions of the traffic. For with tration of industrial life in large towns. It produces an increased density of population it becomes profitable to uncertainty with regard to rates which prevents stability make improvements on the original location, even though of prices, and is apt to promote the interests of the un- this may involve increased charges for interest and for scrupulous speculator at the expense of those whose business some parts of its maintenance, for the sake of securing that methods are more conservative. So marked are these evils economy of operation, through larger train-loads, which that such partial competition is avoided by agreements such an improved location makes possible. Whatever the ostensible form of a railway tariff, the between the competing lines with regard to rates, and by divisions of traffic, or pools, which shall take away the contribution of the different shipments of freight to these temptation to violate such rate agreements. The common general expenses is determined on the principle of charging law has been somewhat unfavourable to the enforcement what the traffic will bear. Under this principle, rates are of such agreements, and statutes in the United States, both reduced where the increase of business which follows such local and national, have attempted to prohibit them; but reduction makes the change a profitable one. They are the public advantage from their existence has been so great kept relatively high in those cases where the expansion of as to render their legal disabilities inoperative. In those business which follows a reduction is small, and where parts of the continent of Europe where railways are owned such a change is therefore unprofitable. This theory of and administered by State authority, the necessity for such charging what the traffic will bear is an unpopular one, because* it has been misapplied by railway managers and agreements is frankly admitted. But if rates are to be fixed by agreement, and not by made an excuse for charging what the traffic will not bear. competition, what principle can be recognized as a legiti- Rightly applied, however, it is the only sound economic mate basis of railway rate-making I The first efforts at principle. It means taxation according to ability—that railway legislation were governed by the equal mileage ability being determined by actual experiment. In the practical carrying out of this principle, railways principle; that is, the attempt was made to make rates proportionate to the distance. It was, however, soon seen divide all articles of freight into classes, the highest of that this was inadmissible. So much of the expense of which are charged two or three, or even four, times the the handling, both of freight and of passengers, was inde- rates of the lowest. This classification is based partly pendent of the length of the journey that a mileage rate upon special conditions of service, which make some sufficiently large for short distances was unnecessarily articles more economical to carry than others (with parburdensome for long ones, and was bound to destroy long- ticular reference to the question whether the goods are distance traffic, if the theory were consistently applied. offered to the companies in car-loads or in small parcels), The system has been retained in large measure in passenger but chiefly with regard to the commercial value of the business, but only because of the conflict which inevitably article, and its consequent ability to bear a high charge or occurs between the authorities and the passengers with a low one. For each of these classes a rate-sheet gives the regard to the privilege of breaking and resuming a journey actual rate-charge per unit of weight between the various 134

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RAILWAYS

stations covered by the tariff. This rate increases as the distance increases, but not in equal proportion; while the rates from large trade centres to other trade centres at a great distance are not higher than those to intermediate points somewhat less remote; if the law permits, there is a tendency to make them actually a little lower. Besides the system of charges thus prescribed in the classification and rate sheet, each tariff provides for a certain number of special rates or charges made for particular lines of trade in certain localities, independently of their relation to the general system. If these special rates are published in the tariff, and are offered to all persons alike, provided they can fulfil the conditions imposed by the company, they are known as commodity rates, and are apparently a necessity in any scheme of railway charges. If, however, they are not published, and are given to certain persons as individual favours, they become a prolific source of abuse, and are quite indefensible from the standpoint of political economy. While the superficial appearance of the railway tariff is different for different countries, and sometimes for different parts of the same country, the general principles laid down are followed in rate-making by all well-managed lines, whether State or private. It is a mistake to suppose that the question of public or private ownership will make any considerable difference in the system of rate-making adopted by a good railway. A State system will be compelled, by the exigencies of the public treasury, to arrange its rates to pay interest on its securities ; a private company will generally be prevented, by the indirect competition of railways in other parts of the country which it serves, from doing very much more than this. The relative merit of the two systems depends upon the question how we can secure the best efficiency and equity in the application of the principles thus far laid down. There are three different systems of control:— 1. Private operation, subject only to judicial regulation, was exemplified most fully in the early railway history of the United States. Until 1870 railway companies were almost free from special Acts of control; and, in general, any company that could raise or borrow the capital was allowed to build a railway wrherever it saw fit. In the United Kingdom there was almost as much immunity from legislative interference with charges, but the companies were compelled to secure special charters, and to conform to regulations made by the Board of Trade in the interests of public safety. The advantage of this relatively free system of railway building and management is that it secures efficient and progressive methods. Most of the improvements in operation and in traffic management have had their origin in one of these two countries. The disadvantage attendant upon this system is that the courts are reluctant to exercise the right of regulation, except on old and traditional lines, and that in the face of new business methods the public may be inadequately protected. There is also this further disadvantage, that in the gradual progress of consolidation railway companies take upon themselves the aspect of large monopolies, of whose apparently unrestricted power the public is jealous. As a result of these difficulties there has been, both in the United Kingdom and in the United States, a progressive increase of legislative interference with railways. In the former the Railway and Canal Traffic Act of 1854 specially prohibited preferences, either in facilities or in rates. The Regulation of Railways Act of 1873 provided for a Railway Commission, which should be so constituted as to take cognizance of cases on the investigation of which the courts were reluctant to enter. Finally, the legislation of 1888 put into the hands of a reorganized Railway Commission and of the Board of

135

Trade powers none the less important in principle because their action has been less in its practical effect than the advocates of active control demanded. In the United States the years from 1870 to 1875 witnessed sweeping and generally ill-considered legislation (“ Granger ” Acts) concerning railway charges throughout the Mississippi valley; while the years from 1884 to 1887 were marked by more conservative, and for that reason more enforceable, Acts, which culminated in the Interstate Commerce Act, prohibiting personal discrimination and gradually restricting discrimination between places, and providing for a National Commission of very considerable power—not to speak of the pooling clause, which was extraneous to the general purpose of the Act, and has tended to defeat rather than strengthen its operation. An increased amount of attention has also been paid, both by the states and the government, to laws in the interests of public safety. 2. Operation by private companies, under specijic provisions of the Government authorities with regard to the method of its exercise, has been the policy consistently carried out in France, and less systematically and consistently in other countries under the domination of the Latin race. It was believed by its advocates that this system of prescribing the conditions of construction and operation of lines could promote public safety, prevent waste of capital, and secure passengers and shippers against extortionate rates. These expectations have been only partially fulfilled. Well trained as wras the civil service of France, the effect of this supervision in deadening activity was sometimes more marked than in its effect in preventing abuse. Moreover, such a system of regulation almost necessarily carries with it a guarantee of monopoly to the various companies concerned, and not infrequently large gifts in the form of subsidies, for without such aid private capital will not submit to the special burdens involved. These rights, whether of monopoly or of subsidy, form a means of abuse in many directions. Where the Government is bad, they are a fruitful source of corruption ; even where it is good, they enable the companies to drive hard bargains with the public, and prevent the expected benefits of official control from being realized. 3. State operation and ownership is a system which originated in Belgium at the beginning of railway enterprise, and has been consistently carried out by the Scandinavian countries and by Hungary. Since 1860 it has been the policy of Australia. It has generally come to be that of Germany and, so far as the finances of the countries allow, of Austria and Russia; British India also affords not a few examples of the same method. The theory of State ownership is excellent. So large a part of the railway charge is of the nature of a tax, that there seem to be a priori reasons for leaving the taxing powers in the hands of the agents of the Government. In practice its operation is far more uncertain. Whether the intelligence and efficiency of the officials charged by the State with the handling of its railway system will be sufficient to make them act in the interest of the public as fully as do the managers of private corporations, is a question whose answer can only be determined by actual experience in each case. If they fail to have these qualities, the complete monopoly which a Government enjoys, and the powers of borrowing which are furnished by the use of the public credit, increase instead of diminishing the danger of arbitrary action, unprogressiveness, and waste of capital. Even in matters like public safety it is by no means certain that Government authorities will do so wTell as private ones. The question is one which practical railway men have long since ceased to argue on general principles : they recognize that the answer depends upon the respective degree of talent and integrity which characterize the busi-

■'

[legislation RAILWAYS ness community on the one hand and the Government opening of a new railway. The Regulation of Railways Act of 1871 extends the provisions of the above Act to the opening of officials on the other. “any additional line of railway, deviation line, station, junction, Authorities.—On economics of construction and of operation, or crossing on the level ” which forms a portion of or is connected see Wellingtoit, The Economic Theory of Railway Location, 5th with a passenger railway, and which has been constructed subedition, New York, 1896. On principles governing railway rates sequently to the inspection of it. This Act further defines the in general, and specifically in England, see Acworth, The Rail- duties and powers of the inspectors of the Board of Trade, and ways and the Traders, London, 1891. On comparative railway also authorizes the Board to dispense with the notice which the legislation and the principles governing it, see Hadley, Railroad previous Act requires to be given prior to the opening of any Transportation; Its History and Rs Laws, New York, 1885. On railway or part of it. It may be remarked that neither of these Acts confers on the the history of railway legislation in England, see Cohn, Untersuchungen iiber die Englische Eisenbahnpohtik, Leipzig, 18/4-83. Board of Trade any power to inspect a railway after it has once been opened, unless and until some addition or alteration, such as On practice concerning rates in continental Europe, see Ulrich, Das Eisenhahntarifwesen, Berlin, 1886. (Since this was published, defined in the last-named Act, has been made. When a line has • Continental passenger rates have fallen. The French translation— once been inspected and passed, it lies with the company to maintain it in accordance with the standard of efficiency it originally Paris, 1898—gives Russian tariffs.) (a. T. H.) possessed, but no express statutory obligation to do so is imposed upon the company, and whether it does so or not the Board of British Railway Legislation. Trade cannot interfere. The Act of 1871 further renders it obligatory upon every railway The first thing a railway company in Great Britain has to do is to obtain a special or private Act of Parliament authorizing the company to send notice to the Board of Trade in the case of (1) of the line. Not that the mere laying or any accident attended with loss of life or personal Construe- construction wor]tjng 0f a railway requires parliamentary sanction, so injury to any person whatsoever; (2) any collision ^u es tlon. long as the work does not interfere with other people’s where one of the trains is a passenger train ; (3) any }accj(jenis rights and interests. An example of a railway built without any passenger train or part of such train leaving the rails ; legislative authority is the little mountain railway from Llanberis to (4) any other accident likely to have caused loss of life or personal the summit of Snowdon, which was made by the owner of the land injury, and specified on that ground by any order made from time through which it passes. Such a railway has no statutory rights to time by the Board of Trade. The department is authorized, on and no special obligations, and the owner of it is liable to be sued receipt of such report, to direct an inquiry to be made into the for creating a nuisance if the working of the line interferes with cause of any accident so reported, and the inspector appointed the comfort of those residing in the neighbourhood. When, how- to make the inquiry is given power to enter any railway premises ever, a company desires to construct a line on a commercial scale, for the purposes of his inquiry, and to summon any person to acquire land compulsorily, to divert rivers and streams, to cross engaged upon the railway to attend the inquiry as a witness, roads either on the level or by means of bridges, to pass near and to require the production of all books, papers, and houses, to build tunnels or viaducts, and to execute all the other documents which he considers important for the purpose. works incidental to a railway, and to work the line when com- The inspector, after making his investigation, is required to pleted without interference, it is essential that the authority of make a report to the Board of Trade as to the causes of the Parliament should be obtained. The company therefore promotes accident and the circumstances attending the same, with any a Bill, which is considered first by select committees of the two observations on the subject which he deems right, and the Board Houses of Parliament, and afterwards by the two Houses them- “shall cause every such report to be made public in such manner selves, during which period it faces the opposition, if any, of rival as they think expedient.” The usual mode of publishing such concerns, of local authorities, and of hostile landowners. If this is reports is to forward them to railway companies concerned, as well successfully overcome, and the proposals meet with the approval of as to the press, and on application to any one else who is inParliament, the Bill is passed, and after securing the Royal Assent, terested. The reports are subsequently included in a Bluebecomes an Act of Parliament. The company is then free to pro- book and presented to Parliament. It should be noted that ceed with the work of construction, and at once becomes subject to although the inspecting officer may in his report make any recomvarious general Acts, such as the Companies Clauses • Act, which mendations that he may think fit with a view to guarding against affects all joint-stock companies incorporated by any Special Act; any similar accident occurring in the future, no power is given to the Land Clauses Act, which has reference to all companies having the Board of Trade, or to any other authority, to compel any railpowers to acquire land compulsorily; the Railway Clauses Act, way company to adopt such recommendations. This omission is which imposes certain conditions on all railways alike (except light sometimes held to be an error, but as a fact it is an advantage. railways); the various Regulation of Railways Acts ; the Carriers The moral effect of the report, with the criticisms of the company’s Protection Act; Acts for the conveyance of mails, parcels, troops ; methods and recommendations appended thereto, is great, and it Acts relating to telegraphs to the conveyance of workmen, and rarely happens that a company refuses to adopt, or at any rate to to the housing of the labouring classes ; and several others which test, the recommendations so made. If on the other hand the it is unnecessary to specify. From the early days of railways company is of opinion that the suggestions of the inspecting officer Parliament has also been careful to provide for the safety of the are not likely to prove beneficial, or are for any reason unadvispublic by inserting in the general or special Acts definite conditions, able, it is at liberty to reject them, the responsibility of doing so and by laying upon the Board of Trade the duty of protecting the resting entirely upon itself. The effect of this latitude is to give public using a railway. the company ample discretion in the matter, and to enable the The first Act which has reference to the safety of passengers is Act of Parliament to be administered and the object of it to the Regulation of Railways Act of 1842, which obliges every rail- be attained without undue interference. way company to give notice to the Board of Trade of In 1889 a very important Act was passed placing upon the 3 Board of Trade the obligation to call upon railway companies tfon60' it intention to open the railway for passenger traffic, and places upon that public department the duty of throughout the United Kingdom (1) to adopt upon inspecting the line before the opening of it takes place. If the all passenger lines the “block” system of working; Wor ag’ officer appointed by the Board of Trade should, after inspection of (2) to “ interlock ” their points and signals; (3) to fit all trains the railway, report to the department that in his opinion “the carrying passengers with some form of automatic continuous brake. opening of the same would be attended with danger to the public Prior to this some companies had, to a certain extent, done these using the same, by reason of the incompleteness of the works or things, but few, if any, were completely equipped in these respects. permanent way, or the insufficiency of the establishment for work- A reasonable period was afforded them, according to circumstances, ing such railway,” it is lawful for the department to direct the to comply with these requirements, and at the present time the company to postpone the opening of the line for any period not work is practically complete. In this respect the lines of the exceeding one month at a time, the process being repeated from United Kingdom are far ahead of those of any other country, and month to month as often as may be necessary. The company is a diminution of accidents, particularly of collisions, has resulted liable to a fine of twenty pounds a day if it should open the therefrom. America is now following the lead thus set, and all line in contravention of such order or direction. The inspections the most important lines in the United States have adopted block made by the officers of the Board of Trade under this Act are working and interlocking, but a great deal still remains to be done. very complete: the permanent way, bridges, viaducts, tunnels, In certain respects, on the other hand, America has gone further and other works are carefully examined ; all iron or steel girders than the United Kingdom, especially in the matter of automatic are tested ; stations, including platforms, stairways, waiting-rooms, signalling, and in the operating of points and signals by electrical etc., are inspected; and the signalling and “interlocking” are power or air-pressure instead of manual labour. In America, also, thoroughly overhauled. A code of requirements in regard to the it is the custom to fit freight trains with an automatic continuous opening of new railways has been drawn up by the department brake, whereas in the United Kingdom this appliance is required for the guidance of railway companies, and as the special circum- by law only in the case of passenger trains, and in fact is not stances of each line are considered on their merits, it rarely fitted to goods and mineral trains except in one or two isolated happens that the department finds it necessary to prohibit the instances. 136

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The above-named Acts enable the Board of Trade to take all the necessary steps to ensure that the safety of passenger trains is sufficiently guarded. More recently legislation has been passed to safeguard the lives and interests of railway servants. In 1893 an ° Act was passed by Parliament giving the Board power Hours of t0 interfere if or when representations are made to labour. them by or on behalf of any servant or class of servants of a railway company that the hours of work are unduly long, or do not provide sufficient intervals of uninterrupted rest between the periods of duty, or sufficient relief in respect of Sunday duty. In such cases the company concerned may, after inquiry, be called upon to submit such a schedule of the hours during which the man or men are employed as will bring those hours within limits which appear to the department reasonable. In the event of the company failing to comply with the demands of the department, the latter is empowered to refer the case to the Railway and Canal Commissioners, who form a special Court constituted by the Railway and Canal Traffic Act of 1888, for deciding, among other things, questions relating to rates and charges, for protecting traders from undue charges and undue preference, for regulating questions of traffic, and for deciding certain disputes between railway companies and the public. The Commissioners are then empowered to deal with the matter, and if “a railway company fail to comply with any order made by the Railway and Canal Commissioners, or to enforce the provisions of any schedule ** approved by them, it is liable to a hue of a hundred pounds for every day during which the default continues. This Act has been the means of effecting a considerable reduction in the hours worked by railway men on certain railways, and no case has yet arisen in which a reference to the Commissioners has been necessary. Such modifications of the hours of work have not only been beneficial to the men, but have improved the discipline of the staff and the punctuality and regularity of the train service, particularly in respect of the goods trains. The Notice of Accidents Act of 1884, which obliges employers of labour to report to the Board of Trade, when “there occurs in any employment ” as defined by the schedule of the Act, “any accident which causes to any person employed therein, either loss of life or such bodily injury as to prevent him on any one of the three working days next after the occurrence of the accident from being employed for five hours on his ordinary work,” affects railways in course of construction, but not, as a rule, otherwise. Although the administration of the above-mentioned Acts of Parliament has had a beneficial effect upon the safety of the public, has enabled an enormous volume of traffic to be safety of jand lan(^ej with celerity, punctuality, and absence of risk, servants. it hag quring recent years come to notice that the number of casualties among railway servants is still unduly great, and in 1899 a Royal Commission was appointed to investigate the causes of the numerous accidents, fatal and non-fatal, to railway men. As a consequence of the report of this Commission the Railway Employment (Prevention of Accidents) Act of 1900 was passed, putting upon the Board of Trade the duty of making “ such rules as they think fit with respect to any of the subjects mentioned in the schedule to this Act, with the object of reducing or removing the dangers and risks incidental to railway service.” Rules may also be made in respect to other matters besides those mentioned in the schedule, and companies may be called upon to adopt or reject, as the case may be, any appliance, the use or disuse of which may be considered desirable in the interest of the men. Before, however, the rules so made become binding upon the companies, the latter have the right of appealing against them to the Railway Commissioners. Failure to comply with any of the rules renders a company “liable for each offence, on conviction under the Summary Jurisdiction Acts, to a fine not exceeding fifty pounds, or in the case of a continuing offence to a fine not exceeding ten pounds for every day during which the offence continues, after conviction.” Rules drafted by the Board of Trade under this Act came into force on the 8th of August 1902, the subjects referred to being (1) labelling of waggons ; (2) movements of waggons by propping and tow-roping ; (3) power-brakes on engines ; (4) lighting of stations and sidings ; (5) protection of points, rods, &c.; (6) construction and protection of gauge-glasses ; (7) arrangement, of tool-boxes, &c., on engines ; (8) provision of brake-vans for trains upon running lines beyond the limits of stations ; (9) protection to permanent-way men when relaying or repairing permanent way. The final settlement of a rule requiring brake-levers to be. fitted on both sides of goods-waggons was, however, deferred, owing to objections raised by certain of the railway companies. Other Acts which are of importance in connexion with accidents are the Accidents Compensation Act of 1846 ; the Employers’ Liability Act of 1880, and the Workmen’s Compensation Act of 1897. The public Acjs of Parliament referring to British railways are collected in Bigg’s General Railway Acts. (h A Y j

137

Statistics op Accidents. The railway companies of Great Britain are, as stated above, obliged by the Act of 1871 to give the Board of Trade notice of certain kinds of accidents occurring on their lines. Some of these kinds are explicitly mentioned in the Act, but with regard to requiring notice of others, the Board of Trade has a discretionary power. This it has exercised from time to time, and its general orders now in force specify, as requiring notice, accidents (1) as regards the locomotive power and rolling-stock, such as the bursting of engine-boilers and failures of axles, wheels, tyres, and other parts of locomotive engines, tenders, or vehicles; (2) as regards the permanent way and works, such as the failure of rails, bridges, tunnels, viaducts, &c. ; and (3) miscellaneous accidents to rolling-stock and permanent way, such as trains coming into collision with the gates of level-crossings and other obstructions on the lines, &e. Accidents to trains, such as collisions and derailments, may be divided into two classes, namely, those caused by defective construction or maintenance of the permanent way, works, .... and rolling-stock, and those caused by mistakes or ^ ^trains negligence on the part of the employes of the railway companies ; to these must be added a few cases that arise from unavoidable causes, such as obstacles falling on the rails, or the expansion of rails through excessive heat. The improvements in safety appliances on the railways have much reduced the number of serious accidents to trains, and the following summary (Table Y.) of the cases into which it was found necessary to order inquiries by the inspecting officers of the Board of Trade, divided into periods of five years, shows to what extent such reduction has taken place since 1871:— Table Y. Number of inquiries held by inspecting officers of the Board of Trade into accidents to trains during successive periods of five years, and total number of miles open for traffic at end of each period of five years. Period. 1871 to 1876 ,, 1881 ,, 1886 „ 1891 ,, 1896 ,,

Number of Miles open at Inquiries. End of Period.

1875 1880 1885 1890 1895 1900

996 621 488 303 266 290

16,658 17,933 19,169 20,073 21,174 21,855

These accidents may be divided into the classes shown in Table VI. Table YI. Class of Accident.

1871- 1876- 1881- 1886- 1891-18961875. 1880. 1885. 1890. 1895 1900.

A. From engines or vehicles meeting with obstructions, or leaving the rails in consequence of obstructions, or from defects in connexion with the permanent way or works . . . • B. From boiler explosions, failures of axles, wheels, or tyres, or from other defects in the rolling-stock . C. From trains entering stations at too great speed D. From collisions between engines and trains following one another on the same line of rails, excepting at junctions, stations, or sidings E. From collisions at junctions F. From collisions within fixed signals at stations or sidings G. From collisions between engines or trains meeting in opposite directions . H. From collisions at level-crossings of two railways . . • . • • • I. From engines or trains being wrongly run or turned into sidings or otherwise, through facing-points . • J. On inclines (trains) . . . • K. Miscellaneous The principal improvements which have tended to the reduction of the classes of accidents shown in the preceding table S. VIII. — 18

3f most

are the adoption of the block system, of interlocking points and signals, and of continuous automatic brakes, all oi which the Board of Trade was empowered to order by the Regulation of Railways Act of 1889. _ . . The circumstances which contributed to the accidents inquired into are shown in the following summary (Table VII.) ; but it must be borne in mind that as a large number of the accidents arose from more than one of the circumstances enumerated, this summary shows an excess over the actual number of accidents:

Circumstances contributing to the Accidents. Defective rolling-stock or failures of apparatus of rolling-stock . Defective road or works signalling and safety apparatus, &c Insufficient or defective accommodation for the requirements of the traffic Insufficient establishment, long hours, inexperienced servants, or want of proper supervision .... Defective systems for securing intervals between trains . . . Negligence,wantof care, and mistakes of officers and servants .... Foggy or stormy weather....

1871- 1876- 1881- 1886- 1891- 18961875. 1880. 1885. 1890. 1895. 1900. 77 80 5

17 34 8

187 125 20 31 212 89 49 35 740 459 360 233 82 47 39 31

38 11 2U 30

174 232 156 412 276 140 120 51 20

In the accidents that occurred to trains, the loss of life and personal injury to passengers was as shown in Table VIII:— Table VIII. Number of Pas- Number sengers Killed of Passenger and Injured Journeys (exfrom Accidents clusive of Year. to Trains. Journeys by Season-Ticket Killed. Injured. Holders).

Accidents to passengers from causes other than Accidents accidents to the trains in which they were travelling to for the years 1875, 1880, 1885, and 1890-1901 are passengers, shown in Table IX :— Table IX.

Year.

Table VII.

1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901

[accidents

RAILWAYS

138

Proportion of Killed and Injured to Number carried. Killed.

Injured.

86 1613 477,840,411 1 in 5,556,284 1 in 296.243 418,296 29,882,073 17 1212 506,975,234 420,865 14,165,455 38 1279 538.287.295 664 551,593,654 50,144,876 830,713 11 481,692 24 1173 565,024,455 23,542,685 602 562,732,890 934,772 75 7,503,105 904 603,885,025 668,013 29 20,823,586 27,050,435 630,354 23 987 622,160,000 803 654.838.295 18 36,379 905 815,489 662 683,718,137 1,032,806 11 62,156,194 864 694,991,860 22,419,092 31 804,388 436 697,213,031 6 1,599,112 116,202,171 1,179,812 8 615 725,584,390 90,698,049 25 538 733,670,000 29,346,800 1,363,699 594 742,499,164 1,250,555 11 67,530,000 88 1016 775.183,073 762,975 8,808,875 18 496 817,744,046 45,430,224 1,648,677 5 875 845,463,668 966.244 169,092,733 21 601 864,435,388 1,438,328 41,163,589 484 873,177,052 1,804,084 17 51,363,356 16 347 911,412,926 2,626,550 56,963,307 2,330,253 5 399 929,770,909 185,954,182 388 980,339,433 5 2,526,648 196,067,887 324 1,030,420,201 3,180,309 18 57,245,567 632 1,062,911,116 42,516,445 1,681,821 25 1,596,958 693 1,106,691,991 79,049,428 14 1,323,611 863 1,142,276,686 71,392,293 16 476 1,172,395,900 0 2,463,017

From this table it will be seen that no deaths occurred to passengers from collisions, derailments, &c., on the railways of the United Kingdom in the year 1901. The two accidents involving the greatest loss of life in the period covered by the table were (1) the Tay Bridge disaster, which occurred in 1879, when, owing to the failure of the bridge while a train was passing over it during a gale, the train was thrown into the water and 73 passengers lost their lives; and (2) the terrible accident at Armagh in 1889, when the rear portion of a passenger train ran back down an incline and came into collision with a following passenger train, causing the death of 80 passengers and injury to 262 others.

From Accidents in connexion with the Movement of Trains, Kailway Carriages, &c.

From Accidents on Railway Premises not in connexion with the Movement of Trains, &c.

Total.

Killed. Injured. | Killed. Injured. Killed. Injured. 1875 1880 1885 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 18951 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901

114 96 100 98 108 89 101 78 88 115 128 141 119 135

709 693 865 737 747 737 821 710 11981 1315 1238 1457 1563 1669

4 5 3 8 12 7 4 4 5 2 9 10 7 23

204 223 359 266 336 312 323 297 1 515 586 489 617 624 680

117 118 101 103 106 120 96 105 82 93 117 137 151 126 158

594 913 916 1224 1003 1083 1049 1144 1007 17131 1901 1727 2074 2187 2349

1 Note.—In the year 1896 an Order of the Board of Trade under the Regulation of Railways Act 1871, laying down more stringent regulations for reporting non-fatal accidents, came into force. By this Order companies are required to report all cases of injury to passengers. The principal causes of accidents to passengers in this class are from falling between trains and platforms or on the ballast when entering or alighting from trains in motion, from falling off platforms or out of trains, from being run over when crossing the lines at stations, and from falling when ascending or descending steps at stations. Taking the figures for 1901, the total risk to passengers from the time they entered the premises of the railway company until their departure therefrom was— Total Fatal accidents . . . 1 in 7,420,227 risk to Non-fatal accidents . . • 1 ,, 415,007 passengers. This calculation, like those previously given in the above tables, does not take into account the journeys made by holders of seasontickets, of which 1,879,136 were issued in 1901, as the number of journeys made by the holders cannot be estimated. It is obvious that if an accurate estimate of these journeys could be made, a large increase in the number of passenger journeys would be shown, with a corresponding benefit to the passenger when calculating his risk of accident. Notwithstanding the measures taken by the railway companies for the protection of their servants when on duty, and the efforts of the Government to reduce the risks incurred by the Occidents men, the number of accidents of this class continue to to be high. The effects of the Rules issued by the emp . y , Board of Trade under the Railway Employment ° (Prevention of Accidents) Act of 1900 will, it is hoped, however, tend to the reduction of these accidents. The principal risks incurred by the men are those entailed by shunting operations, and by the work of repairing or inspecting the permanent way while the traffic is in progress. The Rules issued by the Board of Trade are intended to minimize these risks. Table X. shows the number of accidents occurring to servants of the companies in traffic operations, but a large number of slight accidents occur from causes in which the movement of the traffic is not concerned, and these are not included in the two following tables (Tables X. and XL) The number of persons employed by the railway companies is known accurately for certain years only, namely, 1874, 1884, 1889, 1895, 1898, and 1901, but for the purposes of these tables it has been estimated for the other years taken (estimated figures being printed in italics). The apparent sudden rise of the injuries in 1896 is due to the effect of the Board of Trade Order of October 1895, referred to in the note to Table IX. From the commencement of 1896 the companies were required to report non-fatal accidents to their servants whenever they were such as to prevent the servant injured, on any one of the three working days next after the accident, from being employed for five hours on his ordinary work.

139

RAILWAYS

accidents]

The number of accidents to persons making use of level-crossings over the railways does not show any appreciable diminution in the 25 years from 1875 to 1901, although improvements | Proportion of AcciBy Accidents ! dents occurring to have been made by the provision of foot-bridges or accf^ents Servants of Comon Railways, Total subways at many busy places where the level-crossings By Train panics by Train and exclusive of Numbers Accidents. were previously the only means of crossing the line, and in other other Accidents to employed Train the whole Number by the cases by the provision of signals interlocked with the gates. The Accidents. employed. Railway numbers of persons killed and injured while passing over levelCompanies. crossings in certain years are shown in Table XII. The remaining classes of accidents on railways are those which Killed. Injured. Killed. Injured. Killed. Injured. occur to trespassers on the railways, of whom 282 were killed and 154 injured in 1901 ; those which occur to persons transacting 250,000 742 2544 1 in 320 11 in„ 89 business at railway stations and sidings (principally traders’ ser271 46 1874 70 255,000 744 3379 1 „ S3U 1 „ 100 239 21 1875 vants engaged in obtaining or delivering goods), 17 of whom were 645 2364 1 „ 386 i „ m 260,000 236 28 1876 killed and 122 injured in 1901 ; and those that occur to persons 620 2009 1 „ Ulk 1 „ 135 265,000 154 22 1877 270,000 1 „ 500 1847 who can neither be described as being on business or trespassing, 529 156 15 1878 m 280,000 444 1836 1 „ 619 i1 „„ 139 118 8 1879 of whom 24 were killed and 28 injured in 1901. In addition, 144 290,000 1 „ 531 118 523 1962 1 „ 576 1 „ 123 300,000 23 1880 persons committed suicide by placing themselves in front of trains 2278 502 168 19 1881 315,000 in 1901, and 17 persons were injured while apparently attempting 532 2423 1 „ 670 11 ” 122 153 21 1882 330,000 543 2373 1 „ 596 1 „ 13U 87 11 to commit suicide in the same manner. The number of suicides 1883 346,426 149 523 2204 1 „ 634 1 „ 163 356,526 115 23 1884 is slightly in excess of the average number for preceding years. 1 „ 768 2036 81 438 13 1885 In the United States of America the figures of accidents are now 356,526 421 1929 1 „ 815 11 „„ 172 81 4 1886 167 356,526 reported under an Act of Congress, approved on the 3rd March 109 414 1966 1 „ 831 1 „ 157 8 1887 356,526 93 389 2100 1 „ 87U 1 „ 138 381,626 7 1888 1901, which requires that “common carriers engaged Accldeats 431 2652 1 „ 877 1 „ 122 381,626 117 4 1889 in interstate commerce make full reports of all ja Uaited 147 487 2975 11 „„ 765 12 1890 accidents to the Interstate Commerce Commission by States 695 1 „ 121 381,626 154 537 3007 12 1891 92 525 2823 1 „ 71U 1 „ 130 381,626 9 a monthly report under oath, of all collisions of trains, 1892 381,626 1 „ 145 1 „ 839 2558 73 450 10 1893 or where any train or part of a train leaves the track, and of all 381,626 62 473 2649 1 „ 796 11 „„ UO 6 1894 accidents which may occur to its passengers or employes while in 465.112 430 2566 1 „ 1052 1 „ 175 88 12 1895 117 565.112 444 3833 i „ mo the service of such common carrier and actually on duty.” The 153 3 1896 565,112 1 „ 113 1 „ 913 501 3989 140 1897 reports rendered in accordance with this Act are apparently more 534,141 488 4039 1 „ 1060 11 „„ 129 110 1898 complete than those hitherto furnished, but the requirements of 115 535,151 512 4437 1 „ 1006 196 1899 the Act do not include accidents at level - crossings. For the 559 4405 1 „ 916 1 „ 116 535,151 180 1900 575,834 1 „ 135 503 4087 1 „ 1127 156 1901 second six months of 1901 it appears that 108 passengers were killed and 1999 injured in accidents to trains, and 87 were killed 1510 injured in other accidents. The number of employes Table XL shows, for the year 1901, the risks incurred in the more and killed was 1343, and 17,213 were injured. Compared with the important classes of railway service :— accidents in the United Kingdom for the same period of six Table XL months the relative figures are given in Table XIII. :— Table XIII. Number of Servants of Railway- Proportion to the Companies Killed United States of United Kingdom. Number and Injured dur- Number Employed. America. Class of Servants. Employed ing the Year 1901. Injured. Killed. Injured. Killed. Killed. Injured. Killed. Injured. Table X.

Stationmasters 8,103 Brakesmen anc goods-guards 15,708 Permanent-way 66,621 men . Gatekeepers . 3,507 25,556 Engine-drivers 55,276 Porters 10,841 Shunters 24,083 Firemen 6,772 Inspectors . 7,291 Guards (passenger) Pointsmen and sig28,496 nalmen 53,282 Labourers Ticket collectors 3,642 and examiners 81,440 Mechanics . 185,216 Other classes Total .

. 575,834

Year.

Number of Persons Killed at LevelCrossings.

1875 1880 1885 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894

66 74 58 83 66 77 55 80

42

23

1 in 4051 1 in 352

845

1„ 374 1 „ 18

149 1 „ 551 1 ,, 447 6 1 ,, 1169 1 ,, 584 342 1 ,, 983 1 „ 75 572 1 ,, 1228 1 „ 97 650 1 ,, 264 1 „ 17 496 1 ,, 1003 1 „ 49 19 1 ,, 967 1 ,, 356 122 1 ,, 911 1 ,, 60

121 3 26 45 41 24 7 8 12 33

70 153

1 ,, 2377 1 „ 407 1 ,, 1615 1 ,, 348

1 18 108

17 26 724

1 „ 3642 1 „ 214 1 ,, 4524 1 ,, 140 1 ,, 1715 1 ,, 256

491

4214

1 in 1173 1 in 137

Table XII. Number of Persons Injured at LevelCrossings. 41 30 21 35 31 21 30 31

1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901

Number of Number of Persons Persons Killed at Injured at LevelLevelCrossings. Crossings. 65 51 80 64 60 63 55

33 27 25 27 22 35 26

Passengers Servants .

195 1343

3,509 17,213

1299 2178

80 286

The latest proportions given for the United States are for the year ending 30th June 1900, as shown in the Report of the Interstate Commerce Commission ; these are compared with the British figures for the year ending 31st December 1900 in Table XIV : Table XIV. United Kingdom. United States. Killed, i Injured. Passengers: Proportion of killed and injured from accidents in 1 in 1 in connexion with the move- 2,316,648 139,740 ment of trains to number of passenger journeys Servants: Proportion of killed and in- 1 in 399 1 in 26 jured to numbers employed

Killed.

Injured,

1 in 8,461,309

1 in 470,848

1 in 916

1 in 116

The differences between the mileage of the railways, the numbers of passengers carried, and the numbers of employes in the two countries in the year 1900 are shown in Table X v. It will Table XV. United States. United Kingdom. ending 31st Year ending 30th Year December 1900. June 1900. Mileage of railways . _ • Number of passengers carried in 12 months Number of employes

193,345

22,078

576,865,230 1,017,653

1,142,276,686 575,834

140

RAILWAYS [finance issued solely for contractors’ profit, and afforded no guaranbe noticed that while the mileage and number of employes is higher in the United States than in the United Kingdom, the tee or margin for protection of indebtedness. The latter, number of passengers carried is higher in the United Kingdom. therefore, became necessarily a much more precarious form The number of persons killed and injured at level-crossings (not of security for the investor, and large losses ensued to the including those described as employes and trespassers) was 558 killed public, both in the United States and in Europe, by and 1090 injured in the year ending 30th June 1900, as against 59 killed and 29 injured in the same period in the United Kingdom. reason of a confused belief that bonds or debentures indi(h. a. y.) cated in each community an identical security, whereas the case was quite otherwise. In the former country, as Financial Organization. has been above pointed out, the existing conditions of free Before considering tire general method of financial competition call for the same examination on the part of organization of railway companies, it is important to note an investor into individual conditions and environment the attitude taken up by the State toward their construc- as would be needful in respect to any other competitive tion. In the United States public policy encourages the industry. As rates have fallen, it has come to pass, free building of lines by providing, under general laws, that particularly in the United States, that a complete reany body of citizens may become incorporated in order to habilitation of the plant has been gradually forced upon locate a railway, expropriate the necessary land, and pro- all the railways of the country. As the cost of hauling a ceed with construction and operation, the sole preliminary large train-load is proportionately much less than of hauling being that evidence must be shown of bona jides by a a small one, the efforts of managers have been directed to most modest subscription of capital. The effect of this increasing the carrying capacity of their trains. Herein is legislation has been to make the railway a highly com- the explanation of the demands for new capital on a great petitive business, subject from the investor’s point of view scale by the older railway companies, which otherwise to the extra hazards which must necessarily attend on would presumably have reached the approximate limit of capital engaged in fierce competition. From the point of capital requirements. Hence, also, arose the policy now view of the public, the policy mentioned has resulted in general in the United States of devoting a greater or less the multiplication of lines, and consequent cheap rates of proportion of net revenues to payment for permanent imservice, together with wide development of territory. In provements, instead of dividing them amongst the sharethe other countries of the world, where Government sanc- holders, a policy which has excited much criticism among tion has to be obtained for each undertaking, after proof British holders of American shares, but which American not only of the ability of promoters to further the enter- opinion has accepted as being for the best interest of prise, but also of its present necessity and probable profit- shareholders, inasmuch as it gives assurance of greater able conduct, the result is to surround capital with greater stability under the stress of commercial fluctuations. The tendency to amalgamate connecting systems of safeguards, but at some sacrifice of public benefit. Some economic and g'ltcm-political questions of import- railway has had a marked stimulus in late years, by reason ance may arise as the pressure of continuous high rates of the economies in operation and the advantages in conthreatens to handicap a given region in the commercial duct of traffic accruing from the extension of lines under race. For instance, in the United States the so-called one control. A certain jealousy is exhibited in some “ Granger ” movement by the farmers was an important public quarters lest a centralized power thus vested over political force for some years. As the product of the farm a great number of employes should lead to political depended largely on export values, it followed that the abuses in a country where manhood suffrage prevails, but producers in the far interior found the cost of transporta- it is to the credit of those controlling such great executive tion to the sea a heavy burden, and largely disproportionate powers that they seem to have been exercised, on the to the charge upon their competitors nearer to the shore. whole, wisely and in the public interest. The peculiar status of the railway in modern life makes The progress of competition between rival carriers finally afforded a natural solution of this difficulty, by the reduc- it of equal interest to the investor, the employe, and the tion brought about in the rates of freight until a point political economist. It will be found that the best end is was reached where it bore small proportion to the value subserved for each of these by all development which of the article transported. But in cases where the same tends to secure the maximum of service at the minimum difficulty presents itself with a governmental concession of cost. By such influences will be created that volume practically precluding competition in rates, the aggrieved and diversity of human industry which affords the best citizen naturally turns to the State for redress. This guarantee for the welfare of the individual and of the situation is beginning to assert itself in the Argentine State. To this end the modern railway has proved itself Republic, in the British colonies, and to some extent in an instrument of greater efficiency than any other, or perhaps than all others combined, as witness in the United England itself. The financial organization of railways began in various States the growth in tonnage from 72,500,000 tons in countries on substantially identical lines where it was 1870 to 975,000,000 tons in 1899, an increase of more (j. gh.) proposed to build under private corporations. The shares than 1300 per cent. of the corporation, after being paid for, carried no further Railway Construction. liability, and the capital thus raised by subscription was The principles of railway construction described in the augmented by borrowing under powers conferred by legislation or charter. Financial developments, however, soon ninth edition of this Encyclopaedia remain true, and most assumed different forms in the different countries. In Great of the essential facts there told need no modification. Britain and on the Continent borrowing powers were The changes are in detail. The tendency of time is to unify the gauge in each granted in very limited degree, generally for only one-fourth of the capital, and the debenture, or other obligation repre- country and, generally speaking, in the world, though proQauge senting the authorized debt, became esteemed as a security gress in that direction is not without interrupof the highest character for investment. In the United tion. In France, for example, at the end of States, on the other hand, borrowing powers were exercised 1898 there were 26,044 miles of railway, and of this for the most part under general laws and without limitation, amount 2490 miles were of narrow gauge, viz., 1 metre, so that often all the actual capital for building a railway 0-80 metre, and 0‘60 metre, while 870 miles of narrow gauge was raised by forms of debt, while the share capital was were in course of construction. In British India about

construction]

RAILWAYS

42 per cent, of the total mileage is built to metre gauge or less, while the standard is 5 feet 6 inches, and the metre gauge lines are added to year by year. In the British colonies generally the gauge of 3 feet 6 inches may be called standard; but throughout the world the gauge of 4 feet 81 inches is much more used than any other, and is increasing in far greater ratio. In North America 4 feet 8.t inches has become almost universal, except for small industrial railways and some short lines for local traffic, chiefly in mountainous country. The long lines of 3 feet gauge have generally been converted, or a third rail has been laid, permitting interchange of vehicles. The gauges of 5 feet and more have disappeared. A considerable number of lines use 4 feet 9 inches; but cars run freely from this gauge to the lines of 4 feet 8ijr inches gauge, and back again. The commercial importance of this free interchange of cars is now the controlling fact in deciding on the gauge of a new railway, unless that railway is isolated by its geographical position. In Great Britain, also, the standard gauge is 4 feet 8^ inches, and there railways are now built to other gauges only under exceptional conditions; the “ broad gauge ” of 7 feet disappeared when the Great Western main line from London to Penzance was converted to standard gauge throughout its length on 20th-23rd May, 1892. In Ireland, however, the standard gauge is 5 feet 3 inches; and perhaps it would have been better for all the countries of Europe and America had 5 feet 6 inches, or even 6 feet, been made the standard, since the physical limits of the power of locomotives and the ultimate carrying capacity of cars would not have been reached so soon. On the continent of Europe the standard gauge is generally 4 feet 8| inches, but in Russia it is 5 feet, and in Spain 5 feet 5f inches. In France, as in the United States, there are many miles of track of 4 feet 9 inches gauge; but for traffic purposes this is not a break from the standard of 4 feet 8],- inches. The narrow-gauge railways of France have already been mentioned. In other Continental countries there is also an important mileage of metre gauge, and even narrower, on lines of local or secondary importance. India had, in March 1900, 13,670 miles of railway of 5 feet 6 inches gauge, 9496 miles of metre gauge, and 598 miles of special gauges; hence that country will supply valuable comparative data for the study of the efficiency and cost of working of broad and narrow gauge lines, and for such data the reader may be referred to the elaborate yearly reports of the Government of India. In Australia the disadvantages of a break of gauge are already felt. In New South Wales the standard is 4 feet 8|- inches; but in Victoria, on the south, it is 5 feet 3 inches; and in Queensland, on the north, it is 3 feet 6 inches. Obviously, as commerce between the states increases, the tax of a break of gauge at the frontier will become more serious, and for some years various commissioners of those states have urged the importance of one gauge. In New Zealand, Tasmania, and South Africa the gauge is 3 feet 6 inches. In Lower Egypt the standard is 4 feet 8^ inches, but the line into the Egyptian Sudan is 3 feet 6 inches. The reasons for building the Sudan line to this gauge were weighty and sufficient; but the time will come when a struggling commerce will be taxed with the perpetual costs of a break of gauge. On the other hand, the South African railways are built to 3 feet 6 inches; and if the so-called Cape-to-Cairo railway is ever completed, there will be one gauge from Upper Egypt to Cape Town. For sleepers (called cross-ties or ties in the United States) wood is the material still generally used. Metal is employed for the purpose in a few countries where timber is scarce, or liable to destruction by white ants, and, also somewhat experimentally, on a considerable mileage on the

141

continent of Europe; but its use there is not increasing, and in the United States it is exceedingly limited. In England, Germany, and France at least 90 per cent, of the wooden sleepers are treated before they are laid, to preserve them from decay, and the same SIeePerspractice is followed to some extent in other European countries. A great number of preservative processes have been tried (many of them patented), but the one now most largely used is that known as “ creosoting.” Dead oil of coal tar is forced into the wood under pressure, or sucked in under vacuum, both the timber and the oil being heated. In the United States only a very small percentage of the cross-ties are treated in any way beyond seasoning in the open air, timber being still too cheap in nearly all parts of that country to justify preservative treatment— at least so the officials of the railways think. A few lines, however, which have a long mileage in timberless regions do treat their sleepers. Probably the large majority of railway engineers in nearly all countries believe that timber sleepers, preserved in some way, and protected from direct wear by plates or chairs under the rail, will be standard practice for many years. Steel is the only material that can be substituted for wood in the present stage of invention, and generally it is still too costly for this use. One of the most important events in the whole history of the railway was the substitution of steel for iron rails. That made possible the wheel weights ^a]js and the speeds of to-day, and diminished the cost of maintenance of track to such a point as made possible the rates of to-day. The continued improvement of the steel rail in stiffness of section and in toughness and hardness of material is an element of progressive economy almost as important as the substitution of steel for iron. The weight of rail has increased, particularly in the United States, and in Great Britain rails weighing 95 and 100 1) per yard are now largely laid on main lines. Harder steel is also employed. The important element in controlling this quality is carbon, and in their notions of desirable carbon contents the rail makers and users of Great Britain differ from those of the United States. Generally speaking the rail steel of the United States is higher in carbon, hence harder, than that made and used in England. In the United States the best and most widely accepted practice is from 0‘43 per cent, of carbon as the minimum limit for light rails up to 0‘70 per cent, for the top limit for heavy rails. Nevertheless, it is true that even there some rail-makers and railways still specify the minimum carbon as low as 0'35 per cent. In Great Britain the limits of carbon adopted range from 0'25 up to 0‘50 per cent., but in the greater number of cases 0'4 is specified as the lower limit. It will be seen, therefore, that there is practical agreement in the two countries as to the minimum of carbon, but a wide difference as to the maximum. The tendency on the Continent is towards harder steel than prevails in England. In recent years there has been a real advance in the art of making rails. This has not consisted so much in the acquisition of new knowledge as in the spread of knowledge from a few men to many. It has come to be widely known that the treatment of the steel from the time of melting to the last passage through the rolls is quite as important as the chemistry of the stock. Especially has it become known to many, as it has long been known to a few, that the last work on steel must be done at a comparatively low temperature if the product is to be fine-grained, homogeneous, and tough. The spread of this knowledge has already affected the outline of the cross-section of the rail, in the United States at least, and it will soon begin to affect rolling-mill practice.

142

RAILWAYS

To understand how a more correct knowledge of mill treatment has affected the rail section, we must look at the typical sections used. In the United Kingdom the

[construction

sections—that is, sections in which the metal is divided approximately equally between the head and the flange— and, furthermore, the head is made comparatively broad and thin. The final development of this section was reached in 1893, when the American Society of Civil Engineers recommended a set of standard sections, one

Fig. 4.—French rail, 99J ft to the yard, showing also rail joint and seat in the sleeper.

standard rail section is the bull-head, which is shown in Figs. 1 and 2. This is used also to a comparatively small extent in France and in India. The rail section much more generally used, always in the United States and nearly always on the continent of Europe, is frequently called the Vignoles section, or in the United States the T rail (Figs. 3 and 4). It is also often spoken of as a flange rail. An inspection of the figures will show that in the bull-head rail the weight Fio. 2-“^^trail and rai :1 of metal in the top and bottom members is not very different, and that the neck (or web) is comparatively thick. Similarly, it will be seen that

Fig. 3.—American rail, 90 ft to the yard, showing rail joint. in the Yignoles section the flange or foot is broad and thin, and that there is considerably less metal in the flange than in the head. It will be understood, then, that one part of the bull-head rail cools about as fast as another, but that the flange of the Yignoles rail cools .much faster than the head. The result of this is that the finishing passes must be made while the head is at a temperature too high to give good results—otherwise, the flange would be too cool to be rolled. This fact resulted in the development in the United States of what are there called balanced

of which is seen in Fig. 3. By comparing this with the French rail (Fig. 4) the reader may see the difference in the distribution of the metal. These balanced sections are now standard on many railways, their use is increasing, and, so far as we can now foresee, they are destined to prevail, except that the flange will probably be made thicker. The bull-head section is a better section to roll, but track made with it is more costly, and changes are less convenient; it now seems likely that its use will be continued indefinitely in the British ■ Islands, but that it will not supersede the flange rail elsewhere. The spread of knowledge of the mill treatment of rails is likely to bring about still another change in mill practice, namely, such an arrangement of rolls as will retard the progress of the rails just before they reach the finishing rolls, and permit their temperature to fall, thus making the finishing passes cooler than is now ordinary practice. This will probably be brought about by introducing a table over which the rails will move slowly but continuously, fed up to the finishing rolls at a uniform rate, but having time to cool while on this table. Obviously rail-makers will not permit any change in practice to be made which would diminish the speed and regularity of the output, and it is not for the interest of anybody that such a thing should be done. The plan now developing, as briefly outlined above, will not lessen the speed or quantity of output 5 it will merely require additional machinery and additional room. A few types of rail joints and fastenings are shown in the figures, and little need be added to what the cuts tell. In the United States the joint shown is. vUl-nigli^,^ ^ universal. It consists of two symmetrical angle fasteningS. bars, and the variations are in length (from 20 inches to 48 inches), in weight, and in the number of bolts, which may be four or six for each joint. The best length of joint is still much debated. Other joints than the type shown (almost invariably patented) are used, and some of them largely, but far the greater number are of the angle splice type seen in Fig. 3. Bails in the United States are usually laid directly on the sleepers and spiked with hook-headed spikes driven with a maul. The whole arrangement is simple, and lends itself admirably to fast track-laying, and to repairs and changes of line. Further, it is cheap in first cost, but obviously it is not so durable or so stable as the British and Continental methods. Of late years tie plates have come into considerable use, and their use is increasing. These plates, in the United States, are always made of rolled steel and punched with rectangular holes, through

signalling]

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143

struction. Various proposals, however, have been brought forward from time to time for constructing railways on principles radically different from those generally followed. In the Lartigue system, for instance, the train is straddled over a single central rail, elevated a suitable distance above the ground. Several small lines have been constructed on this plan, including one, worked by steam, between Ballybunnion and Listowel in Ireland; and in 1901 a Bill was passed by Parliament authorizing a more ambitious railway on the same principle, from designs by Mr F. C. Behr, to connect Liverpool and Manchester. The motive-power is to be electricity, and it is proposed to run frequent trains without a stop between the two places at a speed exceeding 100 miles an hour. In the Langen monorail the car is hung from a single overhead rail; a line on this system is worked between Barmen and Elberfeld, a distance of about 9 miles, the cars for a part of the way being suspended over the river Wupper. The important subjects of tunnels and bridges as related to railway construction are not taken up here, because they are treated in the special articles on those subjects. (h. g. p.) Signalling. In railway phraseology the term “ signal ” is applied to a variety of hand motions and indications by lamps and other symbols, as well as to fixed - signals; but only the last-named class—discs and semaphores, with lights, permanently fixed (on posts) at the side of the track—will be considered here. These may be divided into (1) interlocking signals, used at junctions and yards, and (2) block signals, for maintaining an interval of space between trains following one another. In either class the function of a signal is to inform the engine-driver whether or not he may proceed beyond the signal, or on what conditions he may proceed, and it is essential to give him the information some seconds before it need be acted upon. So early as 1846 it became a common practice in England to concentrate the levers for working the points and signals of a station in one or more cabins, and the necessity of interlocking soon became evident to pre- Iater vent simultaneous signals being given over con- iocklng. flicting routes, or for a route not yet prepared to receive the train. In large terminals concentration and interlocking are essential to rapid movement of trains and economical use of ground. The form of signal now approved practically everywhere is the semaphore (Fig. 7), an arm or blade about 5 feet long extending out horizontally, at right angles to the line of the track, from the top of a post (wood or iron) 15 to 30 feet high, and sometimes higher. This arm, turning on a spindle, is pulled down (“off”) to indicate that a train may pass it. The horizontal (or “ on ”) position indicates “stop.” A lamp is fixed to the side of the post about on a level with the blade, and by the movement of the blade is made Fig. 5.—Typical American road-bed—one-half of a double track. to show at night red for “ stop ” and green general, the reader will be struck by one broad distinction for go-ahead or “ all clear.” The earlier practice, white between American and European practice in railway track, for “all clear,” still prevails largely in America. The namely, the greater expenditure in Europe to get security signal is worked from a cabin by rods or wires. and permanence. Space does not permit analysis of the In the early days of railway signalling three positions of the causes of this interesting phase of the subject; but under- semaphore arm were recognized :—(1) Horizontal, or at right angles neath it lie the facts that in the United States money to the post, denoting danger; (2) at a downward angle of 45 and labour were dear, vast and thinly-peopled areas had degrees, denoting caution; (3) hanging vertically downwards oi to be crossed and developed, and the citizen was left to parallel to the post, denoting all right. Corresponding to the of the arm, three different lights were employed at night work out his enterprises with the least possible official position red for danger, green for caution, and white for all right. But control. With the gradual equalizing of conditions in the of late years, in consequence of the introduction of block-working, civilized countries of the earth there is a slow but steady British railways make use of only two positions of the arm and movement in the direction of uniformity in railway con- two lights—the arm at right angles to the post and a red light,

which the spikes are driven. All the accepted forms now have two or more flanges on the bottom of the plate, running lengthwise of the plate and crosswise of the rail • these are necessary to give the plate proper stiffness, and further, as they are driven into the tie by the weight of passing traffic, they help to fix the plate securely in its place. The plates are laid between the rail and the cross tie and serve two principal purposes: they diminish the wear of the tie under the rail, and they help to support the spike and so to keep the gauge. In Great Britain the simple fish-plate joint, as shown in Fig. 2, is used, often provided with flanges depending vertically below the bottom of the rail, to give additional stiffness to the joint. The rail is laid in a cast-iron chair and held there by a key driven in alongside the rail; this key, which is usually of oak, though sometimes of metal, is now generally placed outside the rails, though the inside position is still to be seen occasionally. The chair is held to the sleeper by screwed spikes and by round drift bolts, which are entered in holes already bored in the sleeper. On some railways, e.g., the Great Western and the Taff Yale, fang bolts are employed. With what has been said of practice in the United States and Great Britain, the figures of Continental joints and fastenings will explain themselves. Wherever the bull-head rail is used, it must be laid in chairs; but the usual Continental practice is to use the Vignoles rail, with plates or strips of felt beneath it, all very carefully fastened to sleepers by screwed spikes. The diagram (Fig. 4) of the French rail and joint shows also the rail seat in the sleeper. The practice of notching the sleeper in this way, and giving the rail a slight cant inwards, is very common on the Continent. The same result is reached in England by canting the rail in its chair. This is never done in the United States, where the rails stand upright; and little pains are taken to prepare seats for them on the ties, on which they soon seat themselves. On the Great Western Railway the practice is,to prepare a serrated surface on the sleeper for the chair, which is forced into its seat by hydraulic pressure. On the London and North-Western a strip of felt is interposed between the chair and the sleeper. There is a tendency in Great Britain to increase the weight and bearing-surface of the chairs, also the number of sleepers per mile. A section of road-bed typical in the United States is shown in Fig. 5. In Great Britain and the Continent the sleepers are frequently covered with the Permanent the level of the top of the rail— Up a practice which adds to stability, but makes inspection and maintenance somewhat more difficult. In

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both signifying danger or stop ; and the arm at about 60 degrees and a green light, both meaning all right or proceed. Some companies, while adopting the two positions of the arm or semaphore, still adhere to the use of the three lights—red, green, and white. But the more modern practice of using only red and green lights for signals is far preferable. The reason is obvious. There are many lights and lamps on the platforms, in signal-boxes, and in the streets and houses adjacent to a railway ; and if white lights were recognized as signals, a driver might mistake a light of this nature as a signal to proceed • in fact, accidents have been caused in this manner. It is therefore better to abolish the use of white lights for signalling purposes. A white light is not to be regarded as a danger signal, as is sometimes erroneously stated, but rather as no signal at all; and as there is a well-known rule to the effect that “the absence of a signal at a place where a signal is ordinarily shown must be treated as a danger signal,” it follows that a white light, when seen at a place where a red or green light ought to be visible, is to be treated as a danger signal, not because a white light per se means danger, but because in such a case it denotes the absence of the proper signal. Some companies have adopted a purple light as a “danger” signal for shunting purposes in sidings and yards ; but this practice is not to be commended, since red should be the universal danger signal. On the other hand, a few companies have adopted the purple light as an “ all-right signal for shunting purposes, to which there is no objection. Distant signals are used to make it unnecessary for an engine-driver to slacken his speed in case the stop (home) signal is obscured by fog or smoke, or is beyond a curve, or for any reason is not visible sufficiently far away. Encountering the distant signal at a point 400 to 800 yards before reaching the home signal, he is informed by its position that he may expect to find the latter in the same position. The arm of a distant signal usually has a fish-tail end. In America its night colour-indication is made different from that of the home signal. Thus, where white is used to indicate all clear (in both home and distant) the distant arm, when horizontal, shows a green light; where green is the all-clear colour a horizontal distant shows either a yellow light or (on one road) a red and a green light side by side. Two lights for a single arm, giving their indication by position as well as colour, have been used to a limited extent for both home and distant signals. Dwarf signals are used for very slow movements, such as those to or from a siding. In cases where room must be economized, signals are usually placed on narrow overhead bridges or “ gantries ” spanning a number of tracks. Fig. 6 shows a typical arrangement of interlocked signals, the principle being the same whether a yard has

one set of points or a hundred. The signals (at a, 5, and c) are of the semaphore pattern (Fig. 7). For the four signals and one pair of points there are, in the second storey of the cabin C, five levers. Each signal arm stands normally in the horizontal position, indicating stop. To permit a train to pass from A to B the signalman moves the arm of signal b to an inclined position (60 degrees to 75 degrees downwards); and the interlocking of the levers prevents this movement unless it can safely be made. If a has been changed to permit a movement from S to B, or if the points x have been set for such a movement, or if either signal on post c has been lowered, the lever for b is immovable. In like manner, to incline the arm of signal a for a movement from S to B it is first necessary to have the points set for track S, and to have the levers of all the other signals in the normal (stop) position. . A sixth lever, suitably interlocked, works a lock bar, which engages with the head rod of the points) it is connected

[signalling

to the lock through bar d (called in America the detector bar). This bar, about 45 feet long, lying alongside of and close to the rail, must move upwards when the points lock is being moved either to lock or to unlock; and as it is held down by the wheels of any car or engine standing or moving over it, the signalman is prevented from inadvertently changing the points when a train is passing. At r is a throw-off or derailing switch (“ catch-points ”). When x is set for the passage of trains on the main line, r, connected to the same lever, is open; so that if a car, left on the side track unattended, should be accidentally moved from its position, it could not run foul of the main track. The dwarf signal a being for slow movements, has a blade about 1 foot long, and the post is about 4 feet high; the lower arm on post c being for slow movements, is also frequently made shorter than the upper one. Where more than two full-sized arms are used on a post, the custom in America is to have the upper arm indicate for the track at the extreme right, and the others in the order in which the tracks lie; in Great Britain the opposite rule prevails, the upper arm indicating for the extreme left. All the switches and locks are connected with the signal] cabin by iron rods (channel-iron or gas-pipe) supported (usually near the ground and often covered by boxing) on small grooved wheels set at suitable distances apart. The foundations of these supports are of wood, cast iron, or concrete. Concrete foundations are comparatively recent, but are cheap and durable. For signals (but not for points) wire connexions are universal in England, and are usual in America, being cheaper than rods. In changing the direction of a line of rodding (pipe) a bell-crank is used, but with a wire a piece of chain is inserted and run round a grooved pulley. Wire connexions are shown Fig. 7.—Semaphore signal. R, red glass; G, green at a and b, Fig. 7, the main or glass. “front” wire being attached at a. By this the signalman moves the arm down to the inclined or go-ahead position, to do which he has to lift the counter-weight c. If the wire should break, the counter-weight would restore the arm to the horizontal (stop) position, and thus prevent the unauthorized passage of a train; and in case of failure of the rod I, the iron spectacle s would act as -a safety counter-weight. The back-wire b is added to ensure quick movement of the arm, but is not common in England. Long lines of rigid connexions are “compensated” for expansion and contraction due to changes in temperature by the introduction of bell-cranks or rocker-arms. With wire connexions compensation is difficult, and many plans have been tried. The most satisfactory devices are those in which the connexion, in the cabin, between the wire and the lever is broken when the signal is in the horizontal position. The wire is kept taut by a weight or spring, and at each new movement the lever (if the wire has lengthened or shortened) grips it at a new place. The function of the interlocking machine is to prevent the simultaneous display of conflicting signals, or the display of a signal over points that are not set accordingly. The most common forms of interlocking have the locking bars arranged in a horizontal plane; but for ease of description we may take one having them arranged vertically,

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the principle being the same. The diagram (Fig. 8) shows a section with a side view of one lever. A machine consists of as many levers, placed side by side, as there are points and signals to be moved, though in some cases two pairs of points are moved simultaneously by a single lever, and two or more separate s arms on the same post may be so arranged that either one of them will be moved by the same lever, the position 3 of the point con- y: nexions being made to govern the selection of the arm to be moved. A switch rod would be connected to this lever at H; the lever K is for use where a signal is connected by two wires, as before described. The lever is held in each of its two positions by the catch rod Y, which engages with notches in the segment i». When the signalman, preparatory to lowering a signal, grasps the lever at its upper end, he moves this rod upwards, and in so doing actuates the interlocking, through the tappet IST, attached at T. Lifting the tappet locks all levers which need to be locked to make it safe to move this one. In pulling over the lever the rocker R is also pulled; but the slot in it is radial to the centre on which the lever turns, so that during the stroke N remains motionless. On the completion of the stroke and the dropping of Y, IST is raised still farther, and this unlocks such levers as should be unlocked after this lever is pulled (“ cleared ” or “ reversed ”). It will be seen that whenever the tappet X of any lever is locked in the position shown in the figure, it is impossible to raise Y, and therefore impossible to move the lever. The action of tappet X may be understood by reference to Fig. 9. A tappet, say 3, slides vertically in a planed recess in the locking plate, being held in place by strips G and K. Transverse grooves X, O, P, carry dogs, such as J. Two dogs may be connected together by bars, R. The dogs are held in place by straps Y (Fig. 8). Locking is effected by sliding the dogs horizontally; for example, dog J has been pushed into the notch in tappet 1, holding it in the normal position. If tappet 2 were raised, its notch would come opposite dog J; and then the lifting of 1 would lock 2 by pushing J to the left. By means of horizontal rod R, the lifting of 1 also locks 4. If 4 were already up, it would be impossible to lift 1. “ Power interlocking ” is the term used to describe switch and signal machines worked by compressed air, or electric or hydraulic power. The use of power makes it possible to move points at a distance from the cabin. The most widely used apparatus is the electro-pneumatic, which has been installed at over seventy plants in America and to some extent in other countries. One of these, at the South Station, Boston, is probably the

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most elaborate interlocking plant in the world. In this system points and signals are moved by compressed air at 70 S) per square inch, a cylinder with piston being fixed at each signal or switch. From a compressor near the cabin air is conveyed in iron pipes buried in the ground. The valves admitting air to a cylinder are controlled by electromagnets, the wires of which are laid from the cabin underground. Each switch or signal, on completing a movement, sends an electric impulse to the cabin, and the interlocking is controlled by this “return.” In the machine the “ levers ” are very small and light, their essential function being to open and close electric circuits. This is performed through the medium of a long shaft, placed horizontally with its end towards the operator, which is revolved on its axis through 60 degrees of a circle. This shaft actuates the interlocking, which is in principle the same as that already described; and it opens and closes the electric circuits, governing the admission of air to cylinders, by means of simple metal contact strips rubbing on sections of its surface. The high-

pressure machine has been used with hydraulic power instead of pneumatic, and with electrical interlocking instead of mechanical. Interlocking apparatus worked by compressed air at low pressure (15 lb per square inch), and with no electrical features, is in use on some lines in America and has been introduced into England. In place of an electromagnet for admitting compressed air to the cylinders, a rubber diaphragm 8 inches in diameter is used. This is lifted by air at 7 lb pressure, this pressure being conveyed from a cabin, 500 feet or more, in one or two seconds. As in the electro-pneumatic machine, the lever of a switch cannot complete its stroke until the switch has actually moved home and conveyed a “ return indication to the cabin. Pneumatic apparatus of other designs is in use to a limited extent. Pneumatic interlockings are costly to instal, and, depending on an unfailing source of power, have not been much used at isolated places, except on railways where an air-pipe is installed for block signals; but at large yards the pneumatic machines have been made a means of S. YIII. — 19

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economy, because one attendant can manage as many levers as can- two or three in a manual power machine. Moreover, a single lever will work two or more switches, locks, &c., simultaneously, where desirable. The absence of outdoor connexions above ground is also an advantage. Since about 1900 electric power has come into use for working both points and signals; although, as mentioned below, motors have been used since about 1897 for isolated automatic signals. At interlocking a motor, with gearing and cranks, is fixed to the sleepers at each pair of points. The power is conveyed from the cabin by underground wires, the locking is of common mechanical types, and, in general, the system is similar to pneumatic systems except in the source of power. By using accumulators, charged by dynamos run by gasoline engines, or by a travelling power-car, the cost of power is reduced to a very low figure, so that power-interlocking becomes economical at small as well as large stations. Electric interlocking is extensively used at Crewe, on the London and North-Western, and at Chicago, Illinois. The essence of block signalling is a simple regulation forbidding a train to start from station A until the last preceding train has passed station B. As the Signalling introduction of the telegraph was almost or quite ’ contemporaneous with the advent of the railway, the possibility of a block system was early recognized; but its introduction was retarded by the great cost of employing attendants at every block station. But as traffic increased, the time-interval system, dependent, in the case of irregularities, on the efficiency of a flagman, proved inadequate; and in the United Kingdom the block system is now practically universal, while in America it is in use on many thousand miles of line. The Continent is far behind Great Britain. /SOO'ormore

[signalling

effected by means of ordinary single-needle telegraphic instruments, or by telephone, the drawback to such an arrangement being that the signalman has no indication before him to remind him of the condition of the line.

Fig. 10 shows the signals at a typical English station, which may be called B. Notice having been received over the block telegraph that a train is coming from A (on the up track), the signalman in the cabin, b, lowers the home signal h; and (if the block section from B to C is clear of trains) he lowers the starting signal, s, also. The function of a distant signal d has already been described; it cannot be lowered unless A has been lowered. The relation of the signals to the “ crossover road ” xx is the same in principle as is shown in Fig. 6. Dwarf signals are omitted from the sketch. Where the sections are very short, the starting signal of one section is often placed on the same post as the distant signal of the next. Thus, supposing B and C to be very close to each other, B’s starting signal would be on the same post as C’s distant signal, the latter being below the former, and the two would be so interconnected by “ slotting ” apparatus that ■ C could not lower his distant signal unless B’s starting signal was “off,” while B by the act of raising his starting arm would necessarily throw C’s distant arm to “danger.” In America many block stations have only the home signal, even at stations where there are points and sidings, and on double-track lines the block telegraphing for both is done on a single Morse circuit. In the United Kingdom the practice is to have separate apparatus and separate wires for each track. In the simple block system it is clearly possible for a signalman, through carelessness, forgetfulness, or other cause, so to lower his signals as to admit a second train into the block section before the'Lock-andblock. first has left it, and that without the driver of either train being aware of the fact. To eliminate as far as possible the chance of such an occurrence, which is directly opposed to the essence of the block system and may obviously lead fas/- to a collision, the locking of the mechanical JTeit -Ooirr? signals with the electrical block instruments ToA was introduced in England by Mr W. R. or/mn?_ 1 | Sykes about 1876, the apparatus being so Fig. 10.—Block signals. (English practice, trains run on left-hand track, signals at left of arranged that a signalman at one end of track, arms on left of post.) a section is physically unable to lower his The manual “ block ” system in use at the present day in no signals to let a train enter that section until they have way differs from that devised by Cooke in 1842, except so far as been released electrically from the cabin at the other end. the details and designs of the telegraphic instruments are con- The starting signal at a block section A cannot be lowered cerned. Cooke used a single-needle instrument giving two indications—the needle to the left signifying “ line clear,” to the until the signalman at the next station B, by means of an right, “line blocked”; the instrument being also available for electric circuit, unlocks the lever in connexion with it. speaking purposes. The instruments employed in Great Britain In so doing he breaks the unlocking circuit at his own consist of two dials—one for the up line and one for the down— and a bell. They may be divided into two main classes, those station, and this break is restored only on the arrival of requiring one wire, and those requiring three wires for each the train for which the unlocking was performed, the double line of rails. The dials of the one-wire instruments give wheels of the train acting through a lever or by a short only two indications, namely, “line clear ” and “train on line” rail circuit. Valuable improvements have been made in or “line blocked,” the latter being the normal indication, even when there is no train in the section. The three-wire instrument this machine by Patenall, Coleman, and others, and these has the advantage of giving three indications on the dial, namely, are in use in America. The passage of a train is also “line clear,” “ line closed,” and “ train on line,” the normal indi- made to set a signal at “ stop ” automatically, by disconcation being “line closed.” The one-wire instrument differs necting the rod between the signal and its lever. The from the three-wire in that the indicator is moved over to the connexion cannot be restored by the signalman; it must different positions by a momentary current, and is then held there by induced magnetism, the wire being then free for any suc- be done by an electromagnet brought into action by the ceeding signals. In the three-wire apparatus there is a separate train as it passes the next block station. wire, with an instrument at each end for the up line; the same “ Lock-and-block ” has been used to a limited extent for the down line ; and a wire for the bell, which is common to on a good many lines in England and a half-dozen in both lines. When no current is flowing, the indicator is vertical, meaning “ line blocked or closed.” When a current is sent along America, but of extensive installations there were in 1901 one of the wires, the deflections to the right or left, according to the only four : two in America—the New York, New Haven, polarity of the current, mean “line clear” or “train on line” and Hartford, 229 miles, and the New York Central and respectively. Some dial instruments are made with needles, some Hudson River, 457 miles, and two in England—the with small discs, some with miniature semaphores to give the South-Eastern and Chatham and the London and Southnecessary indications, biit the effect is the same. The block instruments and bells should not, as a rule, be used for speaking Western. purposes ; but on a few subsidiary railways, block working is In “permissive blocking,” an objectionable practice

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which is occasionally resorted to on many lines, especially in America, a second train is permitted to enter a section before the preceding one has cleared it, the engineman being required so to control his speed that if the preceding train be unexpectedly stopped he can himself stop before colliding with it. With this practice “ lock-andblock ” would be useless. The block system is used on single as well as on double lines. In the United Kingdom and in Australia the means for preventing collisions between trains Siaff running towards each other is the “ staff system.” system. suitably inscribed, is delivered to the engine-driver at station A, and constitutes his authority to occupy the main track between that station and station B. On reaching B he surrenders the staff, and receives another one which gives him the right to the road between B and C. If there are two or more trains to be moved, all except the last one receive tickets, which belong to that particular staff. The staff system requires no telegraph; but to obviate the inconvenience of sometimes finding the staff at the wrong end of the road, electric staff apparatus has been devised. Staffs (or tablets) in any desired number are kept at each of the two stations, and are locked in a cabinet automatically controlled, through electromagnets, by apparatus in the cabinet at the other station; and a staff (or tablet) being taken out at one station, a second one cannot be taken out at either station until this first one is returned to the magazine at one station or the other. Thus we have a complete block system. By simple “catching apparatus” on the engine, staffs or tablets may be delivered to trains moving at a good speed. The electric staff is used in Great Britain, in Australia, and on half a dozen roads in America. In America automatic rail-circuit block signals are extensively used, and the Pennsylvania Railroad has substituted them for non-automatic on its main line. t,C The signals -prance signas. y have (1901), beenbutintroduced only on ainvery England few lines. and The apparatus is costly, and so is inspection; but at block stations where there are no points the wages of a signalman are saved. The block sections are made shorter, usually less than a mile long. There are three styles in general use, the Hall (introduced in 1871), the Union clock-work (1880), and the Westinghouse electro-pneumatic (1884). Within the past few years all manufacturers have made signals worked by individual electric motors, and these have been introduced extensively in America. Energy is derived from a non-freezing battery at each post, or from accumulators fed by wires from dynamos situated, say, every 10 miles along the line. Another recent device is the gas-motor signal. A tank of carbonic acid gas, at the foot of the post, furnishes power for several thousand movements. Line-wire circuits have been about abandoned everywhere, and the rail circuit is universal.

Fig. 11.—Automatic electric block signal, with rail circuit. Fig. 11 shows the arrangement of a rail circuit. The disc is fixed to a vertical spindle (Fig. 12), and the clock-work revolves the spindle on its axis, one-quarter turn at each operation. The current from the main battery b flows through the rails of one side of the track to the signal s, through an electromagnet which controls the clock-work, and back to the battery through the other rail. The presence on any part of this block section of a train, or any vehicle with metal wheels connected by metal axles, short-circuits the current from the battery, so that the relay (placed vertically) drops

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its armature. This releases the clock-work and causes the signal disc to turn so as to indicate “ stop.” On the restoration of the current the signal makes another quarter turn and then shows only its edge to the approaching train, indicating “all clear.” At each rail joint a wire is used to ensure electrical continuity, and at the ends of each block section there are insulating joints. The current for a rail circuit must be of low tension because of the imperfect insulation. As a rule the ballast must not be allowed to touch the rails, and it must be free from iron or other conducting material. Block sections more than about 1 mile long are usually divided into two or more circuits, connected together by relays. At points the rail circuit is run through a circuit breaker, so that the “opening” of the points will set the signal for that section. The circuit is also run through the rails of the side track as far as it fouls the main track. An indicator at each switch gives audible or visual warning of the approach of a train The enclosed disc signal, commonly called a “ banjo ” (Fig. 13), is a circular box about 4 feet in diameter, with a glasscovered opening, behind which a red disc is shown to indicate stop. The disc, very light, made of cloth stretched over a wire, or of aluminium, is supported on a spindle, which is delicately balanced on a pivot so that the closing of an electromagnet lifts the disc away from the window and thus indicates “all clear.” On the withdrawal or failure of the current the disc falls by gravity to the “ stop ” position. A local battery is used, with a relay, the rail circuit not being strong enough to lift the disc. FlG‘ 13'—El(Haii)d dlSC sisnal In the electro-pneumatic system a full-size semaphore is used. Compressed air, from pumps situated at intervals of 10 to 20 miles, is conveyed along the line in an iron pipe, and is supplied to a cylinder at each signal, exactly as in pneumatic interlocking, before described. The rail circuit, when complete, maintains pressure in a cylinder, holding the signal “off.” On the entrance of a train or the failure of the current, the air is liberated, and the signal arm is carried by gravity to the “ stop ” position. Automatic signals are sometimes made to stand normally (when no train is in the section) in the “stop” position. The local circuit is connected with the rail circuit so that it is closed only when a train is approaching within, say, one mile. With the rail circuit, distant signals are controlled, without a line wire, by means of a polarized relay. Each signal, when cleared, changes the polarity of the rail circuit for the next section in its rear, and this, by the polarized relay, closes the local circuit of the distant signal, without affecting the home signal for that section.

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RAILWAYS [signalling discovered, the manner of using it is by no means simple. It is Automatic signals are used in America on a few single no use placing such an apparatus immediately alongside a lines. The signal at A for the line AB is arranged as clearly stop signal, as the driver would receive the intimation too late for before described; and the signal at B, for movements in him to be able to stop at the required spot. To place devices of the opposite direction, is worked by means of a line wire this description at or near every stop signal in a large station or from A, strung on poles. When a section is occupied, busy junction would involve a multiplication of wires or rods which undesirable. Every such apparatus should certainly be capable signals are set tivo sections away, so as to provide against is of giving an “all-right” signal as well as a “danger” signal. the simultaneous entry of two trains. It requires very careful maintenance, and should be in regular daily The length of railway in the United States equipped use to ensure its efficiency. with automatic block signals was in 1902 about 4000 miles. The fundamental principles of railway signalling are One of the chief causes of anxiety and difficulty in the working of railway traffic is fog, which practically blots out the whole simple, but the development of the science has called for system of visible signals, so that while the block tele- much study and a large money outlay. On every railway j •®r” ...ing. graphinstructions remains, theto means of communicating neces- of any consequence the problems of safety, economy, and sigaal the driver are no longerthe effective. convenience are involved, one with another, and cannot Delay and confusion immediately arise ; and in order to secure be perfectly solved. Not for twenty years after block safety, speed has to be lessened, trains have to be reduced in number, and a system of “fog-signalling ” introduced. In England, signalling was acknowledged to be desirable did the railespecially around London, elaborate arrangements have to be ways of Great Britain deem themselves able to afford made. “Fog-signalling” consists in the employment of audible the money to make its use universal. Even so fundasignals, or detonators, to convey to drivers the information mental a duty as that of guarding the safety of life and ordinarily imparted by the visible or semaphore signals. As soon as possible after a fog comes on, a man is stationed at the foot of limb is a relative one, when we have to coneach distant signal, and generally of each home signal also, who sider whether a certain expenditure is justifiby means of detonators, red and green flags, and a hand-lamp able for a given safety device. Having good s}gaajiing% conveys information to the driver of every train as to the position discipline and foregoing the advantages of high of the semaphore arm. A detonator is a small flat metal case about 2 inches in diameter and ^ inch deep, furnished with two speed, many a manager has successfully deferred the leaden ears or clips which can be easily bent down to grip the head introduction of signals; others, having to meet severe of the rail. The case contains some detonating composition, which competition, or, in Great Britain, under the pressure of the readily explodes with a loud report when a wheel passes over it. Government, have been forced to adopt the most comAs soon as a signal arm is raised to “danger,” the fogman places upon one of the rails of the track to which the signal applies two plete apparatus at great cost. In large city terminal detonators, or in the case of a new and improved class of detonator stations, where additions to the space are out of the queswhich contains two separate charges in one case, one detonator, tion, interlocking is necessary for economy of time and and at the same time exhibits a red flag or light to the driver of an approaching train. The engine of a train passing oyer the labour, as, indeed, it is in a less degree at smaller stations detonators explodes them, the noise so made being sufficient to also; as a measure of safety, however,- it is desirable at apprise the driver that the signal, though invisible to him, is at even the smallest, and the wise manager extends its use as danger, and he then should act in the same way as if he had seen fast as he is financially able. At crossings at grade level the signal. If, however, the signal arm should be lowered to the of one railway with another, and at drawbridges, inter“all-right” position before a train reaches it, the fogman should immediately remove the detonators and exhibit a green flag or locked signals with derailing switches obviate the necessity lamp, replacing the detonators as soon as the signal is again raised of stopping all the trains, as formerly was required by law to danger. As a rule the fogmen are drawn from the ranks of the everywhere in America, and saving a stop saves money. permanent-way men, who otherwise would be idle. But if, as The block system was introduced primarily for safety, but sometimes happens, a fog continues for several days, great difficulty is experienced in obtaining sufficient men to carry on this where trains are frequent it becomes also an element of important duty without undue prolongation of their hours of work. economy. Without it trains must usually be run at least When this happens, signalmen, shunters, porters, yardsmen, and five minutes apart (many managers deem seven or ten even clerks may have to be called on to take a turn at “fogging.” minutes the shortest safe interval for general use), but Some companies have adopted mechanical appliances, whereby a man can place a detonator upon a line of rails or remove it with it the interval may be reduced to three minutes, or while standing at a distance away from the track, thus enabling less, according to the shortness of the block sections. him to attend to more than one line without danger to himself. With automatic signals trains are safely run at high speed The cost of detonators often amounts to a considerable sum ; and only one and a half miles apart. Automatic signals are an apparatus called an economizer has been introduced, whereby liable to dangerous failure from sticking of movable parts the explosion of one detonator removes the second from the rails before the wheels reach it. As it is only necessary for one de- or from lightning; but records show that a series of tonator to explode, the object of placing two on the rails being signals properly cared for will fail only once in a million merely to guard against a miss-fire, considerable saving can thus times (from all causes); and in view of the lower cost of be effected. Many attempts have been made to design a mechanical the automatic, and its perfect adaptability to permissive apparatus for conveying to a driver the requisite information as to the state of the signals during a fog, and for enabling the fogmen signalling, makers and users of the system offer the defence to be dispensed with. Such inventions usually consist of two parts, that (1) not all failures cause collision; and (2) human namely, (1) an inclined plane, or block, or trigger, placed on the attendants also make dangerous mistakes. The signal permanent way alongside the track or between the rails, and equipment of the largest railways costs from for to increase it involved an increase in the length of the rigid wheel-base, Number Length impossible with due regard to safety. Hence bogies or of Passen- Weight. Compartments. of Carriage. gers. Body. swivel trucks, which allow of longer car bodies, are fast coming into use; indeed, the standard coaching stock of Great Britain is now carried on bogies. The American passenger car has invariably been mounted on swivel trucks, EH O having four wheels each for ordinary cars and six wheels each for sleeping, postal, and other heavy cars. A noteworthy feature in British practice has been the 6-wheeled -bogie 1st 33 9 2 saloons class dining large increase in the weight of passenger vehicles, both 6-wheeled-bogie3rd 32 7 2 saloons class dining absolutely and still more in relation to the number of 4-wheeled-bogie 1st 24 4 persons they can accommodate. The result, which is class corridor . 4-wheeled-bogie3rd attributable in great part to the lavatories now general, 24 19 class corridor . and to the introduction of corridor carriages, is reflected 4-wheeled -bogie 26 16 2 composite . in the heavier trains run, and in the larger and more 6-wheeled -bogie 34 9 5 saloons sleeping . powerful locomotives that must be provided to haul them. Some idea of the extent to which rolling stock has In Great Britain the railway companies are by the Regulaincreased in weight and decreased in capacity may be gained from the official figures, as given in Table XVII., tion of Railways Act, 1868, required to fit trains which of the standard stock in use on the Midland Railway run more than 20 miles without a stop with communiin 1901, if they are compared with those in the similar some means of communication between the cation table to be found in the article Railways in the ninth passengers and the officials in charge. With g edition of this Encyclopaedia (vol. xx. p. 248). Thus a the system of separate carriages this is not an standard bogie third-class passenger coach in 1885 weighed easy matter to accomplish satisfactorily. On some lines 17-f tons and held 70 persons; in 1901 the weight had electrical devices have been in use for many years, but the risen to almost 25 tons and the capacity fallen to 36 most common method has been a continuous cord running along the whole length of the train outside and above persons. As a result of early practice in bridge, station, and tunnel the carriage windows, which, when pulled down, was construction, British and Continental carriages cannot be supposed to give an alarm signal to the guards and made as large as American passenger pars; engine-driver. The arrangement had many disadvantages, Heating though the restriction is less on the Continent not the least being that it frequently failed to act. ‘lighting, than in Great Britain (see Fig. 14 for clearance Recently a number of the railway companies have decided gauges). One consequence is that larger cubic 1 These cans in many cases do not contain water, but fused acetate capacity per passenger is possible in the United States of soda. When cold, the contents are solid ; but when they are heated —a fortunate circumstance, since the greater range. of by being immersed in hot water, they liquefy, and in the process temperature there makes proper heating and ventilation absorb heat, which is given out again on the change of state back to relatively more important and at the same time more solid. Hence the cans remain warm for a very long time.

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to adopt a modification whereby the cord, which runs along the cornice inside the compartments, is continuous through each carriage but not through the train, and is connected to the air-brake apparatus, so that, when pulled down, it puts the brakes on sufficiently to attract the attention of the driver. In the corridor trains, attendants can pass freely from one end to the other, and a system of electric bells enables the passenger to summon them at will. There is a broad difference, in practice in making up passenger vehicles into trains, which has come about partly because of the different mode of handling luggage. In the United States the passenger claims his luggage at the luggage-room of the station, or more often gives his receipt (“check”) to a third party, and only sees his luggage at his hotel or house. Hence the luggage going by any one train is concentrated in one or more special vehicles (“ baggage cars ”), placed at or near the head of the train; this is also true of Continental practice. Here also will often be found in the United States the “ express car,” which carries such packages as in other countries are carried by parcel post or by fast goods trains at special

155

rates. Here will often be found also a huge post-office car. Then follow, in order as mentioned, a smoking-car, ordinary day - cars (often called coaches), parlour - cars, sleeping-cars, and, finally, a dining-car. Dining, sleeping, and postal cars have no place in trains making short runs. In the United Kingdom passenger trains often contain vehicles which are never seen in the United States and seldom on the Continent, namely, horse-boxes and carriagetrucks. These are a part of the thorough organization for comfort and convenience in railway travelling which is probably more complete in the British Islands than anywhere else in world. A comparison of the weights of passengers trains in Europe and the United States is difficult to make. In all countries trains of different weights are used eS according to the different services they are required to perform, and it would obviously be improper to compare a long-distance fast train, with sleeping or dining cars, with a slow short-distance train, carrying nothing but passengers. Moreover, the weight of a train timed to leave a given station at a particular time may vary from season to season, and even from day to day, according to the number

Table XYIII. — Weight and Speed of Trains. Train. 10 a.m. ex Euston . 10 a.m. ex King’s Cross 2 p.m. ex Euston . 11.50 p.m. ex Euston 11.30 p.m. ex King’s Cross 5.30 p.m. ex Euston 5 p.m. ex Birmingham (L. & K.-W Railway) 2 p.m. ex Leeds 1.30 p.m. ex King’s Cross 10.35 a.m. ex Paddington (Cornish express) 1.40 p.m. ex Paddington 9.30 a.m. ex St Pancras . 12 p.m. ex St Pancras 3.44 p.m. ex Jersey City (Pennsylvania RR.) . . . f 10.14 p.m. ex Jersey City (Pennsylvania RR.) .... 12 noon ex Chicago (Pennsylvania RR.) . 8.30 a.m. ex Grand Central Station (New York Central) 12.30 p.m. ex Chicago (New York Central) ..... 5.30 p.m. ex Grand Central Station (New York Central) 12.14 p.m. ex Jersey City (Lehigh Valley RR.) . . . . 3.51 p.m. ex Jersey City (Philadelphia and Reading Railway and Baltimore and Ohio RR.)

Journey. London to Edinburgh 5J 55 London to Carlisle London to Crewe Crewe to Carlisle London to Crewe Crewe to Carlisle Carlisle to Edinburgh London to Grantham Grantham to York . York to Newcastle . Newcastle to Edinburgh London to Crewe

Approximate Weight, exclu- Speed, inDistance. sive of Engine clusive and Tender of Stops. (ton = 2240 tt>). Miles. 484 3994 265-340 47§ 3931 230-280 48 2991 290-330 48 158 330 49| 1411 290-330 158 290 524 52 290 1414 484 1004 52| 200-300 1054 544 200-300 82f 53§ 804 200-300 504 1244 200-300 54 158 330

Birmingham to London . Leeds to King’s Cross, London Grantham to King’s Cross London to Leeds London to Peterborough .

113 185f 1054 185f 764

120 90-170 90-170 165-190 165-190

564 514 554 504 55

London to Penzance. London to Exeter or Exeter to Plymouth! N th Road) London to Worcester London to Edinburgh London to Leeds Leeds to Carlisle London to Glasgow .

3254 193| 52f 1204 406 1964 1124 423

220 230 176 190 190

414 534 4l| 53 474 504 49 47

New York to Washington

2264

312

New York to Chicago Chicago to New York (Jersey City)

911

155

Remarks.

Congressional Limited.

336

474 384

911

215

464

Pennsylvania Special.

New York to Buffalo New York to Albany Albany to Buffalo . Syracuse to Rochester

4394 142f 296| 804

225 225 225 225

534 534 534 574

Empire State Express.

Chicago to New York

312

49

20th Century Limited.

New York to Chicago

9794 9794

460

40|

Lake Shore Limited.

New York to Buffalo

4464

230

45-6

Black Diamond Express.

New York to Washington

2274

300

474

Royal Limited.

Pennsylvania Limited.

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of coaches required to accommodate the traffic. For short and middle distances probably the usual weight of trains varies between about the same limits in all countries; for long distances the necessity of providing sustained arrangements for living on the journey tends to increase of weight, and therefore in extensive countries like the United States heavier trains may be found than in small ones like Great Britain. At the same time, there are some long-distance trains in Great Britain quite as heavy, if not heavier than some in the United States, even though the average weight of rolling stock is distinctly greater in the latter country. General conclusions, except of the vaguest character, are therefore almost impossible, and the best that can be done is to consider specific instances. A number of these have been collected in Table XVIII., which gives some of the best and heaviest trains run in the two countries. In using it, the reader must remember that the weight of a particular train may vary not only initially from day to day, owing to variation of traffic, but also on any one journey from station to station, owing to carriages being added or taken away. A comparison of average speeds is scarcely less difficult than of average weights. In 1888 a careful study was made of express train mileage in the United pee ' Kingdom, on the Continent, and in the United States. For the United Kingdom and the United States 40 miles an hour, including stops, was taken as express train speed, i.e., an average rate of 40 miles an hour from the beginning of the journey to the end. But on the Continent so few trains reached this rate of travelling that the arbitrary speed of 29 miles was taken there for express speed. It was found that in the United Kingdom trains ran 62,900 miles every day at and over 40 miles an hour, and in the United States 13,956 miles, while on the Continent of Europe trains ran 118,000 miles at and over 29 miles an hour, but at and over 40 miles an hour there was something less than 9000 miles a day on the entire Continent. Since that date an important change has taken place in Great Britain, the United States, France, and Germany. In all these countries faster trains are run, and the average express speed has been raised. The fastest trains are no longer run in Great Britain, but in America, by the Philadelphia and Reading Railway between Philadelphia and Atlantic City, in competition with the Pennsylvania Railroad. Passengers are conveyed from Philadelphia by ferry-boat across the river Delaware to Camden, whence the distance to Atlantic City by the Philadelphia and Reading Company’s lines is 55 J miles. This is covered by some trains in 50 minutes; the booked speed thus is 66’6 miles an hour, and on some occasions an average speed of over 71 miles an hour has been maintained from start to stop. By the Pennsylvania Railroad Company’s system the distance between Camden and Atlantic City is 58 miles, and trains weighing about 160 tons, exclusive of engine, are booked to perform the journey at the rate of 64’4 miles an hour. In Great Britain, on the Caledonian Railway from Forfar to Perth, one train covers 32| miles in 33 minutes (59'09 miles an hour), and on the North-Eastern Railway a train runs from Darlington to York (43f miles) in 43 minutes (61'04 miles an hour). In France, also, instances may be found of trains timed over 60 miles an hour, e.g., Paris to Arras 120 miles in 117 minutes. Of course still higher speeds, up to 75 and even 80 miles an hour, are reached and sustained for shorter or longer distances every day by express trains, the average speed of which between any two stopping-places is very much less. But isolated examples of high speeds alford little information as to the train service at the command of the traveller in different countries, for it is obvious that his convenience

[rolling stock

will be better served by a large number of trains, all maintaining a good average of speed, than by a service consisting mostly of poor trains, with only one or two exceptionally fast ones. From this point of view Great Britain remains ahead of all other countries. To give exact numerical expression to this superiority is impossible, but Table XIX. will supply a general idea of the volume and speed of express traffic in different countries. No train has been included which does not run daily (except Sundays) and travel at least 40 miles an hour on the average, inclusive of stops. This limitation excludes many trains which are called “fast” and “express,” both in the United States and on the Continent, but even if the speed necessary to gain admission to the table were reduced by a good many miles an hour, Great Britain would still hold the first place if the number of high-speed trains is taken into account as well as the average of speed attained:— Table XIX.—Speed and Number of Express Trains. Speed in Miles per Hour. Trains (Summer, 1902) in both Directions between sO X!£ London and Rugby— By L. & N.-W. Railway By G. C. Railway London and Manchester— ByL. &N.- jvid Stoke W. Rly. (vid Crewe By Midland Railway— ByG. N. Rly. {vid Retford) ByG.C. Rly. . London and Leeds— By G. N. Railway By Midland Railway London and Exeter— By G. W. Railway . ByL. & S.-W. Railway London and Edinburgh— By East Coast Route By West Coast Route By Midland Route . London and Edin. (Winter 1901-02)— By East Coast Route By West Coast Route By Midland Route . London and Aberdeen— By East Coast Route By West Coast Route By Midland Route . New York (Jersey City) and Philadelphia— Pennsylvania RR. P. and R. Railway . New York and Albany— N. Y. C. and H. R. RR. . New York and Boston— N.Y.,N.H., (wd Shore Line & H. RR. (vid Air Line . New York and Buffalo— N. Y. C. & H. R. RR. Lehigh Valley (from Jersey City) .... Del. Lack, and West. RR. (from Hoboken) . Paris and Calais (Nord) Paris and Marseilles (P. L. M. Railway) Berlin and Hamburg (Prussian State Rlys.) . Berlin and Halle (Prussian State Rlys.) . Berlin and Hanover (Prussian State Rlys.) .

82J 83j 183J 188| 1891 209i 206 185J 1961 1931 17U 393J 3991 406

92* 48

15 26 16 12 11

39

S— 3-33a> ootjh ; —cu oo

13 27 56-5 0 4 50-5 47-8 50-3 49-4 45463 52-5 51-2 53-5 495049-9 47'3

393J 3991 406 523J 540 5361

507 49'9 47’3 474844-4

891 149 901 A 143 ! 21 233 214 17 4391 4461 410 185 536

50U 5053-6 46-6

177 100i 160

5150-0 46-

53-2 457 4555-5 43T

* Including trains that pass through Rugby without stopping. Goods Trains.—The vehicles for the transportation of goods are known as goods waggons or trucks in Great Britain and on the Continent, and as freight cars in America. The principal British and Continental types are open trucks or waggons (the lading often covered with sheets), mineral trucks, and covered or box waggons for

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cotton, grain, &c. The American freight cars of the principal types are known as box cars, gondola cars, coal Size and cars> stock cars, tank cars, and refrigerator cars. construe- Most of these terms explain themselves. The tion of gondola car corresponds to the European open trucks. waggon, and is used to carry goods not subject to injury by the weather; but in the United States the practice of covering the load with tarpaulin sheets is unknown, and therefore the proportion of box cars is much greater than in Europe. Indeed, the long hauls in the United States make it even more important there than in other countries to load cars in both directions, and so it has come about that for the return journey coal, coke, ore, lumber, and other coarse articles are loaded into box cars that have carried grain or merchandise one way. It is common to put small end doors in American box cars, through which lumber and rails may be loaded. The fundamental difference between American freight cars and the goods waggons of Europe and all other lands is in carrying capacity. This difference is interesting as an example of development under the influence of surrounding conditions. Indeed, the American freight car is so unlike those of other countries that comparisons are difficult. In the United Kingdom the average carrying capacity of goods waggons must be under 10 tons, perhaps about 8 tons, and the capacity of heavy mineral trucks is 11 tons. On the Continent the average carrying capacity is a little over 10 tons; there are many cars still in service of less than 10 tons’ capacity, but much the greater number are rated at 10 tons, while large numbers of 15-ton cars have been built within a few years, and the tendency is to raise the capacity. These are all short cars with four wheels. Freight cars in the United States have long bodies on two swinging trucks of four wheels each, and their average capacity is quite three times as great as that of European waggons. For years the standard freight car has been of 30 tons’ capacity (short tons, 2000 Eb); in recent years many 40-ton cars have been put in service; and still more recently several thousand cars have been built of 50 and even 55 tons’ capacity. This great carrying capacity of the freight cars in the United States has worked in several ways to make possible those very low freight rates mentioned in the introduction to this article. It has diminished the ratio of non-paying to paying load; it has diminished the interest on first cost and cost of maintenance relatively to the work done; it has diminished in some degree, probably small, the amount of track and yard room required to do a unit of work; it has diminished journal and rolling friction relatively to tons hauled, for these elements of train resistance grow relatively less as the load per wheel rises; finally, and most important of all, the wages element has fallen as train loads have grown greater, since no more men are required to handle a heavy train than a light one. It is often said that if these things are true for one country they must be true for another, and that in Great Britain, for example, the use of more capacious cars would bring down the cost of goods carriage. This is not the place to debate a controverted question, but it may be pointed out that social and geographical conditions are different in the United States and the United Kingdom, and in each country the methods of conveying goods and passengers have been developed according to the requirements of those conditions. In one country the population is dense, large towns are numerous and near each other, the greatest distances to be traversed are short, and relatively a large part of the freight to be carried is merchandise and manufactured material. In the other country precisely the opposite conditions exist. Under the first set of conditions quickness and flexibility of service are

157

relatively more important than under the second set; therefore goods are collected and despatched promptly, in numerous cars, often only partly loaded. But where the great volume of freight is raw material and crude foodstuffs, and the distances are great, a low charge per unit of transportation is more important than any other consideration ; therefore freight is massed into full car loads and enormous trains, and sent perhaps 1000 miles to a distributing-point, or to a seaport. At the same time it must be noted that several British railway companies are experimenting with trucks of large capacity, similar to those used in America, but appear to find some trouble in getting full loads for them. The differences in the carrying capacity of freight cars in Europe and the United States have brought about the differences in the make-up of freight trains. Here, as with passenger trains, averages mean little, but typical special cases give useful comparisons. In Great Britain we find, on six of the great railways, mineral trains (i.e., trains carrying coal, coke, and ore) which weigh (trucks and load, but not the engine) from 525 to 765 tons. These weights, however, are in some cases greatly exceeded. Several British railways have engines capable of hauling loads of 1000 tons; and on the NorthEastern one (No. 15 in Table XVI.) has taken a train of 81 loaded trucks and one van, weighing 1326^ tons and nearly a third of a mile in length, up a bank of 1 in 108 at the wTorst point, where also there was a curve of 20 chains’ radius. The speed of such mineral trains, like the weight, varies with the gradients and other conditions, and they may be timed from 10 to 30 miles an hour, not counting time spent on sidings. The fast goods trains carry lighter loads and run faster; on the same lines these vary from 214 to 460 tons and make 25 to 30 miles an hour, the speeds rising so high as 37 miles an hour for short distances, and falling so low as 13. In Prussia an example of good practice for the various classes of goods trains gives weights from 900 to 1100 tons, and speeds (terminus to terminus) of 11 to 21 miles an hour, according to load and gradient. In the United States mineral and grain trains weigh from 1500 to 3800 tons (2240 Eb), and 2000 tons would be only fairly good practice for this class of traffic. These trains are necessarily and properly very slow, being timed at 10 or 12 miles an hour. The merchandise trains of the United States are lighter and faster than those carrying coal, ore, salt, &c.; and this is true also of the important classes of trains which carry live stock, fruit, and dairy products, and dressed meat in refrigerator cars. It is obvious that the weight and speed of these trains must vary with topographical conditions. In the great continental basin are long lines with easy gradients and curves; in the Allegheny and Rocky Mountains gradients are heavy and curves are numerous and of short radius. We find, therefore, that the trains of which we are now speaking weigh from 600 to 1800, and even 2000 tons, and the journey speeds, from terminus to terminus, including stops, vary from 15 to 30 miles an hour. It is not uncommon for these trains to maintain, for considerable distances, 40 miles an hour; and managers of some of the most important prairie lines estimate that their freight trains often run over a mile a minute for many miles at a time. Such speeds for freight trains of 1000 tons or more demand great engine-power, the best couplings, and high-power continuous brakes. (See Bkakes.) Couplings.—The means generally employed for connecting freight cars or goods waggons, one to the other, are not automatic; that is, men must go between the vehicles to couple or uncouple them, or at best can only avoid doing so by the use of a stick to guide the coupling link to its

[rolling stock RAIL WAYS place. As a result, many men have been killed or maimed undertook to permit its free use by railway companies in the performance of their duties in railway yards, and which were members of the Master Car Builders’ Associaa great body of public opinion has grown up which calls tion, and thus threw open the underlying principle of this for automatic couplers, and has found expression in agita- coupler to competition. From that time the numerous tion, invention, and legislation. In the United States an patents have been merely on details. There are fifteen automatic freight car coupler is used on possibly 90 per different couplers of the Janney type, patented and made cent, of freight stock. To effect this took more than by as many different concerns, each of which is used on twenty-five years of discussion and experiment. The Master at least 10,000 cars, and, in addition, many other forms Car Builders’ Association, which is a great, body of are in less extensive use. The movement towards the mechanical officers organized especially to bring about use of an automatic coupler was stimulated in some degree improvement and uniformity in details of construction and by laws enacted by the various states and by the United operation, expressed itself in 1874 as understanding the States; and in 1893 Congress passed an Act, one clause importance of a “ self-coupler,” but none had then been of which required railway companies to have their freight invented which could be considered as useful. At that cars equipped with automatic couplers by January 1898. time a member of the Association spoke of the disappearance The Interstate Commerce Commission, which has disof automatic couplers which had been introduced thirty oi cretion in the matter, extended the limit to 1st August forty years before. This body pursued the subject with 1900. The coupler in general use outside of the United States more or less diligence, and in 1884 laid down the principle is a chain and hook, with spring buffers, which, however, that the automatic coupler should be one acting in a vertical plane; that is, the engaging faces should be free are no part of the coupler itself. In the United States to move up and down within a considerable range, in ordei the universal coupler, which has now almost disappeared, to provide for differences in the height of cars brought was the “ link-and-pin ” coupler, in which a draw-bar is together. This principle having been fixed, the task of spring-connected to the frame of the car. The out-board the inventor was considerably simplified. In lb87 a end of this draw-bar is a socket, into which one end of a solid committee reported that the coupler question was “ the link is inserted, and the pull is exerted on a pin dropped knottiest mechanical problem that had ever been presented through this link. The first strain of compression, when to the railroad,” and over 4000 attempted solutions were the cars close together, is also taken on this draw-bar and on record in the United States Patent Office. The com- transmitted back through the springs to the frame of the mittee had not found one which did not have grave dis- car. Thus there is a fundamental difference between advantages. In 1887, however, the Association recom- American and European practice in that in the United mended the adoption of a coupler of the Janney type, and States the coupler is also a buffer. The essential change from the link-and-pin to the this coupler as it has developed is shown in Fig. 15. automatic coupler is in the out-board end or head of the draw-bar. The socket to receive the link is replaced by a hook, shown.at A, Fig. 15, which is usually called the knuckle. This hook swings on the pivot B. It has an arm which extends backwards, practically at right angles with the working face of the hook, in a cavity in the head, and engages with the locking-pin C. This locking-pin is lifted by a suitable lever, which extends to one side or to both sides of the car. Lifting the locking-pin releases the Fig. 15.—Automatic coupling tor freight cars(U.S.A.). knuckle, which is free to swing open, disconnecting the The committee concluded that “ the principle of contact of two cars. The knuckle stands open until the coupling is the surfaces of vertical cylinders embodied in the Janney pushed against another coupling, when the two hooks coupler affords the best connexion for cars on curves and turn on their pivots to the position shown in Fig. 15, and tangents.” The method of constructing the working faces the locking-pin drops into place and the couplers are made of the Janney coupler is shown in Fig. 16, which illustrates fast. This coupler is only partly automatic. It often happens that when two cars are brought together to couple, the knuckles are closed and must be opened by hand. There are various contrivances by which this may be done by a man standing clear of the cars, but in most cases he must go between the cars to reach the knuckle. This defect will no doubt be corrected by comparatively simple means. This form of automatic coupler is the only one used to any extent in the United States, where it is now practically universal, and no reason now appears why any other should be used there. It has been adapted to British and Continental rolling stock in a few instances for experiment, but whether or not it will be found acceptable cannot be foretold. The tendency in Great Britain is perhaps rather towards some non-automatic form of Fig. 16.—Development of the working faces of the Janney coupler. The sides coupling which can be safely coupled and uncoupled withof the square are 6 inches, and the centres AA are taken at 2 inches from out the necessity of men going in between the waggons. the top and bottom of the square. The circles A'A', which are struck Another question which is attracting the attention of with 2-inch radius, define the first portion of the knuckle. The inner circle B has a radius of l£ inches. From its intersection with A'A' arcs inventors and railway companies in England is the problem are struck cutting B in two points. These intersections determine the of fitting waggons with hand-brakes which can be applied centres of the semicircles CO which form the ends of the respective knuckles. These semicircles and the circles A'A' are joined by tangents and released from either side of the waggon indifferently. and short arcs struck from the centre of the figure. The old form of brake is worked by a lever which is the principle of contact of vertical cylinders. This prin- fitted at one side only, and thus the men, in order to ciple was patented, but the company owning the patent work the brake, often have to incur the danger of passing 158

intra-ubban]

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under the waggons. The Board of Trade has power, under the Prevention of Accidents Act of 1900, to insist on all waggons being fitted with “ either-side ” brakes. (See above, p. 137.) Vestibules for Passenger Cars.—End platforms and end doors have always been characteristic of American passenger equipment, and are extending to British and Continental carriages. Their use secures a continuous passageway through the train, but is attended with some discomfort and some risk when the train is in motion. The opening of the end < doors may make a draught through the car, disagreeable in cold weather, and passengers occasionally fall from the open platform, or are blown from it, while the train is moving. The first object of the vestibule is to enclose the platform with a housing so arranged as to be continuous when cars are made up into trains, and fitted with side doors for ingress and egress when trains are standing. A second effect of the vestibule has developed in use. It appears that the lateral swaying of the cars is diminished by the friction between the vestibule frames. The fundamental American vestibule patent, issued to Mr H. H. Sessions, of Chicago, in November 1887, covered a housing in combination with a vertical metallic plate frame of the general contour of the central passageway, projecting slightly beyond the coupling line, and held out by horizontal springs top and bottom; the plate frame being' connected with the platform housing by flexible connexions at the top and sides,

159

on the Sessions patent have resulted in a modified form of vestibule in which the housing is made the full width of the platform, although the contact plate and springs, and the flexible connexions, remain the same as before, On long journeys the vestibule is a convenience and a comfort ; but its application is practically limited to the cars which are run in such trains, as it is an obstruction to the free ingress and egress of passengers on local trains which make frequent stops. Of American cars intended to carry passengers, the proportion equipped with vestibules in September 1900 was about as follows: cars owned by railway companies, 15 per cent.; cars owned by the Pullman Company, 75 per cent. It appears probable that the application of vestibules will continue until the following maxima are reached ; railway companies, 25 per cent. ; Pullman Company, 100 per cent. (h. g. p. ; R. H. so.)

Intra-Urban Railways. The great concentration of population in cities during the 19 th century brought into existence a class of railways to which the name of intra-urban may be Qevei0p. applied. Such lines are primarily intended to ment. supply quick means of passenger communication within the limits of cities, and are to be distinguished on the one hand from surface tramways, and on the other from those portions of trunk or other lines which lie within city boundaries, although the latter may incidentally do a local or intra-urban business. Intra-urban railways, as compared with ordinary railways, are characterized by shortness of length, great cost per mile, and by a traffic almost exclusively passenger, the burden of which is enormously heavy. For the purpose of connecting the greatest possible number of points of concentrated travel, the first railways were laid round the boundaries of areas approximately circular, the theory being that the short walk from the circumference of the circle to any point within it would be no serious detention. It has been found, however, in the case of such circular or belt railways, that the time lost in traversing the circle and in walking from the circumference to the centre is so great that the gain in journey speed over a direct surface tramway or omnibus is entirely lost. Later intra-urban railways in nearly every case have been built, so far as possible, on straight lines, radiating from the business centre or point of maximum congestion of travel to the outer limits of the city; and, while not attempting to serve all the population through the agency of the line, make an effort to serve a portion in the best possible manner, that is, with direct transit. The actual beginning of the construction of intra-urban railways was in 1853, when powers were obtained to build a line, 2\ miles long, from Edgware Ptoad to King’s Cross, in London, from which beginning the Metropolitan and Metropolitan District railways developed. These railways, which in part are operated jointly, were given a circular location, but the shortcomings of this plan soon became apparent. It was found that there was not sufficient traffic to support them as purely intra-urban lines, and they have since been extended into the outskirts of London to reach the suburban traffic.. The Metropolitan and Metropolitan District railways followed the art of railway building as it existed at the time they were laid out. Wherever possible the lines were constructed in open cutting, to ensure adequate ventilation ; and where this was not possible, they were built by Fig. 17.—A “Vestibule”; the “lazytongs” gate is folded away when a method suggestively named “ cut and cover. A trench two cars are coupled together, giving free passage from end to end of the train. was first excavated to the proper depth, then the side and by sliding plates below. A common form of this walls and arched roof of brick were put in place, earth was vestibule is shown in Fig. 17. Subsequent improvements filled in behind and over the arch, and the surface of the

160

RAILWAYS

ground restored, either by paving where streets were followed, or by actually being built over with houses where the lines passed under private property. Where the depth to rail-level was too great for cut - and - cover methods, ordinary tunnelling processes were used; and where the

1 '13 i i ^ Fig. 18.—Type-section of arched covered way, Metropolitan District Railway, London.

trench was too shallow for the arched roof, heavy girders, sometimes of cast iron, bridged it between the side wTalls, longitudinal arches being turned between them (Fig. 18). The next development in intra-urban railways was an elevated line in the City of New York. Probably the first suggestion for an elevated railway was made by Colonel Stevens, of Hoboken, New Jersey, as early as 1831, when the whole art of railway construction was in its infancy. He proposed to build an elevated railway on a single line of posts, placed along the curb line of the street, a suggestion which not only embodies the general plan of an elevated structure, but the most striking feature of it as subsequently built, namely, a railway supported by a single row of columns. The first actual work, however, was not begun till 1870, when the construction of an iron structure on a single row of columns was undertaken. The superiority, so far as the convenience of passengers is concerned, of an elevated over an underground railway, when both are worked by steam locomotives, and the great economy and rapidity of construction, led to the quick development and extension of Fig. 19.—Single-column elevated structure. this general design. By the year 1878 there were four parallel lines in the City of New York, and constructions of the same character had already been projected in Brooklyn and Chicago and, with certain modifications of details, in Berlin. In the year 1894 an elevated railway was built in Liverpool, and in 1900 a similar railway was constructed in Boston, U.S.A., and the construction of a new one undertaken in New York.

[iNTRA-URBAN

These elevated railways as a rule follow the lines of streets, and are of two general types. One (Fig. 19), the earliest form, consisted of a single row of columns supporting two lines of longitudinal girders carrying the rails, the lateral stability of the structure being obtained by anchoring the feet of the columns „ „ n in cllxl to their foundations. The.other type (Fig. 20) has two rows of columns connected at the top by transverse girders, which in turn carry the longitudinal girders that support the railway. In Berlin, on the Stadtbahn, which for a part of its length traverses private property, masonry arches, or an earthen embankment between retaining walls, were substituted wherever possible for the metallic structure. 4 The next great development, marking the third step in the progress of intraurban railway construction, took place elevated structure in 1886 when Great- Fig. 20.—Double-column (half-section). head (q.v.) began the City and South London Railway, extending under the Thames from the Monument to Stockwell, a distance of Similes. Its promoters recognized the unsuitability of ordinary steam locomotives for underground railways, and intended to work it by means of a moving cable; but before it was

o /2/v /rr.s f—L L. Fig. 21.—Section of tunnel and electric locomotive, City and South London Railway. completed, electric traction had developed so far as to be available for use on such lines. Electricity, therefore, and not the cable, was installed (Fig. 21). In the details of construction the shield was the novelty. In principle it had been invented by Brunei for the construction of the original

intka-ttkban]

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161

Tliames tunnel, and it was afterwards improved by Beach, 1902, has a total mileage of 38BG miles, of which sevenof New York, and finally developed by Greathead. (For tenths are to be in tunnel and the remainder in open the details of the shield and method of its operation, cutting or on viaduct. The lines complete and in operasee Tunnelling.) By means of the shield Greathead tion in September 1902 had a mileage of 8'67 miles, and cut a circular hole at a depth ranging from 40 to ran between the Porte de Vincennes and the Porte Maillot, 80 feet below the surface, with an external diameter of between the Place de 1’Etoile and the Porte Dauphine, 10 feet 9 inches; this he lined with cast-iron segments and between the Place de I’Etoile and the Trocadero. Each bolted together, giving a clear diameter of 10 feet 2 inches. of these sections is self-contained and is worked independExcept at the shafts, which were sunk on proposed station ently, thus abolishing junctions, with their inevitable signal sites, there was no interference with the surface of the delays; even the northern loop, under construction in streets or with street traffic during construction. Two 1902, which will form a complete circle with the existing tunnels were built approximately parallel, each taking a Porte de Vincennes-Porte Maillot line, is not to be worked single track. The cross-section of the cars was made to as a closed circuit, but on the “ shuttle ” system as an conform approximately to the section of the tunnel, the independent line. The stations are very numerous—for idea being that each train would act like a piston in a example, there are eighteen on the Porte de Vincennescylinder, expelling in front of it a column of air, to be Porte Maillot line, Avhich is 6-6 miles long—and the average forced up the station shaft next ahead of the train, and speed is about 13 miles an hour. The terminal stations sucking down a similar column through the station shaft are constructed as loops, thus enabling trains to pass from just behind. This arrangement was expected to ensure a the up to the down line without shunting delays, and sufficient change in air to keep such railways properly ven- exchange stations are provided wherever the lines touch tilated, but experience has proved it to be ineffective for each other or other railways. On the main line a threethe purpose. This method of construction has been used minute service is maintained by day (5.30 a.m. to for building other railways in Glasgow and London, and in the latter city alone projects for “ tube railways ” of this character were brought before Parliament in 1902, which involved a capital of about 100 millions. One of the largest of these was for a line running from the terminus of the London United Tramways at Hammersmith, through the heart of the City, to the northeast suburbs. The later examples of these Fig. 23.—New York Rapid Transit Railway, showing’ also the tracks and conduits of the tube railways have a diameter ranging electric surface tramway. from 13 to 15 feet. The fourth step in the development of intra-urban 8.30 p.m.) and a six-minute one by night (8.30 p.m. to railways was to go to the other extreme from the deep 1 A.M.). The motive power is electricity, continuous tunnel which Greathead introduced. In 1893 the con- current at 500 volts being employed. The New York understruction was completed in Budapest of an underground ground railway (Fig. 23), when completed, will mark a railway with a thin, flat roof, consisting of steel beams set still further step in advance, in that there are practically close together, with small longitudinal jack arches between two different railways in the same structure. One pair of tracks is to be used for a local service with stations about one-quarter of a mile apart, following the general plan of operation in vogue on all other intra-urban railways. The other, or central, pair of tracks is for trains making stops at longer distances. Thus there is a differentiation between the long-distance traveller who desires to be carried from one extreme of the city to the other, and the short-distance traveller who is going between points at a much less distance. To sum up, there are of intra-urban railways two distinct classes : the elevated and the underground. The elevated is used where the traffic is so light as not to warrant the expensive underground construction, or where the construction of an elevated line is of no serious detriment to the adjoining property. The underground is used where the congestion of traffic is so great as to demand a railway almost regardless of cost, and where the conditions of surface traffic or of adjoining property are them, the street pavement resting directly on the roof thus such as to require that the railway shall not obstruct 7 formed (Fig. 22). The object w as to bring the level of or occupy any ground above the surface. the station platforms as close to the surface of the street as Underground railways are of three general types : The the height of the car itself would permit; in the case of one of extreme depth, built by tunnelling methods, usually Budapest the distance is about 9 feet. This principle of with the shield and without regard to the surface topography, construction has since been followed in the construction where the stations are put at such depth as to require, lifts of the Boston subway, of the Chemin de Fer Metropolitain to carry the passengers from the station platform to the m Paris, and of the New York underground railway. street level. This type has the advantage of economy in The Paris line is built with the standard gauge of 4 feet first construction, there being the minimum amount of 81 inches, but its tunnels are designedly made of such a material to be excavated, and no interference during small cross-section that ordinary main line stock cannot construction with street traffic or subsurface structures; pass through them. The system, so far as authorized in it has, however, the disadvantage of the cost of operation S. VIII. — 2 1

162

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[iNTRA-URBAN

the most recent English and American electric practice, of lifts at the stations. The other extreme type is the the effort of the machines being actual output as measured shallow construction, where the railway is brought to the minimum distance below the street level. This system by mechanical horse-power :— has the advantage of the greatest convenience in operation, Table 'KX.—English and American Practice. no lifts being required, since the distance from the street C3T3 surface to the station platform is about 12 to 15 feet; it Sts>• 3A) CJ« oc has the disadvantages, however, of necessitating the teara ing up of the street surface during construction, and the readjustment of sewer, water, gas, and electric mams and Weight of train—tons ( = 2240 lt>) 160| 184 128£ HOf other subsurface structures, and of having the gradients 27 34 42 2H ,, ,, motor—,, ,, partially dependent on the surface topography. The third 14 16 34 42 Weight of motor on drivers—tons type is the intermediate one between those two, followed 1 2 5 1 Number of motors 5 6 5 by the Metropolitan and Metropolitan District railways, ,, ,, cars . Average distance between stops— in London, where the railway has an arched roof, built 2550 2587 1775 1775 feet . . • • • usually at a sufficient distance below the surface of the 14-8 17-2 13-6 11-5 Schedule speed—miles per hour street to permit the other subsurface structures to lie m Maximum horse - power during the ground above the crown of the arch, and where 650 1600 950 250 acceleration 220 200 160 150 Horse-power at full speed the station platforms are from 20 to 30 feet beneath the surface of the street—a depth not sufficient to warrant the introduction of lifts, but enough to be inconOn the Central London each 'train is worked by a venient. single electric locomotive, though, owing to complaints of In the operation of intra-urban railways, steam locomotives, cables, and electricity have severally been tried, the vibration from householders above the line, a modification first being used in the earlier examples of under- of this arrangement is to be adopted; the Manhattan Operation. ground pnes and [n the various elevated systems Elevated contemplates two motor cars, one at each end in the United States. The fouling of the air that results of the train, all the axles of each being equipped with from the steam-engine, owing to the production of carbonic motors; while the Boston Elevated, in order to overcome acid gas and of sulphurous fumes and aqueous vapour, is heavy gradients (8 per cent.), has one truck of every car well known, and its use is now practically abandoned for supplied with power. The cost of intra-urban railways depends not only on underground working. The cable is slow; and unless development along new lines of compressed air or some the type of construction, but more especially upon local Cos, sort of chemical engine takes place, electricity will conditions, such as the nature of the soil, the presence of subsurface structures, like sewers, monopolize the field. Electricity is applied through a separate locomotive attached to the head of the train, or water and gas mains, electric conduits, &c.; the necessity through motor carriages attached either at one end or at of permanent underpinning or temporary supporting both ends of the train, or by putting a motor on every of house foundations, the cost of acquiring land passed axle and so utilizing the whole weight of the train for under or over when street lines are not followed, and, traction, all the motors being under a single control at in the case of elevated railways, the cost of acquiring the head of the train, or at any point of the train for easements of light, air, and access, which the courts have emergency. The distance between stations on intra- held are vested in the abutting property.. The cost of urban railways is governed by the density of local traffic building an ordinary two-track elevated railway according and the speed desired to be maintained. As a general to American practice varies from $300,000 to $400,000 rule the interval varies from one-quarter to one-half mile, per mile, exclusive of equipment, terminals, or land damages. except on the express lines of the Hew York underground The cost of constructing the deep tubular tunnels in railway, where the inter-station interval averages about one London, whose diameter is about 15 feet, exclusive, in and one-half miles. On the steam-worked lines the speed like manner, of equipment, terminals, or land damages, is of trains is about 11 to 15 miles per hour, according to the about £170,000 to £200,000 per mile. The cost of distance between stations. Later practice takes advantage the Metropolitan and Metropolitan District railways of of the great increase in power that can be temporarily London varied greatly on account of the variations in developed by electric motors during the period of accelera- construction. The most difficult section, namely, that tion ; this, in proportion to the weight of the train to be under Cannon Street, where the abutting buildings had hauled, gives results much in advance of those obtained on to be underpinned, and a very dense traffic maintained ordinary steam railways. Since high average speed on a during construction, while a network of sewers and mains line with frequent stops depends largely on rapidity of was readjusted, cost at the rate of about £1,000,000 acceleration, the tendency in modern equipment is to secure per mile. The contract price of the New York underas great an output of power as possible during the accel- ground railway, exclusive of the incidentals above menerating period, with corresponding increase in weight avail- tioned, was $35,000,000 for 21 miles, of which 16 able for adhesion. With a steam locomotive all the power miles are underground and 5 are elevated. The most is concentrated in one machine, and therefore the weight difficult portion of the road, 4| miles of four-track line, on the drivers available for adhesion is limited. With cost $15,000,000. The burden of traffic on intra-urban railways assumes electricity, power can be applied to as many axles in the train as desired, and so the whole weight of the train, with proportions not met on any trunk-line railways. During a its load, may be utilized if necessary. On the Central year the Metropolitan and Metropolitan District railways London Railway the acceleration of gravity is also of London, on a combined trackage of something more than utilized; the different stations stand, as it were,, on 100 miles, handled upwards of 150,000,000 passengers; the top of a hill, so that outgoing trains are aided but a portion of the mileage of both these lines cannot be at the start by having a slope to run down, while in- strictly reckoned as intra-urban. The elevated system in coming ones are checked by the rising gradient they New York, with 40 miles of double track, has carried m a year over 221,000,000 passengers, and in a single day. more encounter. The following table (No. XX.) gives the statistics of than 1,000,000 passengers. The Central London Railway,

tramways]

RAIL WAYS

with a total of 5f miles of double track, has carried as many as 228,961 passengers in one day (29th October 1900, the date of the return of the City Imperial Volunteers from South Africa), and its total for the year 1901 was 41,188,389. (w. b. p.) Tramways. The commercial development of tramways, or as they are called in the United States of America, street railways, has become wholly a matter of mechanical traction. Since the introduction of the cable and electric methods, with notable economies and advantages, very few stagecoach or horse-tramway lines have been established; and the abandonment of the cable itself for electricity on all ordinary levels was in progress at the end of last century. After a long period of experimentation, neither storage batteries nor compressed-air systems can be said to have demonstrated their commercial advantages sufficiently to ensure their wide use. Few storage battery cars were to be found in operation in 1900; and in Berlin the municipality had so far acknowledged their comparative failure as to grant larger privileges to the trolley in the streets of that city, from which it had previously been barred. In Paris and New York compressed-air cars were operated on a few routes, but not in increasing numbers or with any apparent economy. The beginning of the 20th century saw electricity everywhere the dominating motive power in urban traction : for underground lines, with a third rail; for elevated lines, with a third rail; on streets and roads, whether city or surburban, with either the overhead trolley or the conduit system. Where the objection has still remained in cities to laying tracks through fine residential streets, a revival of earlier omnibus services has been attempted in the use of automobiles, propelled chiefly by electric motors and storage batteries. These cannot compete commercially with tramways, though they may be thought by some to be a desirable addition. Several cities in Europe and America have such lines in operation, and that in the city of Mexico may be mentioned as typical. It is to the United States, with its new centres of busy population undergoing rapid development, that we must look for the most impressive figures of the tramway industry. The large areas covered, the great width of the streets, and the rectangular disposition of all the main thoroughfares have been favourable factors in stimulating a growth of remarkable proportions. In 1899 the number of cable cars declined from 4701 to 4250, and of horse cars from 3106 to 1489 ; but the number of electric cars increased from 46,549 to 50,658, and the track increased from 15,942 miles to 17,969. All told, there were 871 tramways of various types with a total of 19,213 miles of track and 58,736 cars. These represented a capital stock of $1,023,819,987 and a funded debt of $777,862,571, making a total of 1,801,682,558, or an increase of nearly $200,000,000 over the preceding year. The capitalization is at the rate of about $94,000 per mile of single track. There are no available statistics as to the retirrn to capital from investment in tramways in America, but a study of the situation in 1897 went to show that they were then earning gross $150,000,000. In 1898 some 220 lines earned $130,000,000, these being large systems. The gain in gross earnings in 1898 over 1897 would doubtless reach $25,000,000, making $175,000,000 in 1898, when the total capitalization was about $1,622,000,000. If the net receipts be taken at 40 per cent., there remained applicable to bonds and stock from $60,000,000 to $70,000,000, or from 4 to 5 per cent, upon the entire capitalization as it stood, without regard to the proportion that may have been issued as a stock bonus with the bonds, or the newer construction not yet on an earning basis. . The economies wrought by the introduction of mechanical traction on tramways are noteworthy. They are best evidenced by the analysis of some one system, and that which is available in the fullest detail is furnished by the Metropolitan Street Railway Company of New York, which has the largest composite system in the world, and is operating with animal, cable, electric, and other powers. This company ran 45,390,318 car miles in the year ending 30th June 1900. The cost of operating with the cable per

163

car mile was 17‘76 cents ; with electricity, 13T6 cents ; and with horses, 18'98 cents. The total passenger receipts were $14,335,406. Had the horse mileage been operated electrically, there would have been an economy of $540,000 in the change. Had the whole system been operated by horses, the cost would have been $8,615,082 instead oi the actual $7,034,033, showing that on this one system mechanical traction had already effected an annual saving with its present traffic of over $1,500,000. The item of the 13T6 cents cost of operation per electrical car mile of the system is made up as follows: maintenance of way, 0-81 ; maintenance of equipment, 1'41 ; power, 1'99 ; transportation, 7-29 ; general expenses, 1 -66. The percentage of operating expenses to gross receipts was as follows: cable, 51 ; electricity, 40'5 ; horses, 73'6. It is to be borne in mind that the Metropolitan electric system is regarded as the costliest of its class, namely, the underground trolley making contact with the feeding conductors by means of a “plough” lowered into a slotted conduit. Mr J. Clifton Robinson, managing director and engineer of the London United Tramways, supplies the following particulars for the lines in West London owned by that company, which in 1901 were converted from horse to electric traction (overhead trolley), the mileage at the same time being doubled: — The cost of operation per car mile was, with horses, 9’00d.; with electricity it is 5'40d., made up of maintenance of way 0‘75d., maintenance of equipment l'02d., power 0'46d., and other expenses 3T7d. The average number of passengers carried per car mile was, with the horse cars, 8T4 ; with electric cars it is 11'00 ; and in addition to this increase in the number of passengers per car mile the mileage has increased over 300 per cent. With horse traction, 8 miles of route carried 9,000,000 of passengers per annum ; with electric traction, 16 miles carried 32,000,000. The percentage of operating expenses to gross receipts was 82'00 per cent, with horses ; with electricity it fell to 52‘00 per cent., and it is expected that this figure will be improved upon when the plant in the power station is employed to the full capacity for which it is designed. In 1902 over 60 miles of line were authorized and in course of construction, and a total of not less than 100 miles is projected in West London and the Thames Valley. The statistics as to the street railway earnings in America are based upon the universal practice there of charging a ‘ ‘ flat ” 5 cent fare for the whole trip, which may be 15 or 20 miles long, and often includes one or two free transfers. The extent of this “transfer ” practice, which is not at all a familiar condition in Europe, may be inferred from the fact that in Kansas City, Mo., there are no fewer than 85 points of intersection on the leading tram\vay system, at each of which transfers are given out, so that any part of the city can be reached from any other part on one fare. The population of the urban district is only 215,000, but no fewer than 70,000 such transfers are issued daily. In Europe the measured tariff system prevails, so that while the short-distance rider for less than a mile pays one-fifth the American fare, the longdistance rider may pay two or three times as much. Curiously enough, the gross receipts per mile in Europe are quite as high as in America, indicating that European tramways lie in areas of dense population, while in the United States long cheap rides to reach homes in the suburbs are common. In fact, the rapid building up of suburbs round the American cities has been one of the most obvious results of tramway development; but it has not as yet become so pronounced in Europe as to excite comment. The general effect on American suburban real estate of the discrimination in favour of the citizen seeking a suburban home may be fairly judged from the experience of Brookline, Mass. From 1855 to 1885 the value of real estate had risen about $350,000 a year, reaching $17,000,000. In 1890, consequent on the introduction of the electric tramway and the rush of home-seekers to get out of Boston, the valuation jumped to $30,000,000, although property in the old centre was not injured. A feature of commercial economy which does not appear at first sight in a study of the American figures is the ability to handle more passengers with fewer cars and fewer men. In the United States in 1890 there were 32,505 cars and 70,764 employes to 8783 miles of road. The electrical transformation was then getting into full swing, and 16-foot cars were in general use, the sj>eed rarely exceeding 6 to 8 miles an hour. The average speed of the electric cars may now be put at 10 miles per hour, and the length of the car at 24 feet. The number of horse and electric cars has been reversed in the ten years. The total number of passengers carried in 1890 by all methods of power was 2,023,010,202, while for the year closing in 1900 the traffic for the electric cars alone is estimated at 4,000,000,000. On the latter basis, and estimating the daily car miles at 3,000,000, the daily saving to the tramways is $180,000. With the same mileage of track as in 1899, the New York Metropolitan showed a gain in 1900 of $1,562,920 in the gross and $695,896 in the net. On one lino in New York with horse cars in 1897, the round trip occupied three hours, and 200 cars carried 17,000,000 passengers. With electric cars in 1900, the round trip required only two hours, and

[light

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164

The following table (No. XXI.) gives some idea of the relative 300 cars carried 50,000,000 passengers. The value of the daily growth of the development of electric tramways in the leading saving in time by the trolley to the American working population countries of Europe :— alone is over $20,000 per day. Table XXL—Electric Railways and Tramways in Europe. 1898. 1896. 1895. g O cj

Name of Country.

Great Britain Germany Austria-Hungary Belgium Spain . France . Italy Switzerland

70 164 42 5 12 68 11

3000 2934 1115 90 210 1798 720

120

ot, £C3

o£ oO Bo

ou t,=5 2o

585 72 35 12 154 28

5264 1639 1130 210 3310 870

632 129 48 12 152 33

s_2 II 648 114 40 47 211 62

7194 1949 1130 600 4490 1890

If to these figures tnere be added those of Norway and Sweden, Russia, Holland, Portugal, Rumania, Servia, and Bosnia, it would appear that for the last year under report there were m Europe 5092 miles of track, 147,760 kilowatt capacity of power plant and 10,030 motor cars. The growth indicated by_ these n cures did not slacken during 1900, when such cities as Pans and Geneva enjoyed the addition of extensive electric tramway systems; the former city, like London, also seeing a large underground electric railway system put in operation. It has been estimated that the entire Continental tramway enterprise represents an investment of probably £200,000,000. In Great Britain according to Garcke’s Manual of Electrical Undertakings, m 1901-1902 a total capital of nearly 40 millions sterling (ordinary preference, and loan and debenture) was divided among 125 electric traction undertakings, and 47 municipalities had expended on electric traction an amount of 10^ millions. On 1st January 1900 British companies had been organized to build and operate foreign tramways with an authorized capital of £18,543,51/, and towards tins there had been paid in £9,854,372 for shares and £2,i9o,i7i debentures, a total of roughly two-thirds the amount lo this acain must be added £4,000,000 of British capital in Continental tramways; £2,000,000 in tramways in the colonies, but not ot British corporate domicile ; and £6,700,000 invested in American and Canadian tramway work. It should be added, however, that Continental capital, notably German, has of late been very active in the exploitation of tramway enterprises outside the respective territorial limits of the banking groups interested; while a more recent feature of such international financing has been the endeavour to purchase London underground electric railway franchises and companies by American capital. While much ot this work may be due to a desire to create markets for apparatus, as well as to brino' new securities into existence, it seems to be a fact that no city in the world has yet transportation facilities adequate to the demands of its own resident and suburban population, and this is specially the case in London. For some of the British systems a large quantity of American apparatus has been imported ; but British machinery and detail parts of excellent construction and durability are now freely obtainable, large factories for its production having sprung up in different parts of the country. The figures for 1898-99 of the British tramway system show the following results Total number of cars . • • • ' N 6,?c, locomotives (including motor cars) 084 44,171 ,, horses ) 924,820,247 passengers carried 96,078,503 car miles run . ) (; £4,879,602 Gross receipts . • • Is. 0T92d. ,, per car mile £3,675,559 Operating expenses . • _ • . 9'12d. per car mile j; £1,204,043 Net receipts . • • . 3'072d.' ,, per car mile . Since these official figures were compiled, however, the advance of electric traction has been so rapid as to change many of them appreciably. For example, Dublin reported a cost per car mile of only 5-24d., and Leeds reported 5'97d. per car mile with a percentage of 47-3 for operating expenses, although its electric system was far from complete. According to Garcke s ManualJorlQOl 1902, of electrical tramways and light railways m the United Kingdom, the track mileage constructed was 1252 miles, under construction 846 miles, and authorized and about to be constructed

c o >

P3 6 a

a rsciy-:co r*d "Cd Ap-t ^^ 02 .So s

Combined Combined Riggen- Combined Abt rack Abt rack Abt rack Abt rack bach rack Abt rack and and and adhesion adhesion adhesion 2 ft. 6 in. 4 ft. 8J in. 3 ft. 6 in. 1 metre 2 ft. 7 Jin. 4 ft. 8Jin. Gauge . Cost of construc£45,160 £11,400 £7150 £11,550 £11,409 tion per mile Radius of sharpest 125 180 150 80 80 115 curve—metres 1:16-6 1:14-7 1:12'5 1:8 1:4 Steepest gradient . 1 :5£ 6'7 and 12 9 miles 19 miles 4 miles 4i miles 8'8 miles Length of incline . miles of of rack of rack of rack of rack of rack rack 19 in. 13 in. 12 in. 13 in. 17 in. Diameter 17 in. adhesion adhesion adhesion cylinder 12 in. rack 17 in.rack 14 in. rack 20 in. 20 18 in. | 24 18 in. 20 „ Stroke . adhesion adhesion adhesion 14 in. rack 18 in.rack 18 in. rack] ftwo3 coupled 3 coupled 3 coupled 2 coupled 2 coupled (twoAxles, number 1 trailing 1 trailing 1 trailing 1 trailing 1 trailing 3 •< pinion 3 j pinion | (axles (axles 10 ft. 7 ft. 8 in. 11 ft. 5 in. 8 ft. 2 in. 6 ft. 5 in. | 4 ft. 2 in. Rigid wheel-base . 23 in. 25 "5 in. Diameter of 4 ft. 1 in. 2ft. 7in.; 3 ft. 5 in. 3 ,, 3 „ 3 ft. 2 ft. 5 in. wheels System

Combined Abt rack and adhesion 4 ft. 8^ in. £10,458 200 1:16-6 4£ miles of rack 17-7 in. adhesion 11’8 in. rack 23'6 in.

~ Cl

^a

•S 73 W cS O.'S

Abt rack Riggen- | Riggen- Abt rack Patented improvement on bach rack bach rack Riggenbachrack 0'80 metre 0‘80 metre 4 ft. 8j in. 1 metre 1 metre £10,040 £17,684 £26,208 £19,840 60 150 80 60 180 1:4 1:4 1:4 1:3-9 1:4 4'7 miles 4'2 miles 3-4 miles 3‘7 miles 10 miles of rack of rack of rack of rack 12 in. 12 in. 12 in. 13 in. 16 „

20 „

23 „

(two- 1 driving 3 -l pinion 1 trailing (axles 4 ft. 7 in. 8 ft. 10 in. pinions 26 in. 28 in. 28 in. 24 in. adhesion wheels 28 in. rack 27 in. 400 sq. ft. 1 517 sq. ft. 678 sq. ft. 390 sq. ft. Heating surface . 1463 sq. ft. 763 sq. ft. 11560 sq. ft. -864 sq. ft. 697 sq. ft. ; 366 sq. ft. Engine-weight loaded 56 tons 30'5 tons 55 tons 21 tons 29 tons 17'2 tons 23‘8 tons 17'5 tons I 16 tons 24 tons 17'3 tons Net train - load hauled up the 40 „ 45 „ 3-5 „ 10-5 „ 13 „ 10 incline 70 „ 120 „ 14 » 18-7 „ Load drawn per ton of locomo1-9 „ 1-55 „ •81 „ ! 0-78 „ 0-49 „ | 0'7 „ I 0-54 „ I 0-57 tive weight 2-14 „ 2-3 „

20 „ 2 7 ft. 9 in. 28 in. 550 17‘6 tons

MOUNTAIN RAILWAYS. (Reproduced from originals by the Photoglob Co.} Zurich.)

JiiNGFRArr Railway.

Viaduct on the Murren Funicular Railway. MOUNTAIN RAILWAYS. {Reproduced from originals by the Rhotoglob Co., Zurich.)

mountain]

RAILWAYS

simplicity. The Abt rack has the advantage of smoother working, and is more frequently employed outside of Switzerland. On street railways and railways with numerous level-crossings the Riggenbach system is preferred, because it only breaks the road in one line, and the rack teeth are on a level with the street. For the Abt at least three lineal spaces must be kept clear. In designing rack-rail locomotives the same rules hold as for ordinary locomotives. In the later rack lines adhesion is not utilized, the wheels being loose on the axles. Originally the boilers were placed vertically; but it was not long before the present plan was adopted of arranging them in such a way that their axis is about horizontal when the engine is on the average gradient of the line. The fire-box and grate should be of the largest possible dimensions. In the most recent practice big locomotives working with combined rack and adhesion have separate mechanical arrangements for the two, each driven by its own pair of cylinders. Engines are fitted both with air-brakes and with a brake to be applied by the driver or fireman, the action in each case being on the cog-wheel axle. The discharge of smoke is so great, owing to the heaviness of the gradients and the slow rate of progress, that it is not only a great nuisance but in the larger tunnels positively dangerous. As far as possible, therefore, tunnels are avoided, especially on the heavy gradients, and apparatus for ventilation and smoke-consumption has to be provided. Of late years electric motors have been largely used. They were first employed on the Barmen mountain railway, which is fitted with the Riggenbach rack and has a maximum gradient of 185 in 1000. Other electrically-driven lines are the Mont Saleve (250 in 1000), the Salgo Tarjan (140 in 1000), the Gornergrat (200 in 1000), and the Jungfrau (250 in 1000). The engines on the Gornergrat railway have two independent, asynchronous, three-phase, six-pole motors, with wound armatures (rotors) and sliprings ; these with a current of 40 periods per second make 800 revolutions a minute, and develop together 180 horsepower at that speed with 540 volts in the trolley wires. They are fixed on the frame of the engine, and drive the cog-wheel axles by means of 12:1 gearing. At the normal speed of 7 kilometres (4| miles) an hour, the tractional force is about 6 tons, the weight of the locomotive being 10‘6 tons. There are two distinct brakes. A hand-brake apparatus acts on the driving axles, and the motors are supplied with braking drums and straps, the latter being applied (1) by hand, (2) automatically when a certain speed is exceeded, (3) as soon as the electric current is from any cause interrupted. The last arrangement is worked by means of a solenoid. The most remarkable mountain railway is perhaps the Jungfrau, which is to be carried—almost entirely in tunnel—4093 metres above sea-level, or more than 1000 metres above the line of perpetual snow, amid glacial surroundings of the most magnificent character. Vehicles differ according to the type of line. On mixed rack and adhesion lines they depart but little if at all from the ordinary style. On the steep gradient pleasure lines they are built as light as possible, the dead weight being in some cases reduced to 75 kilometres per passenger place. The wheels are loose on the axles. Passenger carriages contain 48 to 60 places, while the goods vans have a carrying capacity of 6 tons, with a dead weight of 2 to 5 tons. All the waggons are fitted with 1 or 2 cog-wheels for braking purposes. On the tourist railways with heavy gradients the speed is 5 to 7 kilometres an hour; in easier gradients 8 to 10 kilometres, and on well-constructed rack lines and combined rack and adhesion, 12 to 15 kilometres on the rack

169 and about 18 kilometres on the adhesion sections. On the heavier inclines the locomotive, as a matter of safety, is always behind the train and not coupled to it. On the pure rack railways the slowness of the speed renders it impossible to get big returns from the rolling stock; hence the working expenses per mile of line appear high. Maintenance also costs more than with an ordinary adhesion line. For rack railways the cost of construction varies between J3000 and £32,000 a kilometre, and is only slightly influenced by the particular rack system chosen, apart from the expenses of the rack mechanism on the permanent way and engines; other expenses are quite independent of the system adopted. At the end of 1897 the number of rack railways in the world was 71, with a total length of 887'8 kilometres; and of these, 32 were on the pure rack principle. Of the Locker, Bissinger, and Telfner systems there was one example of each, of the Klose 2, of the Abt 29, and of the Riggenbach 35. Cable Railways (Table XXVI.).—There are two main systems of cable railway: (1) that in which a continuous cable is carried over two main drums at each end of the line, the motion being derived either {a) from the weight of the descending waggons, or (6) from a motor acting on one of the main drums; (2) that in which each end of the cable is attached to waggons, one set of which accordingly ascends as the other descends. The latter is the system ordinarily applied on mountain cable railways. The weight required to cause the downward motion is obtained either by means of material that has to be transported to the foot of the hill, or by water ballast; while to aid and regulate the motion generally, steam or electric motors are arranged to act on the main drums, round which the cable passes in sufficient turns to prevent slipping. When water ballast is employed, the water is filled into a tank in the bottom of the waggon; if passengers are carried, its quantity is regulated by the number ascending or descending. In order to control the acting force and render the working of the line as easy as possible, the longitudinal section must be laid out according to certain fixed rules, which, if strict economy is aimed at, must also be observed in cases where the movement of the waggons is governed by water-power acting on the main turning drums. The alignment is perfectly straight, but curves are admissible when they improve the lie of the railway. The permanent way consists of two, three, or four rails, facility of crossing being the end aimed at when more than two are used. In the modern system, however, which admits of very good crossing arrangements, only two rails are employed. On the Stanzerhorn cable railway, Switzerland, both the outer rails are through rails; while the inner ones are provided with counter rails, to leave room for the passage of the cable, which is guided by the rollers below the track. The cars have four wheels keyed to the axles. On one side these have double flanges, whereas on the other they are very broad and without flanges. When the car reaches the siding, the double-flanged wheel keeps it to the through rail, so that it is taken automatically through the siding, while the other broad wheels pass smoothly over the points. Each metal of the double-railed line being a through-rail on the outer half of the sidings, the two cars on each division of the track have their double-flanged wheels on opposite sides. The rails weigh 16 to 30 kilos a metre. Both wooden and steel sleepers are used ; on the heavier gradients they are generally bedded in masonry, and on the gentler in gravel anchored to firm supports, to prevent sliding. The gauge, as a rule, is one metre. The total weight of the permanent way varies from 100 to 200 kilos per metre. The cable, which weighs from 2, to 6 kilos per metre, is of such a size as to give a factor of safety of 8 to 10 on the maximum strain, and its end is so S. VIII.— 22

[mountain

RAILWAYS

170

Table XXYI.—Cable Railways of Switzerland. >3 C

Elevation above Sea-Level at

Name of Line.

Beatenberg .... Biel-Maglingen . Biirgenstock Ecluse-Pean (Neuchatel) . Giessbach .... Giitsch (Lucerne) Lausanne-Ouchy Lauterbrunnen-Griitschalp Lugano . . . . Marzili . . . . Salvatore . . . . Rheineck-VValzenhausen . Territet-Glion . Ziirichberg . . . . Ragaz-Warbenstein . Stanzerhorn Cossonay-Gare (Vand) St Gallen Miihleck Bolder (Zurich) .

1889 1887 1888 1890 1879 1884 1877 1891 1886 1885 1890 1896 1883 1889 1892 1893 1894 1896 1897

Yards 1750 1777 904 402 350 155 4 ft. 8£ in. 1620 Metre 1320 260 2 ft. 7iin. 110 Metre 1648 l'20metres 1340 605 Metre 178 833 3959 1334 l-20metres 340 883 Metre Metre

Feet. 1863 (Lake of Thun 3638 i (Beatenberg 1430 (Biel . 2884 j 320 ■(Maglingen (Lake of Four Cantons 1437 575 2880 '(Biirgenstock 1450 j- 370 (Ecluse 1808 (Pean . 1880 j- 320 (Lake of Brienz 2175 (Hotel Giessbach 1454 (Untergrund 1700 j- 530 (Giitsch 1575 l 116 (Lausanne . 1240 (Ouchy 2677 j- 600 (Lauterbrunnen 4872 (Griitschalp 919 (Lugano 1106 238 (Railway station 1667 302 J Marzili 1772 (Bern . 922 JParadiso . 2894 600 (San Salvatore 1328 j- 260 (Rheineck . 2205 (Walzenhausen 1280 [■ 570 j Territet . 2261 (Glion 1355 j- 260 (Limmatquai 1480 (Polytechnicum 1640 ) Ragaz 2316 j- 304 (Wartenstein 1483 (Stanz 6063 j- 620 (Stanzerhorn 1859 (Cossonay . (Gare (Jura Sim don) 1417 j- 130 2222 !- 228 1 St Gallen 2437 1 Miihleck 1466 177 (Zurich 1794 (Bolder

fastened that an automatic brake is brought into play if it slips from its grip. Guiding rollers are placed between the rails at such intervals that the cable does not touch the ground when the tension is least. For braking purposes a special rail—frequently a rack, either Abt or Riggenbach —is generally employed; and where the gradient exceeds 250 in 1000 a catch has to be introduced, to prevent the braking cog-wheels from mounting the rack. Other devices are sometimes used; on the Stanzerhorn line, for example, there are brake jaws, which are screwed down on the tapered head of the brake rail. Various methods of applying the brakes are employed. As a rule, there is an automatic brake, brought into action by turning a weighted lever, and a screw brake, manipulated by the guard; sometimes also an automatic brake applies itself when the speed exceeds a certain maximum. The steepest

£ 19.400 15.300 8,600 6,700 5,000 2,800 121.300 28.400 6.400 2,000 22,200 19,500 17.400 9.400 8,800 47,900 15,200 10,000 11,300

1897.

O £S O§ ® VO Oo •SP3 £ 7,500 2,400 5.900 1,000 840 600 1,200 1,200 900 800 1,200 1.900 1,200 760 1,600 12,100 1,800 1,600 1,200

Remarks.

£ 27,100 18,000 14.600 7,700 6,000 3.400 134,900 29,800 7.400 2,800 23.600 21.400 18,900 10.400 10,400 60,000 17,000 11.600 12,500

5,260 5,380 3,420 6,480 820 1,440 43,000 3,070 10,720 6,520 3,890 9,750 7,790 9,670 5,010 7,820 3,710 10,970 15,000

,£h mS- V,QJ 5 os. d. 3 8 2 10 5 2 2 3 3 2 5 10 2 9 8 3 1 3 1 4 5 3 1 2 5 0 2 6 1 4 4 9 3 3 0 11 1 2

Water-tank, Riggenbach rack. Bynamo by hydraulic motor, Abt rack. Water-tank, Riggenbach rack. Hydraulic motor (turbine). Water-tank, Riggenbach rack. „ Abt rack. ,, Riggenbach rack. Bynamo by hydraulic motor, Abt rack. Water-tank. Water-tank, Riggenbach rack. Bynamo by hydraulic motor, special braking rail. Water-tank, Abt rack. Water-tank. Electric motor.

gradient used is about 650 in 1000. The waggons have rarely more than two axles and the passenger coaches, which hold 32 to 48 persons, weigh from 6 to 18 tons. The cost of construction varies from £10,000 to > Wengernalp,,

28700

604000

188000

21

6-5

2 5-5

1-4

0 4-5

46900

1-011000

299000

22

6-4

1 11

1-05

0 3-6

223000 14-376000

9-373000

64-5

42

0 9-6

0-15

0 0-23

Pilatus

Briinig

Adhesion railway (normal gauge, 4 ft. 8| in.) Adhesion railway, metre gauge. Rack railway, 0"80 metre gauge. Rack railway, 4 ft. 8^ in. gauge. Rack railway, 0"80 metre gauge. Rack and adhesion combined, metre gauge.

R A I P U R—R A J G A R H

171

Where falls of stone are to be feared, it is usually preferable to put the line in a tunnel or gallery. If it is to be in the open, the protective works consist of stone walls, with or without a backing of earth, or of heavy timber fences. In the case of torrents, the line is sometimes carried under their bed in a gallery ; they are also guarded against by the systematic arrangement of their courses, or by the erection of cross-walls, which serve to arrest the velocity of the water and prevent debris from rushing down in too heavy masses. Avalanches are often avoided by means of tunnels or galleries ; if these are too expensive or otherwise impracticable, the snow is held back by retaining walls or dams, or prevented from slipping by the friction of rows of poles, wattlework, or small stone-walls. To deal effectively with torrents, as well as avalanches, it is frequently necessary to carry the protective works to the highest regions of the mountains, where many of these dangers have their origin. (s. j. b.) Raipur, a town and district of British India, in the Chhattisgarh division of the Central Provinces. The town is 994 feet above the sea, 188 miles east of Nagpur; railway station. Population (1881), 24,948; (1891), 23,759. There are ruins of an immense fort, with many tanks and old temples. Baipur is the cantonment for a wing of a Madras native infantry regiment. It has a German mission, four printing-presses, a Government high school, with 1014 pupils in 1896-97. The Kajkumar College, for the education of the sons of the chiefs of Chhattisgarh, was transferred here from Jubbulpore in 1894; there are 23 pupils, maintained by fees and an endowment. The district of Raipur has an area of 11,724 square miles ; population (1891), 1,584,427, showing an increase of 13 per cent., which had been continuous since 1872 ; (1901), 1,442,778, showing a decrease of 9 per cent., due to the results of famine. Land revenue, Rs. 8,66,451, the incidence of assessment being under 4 annas per acre; cultivated area (1897-98), 2,382,308 acres, of which 40,422 were irrigated from tanks, &c. ; number of police, 681; boys at school (1896-97), 15,384, being 12>'2 percent, of the male population of school-going age ; registered death-rate (1897), 78'68 per thousand. The principal crop is rice. Manufactures of cotton goods and brass ware; steam cotton mill at Rajnandgaon, with 156 looms and 14,868 spindles, employing 800 hands. The north-west corner of the district is crossed by the main line of the Bengal-Nagpur Railway, and a branch tramway is now being constructed from Raipur town due south towards the state of Bastar. The district suffered severely from famine in 1896-97, and again in 1899-1900. Rajahmundry, or Rajamahendri, a town of British India, in the Godavari district of Madras; on the left bank of the river Godavari, at the head of the delta, 367 miles north of Madras; a station on the East Coast Railway, which is here carried across the river by a bridge of twenty-one spans. Population (1881), 24,555 ; (1891), 28,397; municipal income (1897-98), Rs.38,840. The Government college, one of the four provincial schools established in 1854, had 88 students in 1896-97. There are also a training college and high school, two printingpresses, issuing one English and two vernacular newspapers ; a public library and reading-room; and a teachers’ association.

himself from childhood to the study of the classic languages of the East in his father’s library. He owed none of his early education to British schools, although for a time he attended the Medical College and studied law. He held no public appointment except that of director of the studies of young zemindars, wards of Government. The distinction which he won, both in Europe and in Asia, for his ability, industry, and research was not the product of Stateaided education, but of the spirit of inquiry infused into Indian society by the private efforts of such scholars and statesmen as Sir William Jones, Lord Teignmouth, Henry T. Colebrooke, Sir Charles Wilkins, Dr H. H. Wilson, and James Prinsep. The public service, and the professions of law and medicine, so attractive to Bengalis, seemed to Rajendralala only a distraction from the higher purposes of life opened to him by the Asiatic Society. As he wrote : “ Neither Ganesa, the Hindu patron of wisdom, nor Saraswati, goddess of learning, seems ever to have paid any encouragement to history, and as a consequence Indian literature is almost void of all authentic historical records.” He set himself to supply this deficiency, using the material supplied by poetry, fable, and tradition, and wresting from stone, brass, and pottery the secrets of the past. He brought to the task a rare knowledge of Sanskrit, Persian, and the classic languages of the East, and a power of writing pure English which few Europeans possess. His principal work, published in 1875, The Antiquities of Orissa—described by him as “ some relics of the past weeping over a lost civilization and extinguished grandeur ”—is a storehouse of information on architecture, religion, and the social history of India. Three years later he published Buddha Gaya, the hermitage of Sakya Muni, containing the story of Buddha’s penance, a learned discussion of chronology, and copious accounts of architectural remains, sculptures, and inscriptions. In the Indo Aryans he collected together many of his historical contributions to the Asiatic Society’s Journal, and in the Bibliotheca Indica a large number of Sanskrit texts were supplied and explained by him. His catalogues, and his frequent papers published in the Bengal Asiatic Society’s Journals, show the accuracy and wide range of his inquiry, and knowledge of religion, literature, philology, antiquities, and the manners and customs of India. Although he served as a member of the Calcutta municipality, he took little part in public affairs. Nevertheless, his influence upon modern Indian society was great; and inspired as he was by a fearless search after truth, he naturally came into conflict with the orthodox Hindus, who regarded any questioning of myths and traditions as both heresy and want of patriotism. The University of Calcutta made him a Fellow and Doctor of Law. Foreign societies enrolled him in their ranks, and his Sovereign conferred upon him the dignity of C.I.E. But the distinctions which he valued above all others were his election as president of the Bengal Asiatic Society, and the discovery of a key to the history of the past by diligent research into the relics which the ravages of time and climate were too quickly destroying. (w. l.-w.)

Rajendralala Mitra, Raja (1824-1891), Orientalist and author, was bom in 1824 in a suburb of Calcutta, and died in that city on 26th July 1891. For half a century he was the life and soul of the Bengal Asiatic Society. Five years after his birth Dr H. H. Wilson proposed the admission of learned natives into the Society founded by Sir William Jones in 1784 ; and elected under this rule, Rajendralala Mitra filled successively the offices of librarian (1846), of vice-president (from 1861 onwards), and in 1885 of president of the Society. Of the Kayasth caste, descended from a family which had served with profit the Nawabs of Murshidabad, he devoted

Rajgctrh, a native state of Central India, in the Bhopal agency. Area, with the dependency of Sutalia, 655 square miles. Population (1881), 117,533; (1891), 119,489; average density, 182 persons per square mile. The estimated revenue is Rs. 5,00,000 and the tribute to Sindhia, Rs.85,172. The chief, whose title is Rawat, is a Rajput of the Omat clan, claiming descent from Yikramaditiya. The grandfather of the present chief became a Mahommedan, but the family have now been received back into Hinduism. British currency has recently been adopted in the state. The town of Rajgarh, which is also called Biaora, has a population of (1881), 6881 ; (1891), 6476.

RAJKOT - R A M £ E Rajkot, a town of India, in the Gujarat division of Classified according to religion, in 1891 Mahommedans Bombay; the headquarters of the political agent for numbered 1,033,972; Hindus, 278,938; Christians, 105, Kathiawar, and the capital of a petty native state of the of whom 41 were Europeans; “ others,” 321. In 1901 the same name. It is situated in the middle of the peninsula population on a slightly enlarged area was 1,460,644, showof Kathiawar, and is the centre of the railway system. ing an increase on the corresponding area of 1 per cent. Population (1881), 21,152; (1891), 29,247. There is a The land revenue and rates in 1897-98 were Rs. 10,95,979 ; military cantonment. There is a Rajkumar College, for number of police, 475; boys at school (1896-97), 18,544, the education of the sons of chiefs on the lines of an being 18’8 per cent, of the male population of school-going English public school. Besides the high school there are age; registered death-rate (1897), 34'9 per thousand. training colleges for masters and mistresses. Basulkhanji Indigo is a decaying industry. There are three factories, Hospital has a department for women, opened in 1897 at employing 1000 persons, with an out-turn of 734 maunds, a cost of Rs. 83,000. There are eight printing-presses, valued at Rs. 84,000. Sericulture has received a stimulus issuing an official gazette and two English newspapers. from the efforts of the Agricultural Department, supported The state of Rajkot, which is a branch of Nawanagar, has by private enterprise, to improve the breed of silkworms. There are 15 nurseries for rearing seed; and an industrial an area of 283 square miles. Population (1891), 49,938. school for sericulture, with 15 students. The number of Rajpipla, a native state of India, in the Gujarat silk filatures is 13, employing 5000 persons, with an outdivision of Bombay ; occupying a hilly tract between the turn of 135,000 Eb, valued at Rs. 10,00,000. The hemp rivers Nerbudda and Tapti. Area, 1514 square miles. grown on a small tract in the north of the district supplies Population (1881), 114,756; (1891), 171,771. The esti- all the ganja that is consumed in Bengal. The district is mated gross revenue is Rs.8,64,298, of which Rs.71,850 traversed from south to north by the main line of the was expended on public works in 1897-98; tribute to the Eastern Bengal Railway to Darjiling, with a branch to Gaekwar of Baroda, Rs. 65,009. The chief, whose title is Bogra. Most of the permanent buildings in the district Maharana, is a Gohel Rajput, of the same family as the were severely damaged by the earthquake of 12th June Thakor Saheb of Bhaunagar. A steam tramway, of 2 feet 1897. 6 inches gauge, is being constructed through the state for The division of Rajshahi is coextensive with northern a total length of 37 miles. The old fort of Rajpipla, in Bengal, from the Ganges to the mountains. It comprises the hills, is now deserted. The modern capital is Kandod, the seven districts of Rajshahi, Dinajpur, Jalpaiguri, Darsituated on the river Karjan, 32 miles from Surat. jiling, Rangpur, Bogra, and Pabna. Total area, 17,351 Population (1891), 10,819. The high school had 165 square miles. Population (1891), 7,726,701. pupils in 1896-97, and there are two printing-presses, Rakonitz (Czech, Rakovnilt), the chief town of a issuing an official gazette and a vernacular newspaper. government district in Bohemia, west of Kladno. It is a Rajputana, a collection of native states in railway junction, in the coal-mining district, and has imIndia, under the political charge of an agent to the portant manufactures of pottery, porcelain, glass and hardgovernor - general, who resides at Mount Abu. Geopaper, soda, &c. The town has two ancient gate graphically, this tract includes the small British pro- ware, towers (1515) and an old Gothic church. Population vince of Ajmere-Merwara. Politically, Rajputana is (1890), 5629; (1900), 6615, Czech. subdivided into nine subordinate agencies: (1) Mewar Raleigh, a city of North Carolina, U.S.A., capital or Udaipur, including Banswara, Partabgarh, and Dungarpur; (2) western states, comprising Marwar or Jodhpur, of Wake county and also of the state. It is a little Sirohi, and Jaisalmer; (3) Jaipur, including Kishengarh; north of the centre of the state, at the intersection (4) eastern states, comprising Bharatpur, Karauli, and of lines of the Seaboard Air Line and the Southern RailDholpur; (5) Haraoti, comprising Tonk, Bundi, and way, at an altitude of 317 feet. It is regularly laid Shahpura; (6) Alwar; (7) Kotah; (8) Jhallawar; (9) out, has a good water-supply and sewerage system, and Bikanir. .Total area, 130,268 square miles. Population contains many state institutions, including the peni(1881), 9,959,012; (1891), 12,220,343 (inclusive of tentiary, one of the three state insane asylums, and instiregistered Bhils), showing an apparent increase of 23 per tutions for the blind, deaf, and dumb. It is the site of cent., largely due to more accurate enumeration; average the North Carolina College of Agricultural and Mechanical density, 94 persons per square mile, ranging from 327 in Arts, which in 1899 had a faculty of 27 and was attended Bharatpur to only 7 in Jaisalmer. Classified according to by 252 students. It contains also Shaw University (for religion, in 1891 Hindus numbered 10,192,829; Mahom- the coloured), with in 1899 a faculty of 26 and 365 medans, 991,351 ; Jains, 417,618; aborigines, 411,078; students. It has several other minor educational instiChristians, 1855; Parsis, 238 ; “others,” 205,374. In tutions. Population (1900), 13,643, of whom 145 were 1901, however, the population had fallen to 9,841,032—a foreign-born and 5721 negroes. decrease of more than two millions, or 18 per cent., due Ram£e, Louise de la (1840 ), English to the famine of 1899-1900. The estimated aggregate novelist, better known as Ouida, was born at Bury St revenue is Rs.3,50,00,000; expenditure on public works Edmunds in 1840, her father being an Englishman and (1897-98), Rs.53,00,000. The tract is traversed through- her mother a Frenchwoman. While still a girl, she went out by the Rajputana Railway, with its Malwa branch in with her mother and grandmother to live in London, and the south, and diverging to Agra and Delhi in the north. there she began to contribute at an early age to the New Jodhpur, Udaipur, and Bikanir have constructed branch Monthly and Bentley's Magazine. In 1860 her first story, railways at their own cost, the first of which was extended afterwards republished as Held in Bondage, appeared in in 1901 to Haidarabad in Sind. Rajputana is liable to the former under the title of Granville de Vigne, and this famine, the average rainfall in the western states being was followed in quick succession by Strathmore (1865), only 14 inches, and irrigation practically unavailable. It Ghandos (1866), and Under Tivo Flags (1867). The list suffered very severely in 1868—69, and again in 1900, when of Ouida’s subsequent works is too long to be recapitulated the number of persons on relief was about 500,000. here; it is sufficient to say that, together with Moths Rajshahi, a district and division of British India. (1880), those already named are not only the most The administrative headquarters are at Rampur Boalia. characteristic, but also the best. In a less dramatic genre, Area, 2330 square miles. Population (1891), 1,313,336. her Bimbi: Stories for Children (1882), may also be 172

RAMESWARA M—R A M P O L L A mentioned; but it was by her more flamboyant stories, such as Under Two Flags and Moths, that her popular success was achieved. By purely literary critics and on grounds of morality or taste Ouida’s novels are bound to be condemned. They are generally flashy, and frequently unwholesome. It is impossible, however, to dismiss books like Ghandos and Under Two Flags merely on such grounds. The new and rather French note of sensual passion which Ouida introduced into English fiction was combined in her with an original gift for situation and plot, and also with genuine descriptive powers which, though disfigured by inaccurate observation, literary solecisms, and tawdry extravagance, enabled her at her best to construct a picturesque and powerful story. The character of “Cigarette” in Under Two Flags is full of fine touches, and this is not an isolated instance. In 1874 “ Ouida ” made her home in Florence, and many of her latest novels have an Italian setting. She contributed from time to time to the magazines, and wrote vigorously on behalf of anti-vivisection and on Italian politics; but her views on these subjects were marked by injudicious violence. Ra.meSWa.ra.IYI, an island extending 11 miles towards Ceylon, being separated from the mainland of India by the Pambam channel. It derives its name from the mythical journey of Rama to Ceylon, described in the Ramayana, and is one of the holy places of Hindu pilgrimage. The great temple, with its pillared corridors 700 feet long, is perhaps the finest example of Dravidian architecture. Ram Mohan Roy (1774-1833), Indian religious reformer, and founder of the Brahma Somaj, or Theistic Church, was born at Radhanagar, in the district of Hugh, in Bengal, in 1774. He was the son of a petty zemindar (landlord), and in his early life acquired a knowledge of Persian, Arabic, and Sanskrit, besides his own vernacular, Bengali. At the age of sixteen he first assailed idolatry in his Bengali work, entitled The Idolatrous Religious System of the Hindus. This gave offence to his orthodox father, and Ram Mohan left home and spent some years in travel. At the age of twenty-two he began his study of the English language, and he also acquired a knowledge of other modern and ancient European languages. On the death of his father he obtained an appointment under the British Government in 1800, from which he retired in 1814, settled down in Calcutta, and devoted himself to religious reform. He wrote Bengali works on the Yedanta Philosophy, translated some of the Upanishads, entered into controversies with Christian missionaries, and in 1828 established the Brahma Somaj “ for the worship and adoration of the Eternal, Unsearchable, Immutable Being who is the Author and Preserver of the Universe.” He gave his support to the governor-general, Lord William Bentinck, for the abolition of the suttee rite, i.e., the custom of permitting Hindu widows to burn themselves on the funeral pyre of their husbands. In 1830 the emperor of Delhi bestowed on Ram Mohan the title of raja, and sent him to England as his agent. Raja Ram Mohan Roy gave his evidence before the Select Committee of the House of Commons on the judicial and revenue systems of India. He presented petitions to the House of Commons in support of the abolition of the suttee rite, and had the satisfaction of being present in the House when the appeal against such abolition was rejected on 11th July 1832. As the first educated and eminent Indian who had come to England, he received a cordial welcome from learned men ; and Bentham addressed him as an “intensely admired and dearly beloved collaborator in the service of mankind.” Raja Ram Mohan Roy died

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on 27th September 1833, and his remains were interred at Bristol. A tomb subsequently erected there by his friend Dwarka Nath Tagore still exists. The Brahma Somaj founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy has continued to flourish since his death. Dwarka Nath Tagore himself helped the movement, but subsequently he came to England, was well received for his culture, wealth, and influence, and died in England. His son Debendra Nath Tagore became the head of the Brahma Somaj, and continued to be the leader of the oldest section of it. A schism took place in the third quarter of the 19th century, and Keshab Chandra Sen became the head of the seceding Church. A further schism took place in his church some years later, and the newest section, headed by Anand Mohan Bose and others, is now the most popular and progressive institution of the Reformed Church inaugurated by Ram Mohan Roy in 1828. All the three sections of the Brahma Somaj have done good work in the cause of literary culture, social reform, and female education in India. (r. c. d.) Ramnad, a town of British India, in the Madura district of Madras, at the base of the spit of land that projects towards the island of Rameswaram in Palk Strait. Population (1891), 13,600. It is the residence of a raja of old family, head of the Maravar caste, whose title is Setupathi, or lord of Adam’s Bridge. The estate covers an area of about 2400 square miles, and pays a permanent land revenue of ,£31,400. There is a S.P.G. high school, and a mission printing-press, issuing an English periodical. A large tank, supplied from the river Yaigai, irrigates 6000 acres. Rsimnicu Sarat, a town in Rumania, the chief town of the district bearing the same name. It was completely destroyed by fire in 1854 and was rebuilt. Ramnicu was the scene of several remarkable battles between the Moldavians and Wallachians in 1434 and 1573, and between the Wallachians and Turks in 1634. Here also, in 1789, an Austro-Russian army, under the Prince of Coburg and Suwaroff, completely routed the Turks. Population (1895), 12,500; (1900), 13,134, of whom about 1500 were Jews. RcLmniCU VaJcea., a town in Rumania, situated on the right bank of the river Olt, and chief town of the district of Valcea. It is the seat of a bishop, and contains a seminary and twelve churches. Near it are the well-known thermal springs of Olanesci. It is said to be the ancient Castra Trajani, and many traces of old encampments bear evidence of this. Population (1895), 6000; (1900), 7317. Rampolla, Count Mariano del Tindaro (1843), Italian cardinal, papal secretary of state, was born on 17th August 1843, at Polizzi, in the Sicilian diocese of Cefalii. Having completed his studies in the Capranica College at Rome, and having taken holy orders, he studied diplomacy at the College of Ecclesiastical Nobles, and in 1875 was appointed councillor to the papal nunciature at Madrid. Two years later he was recalled to Rome and appointed secretary of the Propaganda for Eastern Affairs, and for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs. Consecrated titular archbishop of Heraclea in 1885, he returned to Madrid as Nuncio, but was shortly afterwards created cardinal and appointed to the papal secretaryship of state. The choice created considerable surprise, but was attributable to the desire of Leo XIII. to possess a secretary more docile than Cardinals Franchi, Nina, and Jacobini, who had previously held that office. Rampolla fulfilled papal expectations. New to the Sacred College and free from traditional preconceptions, he became a ready and pliant instrument of the pontifical will. He accepted the papal ideas, especially with regard to France, and seconded them with vigour if not always with tact. Notwithstanding persistent attempts

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to cast upon him responsibility for the failure of Vatican policy towards France, and for the prevalence of reactionary tendencies during the later years of Leo XIII.’s pontificate, there is no evidence to show Cardinal Fampolla to have been more than a faithful exponent of ideas already formed, though not completely applied, before his appointment to the secretaryship of state. pU r, a stative state of India, in subordination to the North-Western Provinces. It lies in Ilohilkhand, between the British districts of Moradabad and Pilibhit. Area, 945 square miles. Population (1891), 551,249; (1901), 532,067, showing a decrease of 3 per cent. Gross revenue, lls.31,83,000; military force, 2556 men, including Imperial Service troops. The chief, whose title is Nawab, is a Ilohilla Pathan, whose family have always been loyal to the British connexion. The state is crossed by a branch of the Oudh and Ilohilkhand Railway from Bareilly to Moradabad. The town of Rampur is on the left bank of the river Kosila, 620 feet above the sea; railway station, 39 miles north-west of Bareilly. Population (1891), 76,733; (1901), 77,862. There are manufactures of damask and pottery. Rampur Boalia, or Beuleah, a town of British India, the administrative headquarters of Rajshahi district in Bengal; on the left bank of the Ganges. Population (1881), 19,228; (1891), 21,407. It was originally chosen as a commercial factory for the silk trade, which is again being officially encouraged by the Agricultural Department. The town contains a Government college, a collegiate high school, and an industrial school for sericulture; there are eight printing-presses, issuing two vernacular periodicals, a public library and debating club. Most of the public buildings were severely damaged by the earthquake of 12th June 1897. There is a regular steamer service with Damukdia Ghat, 50 miles south-east on the Eastern Bengal Railway. Ramsay, Sir Andrew Crombie (18141891), British geologist, was born at Glasgow on 31st January 1814. Intended for commercial life, he was for a time actually engaged in business, but from spending his holidays in Arran he became interested in the study of the rocks of that island, and was thus led to acquire the rudiments of geology. A geological model of Arran, made by him on the scale of two inches to the mile, was exhibited • at the meeting of the British Association at Glasgow in 1840, and attracted the notice of Murchison, with the result that he invited its maker to accompany him on a geological expedition to America. Ramsay accepted the offer, but the arrangement subsequently fell through, and instead he received, by Murchison’s good offices, an appointment on the Geological Survey, on which he served for forty years, from 1841 to 1881. He was first stationed at Tenby, and to that circumstance may be attributed the fact that so much of his geological work dealt with Wales. He was chosen professor of geology at University College, London, in 1848, and lecturer in the same subject at the School of Mines in 1851. Eleven years later he was elected to the presidential chair of the Geological Society, and in 1871 he succeeded Murchison as director-general of the Geological Survey. In 1880 he acted as president of the British Association at Swansea, and in the following year retired from the public service, receiving at the same time the honour of knighthood. He died ten years later at Beaumaris, on 9th December 1891. The scope of his work may be gathered from the titles of the following, which are among his most important papers: “Denudation of South Wales,” “ Old Glaciers of Switzerland and North Wales,” “ Glacial Origin of Certain Lakes in Switzerland, the Black Forest, &c.,” “ The Red Rocks of England,” and

“River Courses of England and Wales.” It will be seen that he was especially interested in tracing out the causes which have determined the physical configuration of a district, and he devoted much attention to the effects produced by ice, his name being identified with the hypothesis, which, however, has never commanded general assent, that in some cases lake-basins have been scooped out by glaciers. Sir Archibald Geikie, who published a biography of him in 1895, has characterized him as combining a faculty for bold and broad generalization with habits of patient observation and cautious induction. He received a Royal medal in 1880 from the Royal Society, of which he became a fellow in 1862, and he was also the recipient of the Neill prize of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1866, and of the Wollaston medal of the Royal Geological Society in 1871. Rams bottom, manufacturing town and urban district (1894), Lancashire, England, in the Heywood parliamentary division of the county, 134 miles north of Manchester by rail. A Primitive Methodist chapel was erected in 1889, and a cottage hospital was opened in 1900. It has iron and brass foundries, machine factories, and establishments for calico printing, bleaching, spinning, and manufacturing. Population (1891), 16,726; (1901), 15,920. Ramsgate, municipal borough and watering-place in the Isle of Thanet parliamentary division of Kent, England, 79 miles east-south-east of London by rail. The inner harbour covers (1899) an area of 12 acres ; the outer, of 35 acres. In 1888, 895 vessels entered with 118,636 tons of cargo, and 857 vessels cleared with 114,906 tons. In 1901, 1666, vessels entered with 324,145 tons, and 1531 vessels cleared with 266,458 tons. Steamboats run during the season to London, Tilbury, Margate, Deal, Dover, Calais, and Boulogne. Electric trams connect Ramsgate with Broadstairs and Margate. Extensive improvements were carried out in 1895—96 on the sea-front. They include a new sea-wall and a widened approach to the sands. The corporation opened a public library in 1895. Technical schools occupy part of the same building. Ellington Park, area 12 acres, was opened in 1893. Population of the municipal borough (1891), 24,733; (1901), 27,693. Ranavalo III. (1864 ), formerly queen of Madagascar, born in 1864, was a great-niece of Radama I. Her name originally was Rasuaherina, but on succeeding to the throne of Madagascar after the death of Queen Ranavalo II., on 14th July 1883, she assumed the style of Ranavalo III. Although nominally queen, she took no share in the government, which her prime minister, Rainilaiarivony, had controlled since 1864. After placing her on the throne, he married her before the close of the year. Ranavalo became queen just after the French had revived their claim to a protectorate over the island. The Hova Government refusing to admit the claim, war broke out, and several sharp engagements took place. The French bombarded the coast towns, but were unable to reach the interior of the island, where the strength of the Hovas lay. In December 1885 a treaty was concluded by which it was agreed that the government of the French Republic should represent Madagascar in all foreign relations, but that in internal matters the Hova Government should be independent, as formerly. During the next ten years French influence was quietly extended over the island, in spite of the efforts of Rainilaiarivony, who pursued an anti-French policy, encouraging English and American planters and traders. In 1894 differences on commercial and territorial questions arose between the Hova Government and the French, which terminated in war. In 1895 a well-organized

RANCHI — RANGE-FINDER expedition was despatched from France to subjugate the island. Many of the inhabitants sympathized with the invaders, and even the Hovas themselves were divided. Although Ranavalo endeavoured to arouse a martial spirit in her subjects, the French advanced on the capital without encountering any effective opposition. On 30th September they captured Antananarivo. Rainilaiarivony was sent into exile, where he died in the following year; but Ranavalo was suffered to remain as nominal head of the Government, under a strict French protectorate. In 1896, to avoid commercial difficulties with foreign Powers, the island was declared a French colony; but no change was made in the internal administration. Later in the year, however, the civil governor was replaced by a military resident, General Gallieni. A formidable insurrection broke out, which Gallieni suppressed, executing or exiling several prominent members of the Hova administration. Finding that the court had been a centre of intrigue, he abolished the sovereignty by proclamation early in 1897, and exiled Ranavalo to Reunion. In 1899 she was removed to Algiers, but was subsequently permitted to visit Paris. Ranchi, a town of British India, headquarters of Lohardaga district and of the Chota Nagpur division in Bengal, situated in 23° 22' N. and 85° 22' E., 2100 feet above the sea. Population (1891), 20,306. It is an important centre of local trade, and the headquarters of the German Lutheran mission. There is a high school and an industrial school; also three printing-presses, issuing two periodicals, a public library and bar library. Rand. See Gold. Randazzo, a town of the province of Catania, Sicily, Italy, at the north foot of Mount Etna, 25 miles north-west of Giarre by the circum-Etna railway. It is a mediaevallooking town, with Norman walls built of lava, a church dating from the 13th-14th centuries, a former ducal palace (now a prison), several mediaeval private houses, and an antiquarian museum. Randazzo is the nearest town to the summit of Mount Etna, 9 miles distant, and stands 2474 feet above sea-level. Population (1881), 9908; (1899), about 8500. Randers, a town of Denmark, 8 miles inland from Randers Fjord, and 36 miles by rail north by west of Aarhus in Jutland. The high school is housed in a mediaeval monastery, which was restored in 1894—97. There is a statue to Steen S. Blicher (1782-1848), the national author of Jutland. There are distilleries and manufactories of gloves, railway carriages, &c., and large slaughter yards. In 1899 the port was entered by 648 vessels of 74,968 tons, and cleared by 652 of 76,275 tons. The chief exports are butter and eggs; the chief imports, sugar, petroleum, coal, and iron. Population (1890), 16,617 ; (1901), 20,057. Ranenburg, a district town of Russia, in the government, and 105 miles south of the town, of Ryazan. A considerable trade in grain is carried on, and the inhabitants have gained a reputation for gardening. The population in 1897 was 15,347. Range-Finder (or Telemeter).—The judgment of the most highly trained observer, guided by the unassisted eye, is not sufficiently trustworthy to develop to the full the powers of modern weapons. Hence numberless inventors have produced instruments in endless variety to assist the gunner and infantry soldier in determining the distance or “ range ” to their objective. Such instruments are called telemeters, or, more generally, range-finders. Among the many inventors of range-finders the following names may be mentioned Rocsaudre (Austria) ; Deport, Goulier

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(France); Amici, Braccialini (Italy) ; Souchier (Russia); Tinge (Sweden) ; Crehore and Squier, Fiske, Gordon, Leslie, Lewis, Pratt (United States of America) ; Adie, Barr and Stroud, Christie, Mallock, Watkin, Weldon, &c. (Great Britain). Nearly all range-finders may be described as instruments which automatically solve a triangle. Usually it is a right-angled triangle, the length of the base of which is known, and one of the sides is the range it is desired to find. They are, in fact, goniometers, but the angle which they measure, whether it may be at the end of the measured base, or that subtended by it, is usually expressed as a function of the angle in terms of the measured base. In fact, the range is recorded directly in metres or yards without calculation. It has frequently been observed that, if a convenient telescope could be devised of sufficient focal length for the travel of the eyepiece in focussing to be made the measure of the distance of the objective from the observer, a perfect range-finder would be obtained. It is proposed in this article to describe briefly the range-finding instruments in the British services (1) as used in the fleet; (2) by the army in the field; and (3) in harbour defence. (1) The necessity for a range-finder afloat caused the British Admiralty in 1891 to issue an advertisement in the press inviting inventors to produce an instrument, which would, amongst other conditions, record ranges with an accuracy of 3 per cent, at 3000 yards. The resulting competition was declared in favour of a rangefinder the joint invention of Professor Barr of the Glasgow University and Professor Stroud of the Yorkshire College. The naval range-finder consists of a tube 60 inches in length by 3| inches in diameter, which contains two telescopes. It is carried on a frame by bearings, in which the tube is free to revolve about its longer axis. To the frame is attached a weight capable of movement within a tank. This weight balances the range-finder and frame upon knife-edges. By means of the handle on the left of the instrument and an altitude worm beneath it, the motion of the tube is governed, and the line of sight is directed on the objective. By partially filling the tank with water, the swinging of the weight in a seaway can be checked. The frame is supported on a pedestal and can rotate in azimuth upon it (Fig. 1). A rubber guard is fitted round the eyepieces. Its functions are to guide the eyes of the observer into the correct position, and to protect them from side light and the distressing effect of wind. It also guards the forehead against the jar occasioned by firing heavy guns. The upper portion of the field presented to the left eye is used as a finder, the lower portion is occupied by the scale upon which the ranges are engraved. The finder is a low-power telescope of large field, to the centre of which the objective is brought. When the telescope is thus correctly aligned the objective will be seen with the right eye largely magnified, but as two partial images separated by a thin black horizontal line. When coincidence of the images is effected by means of the working head, the range can be read off against a pointer from the scale seen with the left eye. For night use, means are provided for illuminating the scale. The range to lights may be ascertained by the use of the astigmatizer, an optical device by which a point of light is drawn out into a vertical streak. A beam of light from the objective falls on each reflector (Fig. 2), and passing through the object glasses, each is received by an arrangement of prisms about the centre of the tube, and reflected through the right eyepiece. Two partial images are thus seen. The images could be united by the rotation of one of the reflectors, but owing to the small base used the necessary movement would be so extremely small that it would be practically impossible to measure it. The difficulty has been surmounted by utilizing fixed reflectors and effecting coincidence by means of a prism of small angle. The deflecting prism is situated in the line of the beam of light from the reflector at the right-hand end of the tube. Its multiplying action is of great delicacy. The angle available for subdivision, to measure ranges between infinity and 250 yards, is only one-third of a degree. In a travel of 6 inches the prism renders accurate measurements possible within the required limits. To bring images of distant objectives into coincidence, the prism must be moved towards the eyepiece, and for near objectives in the opposite direction. The range scale is attached to the prism. A consequent advantage is that the accuracy of the instrument is not affected by back lash arising from wear, or irregularity in the actuating mechanism. When once installed the instrument is always ready for use.

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RANGE-FINDER

Should adjustment be required it is readily and easily applied. It is not within the sphere of this article to enter into the detail of LEFT BEARING

with index and horizon glasses permanently inclined at 45°. It consequently measures a right angle. In the other sextant, called the reading instrument, a graduated drum takes the place of the usual index arm and scale. The drum is graduated spirally with a scale of ranges. Both reading and right angle instruments are fitted with a vane of gun metal with a white strip down the centre to facilitate observations. Telescopes of low power can be fitted to the instruments, and two cords of 50 (or 25^) yards are provided with which to measure the base. Two observers attach the ends of the cord of fixed length (usually 50 yards) to their instruments and separate until it is taut. The observer with the right angle instrument moves into such a position that coincidence of image will be given between the objective and the vane of the instrument at the other end of the base, i.e., he makes ABC a right angle (Fig. 3). When the right angle is established the observer at C turns the graduated drum of the reading instrument until the image of the vane of the right angle instrument coincides with the direction of the objective. The range AC is then read on the drum. The ranges on the drum are measures of the angle BAG when the base BC is 50 yards. The mekometer is open to the objection which is common to all range-finders requiring more than one observer. There is always a danger that observers may cause coincidence on different objectives or on different parts of the same objective, and thus inaccuracy in the recorded range must result. The instruments are expected to give an accuracy of less than 2 per cent, at 2000 yards. For ranges over that distance, i.e., for usual artillery ranges, it is desirable to use a double base (100 yards in length), in which case the range registered on the drum must be doubled. This operation, although slight, is a distinct disadvantage, because no calculation, however trifling, is RUBBER WASHEAS desirable in action; since it adds to the time of taking a range and is a possible source of error. For field artillery, however, a rangefinder is only an auxiliary adjunct. The true the adjusting mechanism. For further particulars the reader is range can be found by a process of trial and error in as short referred to the Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical a time as the mekometer observers take to report it. To quote Engineers, 30th January 1896. The working of the range-finder is from the field artillery drill book, ‘ ‘ The first round is fired with the elevation due to the range as estimated, or given FIMOER OBJECT GLASS by the range taker. If it is short the elevation is rf-F* END. increased by 100, 200, or 400 yards, and after every >ERAME EYE PIECE PRISMS-&I SCALE' plate round observed short the same alteration is made lOBJECT GLASS CASE DEFLECTING PRISM OBJECT GLASSu REFLECTOR until a round is observed over ; the ‘ long bracket ’ is then said to be found. The difference between the Fig. 2. two elevations that have bracketed the target is then halved—until the target is enclosed between two rounds the so simple that its use is quickly learnt by any man who can read, difference of whose elevation is 50 yards, which is termed the and with little instruction and practice he can “ take a range ” in 1 8 to 12 seconds. Besides its principal purpose, in connexion with “short bracket.” Thus the correct elevation is found. It must, gunnery, there are minor uses in navigation and nautical surveying ^Objective to which the range-finder can be applied. With the high speeds of modern war vessels, guns and their objective approach each other so quickly that unless ranges can be communicated from the instrument to the guns with rapidity and accuracy the range-finder is deprived of much of its value. In connexion with the naval range-finder an apparatus is provided, which though not part of the range-finder is sufficiently important to claim passing notice. The apparatus consists of a transmitting and a receiving instrument of clockwork mechanism electrically controlled. In appearance they resemble the ordinary engine - room telegraph, on the dials of which ranges take the place of orders. The transmitter can communicate with a number of receiving instruments, disposed as required in different parts of the ship. ^Reading instrument (2) For the army in the field there is hut one type of ftightangie instrument range-finder. To the set of instruments used the name of B mekometer has been given. The instruments used by the cavalry and infantry are smaller and lighter than those of the artillery pattern, but the principle involved is however, be remembered that as shrapnel shell is the principal projectile of field artillery, after the correct elevation has been identical. given the true length of time fuze has to be found. This the The mekometer is practically a box sextant (Fig. 2). Two 1 instruments are used simultaneously at the ends of a base of fixed At the battle of Omdurman the infantry and machine guns obtained the length. One sextant called the right-angle instrument is fitted ranges from the field artillery.

RANGOON ran^e-finder cannot do. Hence it is that the range-finder for field artillery, although a valuable auxiliary, is not of the same importance as in purely defensive positions such as batteries for harbour defence and land forts. It is believed that in the German and French field artillery a range-finder is not used. 3. For harbour defence, owing to the long range of naval guns, and the fast targets which war vessels present, an accurate range-finder is of first importance. This is largely the case because “ ranging ” cannot be resorted to in the same manner as in the field, where the targets are comparatively motionless and the effective ranges are less. Successful artillery practice therefore depends, in a great measure, upon the range-finder.

The instrument much used in harbour forts is known as the depression range-finder. As its name suggests, it solves a triangle in the vertical plane, of which the base is the height of the instrument above sea - level. Its appearance resembles some forms of theodolite (Fig. 4). A framework, capable of rotating in azimuth on a vertical pivot, is supported on a plate carried by levelling screws, L, L, L. To the framework are pivoted two arms DC and FE, at 0 and E respectively. The arm EF is supported at F by a vertical screw H ending in a drum, upon which, in a spiral scale, the ranges are graduated. Motion in altitude is thus given to the telescope. The arm CD is supported by a slider G. This slider is set by a rack and pinion to the height above sea-level (represented on a scale of feet on EF) at which the instrument may be used. A telescope AB is suitably fitted in jaws at the top of the frame. There are spirit levels at M and Q for adjusting purposes. The telescope is provided with cross wires which can be illuminated for night use. An azimuth circle X and pointer Y enable the direction of any vessel to be indicated, the range of which it is desired to know. The instrument rests on a base plate R to which it is locked by the topplate 0. The observer directs the cross wires of the telescope upon the water line of the objective, by means of the drum I and the azimuth handle P, the top of which just appears in the diagram. The reader watches the arrow on the drum and calls out the ranges as the figures arrive beneath it. The ranges are communicated to the officers at the guns by various devices, which differ according to local requirements. The details of the Position Finder are carefully guarded as confidential. From the brief published descriptions it may be gathered that directing the telescope upon the objective electrically communicates the bearing and range to the gun detachments. The position finder, and also the depression range finder and mekometer, are inventions of Colonel Watkin, C.B. The greatest advance in practical range-finding for harbour defence, in recent years, has been made in the apparatus to which the name has been given of automatic sight. The mechanism is the invention ofSir George Clarke, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., &c. The principle of the sight is the outcome of a process of evolution in range-finding. The depression range-finder gives ranges from the objective to the range-finder. The position-finder goes a step further, and automatically communicates range and

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bearing to the vicinity of the guns. But by means of the automatic sight, the same muscular effort which aligns the laying points (or telescope) on the objective, imparts the requisite elevation and direction to the gun. Such a system of laying ordnance has long been a requirement, but quick-firing guns and smokeless powder demand it as a necessity. The automatic sight renders it possible to regard the individual gun as an independent unit, and with it T the largest gun becomes as a rifle in the hands of the man w ho lays it. Range-finders bind the guns they serve to one objective, and necessitate a rigid fire discipline in order that the guns may be ready to fire at the moment the anticipated range is reported. The automatic sight allows convergence or dispersion of accurate fire, and in a measure restores the elasticity of control of the days of smooth bores. It economizes men, and the gun-layer who uses it does not require the high training necessary for range-finding specialists. The principle of the apparatus is made clear by Fig. 5. AB is a bar carrying the fore and hind sights, or a telescope fitted at the focus with a pointer. AB is pivoted at C. CD is the attachment of the apparatus to the cradle E. (As the gun recoils through E, the gunner can continue to look over the sights whilst firing.) At right angles to AB is a bar FG, fitted at H with a guide working in a cam plate K. L is a case containing a spring, whose function it is to keep the guide H in contact with the cam. It will be seen that as the gun is elevated or depressed, motion in altitude is imparted to the sight bar AB. The amount of motion is regulated by the form of the cam K, which is cut in accordance with the range table of the gun and the height above sea-level. The sight, therefore, is a depression range-finder, having for its base the height of the axis of the gun above the sea. A compensation for rise and fall of tide is consequently necessary, and is effected by the handle M. M works through a suitably engraved scale and, actuating an eccentric at N, imparts the necessary correcting motion about the pivot R to the cam plate K. The reader is referred for further details to Garrison Artillery Brill, 1899, or the Journal of the United States Artillery, vol. xiii. p. 323.

Authorities. —War Office publications : Handbook for the Depression Range-Finder for Elevated Batteries, Handbook for the Mekometer, Garrison Artillery Drill, Field Artillery Drill, Handbook for the Position Finding Instruments.—Barr and Stroud. “Telemeters and Range-Finders,” Proceedings Inst. Mech. Engineers, January 1896.—Lassiter. “Range and Position Finding,” Journal of U.S. Artillery, April 1895.—De Kerillis. “Automatic Sights,” Revue Maritime et Coloniale, August 1895. (F. M. L*.) Rangoon, the capital of Burma, situated on the left bank of the river Hlaing or Rangoon, 21 miles from the sea, in 16° 47' K and 96° 13' E. In 1880 Rangoon town was detached from the main district, called Hanthawaddy, and formed into a separate district, with an area of 22 square miles. Population of Rangoon (1891), 181,871 ; (1901), 232,326. Until 1874 the management of the town was in the hands of the local government, which devoted itself to raising the centre of the S. VIII. — 23

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town above the river level, providing land fit for building purposes from the original swamp, which was flooded at springtides, and making roads, bridges, culverts, and surface drains. In 1892 was introduced the Shone sewage system, which now includes 6 miles of sewage mains, 22 miles of gravitating sewers, 4| miles of air mains, and 44 Shone’s ejectors. The water-works for Rangoon proper and for the shipping were not completed till 1893. The water-supply is now derived from Victoria Lake, a reservoir near Kokine, five miles distant. The town proper of Rangoon with the Kemmendine suburb is laid out on the block system, each block being 800 by 860 feet, intersected with regular

streets. In the extensions of Rangoon to the east and west it has been decided to have no streets less than 50 feet wide. The roads are still lighted by kerosene oil lamps, although Moulmein has adopted a lighting system of oil gas. The lighting extends over 42 miles of roads. Steam tramways run from the town to Pazundaung in one direction and to Alon and Kemmendine in the other, as well as to the foot of the Shwe Dagon Pagoda hill. Latterly the erection of masonry buildings, instead of plank houses, has been insisted on in the central portion of the town, with the result that fires have decreased in number. There are two large maidaus, or commons, which are used as military parade

grounds and for racing, as well as for golf links and other purposes of amusement. There is a garden round the Phayre Museum, managed by the Agri-Horticultural Society, and an extremely pretty and well-kept garden in the cantonments under the Pagoda. Beyond these, however, the Royal Lake and Dalhousie Park, with 160 acres of water and 205 acres of well-laid-out and well-timbered park land, form one of the finest recreation grounds of which any city can boast. There are two cathedrals, Church of England and Roman Catholic, a Presbyterian church, and, besides the cantonment church, many other houses of various forms of Christian worship. Religious buildings and lands, indeed, occupy an area in Rangoon out of all proportion to its total size. Christians, Buddhists, Mussulmans, Hindus, Parsis, Armenians, and Jews all own lands and churches, pagodas, temples, mosques, and synagogues. The Buddhist monasteries, in particular, occupy wide spaces in very central portions of the town and cantonments. They are very far from being properly kept, but the ground is devoted in perpetuity to religion, and cannot be resumed, for reasons of public policy. Burial-grounds are equally extensive, and exist in every direction in what were once the outskirts, but are now fast becoming central parts of the city. A large necropolis is being prepared outside Rangoon, and most of the graveyards, many of which are already dangerously overcrowded, will soon be closed. The civil general hospital has accommodation for 368 patients, and over 7000 in-patients and 55,000 out-patients are annually treated in it. The military authorities have a hospital in cantonments. The Dufferin Institute for providing female medical aid to women has a branch and a small hospital in Rangoon, and a new hospital is in course of construction. Contagious diseases, cholera and small-pox, are treated in separate hospitals built outside the crowded part of the town. There are three municipal and eight private markets in Rangoon, which are being improved and extended. Everything, from sacking to jewellery, is sold in them. The introduction of pure water and the establishment of compulsory vaccination have greatly improved the health of Rangoon. The aggregate death-rate, which was 31-41 per

mille in 1896, had fallen to 23T6 in 1898-99. The rate is still high, and is due partly to the swampy nature of the outskirts of the town proper, and still more to the deaths among the Hindu immigrants from the Madras Presidency. The death-rate among Christians is only 7 per mille. Of the population in 1898-99, the number of Buddhists and Jains was 79,857 ; Hindus, 57,845 ; Mahommedans, 28,836 ; Christians, 12,698, of whom 4686 were natives, 1075 Karens and Shans, and 33 Parsis. The total rainfall in 1898-99 was 109 05 inches. The highest thermometer reading in May was 97'5°, and the lowest reading in December 60’S0 F. (j. (j. sc.) Rangpur, or Rungpore, a town and district of British India, in the Rajshahi division of Bengal. The town is situated on the little river Ghaghat. Population (1891), 14,216. There is a high school, a normal school, and an industrial school. A public library was established in 1854. The earthquake of 12th June 1897 destroyed many of the public buildings, and diverted the drainage channels. The district of Rangpur has an area of 3486 square miles. The population in 1891 was 2,065,464, showing a slight decrease; average density, 592 persons per square mile. Classified according to religion, in 1891 Mahommedans numbered 1,295,411; Hindus, 768,233 ; Christians, 243, of whom 86 were Europeans ; “others,” 1577. In 1901 the population was 2,152,518, showing an increase of 4 per cent. The land revenue and rates in 1897-98 were Rs.11,46,765 ; number of police, 465; boys at school (1896-97), 26,068, being 16-3 per cent, of the male population of school-going age ; registered death-rate (1897), 38 per thousand. After rice, the most important crop is jute. There are 21 jute presses, with a capital of Rs.5,28,000, producing 181,000 bales, valued at Rs.20,87,000. Tobacco also is largely grown. The Eastern Bengal Railway lias two branches, one of which crosses the district to the Brahmaputra, and the other runs north to Cooch Behar. The railway bridge over the Tista at Kaunia was opened in 1901.

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Ranke, Leopold von (1795-1886), German with the period of the Reformation : from a study of them historian, was born, 21st December 1795, in the small town he found how different were the real events as disclosed in of Wiehe, in Thuringia, which then formed part of the contemporary documents from the history as recorded by electorate of Saxony. His father was an advocate, but his most writers ; and the result of his researches was embodied ancestors, so far back as the family can be traced, had been in his second work, The Princes and Peoples of Southern ministers of religion. To the end of his days he maintained Europe (1827). (In later editions the title of this was Monarchy in the the deep religious feeling and family affection which he altered to The Osmans and the Spanish T had acquired as a child. He received his education first at 16th and 17th Centuries.) It w as now his ambition to Donndorf, a boarding-school established in an old monas- continue his exploration of the new world thus opened to tery near his home, and then at Schulpforta. Thence he him : the Prussian Government provided the means, and in passed to the University of Leipzig. His studies, both at September 1827 he started for Italy. His first sojourn school and university, were predominantly classical and was in Vienna : the friendship of Gentz and the protection theological; he received no special training in, and during of Metternich opened to him the Venetian archives, of his early years he displayed no special vocation for, which many were preserved in that city—a virgin field, history. The great political events which occurred during the value of which he first discovered, and which is still his boyhood and youth seem to have had less effect on unexhausted. He found time, in addition, to write a short him than on many of his contemporaries, and he was book on Servia and the Servian Revolution, from material not carried away either by enthusiastic admiration for supplied to him by Wuk Stephanowich, a Servian, who had himself been witness of Napoleon or by the patriotic the scenes he related. In fervour of 1813; nor was he 1828 he at last crossed the implicated in the political Alps, and the next three years movements wdiich during the were spent in Italy. The refollowing years attracted many commendations of Metternich of the students. He already opened to him almost every displayed that detachment of library except the Vatican; mind which was to be so and it wras during these three characteristic of him. At the years of study in Venice, age of twenty-two he became Ferrara, Rome, and other master in a school at Frankcities, that he obtained that fort-on-the-Oder. He thereby acquaintance with European entered the service of the history which was to make Prussian Government : his him the first historian of his birthplace had already been time. At Rome, as he said, annexed to Prussia. The headhe learned to see events from master was Poppo, the celethe inside. He wrote nothing brated Grecian. But besides but a critical examination of his classical work, Ranke was the story of Don Carlos, but entrusted with the teaching of he returned to Germany a history. With the scholar’s master of his craft. He then dislike of text-books, he rapidly for a time engaged in an occuacquired a thorough knowpation of a different nature, ledge of the ancient hisfor he was appointed editor torians, quickly passed on to of a periodical which Perthes mediaeval times, and here it designed to defend the Prussian was that he formed as the Government against the deideal of his life the study of mocratic press. Ranke, conuniversal history—the works temptuous in politics, as in of God as displayed in the history, of the men who history of the human race. warped facts to support some Here, too, he composed his LEOPOLD VON RANKE. abstract theory, especially disfirst work, which deals with (By permission of E. Linde and Co.) liked the doctrinaire Liberthe period to which most of his life was to be devoted, On the History of the alism so fashionable at the time. He hoped, by presentRomance and German Races from IJfdJj. to 1516 (Berlin, ing facts as they were, to win the adhesion of all 1824). To it was appended a critical dissertation on parties. We need not be surprised that he failed: the historians who had dealt with the period, which, men desired not the scientific treatment of politics, but showing as it did how untrustworthy was much of tradi- satire and invective. Exposed to the attacks of men like tional history, was to be for modern history as epoch- Heyne and Borne, his weakness, if not his venality, was marking as the critical work of Niebuhr—who in this long an article of faith among the Liberals. He did not was his master—had been in ancient history. A copy of satisfy the Prussian Conservatives, and after four years the book was sent to the Prussian minister of education, the Historische Politische Blatter came to an end. TwoKampz, the notorious hunter of democrats. Within a week thirds of the matter had been contributed by the editor, he received the promise of a post at Berlin, and in less than but the two stout volumes in which the numbers were three months was appointed supernumerary professor, with collected contained the best political thought which had a small salary—a striking instance of the promptitude for long appeared in Germany. For Ranke the failure with which the Prussian Government recognized scientific was not to be regretted: the rest of his life was to be meric when, as in Ranke’s case, it was free from dangerous wholly devoted to that in which he excelled. During political opinions. The connexion thus established was 1834-37 appeared the three volumes of his History of the to last for fifty years. At the Berlin Library Ranke Popes, in form, as in matter, the greatest of his works, found a collection of MS. records, chiefly Italian, dealing containing the results of his studies in Italy. Henceforth

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his name was known in all European countries; the English translation by Mrs Austin was the occasion of one of Macaulay s most brilliant essays. Before it was completed he had already begun the researches on which was based the second of his masterpieces, the History of Germany during the Reformation (1839-47), a necessary pendant to his book on the Popes, and the most popular of his works in his own country. In 1837 he became full professor; in 1841 Frederick William IV., always ready to recognize intellectual eminence, appointed him Prussian historiographer. Stimulated by this, he brought out his Nine Books of Prussian History (1847-48; subsequently expanded to twelve), a work which, chiefly owing to the nature of the subject, makes severe demands on the attention of the reader—he is the “Dryasdust” of Carlyle’s Frederick; but in it he laid the foundation for the modern appreciation of the founders of the Prussian State. He took no immediate part in the movements of 1848, but in the following years drew up several memoranda for the king, whom he encouraged in his efforts to defend the character and identity of the Prussian State against the Revolution. Though never admitted into the inner circle of the king’s associates (for indeed what place was there for him among the Gerlachs, Stahls, and Radowitzs 1), he found the king the most appreciative of readers and stimulating of companions, and the queen one of the most faithful of his friends; in biographical works and on other occasions he always defended the memory of the unfortunate monarch. A friend even more sympathetic he found in Maximilian II. of Bavaria, whom he advised in his expansive schemes for the promotion of learning and letters. In the quieter years that followed he wrote the third of his masterpieces, the History of France, chiefly in the 16th and 17th Centuries (1852-61), which was followed by the History of England, chiefly in the 17th Century (1859-67). This, the longest of his works, added much to existing knowledge, especially as to the relations between England and the Continent, but it lacked something of the freshness of his earlier books; he was over seventy when it was completed, and he was never quite at home in dealing with the parliamentary foundations of English public life. It is impossible even to enumerate his other and minor works, which chiefly deal with the German history of the last three centuries. In his later years his small alert figure was one of the most distinguished in the society of Berlin, and every honour open to a man of letters was conferred upon him. He was ennobled in 1865, and in 1885 received the title of Excellenz. When the weakness of his eyes made it necessary for him to depend almost entirely on the service of readers and secretaries, in his eighty-first year he began to write the History of the World. Drawing on the knowledge accumulated during sixty years, he lived to bring it down to the time of the Crusades. Ranke married, at Windermere, in 1843, Miss Clara Graves, daughter of an Irish barrister. She died in 1870, leaving two sons and one daughter. At the time of his death Ranke was, not in his own country alone, generally regarded as the first of modern historians. It is no disparagement to point out that the recognition he obtained was due not only to his published work, but also to his success as a teacher. His public lectures, indeed, were never largely attended, but in his more private classes, where he dealt with the technical work of a historian, he trained generations of scholars : no one since Heyne has had so great an influence on German academical life, and for a whole generation the Berlin school had no rival. He took paternal pride in the achievements of his pupils, and delighted to see, through them, his influence spreading in every university. While

his own work lay chiefly in more modern times, he trained in his classes a school of writers on German mediaeval history. As must always happen, it is only a part of his characteristics which they learnt from him, for his greatest qualities were incommunicable. The critical method which has since become almost a formal system, aiming at scientific certainty, was with him an unexampled power, based on the insight acquired from wide knowledge, which enabled him to judge the credibility of an author or the genuineness of an authority; but he has made it impossible for any one to attempt to write modern history except on the “ narratives of eye-witnesses and the most genuine immediate documents” preserved in the archives. From the beginning he was determined never to allow himself to be misled, in his search for truth, by those theories and prejudices by which nearly every other historian was influenced—Hegelianism, Liberalism, Romanticism, religious and patriotic prejudice; but his superiority to the ordinary passions of the historian could only be attained by those who shared his elevation of character. “ My object is simply to find out how the things actually occurred.” “ I am first a historian, then a Christian,” he himself said. In another way no historian is less objective, for in his greatest works the whole narrative is coloured by the quality of his mind expressed in his style. An enemy to all controversy and all violence, whether in act or thought, he had a serenity of character comparable only to that of Sophocles or Goethe. Apt to minimize difficulties, to search for the common ground of unity in opponents, he turned aside, with a disdain which superficial critics often mistook for indifference, from the base, the violent, and the common. As in a Greek tragedy, we hear in his works the echo of great events and terrible catastrophes : we do not see them. He also made it a principle not to relate that which was already well known, a maxim which necessarily prevented his works attaining a popularity with the unlearned equal to their reputation among historians. But no writer has surpassed him in the clearness and brevity with which he could sum up the characteristics of an epoch in the history of the world, or present and define the great forces by which the world has been influenced. His classicism led to his great limitations as a historian. He did not deal with the history of the people, with economic or social problems—the dignity of history was to him a reality : he belonged to the school of Thucydides and Gibbon, not of Macaulay and Taine; he deals by preference with the rulers and leaders of the world, and he strictly limits his field to the history of the state, or, as we should say, political history; and in this he is followed by Seeley, one of the greatest of his adherents. The leader of modern historians, he was in truth a man of the ancien regime. There is a collected edition of Ranke’s works in fifty-four volumes, published by Dunkler and Humblot, 1881, &c. This does not include the Weltgeschichte. The last two volumes contain letters and autobiographical fragments. Besides the History of England and the History of the Papacy, there are English translations of his History of the Romance and Teutonic Peoples by Ashworth ; of the Princes and Peoples of Southern Europe, and of the first volume of the History of the World, by Prothero. See also the article in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographic hy Dove. —Guglia. Leopold v. Ranke. 1893.—Ottokar Lorenz. Die Geschichtswissenschaft. Berlin, 1891.—Lord Acton on “German Schools of History,” in English Historical Review, vol. i. No. i.— Getlland. L'Allemagne Nouvelle et ses historiens. Paris, 1899. (j. W. HE.) Raoult, Francis Marie (1830-1901), French chemist, was born at Fournes, in the Departement du Nord, on 10th May 1830. He became aspirant repetiteur at the lycee of Rheims in 1853, and after holding several intermediate positions was appointed in 1862 to the professorship of chemistry in Sens lycee, where he prepared the

RAPALLO — RATNAGIRI thesis on electromotive force which gained him his doctor’s degree at Paris in the following year. In 1867 he was put in charge of the chemistry classes at Grenoble, and three years later he succeeded to the chair of chemistry, which he held until his death on 1st April 1901. Raoult’s earliest researches were physical in character, being largely concerned with the phenomena of the voltaic cell, and later there was a period when more purely chemical questions engaged his attention. But his name is best known in connexion with the work on solutions, to which he devoted the last two decades of his life. His first paper on the depression of the freezing points of liquids by the presence of substances dissolved in them was published in 1878; and continued investigation and experiment with various solvents, such as benzene and acetic acid, in addition to water, led him to the discovery of a simple relation between the molecular weights of the substances and the freezing point of the solvent, which he expressed as the “loi generale de la congelation,” that if one molecule of a substance be dissolved in 100 molecules of any given solvent, the temperature of solidification of the latter will be lowered by 0‘63° C. Another relation at which he worked was that the diminution in the vapour-pressure of a solvent, caused by dissolving a substance in it, is proportional to the molecular weight of the substance dissolved— at least when the solution is weak. These two generalizations not only afforded a valuable new method of determining the molecular weights of substances in the liquid state, but have also been utilized by van ’t Hoff and Ostwald, among other chemists, in support of the hypothesis of electrolytic dissociation in solutions. An account of Raoult’s life and work was given by Professor van t’ Hoff in a memorial lecture delivered before the London Chemical Society on 26th March 1902. Rapallo, a town and winter resort of the province of Genoa, Liguria, Italy. It occupies a beautiful and well sheltered situation on the east side of the Gulf of Rapallo, 18 miles east by south from Genoa, on the railway to Pisa. It has a fine church, a mediaeval castle (now used as a prison), and a Roman bridge. Olives and other fruit are grown. Lace is made, and coral and tunny fishing carried on. Rapallo is a zoological and meteorological station. Population (1899), 3000. Rappoltsweiler, in French Ribeauville, a town of Germany, in Alsace-Lorraine, district of Upper Alsace, 33 miles by rail south-south-west of Strasburg, is still in part surrounded by walls, and is known as “ the pipers’ town.” In the town-hall is a collection of antiquities. The parish church (Roman Catholic) dates from 1473. Population (1900), 6099. Rasht (Resht), the capital of the province of Gflan, in Persia. A carriage road connecting it with Tehran was opened to traffic in 1899. There is also a good main road from the city to Pfr Bazar, the depot for goods coming from Enzeli, the port on the Caspian, 16 miles north of Rasht. Conflagrations are frequent, particularly in the months of December and January, when hot, dry winds, resembling the foehn of the Alps, come down from the snow-capped Elburz. In December 1899 several caravanserais and bazaars, containing large quantities of merchandise, were burned. For 1897-98 the value of the exports was estimated at hibia in the British Museum. Vols. Seeley. “The Nature of the Shoulder Girdle and Clavicular f-iv. London, 1888-90.—A. S. Woodward. Outlines of Arch in Sauropterygia.” Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. li. (1892), p. 119, Vertebrate Palaeontology. Cambridge, 1898. Anomodontia : and vol. liv. (1893), p. 160. Ichthyopterygia: E. Fraas. Die-

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Ichthyosaurier dcr siiddeutschen Trias- und Jura-Ablagerungen. Tubingen, 1891. Also technical papers on fins in Wiirtt. Jahresh., 1894, p. 493, and Foldtani Kozlony, vol. xxviii. (Budapest, 1898), p. 169. Rhynchocephalia: Boulenger. “On British Remains of Homocosaurus, with Remarks on the Classification of the Rhynchocephalia,” Troc. Zool. Soc., 1891, p. 167. Technical papers by Ckedner in Zcitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges. vol. xl. (1888), p. 488 (Falceohatteria), Huxley in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xliii. (1887), p. 675 (Hyperodapcdmi), and Dollo in Bull. Soc. Belg. Geol. vol. v. (1891), M6m. p. 151 (Champsosaurus). Dinosauria: Marsh. “The Dinosaurs of North America,” Sixteenth Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1896. Technical papers by Dollo in Bull. Mus. Roy. d'Hist. Nat. Bclg. vols. i.-iii. -(1882-84) {Iguanodou), and Marsh in Amer. Journ. Sci. ser. 3, vol. 1. (1895), pi. viii. (restorations). Crocodilia: Huxley. “On Stagonolepis robertsoni, and on the Evolution of the Crocodilia,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxi. (1875), p. 423. — Koken. * ‘ Thoracosaurus macrorhynchus, Bl., aus der Tuffkreide von Maastricht,” Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges., 1888, p. 754. — Dollo. “Premiere Note sur les Crocodiliens de Bernissart,” Bull. Mus. Roy. d'Hist. Nat. Belg. vol. ii. (1883), p. 309. — Boulenger. Catalogue of the Chelonians, Rhynchocephalians, and Crocodiles in the British Museum. London, 1889. Omithosauria : .Zittel. “ Ueber Flugsaurier aus dem lithographischen Schiefer,” Palceontogr. vol. xxix. (1882), p. 49.—E. T. Newton. “On the Skull, Brain, and Auditory Organ of a New Species of Ptero.saurian, ” Phil. Trans, vol. 179b (1888), p. 503. — Seeley. Dragons of the Air. London, 1901. — Technical papers by Marsh in Amer. Journ. Sci. ser. 3, vol. xxiii. (1882), p. 251 ■(wing-membranes), and Williston in Kansas Unix. Quarterly, vol. vi. (1897), p. 35 (restoration of Pteranodon). Squamata: Owen. “On the Rank and Affinities of the Reptilian Class •of the Mosasauridse, Gervais, ” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiii. (1877), p. 682, and vol. xxxiv. (1878), p. 748.—Boulenger. Catalogue of the Lizards in the British Museum. Yols. i.-iii. London, 1885-87 ; Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum. Vols. i., ii. London, 1893-94.—Technical papers by Kornhuber in Abh. k. k. geol. Reichsanst. Wien., vol. v. (1873), No. 4, and vol. xvii. (1893), No. 3 (Dolichosauria), and Williston in Kansas Univ. Quarterly, vols. i., ii., vi. (1892-97) {Mosasauria). (A- g_ wo.) Requena, a town of Spain, province of Valencia, on the left bank of the river Magro, with a station on the railway from Valencia to Utiel. Population (1877), 13,527; (1897), 14,495. The town is irregularly built, with only a few good-looking streets, a modern theatre and town-hall, and two squares. There are three parish churches, San Nicolas being the oldest, of the 13 th century, partly restored in 1727. Near the town are the •sulphurous springs of Fuentepodrida. Reservation of the Eucharist.— The practice of reserving the sacred elements for the purpose of subsequent reception prevailed in the Church from very early times. The Eucharist being the seal of Christian fellowship, it was a natural custom to send portions of the consecrated elements by the hands of the deacons to those who were not present (Justin Martyr, Apol. i. 65). From this it was an easy development, which prevailed before the end of the 2nd century, for churches to send the consecrated Bread to one another as a sign of communion (the so-called Eulogise mentioned by Irenseus, ap. Eus. //. E. v. 24), and for the faithful to take it to their own homes and reserve it in arcae or caskets for the purpose of communicating themselves (Tert. ad Uxor. ii. 5, de Orat. 19 ; St Cypr. de Lapsis, 132). Being open to objection on grounds both of superstition and of irreverence, these customs were gradually put down by Councils of the 4th and 5th centuries. But some irregular forms of reservation still continued: the prohibition as regards the lay people was not extended, at any rate with any strictness, to the clergy and monks; the Eucharist was still carried on journeys; occasionally it was buried with the dead, and in a few cases the pen was even dipped in the chalice in subscribing important -writings. Meanwhile, both in East and West, the general practice has continued unbroken of reserving the Eucharist, in order that the “ mass of the presanctified ” might take place on certain “ aliturgic ” days,

that the faithful might be able to communicate when there was no celebration, and above all that it might be at hand to meet the needs of the sick and dying. It was reserved in a closed vessel, which took various forms from time to time, known in the East as the aprocfiopLov, and in the West as the turris, the capsa, and later on as the pyx. In the East it was kept against the wall behind the altar; in the West, in a locked aumbry in some part of the church, or (as in England and France) in a pyx made in the form of a dove and suspended over the altar. In the West it has been used in other ways. A portion of the consecrated Bread from one Eucharist, known as the “Fermentum,” was long made use of in the next, or sent by the bishop to the various churches of his city, no doubt with the object of emphasizing the solidarity and the continuity of “ the one Eucharist ”; and amongst other customs which prevailed for some centuries, from the 8th onward, were those of giving it to the newly ordained in order that they might communicate themselves, and of burying it in or under the altar-slab of a newly consecrated church. At a later date, apparently early in the 14th century, began the practice of carrying the Eucharist in procession in a monstrance; and at a still later period, apparently after the middle of the 16th century, the practice of Benediction with the reserved sacrament, and that of the “forty hours’ exposition,” were introduced in the churches of the Boman communion. It should be said, however, that most of these practices met with very considerable opposition both from Councils and from theologians and canonists, amongst others from the English canonist William Lyndwood (Provinciale, lib. iii. c. 26), on the following grounds amongst others: that the Body of Christ is the food of the soul, that it ought not to be reserved except for the benefit of the sick, and that it ought not to be applied to any other use than that for which it -was instituted. In England, during the religious changes of the 16th century, such of these customs as had already taken root -were abolished; and with them the practice of reserving the Eucharist in the churches appears to have died out too. The general feeling on the subject is expressed by the language of the 28th Article, first drafted in 1553, to the effect that “ the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper was not by Christ’s ordinance reserved, carried about, lifted up, or worshipped,” and by the fact that a form was provided for the celebration of the Holy Eucharist for the sick in their own homes. This latter practice was in accordance with abundant precedent, but had become very infrequent, if not obsolete, for many years before the Reformation. The first Prayer-Book of Edward VI. provided that if there was a celebration in church on the day on which a sick person was to receive the Holy Communion, it should be reserved, and conveyed to the sick man’s house to be administered to him; if not, the curate was to visit the sick person before noon and there celebrate according to a form which is given in the book. At the revision of the Prayer-Book in 1552 all mention of reservation is omitted, and the rubric directs that the communion is to be celebrated in the sick person’s house, according to a new form; and this service has continued, with certain minor changes, down to the present day. That the tendency of opinion in the English Church during the period of the Reformation was against reservation is beyond doubt, and that the practice actually died out would seem to be equally clear. The whole argument of some of the controversial writings of the time, such as Bishop Cooper on Private Mass, depends upon that fact; and when Cardinal du Perron alleged against the English Church the lack of the reserved Eucharist, Bishop Andrewes replied, not that the fact was otherwise, but that reservation was unnecessary

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in view of the English form for the Communion of the Sick : “ So that reservation needeth not; the intent is had without it” (Answers to Cardinal Perron, &c., p. 19, Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology). It does not follow, however, that a custom which has ceased to exist is of necessity forbidden, nor even that what was rejected by the authorities of the English Church in the 16 th century is so explicitly forbidden as to be unlawful under its existing system; and not a few facts have to be taken into account in any investigation of the question. (1) The view has been held that in the Eucharist the elements are only consecrated as regards the particular purpose of reception in the service itself, and that consequently what remains unconsumed may be put to common uses. If this view were held (and it has more than once made its appearance in Church history, though it has never prevailed), reservation might be open to objection on theological grounds. But such is not the view of the Church of England in her doctrinal standards, and there is an express rubric directing that any that remains of that which was consecrated is not to be carried out of the church, but reverently consumed. There can therefore be no theological obstacle to reservation in the English Church : it is a question of practice only. (2) Nor can it be said that the rubric just referred to is in itself a condemnation of reservation : it is rather directed, as its history proves, against the irreverence which prevailed when it was made ; and in fact its wording is based upon that of a pre-Reformation order which coexisted with the practice of reservation (Lyndwood, Provinciate, lib. iii. tit. 26, note q). (3) Nor can it be said that the words of the 28th Article (see above) constitute in themselves an express prohibition of reservation, strong as their evidence may be as to the practice and feeling of the time. The wrords are the common property of an earlier age which saw nothing objectionable in reservation for the sick. (4) It has indeed been contended (by Bishop Wordsworth of Salisbury) that reservation was not actually, though tacitly, continued under the second Prayer-Book of Edward VI., since that book orders that the curate shall “ minister,” and not “ celebrate,” the communion in the sick person’s house. But such a tacit sanction on the part of the compilers of the second PrayerBook is in the highest degree improbable, in view of their known opinions on the subject; and an examination of contemporary writings hardly justifies the contention that the two words are so carefully used as the argument would demand. Anyhow, as the bishop notes, this could not be the case with the Prayer-Book of 1661, where the word is “celebrate.” (5) The Elizabethan Act of Uniformity contained a provision that at the universities the public services, with the exception of the Eucharist, might be in a language other than English ; and in 1560 there appeared a Latin version of the Prayer-Book, issued under royal letters patent, in which there was a rubric prefixed to the Order for the Communion of the Sick, based on that in the first Prayer-Book of Edward VI. (see above), and providing that the Eucharist should be reserved for the sick person if there had been a celebration on the same day. But although the book in question was issued under letters patent, it is not really a translation of the Elizabethan book at all, but simply a reshaping of Aless’s clever and inaccurate translation of Edward VI.’s first book. In the rubric in question words are altered here and there in a way which shows that its reappearance can hardly be a mere printer’s error; but in any case its importance is very slight, for the Act of Uniformity specially provides that the English service alone is to be used for the Eucharist. (6) It has been pointed out that reservation for the sick prevails in the Scottish Episcopal Church, the doctrinal standards of which correspond with those of

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the Church of England. But it must be remembered that the Scottish Episcopal Church has an additional order of its own for the Holy Communion, and that consequently its clergy are not restricted to the services in the Book of Common Prayer. Moreover, the practice of reservation which has prevailed in Scotland for over 150 years would appear to have arisen out of the special circumstances of that Church during the 18th century, and not to have prevailed continuously from earlier times. (7) Certain of the divines who took part in the framing of the PrayerBook of 1661 seem to speak of the practice as though it actually prevailed in their day. But Bishop Sparrow’s words on the subject (Rationale, p. 349) are not free from difficulty on any hypothesis, and Thorndike (Works, v. 578, Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology) writes in such a style that it is often hard to tell whether he is describing the actual practice of his day or that which in his view it ought to be. (8) There appears to be more evidence- • than is commonly supposed to show that a practice analogous to that of Justin Martyr’s day has been adopted from time to time in England, viz., that of conveying the sacred elements to the houses of the sick during, or directly after, the celebration in church. And in 1899 this practice received the sanction of Dr Westcott, then bishop of Durham. (9) On the other hand, the words of the oath taken by the clergy under the 36th of the Canons of 1604 are to the effect that they will use the form prescribed in the Prayer-Book and none other, except so far as shall be otherwise ordered by lawful authority; and the PrayerBook does not even mention the reservation of the Eucharist, whilst the Articles mention it only in the way of depreciation. The matter has become one of no little practical importance owing to modern developments of English Church life. On the one hand, it is widely felt that neither the form for the Communion of the Sick, nor yet the teaching with regard to spiritual communion in the third rubric at the end of that service, is sufficient to meet all the cases that arise or may arise. On the other hand, it is probable that in many cases the desire for reservation has arisen, in part at least, from a wish for something analogous to the Roman Catholic customs of exposition and benediction; and the chief objection to any formal practice of reservation, on the part of many who otherwise would not be opposed to it, is doubtless to be found in this fact. But however that may be, the practice of reservation of the Eucharist, either in the open church or in private, has become not uncommon in recent days. The question of the legality of reservation was brought before the two archbishops in 1899, under circumstances analogous to those in the Lambeth Hearing on Incense (q.v.). The parties concerned were three clergymen, who appealed from the direction of their respective diocesans, the bishops of St Albans and Peterborough and the archbishop of York : in the two former cases the archbishop (Temple) of Canterbury was the principal and the archbishop of York (Maclagan) the assessor, whilst in the latter case the functions werS reversed. The hearing extended from 17 th to 20th July; counsel were heard on both sides, evidence was given in support of the appeals by two of the clergy concerned and by several other witnesses, lay and clerical, and the whole matter was gone into with no little fulness. The archbishops gave their decision on 1st May 1900 in two separate judgments, to the effect that, in Dr Temple’s words, “ the Church of England does not at present allow reservation in any form, and that those who think that it ought to be allowed, though perfectly justified in endeavouring to get the proper authorities to alter the law, are not justified in practising reservation until the law has been so altered.” The

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RESICZABANYA — REUS archbishop of York also laid stress upon the fact that the tons. The coffee harvest about the middle of the century reached difficulties in the way of the communion of the sick, when 60,000 cwt., had fallen to 3800 cwt. in 1883, but has since risen to 14,000 cwt. This diminution is due partly to foreign competitiou, they are really ready for communion, are not so great as partly to diseases of the coffee plant. On the other hand, the has sometimes been suggested. cultivation of vanilla has made steady progress since 1848. In that Authokities.—W. E. Scudamore. Notitia Eucharistica, 2nd year the production amounted to 110 lb; in 1873 it reached ■cd. London, 1876; and art. “Reservation” in Dictionary of 44,000 lb; in 1885, 110,000 lb; in 1897, 220,000 lb; but this Christian Antiquities, vol. ii. London, 1893.—Guardian news- enormous increase has caused a fall in the prices. The cacao paper, July 19 and 26, 1899, and May 2, 1900.—The Archbishops yield is still about 6600 lb ; cinchona cultivation is profitable, of Canterbury and York on Reservation of the Sacrament. London, unlike cotton-growing, which has not succeeded. The forests 1900.—J. S. Franev. Mr Dibdin’s Speech on Reservation, and formerly extended all over the island ; now they only cover about some of the Evidence. London, 1899.—F. C. Eeles. Reservation 200 square miles, and the administration is attempting to replant of the Holy Eucharist in the Scottish Church. Aberdeen, 1899.— the higher circles, Salazie among others, with eucalyptus and Bishop J. Wordsworth. Further Considerations on Public caoutchouc trees. The number of live stock is small and tends to diminish, comprising only 2500 horses, 8000 asses and mules, 8000 Worship. Salisbury, 1901. (w. E. Co.) oxen, 28,000 pigs, 28,000 goats and sheep. Reunion possesses ResiCZa.ba.nycl (Resicza), a mining town of south many fowl, and agriculture is held in esteem. Industries.—Although the sand on the beach contains ferruginHungary, in the county of Krasso-Sozreny. In the elements, no mining enterprise is carried on. The island has neighbouring coal and iron mines, and in the forges and ous springs at Cilaos (3500 feet), at Salazie (2600 feet), and at iron - works belonging to the Austrian State Railway warm Mafatte (1850 feet), and these places form so many sanatoria. Company, above 3000 workmen are employed. In the There are works for sugar, rum, Hour, and for plaiting straw for vicinity is the bath and sanatorium of Anina. Population hats. Many of the sugar factories, however, have disappeared, ruined by outside competition. h>

History.—The first people to establish themselves in historic times in the territories now forming Rhodesia were the Matabele, a famous Bantu tribe and an offshoot of the Zulus. Moselekatze, their first chief, was a warrior and leader who served under the Zulu despot Chaka. Being condemned to death by Chaka, Moselekatze fled, with a large division of the Zulu army. About 1817 he settled in territories north of the Vaal, not far from the present site of Pretoria; and in 1836 his tribe had become so important that a treaty of friendship was entered into with him by the governor of Cape Colony. In the same year a large number of the “trek Boers” had settled north of the Vaal river, and came in contact with the Matabele, who attacked and defeated them, capturing a large number of Boer cattle and sheep. In November 1837 the Boers felt themselves strong enough again to assail Moselekatze, and they did so with such success that they drove him and his tribe north of the Limpopo, where they settled and occupied the country subsequently known as Matabeleland. In 1870 Moselekatze died, and was succeeded by his son Lobengula. In 1882 President Kruger, who was then bent on extending the boundaries of the Transvaal in every direction, endeavoured to make a treaty with Lobengula, but without success. The Warren expedition of 1884 to Bechuanaland, while it checked for a time the encroachments of the Transvaal Boers, and preserved to Great Britain the highway to the north through Bechuanaland, also served to encourage colonists to speculate as to the future of the interior. Foiled in Bechuanaland, it soon became evident that the Boers were determined to get a footing in Mashonaland, and that the Portuguese and Germans were also anxious to get as much of the territory there as they could obtain. In 1887 Lord Salisbury had his attention called to the fact that the Portuguese Government had recently issued a map in which their territories were represented as extending over the greater portion of Mashonaland, and even Matabeleland. He thereupon protested that under the Berlin Act no claim to territory in Central Africa could be recognized unless it was supported by actual occupation, and he further said that the Zambezi should be regarded as the natural northern limit to the territories of Great Britain in South Africa. Meanwhile gold prospecting had been taken up actively all over South Africa, following on the discoveries at Barberton and the Rand; and at this time Lobengula was besieged for all sorts of concessions by both Portuguese and Boers, as well as by adventurers from various parts of the world. Mr Cecil Rhodes, who for a long time had kept his eyes on the great territories of the north, for the route to which he had striven so keenly in political circles in Cape Town, decided to make an effort to retain the country for Great Britain. With considerable difficulty he persuaded Sir Hercules Robinson, then high commissioner, to send Mr Moffat, the missionary, as an embassy to Lobengula, to endeavour to obtain an understanding with him. The result was a treaty under which Lobengula promised to enter into no correspondence or treaty with a foreign Power, nor to sell or otherwise dispose of any part of his territories, without the consent of the high commissioner. In October 1888 Mr C. D. Rudd, who for a long time had been associated with Mr Rhodes in mining operations, visited Lobengula at considerable personal risk, and succeeded in obtaining a concession of all the mining rights in the country from him. In consideration of this concession Mr Rudd (representing the Gold Fields of South Africa Company, and also a syndicate in which Mr Alfred Beit, Mr Rhodes, and Mr Rudd were the largest holders) promised Lobengula £100 a month, 1000 rifles, and a considerable amount of ammunition. At the same

R H O D E S I A time Lobengula was induced to issue a notice wai’ning off all other concession-hunters. Mr Khodes then applied to the Imperial Government for a Royal Charter with which to consolidate and develop the new territories and their mineral wealth. In applying for this charter the founders of the company stated their objects to be the following:—(1) To extend northwards the railway and telegraph systems in the direction of the Zambezi; (2) to encourage emigration and colonization; (3) to promote trade and commerce; (4) to develop and work minerals and other concessions under the management of one powerful organization, thereby obviating conflicts and complications between the various interests that had been acquired within these regions, and securing to the native chiefs and their subjects the rights reserved to them under the several concessions. In making this application the boundaries were purposely left somewhat vague. They were described to be the region of South Africa lying immediately to the north of British Bechuanaland, to the north and west of the South African Republic, to the west of the Portuguese dominions. At the outset of the company’s existence Mr Rhodes and his directors determined to effect the occupation of the country. A pioneer force was therefore sent in under Colonel Pennefather, consisting of 500 mounted police and a few hundred pioneers. Accompanying this force as guide was the accomplished traveller, well known throughout South Central Africa, Mr F. C. Selous. The work of transport was attended with considerable difficulty, and roads had to be cut as the expedition advanced. Nevertheless in a few months the expedition had reached the site of what is now the town of Salisbury, and had also established on the line of march small forts at Tuli, Victoria, and Charter. Mr Archibald Ross Colquhoun was the first administrator. He had not long been in office when, in May 1891, difficulties arose with the Portuguese on their north-west frontier, both parties claiming a certain tract of territory in which a Portuguese trading station had been established. The result was a skirmish, in which a small company of British South Africa Police were victorious. In 1891 Dr Leander Starr Jameson was appointed administrator in succession to Mr Colquhoun. The Boers for several years past had been planning a settlement in the territories north of the Limpopo, and they now determined, in spite of the Moffat treaty and the British occupation, to carry out their object. An expedition known as the Banyailand Trek was organized under the leadership of Colonel Ferreira, and two large parties of Boers proceeded to the banks of the Limpopo. Information of the intended trek had been conveyed to Cape Town, and Sir Henry Loch (the high commissioner) at once sent a strong protest to President Kruger, informing him that any attempt to invade the Chartered Company’s territories would be an act of hostility against the British Crown; and Mr Kruger issued a proclamation forbidding the trekkers to proceed. Meanwhile, however, a party had already started and reached the Limpopo, where they were met by Dr Jameson in command of the British South Africa Company’s forces. He told them that they wTould on no account be allowed to proceed except as private individuals, who might obtain farms on application to the Chartered Company. Colonel Ferreira was arrested and detained for a few days, and the expedition then broke up and dispersed. The pioneers having been settled in Mashonaland, Mr Rhodes recognized the extreme importance of endeavouring to give the country a port nearer than that provided by Cape Town. He therefore made overtures to Portugal, and in 1891 a treaty was concluded between Great Britain and Portugal which provided that a railway might be

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constructed to Beira through Portuguese territory, on condition that Portugal should receive a duty not exceeding 3 per cent, on the value of the goods imported. The treaty further stipulated for the free navigation of the Zambezi and the construction of telegraphs. The boundaries of the Chartered Company’s territories and those of the Portuguese were clearly defined. Prospecting operations were at once started, and various gold mines were discovered containing traces of old workings. Fresh gold reefs were also opened up. The prospects of the country seemed promising, and although a good deal of fever occurred in the low-lying valleys under the conditions of camp life, the health of the community soon improved as more suitable habitations were erected. The first pioneers settled in Mashonaland. Ever since the advent of Moselekatze north of the Limpopo, the unfortunate Mashonas had been the prey of the Matabele; they therefore accepted British occupation gladly, recognizing that the British South African forces were likely to protect them against the raids of Lobengula ' and his warriors. The Matabele, on the other hand, were loth to abandon their predatory excursions among the Mashonas, and in July 1893 a large impi (native force) was sent into Mashonaland, and entered not only native kraals, but also the streets of the new township of Victoria. An attempt was made to preserve the peace, but it was evident from the attitude taken by the Matabele that nothing short of the authority which only superior force could command wTould settle the question. The Matabele were a proud and fearless race of warriors, who had never yet come in conflict with white men, and had never been defeated in their conflicts with native foes. It is true that under Moselekatze, a generation before, they had been driven out of the Transvaal by the Boers, but the indunas (petty chieftains) of 1890 were but children when this defeat had been inflicted upon them. Dr Jameson’s forces were slender; and Mr Rhodes, on being consulted, urged him by telegram to “ Read Luke fourteen, thirty-one.” On obtaining a Bible, Dr Jameson read the words: “Or what king, going to make war against another king, sitteth not down first, and consulteth, whether he be able with ten thousand to meet him that cometh against him with twenty thousandl” He telegraphed in reply : “ All right. I have read Luke fourteen, thirty-one.” The position, though dangerous, admitted of no delay, and Dr Jameson determined to risk an expedition with the forces at his command. His success on this occasion doubtless weighed with him on another and less fortunate one. The force available consisted of about 700 volunteers and 225 British Bechuanaland police, with some 700 natives. Dr Jameson determined to march to Bulawayo, the headquarters of Lobengula and the capital of Matabeleland. The force was divided into two columns, and was to be met by a further column of natives marching from the south under Khama. The first engagement took place on the Shangani river, where the two columns which had started from Fort Charter and Fort Victoria were both engaged. Majors Forbes and Allan Wilson commanded in these engagements; and after a hot contest with between 4000 and 5000 Matabele, the latter were repulsed, machine guns being used with terrible effect upon the enemy. On 1st November a second fight occurred jm the high ground, in which it was estimated that 1000 of the Matabele attacked the laager of the two columns. The oldest and most tried regiments of Lobengula dashed right up to the muzzles of the guns, but were swept down before the modern rifles and machine guns with which the invaders were armed. Meanwhile the column ■of Khama’s men from the south had reached the Tati, S. VIII. — 30

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RHODESIA

and won a victory on the Singuesi river on 2nd November. On 3rd November Bulawayo was reached, and the columns from Mashonaland, accompanied by Dr Jameson and Sir John Willoughby entered the town, Lobengula and his followers being in full flight. An endeavour was made to induce Lobengula to surrender; but as no replies were received to the messages, Major Forbes, on 13th November, organized a column and started in pursuit. The pursuing party were delayed with difficult roads and heavy rains, and did not come up with Lobengula until the 3rd December. Major Allan Wilson, in command of thirty-four troopers, crossed the Shangani river in advance, and bivouacked close to Lobengula’s quarters. In the night the river rose, and reinforcements were unable to join him. During the early morning the Kaffres surrounded the little band, and after fighting most gallantly to the last, Major Allan Wilson and all his followers, with the exception of three messengers who had been sent back, were killed. In January Lobengula died. His indunas submitted to the Chartered Company’s forces, and the war, which cost the Chartered Company £100,000, was thus ended. Matabeleland was rapidly occupied by pioneers and others who went to join them. The climate was healthy, the altitude of the country being higher than that of Salisbury. Various gold reefs were discovered. A township was started and grew rapidly at Bulawayo. In 1895 a question arose between the Chartered Company and the Imperial Government as to the annexation of the Bechuanaland Protectorate. An Annexation Bill had just been passed by the Cape Government, annexing British Bechuanaland proper to the Cape Colony. The British South Africa Company now put in a claim for the British Bechuanaland Protectorate, and provisional arrangements for the administration of these territories under their control were made (see Bechuanaland). But the “Jameson Raid” interfered with their completion, and the whole constitution of the British South Africa Company was subsequently remodelled. In 1896 Mr Cecil Rhodes resigned his position as managing director of the British South Africa Company, and Mr Alfred Beit retired from the Board in London. While these changes in the directorate were going on, there occurred, in March 1896, a revolt of the Matabele, near Bulawayo. A general massacre of outlying settlers took place, and the whole country was in a state of rebellion. Imperial troops were hurried up to the assistance of such police as the British South Africa Company still had at its command. Volunteers were enrolled, and much fierce fighting followed. Early in October Mr Rhodes, who had just returned from London, went to Bulawayo. After conference with the military and other authorities in command on the spot, he determined to go, with Dr Hans Sauer and Mr Colenbrander, and interview the native chiefs. They went unarmed into the heart of the Matoppo hills, and there arranged terms of peace with the native indunas. The interview involved grave personal danger to the emissaries, and depended for its success entirely upon Mr Rhodes’s personality and influence over the native races; but it terminated what promised to be a long and disastrous native war. In 1897 a Select Committee appointed by the British House of Commons “to inquire into the origin and circumstances of the incursion into the South African Republic by an armed force, and into the administration of the British South Africa Company,” held their sessions. Among the numerous witnesses called upon to give evidence were all the directors of the British South Africa Company, with the exception of Lord Grey. The Committee were unanimous in condemning the Jameson Raid,

and in holding Mr Rhodes mainly responsible for the measures which led up to it. In April 1898 the shareholders in the Chartered Company unanimously re-elected Mr Rhodes a director. Mr Alfred Beit was also proposed, but declined to accept the position. He was, however, reappointed in J nne 1902. As a result of the report of the British South Africa Select Committee, the whole future administration of Rhodesia Avas taken into consideration by the British Government (the armed forces of the Company had already been placed under the direct control of the Crown), and on 20th October 1898 an Order in Council was passed providing for the future regulation of the country. An Imperial resident commissioner was appointed, who was also to be ex officio a member of the executive and legislative Councils; and there was to be a legislative Council, consisting of five nominated and four elected members. These changes tended rather to increase the direct influence of the High Commissioner. It was also provided that this Order in Council, technically known as the Southern Rhodesia Order, might, if required, be extended to any other part of South Africa under British protection south of the Zambezi. The first meeting of the newly appointed Council took place at Salisbury on the 15th of May 1899. In the earlier part of 1899 Mr Rhodes visited London and Berlin in connexion with the furtherance of his schemes for the Trans - Continental telegraph extension from Cape To\\rn to Cairo, and the Trans - Continental Railway. He endeavoured AA'hile in London to obtain from the Government the guarantee of a loan for the purpose of extending the railway, to be raised at 3 per cent., but was unsuccessful. He received, however, the support of various companies in Rhodesia, who amongst them subscribed £252,800 at 3 per cent, for the immediate extension of the railway for 150 miles; and on 2nd May he stated, at a meeting of the Chartered Company, that the Rhodesia Railways Limited would raise another £3,000,000 at 4 per cent., to be guaranteed by the Chartered Company. In this way he hoped that the remaining 1050 miles of railway from Bulawayo to the frontier of German East Africa might be constructed. In Berlin Mr Rhodes had an interview with the German Emperor, when arrangements were arrived at Avith regard to the passage of telegraph lines over German territory. Mr Rhodes acted on behalf of the African Trans-Continental Telegraph Company, of which he Avas the promoter and principal director; and on their behalf he received from the German Government leave to construct a telegraph line across German East Africa, from south to north, at the cost of the Company, the Avork having to be completed within five years, from October 1899, the Company being called upon further to erect an additional line at its own cost between the tAvo stations nearest to the German frontiers, from Rhodesia on the one side and British East Africa on the other, for the telegraphic traffic of German East Africa. The early settlers of Rhodesia, for the first ten years of that country’s existence, had a great deal to contend against. The political unrest of the country, the final breaking up of the Bantu poAver Avithin its territories, the immense difficulties of transport, the Matabele rebellion, and a terrible cattle plague, knoAvn as rinderpest, all tended to keep back the country’s progress. Nevertheless, the sturdy colonists settled there never lost heart, ani( persistently, as occasion offered, continued their development of the various gold properties AAdiich offered sufficient inducement to mining. The progress of the Avhole country, in spite of all drawbacks, has in many respects been remarkable. In no colony in South Africa, and probably in very few countries elseAvhere in the Avorld, has the extension of telegraphic communication and railways been so rapid and considerable in proportion to the population of the country. The telegraph line reached Salisbury in 1892, and at the end of 1899 a total of 3613 miles had been constructed. In addition to the telegraph lines, telephones have also been established

R H O N D D A —R I B O T in many townships, and police posts in the country. Bulawayo is already a considerable town, with massive stone and brick buildings in the streets. The churches, hospitals, Stock Exchange, Government offices, banks, clubs, and hotels are equal to those of many of the older towns in South Africa. Both Salisbury and Bulawayo have municipalities ; and municipal authorities are doing excellent work in the shape of road-making, lighting, tree-planting, &c., as well as in the laying out of public parks. The railway from Beira reached Salisbury in May 1899. An efficient and mobile police force of a thousand Europeans, and three hundred native troops under Imperial officers, have their headquarters at Salisbury and Bulawayo, and detachments of these are placed at various outposts. In addition to gold, coal has been found in Rhodesia in various parts, of excellent quality and in considerable abundance. Good timber is found in the valleys, and excellent examples of locally made furniture and of wood for paving have already been sent to England. In some parts of the country have been found ancient ruins of extreme interest, especially those of Zimbabye, near Victoria. At these various ruins, implements and ornaments, some of them in gold and of great antiquity, have been discovered. Northern Rhodesia is divided into twm territories — NorthEastern and North-Western Rhodesia—and is administered by the British South Africa Company under the Orders in Council of 1899 and 1900. There is a separate administrator for each territory, the headquarters of the former administration being at Fort Jameson, and of the latter at Lealui. The country, although more tropical than Southern Rhodesia, is, for the greater part, a continuation of the high and healthy South African plateau, which extends from the Karroo in Cape Colony through Southern Rhodesia and north of the Zambezi. The territories are believed to be highly mineralized, and valuable deposits of copper have already been discovered, and are being developed. The African Trans-Continental Telegraph line has been constructed through North-Eastern Rhodesia, and the proposed Cape to Cairo Railway will, after leaving Victoria Falls on the Zambezi river, pass through North-Western and North-Eastern Rhodesia to the northern border at Lake Tanganyika. Authorities.—E. F. Knight. Rhodesia of TWay.—Bryce. Impressions of South Africa.—T. H. Bent. Ruined Cities of Mashonaland.—F. C. Selous. Sunshine and Storm in Rhodesia. —Pratt. Leading Points in South African History. (a. p. h.) Rhondda., an urban district and coal - mining locality of Glamorganshire, Wales, crossed by the river Rhondda, a right-bank tributary of the Taff, and separated •on the east by the Rhondda-fach river from the parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil. Population (1891), 88,351 ; (1901), 113,735. Rhone, a department of south-eastern France, traversed by the Cevennes Mountains and watered by the Saone and by the Rhone, two rivers uniting at Lyons. Area, 1104 square miles. The population, 741,470 in 1881, had increased to 835,157 in 1901. The births in 1899 were 15,998, of which 2143 were illegitimate ; deaths, 17,662 ; marriages, 6236. There were in 1896, 1207 schools, with 91,000 pupils, not more than 1 per cent, of the population being illiterate. Out of 610,090 acres of land cultivated in 1896, 321,100 acres were plough-land and 74,100 acres vineyards. In 1899 the wffieat harvest was valued nt £536,000 ; rye, £84,000; oats, £104,000; potatoes, £296,000; vines, £1,120,000. The live stock in 1899 included 16,880 horses, 1)0,120 cattle, 38,100 sheep, 24,470 pigs, and 29,280 goats. Mining in 1898 yielded 32,400 metric tons of coal and 310,000 tons of •copper, from the mines of Chessy. The metal industry turned out in 1898, 17,000 metric tons of cast-iron, 450 tons of iron, and 3100 tons of steel, of the total value of £58,000. The department is, however, mainly engaged in textile industries. Tarare manufactures muslins ; ^ Ample, pins and cottons; Thizy, linens. Lyons shares with St Etienne the monopoly of the silk manufacture, the value of the annual production of velvets and ribbons of this second city of France amounting to 20 millions sterling. Lyons, the capital, had in 1901, 453,145 inhabitants. Rhbne, a river of France, rising in Switzerland in the Rhone glacier, between the Furka and Grimel peaks of the St Gothard mass. It flows generally south-west and west, though with many windings, through Switzerland and eastern France to its confluence with the Saone at Lyons, where it turns south to the Mediterranean. The following particulars with regard to the navigation of the Rhone are taken from the Statistique de la Navigation

235 Interieure, 1901. The figures are those for 1900. The tonnage includes wood floated. The Rhone is officially classed in three sections :—(1) From the Swiss frontier to. Lyons, 96 miles, mean depth 3’28 feet, crossed by 20 bridges. This includes the so-called Jlottable part between the Swiss frontier and Parc, a distance of 25 miles, but in which the traffic is nil. Humber of boats, 8469 (of which 8271 in descent); total tonnage of merchandise carried, 197,402. In this section the boats come down laden, but are usually drawn up empty by horses. (2) Lyons to Arles, 178 miles, mean depth 5-25 feet, crossed by 29 bridges. Number of boats, 4628 (of which 3108 in descent); total tonnage, 580,423. (3) Arles to the sea, 30 miles, depth 6‘56 feet; boats 1607 (902 in descent); total tonnage, 328,733. Petit Rhone, 38 miles, mean depth 5'25 feet, boats 53 (all in descent); total tonnage, 4725. The Saone is classed between Jonvelle and Lyons; total length 260 miles, in tw7o sections, each comprising two sub-sections;—(1) Jonvelle to Gray, 61 miles; Gray to St Jean-de-Losne, 40 miles; total, 101 miles. Of this the part between Jonvelle and Corre, 7 miles, is classed Jlottable, but is without traffic, while of the part classed as navigable, a length of about 20 miles to Corre is practically abandoned. From this place the Saone is canalized. Mean depth 6'56 feet, crossed by 53 bridges; number of boats 2785 (1879 in descent); total tonnage, 501,624. (2) St Jean-de-Losne to Verdun 27 miles, Verdun to Lyons 104 miles, total 131 miles, crossed by 50 bridges, mean depth 6-56 feet, number of boats 6914 (5277 in descent); total tonnage, 814,858. The traffic from He Barbe across Lyons to the Rhone comprised 4560, boats (3377 in descent); total tonnage, 617,215. Statistique de la Navigation InMricure (Ministere des Travaux Publiques), 2 vols. 4to, Paris, 1901. Rhyl, a seaside resort of North Wales, at the end of the Vale of Clwyd, about half-way between Chester (30 miles east-south-east) and Bangor. It is visited for its fine stretch of sands and its dry and bracing air. Its other attractions embrace an esplanade a mile long, golf links, and a pier 700 yards long. The Queen Alexandra Hospital was opened in 1902 by the Prince of Wales. Population (1891), 6491 ; (1901), 8473. Ribeira, a township of Spain, in the province of Corunna, on the extreme south of the peninsula formed by the river of Muros y Noya and the estuary of Arosa. It lies in a hilly country, abounding in wheat, wine, fruit, fish, and game. Its port is Santa Eugenia de Ribeiro, on the Arosa estuary. The church and parish buildings are not worth notice. The population, chiefly occupied in agriculture, rearing of cattle, and fisheries, was 10,352 in 1887, and 10,700 in 1897. Ribot, Alexandre F£lix Joseph (1842), French statesman, was born at St Omer on 7th February 1842. After a brilliant career at the University of Paris, where he was laureat of the Faculty of Law, he rapidly made his mark at the bar. He was secretary of the Conference of Advocates and one of the founders of the Societe de legislation comparee. During 1875 and 1876 he was successively director of criminal affairs and secretary-general at the Ministry of Justice. In 1877 he made his entry into political life by the conspicuous part he played on the Committee of Legal Resistance during the Broglie ministry, and in the following year he was returned to the Chamber as > Moderate Republican member for Boulogne, in his native department of Pas-de-Calais. His impassioned yet reasoned eloquence gave him an influence which was increased by his articles in the Parlement. He devoted himself especially to financial questions, and in 1882 was reporter of the

R I B O 'T — R I C A S O L I budget. He became one of the most prominent opponents decorated with the Legion of Honour. His thesis for his of the Radical party, and distinguished himself by his doctor’s degree, republished in \&&2, Heredite: etudepsychoattacks on the shortlived Gambetta ministry. Notwith- logique, is his most important and best known book. standing his dislike to the policy of colonial expansion he Following the experimental and synthetic methods, he has yet joined hands with M. Clemenceau, with whom he brought together a large number of instances of inherited shared the chief part in the overthrow of Jules Ferry. At peculiarities; he pays particular attention to the physical the general election of 1885 he was one of the victims of element of mental life, ignoring all spiritual or non-material the Republican rout in the Pas-de-Calais, and did not re- factors in man. In his work on La Psychologic anglaise enter the Chamber till 1887. After 1889 he sat for St contemporaine (1870), he shows his sympathy with the Omer. He was a determined opponent of the Boulangist sensationalist school, and again in' his translation of movement ■ and, alarmed by its menace to the existence Herbert Spencer’s Principles of Psychology. Besides of the Republic, he became a convert to the policy of numerous articles he has written on Schopenhauer and on Republican concentration. He entered office in 1890 as the contemporary psychology of Germany, also four little foreign minister in the Freycinet Cabinet. He had an monographs on Les Maladies de la memoire (1881), De la intimate acquaintance and sympathy with English institu- Volonte (1883), De la Personalite (1885), and La Psychotions, and his only published works—an address, Biographie logic de Vattention (1888), which supply useful data to the de Lord Ershine (1866), and fitude sur I’acte du 5 avril student of mental disease. As the editor of La Revue 1873 pour Vetablissement d'une cour supreme de justice en philosophique, a periodical which he himself founded, he Angleterre (1874)—both deal with English questions; but has had a useful influence in encouraging the scientific study he gave a fresh and highly important direction to French of psychology. policy by the understanding with Russia, which was declared Ricasoli, Bettino, Baron (1809 - 1880), to the world by the visit of the French fleet to Cronstadt in 1891, and which subsequently ripened into a formal treaty Italian statesman, was born at Broglio, 19th March 1809. of alliance. He retained his post in the Loubet ministry Left an orphan at eighteen, with an estate heavily (February-November 1892), and on its defeat was entrusted encumbered, he was by special decree of the grand duke with its reconstruction, remaining at the Foreign Office, of Tuscany declared of age, and entrusted with the and at the same time becoming president of the Council. guardianship of his younger brothers. Interrupting his In a few days fresh developments of the Panama scandal studies, he withdrew to Broglio, and by careful manageforced him to drop some of his colleagues. In the new ment disencumbered the family possessions. In 1847 he allocation of offices he himself took the ministry of the founded the journal La Patria, and addressed to the interior. The Government resigned in March 1893 on grand duke a memorial suggesting remedies for the the refusal of the Chamber to accept the Senate’s amend- difficulties of the state. In 1848 he was elected Gonfaments to the budget. On the election of Felix Faure loniere of Florence, but resigned on account of the antias president of the Republic in January 1895, M. Ribot Liberal tendencies of the grand duke. As Tuscan again became premier and minister of finance. By the minister of the interior in 1859, he promoted the union of irony of fate it was the opponent of French expansion in Tuscany with Piedmont, which took place on 12th March Tongking whose premiership saw Madagascar added to 1860. Elected Italian deputy in 1861, he succeeded possessions of France; but this expedition had been Cavour in the premiership, and upon acquiring personal decided long before, and M. Ribot himself had, in the experience of the Southern provinces, abandoned his preceding year, been president of the commission des regionalist ideas in favour of a thoroughly unitary procredits for that purpose. On 10th June he was able to gramme. As premier he admitted the Garibaldian volunmake the first announcement of a definite alliance with teers to the regular army, revoked the decree of exile Russia. Internal politics centred round the Carmaux against Mazzini, and attempted reconciliation with the strike. On 28th October the premier’s action was ap- Vatican; but his efforts were rendered ineffectual by the proved by the Chamber; but two days later the Govern- non possumus of the pope. Disdainful of the intrigues of ment was defeated on the question of the Chemins de fer his rival Rattazzi, he found himself obliged in 1862 to du Sud, and resigned office. The real reason of its fall resign office, but returned to power in 1866. On this was the mismanagement of the Madagascar expedition, occasion he refused Napoleon III.’s offer to cede Yenetia to whose cost in men and money exceeded all expectations, Italy on condition that Italy should abandon the Prussian and the alarming social conditions at home. M. Ribot Alliance, and also refused the Prussian decoration of the was elected, at the end of 1898, president of the important Black Eagle because Lamarmora, author of the alliance, commission on education, a‘post for which he was peculiarly was not to receive it. Upon the departure of the French fitted by his practical experience as professor at the ]£cole troops from Rome at the end of 1866, he again attempted des sciences politiques. His staunch Republicanism did to conciliate the Vatican with a convention, in virtue of not deter him from an alliance with the forces of reaction which Italy would have restored to the Church the proand Csesarism against M. Waldeck-Rousseau; but at the perty of the suppressed religious orders in return for a general election of 1902, though he himself secured re- gradual payment of £24,000,000. In order to mollify the Vatican he conceded the exequatur to forty-five bishops election, his policy suffered a severe check. inimical to the Italian regime. The Vatican accepted his Ribot, Theodule Armand (1839-^ ), proposal, but the Italian Chamber proved refractory, and, French psychologist, was born at Guingamps, 18th though dissolved by Ricasoli, returned more hostile than December 1839, and was educated at the Lycee de St before. Without waiting for a vote, Ricasoli resigned office Brieuc. In 1856 he began to teach, and was admitted to and thenceforward practically disappeared from political liffi, the Ecole Nor male Super ieure in 1862. He was made speaking in the Chamber only upon rare occasions. He sub-professor of philosophy in 1867, and Doctor of Letters died at Broglio on 23rd October 1880. His private life in 1873. In 1865 he accepted the chair of philosophy and public career were marked by the utmost integrity and at the Lycee de Yesoul, three years later removing to the by a rigid austerity, which earned him the name of the corresponding chair at Laval, where he remained till 1872. “ Iron Baron.” In spite of the failure of his ecclesiastical In 1885 he gave a course of lectures on “Experimental scheme, he remains one of the most noteworthy figures o (H- w- sv Psychology” at the College of France. In 1887 he wras the Italian Risorgimento.

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RICHARDSO N —R I C H M O K D Richardson, Henry Hobson (1838-1886), American architect, was born in the parish of St James, Louisiana, 29th September 1838. He graduated from Harvard College in 1859, and the same year went to Paris to study architecture, where he was admitted a member of the £cole des Beaux Arts. After his return to America he opened an office in New York, and was for eleven years (1867-78) in partnership with Mr Charles Gambrill, when he removed to Brookline (Boston), Massachusetts, where he resided till his death, 27th April 1886. His first commission (1866) was to design a church in Springfield, Mass. Thereafter he rose rapidly in his profession, and at the age of thirty-four (1872) was appointed the architect, after competition, for Trinity Church, Boston, of which Phillips Brooks was the rector. The building was dedicated in 1877, and is generally considered to be his masterpiece and the best example of ecclesiastical architecture in the United States. The style of the building, constructed of yellowish-grey granite trimmed with red sandstone, is—like much of Bichardson’s work—strongly influenced by the Romanesque of the South of France; while the massive square tower in the centre, perhaps the dominating feature, was suggested by the tower of Salamanca. Among his other buildings are the Court House in Pittsburg (which he himself considered his most successful work), the Brattle Square Church in Boston, Sever Hall at Harvard, the town-hall, railway station, and library at North Easton, Mass., and the City Hall, Albany, N.Y. He also designed the Field Building, Chicago, the Chamber of Commerce, Cincinnati, and a number of private residences. (For his place in the development of architecture in America see the article Architecture in volume xxv. of this work.) His qualities as an artist have been summarized by an admiring critic and biographer (Mrs Schuyler van Renssalaer, in Henry Hobson Richardson and his Works), as strength, clearness, breadth in treatment, imagination, and a love for massive dignity of aspect and often for romantic effect. He married, in 1867, Miss Julia Gorham Hayden, of Boston. Richepin, Jean (1849 ), French poet, novelist, and dramatist, was born at Medea (Algeria), 4th February 1849. His youth gave evidence of brilliant, if somewhat undisciplined, powers, for which he found physical vent in different directions — first as a franc tireur in the Franco-German War, and afterwards as actor, sailor, and stevedore—and an intellectual outlet in the writing of poems, plays, and novels which vividly reflected his erratic but unmistakable talent. A play, Rifttoile, written by him in collaboration with Andre Gill, was produced in 1873; but Richepin was virtually unknown until the publication, in 1876, of a volume of verse entitled Chanson des Gueux, whose outspokenness resulted in his being imprisoned and fined for outrage aux moeurs. The same quality has characterized his succeeding volumes of verse : Les Caresses (1877), Les Blasphemes (1884), La Mer (1886), Mes Paradis (1894), La Bombarde (1899). His novels have developed in style from the morbidity and brutality of Les Marts bizarres (1876), La Glu (1881), and Le Pave (1883), to the more thoughtful psychology of Madame Andre (1878), Sophie Monnier (1884), Cesarine (1888), LAime (1893), Grandes Amoureuses (1896), and Lagibasse (1899), and the more simple portrayal of life in Miarka (1883), Les Braves Gens (1886), Truandailles (1890), La Miseloque (1892), and Flamboche (1895). His plays, though occasionally marred by his characteristic proneness to violence of thought and language, constitute in many respects his best work. The most notable are Nana Sahib (1883), Monsieur Scapin (1886), Le Flibustier

237

(1888), Par le Glaive (1892), Vers la Joie (1894), Le Chemineau (1897), Le Chien de Garde (1898), Les Truands (1899), La Reine de Tyr (1900), La Cavaliere (1901). Rich Hill, a city of Bates county, Missouri, U.S.A., on the Osage river, at the intersection of the Kansas City, Fort Scott, and Memphis and the Missouri Pacific railways, in the western part of the state, at an altitude of 784 feet. It is in a coal-mining region, and has varied manufactures, including zinc smelting, flour milling, and cigar making. Population (1880), 36; (1890), 4008; (1900), 4053, of whom 255 were foreign-born and 61 negroes. Richmond, a parish and, since 1890, municipal borough in the Kingston division of Surrey, England, on the Thames, 10 miles west of the City of London by rail. The borough now includes Kew, Petersham, and North Sheen. In 1894 a footbridge and lock were opened. A new church has been erected; also a new theatre and opera house, and a town-hall in the Elizabethan Renaissance style, which cost, with some adjoining pleasure grounds, £24,000. The famous view from the top of Richmond Hill is secured to the public by an agreement, sealed 7th February 1896, between the corporation and the trustees of the Earl of Dysart, by an Act of Parliament of 1902, and by the acquisition in the same year, by the London County Council, with the assistance of the borough of Richmond and other interested local authorities, of the Marble Hill Estate and other property on the Middlesex shore. Population (1881), 19,066; (1891), 26,875; (1901), 31,677. Richmond, a city of Indiana, U.S.A., capital of Wayne county, on a branch of the river Whitewater, and on the Grand Rapids and Indiana and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago, and St Louis railways, in the eastern part of the state, at an altitude of 962 feet. The city is divided into seven wards, has a good water supply and drainage system, and has natural gas. It is in a rich farming region, and has considerable trade and manufactures of varied character. It is the site of Earlham College, which in 1899 had a faculty numbering 15 and was attended by 228 students, about half of whom were women. Population (1890), 16,608; (1900), 18,226, of whom 1467 were foreign-born and 1009 negroes. Richmond, a city of Kentucky, U.S.A., capital of Madison county, a little east of the centre of the state, on the Louisville and Nashville Railroad, at an altitude of 926 feet. It is in an agricultural region, devoted to the cultivation of tobacco and the raising of fine horses. It contains Central University, a Presbyterian institution, opened in 1874, which had, in 1899, a faculty of 77 and was attended by 811 students, 145 of whom were women. Population (1880), 1424; (1890), 5073; (1900), 4653, of whom 52 were foreign-born and 2087 negroes. Richmond, the chief city and capital of Virginia, U.S.A.,on the north bank of the river James, near the head of navigation and at the foot of the falls. The city spreads over a group of hills, on which it is laid out in a fairly regular plan, and is divided into six wards, which, instead of being numbered, as in most cities, have received names, Clay, Jackson, Jefferson, Madison, Marshall, and Monroe. The water-works, which pump the supply from the river, and the gas-works are owned by the city. It is sewered, and its business streets are paved with granite blocks, while its residential streets are in the main macadamized. The city has five railways, the Atlantic Coast Line, the Chesapeake and Ohio, the Richmond, Fredericksburg, and

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RICHMOND — R I C H T E R Potomac, the Seaboard Air Line, and the Southern. The He was hereupon transferred to Bromberg, in East Prussia, large commerce by sea which Richmond enjoyed before which to an inhabitant of the Rhineland was the worst the Civil War has in great part disappeared, but its place form of exile, and in consequence he resigned his place in has been taken by traffic by rail and by manufactures, in the public service. He now went to Berlin, where he which the city has been aided by the fine water-power in earned his living as a journalist. He had already pubthe falls of the James. In 1900 Richmond contained 763 lished a pamphlet advocating the freedom of publicmanufacturing establishments, with a total capital of houses from the control whether of gilds or the police, $20,848,620. They employed 16,692 hands, and the and was the most consistent advocate of those doctrines of product was valued at $28,900,616. Of this large total, laissez faire and individual liberty which the Germans call the manufacture of tobacco made more than one-third, or Manchesterthum. He was also keenly interested in the $10,537,803, which illustrates the importance of the place attempts made at that period to create co-operative societies, as a tobacco market. Other manufactures of importance among the working men, and wrote a work on co-operative were boots and shoes, flour, fertilizers, and foundry and stores. It was not long before he came into conflict with machine-shop products. Richmond is the seat of Rich- the Government; an electioneering pamphlet published mond College, a Baptist institution opened in 1832. In in 1867 was confiscated; he was put on his trial but 1899 it had a faculty of 17 and was attended by 2,62 acquitted. In 1867 he was elected a member of the students. Womans College, of the same denomination, newly-formed Reichstag, and in 1869 of the Prussian opened in 1854, had in 1896-97 a faculty of 19, and was Parliament. He soon became one of the most influential attended by 205 students. The assessed valuation of real politicians in Germany. No one was more assiduous in and personal property was, in 1899, $69,552,821, the net his attendance or more frequent as a speaker; endowed debt of the city was $6,856,604, and the rate of taxation, with great fluency and an admirable memory, quickness $18-00 per $1000. Population (1890), 81,388; (1900), in rejoinder, and a very great knowledge of affairs, and 85,050; of whom 2865 were foreign-born and 32,230 especially of financial matters, he at length became the most experienced member of Parliament in Germany. A negroes. member of the Progressive party, in 1880 one of the Richmond, Sir William Blake (1842- founders, and eventually the leader, of the Freisinnige, ), English painter and decorator, was born in London he was always in opposition. Next to Windthorst {q.v.) on 29th November 1842. At the age of fourteen he entered he was Bismarck’s most dangerous opponent. After the the Royal Academy schools, where he worked for about great change of policy in 1878, for a time his influence was three years; but he was also guided in his art education a great impediment to the Government; as a consistent by the teaching of his father, George Richmond, R.A., adherent to free trade, he was the leader of the opposition and by the advice of John Ruskin, who took much in- to the introduction of protection, to the new Colonial terest in his career. A visit to Italy in 1859 gave him policy, and to State Socialism. It was after 1880 that he special opportunity for studying the works of the old raised the cry Bismarck muss fort. He always took a masters, and had an important effect upon his develop- great part in debates on the military and naval establishment. His first Academy picture was a portrait group, ments, in vain opposing the constant increase of army and exhibited in 1861; and to this succeeded, during the next navy. It was his refusal to support the Government three years, several other pictures of the same class. In proposals in 1893 for an increase of the army which led 1865 he returned to Italy, and spent four years there, to the break up of his party: he was left with only eleven living chiefly at Rome. To this period belongs the large followers; and except among the middle class of Berlin canvas, “ A Procession in Honour of Bacchus,” which he and some other Prussian cities, the old Radical party, of exhibited at the Academy in 1869 when he came back to which he was the chief representative, from that time had England. A visit to Algiers followed in the winter of little influence in the country. Though a bitter enemy 1870; in 1882 and 1883 he travelled through Greece and both to Clericalism and to Socialism, it is to his credit that the Aegean Isles; and in 1885 went to Egypt, making on he had so- much faith in the justice of Liberal principles each occasion a great number of studies of the local scenery that he never was led to support the exceptional legislation and architecture. His picture, “ An Audience at Athens ” by which the Prussian Government and the German people (see Plate), was exhibited at the Grosvenor Gallery in attempted to crush opinions with which they did not agree. 1885. He became Slade professor at Oxford, succeeding He was equally active as a writer. Since 1882 he has Ruskin, in 1878, but resigned three years later. He was been editor of the Freisinnige Zeitung; of his numerous elected an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1888, and brochures the most successful was his attack on Socialism, Royal Academician in 1895; he received the degree of entitled Ber socialistische Zukunfts-Staat, a clever and D.C.L. in 1896, and a knighthood of the Bath in 1897, successful satire on the Socialist State of the future. This and has held the office of professor of painting to the has been translated into English. He also wrote much Royal Academy. His pictures have always been dis- on Prussian finance, and under the title Das politische tinguished by notable qualities of design and by sound A, B, C Buck compiled a very useful political handbook for knowledge of the human form, and his portraits by Radical voters. He also published reminiscences of his elegance and refinement; but perhaps his highest capacity youth (Jugend-Erinnerungen), and two volumes of parliaappears in his decorative work. His most conspicuous mentary reminiscences {Im alien Reichstag). achievement in this branch of art is the internal decoration and the glass Mosaics of St Paul’s Cathedral. Sir William Richter, Hans (1843 ), Hungarian musical Richmond has, it should be added, taken a keen interest in conductor, born at Raab, 4th April 1843, was the social questions, particularly in smoke-prevention in London. son of the Domcapellmeister there and of his wife, Richter, Eugen (1839 —), German politician, nee Josephine Csazinsky, the first Viennese Venus in was born on 30th July 1839 at Diisseldorf. After attend- Tannhduser. Naturally, the offspring of this couple was ing the universities of Bonn, Heidelberg, and Berlin he musical. Young Hans sang either soprano or alto in the entered the Government service, being stationed in his Cathedral choir, according to requirement, and occasionnative town. In 1864 he was chosen burgomaster of ally played the organ. But his public debut was made Neuwied; but he was already known for his Liberal opinions, as a drummer in Haydn’s Paukenmesse. In 1853, at and the Government refused to confirm the appointment. the age of ten, he appeared in a concert as pianist in 238

An Audience in Athens durinh the Representation of the ‘Agamemnon.’” By Sir W. B. Richmond, R.A. (By permission of the Art Gallery Committee of the City of Birmingham.)

RICKETS —RIFLE Hummers E flat quintet; and in 1854, after his father’s death, went to the Lowenburg Convikt (where Schubert was educated) in Vienna, and there became chorister in the Court Chapel. For five years from 1860 Richter studied under Heissler and Sechter in the Vienna Conservatorium, and the horn under Kleinecke. A year and a half after his first lesson he became hornist in the old Karnthnerthor Theatre at £3 a month. Meanwhile he had devoted time to conducting. His orchestral post he resigned in 1866 on being appointed copyist to Wagner, then living at Triebschen, near Lucerne. There he copied Die Meistevsinger. In December of the following year Von Billow induced him to go to Munich, where he actually sang the part of Kothner in the 6th performance of Die Meistersinger. It was not till August 1868 that Richter made his first appearance as a conductor, at the Hof Theater, Munich (where he had just been appointed), in William Tell; but in the next year he resigned this post, went first to Paris, then to Brussels, and finally to | Triebschen, where he copied Der Ring des i\ ibelungen. In April 1871 Richter took up his new duties as conductor of the Hungarian National Opera at Budapest, where he remained four years, until he began in May 187o his long connexion with the Vienna Opera, 'which terminated only with the century. In the same year Richter directed the rehearsals and performances of Der Ring at Bayreuth, and in 1877 paid his first visit to England to conduct the Wagner Festival at the Albert Hall. There in 1879 he founded the Richter Concerts; in 1885 he became conductor of the Birmingham Triennial Festival, and was created Mus. Doc. Oxon. honoris causd. In 1882 Richter also conducted a famous series of performances of Wagner’s works (including the first in England of Die Meistersinger and Tristan) at Drury Lane, and some years afterwTards became conductor of the Halle Orchestra in Manchester. That Richter must be considered one of the most richly gifted and the most experienced of modern conductors is universally acknowledged. In the works of Beethoven and Brahms his surpremacy is unchallenged, while as a V agnerian conductor few have reached his level. Rickets: See Pathology : Metabolic Diseases. Ricotti, Magnani Cesare (1822 ), Italian general and knight of the Annunziata, was born at Borgo Lavezzaro on 30th June 1822. As artillery lieutenant he distinguished himself and was wounded at the siege of Peschiera in 1848, and in 1852 gained further distinction by the courage with which he sought to prevent the explosion of a burning powder magazine. After serving from 1856 to 1859 as director of the Artillery School, he took part in the war against Austria, and commanded the 5th division at the battle of San Martino. In the war of 1866 he stormed Borgoforte, to open a passage for Cialdini’s army. Upon the death of General Govone in 1870 he was appointed minister of war, and after the occupation of Rome bent all his efforts to army reform, in accordance with the lessons of the Franco-German War. He shortened the period of military service; extended conscription to all able-bodied men; created a permanent army, a mobile militia, and a reserve ; commenced the renewal of armaments ; and placed Italy in a position to put 1,800,000 men on a war footing. Ricotti fell from power with the Right in 18/6, but returned to office with Depretis in 1884, and amended his previous scheme of reform. Resigning in April 188/, he took little part in public life until 1896, when, after the battle of Adowa, he was entrusted by King Humbert with the formation of a Cabinet. Having constructed his ministry, he made over the premiership to the Marquis di Rudini, retaining for himself the portfolio of war, and

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seeking to satisfy popular demands for the reduction of military expenditure by consolidating the tactical structure of the army without weakening its fighting power. Rudini, however, finding that Ricotti’s ideas, which he himself shared, were not acceptable in the highest quarters, obliged him to resign office. His prestige as creator of the modern Italian army remained unimpaired, and his views on army consolidation enjoyed a large measure of technical and public favour. Riesa, a town of Germany, on the Elbe, 12 miles by rail north-north-west of Meissen, in the circle of Dresden, kingdom of Saxony. There are 2 churches, a harbour with quays and a dockyard, rolling-mills and saw-mills, agricultural implement and other works, and sandstone quarries. The most important shipping station on the Elbe in Saxony, Riesa is the lading-place for transmarine goods to and from Bavaria, and a mart for herrings, petroleum, coal, grain, &c. Population (1890), 9389; (1900), 13,492. Rifle.—A rifle is a musket with a grooved bore. The rifling of a firearm is the cutting away of the interior .of the barrel or bore so as to form spiral grooves upon its surface. The objects of this spiral grooving are to guide the projectile down the barrel, force it to turn upon its own axis and impart to it a rotatory motion which it shall maintain during flight, and thus equalize any irregularities in its form or weight, and so lessen the tendency to depart from a straight line, and also in a measure to overcome atmospheric resistance. Rifling was invented about 1520, by Gaspard Kollner, a gunmaker of Vienna, according to some authorities; by Augustus Kotter of Nuremberg, according to others. In some cases the grooves were made straight, to admit a tight-fitting bullet and relieve the effects of fouling; they were more usually spiral. Parallel, half-round narrow grooves, probably two or more in number, constituted the rifle in its most primitive form , later, from three to twelve grooves were more common. The amount of turn varied in old rifles, from a half or three-quarters turn to one turn in two to three feet. The form and depth of grooving also greatly varied. Rifles were at first used for amusement, and were not employed in warfare until about the middle of the 11 th century. Military Rifles.—Rifles were not generally used in the British army until 1855. There are, however, instances of their occasional employment in the 17th and 18th centuries, particularly by Continental nations. In 1631 the Landgraf of Hesse had a troop of riflemen. Ten years later Maximilian of Bavaria had several troops armed with rifled arquebuses. Louis XIII. armed his bodyguard with rifles. Napoleon withdrew the rifle from his troops, to whom it had been issued during the wars of the Republic, nor did the French make any considerable use of it again until 1830, when the Chasseurs d’Orleans were armed with it for the invasion of Algeria. The British learnt the value of rifles during the American War of Independence, when the Government subsidized Continental Jdgers armed with rifles to oppose the American backwoodsmen, whose rifle-shooting was most deadly. It is interesting here to note the chief infantry firearms that preceded the modern military rifle. The hand cannon of 1471 was quickly superseded by the matchlock, which remained in use until the Commonwealth. About 1530 the wheel-lock was first brought to England, but few were supplied to English soldiers until the time of Charles I. In the reign of James I. some flint-locks were issued to leading regiments, and in the reign of William III. they came into general use. From them was developed the renowned “ Brown Bess,” a flint-lock smooth bore, for a century and a half the regulation musket of the British Army. Thus the weapon that won at Waterloo was.

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of the same type as that which the British used at Itamillies and Blenheim. In the Brown Bess and similar military muskets the bullet was two sizes smaller than the bore, wrapped in a loosely-fitting patch which formed the cartridge; the loading was therefore easy, whereas the muzzle-loading rifle with a closely-fitting ball was loaded with difficulty, particularly when foul, and for this reason was not generally used as a weapon of war. The Brown Bess had a high trajectory and a very low velocity, with an effective range of under 200 yards. The percussion system was only generally applied to the Brown Bess in 1842, a quarter of a century after its invention, and after an elaborate test at Woolwich in 1834. In 1800 the 95th Regiment (afterwards the Rifle Brigade) were armed with a weapon known as “ Baker’s Rifle,” which weighed 9^ lb. The barrel was 2J feet long, its calibre 20 bore, with seven grooves making a quarter turn in its length. A small wooden mallet was at first supplied with this rifle to make the ball enter the barrel, and it was loaded with great difficulty. In 1826 Delvigne, a French infantry officer, invented a breech with abrupt shoulders on which the spherical bullet was rammed down until it expanded and filled the grooves. The objection was that the deformed bullet had an erratic flight. In William IV.’s reign the Brunswick rifle was introduced into the British army. Its weight with bayonet was 11 3b ozs.; length of barrel 2 feet 6 inches; with two grooves making one turn in the length of the barrel; weight of spherical belted bullet 557 grs.; diameter ‘696 inch; charge of powder 24 drs. This rifle was not easily loaded, soon fouled, and shot wild beyond 400 yards. In 1835 W. Greener produced a new expansive bullet, an oval ball, a diameter and a half in length, with a flat end, perforated, in which a cast metallic taper plug was inserted. The explosion of the charge drove the plug home, expanded the bullet, filled the grooves and prevented windage. A trial of the Greener bullet in August 1835, at Tynemouth, by a party of the 60th Rifles, proved successful. The range and accuracy of the rifle were retained, while the loading was made as easy as with a smooth-bore musket. The invention was, however, rejected by the military authorities on the ground that the bullet was a compound one. In 1852 the Government awarded Minie, a Frenchman, £20,000 for a bullet of the same principle adopted into the British service. Subsequently in 1857 Greener was also awarded £1000 for “the first public suggestion of the principle of expansion, commonly called the Minie principle, in 1836.” The Minie bullet contained an iron cup in a cavity at the base of the bullet. In 1851 a rifle musket of the Minie pattern was introduced into the British army, and, though not generally issued, was used in the Kaffre War of 1851, and in the Crimea at the battles of the Alma and Inkerman. Its weight with bayonet was 10 lb 8f ozs., length of barrel 3 feet 3 inches, with four grooves, making one turn in 78 inches; charge of powder 24 drs., and sighted from 100 to 1000 yards. The form of its bullet was at first conoidal, afterwards changed to cylindro-conoidal with a hemispherical iron cup. In 1855 the Enfield rifle, having in a series of trials competed favourably with the Minie and Lancaster rifles, was introduced into the British army; was used during the latter part of the Crimean war, having there replaced the Minie rifle pattern 1851 and the percussion musket 1852, and remained the general weapon of the entire infantry until the introduction of the breech-loader in the year 1867. This rifle weighed, with bayonet, 9 lb 3 ozs., with 39-inch barrel; diameter of bore ‘577 inch; threegrooved with one turn in 78 inches. It fired a bullet of cylindro-conoidal form with hollow base, weighing 530 grains, made up into cartridges and lubricated as for the

Minie rifle, adapted to this rifle by Pritchett, who was awarded £1000 by the Government. Short rifles of the same pattern, with five-grooved barrels 2 feet 9 inches long, and a sword bayonet, were supplied to the 60th Rifles and to the Rifle Brigade. Two small carbines of the same principle were at this time introduced for the cavalry and artillery, also a rifled pistol. In 1854 Lord Hardinge, then Commander-in-Chief of the British army, sought the aid of Sir Joseph Whitworth, the first mechanician of the day, in considering the subject of rifling. After a long series of experiments the "Whitworth rifle was produced with hexagonal bore, ‘45 inch calibre, and with one turn in 20 inches. It was tried at Hythe in 1857, and beat the Enfield rifle by 3 to 1, up to 1800 yards upon a fixed rest. This trial and Whitworth’s experiments proved the advantages of a sharp twist, a smaller bore, and elongated projectile; but Whitworth’s rifle was never adopted into the Government service, probably because the hexagonal rifling wore badly, and owing to the difficulty of equal mechanical perfection in all similar rifles and ammunition. Several improvements were subsequently made in the sighting, grooving, and some other details of the Enfield rifle. In 1855 a boxwood plug to the bullet was used. Between 1857 and 1861 four breech-loading carbines were experimentally introduced in the cavalry — viz., Sharp’s, Terry’s, Green’s, and Westley-Richards’. The general adoption of the breech-loading principle may be said to date from 1867. The Prussians were the first to see its great advantages, and in 1848 had adopted the needle-gun breech-loader, afterwards so celebrated in the Danish war of 1864, against the Austrians in 1866, and against the French in 1870. In June 1864, and in October 1866, special military committees were appointed by the British War Office to consider and report on breechloading arms, and proposals were invited from the various gunsmiths and manufacturers. Jacob Snider’s method of conversion of the muzzle-loading Enfield to a breechloader was first adopted, out of nearly fifty different proposals, and after laborious and protracted experiments, with the metallic cartridge-case improved in 1867 by Colonel Boxer, R.A. All available Enfield rifles were thus converted, and new arms made with steel barrels instead of iron. Great Britain was the first Power to adopt for her army a breech-loading rifle with metallic cartridgecase, which effectually secured the perfect obturation of the breech. In 1866 France adopted the Chassepot rifle; in 1867 Sweden the Hagstrbm, and Russia the Carte; in 1868 Italy the Carcano. All these were breech-loaders firing paper cartridges containing their own means of ignition. After further experiments by a fresh committee the Martini-Henry rifle was definitely adopted by the British Government in April 1871, with the short chamber Boxer-Henry ammunition. This rifle was a combination of Martini’s block-action breech mechanism with Henry’s barrel of MS-inch calibre, firing a bullet of 480 grains from Boxer cases with a wad of wax lubrication at base of bullet, as proposed by Henry. The Henry rifling had seven grooves with one turn in 22 inches; the lands and the centres of the grooves were contained in the same circle. In the same year Spain adopted the block-action Remington rifle, Germany the Mauser, Holland the Beaumont, Italy the Yetterli, and Russia the Berdan II., all bolt-action rifles. All these weapons had a calibre of about 11 millimetres (‘433 inch). The next stage in the history of military firearms was the introduction of the repeating or magazine system. The Winchester rifle, an American invention, appeared in 1867 as one of the earliest magazine rifles. This weapon was used by Turkey in the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78,

RIFLE and there proved the enormous advantage of the repeating or magazine rifle, owing to its largely increased rapidity of fire. Meanwhile, in 1886 the question of the best calibre for small arms was reopened in England. In June 1887 the Small Arms Committee, after experiments with the .small-calibre rifle invented in 1883 by Major Rubin, director of the Swiss Laboratory at Thun, recommended the small calibre for adoption into the British service. The essential features of Rubin’s system were the employment of a compound bullet with a leaden core in a copper envelope, and the use of a compressed charge of black powder. In January 1888 a pattern of 'SOS-inch-calibre rifle, rifled on the Metford system and with the improved Lee bolt and magazine, was approved for trial by British troops. The Metford rifling is as follows :—diameter of bore, ’SOS"; depth of rifling, •004"; width of lands, •023"; twist of rifling, one turn in 10" (left hand); radial grooves, 7 in number. About 1862, and later, W. E. Metford had carried out an exhaustive series of experiments on bullets and rifling. He invented the important system of light rifling, with increasing spiral with a hardened bullet. The Metford match rifle was prominent in all N.R.A. competitions from 1871 to 1894. In 1887 he laid down for the Small Arms Committee the proper proportions for the grooving, spiral, and cartridge chamber of the ’303 military rifle. This weapon proved satisfactory, and was finally adopted by the War Office as the Lee-Metford Rifle, Mark L, in December 1888. It had a magazine of eight cartridges. In December 1891 the Mark II. pattern was finally approved, with a ten-cartridge magazine, a much.simplified bolt, and many minor improvements. A magazine carbine, with barrel 21 inches long and a sixcartridge magazine, otherwise identical with the LeeMetford Mark II., was also approved. The Lee-Metford Mark II. rifle has been further improved in its rifling to resist the wear of smokeless powder, and also in its bolt action, and is now known as the Lee-Enfield rifle, .and under that name has been officially adopted as the rifle of the British army. The number of grooves has been reduced from seven to five. Neither the Lee-Metford nor the Lee-Enfield has increasing spiral grooves, which axe found inconvenient for military arms from a manufacturing point of view. The efficiency of the modern small-bore magazine rifle is largely due to the production and adoption of smokeless nitro-compound powder within recent years. France was the first country to adopt, about 1885, a smokeless powder with the Lebel magazine rifle. It was known as Vielle ” powder, or “ Poudre B.” Since then smokeless ■explosives have been universally adopted in all small-bore magazine military rifles. After exhaustive and lengthened experiments the smokeless explosive known as “ Cordite,” a composition of nitro-glycerine, gun-cotton, and mineral jelly, has been definitely adopted by the British authorities for the cartridges of the Lee-Metford and Lee-Enfield magazine rifles and other arms of the same calibre. In addition to its smokelessness, it possesses the further advantages of being comparatively non-fouling, giving a much higher muzzle velocity, with a smaller charge, than black powder, owing to the greater amount of gas produced, and at the same time developing lower maximum pressures, owing to its homogeneous character. (For further information about explosives, see Propellants.) It is difficult to imagine how any further substantial improvement can be effected in the range and trajectory of the modern magazine rifle, although its mechanism, rifling, and rapidity of fire may continue to be improved. Its great value in warfare and the effect of its high velocity, low trajectory, long range, and smokeless ammunition on military tactics and strategy were fully demonstrated by the

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Boer war of 1899-1902. The Lee-Enfield military rifle weighs 10 lb 3^ ozs. with bayonet; is 4 feet L85 inches in length (without bayonet), with a barrel of 30T97 inches long ; ‘303 calibre, with five shallow grooves of increasing spiral with a left-hand turn of 1 in 10" ; fires a long thin nickel bullet with leaden core with smokeless cordite explosive from a solid metallic cartridge - case; carries a ten-cartridge magazine with bolt-action and a cut-off that enables the rifle to be used as a single firer; and is sighted up to 2800 yards. Match or Target Rifle.—The sport or pastime of target shooting has many times changed its character, owing to the steady improvement in the rifle and the different ranges or distances at which shooting is practised. Range usually governs the construction of the target rifle, long - range rifles not being necessarily the best weapons for a short range of, say, 200 yards. Limitations —such as the amount of powder charge, weight of bullet and rifle—are also usually arbitrarily imposed in order to encourage marksmen by starting all competitors on equal terms. The long-range match rifle is not the superior of the military rifle as a weapon, but as a scientific shooting instrument is the best small arm produced. The ordinary target rifle is a hybrid arm, combining the points of the long-range match, modern military, and best sporting rifles. The miniature match rifle is a gallery weapon, adapted for trick shooting, for a beginner, or for shortrange practice. The pastime of rifle shooting at fixed marks has been practised continuously in Switzerland from mediaeval times. A rifle club (“Societe de Fharquebuse et de la Navigation”) has existed continuously in Geneva since 1474; and the “Schutzen-Gesellschaft der Stadt Zurich” since about the same date. It is not clear at what period rifles superseded smooth-bores in the practices of these clubs. From the beginning of the 19th century up to 1844 the rifle generally used in Great Britain had a polygrooved barrel •630 inch in diameter, with spherical ball, and the arm weighed from 11 to 15 Bb. It was not fired in military fashion, but had a handle extending downwards fixed in front of the trigger-guard which was grasped by the left hand, the left arm being steadied against the body. This method of shooting is still followed by Swiss and German riflemen. The Swiss and Americans were formerly accredited as the finest rifle shots in the world, and are still fine rifle shots at medium ranges and with their customary conditions allowed. At long ranges they are behind the standard of shooting now ruling in Great Britain and her colonies. Target shooting as a sport or business was rarely practised in Great Britain until after the Crimean war and the establishment of volunteer rifle corps. Ranges were then obtained for practice. The inauguration of the “National Rifle Association” in 1860 opened a new and most important era in the history and development of the rifle. This admirable institution was established “ for the encouragement of rifle corps and the promotion of rifle shooting throughout Great Britain. ... As a national pastime to make the rifle what the bow was in the days of the Plantagenets, the familiar weapon of those who stand forth in the defence of their country.” The N.R.A. has identified itself with the history of target rifle shooting wherever the English language has penetrated, and full information of such history will be found in its annual reports. The first meeting of the N.R.A. was held at Wimbledon in 1860. The first shot was fired by the Queen from a Whitworth rifle on a machine rest, at 400 yards, and struck the bull’s-eye. The Whitworth muzzleloading rifle won many of the important prizes at this and subsequent meetings prior to 1871. The use of this rifle was, up to that date, compulsory in the final stage of the S. VIII.—31

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Queen’s competition, except in 1865-66-67. Its most important features, arrived at after exhaustive experiments, were a smaller bore of '450 inch, with an increased twist of rifling of one turn in 20 inches, and an elongated mechanically - fitting projectile. Long - range rifle construction is also largely indebted to Whitworth for the highly accurate and superior tools and processes introduced by him in this branch of manufacture. In 1866 and after, Metford’s system of hardened expanding bullets and shallow rifling gradually superseded the mechanically-fitting system of Whitworth, and the Whitworth rifle gradually lost its position. In 1861 the Henry grooving for a cylindrical bullet, a modification of the Whitworth, first appeared. In 1864 Rigby, with a five-grooved rifle and a mechanically-fitting bullet, tied with the Whitworth rifle in the preliminary rifle trial of the N.R.A. at 1000 yards, and in a subsequent trial took the first place. In 1865 the Rigby rifle was consequently used in the second stage of the Queen’s prize. By 1871 the Whitworth rifle had given place to the Metford system with hardened cylindrical bullets, shallow rifling, and increasing spiral. In 1867 the modern breech-loading rifle was first introduced, using a metallic cartridge containing its own means of ignition. The Metford system of rifling greatly assisted its development. In this year Rigby also produced his new model longrange rifle on the lines followed by Metford. In 1869 the work of the Government G’ommittee caused a great impulse to be given to experimental rifle manufacture, and the Henry barrel came well to the front when used as a breech-loader. In 1870 the Martini-Henry, the new service arm, won the duke of Cambridge’s prize, the extreme range in this competition being 800 yards. In 1871 the Enfield-Snider breech-loader replaced the Enfield muzzle-loader, and the Martini-Henry replaced the Whitworth in the second stages—800, 900, and 1000 yards ranges—of the Queen’s prize. The Metford barrel was also used in breech-loaders, and the duke of Cambridge’s prize—for the first time fired at 1000 yards—fell to it. During the twenty-three years from 1871 to 1894 the Metford military match rifle only four times failed to win this prize, while it took a preponderating share of other prizes. The years 1872 and 1873 marked a decided advance in the military breech-loader, though for fine shooting the muzzle-loader still seemed hard to equal. In 1873 an Irish team armed with Rigby muzzle-loading rifles visited Creedrnoor, U.S.A., and were defeated by three points only by an American team armed with breech-loading rifles. In 1875 a team of American riflemen first visited Wimbledon with “ army-pattern ” breech-loading rifles, which were cleaned out after every shot, and met with considerable success. A feature of their shooting was the “back position,” then a novelty. In 1876 the duke of Cambridge’s prize was easily won with a Metford breechloader, the same type of rifle also doing well in other longrange competitions. A great rifle contest took place at Creedmoor, U.S.A., this year—Ireland, Scotland, Australia, and Canada sending teams, the conditions being those of the Elcho Shield competition. A United States team secured first place, the Irish team being a close second. In 1877 the superiority of the cleansable and cleansed breech-loader over the increased fouling of the muzzleloader was clearly demonstrated, though the muzzle-loader did not at once disappear. In 1878 the highest scores ever made with the muzzle-loader in Great Britain were recorded, greater care in cleaning the rifle after every shot being observed. In 1883 the NiR.A. Council altered the conditions, wiping out after every shot was forbidden, but muzzleloaders were not disqualified. The result was that the

American type of rifle disappeared. The poor shooting of the Martini at 1000 yards induced the Council to take the retrograde step of reducing the maximum range for the Queen’s prize to 900 yards, the 1000 range being considered beyond the power of the vreapon. In 1890 the N.R.A. first met at the new ranges at Bisley. This year was noticeable for the excellent shooting made in the “any” rifle competitions by the Gibbs-Metford match rifle, particularly at 1000 yards range. The accepted type was ‘461 calibre; 7 grooves '0045 inch in depth; 80 grains of special black gunpowder, and a bullet of 570 grains. In 1892 and 1893 the Lee-Metford ‘303 rifle with cordite ammunition was first used by the army teams. In 1890 and later the Hon. T. F. Fremantle and some others used Metford’s copper-coated bullets in the Gibbs-Metford rifle with success, and in 1894 Captain Gibbs used these in his match rifle and achieved remarkable results, in many competitions making top scores. In 1895 many match rifle shots followed his example and used copper-coated bullets. In 1895 and 1896 the ‘303 was equalled, and in some instances beaten, by the smaller-calibre Mannlicher rifle. This was partly due to faulty Lee-Metford ammunition. The ‘303 now proved its superiority to the •450 Martini, the regulars defeating the volunteers, especially at the longer ranges. The Bisley meeting of 1896 practically closed the series of contests with both the Martini and the military match rifles. The volunteers were to be thenceforth armed with the '303, and with that bore future contests for the Queen’s and St George’s were to be held. The results of the Bisley meetings since 1895 have proved that rifles of '303 class, the British '303 rifle particularly, are not so good for match rifles pure and simple as the larger bores using black powder. The light bullets are more subject to deflection by the wind at long ranges than the heavier speed-retaining bullets of the larger bores. Cordite powder cartridges also appear to give varying velocities. None of the nitro-powders used appears to have equalled the black powder in regularity of shooting. At the same time the object of the N.R.A. competitions is to encourage excellence in the use of the military service rifle in the first place, and in the case of the “ any ” rifle competitions to encourage the production of weapons of the highest efficiency for military purposes. Acting on these principles the rifles and carbines allowed by the N.R.A. regulations (1900) are classed as follows :— Class I.—Service rifle (S.R.) : ‘303 magazine rifles as issued by the Government or bearing the Government viewer’s mark; inclusive weight not to exceed that of the corresponding regulation rifle; maximum length, 49^ inches; minimum pull of trigger, 6 lb; sights—strictly in accordance with Government service pattern, and without any shading appliances, extraneous supports, or laterally sliding wind-gauge. This is the rifle to be used in all the numerous S.R. competitions at Bisley, including the duke of Cambridge’s prize, the St George’s challenge vase, and the King’s prize. Class II. — Match rifles (M.R.): any breech-loading rifle complying with the following conditions : when of British make to bear proof marks on barrel and breech; maximum weight, 10 lb; maximum length, 52 inches; maximum calibre, ^IS; stock sufficiently strong, in the opinion of the Bisley committee, for service purposes, and without pad or shoe on the heelplate; minimum pull of trigger, 6 1); sights, of any description except telescopic or magnifying. Class III. — Sporting rifles (Spor.): calibre, any; minimum pull of trigger, 3 lb ; sights, open or such as are sanctioned by the council or committee. The Lyman backsight and the Beech combination foresight have been sanctioned. No lateral adjustment of fore or backsight is permitted.

RIFLE Spirit levels are allowed. Class IV.—Carbines (Car.). Any bond fide Government pattern of carbine of 'SOS calibre as issued by the Government or bearing the Government viewer’s mark. Minimum pull of trigger, 6 lb. Only service ammunition issued by the N.R.A. at the firing point is allowed to be used in the S.R. competitions. In M.R. competitions there are certain restrictions as to weight of bullet and length and diameter of cartridge. In sporting competitions any ammunition may be used. Modern American Target Rifles.—In America, according to some authorities, there are three recognized departments of target shooting—namely, off-hand shooting; shooting from a simple rest; and shooting from a machine rest, with telescopic or any bther sight. For the first two classes small - bore rifles of '380 calibre or under only are used. The usual weight is from 8 to 10 tt), with 28- or 30-inch barrel. Light charges for the shorter ranges are used. In the ‘380 bore only 55 grains of powder with a 330-grain bullet is employed. In the second - class contests, from a simple rest, the barrel is longer and the weight increased to just under 12 S). The bore is generally ’SSO. The usual range is 200 yards. The third-class shooting from a machine rest, generally with telescopic sights, is not much practised. Every kind of rifle is employed, usually of large bore and weighing from 20 to 60 lb. The long-range breech-loading match rifle, with which so much fine shooting was done when wiping out after each shot was allowed, weighed about 10 lb; the breech mechanism, any falling block, as the Sharp, Farquharson, Deeley, and Edge or Wiley, that admitted the insertion of the cleaning rod at the breech ; length of barrel 32 to 34 inches; seven or more grooves •003 to '005 in depth with a complete turn in 20 inches. A sharp continual spiral and very shallow grooves constituted the feature of the American plan. Rigby’s plan was similar, with one turn in 18 inches and eight grooves, the lands being about half the width of the grooves. In the Wiley the grooves were fewer and wider. The Metford is an increasing twist, starting with one turn in 60 inches and finishing with one in 20, or sharper. The usual bore of the American long-range rifle was GSS or •461; powder, 76 grains of special “fouling” rifle powder; elongated cylindrical bullet of 540 grains. The pull-off was under 3 lb. During recent years smaller-bore smokeless-powder rifles have also been used. Continental Match Rifles.—The target rifle used by Continental marksmen is a modification of the old pattern Swiss rifle, with scroll guard, hollowed butt plate and hair trigger. This latter, a mechanical device to free the tumbler from the skear without sufficient pull on the trigger to influence the aim, is disallowed in military arms. Sporting Rifles.—Prior to 1845 smooth-bore ball guns with double charge of powder and an ounce spherical ball were generally preferred to rifles for sporting purposes and for large game; sixteen-bore muzzle-loading rifles were occasionally used by British sportsmen in the East Indies before that date, firing 1J drs. of powder with a spherical ounce ball. These rifles were sighted to 200 yards, but the trajectory was high and the penetration weak; they were also difficult to load when foul. The twist of the rifling was also too rapid, causing the bullet to strip with heavy charges of powder. According to Captain Forsyth and others, up to 1860 there was no known rifle suitable for sporting purposes in India. Rifles of twelve-bore gauge, firing a spherical ball, were subsequently made, with broad and shallow grooves making one turn in 10 feet. The bullet, of the same diameter as the bore, was loaded with a thin patch that took the grooving. These rifles proved very successful, pos-

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sessing velocity equal to a smooth-bore of the same calibre, accuracy for sporting distances, flat trajectory, and great striking power. In 1855 W. Greener produced the “Cape rifle ” for South African sport, calibre ’450 or '500; rifling, two deep grooves with one turn in 26 inches, with a flanged bullet to lit the grooves; weight, 12 lb; sighted up to 1200 yards. This rifle was successful, and others were built by Purdey, who in 1856 named the pattern “Express Train.” Since that date the word “Express” has been generally used to denote a rifle possessing high velocity, flat trajectory, and long fixed-sight range.1 In America small-bore rifles were used earlier in the 19th century. The celebrated Kentucky rifles were of various sizes, firing spherical balls of 90, 60, and 40 to the lb, and were renowned for their accuracy and fixed-sight range up to 100 yards. Some suppose that the modern Express rifle was developed from the Kentucky model. The modern Express rifle may be defined as a breech-loading rifle with a trajectory not exceeding 4| inches at 150 yards, with a muzzle velocity of at least 1750 feet per second. These rifles are usually double-barrelled, with 26- to 28-inch barrels of ’360, '400, '450, ‘500, and ’577 bores, weighing respectively from 6| to 7 lb, 7 to 8 lb, 7f to 9 1), 8J to 10 lb, and 10 J to 12 lb. The respective charges usually are : bullet, 150 grains; powder, 50 grains ; 209 and 82 ; 270 and 110; 340 and 130; 520 and 160; but the leading gunmakers vary the respective amounts of these charges. The fixed-sight ranges of these rifles are respectively 130, 160, 150, 130, and 120 yards. Double and single Express rifles of '303 bore with 26-inch barrels are also made. The rifle trial of 1883 arranged at Putney by J. H. Walsh (“ Stonehenge ”), then editor of the Field, originally established the excellence of the principle of these rifles; but they have since been improved in rifling and mechanism. The usual modern Express rifling is from five to seven shallow grooves, the grooves and bands being of equal width, with a twist suited to the length and diameter of the bullet. The sights of sporting Express rifles are of some variety, and are usually designed and made with more care and accuracy than those of military rifles. The open Y backsight on an ivory pyramid with two or three leaves up to 300 yards, and the enamelled bead foresight, are the most usual form. The more elaborate Lyman and Beech peepsights are also popular. Solid-drawn brass cartridge-cases are now always used for sporting rifles, except occasionally for some of the larger bores, in which paper cartridges may be used. The peculiarity of the Express bullet is its hollow point to ensure the expansion of the projectile on impact. This diminishes its penetration, but translates its velocity or energy into “ shock.” The size and shape of the hollow in the point vary according to the purpose required. If greater penetration is needed, the leaden bullet is hardened with mercury or tin, or the military nickel-coated bullet is used in the small-bore rifle. Explosive bullets filled with detonating powder were at one time used in. Express and large-bore rifles for large game. The use of these bullets is now practically abandoned, owing to their uncertainty of action and the 1

The term “ point-blank range ” is often used in this connexion. Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as “point-blank range, the bullet commencing to drop immediately it leaves the muzzle of the rifle. The path or trajectory of the bullet if fired horizontally is therefore always a downward curve. The higher the muzzle velocity the flatter is this curve. The “fixed-sight,” or so-called “pointblank ” range, is usually taken at such range and with such elevation, as render the amount of drop of the bullet or curve of its path practically immaterial for sporting purposes, say a maximum of 4i inches. At shorter range this curve would therefore take the bullet so much above the line of fixed-sight aim, and must where necessary be allowed for.

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danger in handling them. The use of the large four- and eight-bore rifle is restricted to the hunting of large and dangerous game. These are usually double-barrelled. The four-bore weighs from 14 to 18 lb with 20-inch barrels, and fires a charge of 12 to 14 drs. of powder, with a spherical bullet of 1510 grains. The great weight of this rifle is against its general use. The eight-bore rifle weighs from ll^- to 15 K) with 20- to 24-inch barrels, with a charge of 8 to 12 drs. of powder with a spherical ball. These rifles are accurate and effective up to 120 yards. Rook and rabbit rifles are usually single-barrel breechloading rifles of from '220 to *380 bore, hammerless, ejectors. The range is ordinarily restricted to 200 yards. The combination of a rifle and shot-gun is generally used in countries where the kind of game to be met with is not known beforehand, and by emigrants who can only afford one gun. The weapon is double-barrelled ; the left usually rifled, and the right a smooth-bore. The proper proportions of bore are '450 rifle barrel and sixteen-bore short barrel; or '500 rifle and twelve-bore shot. This weapon has many drawbacks, being too heavy for a shot-gun and too light for a rifle, with a bad balance. More modern combinations of the rifle and shot-gun are Holland’s “Paradox,” a smooth-bore with the last three inches of the barrel ratchet-rifled ; Lancaster’s “ Colindian ” twisted oval bore without sharp-edged grooves or ridges in the barrel; and Bland’s “Euoplia” with “invisible” undulating rifling, also without sharp-edged grooves or ridges. All these weapons fire heavy bullets more or less accurately up to 100 yards, are also used as shot-guns, and are made double or single barrelled and of various calibres, twelve-bore being the most common. The Morris tube is a small-bore rifle barrel capable of being inserted and used as required in a shot-gun or larger rifle. A shot-gun may thus be utilized as a small-bore rifle, or a large rifle as a saloon rifle for gallery practice. The modern small-bore military rifle already described, such as the Lee-Enfield or the German Mauser or Austrian Mannlicher, now possesses all the best qualities of an Express sporting rifle—namely, accuracy, flat trajectory, high muzzle velocity, and long point-blank range up to 200 yards. This weapon is also a “ long-range Express,” and can be sighted up to 2800 yards. A sporting variety of the military weapon is now made, either double or single, '256 to '303 bore, the double-barrel with a very strong breech mechanism; the weight, as desired, beyond 8^ K>. The standard charge of black gunpowder is 71^ grains; of cordite, 30 grains; of “ rifleite,” 38 grains. The muzzle velocity of the '303 bore with black powder is 1850 feet per second; with cordite, 2000 feet. This weapon is now one of the most efficient rifles for general game shooting. The hollow- pointed expanding bullet with soft lead nose is generally used in these rifles for ordinary sporting purposes, with the military solid metal cartridge-case. Some leading gunmakers make their latest single and double Express sporting rifles, firing nitro-powder cartridges, cordite, or rifleite, of from '360 to '577 bore, thus possessing the greater power and shock of the old eightbore rifle firing black powder, combined with much of the handiness, long range, and flat trajectory of the smallerbore smokeless Express rifle. The automatic principle, by which the firing of each cartridge loads the next and cocks the weapon, has not yet been applied to rifles, but is applied to some pistols and carbines, such as the Mauser. (h. s.-k.)

had increased to 281,884 in 1897, so that it now ranks sixth in the empire in order of population; 47 per cent, of the inhabitants are Germans, 25 per cent. Russians, and 23 per cent. Letts, with a small admixture of Esthonians, Jews, &c. The city has now a polytechnic, five gymnasia, several technical and theological middle schools, a pilot and navigation school, and a number of primary institutions, with about 20,000 pupils of both sexes. Industrial activity has also developed, and there are now 275 factories (mainly railway-carriage works, works for the manufacture of machinery, oil mills, and breweries), giving employment to 30,000 workmen, and showing yearly returns of 60,000,000 roubles. No less than 33 newspapers (18 in German) are published, and there are 43 public libraries. Having direct railway communication with all the fertile parts of southern and south-eastern Russia, Riga has become the second port for foreign trade on the Baltic, ranking next after St Petersburg. The chief exports are grain, flax, seed, eggs, butter, hemp, and timber, while the imports, which have rapidly increased, are chiefly colonial and manufactured goods. The port, which freezes on an average for 127 days every year, was visited in 1899 by 1236 ships, of which only 253 were under the Russian flag. The larger ships cannot reach Riga, and consequently are unloaded at Ust Dvinsk (formerly Dunaburg). By no means all the trade with the interior is commanded by the railways; no inconsiderable portion of the goods is carried by water. Every year about 28,000 tons are shipped to the town from the basin of the Dnieper, 50,000 tons from the basin of the Duna, and 89,000 tons from the other river basins —in all, 167,000 tons per annum.

Rimbaud, Jean Arthur (1854 - 1891), French poet and adventurer, was born at Charleville, in the Ardennes, on 20th October 1854, the second son of a captain in the French army, who in 1860 abandoned his wife and family. From early childhood Arthur Rimbaud, who was severely brought up by his mother, displayed rich intellectual gifts and a sullen, violent temperament. He began to write when he was ten, and some of the poems which now appear in his works belong to his fifteenth year. Before he was sixteen, in consequence of a violent quarrel with his mother, the boy escaped from Charleville with a packet of his verse, was arrested as a vagabond, and for a fortnight was locked up in the Mazas prison, Paris. A few days after being taken home, Rimbaud escaped again, into Belgium, where he lived for some time as a tramp, almost starved, but writing verses with feverish assiduity. A curious letter of this period exists, in which Rimbaud says that all recent French poetry, except certain pieces of Verlaine, absolutely “ disgusts ” him, and in which he announces his intention of creating a new thing in verse. In February 1871 he left his mother for a third time, and made his way to Paris, where he knew no one, and whence, after very nearly dying of hunger and exposure, he begged his way back to Charleville. There he wrote in the same year the extraordinary poem of Le Bateau Ivre, which is now hailed as the pioneer of the entire “ symbolist ” or “ decadent ” movement in French literature, in all its forms. He sent it to Verlaine, who encouraged the boy of seventeen (whom he supposed to be a man of thirty) to come again to Paris. Rimbaud spent from October 1871 to July 1872 in the capital, partly with Verlaine, partly as the guest of Theodore de Banville, and served in the army of the Commune. With Verlaine he travelled for thirteen Riga, one of the chief seaports of Russia, at the months, after the fall of the Commune, through England head of the gulf of same name, in the government and Belgium, where in 1873 he published the only work of Livonia. Its population, which was 180,935 in 1891, which he ever printed, Tine Saison en Enfer, in prose; in

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this he gives an allegorical account of his extravagant flour-mills, and furniture shops. Population (1881), 19,158; relations with Verlaine, which ended, at Brussels by a (1899), about 21,000. double attempt of the latter to murder his young comRiobamba, or Riobamba Nuova, chief town of panion. On the second occasion Rimbaud was dangerously the province of Chimborazo, Ecuador, Central America, wounded by Verlaine’s revolver, and the elder poet was situated on a high plateau, on the San Juan river, an imprisoned at Mons for two years. Meanwhile Rimbaud, affluent of the Chambo, 100 miles south-south-west of deeply disillusioned, determined to abandon Europe and Quito, and 22 north-west of Chimborazo. It has manuliterature, and he ceased at the age of nineteen to write factures of woollens and sacking. The plain to the south poetry. He settled for a while at Stuttgart, studying was the scene of a great battle with the Indians during German, and in 1875 he disappeared. He set out on the conquest, and in the vicinity are remains of an Inca foot for Italy, and after extraordinary adventures found palace. Population, 12,000. employment as a day-labourer in the docks at Leghorn. RiO de Janeiro, capital and principal commercial Returning to Paris, he obtained a little money from his centre of Brazil. The principal part covers an area of about mother, and then definitely vanished. For ^ sixteen years nothing whatever was heard of him, but it is now known two square kilometres, bounded on the S. by the Morros that he embarked as a Dutch soldier for the Sunda Isles, Gastello and S. Antonio, and on the N. by S. Bento and and presently deserting, fled to Sumatra and then to Concei^ao. This section is divided into regular squares by Java, where he lived for some time in the forest. Return- narrow streets; in the principal ones are tramway lines, ing to Europe, after a vagabond life in every capital, he some horse lines, others electric. The length of these obtained in 1880 some menial employment in the quarries lines in the city limits is about 177 miles. The city has of Cyprus, and then worked his way to Aden and up been spreading along the shores of the bay to. the north into Abyssinia, where he was one of the pioneers of and far back over the hills behind it, so that it now exEuropean commercial adventure. Here he settled, at tends over a distance of 18 miles. The number of the Harrar, as a trader in coffee and perfumes, to which he buildings is estimated at 50,000. The former imperial afterwards added gold and ivory; for the next eleven palace of Boa Vista is now the National Museum. . The years, during which he led many commercial expeditions present Government Palace is in the populous district of into unknown parts of northern Africa, Shoa and Harrar Cattele. Rio is one of the most unhealthy and, until were his headquarters, and he lived almost entirely with almost the end of the 19th century, one of the most the natives, and as one of themselves. From 1888 to insanitary cities of Brazil, yellow fever being endemic. 1891, having prospered greatly as a merchant, he became Tuberculosis and smallpox also make constant ravages. a sort of semi-independent chieftain, intriguing for France, The mortality in 1896 was: pernicious abscesses, 766 ; just outside the borders of civilization. From documents yellow fever, 2919; other fevers, 1403; smallpox, 258 , which were first produced in 1902, it appears that from other diseases, 14,144.T In 1898 the number of cases of 1883 to 1889 Rimbaud was in close relations with the yellow fever in Rio w as 1177, deaths 1094; and of smallRas Makonnen and with Menelek, then only king of pox, 204, deaths 66. In 1899 there were 928 cases of Shoa. At the death of the Negus John, in 1888, he was yellow fever, and 720 deaths; in 1900 there were 2726 concerned in the formation of the empire of Ethiopia. deaths from tuberculosis, 631 from smallpox, 344 from From this time Rimbaud had a palace in the town of yellow fever, and 292 from bubonic plague, which made Harrar, and intrigued with the French Government in its first appearance there that year. Rio de Janeiro confavour of Menelek and against Italy. Meanwhile, in 1886, stitutes a separate political and administrative division, believing Rimbaud to be dead, Verlaine had published his called the Federal District. It is governed by a mayor poems, under the title of Les Illuminations, and they appointed by the president of the Republic, and has a had created a great sensation in Paris. But the author, municipal council elected by the people. The district is in his Abyssinian hut of palm-leaves, was, and remained, divided into 20 urban circumscriptions and 8 suburban quite unconscious of the fact. In March 1891 a tumour ones. In 1890 the population of the Federal district was in his knee obliged Rimbaud to leave Harrar and go to 674,972, and for 1900 was reported as 779,000. The Europe for surgical advice. He reached Marseilles, but receipts of the Federal District for 1898 were estimated the case was hopeless 5 the leg had to be amputated, and at 17,656,436 milreis, and the expenditure at 15,826,270. Rimbaud died there in hospital on the 10th of November Rio is the principal port of shipment in Brazil for coffee^ 1891. The poems of Rimbaud all belong to his earliest in 1896, 2,784,958 bags (60 kil.) were exported; in 1897, youth. Their violent originality, the influence which they 4,066,734 bags; in 1898, 3,441,166 bags; in 1899, have exercised upon younger writers, the tumultuous 3,504,708 bags; and in 1900, 2,658,990 bags. The existence of their author, and the strange veil of mystery average value in 1898 was about 31s. 6d. per bag. The which still hangs over his character and adventures, have total exports of all kinds were valued at £6,750,000 in given to Rimbaud a remarkable fascination. His life has 1900, of which £5,670,000 was for coffee, £482,000 for been written by M. Paterne Berrichon (1898), and valu- gold, £151,000 for manganese, and £149,000 for hides. able reminiscences by his sister, Mile Isabella Rimbaud. The principal imports are wheat, flour, coal, wines, cottons His (Euvres were collected in 1898 by MM. Berrichon and textiles, machinery, &c. But the import trade has and Delahaye, and in 1901 his statue was unveiled at declined: £12,631,000 in 1898; £11,468,000 in 1899; £9,462,000 in 1900. The greater part of the immigraCharleville. (E- G-) tion to Brazil passes through the port; in 1896 there were Rimini, a town and bishop’s see of the province of 100 547 immigrants; and in 1898-99,27,650 were reported Forli, Emilia, Italy, on the Adriatic coast, 69 miles south- landed at Rio. The movement of all shipping engaged m east of Bologna by rail. Among the buildings may be foreign trade during the years 1896, 1897, 1898, 1899 mentioned an archaeological museum, a bronze statue of and 1900 was : entered in 1896,1535 vessels, of 2,469,628 Pope Paul V., and a technical school (1882). . Rimini tons; cleared, 1404 vessels, of 2,283,499 tons: entered attracts numerous visitors for the sea-bathing it offers in 1897 1274 vessels, of 2,146,854 tons; cleared, HlO at Porta Marina; it also has mineral springs. Various vessels, of 2,044,858 tons; in 1898, 1218 vessels of industries are carried on—ironworks and foundries, sulphur 2 069 161 tons, entered, and 1130 vessels, of 1,957,(12 furnaces, silk-mills, rope-walks, match factories, brick-works, tons, cleared; in 1899, 1077 vessels, of 1,916,936 tons,

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entered, and 1019 vessels, of 1,853,707 tons, cleared; in 1900, 843 vessels, of 1,522,754 tons, entered, and 790 vessels, of 1,407,122 tons, cleared. In the above the entries of British shipping in 1898 were 552 vessels, of 1,030,149 tons; in 1899, 482 vessels of 936,393 tons; and in 1900, 385 vessels of 791,250 tons. RiO do Janeiro, an Atlantic state of Brazil, between 20° 50' and 23° 19' S. and 41° 01' and 44° 52' W. Area, 26,634 square miles. Population in 1890, 1,227,575 (exclusive of the city of Rio de Janeiro, which constitutes the Neutral Federal District or Distrito Federal). It is bounded on the N. by Minas Geraes, on the W. by Sao Paulo, on the S. and E. by the Atlantic. The capital, Nictheroy, on the Bay of Guanabara (or Rio), has 36,000 inhabitants. Amongst other towns may be named Rio Bonito (21,000), Campos (20,000), Itaborahy (18,200), Barra Mansa (12,200), Parahyba do Sul, Paraty, Pirahy, Rezende (16,000), S. Fidelis (14,500), Petropolis (12,200), Cabo Trio, Yalenza, Carmo, Marica. The state is well supplied with railways. The principal agricultural product is coffee, the exports in 1900 amounting to 87,105,716 kilograms. RlO de OrOy a Spanish colony on the north-west coast of Africa. It is situated about the middle of that part of the Sahara coast which Spain considers her own by right of occupation and exploration, between 23° 35' and 23° 55' N. The peninsula of Rio de Oro is united to the mainland by a sandy isthmus, and its length is 23 miles, and its breadth l ^- to 2 miles, on an average about 20 feet above the sea-level. The bay between peninsula and mainland is 22 miles long, 5 broad, navigable over two-thirds of its extent, and with good anchorage in most of the channel, but the bar at its mouth is not always easy to pass in rough weather. The peninsula has very sparse vegetation, except in its southernmost part near Cape Durnford. There is an island in the bay, Isla Herne. The climate is generally temperate, and not unhealthy except in the autumn. Esparto grass and manzanilla are grown in many [daces, hut European plants are not easily acclimatized. On the peninsula and on the coast itself there are many hares, wolves, foxes, hyenas, gazelles, lizards, pelicans, and large crows. The natives of the coast are Arab tribes, a cross of Berbers and negroes, Mussulmans, very poorly clad, who rear cattle, sheep, camels, and have but few horses. They are very suspicious and treacherous in their intercourse with the Spaniards. In 1884 the Hispano-African Company built a factory 7 miles from Cape Durnford, but in the following year it was pillaged and burnt by the natives. The Hispano-African Company for a while renewed its trade with the natives, but finally ceded its rights to the Tiansatlantic Company of Barcelona. "W ar vessels from the Canary Isles visit Rio de Oro several times in the year, to carry reliefs, provisions, and war stores. The best works of reference on Rio de Oro are those of Bonelli, who founded the Nation in 1884, the articles of Francisco Quiroga and Costa and Lorenzo Rubio in vols. i. and ii. of the Revista de Geographia. Costa thinks Rio de Oro is the Ciranis of Herodotus. RlO Grande, one of the longest and most eccentric of the North American rivers. It is nearly 1800 miles from its source, in the Rocky Mountains of southern Colorado, to its mouth, on the Gulf of Mexico. Although navigable only in its lower 100 miles, normally without running water for vast stretches, and extending for almost its entire course through deserts, it has had a dominating influence over the cultural and political conditions of the vast country which it threads. For nearly 1000 miles it forms the natural and political boundary between the United States and Mexico. Below El Paso and along the Lower Rio Grande the course often shifts, thereby causing international complications. Historically the Rio Grande is interesting from its connexion with the early Spanish explorations of the 16th century. It presents many features of a complex physiographic type, being in portions a river of the Rocky Mountains, of the interior

GRANDE

DO

SUL

deserts, and of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. It also presents a complicated geological history, including the union of what were originally several streams. The different parts were given three distinct names by the Mexican inhabitants. The upper stretch, of some 500 miles, flowing southward from Colorado through New Mexico into Texas, was called the Rio del Norte. Except a small portion of the head-waters, this section is an intermittent stream, flowing sluggishly through the interior deserts of the Cordilleran region. Its bed above and below El Paso is at times dry. In May and June the sun melts the accumulated winter snows of the Colorado Rockies and floods the dry bed, the water from which the inhabitants turn upon their fields. A few miles below Presidio del Norte, Texas, the river enters a series of vast canons cutting across range after range of the eastern line of the American Cordilleras, seeking an outlet from the basin deserts to the Atlantic coastal plain. This stretch, extending to the mouth of Devil’s river, is 400 miles long, and is known as the Rio Bravo. In this portion of its course the river makes an angle, changing its course from south-west to north-east, and is popularly known as the Big Bend. Just above Del Rio the Rio Bravo emerges upon the broad coastal plain of the Gulf of Mexico. It now becomes the Rio Grande. The Rio Grande, as a whole, attracts almost no lateral drainage except in the upper 300 miles of its course. In passing through the greater part of New Mexico and Texas it is constantly fed only by the Conchas and Pecos, which bring their permanent waters from distant countries. Its flow is continuous from its source to about the 35th parallel in New Mexico ; thence to Presidio, Texas, it is interrupted. In this stretch the run-off aggregates far more than that of all the other portions combined. Even this normal run-off progressively decreases down stream (three years’ observations) from 11-63 second feet at Del Norte, Colorado, to -64 second feet at San Marcial, 500 miles below El Paso. At Presidio the flow first becomes continuous and copious, through the accession of the waters of the Conchas river of Chihuahua. In the Big Bend its volume is enhanced by copious subterranean springs breaking forth in its bed. The inflow of the Pecos largely increases the volume of the Lower Rio Grande. From below the mouth of the Pecos the river has no large contributing laterals. Below Presidio there are two seasons of overflow—in Major June, from the melting of the snows, and in August, from the tropical rains near the sources of the Conchas in Mexico. Although the United States Government has made many observations upon the flow of the Upper Rio Grande north of El Paso, none is recorded of the stream below that point. Of the two flowing tributaries, the Rio Grande and the Pecos, either might be considered the mother stream or head-water continuation of the Lower Rio Grande, as much as the Rio del Norte, now so considered. The Rio Conchas rises in the mountains of Chihuahua and flows almost due northward into the Rio Grande. The Pecos is almost equal to the Upper Rio Grande in length, and, so far as constant volume is concerned, a larger stream. Like the Rio Grande, it receives its waters from the ranges of the Rocky Mountains in northern New Mexico. It is also reinforced by numerous streams from the Sacramento Mountains. (r T H ) Rio Grande do Norte, an Atlantic state of Brazil, ^ the extreme eastern part of the republic, with Cape St Roque as its most easterly port, situated between 4° 54' and 6° 28' S. and 34° 52' and 37° 48' W. Area, 22,195 square miles. Population in 1872, 233,979; and in 1890, 313,919. It is bounded on the N. by the state of Ceara and the Atlantic Ocean, on the W. by Ceara, on the S. by^ Parahyba, and on the E. by the Atlantic. The capital, Natal, which is also the principal port of the state, has a population of 46,000, Mossoro has 3000, CearaMirim 4000, and Macao 5000. Rio Grande do Sul, or SSo Pedro do Rio Grande do Sul, a state of Brazil between 27° 05' and 33° 45' S. and 49° 32' and 57° 20' W. Area, 91,335 square miles. Population in 1872, 434,816; in 1890 880,878; and in 1900, 968,231. It is bounded on the N. by S. Catharina, on the W. by the Argentine Republic

RIOJA and Uruguay, on the E. by the Atlantic, and on the S. by Uruguay. The capital, Porto Alegre, has a population of nearly 100,000, of whom 10,000 are Germans. Between 1886 and 1894, 75,766 immigrants entered the state, principally Germans, Italians, and Poles. Other towns include Pelotas (30,000), Alegrete (12,000), Jaguarao (8000), Rio Grande, Bage, Cacapava, Rio Pardo, S. Jose do Norte. There are 670 miles of railway in operation, and other lines are in process of construction. There are numerous prosperous German colonies, and their number and importance are constantly increasing. The oldest, S. Leopoldo, was founded in 1824. Rioja., La, a province in the west of the Argentine Republic, bounded on the N. by Catamarca, on the E. by Catamarca and Cordoba, on the S. by San Luis, and on the W. by San Juan and Chile. Official area at the census of 1895, 34,546 square miles. Population in 1895, 69,502. The capital, La Rioja, had a population in 1895 of 5931. The gold, silver, and copper mines near Eamatina and Chilecito constitute the principal sources of wealth of the province. The province is divided into eighteen departments. In 1895 there were 6446 farms, and 40,920 acres planted in cereals. Rio Negro, a territory of the Argentine Republic, bounded on the N. by the territory of Pampa, from which it is separated by the Rio Colorado, on the S. by Chubut, on the E. by the Atlantic, and on the W. by Neuquen and Chile. Official area at the census of 1895, 75,924 square miles ; population, 9241. The capital is Viedma, on the right bank of the Rio Negro, 20 miles from its mouth. The territory is divided into seven departments. In 1895 there were 82,050 head of cattle, 1,009,777 head of sheep, and 35,599 horses in the territory, and only 1168 acres planted in cereals. Riot.—The criminal law as to riot has not been modified since 1885, but the materials for ascertaining the duties of justices, the police, ordinary citizens, and soldiers, with respect to the suppression of riots have been increased by the publication in the New Series of State Trials of the full reports of the prosecution of the mayor of Bristol for dereliction of duty in suppressing the Bristol riots of 1831, and a number of other leading cases on riot; and Lord Bowen and his fellow-commissioners in the report on the Featherstone riots (Pari. Paper, 1893-94, c. 7234) have dealt with the duty of soldiers called in to suppress riots. The substance of their views is as follows :— By the law of England every one is bound to aid in the suppression of riotous assemblages. The degree of force, however, which may be lawfully employed in their suppression depends on the nature of each riot, for the force used must always be moderated and proportioned to the circumstances of the case and to the end to be attained. The taking of life can only be justified by the necessity for protecting persons or property against various forms of violent crime, or by the necessity of dispersing a riotous crowd ■which is dangerous unless dispersed, or in the case of persons whose conduct has become felonious through disobedience to the provisions of the Riot Act, and who resist the attempt to disperse or apprehend them. The necessary prevention of such outrage on person or property justifies the guardians of the peace in the employment against a crowd of even deadly weapons. Officers and soldiers are under no special privileges and subject to no special responsibilities as regards the principle of the law. A soldier for the purpose of establishing civil order is only a citizen armed in a particular manner. He cannot because he is a soldier be exonerated if without necessity he takes human life. The duty of magistrates and peace officers to summon or abstain from summoning the assistance of the military depends in like manner on the necessities of the case. A soldier can act only by using his arms. The weapons he carries are deadly. They cannot be employed at all without danger to life or limb, and in these days of improved rifles and perfected ammunition without some risk of danger to distant and possibly innocent bystanders. To call for assistance against rioters from those who can interfere only under such grave conditions ought, of course, to be the last expedient of the civil authorities. But when

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the call for help is made and a necessity for assistance from the military has arisen, to refuse such assistance is in law a misdemeanour. The whole action of the military when once called in ought from first to last to be based on the principle of doing, and doing without fear, that which is absolutely necessary to prevent serious crime, and of exercising care and skill with regard to what is done. No set of rules exists which governs every instance or defines beforehand any contingency that may arise. The presence of a magistrate is not essential, but is usual, and of the highest value to aid the commander of the troops by local knowledge. But his presence or absence has no legal effect on the duties or responsibilities of the military to use their arms when it becomes necessary to do so, and without recklessness or negligence and with reasonable care and caution ; and where they have so acted the killing of a rioter is justifiable homicide, and the killing of an innocent bystander is homicide by misadventure. It is not usual to resort to extremities with rioters until after reading the proclamation under 1 Geo. I. ; but this preliminary is by no means a condition precedent to the exercise of the common-law powers of suppressing riots. The Crown cannot charge upon the local rates the expense of maintaining soldiers called into a district by the magistrates to suppress riots (A. v. Glamorgan County Council, L.R. 1899, 2 Q.B. 536), but the cost of extra police called in for the like purpose falls on the local rates. The old exceptional civil remedy against the inhabitants of a hundred in which damage to private property was done by rioters was abolished in 1886. When the Piccadilly riots occurred in that year no one knew that the injured shops were in the hundred of Ossulston, and difficulties arose in applying the old procedure. So a statute was passed (49 Yict. c. 11) for a special settlement of the claims, and the old statutes were repealed and replaced by the Riot Damage Act, 1886. Under this Act compensation is payable where rioters have injured or destroyed houses, shops, buildings, fixed or movable machinery, and appliances prepared or used for or in connexion with manufactures or agriculture, or for mines or quarries, or vessels stranded or in distress (see Wreck), or have injured, stolen, or destroyed property in houses, shops, or buildings. The compensation is payable out of the police rate for the district in which the damage is done; or if it was done afloat, for the district nearest to the scene of action. The claim is made on the police authority for the district. The time and form for making claims and the mode of fixing the amount of compensation is regulated by rules made by the Home Secretary on 30th June 1894 (Stat. R. and O. 1894, No. 636). In adjusting the amount regard is had to the conduct of the claimant, viz., as to precautions taken by him, his share, if any, in the riot, or provocation offered to the rioters. Failure to carry out a programme for athletic sports has been held to debar a claimant for damage done by a riot among the disappointed spectators who had paid to see the sports. The claimant must give credit for insurance money, or any other compensation received in respect of the damage; but the insurers or persons who paid such compensation may file a claim against the police-rate for the amount paid by them. Persons dissatisfied with the award of the police authority may sue for the recovery of their claim subject to a liability to pay all the costs if they do not get judgment for more than the amount awarded. The action, if it is not for more than £100, is to be brought in the county court. In Scotland there is also a civil remedy against the county or borough in which a riot takes place in respect of damage done by the rioters to houses, churches, buildings, and ships, and buildings or engines used in trade or manufacture. The remedy is given by a series of statutes : 1 Geo. I. st. 2, c. 5, § 9 ; 52 Geo. III. c. 130, §§ 3, 4 ; 56 Geo. III. c. 125, § 2; 57 Geo. III. c. 19, § 38, and 57 and 58 Yict. c. 60, § 515. The procedure for its enforcement is now regulated by 3 Geo. IY. c. 33, and amending statutes.^ The county or borough authorities may adjust claims without litigation, and pay them out of the general assessments. In Ireland the civil remedy against the county or borough

248

RIPON —RISTITCH

for malicious injury to property, real or personal, including ships in distress and their cargo, is wider than in England or Scotland, but it includes malicious injury by rioters where the injury is a crime within the Malicious Damage Act of 1861. Claims are now dealt with in the civil bill court, and not as formerly by the grand jury and judge of assize (61 and 62 Yict. c. 37, § 5). (w. F. c.) Ripon, George Frederick Samuel Robinson, 1st Marquis of (1827 ), British statesman, only son of the 1st earl of Ripon and his wife Lady Sarah, daughter of the 4th earl of Buckinghamshire, was born in London, 24th October 1827.. He began his political life as attache to a special mission to Brussels in 1849. Under his courtesy title of Viscount Goderich he was returned to the House of Commons for Hull in 1852 as an advanced Liberal. In 1853 he was elected for Huddersfield, and in 1857 for the West Riding of Yorkshire. In January 1859 he succeeded to his father’s title, and in November of the same year to that of his uncle, Earl de Grey. A few months after entering the Upper House he was appointed under-secretary for war, and in February 1861 under-secretary for India. Upon the death of Sir George Cornewall Lewis in . April 1863, he became secretary for war, with a seat in the Cabinet. In 1866 he was appointed secretary of state for India. On the advent of the Gladstone Administration in December 1868, Lord Ripon was appointed lord president of the Council, and held that office until within a few months of the fall of the Government in 1873, when he resigned on purely private grounds. In 1869 he was created a Knight of the Garter. In 1871 Lord Ripon was appointed chairman of the High Joint-Commission on the Alabama claims, which arranged the Treaty of Washington. In recognition of his services he was elevated to a marquisate. In 1874 he became a convert to Roman Catholicism, and this involved his resignation of the office of grand master of the English Freemasons. On the return of Mr Gladstone to power in 1880 Lord Ripon was appointed Viceroy of India, the appointment exciting a storm of controversy, meetings of protest being held in Exeter Hall and elsewhere, the marquis being the first Roman Catholic to hold the viceregal office. An account of his viceroyalty will be found in the article India : History. The new Viceroy was called upon to decide grave questions between the native population and the resident British, and he resolved upon a liberal policy towards the former. He extended the rights of the natives, and in certain directions curtailed the privileges of Europeans. Several of the Viceroy’s measures, notably the Ilbert Bill of 1883—the object of which was to subject Europeans to trial by native magistrates in certain cases—irritated the Anglo-Indian population, and the measure was fiercely assailed. There probably never was a Viceroy so unpopular among Anglo-Indians or so popular with the natives. On Lord Ripon’s departure from India in November 1884 there were extraordinary manifestations in his favour on the part of the Hindoo population of Bengal and Bombay, and more than a thousand addresses were presented to him. On his arrival in England the marquis delivered a number of vigorous speeches in defence of his administration. In 1886 he became first lord of the Admiralty in the third Gladstone Ministry; and on the return of the Liberals to power in 1892, he was appointed Colonial Secretary, which post he continued to hold until the resignation of the Government in 1895. For many years Lord Ripon was president of the Yorkshire College of Science at Leeds, and chairman of the West Riding County Council.

Ripon, a cathedral city and municipal borough, Yorkshire, England, West Riding, in the Ripon parliamentary division, 22 miles north-west of York by rail. A new cemetery, completed in 1894, has one chapel available for all denominations. In the same year new premises were erected for the Mechanics’ Institution, in which a continuation evening school and technical classes are held. A clock tower was presented as a memorial of Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee, and a church institute was erected in 1900. There is a somewhat extensive trade in varnish, and its manufactures of saddle-trees, leather, &c., are in high repute. Population of the municipal borough (1881), 7390; (1891) (altered area), 7826 ; (1901), 8225. RipOStO, a seaport town of the province of Catania, Sicily, Italy, 19 miles north by east of Catania, on the east coast railway to Messina. It is one of the principal wineexporting places in the island. In 1897 the port was cleared by 758 vessels of 365,116 tons. It has several cooperages. Population (1899), about 9000. Ristitch, Jovan (1831-1899), Servian statesman, was born at Kragujevats in 1831. He was educated at Belgrade, Heidelberg, Berlin, and Paris. After failing to obtain a professorship in the High School of Belgrade, he was appointed in 1861 Servian diplomatic agent at Constantinople. His reputation was enhanced by the series of negotiations which ended in the withdrawal of the Turkish troops from the Servian fortresses in 1867. _ On his return from Constantinople he was offered a ministerial post by Prince Michael, who described him as “ his right arm,” but declined office, being opposed to the reactionary methods adopted by the Prince’s Government. He had already become the recognized leader of the Liberal party. After the assassination of Prince Michael in 1868, he was nominated member of the Council of Regency, and on the 2nd January 1869 the first Servian Constitution, which was mainly his creation, was promulgated. When Prince Milan attained his majority in 1872, Ristitch became foreign minister; a few months later he was appointed prime minister, but resigned in the following autumn (1893). He again became prime minister in April 1876, and conducted the two wars against Turkey^July 1876March 1877 and December 1877-March 1878). At the Congress of Berlin he laboured with some success to obtain greater advantages for Servia than had been accorded to her by the treaty of San Stefano. The provisions of the Treaty of Berlin, however, disappointed the Servians, owing to the obstacles now raised to the realization of the national programme; the Ristitch Government became unpopular, and resigned in 1880. In 1887 King Milan (who had assumed the royal title in 1882), alarmed at the threatening attitude of the Radical party, recalled Ristitch to. power at the head of a coalition cabinet; a new Constitution was granted in 1888, and in the following year the king abdicated in favour of his son, Prince Alexander. Ristitch now became head of a Council of Regency, entrusted with power during the minority of the young king, and a Radical ministry was formed. In 1892, however, Ristitch transferred the government to the Liberal party, with which he had always been connected. This step and the subsequent conduct of the Liberal politicians caused serious discontent in the country. On the 1st (13th) April 1893 King Alexander, by a successful stratagem, imprisoned the regents and ministers in the palace, and, declaring himself of age, recalled the Radicals to office. Ristitch now retired into private life. He died at Belgrade on 4th September 1899. Though cautious and deliberate by temperament, he was a man of strong will and firm character. He was the author of two published works : The External Relations

R I T S C H L 249 of Serviafrom 1848 to 1867 (Belgrade, 1887) and A Diplo- carries him so far that he is left alone with merely “ practical ” experience. “Faith” knows God in His active relation to the matic History of Servia (Belgrade, 1896). (j. d. b.) “kingdom,” but not at all as “self-existent.” His limitation of theological knowledge to the bounds of human Ritscfal, Albrecht (1822-1889), German theologian, was born at Breslau, 21st March 1822. He studied need might, if logically pressed, run perilously near phenomenalism; his epistemology (“ we only know things in their activities ”) at Bonn and at Halle. At the latter place he came under and does not 1cover this weakness. In seeking ultimate£ reality in the Hegelian influences through the teaching of - Schaller and circle of ‘ active conscious sensation, ” he rules out all ‘ metaphysic. ” Erdmann. In 1845 he was entirely captivated by the Indeed, much that is part of normal Christian faith—e.g., the Tubingen school. This did not last long with him, how- Eternity of the Son-—is passed over as beyond the range of his Ritschl’s theory of “value-judgments” {Wcrthurtheile) ever, for his most important work on the Origin of the Old method. illustrates this form of agnosticism. Religious judgments of value Catholic Church shows in its second edition (1857) entire determine objects according to their bearing on our moral and ■emancipation from Baur’s method. He was professor of spiritual welfare. They imply a lively sense of radical human sort of knowledge stands quite apart from that protheology at Bonn and Gottingen, his Addresses on Religion need. This ££ duced by £ £ theoretic ” and disinterested ” judgments. The former delivered at the latter university showing the impression moves in a world of ££values,” and judges things as they are made upon his mind by his enthusiastic studies of Kant related to our “fundamental self-feeling.” The latter moves in and Schleiermacher. Finally, in 1864 came the influence a world of cause and effect. (N.B. Ritschl appears to coniine to the category of Causality.) If this only meant that of Lotze. He wrote a large work, Rechtfertigung und Metaphysic value-judgments are necessary for determining the relative value of Versohnung (“Justification and Beconciliation”), published given objects—e.g., that, supposing the historical work of Christ to •during the years 1870-74, and in 1880-86 a History of be a fact, we must be conscious of the need of redemption before we Pietism. His system of theology is contained in the can appreciate the meaning of that work—then Ritschl’s theory would be a welcome reassertion of an old but neglected truth. former. He died at Gottingen 28th March 1889. But the theory as formulated has such grave ambiguities, that his Bitschl claims to carry on the work of Luther and. theology, which, as we have seen, is wholly based on uncompromisSchleiermacher, especially in ridding faith of the tyranny ing religious realism, has actually been charged with individualistic of scholastic philosophy. His system shows the influence subjectivism. If Ritschl had clearly shown that judgments of enfold and transform other types of knowledge, just as the of Kant’s destructive criticism of the claims of Pure value “spiritual man” includes and transfigures but does not annihilate Reason, recognition of the value of morally conditioned, the “natural man,” then within the compass of this spirituallyknowledge, and doctrine of the kingdom of ends; of conditioned knowledge all other knowledge would be seen to have Schleiermacher’s historical treatment of Christianity, a function and a home. The theory of value-judgments is part of his ultra-practical tendency: both “metaphysic” and ££ regulative use of the idea of religious fellowship, emphasis too mysticism ” are ruthlessly condemned. Faith-knowledge appears on the importance of religious feeling; and of Lotze’s theory to be wrenched from its bearings and suspended in mid-ocean. of knowledge and treatment of personality. Ritschl’s work Ritschl has no catholic medium in which spiritual and theoretic made a profound impression on German thought and truths can be reconciled and harmonized. Perhaps if he had lived see the progress of will-psychology he might have welcomed the gave a new confidence to German theology, while at to hope of a more spiritual philosophy. the same time it provoked a storm of hostile criticism : A few instances will illustrate (1) Ritschl’s positive systematic his school has grown with remarkable rapidity. This is theology, which takes for granted the data of Christian experience perhaps mainly due to the bold religious positivism with in the community and of historical revelation, working them up by thoroughgoing teleological application of the conception of the which he assumes that spiritual experience is real and that the Kingdom of God ; (2) his repudiation of all “metaphysic ” ; (3) his faith has not only a legitimate but even a paramount claim elimination from faith of all that does not seem to bear on practical to provide the highest interpretation of the world. The needs. The conception of God as Father is given to the community life of trust in God is a fact, not so much to be explained in Revelation. He must be regarded in His active relationship to “kingdom,” as spiritual personality revealed in spiritual puras to explain everything else. No “theoretic” knowledge the posiveness. His “Love ” is His will as directed towards the realizacan exhaust its meaning: none can assail it. It is the tion of His purpose in the kingdom. His “Righteousness” is His highest and richest experience of man: there is no alter- fidelity to this purpose. With God as “First Cause” or ‘(Moral native but to take it as the fixed point from which all Legislator ” theology has no concern; nor is it interested in the “speculative” problems indicated by the traditional doctrine of else is to be regarded. But Ritschl’s standpoint is not the Trinity. “Natural theology ” has no value save where it leans that of the individual subject. The objective ground on on faith. Again, Christ has for the religious life of the community which he bases his system is the religious experience of the unique value of Founder and Redeemer. He is the 3 perfect the Christian community. He starts from the point of Revelation of God and the Exemplar of true religion. Hi work in founding the kingdom was a personal vocation, the spirit of which view of a member of that believing society which refers its He communicates to believers, “thus, as exalted king, sustaining existence to the historical revelation of Jesus Christ, the life of His kingdom. His Resurrection is a necessary part of Founder and Redeemer. The “immediate object of I Christian belief (Ecke, pp. 198—199). “Divinity is a predicate theological knowledge is the faith of the community,” and j1 applied by faith to Jesus in His founding and redeeming activity. note here that though Ritschl gives Jesus a unique and unfrom this positive religious datum theology constructs a We approachable position in His active relation to the kingdom, he “ total view of the world and human life.” Thus the i declines to rise above this relative teaching. The “Two Nature essence of Ritschl’s work is systematic theology. He does problem and the eternal relation of the Son to the Father have no not attempt to prove his data, but accepts their reality as bearing on experience, and therefore stand outside the range of , ,. if they were matter for natural science. Nor does he theology. Once more, in the doctrine of sin and redemption, the governing painfully work up to his master-category, for it is given in idea is God’s fatherly purpose for His family. Sin is the contrathe knowledge of Jesus Christ revealed to the community. diction of that purpose, and guilt is alienation from the lamily. That God is love and that the purpose of His love is the Redemption, justification, regeneration, adoption, forgiveness, all mean the same thing—the restoration of the moral organization of humanity in the “Kingdom of God” reconciliation broken family relationship. All depends on the Mediation of —this idea, with its immense range of application—is Christ, who maintained the filial relationship even to His death, implied in Ritschl’s initial datum. and communicates it to the brotherhood of believers. Everything defined by the idea of the family. The whole apparatus of From this vantage-ground Kitschl criticizes the use of Aristotel- is“forensic” ideas (law, punishment, satisfaction, &c.) is summarily ianism and speculative philosophy in scholastic and Protestant rejected as foreign to God’s purpose of love. Bitschl is so faithful theology. He holds that such philosophy is too shallow for the standpoint of the religious community, that ho has nothing theology. Hegelianism attempts to squeeze all life into the to definite to say on many inevitable questions, such as the relation categories of logic : Aristotelianism deals with “things in general ” God to pagan races. His school, in which Herrman, Kaftan, and ignores the radical distinction between nature and spirit. of Harnack are the chief names, diverges from his teaching in many Neither of them is “vital ” enough to sound the depths of religious directions; e.g., Kaftan appreciates the mystical side of religion, life. Neither conceives “God” as correlative to human “trust arbitrary {cf. Theologie und Metaphysik, esp. p. 8 f.). But Bitschl s recoil Harnack’s criticism is very different fromS. Ritschl’s VIII. — 32

250

R IUKIU — RIVER

exegesis. They are united on the value of faith-know ledge as opposed to “metaphysic.” Literature.—A. Ritschl, Die Cliristliche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung und Vcrsohnung, 3rd edition, 1889 ; Untcrncht in der Christlichen Lehre (very many editions); and Ideologic und Metaphysik, 2nd edition, 1887, give his main position. Many historical and other works besides.—G. Ecke, Die theologische Schule A. JRitschl’s und die cvangelische Kirche der Gegenwart, —James Orr, The Ritschlian Theology and the Evangelical Laith, 1898, London; and A. E. Garvie, The Ritschhan Theology, 1899, Edinburgh, in both of which the bibliography ot the movement is given. The German literature on the subjectE isN veiy large. G - -) Riukiu. SeeLucHU. Kiva, a fortified district town near the Italian frontier in Tirol, Austria. It is a lake port and steamship station at the northern extremity of the Lago di Garda. There are two forts on the Monte Brione a little over a mile north-east of the town, and the old castle of. La Rocca was reconstructed and extended in accordance with modern requirements in 1850. The Minorite Church (1603), with altar pictures by Guido Reni and other Italian painters, is much frequented as a place of pilgrimage. In addition to its transit trade and the entertainment of visitors, the principal resources of the town are the manufacture of paper, iron wares, and pottery, the cultivation of the silk-worm and the olive tree, and a considerable commerce in timber, planks, and coal. Riva is connected with the Ledro valley by a A picturesque road, which passes in a series of tunnels and galleries along the rocky v and precipitous west shore of the lake. Population (1890), 6480; (1900), 7550. : R ivaTO IO, a town of the province of Turin, Piedmont, Italy, in the Oreo valley, 25 miles north of Turin by rail. It is a seat of cotton manufacture, and bicycles are also made and cocoons produced. The town stands picturesquely, and is sometimes called “Little Turin.” Population (1899), about 7000. River Engineering- .—Since the article in the Encyclopaedia Britannica on River Engineering1 was written in 1884, several interesting works have been carried out or completed, exhibiting distinct progress in the improvement of rivers, and in some instances constituting novel undertakings; while some matters relating to the natural condition of rivers and their improvement, not included in the original article, require to be considered, in order to complete the review of the subject.

ENGINEERING with a rapid flow and inadequate depth, bring down somuch detritus in flood-time as to preclude their improvement by canalization, the systematic regulation of the bed and banks has to be undertaken to increase the navigable depth. The Rhone below Lyons, which has an average fall of 1 in 2080 and a maximum fall in some places of 1 in 250, and bringsdown large quantities of shingle and gravel, is a notable instance of the latter class of rivers, whose navigable depth at a low stage has been increased to a moderate extent by regulation works. These works, carried out between Lyons and the St Louis Canal close to the mouth of the river, a distance of 201 miles, were commenced in 1878, considerably modified after 1884, and completed for the most part by 1894, when consolidation works chiefly remained to be gradually executed. The expenditure at that period reached about £1,463,000 for the regulation works alone, or £7276 per mile, which may eventually be raised to £8000 per mile by the time the works are completely finished.2 The works consist of (1) dykes across secondary and old channels, toclose them and prevent their reopening during floods, when the main channel formerly tended to wander, and to concentrate the low-water flow in a single fixed channel (Fig. 2) ; C2) longitudinal

MILES BELOW LYONS. i SCALE = 30.000 Figs. 1 and 2.—Regulation Works, River Rhone.

Improvement above the Tidal Limit. When large rivers with a fairly good and regular flow at their low stage need only a moderate increase in depth at certain places to afford the requisite waterway for local inland navigation, the necessary improvement can often be effected by contracting the low-water channel with longitudinal and cross dykes, thereby promoting scour and increasing the depth. Of this the Rhine, the Rhone, the Elbe, the Niemen, and some rivers in North America furnish examples. These works leave the capacity of the river for discharging floods unaffected, or sometimes slightly improved, for the increase of the discharge in the deepened channel fully compensates for any obstruction the dykes may offer in the outer flood-channel. In rivers, also, which,

dykes for protecting and easing the concave curves of the banks in the bends, which, being extended somewhat into the channel to reduce the curvature, are connected at the back to the banks by cross dykes to prevent the current during floods from forming a channel behind them (Fig. 1) ; (3) dipping cross dykes projecting downwards into the water from the banks, or in front of the longitudinal dykes, to concentrate the flow of the river at a low stage and increase its depth, and pointing somewhat up-stream so as to direct the water passing across them into the central channel (Figs. 1 and 2) ; and, lastly, (4) submerged dykes, the tops of which are kept well below the required navigable depth, placed across the deep pools found below shoals in the centre of the channel. These arrest scour in the hollows, and by moderately raising the water-level up-stream, owing to their checking the flow through the deep pools, improve the depth over the shoals above them, and adjust slightly the irregularities in the surface fall of the river, which is naturally rapid over the shoals and small over the deep portions (Fig. 1). The minimum depth in the navigable channel of the river, at its lowest stage, was increased by the regulation works from 1 foot 3| inches in 1878, to 2 feet 11J inches in 1884, and 4 feet inches in 1893 ; and it is anticipated that on the final completion of the works, a depth of about 5 feet will be attained, amounting to a gain of 3| feet of water at the lowest water-level. Before the commencement of the works, navigation on the Rh6ne below Lyons was impracticable for three months in the year, difficult during four months, and easy for the remaining five months ; whereas now, navigation is only liable to be interrupted during a fortnight, is difficult for another

1 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th edition, vol. xx. pp. 571-581, and Plate V.

2 Sixth International Inland Navigation Congress, The Hague,, 1894, “Regulation of Rivers at Low Water,” H. Giradon. /

RIVER ENGINEERING 251 fortnight, and is easy for fully-laden vessels during eleven months yides a more assured navigable depth at the low stage of thein the year. river than regulation works, especially when the low-water disThe success of regulation works depends largely upon the degree charge is liable to become small; and it also generally secures a of uniformity in the flow of a river, and especially on the volume greater depth, which can often be increased to a moderate extent of the minimum discharge and its duration ; and consequently, without difficulty or great expense. Moreover, in spite of delays these works are best suited for the lower portions of large rivers, in the passage of vessels through the locks, canalization is where the regularity of flow attains a maximum, and are not decidedly advantageous for the up-stream traffic, owing to the adapted for rivers with a very variable discharge. Thus the reduction in the velocity of the descending current by the weirs, Rhone, in spite of its considerable fall, possesses capabilities for except during high floods; and it is also safer for the down-stream regulation in respect of its flow ; for its minimum discharge just traffic with rivers having a somewhat rapid current and a winding below the confluence of the Saone at Lyons is four times that of course. The time occupied in locking vessels can be much reduced the Seine at Paris. The volume of its flow exhibits a greater by furnishing the locks with large culverts at the sides for rapidly regularity than many rivers of similar size, owing to the flow of filling and emptying the lock-chamber, and by adding an interthe main river being regulated by passing through the Lake of mediate pair of gates, or a small lock, for accelerating the Geneva, and the occurrence of the floods of some of its tributaries passage of the smaller vessels ; while by placing the locks in a at different periods of the year. Thus the floods of the Saone, side cut, and erecting movable weirs which can be removed from which rises in the Vosges, occur in the winter months; while the Arve, the Ain, and the Isere, FRANKFORT coming from the Alps, are subject to floods in NIEDERRAO HOCHST the summer from the melting of the snow and I 8,6.^ glaciers. Regulation works possess the merit FTORSHEIM of leaving a river entirely open for navigaKOSTHEIM tion, while increasing the depth and rendering MAINZ. ^ the passage of vessels easier round the flattened bends ; but, on the other hand, they only slightly modify the velocity of the downward flow, which continues to be a serious hindrance to the up-stream traffic in a river with a rapid current like the Rhone. Dredging with bucket - ladder dredgers furFio. 3.—Canalization of the Main. nishes a well-known method of gradually improving and maintaining the depth of navigable . rivers long distances ; and sand-pump dredgers the channel when the river rises in flood-time, the safety of the rs ging. jlave pover een employed with success, for many years navigation is ensured, and the river channel is left as unimpeded past, in gradually lowering the bars of sand obstructing the as possible for the discharge of floods. entrance channels of some of the North Sea ports. The greatly One of the most successful and recent of these works is the increased efficiency, however, of the powerful sand-pump dredgers canalization of the river Main, by the construction of five weirsconstructed within the last few years, especially when provided and locks between Frankfort and the junction of the river with opposite Mainz, a distance of about 22 miles, in 1883with cutters, and still more recently with water-jet agitators, the Rhine has, since 1896, enabled the Mississippi River Commission to 1886,2 and the enlargement of the locks and the provision of an incut temporary channels rapidly through the shifting sand-bars creased depth a few years subsequently. The regulation of the which impede the navigation of the Lower Mississippi at its low river Main below Frankfort by longitudinal and cross dykes, stage, and thereby to increase the available navigable depth of previously carried out, had only secured a navigable depth of 3 feet the river during the low-water season. Centrifugal pumps on at the low stage of the river ; so that the traffic on the river had the dredger draw up sand mixed with water through the suction to be conducted by small barges, and, just before the commencepipes lowered down from the dredger on to the sandbank, the ment of the works, amounted to only about 12,000 tons a year. amount of sand thus removed from the bar being r fran KFOR' much increased by churning up the sand by large revolving steel cutters at the orifices of the pipes, or still more effectually by jets of water forcibly ejected through pipes against the sandbank by centrifugal pumps, since the cutters are liable to jam on encountering debris embedded in the bar. The sand thus pumped up is discharged, through floating pipes, some distance off into deep water on the down-stream side of the cut. NIEDERRAD. Four of these sand-pump dredgers, working on different sections of the Mississippi Fig. 4.—Lock and Weir on the Main. below Cairo in the autumn of 1897, provided The five movable wreirs across the river, with locks in side cuts a navigable depth of from 6 to 9 feet over fourteen bars during on the left bank (two with lifts of 8 feet 10 inches, and three the low - water season; and the two newest dredgers were able to raise, on the average, 1523 cubic yards and 1850 cubic with lifts of 5 feet 11 inches, giving an average rise from the yards of sand respectively per hour, discharging it to a distance Rhine to Frankfort of 35 feet 5 inches at a low stage), increased of about 1000 feet.1 The dredgers start work if possible at the the navigable depth to 6^ feet at the lowest water-level (Fig. 3) beginning of September, to prepare the channels across the bars and the traffic consequently rose to about 300,000 tons in 1887, beforehand, the lowest stage of the river being reached at the end in spite of the competition of two railways connecting Frankof October or early in November. A channel which has been fort with the Rhine valley, one on each side of the Main. The opened out maintains its depth fairly well for a certain time ; but general arrangement of the weirs and locks is indicated by a the dredgers are kept constantly ready, during the low stage, to plan of the works highest up the river, 2 miles below Frankfort, clear away any obstructions which may make their appearance. given on Fig. 4. The original locks were made 279 feet long Two additional dredgers have been since built; and it is antici- between the gates, and 34^ feet wide, in order to be able to pated that these six dredgers, with a seventh about to be con- receive the steamboats navigating the Rhine, 246 feet long and structed, will be able to make and maintain, each autumn, a 324- feet broad, partially loaded ; and their sills were placed 8^ navigable depth of 9 feet at the lowest stage over all the bars feet below the water-level retained by the weirs, to allow for a below Cairo, for a width of 250 feet; so that this depth will be further deepening of the river. The principal weir, stretching always available for navigation, except when the river is closed from the left bank nearly across the river, is a needle veir of improved type in each case, divided by masonry piers into two to by ice. from 154 to 193 feet Canalization, in converting a river into a succession of nearly four bays, one of the openings in each Aveir, r level reaches resembling a canal, hinders navigation by the Avide serving as the naA’igable pass for A essels in flood-time Avith of locks, which occupy time to pass its sill 10£ feet below the AA^ater-level retained by the weirs. A Canaliza introduction through ; and the discharge of the river is also im- timber pass has been formed alongside the right bank at each tion. peded by the weirs needed to maintain the requisite Aveir, by a long embankment in the river shutting off a channel depth of water in the dry season. Canalization, however, pro2 “ Die Canalisirung des Main A*on Frankfurt a. M. bis zum Rhein, 1 Cuno and P. Gutzmer, Zeitschrift fur Bauwesen, 1888, p. 19, and Report of the Chief of Engineers, 1898, Part v. Appendix xx., E. 14 to 17. “Report of the Mississippi River Commission,” pp. 3139 and 3162, plates 3 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th edition, p. 574, and Plate V. Fig. 3and plates 4 to 11, and 30 to 88.

ENGINEERING with a bottom width of 39J feet. This is closed at its upper end to be made high enough for the raised frames underneath them to by a drum weir 1 of the same width between masonry piers, with leave a clear headway for vessels of 17£ feet above the highest its upper paddle retaining a head of water ot 5 feet 7 inches, navigable water-level (Fig. 5). The merits of this type of weir which can be readily lowered for the passage of timber down the consist in its ease of working, the security of the movable parts, •channel, and raised again against the full force of the current, by and its applicability to high weirs ; but the high wide piers and adjusting the water-pressure in the drum, below the sill, on the the broad foot-bridges necessarily make the system costly. The drum weirs across the timber passes in the river Main are under paddle by means of sluice-ways in the river pier of the drum weir. These works were carried out by the State at a total cost an extension to deeper channels of the system adopted originally •of £275,000 ; and no tolls are charged for vessels passing through for the shallow portions of the weirs across the river Marne, the the locks. A haven has been formed above the weir near Prank- depth of water retained by the upper paddle of the Main weirs fort, by an embankment in the river, about 580 yards in length, being 5 feet 7 inches, as compared with 3 feet 7^ inches at the parallel to the right bank and raised above flood-level, as a refuge Marne weirs, and the radius of the drum 6 feet 11 inches in place for vessels in winter from floods and floating ice. This also of 4 feet 3 inches. The most notable example, however, of this serves in ordinary times for commercial purposes, direct communi- type is the drum weir, erected at about the same period as the •cation with the upper river being provided by an opening at the Main weirs, across the navigable pass of the 3weir constructed for upper end, which is closed by a pair of gates when necessary (Fig- 4). canalizing the river Spree at Charlottenburg. The upper paddle The great increase in traffic resulting from the above canaliza- of this weir, 39| feet wide, retains a depth of 9jt feet of water tion led to a decision in 1889 to enlarge each of the five locks above it; and the drum in which its lower paddle revolves, on a on the Main, below Frankfort, sufficiently to admit six of the largest barges navigating the Rhine with their tug at one time. A third pair of gates was erected ill the cut, 820 feet below the lower gates of the original lock ; and the navigable depth was increased to 8^ feet by dredging the bed of the river towards the upper end of each reach. This additional depth has enabled the river to be navigated by the large Rhine steamboats when fully loaded with 1300 tons of cargo, and drawing 7f feet. The river traffic, which was 9,388,640 ton-miles in 1887, rose to 22,543,700 ton-miles in 1892, and reached 36,630,830 ton-miles in 1898. An entirely novel type of frame weir was completed on the Lower Seine in September 1885 at Poses, and a second one about miles higher up a year or two later. In all the preMovable 25 vious frame weirs, closed with square spars (needles), weirs. rolling-up curtains, or panels, erected across French ■and American rivers, and also in the needle weirs on the river Main, the frames which are hinged on the apron of the weir in a row, and carry a foot-bridge, are laid flat on the bed of the river in flood-time, each partially resting upon the frame previously lowered. They are therefore exposed during the winter months to the action of the flooded river, and the detritus it carries down. At Poses and Port Mort, on the contrary, the frames are suspended vertically from a wide overhead foot-bridge, and rest at their lower ends against a sill in the bed of the river ; while the weirs are closed by hinged curtains, let down and rolled up again by aid of a winch travelling on a small foot-bridge formed by a iSeries of brackets hinged to the back of each frame (Fig. 5).2 The Fig. 6.—Drum Weir, Charlottenburg, River Spree. weir is opened by rolling up the curtains, and raising the hinged frames one by one into a horizontal position by chains from the horizontal axis common to the two paddles, in opening and closing •overhead bridge, so that all the movable parts of the weir are the weir, has a radius of 10J feet (Fig. 6). A bridge resting on raised out of the water in flood-time, quite secure from injury, the abutment of the right bank, and on the river pier of the drum weir, spans the opening closed by the weir, and SECTION OF WEIR. affords a headway for vessels of slightly over 11J ELEVATION. feet for nearly the whole width above high flood-level, which is about 6 feet higher than the normal water-level retained by the weir. The great value of this type of weir is the ease and rapidity with which the weir is not only lowered, but also raised against a very strong current, rendering it peculiarly suitable for regulating the discharge at a weir, and for controlling passes which may have to be frequently and quickly opened and closed. It possesses, however, the serious drawback of the large cost involved in the construction of the drum, which, irrespectively of its foundations, has to be carried down deeper below the sill of the weir than the height of the actual weir formed by the upper paddle, It can therefore be only adopted with advantage where ease and rapidity of working are so essential that the cost is quite a secondary consideration. Accordingly, though drum weirs were first constructed on the river Marne between 1857 and 1867, to provide a movable crest on the top of eleven submerged solid weirs, the system was not extended until much later to the closing of passes under somewhat exceptional conditions in Germany. Fig. 5.—Lifting Frame Weir, Poses, River Seine. A modification, however, of the drum weir for ■and yet ready to be lowered for closing the weir at any time. The forming a movable crest, 7 feet high, on the top of a concrete weir foot-bridges across the shallow openings have only to be placed at resting upon piles, and raised 11£ feet above the bed of the Osage a sufficient height for the raised frames underneath them to be river, a tributary of the Missouri, in connexion with its canalization, well above the highest flood-level; but the foot-bridges across the has been experimented on with a full-sized model, and is in course navigable passes, of which there are two at Poses, 106^ feet in of construction.4 The weir across the river, adjoining the lock built 3 width, and five at Port Mort, each about 99 feet wide, have had “ Die Stauanlage in der Spree bei Charlottenburg,” E. Mohr, Zeitschrift fur Bauwesen, 1886, p. 338, and plates 31 and 32. 1 4 Encydopcedia Britannica, 9th edition, p. 575, and Plate V. Fig. 7. Report of the Chief of Engineers, 1897, Part vi. Appendix WW, 2 “The River Seine,” L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Proc. Inst. C.E. * Report of the Missouri River Commission,” pp. 3947 and 3949 ; vol. Ixxxiv. pp. 234 and 236, and plate 3. and 1898, Part vi. Appendix YY, pp. 3471 and 3546 and plate. 252

RIVER

RIVER

ENGINEERING

close alongside the left bank, consists of ten bays, each 75 feet in width, separated by masonry piers containing the sluice-ways for connecting the drums with the upper or lower pool. The movable portion of the weir, extending along the crest of each bay, is formed by a sector of a circle, subtending an angle of 67|°, encased all round with close planking, and strengthened internally by iron framing. The sector, which revolves on a horizontal axis along the crest of the solid weir, forms the upper 7 feet of the weir when raised, and, when lowered, fills the drum at the back of the solid weir, which has a radius of nearly 9 feet, and is encased in close planking. A triangular space is left between the underside of the lowered sector and the down-stream vertical face of the concrete weir, through which the water-pressure, developed on opening communication with the upper pool, raises the sector and closes the weir. The completion of the weir was delayed by floods in 1900. The half-tide lifting-gate weir, with overhead foot-bridge, erected across the river Thames at Richmond in 1891-94, c^mon . ag fajr]y regarded as a may type be of quite movable weir, as the weirs with frames suspended from an overhead foot-bridge at Poses and Port Mort on the Seine. In both cases the overhead bridge forms a necessary fixed adjunct for operating the weir ; the river piers carrying the foot-bridge are inevitable obstructions in the channel in flood-time, though of no great importance ; and all the movable parts can, in each case, be readily removed from the river, so as to leave the channel unobstructed, with the exception of the piers, and secure the parts themselves

253 each pier against a vertical row of free rollers suspended by the loop of a chain attached at one end to the pier and at the other end to the gate, whereby the friction due to the water-pressure against one side of the gate is much reduced. The raising of the gate, weighing 32 tons, is further considerably facilitated by its being counterpoised by weights above (Fig. 8). The discharge of the fresh-water flow of the river, during the lower half of the tide, is provided for by slightly raising the gates above their sills pro*

Fig. 9.—Plan of Works at Richmond, Surrey

portionately to the volume of the flow. As soon as the rising tide has reached half-tide level, the gates are lifted out of the water, and on approaching the level of the crown of the arch, are turned by guides in the piers into a horizontal position between the twofoot-bridges, so as not to interfere with the view of the river through the arches. Here they remain till the fall of the river again to half-tide level necessitates their being lowered. Each gate can be fully raised in seven minutes by two men on the foot-bridge. The similar weirs erected at Belleek in 1883, and at Ballinasloe in 1885, for controlling the drainage works above them on the rivers Erne and Suck, and enabling works to be carried out to facilitate the discharge of floods, close four openings each, only 30 feet, and 25 feet in width respectively. Their gates are merely raised for the passage of the river water ; and the head of water against these weirs, as in all non-tidal rivers, is always on the up-stream side. At Richmond, however, though the head of water against which the much wider gates there have to be raised is usually considerably less than at Belleek and Ballinasloe, the water-pressure maybe on the down-stream side with a rising tide. On this account, free rollers have had to be provided on Fig. 7 —Lifting-gate Weir and Foot-bridge at Richmond, Surrey. both sides of the gates ; and the complete raising from injury during the descent of floods. The openings, and lowering of the Richmond weir gates is a daily operation, indeed, between the piers are wider at the Seine weirs; but, except during floods and at night. on the other hand, the Richmond weir is much more rapidly Outlets of Tideless Rivers. opened and closed. It was erected to retain the river at halftide level between The success which resulted, at the Sulina mouth of the Richmond and the tidal limit at Ted- Danube, and at the South Pass outlet of the Mississippi, dington, so that the from the concentration of the discharge by the formation unsightly mud-banks of parallel jetties, extending beyond these outlets towards which had become their bars, which were considerably lowered by the induced exposed at low tide, owing to the consider- scour over the shoals, has been previously described.able lowering of the The period, however, which has elapsed since the jetty low-water level result- works were carried out enables a more accurate view, to ing from the removal be formed of the prospects of the continuance of the imof obstructions and proved depth over the bars in front of these outlets,, and dredging in the channel below, may be to determine whether an extension of the jetties is likely always covered with to be required in the near future, either at the navigable water, without ab - outlet of the Danube, or the Mississippi. . The prolongastracting the whole tion of the current of a sediment-bearing river farther out of the tidal flow and ebb between Richmond into a tideless sea, by extending parallel jetties beyond and Teddington from its outlet, does not merely lower the bar in front of the Fig. 8.—Mechanism of Lifting-gate, Richmond. the river below. The outlet by scour, but also enables the issuing current to conlifting - gates forming vey the materials with which it is charged into deeper water. the weir are 12 feet high, and close the three central spans, each Here the continual accumulation of deposit takes much 66 feet in width, of the arched double foot-bridge, when the river falls below half-tide level on the down-stream side of the weir (Figs. longer to rise to a sufficient height to impede navigation, 2 7, 8, and 9).1 The gate, when being lifted, slides in a recess in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th edition, vol. xx. pp. 580-581, and Plate Y. Figs. 19 to 23. Engineering, vol. Ixi. p. 47, and plate.

ENGINEERING there was a deficiency of depth during 133 days in the jetty and sometimes brings the suspended matter within the year channel, and during 4 days outside. The jetty works, accordingly, influence of a littoral current which occasionally flows which produced such a large increase in depth at the outlet of the across in front of the outlet at a short distance from the South Pass, have been unable to maintain the depth for twenty shore. The rate of advance of a delta depends upon the years after their completion. The changes which have occurred at outlet are indicated by the plan showing the lines of soundvolume and density of the materials brought down by the the ings in front of the outlet in 1883 and 1898 (Fig. 10) ; and by river, the depth of the sea in front of the outlet, and any longitudinal sections of the jetty and outer channels, in 1875 before disturbing influences which may be encountered in the sea the commencement of the jetty works, in 1880 after their completion, and in 1898 (Fig. 11). Deposit from the river is evidently outside, such as a littoral current or wave-action. taking place in front of the outlet, being shown upon the plan The Sulina jetties extending the outlet of the Sulina branch of by the advance of the lines of soundings since 1883, and by the the Danube beyond the coast into the Black Sea, which increased relative depths on the section in 1880 and 1898. The greatest the depth ^ in thepy navigable channel over the bar from advance occurred at the 70-feet line of soundings, amounting Su/ina 10 feet to feet tlie scour alone of the concentrated to 2154 feet between 1877 and 1897, and averaging 108 feet a Outlet of currentj maintained this latter depth up to 1894, when year ; whilst the 20-feet line of soundings shows the least advance Danube. (jreciging with a bucket-ladder dredger was carried out of 655 feet, or an average of 33 feet a year. In a fan-shaped in the shoal parts of the channel between and beyond the jetties. area of 1J square miles, extending out about 5300 feet from the The available depth was thus increased to 24 feet EAST POINT END OF JETTIES. HIGH WATER AVERAGE FLOOD TIDE. by the autumn of 1895, in spite of deposits which necessarily occurred from the alluvium brought down by the floods of the river. Notwithstanding, however, the remarkable maintenance of the depth obtained by works completed about 1870, and the facility with which the depth has been increased by dredging, a comparison of the charts of 1856 and 1894 shows that though the inevitable accumulations of deposit have not hitherto affected the available depth of the navigable channel, their influence on the depth of the sea at some distance in front of the Sulina outlet is clearly manifested by the steady advance seawards of the 5-fathom line, which amounted to an average of 59 yards a year between 1856 and 1894.1 The shoaling, Z 3 MILES. indeed, is somewhat slow, owing to the lightness Fig. 11.—Section of Outlet Channel, Mississippi River. of the alluvium brought down by the Danube, and to this alluvium being brought under the influence of a extremities of the jetties, there has been an average reduction in southerly littoral current, and it has mostly taken place in greater depth all over of 17^ feet between 1876 and 1899, the accretion depths than the shallowest part of the navigable channel; but being slight near the jetty channel, except on the western side, the deposits, which have been considerable in depths of between and greatest in the outer zone.3 The outer 30-feet channel is 3 and 5 fathoms, will, in course of time, raise the shoals to a already somewhat narrow, and is deflected to the east of the jetty height inconvenient for navigation, and necessitate an extension channel; and considering the large quantities of alluvium which of the jetties. Moreover, it has been calculated that the Sulina are being deposited in the outer channel about a mile beyond the mouth will, in about 170 years, come within the zone of the large jetties (Fig. 11), it seems probable that though the central 30 deposits of the rapidly advancing Kilia outlets to the north of feet in depth may be maintained for some little time longer by the aid of dredging, an extension of the jetties will be necessary Sulina. The parallel jetties, 1000 feet apart, extending from the outlet to carry a channel of the required depth across the bar in process of the South Pass of the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico, which of formation again beyond the outlet. Great difficulties have been experienced in the attempts to im, _ increased the maximum available depth at the outlet prove the depth at the outlets of the two main branches of the outlet. of. SS. •able *rom to® maintain in 1875 tostipulated 31 feet indepth 1880, ofhave not been Volga delta, owing to the great width of the shoals Qutie^s G/ the 26 feet, for a ssipp . w-0f 200 feet, and a central depth of 30 feet quite obstructing these channels, the shallowness of the Yolea continuously, either in the jetty channel itself, or outside to deep Caspian Sea in front of the mouths of the Volga, water in the gulf. Up to the middle of 1898 there had been a resulting in the rapid advance of the delta, and the exposed position of the outlets. Many years ago an ./ __ endeavour was made to improve the outlet of the • //,ff smaller Kamysiak branch, by concentrating the [J v; discharge in one of its outlet channels by a EAST POINT. yf'.j ; ; discontinuous line of fascine mattresses on each 1 Ir* }// side, and closing the minor outlets of this branch, V '‘•>- : y ft and also by dredging to a small extent. These .b >, :' °Y ° /i w 20 241 were Roman Catholics and 466 Protestants. The tolloii•ing table gives the number of births, deaths, and marriages m various years :— Marriages. Deaths. Births.

R O S E B E R Y

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work was practically confined to the direction of the men ” series, of which it may be said that it competes in Scottish department of the Office. A clamour was never- interest with Mr John Morley’s Walpole. In January theless raised in regard to the incompatibility of the 1892, upon a new election, he again for a few months under-secretaryship with a position in the House of Lords, became chairman of the County Council. It was already and Lord Kosebery resigned the post in June 1883. He recognized that in him the country possessed not only a and his wife utilized the interval to make a trip round public man of exceptionally attractive personality, but one the world, being most warmly received in Australia, and whose literary tastes were combined with a gift for returning by way of India. At the close of 1884 he expression which was at once original and fluent. In resumed office as first commissioner of works with a seat October the Garter was conferred upon him by Queen in the cabinet, and his adherence carried with it a distinct Victoria. accession of strength to the Liberal ministry, which was Meanwhile, in August, upon the return of Gladstone to much discredited by the tragedy attached to the fate power, he was induced with some difficulty (for he was of Gordon. The attitude of the Government on the suffering at the time from insomnia) to resume his position Afghan question and generally in regard to Russia was as Foreign Minister. His acceptance was construed as a held by many to have been perceptibly stiffened owing to security against the suspicion of weakness abroad which the Liberal party had incurred by their foreign policy Lord Rosebery’s influence. In June 1885 the Liberal administration broke up, but during the ’eighties. He strongly opposed the evacuation Lord Salisbury’s ministry, which succeeded, was beaten of Egypt; he insisted upon the exclusive control by Great early in February 1886, and when Mr Gladstone adopted Britain of the Upper Nile valley, and also upon the retention of Uganda. In 1893 Home Rule, Lord Rosebery the question of Siam came near threw in his lot with the old to causing serious trouble with leader, and was made secretary France, but by the exercise of of state for foreign affairs a combination of firmness and during the brief Liberal minforbearance on Lord Rosebery’s istry which followed. He part the crisis was averted, rather distinguished himself and the lines were laid down in the Lucia Bay negotiations for preserving Siam, if posthen being carried on with sible, as a buffer state between Germany. If Busch is to be the English and French fronbelieved, Prince Bismarck’s tiers in Indo-China. In the view was that Lord Rosebery spring of 1895 he was clearhad “quite mesmerized” Count sighted enough to refuse to Herbert Bismarck, and the join the anti-Japanese League latter, from his father’s standof Russia, France, and Gerpoint, conceded too much to many at the end of the ChinaLord Rosebery, who proved Japan war. himself to be, in Bismarck’s Lord Rosebery’s personal language, “very sharp.” His popularity had been increased views on foreign policy differed at home by his successful inmaterially from those of Grantervention in the coal strike of ville and Gladstone. His mind December 1893, and when in was dwelling constantly upon March 1894 the resignation the political legacy of the two of Gladstone was announced, Pitts; he was a reader of his selection by Queen Victoria Sir John Seeley; he had himfor the premiership was welself visited the colonies; had comed by the public at large predicted that a war would and by the majority of his not, as was commonly said, own party. On all hands he disintegrate the Empire, but THE EARL OF ROSEBERY. was then considered dignus rather the reverse; had mag{From a photograph by Elliott and Fry, London.) imperio — it was only as nified the importance of takthe new administration went to pieces that people ing colonial opinion; and had always been a convinced advocate of some form of Imperial Federation. He began to add nisi imperasset. The conditions he had to was already taunted with being an Imperialist, but his face were by no means hopeful. The Liberal majority of independent attitude won public approval. Cambridge 44 was already dwindling away, and the malcontents, gave him the degree of LL.D. in 1888; in January who considered that Sir William Harcourt should have 1889 he was elected a member of the first County been the prime minister, or who were, perpetually inCouncil of London, and on 12th February he was triguing against a leader who did not satisfy their idea of elected chairman of that body by 104 votes to 17. The Radicalism, made Lord Rosebery’s personal position no tact, assiduity, and dignity with which he guided the easy one. A systematic policy of detraction was pursued deliberations of the council made him exceedingly popular by the small section of the Radical party who objected with its members. In the spring of 1890 he presided to a peer premier as such, and a great deal of adverse over the Co-operative Congress, but with a view to the criticism was also aroused by a speech m which the prime impending political campaign he found it necessaiy to minister, taunted for not again bringing forward a Home resign the chairmanship of the County Council in June. Rule measure, insisted upon the truism that the conversion England the “ predominant partner,” was a necessary In November of this year, however, Lady Rosebeiy died, of condition of success. The support of the Irish Nationalists and he withdrew for a period from public business. In by no means secure. Lord Rosebery’s foreign policy, 1891 he made some brief Continental visits, one to Madrid, was moreover, was too Tory for his Radical followers; he inand in October he saw through the press his little mono- sisted upon “ continuity of policy in foreign affairs, which graph upon William Pitt, in the “ Twelve English States-

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meant carrying on the Conservative policy and not upsetting it. The premier was thought to have shown a restlessness and a rawness at the touch of censure, which did not increase his reputation for reserve power or strength, but this was undoubtedly due in large measure to the recrudescence of the insomnia from which he had suffered in 1891. The Government effected little. In Mr Asquiths phrase, it was “ ploughing the sands.” The Parish Councils Act was only passed by compromising with the Opposition Local Veto and Disestablishment of the Welsh Church were put in the forefront of the party programme, but the Government was already to all appearances riding for a fall, when on 24th June 1895 it was beaten upon an adverse vote in the Commons in regard to. a question of the supply and reserve of small arms ammunition. The general election which followed after Lord Salisbury had formed his new ministry was remarkable for the undisciplined state of the Liberal party. At the Eighty Club and the Albert Hall, Lord Rosebery advised them to concentrate upon the reform of the House of Lords, that assembly being, as he said, a foremost obstacle to the passing of legislation on the lines of the Newcastle programme, but he was unable to suggest in what direction it should be reformed. Sir William Harcourt and Mr John Morley, on the other hand, concentrated respectively upon Local Option and Home Rule. The result was an overwhelming defeat. Lord Rosebery handed over the seals of office with undisguised relief. Considerable difficulties in Africa, in Chitral, and in the Levant were transmitted to the new Government. The question of intervention between the Sultan and the Armenians became a burning one in the country in 1896, and Mr Gladstone emerged from his retirement to advocate intervention. Lord Rosebery declined to support this demand at the risk of a European war, and on 8th October 1896 he announced to the Liberal whip, Mr Thomas Ellis, his resignation of the Liberal leadership. On the following day he made a farewell speech at the Empire Theatre, Edinburgh, to over 4000 people, and for some time he held aloof from party politics, “ploughing his furrow alone,” as he afterwards phrased it. In 1898, on the death of Mr Gladstone, he paid a noble and eloquent tribute in the House of Lords to the life and public services of his old leader. He was a pall-bearer at his funeral on 28th May, as he had previously been at the'burials of Tennyson and Millais. His influence in the country was still a strong one on personal grounds, and he came forward now and again to give expression independently to popular feeling. In the autumn of 1898 he gave valuable support to the attitude taken up by Lord Salisbury upon the Fashoda question. He was indeed bound by consistency to withstand what his own Government, by the words of Sir Edward Grey, had declared would be an unfriendly act on the part of France. Again, after Mr Kruger’s ultimatum in October 1899, Lord Rosebery spoke upon the necessity of the nation closing its ranks and supporting the Government in the prosecution of war in South Africa. After Nicholson’s Nek he reiterated the resolution of the country “to see this thing through.” Nevertheless, in a letter to Captain Lambton, an unsuccessful Liberal candidate for Newcastle, in September 1900, he condemned the general conduct of affairs by Lord Salisbury’s Government, while in several speeches in the House of Lords he strongly urged the necessity of army reform. Since his abandonment of the leadership in 1896, the lack of coherence in the Liberal party had become more and more manifest. The war had brought to the front a pro-Boer section, who seemed gradually to be compromising the whole party, and had apparently succeeded in winning the support of Sir Henry Campbell-

Bannerman, the leader in the House of Commons. Lord Rosebery maintained for the most part a Sphinx-like seclusion, but in July 1901 he at last came forward strongly as the champion of the Liberal Imperialist section. In deference to the wishes of supporters such as Mr Asquith, Sir Henry Fowler, and Sir Edward Grey, he determined to “ put his views into the common stock ” at a representative meeting of Liberals held at Chesterfield in December 1901. There he advised the Liberal party that “its slate must be cleaned,” and, as he subsequently explained, this cleansing must involve the elimination of Home Rule for Ireland. His appeal for “spade work” resulted in the formation of the Liberal League, inside the Liberal Opposition; and what Lord Rosebery himself described as his “definite separation” from Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman’s “ tabernacle ” took place. This announcement, however, was no sooner made than it was explained away by the supporters of both, and early in 1902 Lord Rosebery spoke at the National Liberal Club in a way which indicated that an understanding might still be arrived at. But, as he candidly admitted in a recent speech delivered at the Liberal League dinner, 31st July 1902, the principles of Liberal Imperialism have not yet prevailed, and until they prevail the reconciliation of the two wings of the party may, in Lord Rosebery’s opinion, remain impossible. In 1900 he published a volume called Napoleon: the Last Phase, an ingenious, if paradoxical, attempt to vindicate Napoleon’s conduct during his exile at St Helena; and he also showed his interest in literature by an address on Biography at Edinburgh. His family consists of two sons and two daughters, his elder son, Lord Dalmeny, having been born in 1882. His younger daughter was married in 1899 to the earl of Crewe, who as Lord Houghton was Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, 1892-95. Rosecrans, William Starke (1819-1898), American soldier, was born in Kingston, Ohio, 6th September 1819, and graduated in 1842 from the U.S. Military Academy. After serving (1843-47) as assistant professor at West Point, and in fort construction, he resigned, April 1854, from the army and went into business in Cincinnati. Early in the Civil War he organized Ohio regiments, and in June 1861 was made colonel of the 23rd Ohio volunteers, and afterwards a brigadiergeneral of regulars. He was second to General McClellan in the operations in West Virginia, fought and won at Rich Mountain, 11th July 1861, and succeeded to the command when McClellan was called to Washington. In March 1862 he was made a major-general of volunteers, and by and by was sent to the west, where he served under Generals Halleck and Grant. After the battles of luka (19th September) and Corinth (3rd-4th October), he was transferred to the command of the department of the Cumberland, to relieve General Buell. This command he held for a year from October 1862, with brilliant successes alternating with disappointments. He beat the Confederate General Bragg in the bloody battle at Murfreesboro, 31st December 1862-1 st January 1863 ; and then, after long inaction, resumed operations the next summer, and in the fighting between 24th June and 3rd July 1863 drove his adversary out of Middle Tennessee ; next, after some delay, he pursued and compelled Bragg, 9th September, to withdraw from impregnable Chattanooga. But he had lost favour, and misfortune now overtook him : he was defeated, 19th-20th September, at Chickamauga, and forced back to Chattanooga, to which Bragg laid confident siege. When General Grant took full direction, Rosecrans was succeeded, 20th October, by General Thomas. After a brief service

ROSENHEIM — ROSS in Missouri, llosecrans was relieved, December 1864. Designing from the army 1867, he was minister to Mexico 1868, and between 1869 and 1881 was engaged in railway and industrial enterprises there. He was a member of Congress, from California, 1881-85, and register of the Treasury, 1885-93. Under an Act of Congress he was, 2nd March 1889, restored to the rank of brigadier-general, and retired. He died near Redondo, Cal., 11th March 1898. On 17th. May 1902 his body was reinterred with military honours in the National Cemetery at Arlington, in the presence of President Roosevelt, members of the Cabinet, and many of his campaigning comrades. Rosenheim, a town and watering-place of Bavaria, Germany, district of Upper Bavaria, on the river Inn, 40 miles by rail south-east of Munich, frequented for its saline, sulphur, and other springs. There are important salt-works, the brine being conveyed from Reichenhall in pipes; also machine factories, metal-works, and breweries. Population (1885), 9257; (1900), 14,247. Rosie res. See Sudan, Anglo-Egyptian. Roskilde, or Roeskilde, a market-town of Denmark, capital of Roskilde county, 20 miles by rail west of Copenhagen, during the Middle Ages next after Schleswig the most important town of Denmark. Here is the Danish Westminster Abbey, with numerous monuments and tombs of Danish kings and queens. Other public buildings are the town-hall (1883), hospital (1878-80), diocesan library (in part 15th century, in part 1858-59), royal palace (1733), institute for daughters of noblemen (1670), church of Our Lady (originally 11th century, rebuilt 1242, restored 1864-65). Population (1890), 6974; (1900), 8368. Roslavl, a district town of Russia, in the government and 67 miles south-south-east of the town of Smolensk, on the railway from Orel to Riga and on the highroad between St Petersburg and Warsaw, near the Oster river. It is a very old town, founded by Vladimir Monomach, and often mentioned in the annals after 1150. It frequently changed hands between Russia and Lithuania, before it was finally annexed by Russia in 1686. It has two gymnasia, a railway technical school, and a number of philanthropic institutions, and carries on an active trade in flax, hemp, corn, hides, and tobacco. In 1897 the population numbered 17,848. R os mead, Hercules George Robert Robinson, 1st Baron (1824-1897), British colonial administrator, was born on 19th December 1824. He was of Irish descent on both sides ; his father was Admiral Hercules Robinson, his mother a Miss Wood of Rosmead, Co. Westmeath, from which he afterwards took his title. Passing from Sandhurst into the 87th Foot, he attained the rank of captain; but, deciding that the army was not his proper vocation, he obtained in 1846, through the influence of Lord Naas, a post in the Board of Public Works in Ireland, and subsequently became chief commissioner of fairs and markets. The energy he displayed in these positions, notably during the great famine of 1848, and the clearness and vigour of his reports, secured for him at the age of thirty the office of president of the island of Montserrat. Subsequently he was governor of St Christopher, from 1855 to 1859, when he was knighted in recognition of his services in introducing coolie labour into the island; of Hong-Kong; of Ceylon (K.C.M.G. in 1869); and in 1872 of New South Wales. It fell to his lot to annex the Fiji Islands to the British Empire, and his services were rewarded in 1875 by promotion to G.C.M.G. In 1879 he was transferred to New Zealand, and in 1880 he succeeded Sir Bartle Frere as high commissioner of South Africa. He arrived in South Africa

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shortly before the disaster of Majuba, and was one of the commissioners for negotiating a peace which was personally distasteful to him. It left him with the task of conciliating on the one hand a Dutch party elated with victory, and on the other hand a British party almost ready to despair of the English connexion. He was called home in 1883 to advise the Government on the terms of the London Convention of 1884. Charged on his return with a protectorate over the natives of Bechuanaland, he soon found that the excesses of the Boer settlers in Goshen and Stellaland must be put down by the Imperial authority. His declaration, that the advice of his ministers to patch up a settlement was equivalent to a condonation of crime, led to the expedition of Sir Charles Warren and the annexation of Bechuanaland. A dispute arose between Robinson and Sir C. Warren, who declared that the high commissioner’s duties to the home Government were at times in conflict with the action which, as governor of Cape Colony, he was bound to take on the advice of his ministers in the interests of the colony. Sir Hercules Robinson succeeded in winning the confidence of President Kruger by his conspicuous fair-mindedness, while he heartily seconded Mr Rhodes’s efforts to unite the British and Dutch parties in Cape Colony, and to open up its territory to the north. His cast of mind, however, was essentially that of the administrator as distinguished from the statesman, and he was content to settle difficulties as they arose. In 1886 he investigated the charges brought against Sir John Pope-Hennessy, governor of Mauritius, and decreed his suspension pending the decision of the home authorities, who eventually reinstated Pope-Hennessy. Robinson retired in 1889. In his farewell speech he declared that there was no permanent place in South Africa for direct Imperial rule. This was absurdly interpreted to mean that South Africa must ultimately become independent—an idea wholly repugnant to his mind. He himself explained in a letter to The Times in 1895 that he had referred to the “direct rule of Downing Street over the Crown colonies, as contrasted with responsible colonial government.” He was made a baronet in 1891. Early in 1895, when he had entered his 71st year and was by no means in robust health, he yielded to the entreaties of Lord Rosebery’s cabinet, and went out again to South Africa, in succession to Sir H. Loch. His second term of office, however, was not fortunate. The Jameson Raid produced a permanent estrangement between him and Mr Rhodes, and he was out of sympathy with the new colonial secretary, Mr Chamberlain, who had been prominent in criticizing his appointment, and now desired Robinson to take this opportunity of settling the whole question of the Uitlanders in the Transvaal. Robinson curtly answered that the moment was inopportune, and that he must be left to choose his own time. Alarmed at the imminent danger of war, he confined his efforts to inducing the Johannesburgers to lay down their arms on condition that the raiders’ lives were spared, not knowing that these terms had already been granted to Jameson. He came home to confer with the Government, and was raised to the peerage as Baron Rosmead. He returned to South Africa later in the year, but was compelled by ill-health, in April 1897, to quit his post, and died m London on 28th October 1897. (H- SY) Ross and Cromarty, a highland county of northern Scotland, bounded on the N. by the Dornoch Firth and Sutherlandshire, on the E. by the Moray Firth, on the S. by Inverness-shire, and on the W. by the Atlantic. Area and Population.—In 1891 the counties of Ross and Cromarty were amalgamated, the latter having previously been made up of detached portions scattered through the former. At the same time some alterations were made in the boundaries S. VIII. —38

ROSSETTI 298 At the date of the last return, 1895, the average size of the between the united county and the shires of Inverness and Nairn 7221 holdings was 19 acres ; the percentage under 5 acres was the parish of Urray being restricted to Koss-shire and part of th 59-80, between 5 and 50, 32"61, and over 50 acres 7 59. Only Inverness parish of Kilmorack being added to ^ and the paris Sutherland has a larger proportion of holdings under 5 acres. of Urquhart and Logie-Wester which had been divided between The total number under 20 acres was 6269 ; between 50 and 100 Ross and Nairn, being placed whoUy in the for ^ acres 229 ; between 100 and 300 acres, 231 ; between 300 and The county7 includes Lewis and a number , , qono 500 77 • between 500 and 1000, 10, and there was one over 1000 The official estimate of the area is 2,049,423 acres, or about 3202 acres. The excessive proportion of small holdings is partly due square miles. The population was, in 1881, 78,547 , in 1891, to the overcrowding of the island of Lewis (^.w.). Theie were 77 810 • in 1901 76,421 : in 1891 on the above area, 78,727, ol 61 482 acres under wood in 1895, and the cultivated area was whom 37,279 were males and 41,448 females ; m 1901 it was 76,421. 6-8 per cent, of the whole. From the commencement of the On the old area, taking land only (1,970,004 acres or 30/8 1 operations of the Crofters’ Commission in 1886 down to the end square miles), the number of persons to the square mrle &was^24 8^ of 1898 1097 applications to fix a fair rent were dealt with, and and the number of acres to the person, 25 7. and 1891 was rents of a total amount of £16,182 were reduced to £11,509, countv7 the decrease of the population between 1881 and 1891 was while arrears amounting to £41,988 out of £59,801 were canlffi6 p er cent Between 1881 and 1891 the excess of births over celled • 438 applications for enlargement ol holdings were dealt deaths was 8605, and the decrease of the resl^ntt ^ with and 400 acres were added to existing holdings. Deer forests The following table gives particulars of baths, deaths, and covered 795,545 acres in 1899, an increase of J.47,662 since 1883, and the annual value of the whole was £34,776. „_ marriages in 1880, 1890, and 1899 . Industries and Trade.—According to the census of 1891, 14,40/ Percentage of Births. Illegitimate. Year. Deaths. Marriages. men and 3221 women were engaged in agriculture and fishing, and 9947 men and 3032 women in agriculture alone. The county 4-6 2087 363 1880 1197 contains two fishery districts, Stornoway and Cromarty, and 4-6 1893 303 1890 1299 part of two others, Lochbroom (which includes part ol Sutherland) 4-3 1809 345 1899 1277 and Lochcarron and Skye (which includes part of Inverness). The following table gives particulars of the industry for the first three The following table gives the birth-rate, death-rate, and districts :— marriage-rate per thousand of the population lor a series of Resident Total Value Boats. Value of Fishermen years:— Year. Gear. and Boys. of All Fish. Value. Tons. No. 1890. 1891-98. 1899. 1880. 188115,291 £62,725 £79,031 8646 £198,118 2443 1890 26*20 25-36 24-05 24-27 23-26 Birth-rate . 9,476 £14,509 £47,318 6718 £179,804 1383 1898 15-03 1574 16-50 16-76 16-42 Death-rate . 8,672 £41,271 £46,567 6236 £118,671 1312 1899 4-56 4-18 3-85 4-08 4-43 Marriage-rate £73 294 of the total value of fish in 1899 represented the At the census of 1891, 38,018 persons were returned as Gaelic- value of the herring catch. The number of persons employed in sneakino-, and of these 18,620 spoke Gaelic only ; there were 1899 in connexion with the various branches of the sea fisheries 43 foreigners. Valuation in 1889-90, £277,948 ; 1899-1900, was 10 044. In Ross and Cromarty alone there are about 100 £275 996. ports, which had, in 1898, 1372 boats of 8818 tons, and 6291 Administration.—The county returns a member to Parliament, resident fishermen and boys. The Black Isle (1894) and Kyle and contains Fortrose (1179), one of the Inverness group of parlia- (1897) branches of the Highland Railway added 24 miles to the mentary burghs, and Cromarty (1233), Dingwall (2519), and Tam mileage of the country. , Authorities.—It. Bain. History of the Ancient Province oj (2074), which belong to the Wick or northern group. All ol these are royal burghs except Cromarty, and Dingwall is the Ross. Dingwall, 1899.—A. Macrae. History of the Macraes. county town. Police burghs are Invergordon (1014) and Storno- Dingwall, 1899.—J. Willock. Sir Thomas Urquhart of way (3711). There are 33 civil parishes, and there are poor- Cromarty. Edinburgh, 1899.—M. Macdonald. The Covenanters houses at Tain and Fortrose ; the number of paupers and de- in Moray and Ross. Inverness, 1892.—J. Kennedy. The Days pendents in September 1899 was 3339. Ross and Cromarty lorms of the Fathers in Ross-shire. Inverness, 1895.—J. H. Dixon. a sheriffdom with Sutherland, and there are resident sheiifis- Gairloch. Edinburgh, 1888.—W. Taylor. Fragments of Early substitute at Dingwall and Stornoway, the former sitting also at History of Tain. Tain, 1865.—F. N. Reid. The Earls of Ross. Tain and Cromarty. t Edinburgh, ISM.—Records of the Presbyteries of Inverness and Education. — Thirty-five school boards manage 135 schools, Dingwall. Edinburgh. (W. WA.) which had an average attendance of 11,747 in 1898-99, while 5 voluntary schools (1 Episcopal) had 236. There are academies Rossetti, Christina Georgina (1830at Tain and Fortrose, and 33 schools in all earned grants in 1898 for giving higher education. The county council hands over 1894), English poet, was the youngest of the four the ‘‘residue” grant to the county committee on secondary education, which subsidizes science and art classes in various children of Gabriele and Frances Mary Rossetti. She schools and higher grade (science) schools in process of being was born at 38 Charlotte Street, Portland Place, London, on the 5th of December 1830. She enjoyed the advanbuilt at Dingwall, Tain, and Stornoway. Agriculture.—Oats are the predominant corn crop, and the tages and disadvantages of the strange society of Italian barley acreage is rather less than hall the oats acreage. V heat exiles and English eccentrics which her father gathered shows a tendency to recover after a prolonged and continuous decline from 7527 acres in 1854 to 694 in 1897 ; it was 1090 in about him, and she shared the studies of her gifted 1898. The following table gives the principal acreages at in- elder brother and sister. As early as 1847 her grandtervals of five years from 1880 :— father, Gaetano Polidori, printed privately a volume Permaof her Verses, in which the richness of her vision was Green Area under Corn nent Fallow. Clover. already faintly prefigured. In 1850 she contributed to Crops. Crops. Crops. Pasture. The Germ seven pieces, several of which are still among 1885 134,399 47,639 26,496 40,819 19,075 370 the very finest of her lyrics. In her girlhood she had a 469 22,621 41,662 26,326 46,082 1890 136,974 grave, religious beauty of feature, and sat as a model 1895 137,703 44,878 25,309 40,405 26,957 135 not only to her brother Gabriel, but to Mr Holman Hunt, 196 29,342 43,219 24,330 44,206 1899 141,324 to Madox Brown, and to Millais. In 1853-54 Christina The following table gives particulars of the live stock during the Rossetti for nearly a year helped her mother to keep a day-school at Frome in Somerset. Early in 1854 the same years :— Rossettis returned to London, and the father died. In Cows or Total Total Heifers poverty, in ill-health, in extreme quietness, she was now Pigs. Sheep. in Year. Horses. Cattle. Milk or Calf. performing her life-work. She was twice sought in marriage, but each time, from religious scruples, she refused 309,590 6770 17,811 1885 7365 42,976 311,933 6359 her suitor ; on the former of these occasions she sorrowed 17,678 1890 7256 41,685 1895 8060 41,922 17,622 320,969 5201 greatly, and her suffering is reflected in much of her early 4790 326,144 1899 8093 43,965 18,126 song. In 1861 she saw foreign countries for the first

ROSS time, paying a six weeks’ visit to Normandy and Paris. In 1862 she published what was practically her earliest book, Goblin Market, and took her place at once among the poets of her age. In this volume, indeed, is still to be found a majority of her finest writings. The Prince's Progress followed in 1866. In 1867 she, with her family, moved to 56 Euston Square, which became their home for many years. Christina’s prose work Commonplace appeared in 1870. In April 1871 her whole life was changed by a terrible affliction of the head, known as “ Graves’s disease”; for two years she was not merely very ill, but her life was in constant danger. She had already composed her book of children’s poems, entitled Sing-Song, which appeared in 1872. After a long convalescence, she published in 1874 two works of minor importance, Annus Domini and Speaking Likenesses. The former is the earliest of a series of theological works in prose, of which the second was Seek and Find in 1879. In 1881 she published a third collection of poems, A Pageant, in which there was evidence of slackening lyrical power. She now gave herself almost entirely to religious disquisition. The most interesting and personal of her prose publications (but it contained verse also) was Time Flies (1885), a sort of symbolic diary or collection of brief homilies. She collected her poetical writings in 1891. In 1892 she was led to publish a very bulky commentary on the Apocalypse, entitled The Face of the Deep. After this she wrote little. Her last years Avere spent in great retirement at 30 Torrington Square, Bloomsbury, which was her home from 1876 to her death. In 1892 her health, always extremely delicate and fluctuating, broke down finally, and she had to endure very terrible suffering. From this she was at length released on the 29th of December 1894. The Bishop of Durham, Dr Westcott, with whom she had been greatly in sympathy, preached her funeral sermon, and a memorial to her, designed by Sir E. Burne-Jones, was erected at Christ Church, Woburn Square, where she habitually worshipped. In spite of her manifest limitations of sympathy and experience, Christina Rossetti takes rank among the foremost poets of her time. In the purity and solidity of her finest lyrics, the glow and music in which she robes her moods of melancholy reverie, her extraordinary mixture of austerity with sweetness and of sanctity of tone with sensuousness of colour, Christina Rossetti, in her best pieces, may challenge comparison with the most admirable of our poets. The union of fixed religious faith with a hold upon physical beauty and the richer parts of nature has been pointed to as the most original feature of her poetry. Hers was a cloistered spirit, timid, nun-like, bowed down by suffering and humility; her character was so retiring as to be almost invisible. All that we really need to know about her, save that she was a great saint, was that she was a great poet. (e. g.) Rossetti, Dante Gabriel Charles (1828-1882), English painter and poet. A biography of Dante Gabriel Rossetti is given in the ninth edition of this Encyclopaedia (vol. xx. p. 857), in which his career, more especially as a poet, is treated. It is felt, however, that the view there taken of Rossetti as a painter, and the account given of his artistic work other than literary, require, in the light of the history of the subsequent developments of Rossetti’s influence on British art, to be supplemented; and in this article, accordingly, Rossetti’s record solely as an artist is briefly estimated, without any reference to other considerations. It is certain that throughout his own career he looked upon himself as a painter who wrote rather than as a versemaker who painted. Nevertheless, there can be no doubt that with regard to the constructive portion of his genius

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Rossetti was better equipped in verse than in design. He made himself an artist by means of enormous pains and amazing struggles against the difficulties imposed by a naturally desultory habit. It was rather late in 1843 that Gabriel Rossetti entered Sass’s art school (then conducted by Mr Cary), which was in great repute, and numbered John Everett Millais among its pupils. Here, working in a characteristically irregular manner, but making more progress than met the eye, lie remained till July 1846, when, having passed the probationary stage required at the Royal Academy, he was admitted a student in full: he did not aspire to grades higher than that of the Antique School, but continued to divide himself between drawing proper, poetic reading, and writing poetry. Time passed, and Rossetti, being much impressed by some of the early works of Ford Madox Brown exhibited at the Academy (1841), Westminster Hall (1844-45), and the British Institution (1845), sought from that master of technique technical instruction of a more direct and stringent kind than he had previously submitted to. Brown, ever generous in that way, undertook without a fee the training of Rossetti as a painter, and set him to work upon such rudimentary studies as pickle-pots and other “still-life.” The pupil’s course of such work was, as might be expected, short; the master’s example and that of Millais, together with the uncompromising energy of Mr Holman Hunt, with both of whom Rossetti became intimate about this time, helping and encouraging him. Most of all, perhaps, so far as his temporary impressions were concerned, a picture of Brown’s which was shown at the “ Free Exhibition,” Hyde Park Corner, in the spring of 1848 profoundly affected Rossetti. This was, of course, months before the formation of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in the autumn of the last-named year, when five painter-students, a sculptor (Thomas Woolner), and a layman (W. M. Rossetti) agreed upon certain principles they desired should obtain in art. None of the five owed the initiative of his views to any of the others or to Brown, whose impulse was purely technical and connected with Rossetti only; neither Millais, Holman Hunt, J. Collinson, nor F. G. Stephens needed the help of Madox Brown. The point of Pre-Raphaelite crystallization which had so great though brief an influence upon Rossetti’s life and art was found at a chance meeting of Rossetti, Millais, and Holman Hunt in Millais’ house in Gower Street, where certain prints from early Italian frescoes were studied. The enthusiasm of Rossetti led him to propose the formation of a “ Brotherhood ” with more or less definite views and much loftier aims than artists generally venture to announce. This took effect; the views of the remaining three men were already known, and in a few days they joined the new society and took their shares in the obloquy which attended the doings of Millais, Hunt, and Collinson. Brown, though invited, declined to become a P-R.B. Rossetti’s first effort was by means of “ The Girlhood of Mary, Virgin,” which in March 1849 was exhibited at Hyde Park Corner. It was a picture which attested the prodigious value of his studies since the previous October, and the native genius of the painter and the sincere passion with which he had accepted the obligations of Pre-Raphaelitism, as they were then, but not for long, understood. Nothing of his producing was more independent than the inception of “ The Girlhood of Mary, Virgin ” ; indeed (as the present writer believes) the design for it was made some half a year before the meeting in Gower Street, though the execution of this work owed not a little to the influence, if not the actual help, of Millais and Hunt. Its mysticism was Rossetti’s own, its technique owed something to Brown. On the whole, there can be no doubt that in this work was the first pronouncement of a

new view of art, a fresh technique and power rapidly developing itself. Of course, the style of this noteworthy and epoch-marking picture was jejune, its handling was imic, while its coloration and tonality were dry, not to say tlmi. Such was Rossetti’s advent in art under the Pre-Raphaelite banner. The picture’s reception was not encouraging, nor did the next work from his hands induce him to emerge from that proud exclusiveness in which all such minds as his are content to abide. The diverse moods of the other Brothers chose otherwise, but of Rossetti’s immediate circ e it has been truly said: “It appears that of seven young men and Brethren five have attained eminent positions, four of them being pre-eminent, although for years after the society was formed no single member, whatever his position might be, escaped insult, obloquy, and wicked and malicious misrepresentation. The more conspicuous the Brother \e.g., Millais], the more outrageously was he attacked.” No estimate of Rossetti’s genius, his triumph, and his life as a whole can be justly based without ample allowance being made for the circumstances which attended his advent as a painter. “Ecce Ancilla. Domini!’ the smaller picture which is now in the National Gallery of British Art at Millbank, was the natural sequence to that which we have been considering. It is so well known that its name suffices now, but it should be recognized as the one perfect outcome of the original motive of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood by its representative and typical member. It is replete with the mystical mood which then ruled the painter’s mind; that mood chose what may be called virginal white and its harmonies as its aptest coloration, and the intense light of morning sufficed for its tonality. It was exhibited at the Portland Gallery in 1850. After these pictures were finished, the outside world saw no more of Rossetti as a painter until it had prepared itself to see modern art from a higher plane than before. In December 1850 there appeared the first numbei. of The Germ, a magazine in which Rossetti had a leading place as the poet in verse and prose. The influence of Browning upon Rossetti was more potent in The Gey m than, in that splendid romance in water-colours called “ The Laboratory,” where a court lady of the ancien regime visits an old poison-monger to obtain from him a fatal potion for her rival in love. This wonderful gem of colour, glowing in lurid and wicked passion and voluptuous suggestion, marked the opening of the artist s second period and signalized his departure from that phase of Pre-Raphaelitism of which “ Ecce Ancilla Domini ! ” was the crowning achievement, and, so far as he was concerned, the artistic ne plus ultra. Millais and the other Bi others remained faithful during several years yet to come. Later in 1850, Rossetti produced the original, which is in ink, of the famous “ Hesterna Rosa,” a gambling scene of men and their mistresses in a tent by lamplight, while pallid dawn gathers force between the trees without. Then came from his hands “ Borgia,” which, like Idle Laboratory,” is in water-colours, and, like “ Hesterna Rosa, is a sardonic tragedy. “ How they met Themselves came next, and, in illustrating a legend similar. to that of the Doppelganger, affirmed the force, the originality, and the tragic passion of Rossetti’s genius. Two lovers are walking in a twilight wood, where they are confronted suddenly by their apparitions, portending death. The year 1852 produced “ Giotto painting Dante’s Portrait, and saw a new development of the painter’s mind and mood, dashed with a humour not often to be seen in him. In its somewhat dry coloration it differed from the ardent jewellike glow and deeper gloom of “ Borgia ” and its successor and the sumptuous visions of womanhood in later pictures. “Found,” Rossetti’s sole contribution of the sort which Mr Holman Hunt affected, was begun somewhere about this

period; but this piece of pictorial moralizing (the analogue of the poet’s own “ Jenny ”), vigorous and intensely pathetic as it is, was never really finished by its author, being, indeed, far remote from Rossetti’s inner self, which was rather over-scornful of didactic art, and thoroughly indisposed towards attempts to ameliorate anybody s condition by means of pictures. Nor did the stringency of naturalistic painting suit his mood or his experience. Nevertheless, what is his in the existing picture remains a masterpiece of poetry with exquisitely finished parts. Passing a few fine but comparatively unimportant drawings, such as “Lancelot and Guinevere at the Tomb of Arthur,” “Lancelot looking at the Dead Lady of Shalott,” “ Mariana of the South,” “ Sir Galahad, The Blue Closet,” and various works owing subjects to the Arthurian cycle of romances, we may note that the artist illustrated by five cuts Poems by Alfred Tennyson, on which Millais and Mr Holman Hunt were also engaged, and which was published by Moxon in 1857. As in “ Ecce _ Ancilla Domini! ” we had virginal white and morning light employed to strengthen the mystical significance of the design, so in “Borgia” Venetian voluptuousness and sensuous splendours obtained, and in “ The Blue Closet is a very potent and suggestive exercise intended to symbolize the association of colour with music. The last is one of the subtlest of the artist’s “inventions,” and it shows how he had developed upon “ Borgia ” an artistic sympathy which is but too likely to be “caviare to the general.” “The Wedding of St George” is not so fine; nor was “The Damsel of the Sangreal,” Rossetti’s part in the luckless decorations of the Oxford Union (1857-58); nor are “ Guinevere and Sir Lancelot,” “ Galahad in the Chapel, and other Arthurian examples quite worthy of his art. “ Bocca Baciata,” the super-sensuous portrait of a woman, a work of wonderful fire, and the pictures on the pulpit at Llandaff Cathedral, marked the expiration of the second epoch in Rossetti’s art and the beginning of a new, the third, last and most powerful of all the phases of his career. The picture “Dr Johnson at the Mitre,” when the “pretty fools” consulted the lexicographer anent Methodism, is a good example of his humour. In 1861 Rossetti produced several fine designs for stained glass, and in the revival of stained-glass painting as an art he had a larger share than has frequently been ascribed to him. The practice of designing upon a large scale, and employment of masses of splendid though deep-toned colours, had probably something to do with the prodigious development of his powers and the enlargement of his views as regards painting which took effect at this period (1862-63). At this time a striking and highly imaginative triptych, representing three events in . the careers of Paolo and Francesca, was produced; it is a great improvement upon an earlier design. There is unprecedented energy in the group of the lovers embracing in the garden-house just as they have paused in reading the fatal romance. The composition of this group, with the circular window behind their figures, is as fine as it was comparatively novel in Rossetti’s practice. Its lurid coloration was so thoroughly in harmony with the pathos of the subject that in this respect the work excelled all the painter had previously produced. The same elements, energy, a sympathetic and poetic scheme of colour, and composition of a fine order, combined with far greater force and originality in “The Bride,” or “The Beloved, that magnificent illustration of The Song of Solomon. The last named is a life-size group of powerfully coloured and diversely beautiful damsels accompanying their mistress with music and with song on her way to the bridegroom. This picture, as regards its brilliance, finish, the charms of four lovely faces, and the splendour of its

■ Ecce Ancilla Domini !” By Dante Gabriel Rossetti. (From a Photograph by Frederick Ilollyer.)

HOSSLAND—ROTHENBURG lighting, occupies a great place in the highest grade of modern art of all the world. It is likewise, so far as the qualities named are concerned, the crowning piece of Rossetti’s art, and stands for him much as the “ Sacred and Profane Love” of Titian represents that master. Very fine, indeed, but hardly so passionate and virile, is the “ Beata Beatrix,” now in the National Gallery of British Art with “ Ecce Ancilla Domini! ” which he produced thirteen years earlier. These works belong to a category of fine and quite original examples, all replete with similar technical qualities, poetry, and pathos. The group comprises paintings by which Rossetti is best known, such as “Proserpina in Hades,” which is, on the whole, perhaps the most original, if not indeed the most poetical and powerful, of all his output; “ Sibylla Palmifera; ” “ Venus Verticordia; ” “Lilith” (the better of the two versions is now referred to); “ Washing Hands ; ” “ Monna Vanna; ” “II Ramoscello;” “Aurea Catena;” “La Pia;” “Rosa Triplex;” “Veronica Veronese;” “La Ghirlandata;” “Pandora;” “The Blessed Damosel;” and, last and largest, but not, perhaps, the greatest, of his paintings (a distinction for which the “ The Bride ” and “ Proserpina ” must contend), the famous “ Dante’s Dream,” now in the Walker Art Gallery at Liverpool. Besides these, Rossetti produced a large number of fine things. Nearly the whole of them were exhibited by the Royal Academy and at the Burlington Fine Art Club in 1883, after their author’s death. Authorities.—W. M. Rossetti. Dante Gabriel Rossetti as Designer and Writer, 1889 ; Ruskin, Rossetti, Pre-Raphaelitism, 1899, and other texts.—F. G. Stephens. D. G. Rossetti. “Portfolio” monograph, 1894.—H. C. Marillier. D. G. Rossetti. 1899 and 1901 —W. Sharp. Dante Gabriel Rossetti: A Record and a Study. Macmillan, 1882.—T. Hall Caine. Recollections of Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Elliot Stock, 1882.—W. Allingham. Letters of Dante Gabriel Rossetti to William Allingham, 1854-70. T. Fisher Unwin, 1897.—See also “Vernon Lushington ” in the Oxford and Cambridge Magazine, 1856. (f. G. S.) Rossland, the most important city (incorporated in 1897) of the Kootenay district of British Columbia, the centre of a rich mining district. Some of the best known mines of British Columbia are in the neighbourhood of Rossland, which has been connected with the Canadian Pacific Railway, as well as with systems belonging to United States companies. It is distant a few miles by railway from Trail, on the banks of the Columbia, where an extensive smelting plant is in operation. Population (1901), 6159. RoSSla.ll, a town of Germany, duchy of Anhalt, on the right bank of the Elbe, by rail 3 miles north of Dessau and 35 south-east of Magdeburg. It has two castles, a good church, and produces machinery, paper, sealing-wax, wire goods, sugar, bricks, and chemicals, and has some boat-building. Population (1885), 6567 ; (1900), 10,061. Rostock, a seaport town of Germany, grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the Warnow, 8 miles above its entrance into the Baltic, and 46 miles by rail southwest of Stralsund. An assembly hall of the estates of Mecklenburg was built in the Gothic style in 1889-93. Other buildings, &c., include the theatre (1895) and the provincial lunatic asylum (1896), the latter on the right bank of the river. In 1900 the university was attended by 495 students and had 55 professors ; its library numbers some 175,000 volumes. Amongst the public institutions are the zoological, geological-mineralogical, commercial, and several medical institutes, the municipal picture gallery, a collection of municipal antiquities, a theological seminary, an astronomical observatory, an agricultural experimental station, a seamen’s school, and a botanical garden. Rostock is the chief commercial town of Mecklenburg, and owns a considerable fleet—49 vessels of 30,170 tons m 1900. in

301

1898 its port was cleared by 1743 vessels of 342,900 tons. Vessels drawing 16 feet are able to get up to the wharves. It is also a place of some industry. For a German town it enjoys a large share of autonomous government. Population (1885),"39,356 ; (1900), 54,713. Rostov-on-the-Don, a seaport of Russia, in the province of the Cossacks of the Don, 40 miles from the Sea of Azov. Its population has grown rapidly, and in 1897 numbered 119,889, exclusive of the suburbs; if these, which already form part of the town and comprise Nakhichevan (29,312), be included, the population is well over 150,000, a figure which is still further swollen in the summer by the influx of about 60,000 men, who find work in connexion with the shipment of grain for export. Owing to its very advantageous situation, on the navigable river Don and at the junction of three railways radiating to north-western Russia, the Caucasus, and the Volga, Rostov has become the chief seaport of. southeastern Russia, being second in importance on the Black Sea only to Odessa. It has immense storehouses for all sorts of goods shipped to the Caucasus and to the Don province, and is the chief centre for the supply of agricultural machinery to all the prairie provinces of southeastern Russia. Its foreign exports, which were valued at 41,000,000 roubles in 1882, were only 37,000,000 roubles in 1895; but on an average 35,000,000 roubles worth of wheat and 10,000,000 roubles worth of rye are exported annually, besides considerable quantities of flax, vegetable oils, raw wool, and caviare. The imports are insignificant. There are now a shipbuilding yard, two large _ tobacco factories, iron works, machinery works, distilleries, soap works, timber mills, bell foundries, paper mills, and rope works. Rostov is the chief centre of steam flour mills for south-eastern Russia and the Caucasus. The aggregate returns from all industrial establishments exceed £2,000,000 per annum. In 1897 the port was visited by 2840 ships of about 450,000 tons. The town is well built, and has about sixty schools, gymnasia, navigation schools, technical schools, &c., the city contributing freely to education. It has also a good municipal library, two theatres, two newspapers, and extensive systems of telephones and electric tramways. Rostov Velikiy, a district town of Russia, in the government and 34 miles by rail south-west of the town of Yaroslav, near Lake Rostov or Nero. It has a gymnasium for girls and a school of art, and there are twentyone factories (cotton and linen mills), employing about 1000 workmen and showing yearly returns of 1,000,000 roubles. Its great fair has lost its importance, but the town remains a centre for a variety of domestic trades: tailoring, e manufacture of leather, and the making of boots and small enamelled ikons; it is also a great centre for kitchen gardening and the export of pickled and dried vegetables. The restoration of the buildings of the large Kreml was begun in 1901. Its population in 1897 was 14,34^. Rothenburg ob der Tauber, a town of Bavaria, district of Middle Franconia, 49 miles by rail west by south of Nuremberg. _ It presents a charactemtically mediaeval appearance, with walls pierced y p esque old gates. Amongst the more mterestmg bui mg are the town-hall (1B78 and earheA hosp.tal (16,0-76) Topler Castle, the church of St James (1313 1471, restore in 1851), with three carved altar-pieces of the 15th century, and St Wolfgang’s church (1473^83). It also possesses a technical school, interesting archives, and manufacture of tovs agricultural machinery and implements, brewing, dvei’ng 4c Rothenburg, which is first mentioned in 942“ was a free imperial city from 1172 to 1803. In

ROTHERHAM—ROUBAIX

302

the Thirty Years’ War it suffered severely. Population (1885), 6826 ; (1900), 7923. Rotherham, a municipal borough and market town, Yorkshire, England, in the Rotherham parliamentary division of the West Riding, 5 miles north-east of Sheffield by rail. The manufacture of railway waggons is now an important industry. Population of municipal borough (1891), 42,061 ; (1901), 54,348. Rothesay, a royal burgh and the chief town of the county and island of Bute, Scotland, on a fine bay, 40 miles west by north of Glasgow. Fishing has left the port, which is almost exclusively given up to the Clyde passenger and tourist traffic. Modern buildings are^ a hydropathic (rebuilt after fire), a second institute (1885), and a new post office; there are also a Roman Catholic orphanage and an academy. Population (1891), 9108 , (1901), 9323. Rotten burg, a town and episcopal see of Wfirtemberg, Germany, on the left bank of the hfeckar, which is crossed by two bridges connecting the town with the suburb of Ehingen, 7 miles by rail south-west of Tubingen. It is the see of the Roman Catholic bishop of the kingdom, and possesses the (Gothic) cathedral of St Martin, a former Jesuit monastery with a collection of Roman antiquities from Sumelocenna near by, and an old castle now used as a prison. Tanning, machinery making, brewing, and the growing of hops are carried on. Population (1900), 7027. Rotterdam, the first commercial and the second largest city of the Netherlands, extended by the incorporation in 1886 of Delfshaven and in 1895 of Charlois and Kralingen, in the province of South Holland, 14^ miles by rail south-east of The Hague. Among the institutions of Rotterdam are a large infirmary (Groot Ziekenhuis), a school of music, a natural science society, with rich collections, and three theatres. A new building was erected in the west of the city to accommodate the archives in 1899—1900. The new waterway between Rotterdam and the North Sea, only 15 feet deep in 1880, has since been deepened to 29^ feet. The new docks opened include Rynhaven, on the left bank of the Maas, Parkhaven, the first and second Katendrechthaven, and the Dokhaven. Nassauhaven, newly constructed, also on the left bank of the river, is connected by railway with the large factories. Another dock, 143 acres in area, to cost £750,000, was in 1902 in process of construction. Between 1850 and 1897 the area of the docks increased from 96 to 309 acres, about two millions sterling having been spent on the building of docks in the final quarter of the 19th century. The following table shows the increase in the shipping of Rotterdam from 1885 to 1900 Percentage of Tonnage all Outgoing Sailing Steam Total Vessels from of Sailing and Vessels. Vessels. Steam Vessels. Holland leaving Rotterdam. 1885 1900

43 84

50 101

Tonnage of Exports from Rotterdam. 1885 1900

about 2,000,000 22,623,000

99,018 458,968

45 63-1

Shipping on the New Waterway, Number of Ships.

Tonnage.

8,177 15,202

4,382,100 36,349,000

According to the report of the Rotterdam Chamber of Commerce, the shipping of Rotterdam with a draught of trom 24 to 26| feet, to the exclusion of smaller vessels and fishing-smacks, numbered in 1899, 6890 vessels of 9,779,229 tons. ^Rotterdam’s share in the Rhine traffic has increased from 1,706,587 tons in 1883 to 6,494,375 tons in 1898. Of the total imports into Holland, more than 40 per cent, have in recent years entered by way of Rotterdam, and of the total imports into Holland of grain, ores, margarine, petroleum, and oils, 50 to 80 per cent, land at Rotterdam. Of the total imports into the kingdom of coffee, tobacco, rice, sugar, and seeds, Rotterdam receives respectively 49, 39, 26, 24, and 37 per cent. There are separate wharves, with six tanks, for the imports of petroleum from America and Russia. Of the total imports into Holland in 1898, estimated at 8,486,000 cwt., those entering by way of Rotterdam amounted to 5,952,000 cwt. Besides the river commerce with Germany, Rotterdam trades principally with the Dutch colonies of the East and West Indies, New York, La Plata, and the east and west coast of Africa. Shipbuilding yards, extending along the Maas to great distances above and below Rotterdam, build iron steamers and large ships, also for foreign countries. The population, 169,477 in 1884, numbered 332,185 in 1900. See Fruin. Dc oudste Oorkonden betreffende Rotterdam.— Scheffer and Obreen. Rotterdamsche Historiebladen. 1869-78. — De Bas. Rotterdam van 1853-78. — Tijdschrift van het Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, iv. 22. Rottweil, a town of Wurtemberg, Germany, above the river Neckar, 46 miles by rail south-west of Tiibingen. It is still in part surrounded by walls. It possesses a fine church of the Holy Cross (1364-1473), a collection _ of mediaeval wood-carvings, Roman antiquities, a salt mine and brine springs. Population (1885), 6052; (1900), 7970. Roubaix, an industrial town in the north of France, situated 6 miles north-east of Lille, and only 1 mile from the Belgian frontier, on the Roubaix canal which connects the Deule with the Scheldt in Belgium. Its population has risen from 91,000 in 1881 to 124,660 in 1901. With the adjoining communes of Tourcoing, Croix, and Watrelos the combined population is 250,000. The woollen industry is the chief business of Roubaix. In 1898 there were 8 wool-combing works with 750 combing machines; 44 spinning mills (28 for combed or carded wool, 15 for cotton, 1 for floss silk); 129 weaving establishments (26 for cloth, 18 for woollen goods, 9 for velvet, 8 for upholstery, 2 for black goods, 1 for linen thread, 65 for novelties and miscellaneous goods). In 1897 Roubaix contained 39 dyeworks and 17 establishments for finishing and dressing. Mechanical work prevails in the town, as shown by the fact that there are 20,000 steam looms and only 5000 hand looms. Four hundred firms act as commission agents for the sale of raw material and the other requisites for industries. The station of the Northern Railway at Roubaix, where the merchandise arriving by goods train in 1887 amounted to 443,350 tons, in 1898 received 952,016 tons. On the canal the transport tonnage has also risen, and from 491,651 tons (English) in 1887 reached 595,322 tons in 1898. The trade of the port consists principally of building materials, agricultural produce, and coal. A modern industry is that of tomato and grape growing, under glass, for the winter market. To maintain the high standard of artistic taste which has made the industry of Roubaix a success, schools have been multiplied, and by the cooperation of the town and the State the National School of Industrial Arts has been founded. This is a small university of art, commerce, and industry, the twenty-two courses of which include all the branches of knowledge useful in any of those pursuits. There is also a special establishment {bureau de conditionnevient) for determining the nature and weight of silk, wool, and cotton. The chief streets, lined with elegant buildings, contrast in their luxury with the poverty of the sordid working-class quarters. The town, a third of the population of which

ROUEN— R O U H E R is Belgian, is a centre of socialism and collectivism. The number of public-houses is exceedingly high in proportion to the inhabitants—one for every 60 persons or for every 15 adult males.

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Rouher, Eugene (1814-1884), French statesman, was bom at Biom, in the Puy de Dome, 30th November 1814. He was educated at the lycee of his native town, and having taken his law degree at Paris in 1835, began to practise his profession at Riom. At this ROUen, chief town of the department of Seine- stage in his career he was a Liberal, but greatly to the Inferieure, 84 miles from Paris by rail. It is now only the astonishment of both friends and enemies, in 1846 he eleventh town of France in respect of population, after stood in the Conservative interest for Riom, with the having occupied the fifth rank. support of the Guizot ministry. Though unsuccessful, Its port on the Seine has grown in importance, but industry in he again championed the Conservative cause at the general has made no progress. The port is accessible to ships of general election of 1848, and was returned to the nbout 5000 tons, which can come up to it on a single tide. The Constituent Assembly for the Puy de Dome. Re-elected bassin maritime is lined with quays and continuous wharves for a to the Legislative Chamber in 1849, to the great surprise length of about 11 mile on both the right and left hanks of the river. Its platforms cover 42 acres on the north and 33 acres on of the political world he became prime minister of the south. Those of the bassin aux hois (wood dock) cover 30 the Prince President, with the title of Minister of Justice acres, and there are 11 wharves of a total length of 3176 feet. and Keeper of the Seals. Cautious and subservient, The petroleum dock has 8 wharves, with a length of 2362 feet. he was entrusted by Napoleon with the drawing up The total available length of these docks in which ships can lie of the new Constitution after the Coup d’etat of 2nd and discharge is 4 miles, and the total platform area round the docks is 111 acres. Railway lines run across the quays and connect December 1851 had laid France prostrate at his feet. them with the stations of Martainville on the north and of Orleans But as it required a more daring nature than that of and St Sever on the south. Subterranean canalization conveys the the provincial barrister to carry the drastic scheme into petroleum direct from its special dock to the refineries. The river effect, the cabinet was reconstructed under Marshal St dock covers 28 acres. The maritime port has a repairing dock for vessels 312 feet long and of 1800 tons. Its quays are lighted Arnaud, Rouher remaining out of office. When Louis by electricity or gas. Formerly the Seine at Rouen was crossed Napoleon became emperor of the French in 1852, Rouher only by the stone bridge of Corneille and by a suspension bridge, had his reward. He re-entered the Imperial service as the middle portion of which opened to permit the passage of ships. vice-president of the Council of State. The emperor The latter has been replaced by the Boieldieu bridge, the first steel bridge built in France, costing £140,000, and inaugurated in 1888. likewise presented him with £40,000 and the estate of A slung moving bridge has a height of not less than 197 feet, and Cirey. In 1855 he became minister of commerce connects the banks of the Seine. Steam ferry boats also place the and public works. In this capacity he provided the shores in communication. In 1899, 2604 vessels of 1,145,921 tons emperor and Baron Haussmann with enormous sums of entered and 2637 of 1,149,382 tons cleared, showing a progression corresponding to the improvement in the channel of the Seine. money for the rebuilding and embellishment of Paris, and The value of the exports amounted to £2,144,000, and that of the for various undertakings in the provinces. To Rouher imports to £8,364,000. In 1898 the river dock was entered and was also intrusted the important task of preparing the cleared by 10,437 ships of 2,072,442 tons. The principal imports treaty of commerce with England, a work involving great of Rouen are cereals (165,000 tons in 1899), wine (191,000 tons), and detailed labour. In 1860 the treaty was carried petroleum, wood (254,600 tons), and wood pulp (39,900 tons). The exports are sugar, plaster, sand, and pyrites. On 31st December through, and some time afterwards its French sponsor 1899 there were 176 ships of 36,669 tons attached to the port, at visited England, where he was much feted. Though pliant which 16 French and 10 foreign shipping companies call regularly. towards the emperor, Rouher was not popular with his The cotton industry, which made the fortune of Rouen, and reached its highest prosperity in the middle of the 19th century, ministerial colleagues, towards whom he assumed a is in a depressed state. In 1896 only 1,223,442 spindles were haughty attitude. In 1863 he was appointed minister of working in the whole department of Seine-Inferieure, and the state, and as such was spokesman of the Government in decline continued till the end of 1898. Subsequently, however, the Corps Legislatif. Though no orator, he was now the the situation somewhat improved. In 1883 there were 48 powerloom weaving mills in the department, 29 of which were in Rouen, most prominent statesman, as well as the most powerful employing 14,000 power-looms and 10,000 hand-looms. The latter minister, of the Second French Empire. But with men are decreasing. In 1890 there were only 3700 hand-looms in the like Thiers, Berryer, and Jules Favre arrayed against him, whole department. Neither has cotton-printing made progress. he could only carry out the Imperial policy by a frequent use Rouen enjoys protective tariffs in Indo-China and Madagascar. In 1895, through an Indo-China syndicate, 1195 tons of white cotton of the cloture, although the Government had an enormous goods, bleached and unbleached, and nearly 600 tons of coloured majority in the Chamber. After a constitutional contest and printed goods were exported. Flax, hemp, and jute are spun in the Chamber prolonged over several years, the emperor in the neighbourhood, and there is a flourishing manufacture of was convinced in 1869 that reforms must be granted. A braces. That of printed calico declines. In 1897, 14 firms each manifesto was accordingly issued restoring parliamentary turned out 560,000 pieces of 1083 yards length each ; 300,000 pieces were made in the homes of the workers. These products institutions, and M. Emile Ollivier was placed at the head are sent to Algeria, Madagascar, &c. Dyeing progresses, 12,000 of a Liberal cabinet in order to carry them out. Rouher, tons of cotton being dyed annually, but the bleaching and finish- however, was the moving force behind the cabinet, and ing industries are depressed ; the manufacture of carding combs in January 1870 he was appointed president of the is, on the other hand, rising. Rouen is an important centre of chemical industries, producing various acids, salts of tin, lead, Senate. After the fall of the empire, Rouher fled to zinc, cobalt, and nickel. One company alone employs 800 work- England. The rest of his life was spent as the representamen, and produces 160,000 tons of products. There are two im- tive of the fallen empire in France, and the faithful and portant soap-works. The clothing industry, the manufacture of untiring agent there of the Imperial family. A constituency machine-made boots, which increases rapidly, and the hat industry in Corsica, which had always been faithful to the deserve notice. The manufacture of machinery declines. There are only two important workshops making steam motors, boilers, Bonapartes, returned him as deputy to the National and various machinery, and five factories for heavy copper ware Assembly in February 1872. From that period until the and safety fittings for boilers. Much grain is distilled at Rouen, death of the Prince Imperial in 1879 he carried on a mainly maize and rice. The petroleum industry is considerable, ceaseless Bonapartist propaganda, and his house in Paris engaging four mills, each able to produce annually from 50,000 to 60,000 tons of raw and 40,000 to 50,000 tons of refined petroleum. was used as the headquarters of the party. In 1875 he In 1899 Rouen imported 115,000 tons of raw petroleum from delivered a violent speech against the Republic at Ajaccio. Russia and the United States. A celluloid factory has also some His prosecution was mooted, but the Government finally importance. Rouen is being improved by the gradual restoration contented itself with dismissing the mayor of Ajaccio of the grand/bfacfe of its cathedral. Monuments of recent erection include one to Jeanne d’Arc. The population in 1896 was 106,825, from office. The untoward death of the Prince Imperial was a calamity from which Rouher never recovered, and and in 1901, 115,914.

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ROULETTE —ROUSSEAU in the summer of 1883 he was stricken with paralysis times; and as there are thirty-seven numbers on the and lost his reason. His death occurred at Cirey on 3rd board, with the advantage already described of imprisoning the even money chances when zero comes up, it February 1894. (G- B- s-) will be seen that there is a steady percentage in favour Rouiette.—Roulette is one of the most ingenious of the tables and consequently against the player. The games ever devised, for the reason that temptation to maximum stake allowed en plein is 180 francs. The next continue assails the player from so many directions and in most daring selection is a cheval, when the stake is placed so many ways : rich successes are sometimes attained, and on the line separating any two numbers, and if either of very frequently only just missed, whilst all the time there them wins the player is paid seventeen times, the highest is a steady, infallible, and undeviating bias against the stake permissible being 360 francs. Transversale pleine player in favour of the bank. It is solely a game of covers any three numbers in a line, the coin or note being chance, a fact strenuously contradicted by half-informed placed on the line dividing either of the numbers from the students, for so-called “systems” are innumerable, and neighbouring even money chance, as for instance between some of them for a greater or a longer period often appear 4 and passe, or 6 and manque. A transversale simple covers to give the player an advantage. There is no possible six numbers, as for example where the line between 4 and 7 system, however, which will assure success in the long joinsor between 6 and 9 joins manque ; and if either run, and it is herein that the ingenuity of the game con- of these numbers wins, five times the value of the stake is sists. Every systematic method of play must depend paid, the maximum here being 1200 francs. En carre upon increased stakes to retrieve past losses; and though includes four numbers, the coin being placed, for instance, a player with an unlimited capital might be practically on the cross between 1, 2, 4, 5, or 28, 29, 31, 32 ; eight certain to achieve his end in the course of time, the cir- times the value of the stake is paid, and the maximum is cumstance of there always being a maximum renders the 760 francs. It will be seen from the board that the dozens bank invincible. The roulette table, covered with a green and the columns are also indicated, the first dozen of cloth, is made up of precisely corresponding halves, a course including 1 to 12. In each of the columns are circular space let into the middle holding the wheel, on twelve numbers in different order. A stake placed on either side of which the cloth is marked out as in the either a dozen or a column is paid twice its value, the accompanying illustration. The wheel is divided into maximum here being 3000 francs. A stake very constantly played is called the quatre premiers, which includes zero, thirty - seven com1, 2, and 3, the stake being placed on the line where zero partments, marked and 1 join passe, or where zero and 3 join manque. If alternately black either of these four numbers, including zero, wins, the stake and red, numbered is paid eight times; and four times eight being thirtyfrom one to thirtytwo, there is a greater advantage to the table than when six, the thirtyit loses en plein or on certain other chances. Zero can also seventh being zero. be played in combination with any one or two of its neighPair indicates even bours ; if with one of them the stake is paid seventeen numbers, impair times, if with two of them eleven times. A croupier sits odd numbers; on either side of the wheel; there is also one at each end manque includes of the table, their business being to assist the players in the numbers from 1 staking and recovering their winnings. Behind each of to 18; passe, from the former pair an official on a high chair supervises the 19 to 36. The table. The croupier whose duty it is to spin the wheel methods of staking waits for a time till stakes have been made, and then, are innumerable. exclaiming, “ Messieurs, faites votre jeu ! ” sets the cylinder Rouge, noir, pair, in motion, throwing the ball in the direction contrary to impair, manque, that in which the wheel revolves. When it is seen that and passe are even the ball will soon fall at rest in one of the compartchances; i.e., a ments of the cylinder the croupier gives the notice, “ Rien stake put upon ne va plus,” after which no stakes can be placed. When any of them—live the ball finally rests in the compartment, the croupier francs being the announces the number and the even money chances that minimum at rouwin, as for instance rouge, impair, and manque. He and .'lette:—is paid in his fellows then proceed to gather in with a rake all the corresponding coin money that has been lost, after which the winnings are should the player paid and the game proceeds. (a. e. t. w.) win, the exception being when the Roumania. See Rumania. little ball which is spun round the Rousseau, Pierre Etienne Theodore wheel falls into (1812-1867), French painter, one of the artists of Barbizon, zero, in which case the even money chances are put “ in prison ” ; that is. to in many ways the strongest of the group, and a landscape say, laid aside in the place shown in the design (the thick painter who devoted himself in his prime almost entirely to vertical line in the spaces marked passe, pair, manque, pictures of the Forest of Fontainebleau. He was an only impa/ir and the black and red diamonds) until another son, and was born in Paris on 15th April 1812, of a spin, when if the bank wins they are lost, if the player bourgeois family which included one or two artists. At wins he is allowed to retrieve his money. The maximum first he received a business training, but very soon displayed in the case of these chances is 6000 francs. Any one who a special aptitude for painting. Although his father redesires to play en plein puts his stake on one of the thirty- gretted the decision at first, he speedily became reconciled seven numbers. If the ball falls into the corresponding to his son leaving business, and throughout the artist’s number on the cylinder, the stake is paid thirty-five career (for he survived his son) was an ardent sympathiser

‘Marsh in the Landes.” By Theodore Rousseau. (From a Photograph by Levy et sesfils.)

ROUXVILLE —ROVNO 305 with him in all his conflicts with the Salon authorities. whom Rousseau justly had the highest regard, was much Theodore Rousseau shared to the full the difficulties of the with him during the last years of his life, and at his death romantic painters of 1830 in securing for their pictures a Millet took charge of the insane wife, whose malady had place in the annual Paris exhibition. The whole influence so seriously harassed the artist. Rousseau was a very of the classically trained artists was against them, and not good friend to Diaz, teaching him how to paint trees, until 1848 was Rousseau adequately presented to the for up to a certain point in his career Diaz considered he public. He had exhibited one or two unimportant works could only paint figures. in the Salon of 1831 and 1834, but in 1836 his great Rousseau’s pictures are always grave in character, with work “ La Descente des Vaches ” was rejected by the vote an air of exquisite melancholy which is powerfully of the classic painters; and from then until after the attractive to the lover of landscapes. They are well revolution of 1848 he was persistently refused. He was finished when they profess to be completed pictures, but not without champions in the press, and under the title of Rousseau spent so long a time in working up his subjects “ le grand refuse ” he became known through the writings that his absolutely completed works are comparatively few of Thore, the trenchant critic who afterwards resided in in number. He left many canvases with parts of the England and wrote under the name of Burger. During picture realized in detail and with the remainder somewhat these years of artistic exile Rousseau produced some of his vague; and also a good number of sketches and waterfinest pictures : “ The Chestnut Avenue,” “ The Marsh in colour drawings. His pen work in monochrome on paper the Landes ” (now in the Louvre, see Plate), “ Hoar- is rare; it is particularly searching in quality. Frost” (now in America); and in 1851, after the reThere are a number of fine pictures by Rousseau in the organization of the Salon in 1848, he exhibited his Louvre, and the Wallace collection contains one of his masterpiece, “ The Edge of the Forest ” (also in the most important Barbizon pictures. There is also an Louvre), a picture similar in treatment to, but slightly example in the lonides collection at the Victoria and varied in subject from, the composition called “A Glade Albert Museum. in the Forest of Fontainebleau,” in the Wallace collection Authorities.—Alfred Sensier. Souvenirs sur Th. Rousat Hertford House. seau. Paris, 1872.—E. Michel. Les Artistes Celebres: Th. Up to this period Rousseau had lived only occasionally Rousseau. Paris, 1891.—J. W. Mollett. Rousseau and Diaz. at Barbizon, but in 1848 he took up his residence in the London, 1890.—D. Croal Thomson. The Rarbizon School of forest village, and spent most of his remaining days in the Painters: Th. Rousseau. London, 1892.—Albert Wolff. La Capitale de l'Art: Th. Rousseau. Paris, 1886.—E. Chesneau. vicinity. He was now at the height of his artistic power, Peintres Romantiques: Th. Rousseau. Paris, 1880.—Ph. Burty. and was able to obtain fair sums for his pictures (but only Maitres et Petit-Maitres: Th. Rousseau,. Paris, 1877. about one-tenth of their value thirty years after his death), (d. C. T.) and his circle of admirers steadily increased. He was still Rouxville. See Orange River Colony. ignored by the authorities, for while Diaz was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1851, Rousseau Rovereto, or Roveredo, one of the chief inwas left undecorated at this time, but was nominated dustrial cities of South Tirol, and, after Trent, the prinshortly afterwards. cipal seat of the Tirolese silk manufacture. Population At the Exposition Universelle of 1855, where all (1890), 9030; (1900), 10,180, Italian and Catholic (about Rousseau’s rejected pictures of the previous twenty years 5 per cent. German). Leather and paper are manufactured, were gathered together, his works were acknowledged to in addition to the staple silk industry, and there is a conform one of the finest of the many splendid groups there siderable trade in silk, sumac, corn, wine, hams, and exhibited. But during his lifetime Rousseau never really sausages. conquered French taste, and after an unsuccessful sale of his works by auction in 1861, he seriously contemplated RovigTIO, a town on the Adriatic coast, in the leaving Paris for Amsterdam or London, or even New Austrian province of Istria, of which it is the chief trading York. Misfortune then overtook him : his wife, who had centre. Population (1890), 9662; (1900), 10,205, Italian been a source of constant anxiety for years, became almost and Catholic. It is the principal centre of the Austrian hopelessly insane; his aged father looked constantly to tunny and sardine fishery. The industries, in addition him for pecuniary assistance; his patrons were few in to shipbuilding and the preservation of fish, include the number. Moreover, while he was temporarily absent with manufacture of tobacco, cement, macaroni and similar his invalid wife, a youth living in his home (a friend of preparations, and flour. his family) committed suicide in his Barbizon cottage; when he visited the Alps in 1863, making sketches of Rovigo, a town and episcopal see of Italy, Venetia, Mont Blanc, he fell dangerously ill with inflammation of capital of the province of Rovigo. It stands on the low the lungs; and when he returned to Barbizon he suffered ground between the lower Adige and the lower Po, 50 miles from insomnia and became gradually weakened in strength. by rail south-west of Venice, and on the Adigetto canal. Its He was elected president of the fine art jury for the. institutions include a 17th-century campanile, a technical 1867 Exposition. His extreme disappointment at being school, a bronze equestrian monument (1894) to Garibaldi passed over in the distribution of the higher awards by Ferrari, and a monument (1881) of Victor Emmanuel told seriously on his health, and in August he was seized by Monteverde. Population (1881), 10,800 ; (1899), about with paralysis. He slightly recovered, but was again 7500. attacked several times during the autumn. Finally, in November, he began to sink, and he died, in the presence ROVnO, a district town of Russia, in the government of his lifelong friend, J. F. Millet, on 22nd December of Volhynia, 150 miles by rail west-north-west of Zhitomir. 1867. Population (1897), 24,905. It has several steam flour Rousseau’s other friend and neighbour, Jules Dupre, mills and Crown provision factories, and carries on an himself an eminent landscape painter of Barbizon, relates active trade in corn, cattle, and timber. LTnder the the difficulty Rousseau experienced in knowing when his name of Rovensk it was one of the oldest towns of picture was finished, and how he, Dupre, would sometimes Volhynia, having been founded in the 13th century. It take away from the studio some canvas on which Rousseau became subsequently a dependency of Poland, and wyas an was labouring too long. Millet, the peasant painter, for important centre of trade in the 16 th century. Later on S. VIII.— 39

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R O V N 0 Y E — ROWING

it was utterly ruined by the Cossacks and the Tatars, and | interests of boat-racing generally. It consists of clubs which adopt the following definition of an amateur, was finally annexed to Russia. namely -No person shall be considered an amateur oarsRovnoye, a town of Russia, in the government of man, sculler, or coxswain (1) who has ever rowed or Kherson, on the Tashlyk river, 23 miles from Bobrinets. steered in any race for a stake, money, or entrance fee ; It was founded in 1785 by runaways from all parts of (2) who has ever knowingly rowed or steered with or Russia, and has become a wealthy town, carrying on trade against a professional for any prize; (3) who has ever in agricultural produce and the manufacture of carriages. taught, pursued, or assisted in the practice of athletic Its population in 1897 was 24,905. exercises of any kind for profit; (4) who has ever been employed in or about boats, or in manual labour, for Rovuma, a considerable river in East Africa, money or wages; (5) who is or has been by trade or forming during the greater part of its course the boundary employment for wages a mechanic, artisan, or labourer, or between German and Portuguese territory. The lower engaged in any menial duty; (6) who is disqualified as Rovuma is formed by the junction in 38° 1' E. of two an amateur in any other branch of sport. Any amateur branches of nearly equal importance, the longer of which, club willing to bind itself to observe the rules of the the Lujenda, conies from the south-west, the other, which association may become affiliated, subject to election by the still bears the name Rovuma, from the west. Its source committee, and all the amateur clubs of any importance lies on an undulating plateau, 3000 feet high, immediately in the United Kingdom are members. The government to the east of Lake ISTyasa, in 10 45 S., 35 40 E., the and management of the Amateur Rowing Association headstream flowing first due west before turning south (or A.R.A., as it is usually designated) is vested in a and east. In its eastward course the Rovuma flows near committee of twenty-five, who have power to affiliate the base of the escarpment of an arid sandstone plateau to clubs, appoint officers, make or alter rules, suspend, disthe north, from which direction the streams, which have qualify, and reinstate amateurs, and generally determine cut themselves deep channels in the plateau edge, have all questions and disputes relating to boat-racing which almost all short courses. On the opposite bank the Rovuma may be referred to them. The principal amateur regattas receives, besides the Lujenda, the Msinje and Luchulingo, and boat-races have been held in accordance with the flowing in broad valleys running from south to north. “ Rules for Regattas ” and “ Laws of Boat-Racing ” drawn The Lujenda rises in close proximity to Lake Chilwa or up by this body. They are of the greatest assistance to Shirwa, in the small Lake Chiuta (1700 feet), the swamps the stewards or committees of small regattas, as the local to the south of this being separated from Chilwa only by a officials might often be unwilling to inquire too closely narrow wooded ridge. The stream which issues from Chiuta into the amateur status of visiting crews, or to enforce passes by a swampy valley into the narrow Lake Amaramba, the lawrs of boat-racing too strictly, had they not bound from which the Lujenda finally issues as a stream 80 themselves, when they accepted the entrance fees and yards wide. Lower down it varies greatly in width, offered prizes, to hold their regattas “ under the rules of containing in many parts long wooded islands which rise above the flood level, and are often inhabited. The river the A.R.A.” Two important changes have been made in the Henley is fordable in many places in the dry season. At its Regatta course. Before 1886 the races started at the mouth it is about a mile wide. The lower Rovuma, which end of the Temple Island and finished at Henley is often half a mile wide but generally shallow, flows through upper Bridge. This course was practically straight for threea swampy valley flanked by plateau escarpments contain- quarters of the distance, but at the end there was a curve ing; several small backwaters of the river. The mouth, which, in a close race, gave a distinct advantage to the which lies in 10° 28' S., is entirely in German territory, the boundary near the coast being formed by the parallel of boat which rowed from the Berkshire side. In 1886 a new course was instituted, starting at the lower end of 10° 40'. The length of the Rovuma is about 500 miles. the island and finishing at the upper end of the wall of See Proc. R.G.S., February 1882, September 1884, December Phyllis Court lawn. This course is of the same length as 1886, April 1890 (map). the old one, namely, 1 mile 550 yards, but, although it Rowing1. — United Kingdom. — The last twenty has two slight angles in favour of the Buckinghamshire years of the 19th century witnessed a further decline station, it is to all intents and purposes straight. The in the standard of English professional sculling, but course is marked out on either side by a line of piles the period since 1880 has been one of remarkable driven into the river-bed. Between 1886 and 1899 some prosperity in the amateur world. Efforts have been made minor alterations were made in the course. In 1888 it not only in England but also in the British colonies, was narrowed to 120 feet, and in 1897 it was brought in the United States of America, and in several countries farther over to the Berkshire side, in order to diminish the on the continent of Europe, to keep amateur rowing pure advantage given to the Buckinghamshire boat in a westerly and free from the taint of professionalism, and these wind by the shelter of the trees upon that bank. Between efforts have on the whole met with considerable success. 1889 and 1899 the number of spectators continued to Nearly all the minor regattas in England are now held increase, and there were frequent instances of races being under the rules of the Amateur Rowing Association, and interfered with by craft which were forced out on to the even the stewards of Henley Regatta hold their regatta course by the crush of boats; and consequently, in 1899, “ in accordance with ” the rules of that body. The exact the regatta stewards resolved to place floating booms effect of the distinction is not obvious, but—such as it is—it between the piles along the greater portion of the Buckingis probably due to the fact that should any difference of hamshire side of the course, and along the last part of the opinion arise between these bodies, the committee of the Berkshire side. This proposal to boom off the course was Amateur Rowing Association (founded in 1876) are hardly very severely criticized, but the stewards had the courage in a position to dictate to the stewards of Henley Regatta of their opinions, and carried it into effect. It proved to be a great advantage not only to the competitors, who thus (founded in 1839). The Amateur Rowing Association exists for the follow- have a clear course, but also to the spectators, who are ing objects :—(1) To maintain the standard of amateur able to take their ease and watch the rowing without fear rowing as recognized by the Universities and principal of being pushed out on to the course during the progress boat clubs of the United Kingdom. (2) To promote the of the races. These and many other minor improvements

ROW I N G were instituted on the initiative and under the personal supervision of Mr Herbert T. Steward, for many years chairman of the managing committee of the regatta stewards, and it is not too much to say that the continued success of the meeting was to a great extent due to the enthusiastic and practical interest which he took in its welfare. Another noticeable modern feature of the Henley Regatta has been the increase of foreign competition. Twice have the British colours been lowered in the Diamond Sculls. In 1892 these sculls were won by Mr J. J. K. Ooms, a Dutch sculler of considerable power and undoubted pace; and in 1897 the winner was Mr E. H. Ten Eyck, the son of an American professional sculler. This oarsman sent in his entry again in 1898, but it was refused by the stewards. In the principal rowing events Englishmen have held their own. In 1895 a Canadian crew were beaten by two feet only for the Stewards’ Cup, but on few other occasions, if any, have the home crews been really hard pressed by any of the Canadian, American, French, Dutch, or German crews who have competed. A Dutch crew, the Xereus Boating Club (Amsterdam University), won the Thames Challenge Cup in 1895, but this is not considered a first-class event. In 1901 a very strong crew from the University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A., competed for the Grand Challenge Cup, and were beaten after a good race by Leander Club in the final heat. The former crew had practised together for nearly a year, while business and other engagements prevented the Leander men from getting a crew together till within a fortnight of the regatta. An outcry was raised in the newspapers against the unfairness of subjecting English crews, who with true amateur spirit treated rowing as a pastime, to competition with foreign crews who, although they obeyed the letter of the amateur definition, really made a business of their rowing. A motion was proposed at the October meeting of the Henley Stewards to exclude foreign crews from the regatta, but it was defeated by a large majority. On July 21, 22, and 23, 1902, a regatta for eights, organized by Lord O’Brien on the river Lee near Cork, Ireland, over a two-mile course, attained the character of an international meeting, by reason of the entry, at the instance of the German Emperor, of a strong Berlin eight. The final heat, in which this crew met Leander, afforded a fine exhibition of the different styles of British and Continental rowing; and the result, a victory for Leander by one and a quarter length clear, was in accordance with general anticipations. In order to allow the stewards to make proper inquiry into the amateur status and elegibility of foreign competitors, they have as a rule to make their entries prior to the 1st of April; but members of any club affiliated to the Union des Societes Francaises de Sports Athletiques, or to the Federation Beige des Societes d’Aviron, or of the Deutscher Ruder Yerband, or of the Yerbouden Uederlandsche Roeivereenigingen, may make their entries on or before the 1st of June. Speaking generally, the high standard of English rowing was well maintained during the closing period of the century. The ideal style aimed at is much the same as it was at the beginning of the ’eighties,. and very few coaches would now find fault with the directions for rowing laid down in the ninth edition of this work. The doctrine that the extra length of reach given by the sliding seat is to be used in addition to the long bodyswing of fixed-seat rowing, and not in substitution for it, has long been preached by theorists, but it was not until some ten or fifteen years after the introduction of the sliding seat that oarsmen really learned to put it into practice. On a fixed seat the muscles of the legs do a certain amount of work, while the bulk of it falls on the

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muscles of the back: the sliding seat allows the muscles of the legs to be used to the fullest extent; and the primary object of a coach should be to get the correct combination of these two sets of muscles in every member of his crew. A man who has got over this difficulty and uses his slide and swing simultaneously from the moment that his blade enters the water until the moment that it leaves it is said to “ slide well,” and a crew which slides well but has many minor faults will in most cases travel faster than a crew which slides badly, even although the latter has got rid of nearly all the minor faults in style, and has the greater polish and more taking appearance of the two. The art of coaching has made a distinct advance, and those who superintend the training of crews appear to make a more minute study than they did formerly, not only of the faults of a crew, but also of the best methods of pointing out those faults to their pupils, and of assisting them to effect a remedy. There have been, of course, from the earliest days a few coaches who thoroughly understood this art—for it is an art—but it is in the instructions given to college crews at the Universities and to junior crews of the metropolitan clubs that this improvement is most noticeable, although it must be admitted that the latter class do not seem to have benefited very much by the advice they have received. The value of good coaching to a crew cannot be over-estimated, for even the best oarsmen are apt unconsciously to develop faults in style, which grow upon them unless they are at once eradicated. In 1901 Dr Warre, the headmaster of Eton, designed a boat for the Oxford crew, which was considerably shorter and broader than those generally used. She carried the crew for whom she was designed to victory, but she did not meet with universal approval. She was used again (in 1902) by a crew for whom she was much too small. Y ith this exception, there has not been any substantial change in the lines or construction of the hulls of racing-boats. Some of our best scullers set their faith on boats of a short and broad build, but it is doubtful if they will ever entirely supersede the long narrow craft which have been in vogue since keel-less boats were first introduced. Many new internal fittings have, however, appeared from time to time. Some of them have stayed, and others have vanished as suddenly as they appeared. Sliding seats running upon “ rollers ” (small vulcanite wheels) have permanently superseded those which moved backwards and forwards upon oiled steel runners. Outriggers are made of tubular steel, which is at once lighter and more rigid than the old-fashioned solid metal. Swivel rowlocks are sometimes used in pair-oars and fouroars, but they are considered unsuitable to eight-oared rowing, where the beginning of the stroke has to be firmly and smartly caught. The only universal change in the pattern of oars has been the introduction of Messrs Ayling’s patent button, by which the risk of breakage at that point has been reduced to a minimum. Formerly the leather button where the oar rests in the rowlock was attached by two long nails driven into the wood, and there were many instances of the oar giving way at that point under the strain of a race. The patent button is fixed by screws to a metal plate, which is placed flush with the oar and kept in place by a tight covering of leather, and this covering is attached to the oar by two rows of small tacks, which do not penetrate more than an eighth of an inch into the wood. Since these buttons have been in use there has been no instance of an oar being broken at the button by fair rowing in any of the more important races. The literature of rowing has been increased by three works which deal in detail with the arts of rowing, sculling, steering, and trainino- the measurements of boats and oars, and the history of boat-

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racing since the inception of the sport; these are the volume on Rowing in the Isthmian Library series, the volume on Rowing and Punting in the Badminton Library series published by Messrs Longmans, Green, & Co., and Oxford Rowing, by the Rev. W. L. Sherwood. (c. M. P.) United States.—Rowing is one of the oldest of welldefined sports in America, having been taken up in the colleges about 1840. In 1852 the first race between Yale and Harvard was rowed at Lake Winipiseogee. For a time the races were rowed in all sorts of crafts and under all kinds of rig—four-oar, six-oar, eight-oar, barges, lap streaks, &c. But after a while the universities settled down to six-oared shell racing, and later to eight-oared. The National Rowing Association of American colleges was formed in 1872, and regattas were held at Springfield on the Connecticut river. Afterwards Saratoga offered greater inducements, and the lake there was adopted. In 1875 thirteen colleges sent crews to the races at this meeting; but the organization was apparently too bulky, and] the loss of Yale in 1876, and of Harvard in the following year, seemed to put an end to the interest, and the association fell to pieces. Since that time Harvard and Yale have conducted a series of annual races in eightoared shells with coxswains, held for the most part on the Thames at New London, Connecticut; but in 1896 Yale sent her crew to the Henley Regatta in England, and in the following year Harvard, Yale, and Cornell rowed in a triangular race on the Hudson river at Poughkeepsie. In the years 1897 and 1898 Mr Rudolph C. Lehmann, the English oarsman and coach, took charge of the Harvard crews, which had for some years been consistently unsuccessful; and though the crews he coached were beaten, the system and traditions thus inculcated, together with other influences, regenerated Harvard boating. A beginning was made toward a renewal of the old general inter-collegiate regatta by races upon the Hudson river near Poughkeepsie. In 1900 and 1901 the Universities of Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Cornell, Columbia, Georgetown, and Syracuse furnished the largest and most exciting of the regattas thus far held there. While college rowing is the oldest form of well-organized boating in the United States, there has been considerable rowing, both professional and amateur, outside the colleges. Single-scull racing was the most common professional event, but there was not always perfect confidence in the genuineness of the races. The National Amateur Association from time to time held the most satisfactory meetings, and did much to keep up the interest in amateur boating. American crews have occasionally competed abroad, mainly in England. Harvard sent a crew in 1869 to row against Oxford on the Thames; Columbia in 1878, Cornell in 1881 and 1895, Yale in 1896, and Pennsylvania in 1901 competed at Henley. Single scullers were also sent. Upon the occasion of the Centennial Exposition in 1876, English crews competed on the Schuylkill. Many attempts to arrange for other English crews, especially university crews, to visit America were unsuccessful. (w. ca.) Rowland, Henry Augustus (1848-1901), American physicist, was born at Honesdale, Pennyslvania, on 27th November 1848. Although from an early age he exhibited marked scientific tastes and spent all his spare time in electrical and chemical experiments, it was not until he was sixteen that he was allowed to abandon the classical studies which were so distasteful to him and devote himself to scientific and mechanical pursuits. Entering the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, N.Y., he followed the usual engineering curriculum of the place, and graduating in 1870, soon obtained an engagement on the Western New York Railway. But the work there was not to his liking, and after a short time he gave it up for

an instructorship in natural science at Wooster College, Ohio, which in turn he resigned in order to return to Troy as assistant professor of physics. Finally, in 1876, he became the first occupant of the chair of physics at the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, a position which he retained until his premature death on 16th April 1901. Rowland was one of the most brilliant men of science that America has produced, and must be assigned a high rank among the experimental physicists of the 19th century. It is curious that at first his merits were not perceived in his own country, and his early work, treated there with indifference, first won adequate recognition in the Eastern hemisphere. In America he was unable even to secure the publication of certain of his scientific papers; but Clerk Maxwell, when they were submitted for his consideration, at once saw their excellence, and had them printed in the Philosophical Magazine. So much impressed, indeed, were European physicists by his merits, that when the managers of the Johns Hopkins University asked advice in Europe as to whom they should make their professor of physics, he was pointed out in all quarters as the best man for the post, and was accordingly chosen. In the interval between his election and the assumption of his duties at Baltimore, he studied physics under Helmholtz at Berlin, and carried out a well-known research on the effect of an electrically charged body in motion, showing it to give rise to a magnetic field. His conclusions were subsequently disputed, but he reassured himself of their accuracy by a repetition of the experiments only a short time before his death. As soon as he was settled at Baltimore, two important pieces of work engaged his attention. One was a redetermination of the ohm. For this he obtained a value which was substantially different from that ascertained by the committee of the British Association appointed for the purpose, but ultimately he had the satisfaction of seeing his own result accepted as the more correct of the two. The other was a new determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat. In this he used Joule’s paddle-wheel method, though with many improvements, the whole apparatus being on a larger scale and the experiments being conducted over a wider range of temperature. He obtained a result distinctly higher than Joule’s final figure ; and in addition he made many valuable observations on thermometrical questions and on the variation of the specific heat of water, which Joule had assumed to be the same at all temperatures. In 1882, before the Physical Society of London, he gave a description of the diffraction gratings with which his name is specially associated, and which have been of enormous advantage to astronomical spectroscopy. These gratings consist of pieces of metal or glass ruled by means of a diamond point with a very large number of parallel lines, on the extreme accuracy of which their efficiency depends. For their production, therefore, dividing engines of extraordinary trueness and delicacy must be employed, and in the construction of such machines Rowland’s engineering skill brought him conspicuous success. Some account of the minute precautions and refinements observed for the elimination of error to the greatest possible extent may be found in the ninth edition of this Encyclopaedia in the article Screws, which came from his pen, as also did Diffraction Gratings in vol. xxvii. In addition to making gratings, Rowland also used them, and the results of his labours may be found in the elaborate Photographic Map of the Normal Solar Spectrum (1888) and the Table of Solar Wave-Lengths (1898). In the later years of his life he was engaged in developing a system of multiplex telegraphy, an account of which is given in the article Telegraphy. (h- m- R-)

ROXBURGH — RUBINSTEIN Roxburgh, an inland border county of Scotland, is bounded on the E. and S.E. by Northumberland, on the S.E. by Cumberland, on the S.W. by Dumfries, on the W. by Selkirk, on the N.W. by Midlothian, and on the N.E. by Berwick. It occupies the greater part of the borderline between England and Scotland. Area and Population.—In 1891 the parishes of Ashkirk, Galashiels, and Selkirk, which were shared between Roxburgh and Selkirk shires, were placed wholly in Selkirk, and the Selkirk part of the parish of Melrose was transferred to the parish of Galashiels. Of parishes divided between Berwick and Roxburgh, Earlston and Mertoun were restricted to Berwick, part of Lauder was transferred to Roxburgh, and Roberton was placed wholly in Roxburgh. According to the official estimate, the area of the county is 428,527 acres, or nearly 670 square miles. The population was, in 1881, 53,442 ; in 1891, 53,741 ; in 1891 on the above area, 53,500, of whom 24,901 were males and 28,599 females ; in 1901 it was 48,793. On the old area, taking land only (425,656 acres, or 665-1 square miles), the number of persons to the square mile in 1901 was 73, and the number of acres to the person 8-7. In the registration county the population increased between 1881 and 1891 by 5'9 per cent. Between 1881 and 1891 the excess of births over deaths was 5936, and the increase of the resident population 312. The following table gives particulars of births, deaths, and marriages in 1880, 1890, and 1899:— of Year. Deaths. Marriages. Births. Percentage Illegitimate. 11-0 1623 297 838 1880 10-27 246 1343 876 1890 9-9 1054 282 773 1899 The following table gives the birth-rate, death-rate,and marriagerate per thousand of the population for a series of years :— 1880. 1881-90. 1890. 1891-98. 1899. 31-06 28-42 25-37 22-19 19-67 Birth-rate . 16-04 17-18 16-55 15-78 14-42 Death-rate . 5-68 4-84 4-64 5-02 5-26 Marriage-rate There Avere 174 Gaelic-speaking persons in the county in 1891, and 43 foreigners. Yaluation in 1889-90, £366,056 ; 1899-1900, £384,459. Administration.—The county returns a member to Parliament, and contains HaAvick (17,303), one of the Border group oi parliamentary burghs and a police burgh. Jedburgh (2222), the county toAvn, is the only royal burgh, and Kelso (4006) is the only considerable police burgh. There are 30 civil parishes, Avith combination poorhouses at JIaAvick, Jedburgh, and Kelso ; and the lunatic asylum for Roxburgh, Berwick, and Selkirk is at Bowden, near Melrose. The number of paupers and dependants in September 1899 was 963. Roxburgh, BerAvick, and Selkirk form a sheriffdom, and a resident sheriff-substitute sits at Jedburgh and Hawick. Education. —^Thirty - tAvo school boards manage 63 schools, which had an average attendance of 7269 in 1898-99, while 5 voluntary schools (1 Roman Catholic and 2 Episcopal) had 563. There are secondary schools at HaAvick and Kelso, and Jedburgh and Melrose public schools have secondary departments. The greater part of the “residue ” grant is spent in assisting teachers to attend science and technical classes at Edinburgh University and HaAvick, and in subsidizing science and art and technical classes at Hawick, Kelso, and elsewhere. Agriculture.—Oats are the principal corn crop, and the barley acreage is about two-fifths of that -under oats. r The percentage of cultivated area in 1898 was 41 9. There AA ere 16,285 acres under Avood in 1895, of Avhich 757 had been planted since 1881. Of the 1241 holdings in 1895, the date of the last return, the average size Avas 146 acres. The percentage under 5 acres was 21 "76, between 5 and 50 acres 33 "44, and over 50 acres 44 "80. The number of farms between 50 and 100 acres was 100, between 100 and 300, 253, between 300 and 500, 102, and between 500 and 1000, 85, Avhile as many as 16, a proportion exceeded in Berwickshire only, Avere over 1000 acres. The following table gives the principal acreages at intervals of five years from 1880 :— PermaGreen under Corn nent Fallow. Year. Area Crops. Clover. Pasture. Crops. Crops. 69 1885 184,322 48,303 27,423 57,682 50,845 56 1890 185,726 46,792 27,183 58,270 53,379 47 1895 180,962 43,380 25,312 56,745 55,408 58 1899 182,337 42,966 24,379 52,650 62,236

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The following table gives particulars of the live stock during the same years :— Cows or Total Heifers Total in Sheep. Pigs. Year. Horses. Cattle. Milk or Calf. 494,152 4174 5373 1885 4396 18,679 517,629 4286 5179 1890 4394 18,576 4684 510,227 3938 1895 4462 17,327 532,989 3260 4560 1899 4300 17,787 At the census of 1891, 4895 men and 1106 women were returned as being engaged in agriculture. Industries and Trade.—The county is the principal seat of the tweed and hosiery manufacture in the kingdom. The industries of Hawick and Jedburgh include also engineering, iron-founding, and dyeing, and fishing tackle is made on a considerable scale at Kelso. The salmon fishings on the Tweed are valuable. The industrial population in 1891 numbered 8102 men and 4445 Avomen, of Avhom 2385 men and 2523 women were connected Avith the manufacture of textiles. Authorities.—Sir George Douglas. History of the Border Counties. Edinburgh, 1899.—G. F. S. Elliot. The Border Elliots (private), 1898.—F. H. Groome. Short Border History. Kelso, 1887.—J. Lucas. Yetholm History of the Gypsies. Kelso, 1882.—J. Russell. The Haigs of Bemersyde. Edinburgh, 1881. —J. A. Wade. History of St Mary's Abbey, Melrose. Edinburgh, 1861.—J. Watson. Jedburgh Abbey. Edinburgh, 1887. —Proceedings of the Soc. of Antiq. of Scotland.—R. S. Craig and A. Laing. Hawick Tradition of 1514. Hawick, 1898.—Trans. of Hawick Archceol. Soc. Hawick, 1869.—M. M. M. Scott. Abbotsford. London, 1893.—Reports on the Natural History and Habits of the Salmonoids in the Tweed. Edinburgh, 186/. D. Hannay. Glimpses of the Land of Scott. London, 1887.— J. Robson. Border Battles and Battlefields. Kelso, 1897 ; and other works by the same author. (w. AVa.) Royan, town, arrondissement of Marennes, department of Charente Inferieure, France, 37 miles in direct line, south of Bochelle, on branch line from Pons to Tremblade. A municipal casino was opened in 1895. A statue of Eugene Pelletan (died 1884), a benefactor of the town, has been erected. Royan is the seat of a Protestant consistory. There is an active coasting trade. In 1900, 1064 vessels of 65,760 tons entered, and 1038 of 65,064 tons cleared. Population (1891), 6241; (1896), 6864 (comm.), 8258. Rozsahegy, a market-town of Hungary, in the county of Lipto, near the Vag, Avith 6879 inhabitants in 1891. It has an upper gymnasium, textile manufactories, paper mill, saw mill, and other industrial establishments. Its commerce is brisk. Not far from Rozsahegy lies Koritnicza, a popular bathing-place. Population (1901), 8198. Riiabon, a parish, town, and railway station, Denbighshire, North Wales, in the Eastern parliamentary division, near the Shropshire border, 5 miles south-Avest of Wrexham. In the neighbourhood there are collieries, engineering works, an iron foundry and chemical works, and an extensive industry in the manufacture of bricks, terra-cotta, encaustic and tesselated tiles, glazed bricks, and sanitary pipes. Population of civil parish (1901), 3491. Rubinstein, Anton Grigorowitz (18301894), Russian pianist, born at Wechwotynetz, m Podoha, of Jewish parentage, was the son of a pencil manufacture! who migrated to Moscow. Besides his mother he had but one teacher, Alexander Villoing, of whom he declared at the end of his own career that he had never met a better. In July 1839 Rubinstein appeared in the theatre of the Petrowski Park at Moscow, and was promptly acclaimed a genius; and in the year following he went to Paris after Villoing, and played with success before Liszt. For some time after this Rubinstein travelled in Holland, Germany, and Scandinavia, and reached England in 1842, where on 20th May he made his first appearance at a Choral

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Fund Concert with complete success. After a brief visit to Moscow in 1843, he went with his family (including his afterwards distinguished brother Nikolaus) to Berlin for purposes of the complete musical education which the parents had now determined to give their sons. Dehn was their master, and Mendelssohn, whom Rubinstein had met previously in London, their best friend. The sudden death of Rubinstein pere necessitated the withdrawal of his wife and Nikolaus to Moscow, while Anton, on Dehn’s advice, went to Vienna to seek a livelihood. Hence, after more hard study for nearly two years, he went with the flautist Heindl, and later alone, on a concert tour in Hungary; and the outbreak of the revolution in Vienna preventing his return there, he went via Berlin to St Petersburg, where he met with immediate and hearty encouragement, the Grand Duchess Helene appointing him Kammervirtuos. About this time an unfortunate error of the police nearly caused his expatriation to Siberia, from which he was saved by his patroness. During the next eight years Rubinstein spent most of his time in St Petersburg studying, playing, and composing. His opera Dmitri Donskoi was produced there in 1851, and Toms der Narr in 1853. Die Sibirischen Jdger, written about the same time, was not produced. In Russia his success was so great, and his fame had already spread so far abroad, that on the advice of his patroness and Count Wilhorski he set out on a tour to convince foreigners of his abilities. After a visit to Hamburg, he appeared as composer, conductor, and pianist at the Gewandhaus at Leipzig, and after further travels he arrived for the second time in London in 1857, when at a Philharmonic Concert he introduced his own concerto in G. In the following year he was in London again, having in the meantime been appointed Concert Director of the Royal Russian Musical Society. In 1862 he founded the St Petersburg Conservatorium, of which for many years he remained the guiding spirit. In 1868 he began again to travel in Germany, France, and England, and remained for some time in Vienna, where he introduced a large number of his owTn compositions. Thence he went to America in 1872 and 1873, when he returned to Russia, and after a short rest set off once more on concert tours. In this manner the rest of his life was spent, until in 1885 he began a series of historical recitals of immense interest, which he gave in most of the chief European capitals. He died 20th November 1894. In addition to the works already named, Rubinstein left compositions in almost every known form. Among other of his operas are Die Kinder der IIaide, Feramors {LoMa Roukh), Nero, Der Damon, and Die Makkabder, this last perhaps more frequently played than all the others, the bane of which is the lack of dramatic point. On the subject of oratorio Rubinstein held original views, though his attempt to realize them in Moses and Christus was not completely successful, while his efforts in Berlin and London to found a Sacred Theatre failed entirely. All the same, he regarded his Christus as his greatest achievement. The most familiar of his five symphonies are the “ Ocean ” and the “ Dramatic.” He wrote scores on scores of pianoforte works, from complex concertos to the most commonplace salonstiicke ; abundance of concerted chamber-music ; and a number of songs and duets, which enjoyed some vogue. He also published several books, including his Reminiscences and Die geistliche Oper. What Dr Hanslick once said of Rubinstein is perfectly true, that “ people admired the Russian’s bold, powerful, occasionally even rough playing, without being won over in the least by his compositions.” As a composer Rubinstein is practically dead. His fame as one of the greatest of pianists, his exquisite touch and perhaps his waywardness, will live in history. (r. h. l.)

Ruby Mines, a district in the Mandalay division of Upper Burma, lying between the Bhamo district on the north, the Shan States on the east, Mandalay district on the south, and Kalta on the west. Area, 1915 square miles; population (1891), 34,062; (1901), 87,815. In 1898-99 it had 193 villages, which paid a revenue of Rs. 1,09,649. The district geographically forms part of the Shan plateau, and is to a great extent a mass of hills, with a general north and south direction. Of a total acreage of 3,504,480 acres, only 7347 were cropped in 1898-99. There were 2980 acres of current fallow, and the area remaining available for cultivation was 349,661 acres; 118,296 acres were under forest, and the remainder, 747,068 acres, were uncultivable. The population in 1891 was classified as: Buddhists, 31,227; Hindus, 884; Mahommedans, 350; and Christians, 269. Kachins and Palaungs together probably outnumbered the Burmans and Shans, but there were no exact statistics. The total rainfall in 1898-99 was 103’26 inches, taken at Mogok. The highest shade maximum in that year was 83°, and the lowest temperature in December, 35° F. The headquarters town is Mogok, which is reached by a cart-road from Thabeikkyin, 61 miles distant, on the Irrawaddy. The town stands in the centre of a valley, at a height of 4000 feet above sea-level. It is the centre of the ruby-mining industry. Population (1891), 5630; (1898), about 8000. The Ruby Mines Company employs about 40 Europeans and Eurasians in its works, which are situated at the north end of the town. The company has constructed a dam across the Yeni stream and set up an electric installation of about 200 horse-power, which pumps and lights the principal mine. RUdesheam, a town of Prussia, in the Rhine province, on the right bank of the Rhine, 19 miles by rail wTest by south of Wiesbaden, famous for its wine. It has three ancient towers, and an Evangelical (1855) and a Roman Catholic (1390-1400) church. Immediately above the town, on the Niederwald hill (985 feet), stands the national monument (“ Germania ”), designed by Schilling, commemorative of the war of 1870-71. Population (1900), 4812. Rudini, Antonio Starabba, Marquis Di (1839 ), Italian statesman and Knight of the Annunziata, was born on 6th April 1839 at Palermo. In 1866 he was elected syndic of his native city, and displayed considerable personal courage in quelling a separatist insurrection organized by the reactionary party. The prestige thus acquired led to his appointment to the prefecture of Naples in 1867, and in October 1869 to the Ministry of the Interior in the Menabrea cabinet. His term of office was short, as he fell with Menabrea in the following December, and held no prominent position until, upon the death of Minghetti in 1886, he became leader of the Right. Early in 1891 he succeeded his fellow-Sicilian, Crispi, in the premiership and Ministry of Foreign Affairs by forming a coalition cabinet with a part of the Left under Nicotera; but his administration proved weak and vacillating, its only important act being the renewal of the Triple Alliance for a period of twelve years. After an attempt to modify his cabinet, he was overthrown in May 1892 by a vote of the Chamber. Upon the return of his rival, Crispi, to power in December 1893, he resumed political activity, allying himself with the Radical leader, Cavallotti, whose defamatory anti-Crispian campaign he openly encouraged. The crisis consequent upon the disaster of Adowah (1st March 1896) enabled Rudini to return to power as Premier and Minister of the Interior in a cabinet formed by the veteran Conservative, General Ricotti. He concluded peace with Abyssinia, but

RUDOK — RUFIJI endangered relations with Great Britain by the unauthorized publication of secret diplomatic correspondence in a Green-book on Abyssinian affairs. His internal policy was marked by continual yielding to Radical pressure and by persecution of Crispi. Dissolving the Chamber early in 1897 in obedience to Radical dictation, and supporting Radical candidatures in the ensuing general election, he augmented the influence of the subversive parties, and inadvertently paved the way for the outbreak of May 1898, the suppression of which, manu militari, entailed considerable bloodshed and necessitated the proclamation of a state of siege at Milan, Naples, Florence, and Leghorn. Indignation at the results of his policy led to his overthrow in June 1898, when, in order to prevent the advent of his Conservative opponents, he resigned office without permitting Parliament to designate a successor. During his second term of office he thrice modified his cabinet (July 1896, December 1897, May 1898) without strengthening his political position. In many respects Rudini, though leader of the Right and nominally a Conservative politician, proved a dissolving element in the Italian Conservative ranks. By his alliance with the Liberals under Nicotera in 1891, and by his understanding with the Radicals under Cavallotti in 1894-98; by his betrayal of his Conservative colleague, General Ricotti, to whom he owed the premiership in 1896; and by his vacillating action since his fall from power, he divided and demoralized a constitutional party which, with greater sincerity and less reliance upon political cleverness, he might have welded into a solid parliamentary organization. Rudok. See Tibet. Rudolf (otherwise knowm as Basso Nokok and Gallop), a large lake of eastern equatorial Africa, forming the centre of an inland drainage system, occupying the southern part of the Abyssinian highlands and a portion of the great equatorial plateau. The lake itself lies towards the north end of the great East African rift valley, between the parallels of 2° 26' and 5° N., while the meridian of 36° E. runs down the centre of the northern wider part, the narrower southern portion bending slightly eastward. The length along the curved axis is 185 miles, the maximum width probably about 35, and the area roughly 3500 square miles. Its altitude is 1250 feet. Towards the south end it seems to be deep, but it is comparatively shallow in the north. Its water is brackish, but drinkable. The country bordering the lake on almost every side is sterile and forbidding, and the only permanent river which enters it is the Nianam or Omo, from the north. The southern end, for some 50 miles on the west and for a longer distance on the east, is shut in by high cliffs—the escarpments of a rugged lava-strewn country, which shows abundant signs of volcanic activity, great changes having been reported since 1889. In particular, the great volcano of Lubburua is said to have been destroyed between 1889 and 1897 by a sudden explosion, and according to native report the lake contours have considerably changed within 30 years. Farther north, on the west side, sandy plains alternate with lines of low hills, the immediate shores (on which the water appears to have encroached in very modern times) being marked by spits of sand, which in places cut off lagoons from the main body of the lake. These are the haunt of great numbers of water-birds. In 3° 8' N. the dry bed of the Turkwell—in its upper course a large river descending the slopes of Mount Elgon— approaches the lake, which seems, however, to receive no water from it at the present day. Near the north end mountains again approach the shores, the most prominent being Mount Lubbur, an extinct volcano with a wellpreserved crater, and a bold rocky escarpment below the

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summit. At the extreme north-west corner a bay some 35 miles long (Sanderson Gulf) is almost separated from the rest of the lake by two long points of land. On the eastern side, open arid plains, with few trees, occupy most of the northern country. Near the south end is the volcanic island of Elmolo, 10 miles long, and there are a few small islets near the middle point of the length. At the north end a level swampy plain is traversed by various arms of the lake and by the Nianam river. This river has been shown to be identical with the Omo, the course of which was long one of the most debated questions of African geography. Its northernmost feeders rise on the high plateau south of the Blue Nile, in 9° 10' N., and being swollen by other streams from the east and west, soon form a large river running in a deep wooded valley flanked on either hand by masses of high mountains. During its lower course it makes two considerable bends to the west before finally entering the lake as a deep stream a quarter of a mile wide. Lake Rudolf (previously known on the east coast by report) was discovered in 1889 by Teleki, and has since been visited by Donaldson Smith, Bottego, Cavendish, Austin, and others. Authorities.—Geographical Journal, September 1896, April 1898, August 1899.—-Von Hohnel. Discovery of Lakes Rudolf and Stephanie. London, 1894. — Smith. Through Unknown African Countries. London, 1897.—Neumann. Elephant-Hunting in East Equatorial Africa. London, 1898.—Vannutelli and Citerni. L’Omo. Milan, 1899.—Wellby, ’Tv;ixt Sirdar and Menelik. London, 1901. (e. he.) Ruflji, a large river of German East Africa, entering the sea by a considerable delta, between 7° 45' and 8° 13' S. Its upper basin, which extends from north to south through over 300 miles, is drained by three main branches, which unite to form the lower Rufiji. This receives no further tributary in a course of some 150 miles, so that here the width of the basin is reduced to a minimum. Of the three upper branches, the two southern, the Luvegu and the Ulanga, though shorter than the northernmost (the Ruaha), carry a greater volume of water, as they come from a more rainy region, and by their junction the Rufiji proper may be said to be formed. The Luvegu rises in 10° 50' S., 35° 50' E., and flows north-west in a wooded valley, generally narrow, and bordered by a broken country in great part uninhabited and covered with thin forest. In its lower course it is a large stream—100 to 150 yards wide. The Ulanga is formed by a number of streams descending from the outer escarpment of the high plateau which runs north-east from the head of Lake Nyasa, and in Uhehe becomes broken up in ranges of mountains. The most importantheadstream, the Ruhudye, rises in about 9° 30' S., 34° 40' E. As a whole, the Ulanga valley is broad, level, and swampy, the river running in a very winding course and sending off many diverging arms. It is navigable throughout the greater part of its course, having even in the dry season a general depth of 3 to 12 feet, with a width of 40 to 120 yards. In April and May nearly all the streams overflow their banks and cover a great part of the plain. Just below the junction of the Luvegu and Ulanga, the Rufiji flows through a narrow pass by the Shuguli falls, and continues north-east in a fairly straight course to the junction of the Ruaha, in 7° 55' S. The most remote branches of the Ruaha rise north of Lake Nyasa in the Livingstone mountains, and descend into a broad sun-baked valley, which seems to belong to the East African system of rift valleys. The united stream makes a wide sweep to the north of the Uhehe mountains, from which it receives various tributaries, finally flowing south-east and east to the Rufiji. A little below the junction, the Rufiji is broken by the Pangani falls (37° 42' E.), but is thence navigable by small steamers to its delta. The country on either side is a generally level plain, inundated, on the south, in the rains, and the river varies in width from 100 to 400 yards, with an average current of 3 miles an hour. The main mouth of the river is that known as Simba Uranga, the bar of which can be crossed by ocean vessels at high water, but all the branches are very shallow as the apex of the delta is approached. Saw-mills have been established on some of them, and much of the delta is suited for rice-growing. See Beard all in Proc. R.G.S., 1881.—Pee il in Petermanvs Mitteilungen, 1886.—Prittwitz and Adams in Mitt, aus den Deutschen Schutzgebieten, 1898.—Pressing, Ibid., 1901.

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Rugby, a market-town and parish of Warwickshire, England, in the Rugby parliamentary division of the county, 80^ miles north-west of London by rail. In 1895 the parish church was completed, by the addition of a tower with a spire and eight bells, at a cost of 25. Salvini, Tommaso(1829 was born at Milan, 1st January 1829.

—), Italian actor, An actor from the

age of fourteen, he had the advantage at an early stage in his career of joining the company headed by the famous actress Bistori, with whom he was for long associated. He fought in the cause of Italian independence in 1849 • otherwise his life was an unbroken series of successes in his art. He acted on various occasions in England and in America, as well as in most of the European capitals. His most famous impersonations included Othello, Conrad in La Morte Civile, Egisto in Alfieri’s Merope, and Paolo in Francesca da Rimini. He took part in January 1902 in the celebration of Bistori’s eightieth birthday. Salween. This river, called Nam Kong by the Shans, Thanlwin by the Burmese, Lu Kiang, or Nu Kiang, or Lu Tzu Kiang by the Chinese, is the longest river in Burma, and one of the wildest and most picturesque streams in the world. Its sources are still undetermined, but there seems little doubt that it rises in the Tania mountains, south of the Kuen Luen, somewhere in 32° or 33° N., and that perhaps it draws some of its water from the Kara Nor. It is thus a much longer river than the Irrawaddy. From the time it leaves Tibet it has a very narrow basin, and preserves the character of a gigantic ditch, or railway cutting, with for long stretches no other affluents than the mountain torrents from the hills, which rise from three to five or six thousand feet above the level of the river-bed. In the dry weather the banks are alternate stretches of blinding white, fine sand, and a chaos of huge boulders, masses, and slabs of rock, with here and there, usually where a tributary enters, long stretches of shingle. In the rains all these disappear, and the water laps against forest trees and the abrupt slope of the hills. The average difference between high and low water level of the Salween throughout the Shan States is between fifty and sixty feet, and in some places it is as much as ninety. There are many rapids, caused by reefs of rock running across the bed, or by a sudden fall of from one to several feet, which produce very rough water below the swift glide; but the most dangerous places for navigation are where a point juts out into the stream, and the current, thrown back, causes a violent double backwater. Nevertheless, long stretches of the river, extending to scores of miles, are habitually navigated by native boats. The current is extremely variable, from half a mile an hour to ten knots. For this reason the river is practically unnavigated. Launches ply regularly from Moulmein to the mouth of the Yonzalin, in Lower Burma. The worst part of the whole Salween, so far as is known, is the gorge between the mouth of the Yonzalin and Kyaukhnyat. It is quite certain that steam launches could ply over very long sections of the river above that, perhaps as far as the Kaw ferry, or even the Kun Long ferry. In British territory, however, there are very few settlements on the river itself, and frequently the ferry villages are built a thousand feet above the river. The Chinese believe the Salween valley to be deadly to all strangers, but it is in Chinese territory—particularly in the Lu Kiang, or Mong Hko state—that there is the largest population on the river of any place until Lower Burma is reached. A description of the Salween resolves itself into a list of the ferries at which it can be crossed, for no one marches up the river. The river is bridged by the Chinese on the main route from Teng Yiieh (Momien) and Bhamo to Tali-fu. There are two spans ; these are not in a straight line, but parallel to one another at the distance of the breadth of the central pillar. Each span is formed by twelve or fourteen massive iron chains, with planks laid across them. There was a bridge some 20 miles lower down, but this was destroyed in 1894. In British territory there are no bridges, and the ferries are the same as those maintained before the annexation. There are a great number of these ferries, but only a few are used, except by the local people. From Ta Hsang Le large trading boats ply regularly to Kyaukhnyat, whence the traders make

SALWEEN —SALZWEDEL their way by land ovei the hill to Papun, and so down the Yonzalin. The chief tributaries of the Salween in British territory are the Nam Yu and the Nam Oi or Nam Mwe on the right bank, and the Hsipa Hawr on the left. These are short but fair-sized streams. Near the Kun Long ferry the Nam Nim, on the right bank, and the Nam Ting, on the left, are considerably longer, and the Nam Ting is navigable by native craft for considerable stretches up to Meng Ting, and farther. To the south the next tributary is the Nam Kyek, on the right bank, down the valley of which the railway will reach the Salween. Below this are two streams called Nam Ma, one entering on the right bank, the other on the left, at no great distance from one another, but of no great length. A little below is the Nam Nang, on the left bank, coming from the Wa country. The Nam Kao enters in a cascade of nearly 200 feet in the cold weather from the right, and then there are no affluents till the Nam Hka comes in on the left. This has a great volume of water, but is unnavigable because of its steep gradient and many gorges. After the Hwe Long, entering from the left at Ta Kaw, is passed, the Nam Pang comes in 22 miles lower down on the right bank. This is probably the largest tributary of the Salween ; some distance above its mouth, at Keng Hkam, it is 400 yards wide and quite unfordable. The next important tributary is the Nam Hsim, on the left bank, rising in the latitude of Keng Tung. It is a large but quite unnavigable stream. Except the Me Sili and Me Sala, from opposite sides, and the Nam Hang, which burrows its way through a range of hills from the ea^t, and the Nam Pan, coming from the west, there is no considerable tributary till 19° 52' N., where the Nam Teng comes in on the right from the central Shan States. This is a considerable river, and navigable for long stretches in its upper course, but the last few miles before it enters the Salween are little better than a cataract. Below this the only large affluent is the Nam Pawn, which drains all Karenni and a considerable portion of the Shan States, but is quite unnavigable. Below this the tributaries are again only mountain streams till the Thaung-yin comes in from the south-east. Thirty miles lower down is Kyodan, the great timber depot. Here a cable, stretched across the river, catches all the timber, which is then made up into rafts and floated down to Kado, near Moulmein, where the revenue is collected. The Yonzalin enters the Salween from the right about 10 miles below Kyodan. Boats can ply from Kyodan southwards, and light draught steamers ascend as far as Shwegon, 63 miles from Moulmein. The Salween cuts the British Shan States nearly in half, and is a very formidable natural obstacle. It seems probable, however, that long stretches of it can be opened to trade. It is certainly no less navigable than the Middle Mekong or the Yangtzu above I-chang. Salween, a district in the Tenasserim division of Lower Burma. Area, 2666 square miles. Population (1891), 31,439 ; (1901), 19,500. The district is in charge of a superintendent of police, and had 220 villages in 1898-99. The revenue of the district is incorporated with that of the Amherst district. The population in 1891 was made up of aboriginal tribes, Karens and Shans, 26,677, Buddhists and Jains 4322, Mahommedans 209, Hindus 173, Christians 58. Of the total area of 1,706,240 acres, 180,721 were cultivated in 1898-99. Of the remainder, about half of the acreage was uncultivable, and there were 98,240 acres of grass. The total rainfall in 1898-99 was 101T inches, recorded at Papun, which is the headquarters of the district. Salzburg-, a duchy and crownland in the Cisleithan part of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. It lies between 40° 57' 20" and 48° 2' K and 12° 5' and 13° 59' E., and is bounded on the W. by Bavaria and Tirol, on the E. by Upper Austria and Styria, on the N. by Upper Austria and Bavaria, and on the S. by Carinthia and Tirol. It has an area of 2762 square miles. The surface is for the most part mountainous, the duchy lying on the northern slope of the Eastern Alps. Its most fertile portions belong to the series of longitudinal valleys of that region and the surrounding hills. It falls into three divisions : first, the high-lying valleys of the Hohe Tauern, which open on the depression of the river Salzach, then, to the south, the valleys and slopes of the limestone region ; and finally, the undulating forelands. A portion of the Dachstein lies within the duchy. Salzburg is almost

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entirely within the watershed of the Danube, its principal river being the Salzach, a tributary of the Inn. The Enns and Mur rise in this province. Salzburg has some 200 lakes in all, of which the most important are Lake Zell, celebrated for its beautiful mountain panorama, and the Waller, Fuschel, and Traumen lakes. It has a total area of over 7000 acres of peat moss, and numerous mineral and thermal springs. The climate, although healthy, is very changeable, with great extremes of temperature—at Salzburg from 82 A0 to 18 A0 F. below zero—and heavy rains. The mineral wealth of Salzburg includes salt (at Hallein), copper (at Mitterberg), iron-ore (at Werfen), and small quantities of gold, together with marble and precious stones. In 1898 the iron, gold, and copper ore amounted in value to about £18,500, and the salt to £183,100. Although a large portion of the soil is unproductive (13‘71 percent, occupied by glaciers, snow-fields, &c.), and 32 A per cent, consists of forest, Salzburg is one of the principal pastoral regions of Austria. Of its total area, 28 ’9 per cent, consists of Alpine pastures available during the summer months, 4‘95 per cent, of lowland pasturage, aud 8’3 per cent, of meadows, while only 9 ‘2 per cent, is arable. The chief resource is cattle-breeding and dairyfarming. Sheep, goats, and pigs are kept in large numbers. The great quantities of game constitute a considerable resource of the population, large numbers of whom are also engaged in the important timber trade. For administrative purposes the province is divided into six departments, of which the capital, Salzburg, is one and its environs the second. The other four are Hallein, St Johann, Tamsweg, and Zell-am-See. The inhabitants are a handsome and powerfully-built peasant race, very conservative not merely in the matter of religion, but in the maintenance of their traditional manners, customs, games, and national costume. Population (1890), 173,510 ; (1900), 193,247, which is equivalent to 70 inhabitants per square mile. The proportion of females to males was 1019 to 1000 in 1890. The population is almost exclusively German and Catholic, the proportion of Czechs being less than one-third of 1 per cent., while the Jews and Protestants together are less than 1 per cent. In 1896 the marriagerate was 8'13, the birth-rate 32‘50 or, excluding still- births, 31‘54, and the death-rate 24‘05. Of the births, 26 42 per cent, were illegitimate. The marriage- and birth-rates are rising, the death-rate and proportion of illegitimacy declining. The duchy sends 6 members to the Reichsrath. The 26 members of the Diet are all German. The archbishop is an ex-officio member of this body, in which the large landed proprietors have 5 seats, the towns and market-places 10, the chamber of commerce 2, and the country communes 8. Elementary education is comparatively advanced, particularly for an Alpine province. In 1890 the illiterates only amounted to 8'2 per cent., an improvement of 3-4 on the preceding census. There are 2 theological seminaries, 3 intermediate and 179 elementary schools, together with 30 technical, musical, and other special schools. In 1899 Salzburg had 236 miles of railway, 800 miles of roads, and 62 miles of waterway, of which 33 miles were only available for floating timber. At the same date there were 114 post and 73 telegraph offices, with 538 miles of line and 2433 miles of wire. (^;. o’n.) Salzburg, the capital of the Austrian duchy and crownland of the same name. Population (1890), 27,244, German and Catholic (505 Protestants and 146 Jews); (1900), 32,924, including garrison of 1931 men. The increasing popularity of Salzburg and the entire duchy as a summer resort constitutes a considerable addition to the resources of the town, which is manifest in the construction of new hotels, villas, &c., and in the improvement of the local means of communication. There has been a corresponding development of industry and trade. Among the improvements of the town are a park, a theatre, an art gallery, and baths. Salzkammergut, a district in the south-west angle of Upper Austria. The annual production of salt (the principal industry) is increasing, and amounted in 1898 to about 90,000 tons, valued at £683,870. This was 26‘3 per cent, of the total Austrian production. Salzwedel, a town of Prussia, province Saxony, 106 miles by rail west by north of Berlin, half-way between Berlin and Bremen, on the navigable Jeetze, a tributary of the Elbe. In 1895 the town-hall was burnt down. S. VIII. — 51

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The industries include linen and damask weaving, tanning, brewing, and manufacture of pins, chemicals, machinery, &c. Population (1885), 8883; (1900), 10,175. Samain, Albert (1859-1900), French poet, was born at Lille on 4th April 1859. He was educated at the lycee of that town, and on leaving it entered a bank as a clerk. He enjoyed no literary associations, and his talent developed slowly in solitude. About 1884 Samain went to Paris, having obtained a clerkship in the Prefecture de la Seine, which he held for most of his life. He presently began to send poems to the Mercure de France, and these attracted attention. In 1893 he allowed a friend to collect and print his earliest volume of poems, Aw Jardin de VInfante, in a very small edition. This led to the sudden recognition of his talent, and to applause from critics of widely different schools. In 1897 this book was reprinted in a more popular form, with the addition of a section entitled FUrne Penchee. Samain’s second volume, Aux Flancs du Vase, appeared in 1898. His health began to fail, and he withdrew to the country, where he died, in the neighbourhood of the village of Magny-les-Hameaux on 18th August 1900. A third volume of his poems, Le Chariot d'Or, appeared after his death, with a lyrical drama, Polypheme, 1901. The fame of Samain rapidly advanced when he was dead, and the general public awakened to the fact that this isolated writer, who formed few friendships and stood entirely aloof from all the Parisian cliques, was a poet of rare originality. He was neither of the old Parnassian nor of the new Symbolist school, but cultivated a delicate, languid beauty of imagery and an exquisite sense of verbal melody without attempting any revolution in prosody or identifying himself with any theory. Samain had no great range of talent, nor was he ambitious of many effects. His poetry has an extreme dignity and distinction in its somewhat morbid melancholy: it celebrates the magic of fading light in twilight gardens, when the shadows of fair ladies cross the dim lawns in a silence only broken by the murmur of a melancholy violin played somewhere far away. Samain’s natural life was patiently spent in squalid conditions; he escaped from them into an imaginative world where all was of the most exquisite refinement. He has been compared to Watteau and Schumann; in his own art he bore some resemblance to Baudelaire, and to the English poet Arthur O’Shaughnessy. (e. g.) Samara, a government of south-east Russia, on the left bank of the Lower Volga, with an area of 58,320 square miles. Its geology has been the subject of careful investigation, and much valuable information about the province has been acquired. It is chiefly built up of Carboniferous sandstones, conglomerates, clay slates, and limestones, representing mostly deep-sea deposits. The Permian formation appears along the rivers Sok and Samara, and is represented by limestones, sands, and marls containing gypsum, all of marine origin, and by continental deposits dating from the same period; sandstones impregnated with naphtha also occur. In the north these deposits are covered with “Variegated Marls” and with a variety of Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous deposits. The Tertiary formation (Eocene) appears only at Novouzensk, the remainder of a vast sheet of this formation, which at one time covered all the region between the Volga and the Urals, having been removed during the Glacial period. Post-Tertiary Caspian deposits penetrate far into the province along the main valleys, and a thick layer of loess spreads in the north. Selenites, rockcrystal, and agates are found, as also copper ores, rock-salt, and sandstone extracted for building purposes.

The domiciled population of the province, which was only 1,388,500 in 1853, numbered, in 1897, 2,763,478, of whom 1,398,263 were women, and 159,485 lived in towns. The bulk of the population was composed of Great and Little Russians, who formed 69 per cent, of the inhabitants ; Mordovians formed 8 per cent., Chuvashes and Votyaks 3 per cent., Germans 9 per cent., Tatars 9 per cent., and Bashkirs 2 per cent. Nonconformity is widely spread, and the official figures, which are much below the actual, give 91,400 adherents. Out of a total area of 37,299,400 acres, 4,143,800 acres belong to the Crown, 7,979,000 to private persons, and 22,486,700 acres to the peasants, who rent, moreover, about 6J million acres. The area under cereal crops in 1900 was 9,623,700 acres, and the average annual yield in 1895-99 was : wheat 13,350,000 cwt., rye 10,518,000 cwt., oats 3,338,500 cwt., barley 768,000 cwt. —all cereal crops 31,813,000 cwt. ; also potatoes 3,390,000 cwt. Water melons and sunflowers are extensively cultivated in fields, and gardening is widely engaged in, as also mustard and inferior qualities of tobacco. Cereals being grown in excess of the needs of the population, considerable quantities of cereals and flour are exported during the years of good crops (about 15,000,000 cwt. in 1896), as also are hemp-seed, linseed, and other oil-seeds, bran, &c. However, there are also years of total failure of the crops, when famine harasses the population. Cattle-breeding is widely spread, and there were in the province, in 1897, 553,300 horses, 484,030 horned cattle, 933,540 sheep, and 88,000 swine. Bee-culture is another pursuit that is widely followed, there being no less than 200,000 hives in the province. The export of poultry, especially of geese, has increased greatly. Manufacturing industries are still undeveloped, and all factories, employing an aggregate of 4700 workers, only showed a return of 11,500,000 roubles in 1898. Both the external and the internal trade are very flourishing, 247 fairs being held in the province every year ; the chief are those at Novouzensk and Bugulma. Owing to the efforts of the local zemstvos, there are more than the average number of primary schools, namely, one school for every 1810 inhabitants ; the total number of children receiving primary education is estimated at about 50,000. The province is divided into 7 districts, the chief towns of which are Samara (see below), Bugulma (7577), Buguruslan (12,141), Buzuluk (14,471), Nikolayevsk (12,524), Novo-Uzen (13,475), and Stavropol (5974). The Serghievsk sulphurous mineral springs, 57 miles from Buguruslan, are visited by numbers of patients. There are eleven springs, five of which yield 1,353,000 gallons for the baths per day. Samara, the capital of the above province, 743 miles by rail south-east of Moscow. Its population, which was 63,479 in 1883, numbered 91,659 in 1897 ; and owing to its situation on the Volga, and at the head of the Siberian and Central Asian railways, it has acquired great commercial importance. All through the autumn and winter the peasants from the neighbouring country and the railways bring in considerable quantities of corn, the imports of which by rail and water alone are estimated at 154,700 tons, and the exports at 386,900 tons yearly ; five large steam mills and one water mill are capable of grinding 128,000 tons of grain per annum. A considerable trade is also carried on in animal products, particularly hides, of which nearly 150,000 are exported every year. The port is the best on the Volga; and in 1897, 956 vessels, of 23,000 tons, entered, while 1491 vessels, of 306,000 tons, cleared. The railway returns for 1897 show that 170,000 tons of goods were imported by rail and 139,000 tons exported. Three great fairs are held every year. The city, is well provided with schools and philanthropic institutions. It has three public libraries, several scientific societies, a good theatre, and a natural history and archaeological museum; four newspapers are published. Sa.ma.rka.nd, a province of Russian Turkestan, of which it occupies the south-east corner, formed in 1887 out of the Zerafshan district. It has on the FT. and N.-E. Syr-dariinsk, on the E. Ferghana, on the W. Bokhara, and on the S. the khanates of Hissar, Karateghin, and Darwaz. Its area is 26,627 square miles. It is very billy in the south, where it is intersected by a series of mountain ranges belonging to the Alai-Pamir system. The orography of this part of the Tian Shan is not yet well p. , . worked out, and they are traced on our maps mainly feaysures ca in accordance with the river system. Thus the high ‘ Hissar range is traced along the water-parting between the system of the Zerafshan and the upper tributaries of the Amu ; another

SAM-ARK AND high range, the Zerafshan, is traced in the same direction between the two parallel rivers, the Zerafshan and its tributary, the Yagnob ; while a third range, often called Turkestan ridge, is traced from west to east parallel to the Zerafshan, on its northern bank. It is very probable, however, from what is known about the structure of the Tian Shan and the western Pamir, and their direction north-eastwards, that the three ranges referred to will, when they are better known, be found to be of a much more complicated character than is at present supposed. All three ranges are snowclad, and in their highest peaks reach altitudes of from 18,500 feet in the west to 22,000 feet in the east, while the passes over them, which aiford difficult travelling as a rule, lie at altitudes of about 12,000 feet. Several Alpine lakes, such as Iskander-kul, 7000 feet high, have been found nestling under the high precipitous peaks. The Alpine zone extends as far north as the 40th parallel, beyond which the province is covered with steppes, which are broken by only one range of mountains, Nuratyn-tau (also known as Sanzar and Malguzar, in its south-eastern, and Kara-tau in its northwestern, extremity). This treeless range shoots for 160 miles, from the western Tian Shan, in a north-western direction, reaching 42° N. and 65° E. ; it has a width of about 35 miles, and reaches altitudes up to 7000 feet; it is now pierced, in the renowned Sanzar gorge, or Tamerlane’s Gate, by the railway leading from Samarkand to Tashkent. The other mountains in the province are well wooded, and it is estimated that nearly 4,500,000 acres are under forests. The north-western portion of the province is occupied by the Famine Steppe—which was for a long time an obstacle to the advance of the Russians southwards, but which probably might be irrigated—and by the desert of Kyzyl-kum, which is covered in places by moving sand. The Famine Steppe (not to be confounded with another desert of the same name, or Bek-pak-dala, to the west of Lake Balkhash) occupies nearly 5,000,000 acres, covered with a loess - like clay ; the water is nearly always brackish, and can only be obtained from wells. In the spring the steppe is clothed with grass, and offers good pasture - grounds for the Kirghiz, but the grass withers as summer advances. Nearly 1,500,000 acres might, however, be irrigated and rendered available for the cultivation of the cottontree ; and indeed a beginning has been made in that direction. The Kyzyl-kum (or Kizyl-kum) Steppe, which occupies 88,000 square miles, is covered partly with rocky hills, reaching an altitude of 3500 feet, and partly with salted clays, patches of prairie land, and sands. The sand is especially prevalent in the parts on the margin, where the moving barkhans (crescentshaped sandhills) invade the Kara-kul oasis of Bokhara. The vegetation is very poor, as a rule ; grass and flowers (tulips, Rheum, various Umbellifene, &c.) appear for a short time in the spring, but for the rest of the year only the bushes and the grasses characteristic of the steppes of Central Asia are to be seen, and the barkhans are covered merely with Haloxylon ammodendron, Poligonum, Halimodcndron, Atraphaxis, and other steppe bushes ; occasionally some Stipa grass is seen on the slopes of the sandmounds, while Artemisia and Tamarix bushes cover the more compact sands. Water can only be obtained from wells, which sometimes have to be 140 feet deep. A few Kirghiz are the only inhabitants, and they are only to be found in the more hilly parts of the steppe. The chief river of the province is the Zerafshan (see also ninth edition), which, under the name of Match, takes its rise in the Koksu mountain group where the Hissar range meets with the Alai ranges, near the Match Pass (13,800 feet). The glacier from which it flows is 16 miles long, and reaches by its lower end the altitude of 9000 feet; formerly, however, it crept at least 33 miles farther down the valley. The Zerafshan flows first westwards, in a wild gorge, with a fall of 37 feet per mile; near Yarzaminor it receives the Fan-daria—formed by the junction of the Yagnob, which flows in a gorge parallel to the Upper Zerafshan, with the Iskander-daria—and pierces the Zerafshan range in a wild transversal gorge. It then bends northwards, receives the Kshtut and the Maghian from the left, and issues from the mountains into the steppes near Penjakent. After flowing past Samarkand, it divides into two branches (the Ak-daria and Kara-daria), 65 to 67 miles long, which unite near the Bokhara frontier ; these surround the fertile, well watered, and well populated Miankal Island. To the west of Kermineh (altitude 970 feet) the Zerafshan bends to the south-west, flows past Bokhara, a few miles north of the city, and is lost in the sands 15 miles west of the Kara-kul villages. Its total length is 400 miles, for 260 of which it flows in the province of Samarkand. The current in the Zerafshan is so rapid that navigation is only possible by rafts ; these are floated from Penjakent downwards. The quantity of water varies at the junction with the Maghian from 800 cubic feet per second to 27,800, or even 33,400, cubic feet per second in different periods of the year. The name of the Zerafshan, “distributer of gold,” is fully explained by its value for purposes of irrigation : 83 main canals are drawn from it in the Samarkand province, watering 1200 square miles ; while

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another 1640 square miles are watered in Bokhara by means of 43 main canals (of which the Shahrud brings to the Bokhara city 1610 cubic feet of water per second) and 939 secondary canals. The north-eastern portions of Samarkand are watered by the Syr-daria. One of the lakes, the Tuz-khan (40 miles from Jizak) yields about 1300 tons of salt. The climate is very dry and continental in character. The average temperature for the year is 55° F. at Samarkand, and 58° at Khojent and Jizak ; but the average temperature for ..ma e the winter is only 34°, and frosts of 4° and 11° have ’ been experienced at Samarkand and Khojent respectively ; on the other hand, the average temperature for July is 79° at Samarkand and 85° at Khojent and Jizak. The total precipitation (including snow in winter) is only 6‘4 inches at Khojent, 12 inches at Samarkand and Khojent, and 24 inches at Jizak. The hilly tracts have a healthy climate, but malaria prevails in the lower regions and the mosquitoes are quite a plague in summer. In 1897 the domiciled population numbered 857,847, of whom 384,392 were women, and 135,568 lived in towns. The Uzbegs form over two-thirds of the population, and after them Inbabjtm the Kirghiz and Tajiks are the most numerous ; Jews, ants Tsigans, Tatars, Afghans, and Hindus are also ™et . . ’ . with. The Russians had 9 villages (2000 inhabitants) &c ’ on the Syr-daria, in the Famine Steppe, in 1897. In 1898 nearly 1,000,000 acres were irrigated, and about 800,000 acres half-irrigated. The chief crops in 1897 were : wheat 4,156,000 cwt., rice 2,584,000 cwt., and barley 1,240,000 cwt. Sorghum, millet, Indian corn, peas, lentils, haricots, flax, hemp, poppy, lucerne, madder, tobacco, melons, and mushrooms are also grown. Agriculture has reached a high level of perfection, and two crops are often taken from the same land in one season. Over 1100 tons of raw cotton, chiefly American, were obtained in 1897, and 21,000 acres were under vineyards. Sericulture prospers, especially in the Khojent district (15,100 cwt. of raw cocoons). The forests have been already referred to. Plantations of trees near Samarkand have proved very successful. Cattle-breeding forms the chief occupation of the Kirghiz, and there were in 1897 in the province 82,760 horses, 170,890 cattle, 1,087,500 sheep and goats, 39,500 donkeys, and 45,800 camels. Weaving, saddlery, bootmaking, tanneries, oil works, and metal works are widely spread in the villages and towns, while the nomad Kirghiz excel in making felt goods and carpets. But all these industries are simply domestic in character, and of large establishments there are only 1 glass works, 24 cotton-cleaning works, 3 steam flour mills, and a few distilleries. Mining is in its infancy ; but some coal (5000 tons), sulphur, ammonia, and gypsum is obtained. Trade is considerable, the chief exports being rice, raw cotton, raisins, dried fruit, nuts, wine, and silk. The Central Asian Railway now crosses the province from Bokhara to Samarkand and Tashkent; a branch line runs to Andijan in Fergana. Education is at a low ebb. There were only 9 schools for Russians in 1899, attended by 350 boys and 240 girls ; 8 mixed schools, with evening classes, had 259 pupils; and 1785 Mahommedan schools, about 17,000; pupils. The province is divided into 4 districts, the chief towns of which are: Samarkand (see below), Fort Jizak (16,041), Kattykurgan (10,083), and Khojent, or Hodjent (30,076). (p. a. K.) Sa.ma.rka.nd, the capital of the above province, situated in 39° 39' 1ST., 97° 18' E., 5 miles from the left bank of the Zerafshan, at an altitude of 2260 feet. It is connected by rail with Krasnovodsk (938 miles), vid Merv, and with Tashkent (126 miles). In 1897 the population numbered about 40,000 in the native city, and about 15,000 in the new Russian town, inclusive of the military (80 per cent. Russians). Out of the total of 54,900, only 23,194 were women. The Russian town is well built, with broad boulevards, gardens, and a park. Although the building of the railway as far as Tashkent and Andijan has diminished the commercial importance of Samarkand, it still remains an important depot for the export of raw cotton, rice, raw silk, silk goods (blankets), leather, fruit, horses, and wine. Sambalpur, a town and district of British India, in the Chhattisgarh division of the Central Provinces. The town is on the left bank of the river Mahanadi, 495 feet above the sea, and has a railway station. Population (1881), 13,939; (1891), 14,571. There is a ruined fort, with old temples. The cantonment contains a wing of a Madras native infantry regiment. The Government high school had 444 pupils in 1896-97. There is considerable trade.

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The district of Samralpur has an area of 4948 square miles. Population (1881), 693,499 ; (1891), 796,413, showing an increase of 15 per cent., which has been continuous since 1872. Average density, 161 persons per square mile. In 1901 the population was 829,823, showing a further increase of 4 per cent. The land revenue and rates are Rs. 2,06,334, the incidence of assessment being little more than two annas per acre ; cultivated area (1897-98), 1,117,439 acres, of which 18,712 were irrigated from tanks, &c. ; number of police, 491; boys at school (1896-97), 8137, being IS^ per cent, of the male population of school-going age ; registered death-rate (1897), 30 per thousand, compared with 68 for the province generally. This last figure is sufficient to show that Sambalpur entirely escaped the famine of 1896-97, which indeed can be said to have brought prosperity to the district by causing high prices for a good rice crop, rice being the staple of cultivation. It was almost equally fortunate in 1900. The main line of the Bengal-Nagpur Railway runs along the northern border of the district, with a branch (30 miles) south to Sambalpur town. Sambor, the chief town of a government district in Galicia, situated on the Dniester, to the south-west of Lemberg. The industries consist in brewing, corn-milling, and the manufacture of damask silk, oil and salt from the brine wells in the neighbourhood. There is a considerable trade in flax, hemp, eggs, and cattle. Population (1890), 14,324; (1900), 17,027, chiefly Polish and Koman Catholic (estimated at 9 per cent. Ruthenians and 3 per cent. German; 29 per cent. Jewish and 17 per cent. Greek Catholic). Samndn, a small province of Persia, which, including the city and district of Damghan, is generally known as “Samnan va Damghan.” It is bounded on the W. by the districts of Khar (the ancient Choara) and Firuzkuh, on the FT. by Mazandaran, and on the E. by Shahrud and Bostam. In the S. it extends to beyond the oasis of Jendek in the desert north of Yezd. Its northern part is still known as Komush, or Komish, the ancient Commisene. The revenue which the State derives from the whole province amounts to about £7000 per annum. Samndn, the capital of the above province, situated 145 miles east of Tehran, on the high road thence to Mashhad, at an altitude of 3740 feet and in 35° 34' N., and 53° 22' E. It has a population of about 10,000, post and telegraph offices, and a fine minaret, 100 feet high and some inches out of the perpendicular, built in the 12th century. It exports large quantities of pistachios and almonds and some coarse tobacco grown in the district. In the town and some of the neighbouring villages a dialect with many old Persian forms and resembling the Mazandaran dialect is spoken. A. Houtum-Schindler, “ Bericht iiber d. Samnan Dialect,” Zeitsch. d. Morgenl. Gesellschaft, vol. xxxii., 1878. Samoa, an archipelago which occupies a somewhat central position in the Pacific Ocean, about 150 miles north of Tonga and nearly midway between the New Hebrides and Tahiti, 1600 miles from Auckland (New Zealand), 2410 from Sydney, and 4200 from San Francisco. The group, which was discovered by Bougainville, and by him named the Navigators’ Islands, comprises altogether fourteen volcanic islands disposed in the direction from west to east between 13°-15° S. and 168°—173° W., with a total area of 1100 square miles, and a population (1900) of 35,000, all Polynesians except about 500 Europeans (British, American, German). The chief members of the group are :— Area in sq. miles. Population. Savaii ...... 660 12,500 Upolu 34a 16,600 Tutuila 54 3000 Manua, with Ofu and Olosenga . 26 2000 All are forest-clad and mountainous, with several extinct or quiescent craters rising from 2000 feet in Upolu to 4000 (Mua) in Savaii, and the peak of Yaea in the former

SAMOA island will always be associated with the memory of the late R. L. Stevenson, whose monument crowns the summit. Although there are now no active cones, Upolu has in comparatively recent times been subject to violent volcanic disturbances. Several parts of the islands are strewn with modern eruptive matter, and according to a local tradition, the last explosion occurred not more than 200 years ago. In 1866 a submarine volcano near the islet of Olosenga was the scene of a violent commotion, discharging rocks and mud to a height of 2000 feet, and discolouring the surrounding waters for many miles in all directions. The whole group is abundantly watered, and such is the fertility of the igneous soil that the means of subsistence are said to be more easily raised than in any other part of the world. But the archipelago lies in the track of the fierce hurricanes which occur usually between the months of December and April. Of the extremely limited Samoan fauna, consisting mainly of an indigenous rat, four species of snakes, and a few birds, the most interesting member is the Didunculus strigirostris, a ground pigeon of iridescent greenish-black and bright chestnut plumage, which forms a link between the extinct dodo and the living African Treronince. The Samoans are typical members of the large brown Polynesian race (see Polynesia), and according to some ethnologists Savaii was the cradle and centre of dispersion of these aborigines over the Pacific Ocean from Hawaii to New Zealand. This view is largely based on the fact that Samoan is the most archaic of all the Polynesian tongues, and still preserves the organic letter s, which becomes h or disappears in nearly all the other archipelagoes. Thus the term Savaii itself, originally Savailci, is supposed to have been carried by the Samoan wanderers over the ocean to Tahiti, New Zealand, the Marquesas and Sandwich groups, where it still survives in such variant forms as Havaii, Haivaiki, Ilavaiki, and Hawaii. The theory is supported by the local traditions, legends, and cosmogonies in which Polynesian oral literature abounds. The exports from Samoa (chiefly copra) were valued in 1897 at £48,000 and the imports at £66,000 (£35,000 from British empire), while of the shipping (82,000 tons) about half was British, and 32,000 tons were American. Apia, the capital and chief centre of trade, lies in the German island of Upolu; but Pago Pago (Pango Pango) in Tutuila, is used as a coaling station for the United States Navy in the Central Pacific waters. (a. h. k.) History.—Subsequently to the year 1881, the Samoan Islands assumed a much greater international importance than before. Their situation in the direct pathway of commerce from the United States to Australia, their central position in the South Pacific, and the fact that European Powers had acquired nearly all other groups of islands and valuable harbours in the South Pacific, made Samoa a desirable possession to any maritime Power. Under a political arrangement between Great Britain, Germany, and the United States, no single Power was to appropriate them. But in 1887 and 1888 civil war prevailed, the Germans supporting their candidate, the native Tamasese, as the lawful king, and the British and American residents of the islands supporting Malietoa. After the latter had been deported by the Germans, the British and American support was transferred to his successor, Mataafa. In the course of the fighting which ensued, some fifty German sailors and marines were killed or wounded by the adherents of Mataafa. A conference between the three Powers was thereupon held at Berlin, and a treaty was executed by those Powers and by Samoa, under date 14th June 1889, by virtue of which the independence and autonomy of the islands were guaranteed,

S A M O S —S A M P S O N Malietoa was restored as king, and the three Powers constituted themselves practically a protectorate over Samoa, and provided a chief justice and a president of the municipality of Apia, to be by them appointed, to aid in carrying out the provisions of the treaty. The government was administered under this treaty, but with considerable friction, until the end of 1898, when, upon the death of Malietoa, two rival candidates for the throne appeared, and the chief justice selected by the three Powers decided against the claims of Mataafa, one of the rival claimants, and in favour of a boy, Malietoa Tanu, a relative of the deceased Malietoa. Civil war immediately ensued, in which several American and British officers and sailors were slain by the natives, the Germans upholding the claims of Mataafa, and the British and Americans supporting the rival candidate. The three Powers thereupon sent a commission to Samoa to investigate and adjust the difficulties. The situation, however, was found to be so complicated and embarrassing that, early in the year 1900, the so-called Berlin treaty was abrogated, Great Britain withdrew her claims to any portion of the islands and received compensation from Germany by concessions in other parts of the world, and the United States withdrew from all the islands west of Tutuila, leaving Upolu and Savaii and their outlying islands for exclusive German control, the United States retaining the island of Tutuila and the small islands near to it. The Germans immediately made a Crown colony of their new possessions, and appointed a governor for their control. The United States, having received the written assent of all the chiefs of the islands that fell to it by the partition, assumed sovereignty over them and proceeded, as we have already seen, to erect a well-equipped coaling station in the harbour of Pago Pago. On 16th March 1889 a hurricane prevailed in the South Pacific, and the heavy tidal waves swept into the harbour of Apia and created great havoc among the warships of the three Powers congregated there. The American warship Nipsic was cast upon the beach, but was afterwards floated and saved. Two other United States warships Trenton and Vandalia, were beaten to pieces upon the coral reef, and sank; and the German warships Olga and Eber were wrecked. Great loss of life ensued. The British warship Calliope was in the harbour, but succeeded in getting up steam and, standing out to sea, escaped destruction. It was fitting that R. L. Stevenson’s should be the pen to describe in vivid and dramatic language the heroism of the captain and crew. The Germans had the largest financial interests in the islands for many years, and acquired by the new treaty the most valuable portions thereof. The particular value of Tutuila lies in the excellence of the harbour of Pago Pago and its central position in the South Pacific. The Samoan climate is equable and delightful, the temperature ranging from 60° to 90° F., the average for summer being about 5° higher than that for winter. The regularity and strength of the trade winds temper the heat and, with the picturesque native life, make the islands an attractive place of residence for Europeans. Robert Louis Stevenson passed his last years there, and his body lies buried on the summit of Mount Yaea, overlooking Vailima, his South Sea home, and the coral-encircled harbour of Apia. The steamers of the Oceanic Steamship Company of San Francisco all touch at the groujj in their regular trips to Sydney, and communication is also furnished once a fortnight by the Union Steamship Company of New Zealand. (h. c. i.) Samos, an island of the Aegean, separated from the Anatolian coast by a strait less than a mile wide. It is

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tributary to Turkey in the sum of £2700 annually, but otherwise is practically an independent principality, governed by a prince of Greek nationality nominated by the Porte. As chief of the executive power the prince is assisted by a senate of four members, chosen by him out of eight candidates nominated by the four districts of the island—Yathy, Chora, Marathocumbo, and Carlovasi. The legislative power belongs to a chamber of 36 deputies, presided over by the metropolitan. The Budget estimate for receipts and expenses for 1900-01 was £31,848. There is no public debt. The seat of the Government is Yathy (5000). There is a telephone service. The island is remarkably fertile, and a great portion of it is covered with vineyards, the wine from the Yathy grapes enjoying a specially high reputation. There are three ports : Vathy, Tegani, and Carlovasi. They were visited in 1899 by 1402 steamships, of 304,250 tons, as compared with 1178, of 287,095 tons, in 1895, and by 3604 sailing vessels, of 449,560 tons, as compared with 3562, of 252,897 tons, in 1895. In 1899 the ships belonging to the principality numbered 368, of 3491 tons, as compared with 306, of 3562 tons, in 1895. The total value of the exports in 1900 was £211,000, as compared with £164,876 in 1895, and of the imports £213,000, as compared with £173,545. The principal exports are wine (£140,000 in 1900 and £13,698 in 1896), olive oil (about £20,000), raisins (£25,000), locust beans, and tobacco (£20,000). The population in 1900 was 54,830, not comprising 15,000 natives of Samos inhabiting the adjoining coasts. The predominant religion is the Orthodox Greek, the metropolitan district including Samos and Icama. In 1900 there were 634 foreigners on the island (523 Hellenes, 13 Germans, 29 French, 28 Austrians, and 24 of other nationalities). In 1881 the remarkable aqueduct and tunnel of Eupalinus, cut through the mountain behind the ancient capital for a distance of about 1400 yards, was discovered. See Tozee. Islands of the JEgean, 1890. Samosata, now Samsat, Turkey in Asia, altitude 1500 feet, the capital of the Seleucid kings of Commagene, and a place of strategical importance. The town was situated on a broad plain, on the right bank of the Euphrates, where there is the first easy passage across the river below the point at which it leaves the mountains. Samosata, according to Strabo, was the starting-point of the great road to India, and it was probably the place at which the Persian “ Royal Road ” crossed the Euphrates. Taken by Mark Antony, it was finally included in the Roman empire by Yespasian, and was the birthplace of Lucian and of the heretical bishop Paul, who maintained the simple humanity of Christ. A Kurdish village occupies a corner of the site of the ancient town. Samoth race (Turkish, Semadrek), the “ Thracian Samos,” a rugged mountainous island in the Aegean Sea, altitude 5248 feet, situated 20 miles south of Dedeagach, on the coast of Thrace. The island is a kaza of the Lemnos sanjak, and has a population of 3500, nearly all Greek. On the north coast are much frequented hot sulphur springs. In 1873 and 1875 excavations were carried out under the auspices of the Austrian Government with interesting results. Sampson, William Thomas (1840-1902), American naval commander, was born at Palmyra, New York, 9th February 1840, and graduated at the head of his class from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1861. He served in the Potomac in 1861, in which year he was promoted to master, and in the following year was made

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lieutenant. He was executive officer in the Patapsco when she was blown up in Charleston Harbour, 10th January 1865. Varied service on distant stations followed, with promotion to the rank of lieutenantcommander in 1866 and commander in 1874. He was a member of the International Prime Meridian and Time Conference, 1884, and was afterwards a member of the Board of Fortifications. He was superintendent of the Naval Academy from 1886 to 1890, being meanwhile promoted to captain, and serving as delegate at the International Maritime Conference at Washington, 1889. From the first Sampson threw himself energetically into the work of developing the United States navy. The construction of the gun factory was in his charge, and it fell under his absolute control when he became chief of the Bureau of Ordnance, which position he held until he was appointed to the Iowa, shortly before the war with Spain. For a number of years from 1892 onwards all the guns built for the American navy were constructed under his supervision, and the heavier guns were from his own design. It is said that 95 per cent, of the guns employed in the Spanish-American war had been made under his superintendence. He was a member of the Advisory Board and the Board on Construction for five years up to 1897, and his influence was felt not only in the matter of general design, but still more decisively in regard to the distribution of guns and armour. Equally important was his influence in the training of the personnel of the navy. He superintended the gunnery training and prepared a new drill-book for the fleet. When the Maine was blown up in Havana harbour in February 1898, Sampson, then a captain, was one of the court of inquiry appointed to investigate the cause of the disaster. At the outbreak of the war with Spain he was placed in charge of the North Atlantic squadron, and conducted the blockade of Cuba. When it was known that Admiral Cervera, with a Spanish fleet, had left the Cape Verde Islands, Sampson withdrew a force from the blockade to cruise in the Windward Passage, and made an attack upon the forts at San Juan, Porto Rico. After his return to the coast of Cuba, he conducted the blockade of Santiago, and the ships under his command destroyed the Spanish vessels when they issued from the harbour of Santiago and attempted to escape. Sampson himself was not actually present at the battle, having started for Guantanamo just before it began. He was, however, only a few miles away at the most, and reached the scene of battle as the last Spanish vessel surrendered, and the engagement was fought in accordance with his instructions. He was promoted to commodore in 1898, to rear - admiral, 3rd March 1899, and was made commandant of the Boston (Charlestown) Navy Yard in October of the same year. He died 6th of May 1902. Admiral Sampson rose from a comparatively humble station in life by distinguished ability, power of command, and sheer force of character. He exercised an influence in every department of naval activity, won the high professional esteem of his brother officers, and was held in warm regard by all but a small section of his countrymen. He was the man whose personal energy entered more largely than that of any other into the construction, armament, organization, and fighting qualities of the American fleet as constituted in the Spanish-American war. Samshui, a treaty port in the province of Kwangtung, China, situated on the left bank of the river West, 99 miles from Canton. Its position is at the junction of the rivers North and West, and is favourably situated as a distributing centre for foreign goods. The town itself is of no importance, and the trade, which is almost

[ — SANAA entirely with Hong Kong, so far is not great. The imports by steamer in 1899 amounted to H. taels 2,967,000 (£445,000), but in 1900 to only £355,400. This, however, is only part of the trade, as the country abounds in creeks suitable for junk navigation. Samsun, the ancient Amisus, the chief town of the Janik sanjak of the Trebizond vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated on the south coast of the Black Sea between the deltas of the Kizil and Yeshil Irmaks, and connected by metalled roads with Sivas and Kaisarleh, and by sea with Constantinople. It is a thriving town, of considerable importance as the outlet for the trade of the Sivas vilayet. Steamers lie about a mile from the shore in an open roadstead, and in winter landing is sometimes impossible. In 1900 the exports — cereals, flour, tobacco, &c. —were valued at £759,760, and the imports—cotton stuffs, iron, &c.—at £468,230. The population rose from about 3000 in 1860 to about 13,000, of whom 10,000 are Christians. Amisus, which stood on a promontory about 1| miles north-west of Samsun, was, next to Sinope, the most flourishing of the Greek settlements on the Euxine, and under the kings of Pontus it was a rich trading town. By the 1st century a.d. it had displaced Sinope as the northern port of the great trade route from Central Asia, and later it was one of the chief towns of the Comneni of Trebizond. There are still a few remains of the Greek settlement. Sanaa, capital of Yemen. The journeys of General Haig in January 1887, of Professor Schweinfurth in 1888-89, and of Harris in 1892, have thrown some new light on the physiography of Yemen, and have added some interesting details to our previous knowledge of Sanaa. According to Haig, Sanaa is situated 140 miles to the north and east of the Red Sea port of Hodeida and 260 miles north of Aden. The co-ordinate position in latitude and longitude of Sanaa is most uncertain. The best authorities seem to agree that it is about 44° 30' E. and 15° 20' N., but these values have never been satisfactorily verified. Haig makes its altitude to be 7800 feet above sea-level, but Harris, following Glaser, fixes it at 7300. It is approached from the west by the Turkish military road from Hodeida, passing through a succession of steppes and gently sloping valleys, terraced and cultivated, between low hills of trap, a fall of 2000 feet occurring between the western plateau and the open plain of Sanaa. Turkish occupation and misrule are the predominant features throughout the town. The fortress of Jebal Nigcim has been repaired, and from its citadel, on one of the spurs of the hill, the guns are significantly pointing into the streets of the city. There is much of the atmosphere of a second-class Egyptian port about Sanaa. Restaurants are to be found about the central square, and cafes adjoin the numerous khans or caravanserais. The old palace of the Imams, which is now occupied by the Turkish governor, is whitewashed, and the walls of its rooms are picked out with an inferior style of French decoration. The most flourishing community in Sanaa appear to be the Jews, of whom there are about 20,000 (the total population is estimated at 45,000), who live on distinctly better terms with the Turks than the Arab inhabitants do. They possess 23 synagogues and 20 schools, with 700 boys in them. The whole male population can read, but few of the females. The boys are taught to be masons and artificers, and are preferred to Mahommedans as servants by the few Europeans who live at Sanaa. The pretentious style of the houses seems to have struck all travellers. They are often stone-built (in colour patterns) and three or four storeys high, the upper storeys projecting over the street, with long narrow windows filled in with

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stained glass. The streets of the bazaars are winding and narrow, and are arranged (as is usual in Asiatic towns) with reference to particular crafts and trades, each street maintaining its own special business. The manufacture of arms and jewellery, trade in silks and cottons, china, and hardware are all well represented, the jewellery (especially jewelled sheaths) being a speciality of Sanaa. Authorities.—Haig. JR.G.S. Proceedings, vol. xi.—Harris. Journey through Yemen. London, 1893. — Schweinfurth. R.G.S. Proceedings, vol. xi.—Kay. Omrah’s History of Yemen. London, 1892. San Antonio, a city of Texas, U.S.A., capital of Bexar county. It is the largest city in the state, and is situated in 29° 25' 98° 25' W., on the river San Antonio, at the mouth of the San Pedro, in the southern part of the state, at an altitude of 645 feet. The present city combines three different elements of growth: the old Mexican town, in the district known as Chihuahua, west of the San Pedro; San Antonio proper, including the business part of the city, between the rivers San Antonio and San Pedro, inhabited mainly by Americans; and the portion east of the river San Antonio, settled mainly by Germans. The city has a level site on both banks of the river, its street plan is irregular, and it is divided into eight wards. It has an abundant watersupply from artesian wells and from the San Antonio, and it is well paved and sewered. It is the intersecting point of four railways, the Galveston, Harrisburg, and San Antonio, the International and Great Northern, the San Antonio and Aransas Pass, and the San Antonio and Gulf, making it the most important commercial centre in this part of thfe state. Its manufacturing interests also are large. In 1900 the city contained 312 manufacturing establishments, with a total capital of $4,252,197. They employed 3073 hands, and the product wTas valued at $6,821,297. The assessed valuation of property, real and personal, for 1900, was $31,879,369, the net debt $2,015,449, and the rate of taxation $27.00 per $1000. Within the city is a United States arsenal in spacious grounds, and a mile north of the city is a United States military post, known as Fort Sam Houston. The town contains many fine buildings and many historical relics. Among the former are the new court house, the city hall, and the cathedral of San Fernando. Among the latter the first in interest is the Alamo, an adobe church, which in the Texan War for Independence, in 1836, a garrison of 175 men defended for 12 days against the assaults of 4000 Mexicans, and finally perished to a man. In and about the city are several of the early Spanish mission buildings, still in a good state of preservation. The city is the site of St Louis College, a Roman Catholic institution, opened in 1894, which five years later had a faculty numbering 15 and was attended by 110 students. Population (1890), 37,673; (1900), 53,321, of whom 9348 were foreign-born and 7538 negroes. San Antonio do los Banos, a small Cuban town, with well-built houses, about 23 miles from Havana, on the road to Guanajay. It has mineral springs and baths, and is frequented as a summer resort by the people of Havana. The population in 1899 was 8178. San Bernardino, a city of California, U.S.A., capital of San Bernardino county. It is situated in 34° 07', N., 1173 17' W., in the valley at the south base of the San Bernardino range, in southern California, at an altitude of 1048 feet. The broad streets are well shaded and bordered with the beautiful grounds of private residences. It is on the Southern California and the Southern Pacific railways, in the fruit region of southern California,

407 and is surrounded by orange and lemon groves, which furnish a large part of its trade. Population (1890), 4012 ; (1900), 6150, of whom 873 were foreign-born and 166 coloured.

Sancti Spiritus, a Cuban city in Santa Clara province, situated in the centre of a region principally devoted to grazing. It was one of the seven original municipalities founded by Diego Velasquez. The population in 1899 was 12,696. Sandbach, a market-town, urban district (1894), and parish, Cheshire, England, in the Crewe parliamentary division of the county, 5 miles north-east of Crewe by rail, on the Trent and Mersey canal. The urban district council owns the water-works, constructed at a cost of £7000. In 1889 a town and market hall was erected at a cost of £5000, and in 1891 the old town-hall was demolished. The population of the urban district was in (1881), 5493; (1901), 5556. Sandefjord, the oldest and most famous spa in Norway, county of Jarlsberg and Laurvik, 53 miles southsouth-west of Christiania by rail, with sulphur and other baths and a bath-house. Population (1891), 4238 ; (1900), 4847. Sandgate, a town, railway station, and bathingplace, Kent, England, in the Eastern or St Augustine’s parliamentary division of the county, 1^ miles west of Folkestone, and about 3 miles east of Hythe with which it is connected by tramway (belonging to the SouthEastern and Chatham Railway) running along the shore. The camp of Shorncliffe, an important military station, lies north of the village on a plateau. It forms three sides of a square and can accommodate more than 5000 troops. A convalescent home with accommodation for 230 patients, erected at a cost of £20,000, was opened in 1897. The population of the urban district in 1891 was 1756, exclusive of 2822 officers and soldiers in camp; in 1901, 2023. Sandhurst, a parish, Berkshire, England, in the Eastern or Wokingham parliamentary division of the county, 41 miles south-east of Wokingham by rail, and 1| miles from Wellington College station. The Royal Military College was settled here in 1812 in beautiful park-like grounds. Population (1901), 2386. Sandhurst. See Bendigo. San DiegO, a city and seaport of California, U.S.A., capital of San Diego county. It is situated on the Pacific coast, near the southern boundary of the state, on a harbour formed by a sand-spit from the south, the entrance being around its northern end. The site is nearly level, with a slight slope towards the harbour; there is a watersupply as well as other municipal improvements. The principal railway to the city is the Southern California, in addition to which there are three small local lines of steam railway, besides trolley lines. On a sand-spit enclosing the harbour has sprung up, around the well-known Coronado hotel, a village of fine residences, known as Coronado. This is connected with the city on the mainland by ferry. Population (1890), 16,159 ; (1900), 17,700, of whom 3768 were foreign-born and 623 were coloured, including 313 negroes. San do way, a district in the south of the Arakan division of Lower Burma. Population (1891) 78,425; (1901) 90,200. Area, 3784 square miles. Of the population in 1891, 69,250 were Buddhists and Jains; 3128 Mahommedans; 5452 aborigines, mostly Chins; 175 Hindus; and 420 Christians, 384 of whom were natives. Of a total area of 2,421,760 acres, only 61,719 bore crops

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SANDUR —SAN

in 1898-99, but 2,350,000 were uncultivable, and apart from fallow only 8233 were available for cultivation. The rainfall in 1898-99 was 217'7 inches. Except 1974 acres of tobacco, all the cultivation is rice. The chief town, Sandoway, had a population in 1891 of 2537 persons. It has a municipal committee of eight members, six of whom are elective, four being Burmese and two Mussulmans. Sandur, or Sundoor, a petty state of southern India, surrounded by the Madras district of Bellary. Area, 161 square miles. Population (1891), 11,388; (1901), 11,205. The chief, whose title is Baja, is a Maratha, tracing back his descent to the 17th century. In 1897-98 the estimated gross revenue was Bs. 50,000. On the western border is a hill range of the same name, which contains the military sanitarium of Bamanmalai. Sandusky, a city of Ohio, U.S.A., the capital of Erie county. It is situated in 41° 32' N., 82° 42' W., on Sandusky Bay, an arm of Lake Erie, in the northern part of the state, at an altitude of 596 feet. It has broad streets, and a good water-supply and sewTerage systems. It is traversed by five railways, the Baltimore and Ohio, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, and St Louis, the Columbus, Sandusky, and Hocking, the Lake Erie and Western, and the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern. These, with vessels on the Lakes, give the city a large commerce, particularly in coal, iron-ore, grain, fruit, and fish. Its manufactures are not large, and consist in great part of agricultural implements. Population (1890), 18,471; (1900), 19,664, of whom 4002 were foreignborn and 295 negroes. Sandwich, a municipal borough, cinque port, and market-town in the St Augustine parliamentary division of Kent, England, on the Stour, 5 miles north of Deal, with a station on the South-Eastern and Chatham Bailway. St Peter’s church has been restored and modern grammar-school buildings have been erected. Corporation water-works were constructed in 1894. The St George’s golf-links are amongst the finest in England, and are one of the three upon which the Championship contests are held. Area, 756 acres. Population (1881), 2846; (1901), 3174. Sandys, Frederick (1832 ), English painter and draughtsman, was born at Norwich on 1st May 1832, and received his earliest lessons in art from his father, who was himself a painter. His early studies show that he had a natural gift for careful and beautiful drawing, and that he sought after absolute sincerity of presentment. It was to be expected, therefore, that he would sooner or later join himself to those who were associated with the Pre-Baphaelite Brotherhood, the one great movement in British art during the 19th century. At an early gathering of the P.-B. B. in 1848 Millais showed, as examples of sound work, engravings after the frescoes in the Campo Santo at Pisa by Orcagna, Benozzo Gozzoli, and other painters of the quattrocento, and said, “ This is what the Pre-Baphaelite clique should follow.” Sandys worked along the same lines as Millais, Madox Brown, Holman Hunt, and Bossetti, and it was not long before he was recognized as one of the most promising of the young artists of the day. He first met Bossetti in 1857, and carried away with him the impression of the painter-poet’s features, which he reproduced so cleverly in “ A Nightmare,” a caricature of “Sir Isumbras at the Ford,” by Millais. Both the picture and the skit upon it by Sandys attracted much attention in 1857. The caricaturist turned the horse of Sir Isumbras into a donkey labelled “J. B., Oxon.” (John Buskin). Upon it were seated Millais himself—an excellent likeness of him in his handsome youth—in the

FERNANDO character of the knight, with Bossetti and Holman Hunt as the two children, one before and one behind. The humour was chiefly directed against Buskin, but all concerned took it in good part. Bossetti and Sandys, in fact, became intimate friends, and for about a year and a quarter, ending in the summer of 1867, Sandys lived with Bossetti as one of his numerous guests at Tudor House (now called Queen’s House), in Cheyne Walk, Chelsea. By this time Sandys was known as a painter of remarkable gifts. He had begun by drawing for Once a Week, the Cornhill Magazine, Good Words, and the other periodicals which contained the best illustration work that has ever been done in England. Among the men who were then drawing for woodcuts, and creating a body of work winch was not until long afterwards recognized at its full worth, Sandys took a leading place. He drew only in the magazines. No books illustrated by him can be traced. So his exquisite draughtsmanship has to be sought for in the old bound-up periodical volumes which are now hunted by collectors, or in publications such as DalziePs Bible Gallery and the Cornhill Gallery and books of drawings, with verses attached to them, made to lie upon the drawing-room tables of those who had for the most part no idea of their merits. Every drawing Sandys made was a work of art, and many of them were so faithfully engraved that they are worthy of the collector’s portfolio. Early in the ’sixties he began to exhibit the paintings which introduced him to a wider public and set the seal upon his fame. The best known of these are “Vivien,” “Morgan le Fay,” “ Cassandra,” and “ Medea.” The rejection of “ Medea ” by the hanging committee of the Boyal Academy aroused Bossetti to burning indignation. In a letter of April 1868 he wrote: “Sandys’s picture of Medea has been turned out of the B.A.—a most disgraceful affair.” However, it was exhibited in the following year and won the warm admiration of the judicious. Sandys never became a popular painter. His imagination wras too fine for that. He painted little, and the dominant influence upon his art was the influence exercised by lofty conceptions of tragic power. There was in it a sombre intensity and an almost stern beauty which lifted it far above the ideals of the crowrd. When he chose classic subjects, he treated them with Gothic freedom from convention and with a passionate determination to lay bare the human soul. The Scandinavian Sagas and the Morte d?Arthur gave him subjects after his own heart. “ The Valkyrie ” and “ Morgan le Fay ” represent his work at its very best. His portraits also had qualities far more in common with Gothic art than with any other school. His oil-paintings were of a marvellous fidelity, and have been said to be the finest in their wray seen in England since the days of Holbein. He made as well a number of chalk drawings of famous men of letters, including Tennyson, Browning, Matthew Arnold, and James Bussell Lowell. See also Esther Wood. T/ic Artist (Winter number), 1896, finely illustrated; which also refers to some other sources of information concerning Sandys. ScLM Fernando, a towrn of Spain, province of Cadiz, south-east of the capital, with a station on the Seville to Cadiz Baihvay. Population (1887), 23,756 ; (1897), 28,951. There are a very handsome, large townhall, several storeys high, with marble staircases and stately columns, a good hospital for both sexes, a bull-ring, and a fish-market. The place is famous for its private schools and academies, which prepare boys for the navy. Between San Fernando and Puerto Beal there is a tract of country studded with gardens, vineyards, and stone quarries. In this region is the arsenal of La Carraca. The principal local industries are salt, alcohol, liqueurs, starch, beer, tanneries, esparto grass rugs, soap, hats.

SAN

FRANCISCO

There are many flour-mills, and manufactures of rope, sails, and barrels. San Francisco, the 9th city in size in the United States and the metropolis of California and of the Pacific coast, is situated in 37° 47' 22,55" X. and 122° 25' 40‘76" W. Important changes in form of government, the coming of additional transcontinental railways, the Oriental outlook, caused by the control of the Philippine Islands by the United States, the increased trade with China, Japan, and the islands of the Pacific, caused a remarkable development during the last years of the 19 th century. Topography.—Within the decade from 1890 to 1900 the Golden Gate, or entrance to the harbour, was fortified in the most approved modern manner. Within the bay several islands are controlled by the Government, and fortified, while at the Government navy yard at Mare Island, north of the city, and at the Union ironworks, on the peninsula, are docks capable of receiving the largest modern warships. Suburban communities have grown up about the city, chief among which are Oakland, Alameda, Berkeley, San Rafael, Sausalito, San Mateo, Menlo Park, and Palo Alto. Electric and steam railways and ferries bring these places into close communication with the city. There are in the city over 140 miles of electric railways, 77 miles of cable roads, 12 miles of the steam system, and 10 miles of horse railways. The steep hills caused the invention here of the cable railway, now used in many cities of the world. Market Street is the artery from which diverge all the principal streets. It is paved with bituminous rock, material used largely for all the streets. The city has 195 miles of paved streets and 305 miles of sewers. In the early days the number of wooden dwellings was considerable, but builders are no longer hampered by the fear of earthquakes. Brick and stone are extensively employed, excellent stone being found in the Sierra and the Coast range, and business buildings of ten and eleven storeys or higher have been erected. Among the notable modern buildings are the United States post office, the Ferry building, Mills building, Spreckels building, hall of justice, hotel St Francis, mutual savings bank, and the Crocker building. _ Population.—The population in 1890 was 298,997 and in 1900, 342,782, of whom 116,885 were foreign-born, and 17,404 were coloured, including a large proportion of Chinese; 1654 were negroes. Out of 128,985 adult males, 3596 were illiterate (unable to write), of whom 3354 were foreign-born. The death-rate in 1890 was 22-5, in 1900 it was 20‘S. Education, Libraries, Newspapers.—There are ten daily newspapers. Three morning and two evening papers are in the English language, the others represent the interests of the foreign population and of commerce and trade. There are six first-class theatres. The chief libraries are the Free Public Library of 143,000 volumes, and those of the Mechanics’ Institute and the Mercantile Library Association. The private libraries of the late Adolph Sutro and of Hubert Howe Bancroft contain collections of rare books and pamphlets, including volumes relating especially to the history and development of the Pacific coast. The Free Library has six branches in various parts of the city, and circulated in the year ending 30th June 1901, 711,409 books. Chief among the museums are those of the Academy of Sciences, the State Mining Bureau, the State Board of Trade, and the Alaska collection, the last named controlled by the university of California. There is also a nucleus of an excellent museum owned by the city and situated in Golden Gate Park, the result of the California Midwinter Fair, a successful exhibi-

409 tion held there in 1894, following the World’s Fair at Chicago. There are 82 public schools, with 1017 teachers, a total enrolment of 48,517 pupils (30th June 1901), with average daily attendance of 34,771. The university of California, a state institution at Berkeley, an hour’s ride from San Francisco, and the Leland Stanford, Jr. University, at Palo Alto, south of the city, afford exceptional advantages for advanced education. The university of California has its departments of medicine, law, pharmacy, and dentistry, and the Mark Hopkins Institute of Arts and other minor departments situated in the city. The city has in all 11 medical and dental colleges. There are 145 churches of all denominations, 102 charitable and benefit organizations, and 44 hospitals and asylums. Manufactures and Commerce.—For the year ending 30th June 1901 the chief manufactures, with the value of the product, were as follows :—Bookbinderies $800,000, breweries $4,000,000, coffee and chocolate, $2,200,000, confectionery $700,000, cigars $2,000,000, crackers $1,750,000, chemicals $1,500,000, clothing $1,500,000, electrical $3,750,000, flour $3,000,000, fruit-canning $3,700,000, gas $4,500,000, glass $1,300,000, millinery $810,000, provisions $3,500,000, shirts $1,700,000, ships $3,000,000, shoes $2,300,000, sugar $14,211,516, tanneries $1,310,000, tinware $1,750,000, wire $1,500,000, wool-scouring $2,000,000. The harbour and its branches are such that deep-water ships may go directly to docks within short distances of their source of supply, saving large cost of loading. The import of tea in 1890 was valued at $923,025 ; in 1899 the valuation had risen to $1,233,857, representing an import of 10,370,630 lb ; 1900, 13,417,970 lb. During the year ending 30th June 1901 wheat exports were 13,262,796 bushels, valued at $8,232,916, and wheat flour exports for the same period were valued at $3,083,532. The exports of treasure by sea, 1901, were $4,330,308, and the imports $28,649,923. The total merchandise exports for 1901 were valued at $34,596,792, of which $11,316,448 were wheat and flour. The total imports for 1901 were $35,161,753. Railways, Banks, and Finances.—The city is connected with the Eastern states by three through overland railways, the Central Pacific, the Southern Pacific (which controls the Central Pacific), and the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe routes. Besides these, it has traffic connexions with the Canadian Pacific, Northern Pacific, and Great Northern transcontinental roads. Lines of the Southern Pacific and its branches connect the whole state with the city, besides the smaller lines of the California North-Western and other roads that penetrate the agricultural, mining, and lumbering districts. On 1st July 1900 the first train of the Santa Fe Railway left San Francisco for the east, a significant event, since there had been practically but one railway corporation (the Southern Pacific Company) controlling transcontinental traffic, with San Francisco as its western terminus, since the first overland road was completed in 1869. The construction of the Santa Fd was the outgrowth of the building of the San Joaquin Valley Railway, to which citizens subscribed $2,500,000. There are 38 banks. The total clearings in 1890 were $851,066,172; in 1895 they were $692,079,240. In 1899 they were $955,851,466, an increase of $143,638,308 over 1898. In 1901, they were $1,165,301,561. In the nine savings banks of the city there was due to depositors on 11th August 1900, $120,480,927. The United States mint during 1899 coined $63,254,886 ; since the mint was established in 1854 the total coinage has been $1,206,122,701. The assessed valuation of real and personal property in 1901 was $413,388,420, of which the former amounted to $289,970,519 and the latter to $123,417,901. Property is assessed at 60 to 80 per cent, of its value. The tax rate is $1,556 on the hundred dollars. The city’s net debt (funded and floating, less sinking fund) was on 30th June 1902 only $17,185.77. Administration.—After many years of notorious “Boss” rule the city in 1896 elected a reform mayor. This was the most important movement for good government in the history of the city since the vigilance committee of 1856. It was followed by the adoption (1899) of a new charter, formed by a board of freeholders, and based upon the most approved models of modern municipal government. The city’s control is centralized, giving more power to the mayor, who has the appointment and removal of the following commissions—fire, police, school, election, park, civil service, health, and public works. The principle of the “ initiative and referendum ” was incorporated in the charter, by which a percentage of the voters can compel the submission of measures for public approval. There are 12 departments of the superior court, 5 justices’ courts, and 4 police courts. The board of supervisors has 18 members. The board of education has 4 members. There is a paid fire department of 446 members ; the police department S. VIII. —52

GERMAN—SAN LUIS POTOSI has 588 members, with provision for an increase of one officer for Population (1897), 25,000. Altitude above sea-level, 3868 each 500 of the population. The board of public works controls feet. It is connected with Port Limdn by a railway. The the streets, sewers, and public improvements of the city, and is city is well laid out and paved, and has many fine buildcomposed of engineers of recognized standing. The water-supply ings and public gardens. It possesses a national theatre, is excellent, being furnished by a private corporation, but the city numerous charitable institutions, a museum, public library, plans for the ownership of its water and lighting system. and a number of learned societies. (J. D. P.) San German, a primitive and decadent inland city San Juan, the full name of which is San Juan near the west end of the south coast of Porto Rico, settled Bautista de Puerto Rico, a city on the northern coast of in 1511. It is a picturesque place with narrow streets, Porto Rico, on a small and narrow island which is united churches, and convents, largely constructed in the 16th to the mainland by the bridge of San Antonio. It is the century. It has several religious retreats and hermitages, political capital of Porto Rico, and is known throughout which are frequented by the devout. The population in the country as “El Capital.” The city wTas founded about 1899 was 3954. 1577 by Governor Juan Ponce de Leon. It is chiefly San Gimignano, a town of the province of noteworthy for its fortifications and public buildings. A Siena, Tuscany, Italy, 24 miles north-west of Siena (16 by strong mediaeval wall faces the land, and steep fortified rail to Poggibonsi), at an elevation of 1181 feet. Being cliffs overlook the sea. The fine strongholds include the surrounded by its ancient walls, and retaining thirteen out Morro at the entrance of the harbour, Forts Santa Elena of its original fifty towers, it is, with its predominantly and San German, and the citadel of San Cristobal, which Gothic architecture, a thoroughly mediaeval-looking town. overshadows the city and commands the sea front. There The most noteworthy of the public buildings are the are many large and handsome public edifices, including town-hall (1288-1323), with a museum, and paintings all the island administration buildings, the captainby Benozzo Gozzoli, Sodoma, and others j the cathedral, general’s palace, the casa de ayuntamiento municipal with fine frescoes by Ghirlandajo (1475); the church of (city hall), the barracks of Ballaja, the artillery barracks, S. Agostino, with famous frescoes (1463-65) by Gozzoli; and the casa blanca, which is said to have been built by other churches of the 12th and 13th centuries; and a Ponce de Leon. As building space is scarce, the houses small public library. Population of commune (1881), are all two or three storeys high. The streets and public plazas are neatly paved. The harbour is capacious and 8524; (1901), about 9000. San Giovanni a Teduccio, a town of the landlocked, except on the north. A highway running province of Naples, Campania, Italy, on the east shore of across the island from north to south connects San Juan the Bay of Naples, and at the foot of Mount Vesuvius, with Ponce. The city is purely a political and social 3 miles south-east of Naples by the railway to Salerno. capital, and not a distributing or commercial centre, except It has railway workshops, iron and zinc works, flour-mills, for a small surrounding local area. Population (1899), distilleries, tanneries, and macaroni factories. Iron is mined 32,048. here. There is a school of design and the mechanical arts. San Lucar de Barrameda, a town of the Population (1881), 14,397 ; (1899), about 18,000. province of Cadiz, Spain, near the mouth of the GuadalSangii, a native state of India, in the Deccan quivir, on the railway from Bonanza to Jerez. The town division of Bombay, ranking as one of the Southern has an active trade in wines and agricultural products. Maratha Jagirs. The territory is widely scattered among Population (1887), 22,667 ; (1897), 23,377. The towm is other native states and British districts. Area, 1083 divided into two parts, Alta and Baja, the former being square miles. Population (1881), 196,832; (1891), the older and crowned with the ruins of a strong castle. 238,945; gross revenue (1897-98), Rs.11,75,800; tribute, Besides the old parish church, there are the palace of Rs. 1,35,000; number of police, 782 ; number of schools, the dukes of Medina Sidonia and several convents, and in 101, with 7043 pupils. The chief, whose title is Tatya both church and palace there are interesting pictures and Saheb Patwardhan, is a Brahman by caste. The town of works of art. There are good schools, chiefly directed by Sangli is situated in 16° 51' N. and 74° 36', E., on the religious Orders. In 1898, 232 English steamers, of river Kistna, and has a station on the Southern Maratha 194,854 tons, entered Bonanza, the port of San Lucar. Railway, 11 miles from Miraj junction. Population (1881), The chief imports were coal from England, sulphur and 13,272; (1891), 14,798; municipal income (1897-98), dry vegetables from France; the exports, salt, oats, wine, Rs. 10,341. There is a high school, and state printing- and fruit. press, issuing a monthly gazette. San Luis, a city in Brazil, and capital of the state San Jose, a city of California, U.S.A., capital of of Maranhao. It is well built, and has fine public buildSanta Clara county. It is situated in 37° 20' N. and ings and gardens, an episcopal palace, and thirteen churches. 121° 53 W., in the beautiful Santa Clara valley, which Population, 38,000. lies between two of the coast ranges. It is 46 miles San Luis, interior town of Santiago province, Cuba, south-east of San Francisco, and at an altitude of 87 feet. The site is level, with broad streets well shaded with about 25 miles from Santiago. It is the terminus semi-tropical vegetation. It has excellent water-supply of the railway leading from that city across the Sierra and sewerage systems. The city is upon lines of the Maestro to the thickly populated district of Cauto valley. Southern Pacific Railroad, connecting it with San Fran- The population in 1899 was 5059. cisco, Monterey, and other points. The Santa Clara San Luis Potosi, a state of Mexico, bounded valley is one of the most fertile and most productive of on the N. by the state of Coahuila; on the S. by those the fruit regions of California, and the chief business of Hidalgo, Queretaro, and Guanajuato; on the E. by of San Jose is the treatment, handling, and marketing of Vera Cruz, Tamaulipas, and Nuevo Leon; on the W. by its fruit crop. Population (1890), 18,060 ; (1900), 21,500, Zacatecas. Area, 25,323 square miles. Population (1879), of whom 4577 were foreign-born and 810 were coloured, 516,486; (1895), 568,449. The state is noted for the including 209 negroes. salubrity of its climate, being high and dry on the tableSan Jose de Costa Rica, the capital of the lands, and is rich in agricultural and mineral resources. republic of Costa Rica, situated in 9° 56' N. and 84° W. The Mexican National Railway traverses the state from

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north to south, and the Mexican Central Railway from east to west. The internal commerce is very extensive. It is one of the most progressive states of the Mexican Republic, and agriculture and mining are in a flourishing condition. Stock-raising is also extensively carried on. The principal agricultural products are cereals, sugar-cane, coffee, oranges, and tropical fruits. The value of the agricultural produce of this state in 1897 was $3,834,541. Some of the richest silver mines in the republic are found in the mining district of Catorce. The value of the mineral products in 1897 was $3,105,941. The state is divided into thirteen districts or partidos. San Luis Potosf, the capital, population in 1895, 69,050, is one of the most important cities of the republic. It is at an altitude of 1810 metres above sea-level, and is noted for its fine public buildings and churches. It is also one of the smelting centres, large quantities of argentiferous lead and gold-bearing ores being sent there for reduction. The chief towns in the state are Matehuala (13,101), Catorce (9547), Rio Verde (6628), Santa Maria del Rio (6589), Cedral (6333), Venado (5750), Soledad Diez Gutierrez (5730). San Marino, the smallest republic in the world— its boundary-line measures about 18|- miles. It lies aboqt the three peaks, together known as Monte Titano, which terminate the Apennines towards Rimini. It is enclosed on all sides by Italian territory, but maintains complete independence, and treats with Italy as one sovereign Power with another. During the twenty-five years 1874-99 the population increased from 7816 to 11,000, or more than 40 per cent., and San Marino is now relatively the most thickly populated country in Europe, having in 1899, on an average, 443 inhabitants to the square mile. It is divided into eight parishes : Pieve (in which stands the Citta or town), Serravalle, Montegiardino, Faetano, Fiorentino, Chiesanuova, Domagnano, and Aquaviva. Though the government is now conducted by a council of sixty, it was originally purely democratic, public business being transacted by the “fathers of families” at a mass meeting known as the “Arengo.” This mass meeting is still held twice a year, when the retiring captains-regent (two in number) give place to those newly elected. The captains-regent have no executive power; they are merely the representatives of the council. The meetings of the latter are held whenever necessary. Its debates are carried on with closed doors in the main hall of the Government palace, which was restored in 1894, and is a fine specimen of mediaeval architecture. Justice is administered by a legal commissary who resides in the republic, and must be an Italian. Three years is the term of office, and it may be renewed. Like the captainsregent, the commissary is answerable to the great council. Two judges, one of appeal, reside in the kingdom of Italy, and send their judicial sentences to be read before the council. Capital punishment was abolished within the republic in 1848, and in 1865 a penal code was promulgated. The civil legislation is mainly contained in the ancient statutes, but there are a few additional laws : a bill relating to mortgages (1854), a short modern code concerning bills of exchange, and some fiscal laws dealing with stamp duties, &c. Taxation is so slight as to be practically non-existent, the two most important taxes being those of 1 per cent, (about) on country property and f per cent, on town property. The revenue ranges from 350,000 lire to 450,000 lire (£14,000 to £18,000). There is no public debt, but for the last few years of the 19th century the Budgets showed a deficit. It has been proposed to levy fresh taxes, but the council has refused to vote them. San Marino possesses an army of 900 men and 60 officers, but the military spirit is lacking among the people, and it is only on high days and holidays that the troops, with their excellent military band, are called on for service. Attendant on the council is the Guardia Nobile, with picturesque uniform. The carabineers must be foreigners. Trade is carried on by means of large fairs, there being no railway nearer than Rimini. Among the exports are oxen, corn, wine, and building-stone, while the imports include all the manufactured goods used by the inhabitants. Building-stone, which is the almost only source of mineral wealth possessed by San Marino, is extracted around the Citta, or town, the central point about which is gathered the historical interest of the republic. Small deposits of chalk, sulphur, and iron are found in various places, and Valle Sant’ Anastasio is known for its

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mineral waters. San Marino has a coinage of its own, but Italian money is used by preference. It has hitherto retained its own intricate system of weights and measures, and issues a complete set of stamps. Public charity is widely distributed, and there is an excellent hospital and refuge, the operating-room in which has been lately furnished with modern appliances. Three doctors and a qualified surgeon, all foreigners, are maintained at the expense of the State. The Italo-Sanmarinese Treaty, renewed in 1896, is on the same basis as before the renewal. Thereby either State recognizes the validity of contracts by deed signed in the other, and promises to grant extradition for criminal (not political) offences, provided that the criminal be not a citizen of the State in which he shall have taken refuge, nor have been domiciled there for a space of ten years. In 1899 San Marino concluded a similar extradition treaty with England. The republic exercises its right of representation by consuls and charges d’affaires, having representatives in London, Paris, Vienna, Budapest, and several Italian cities (Rome, Naples, &c.). Authorities.—Tucker. The Republic of San Marino. Cambridge, 1880.—Malagola. II Cardinal Alberoni e la Republica di San Marino. Bologna, 1886.—P. de Cazeneuve. San Marino. Paris, 1887.—Fattori O. II palazzo ecc. Zanichelli, 1894.— Astraudo Balme e Galati. Dizionario della Republica di San Marino. Paris, 1899.—Gwinner. Die Republik San Marino. Augsburg, 1899.—Giannini. La Costituzione di San Marino. Naples, 1899. La Republique de San Marino. Paris, 1899. “The Legal Aspect of San Marino,” Law Magazine and Review. November, 1899. Procedura civile della Rep. di S. Marino. Firenze, 1901. (t. C G ) San Miguel, a city of Central America, in the republic of Salvador, about three-quarters of a mile from the right bank of the Rio Grande and 107 miles east of the capital, at an altitude of 360 feet above sea-level. It is the 3rd city in importance as to population, having about 25,000 inhabitants, and is a handsome town, with fine buildings and streets, and transacts considerable foreign trade. It is not deemed healthy, being exposed to malarial exhalations arising from the swamps to the south-east. San Miguel de Mayumo, a town in the northern part of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, Philippine Islands. It has a cool and very healthy climate, commands a beautiful view of the surrounding country, and was one of the finest provincial towns in the Philippines until its principal buildings were destroyed in a fire started by a band of thieves in 1901. Near the town are quarries of limestone, and the agricultural lands in its vicinity produce rice, sugar-cane, Indian corn, and cotton in abundance. Cotton fabrics are woven in considerable quantity by the women; and there are a few good cabinet workers, who utilize the beautiful hard woods of the neighbouring forests in their work. The principal language is Tagalog. Population, 20,000. San Miniato, a town and episcopal see of the province of Florence, Tuscany, Italy, 21 miles west by south of Florence by the railway to Pisa. Its cathedral dates from the 10th century. It manufactures glass, olive oil, leather, and hats. It is notable as the cradle of the Bonaparte family. Population (1881), 7271 ; (1899), about 8000. San Pablo, a town in the southern part of the province of Laguna, Luzon, Philippine Islands. Its people engage in agriculture—rice, abaca-, and copra being the principal crops raised. The language, is Tagalog. Population, 19,000. San Remo, a famous seaside resort of the province of Porto Maurizio, Liguria, Italy, on the coast of the west Riviera, 84 miles by rail south-west of Genoa and 32 eastnorth-east of Nice. It has come into increased repute since the stay there in 1887-88 of the German Emperor Frederick III. In 1898-99 the visitors numbered 21,850. A new casino was opened in 1888. There is a meteoro-

Ft ROQUE —SANTA logical observatory. Flowers, especially roses and carna- Sebastian by a fine stone bridge and a wooden bridge. tions, are extensively grown for export. Olives, lemons, The fisheries are important. and palms are also reared. The port is shallow, despite Santa Ana, a city of Salvador and capital of the dredging in 1896—97, and exposed to east winds. Popula- department of the same name, about 50 miles north-east tion (1881), 14,002; (official estimate, 1897), 19,636. of the city of San Salvador, and at an elevation of 2093 San Roque, a town of the province of Cadiz, feet above sea-level. It is a finely built city, the largest Spain, near the northern shore of the bay of Algeciras, in Salvador, its population being about 33,000. Santa with a station on the railway to that place. The country Ana has a number of fine public buildings, the municipal around San Roque is hilly and watered by the river palace, barracks, hospital, public market, being the most Guadarrunque and the Guadiaro to the north. The noteworthy. The city is well supplied with water, and neighbourhood produces wheat, wine, fruit, olives, oranges, has wide and well-paved streets. It was connected in cork, and the local industries are alcohol, liqueurs, starch, 1899 by a telegraph line with the capital, and the railway flour, tanneries. The town looks clean and modern. Its between the two cities was opened to traffic on 19th streets are steep, and from the heights there is a splendid March 1900. An institute has also been founded. view of the bay and straits. The fortifications were razed Santa Ana, a city of California, U.S.A., capital after the War of Independence against Napoleon I. Popu- of Orange county. It is in the southern part of the lation (1887), 8792; (1897), 7809. state, 33 miles south-east of Los Angeles, on the Southern San Salvador, a city in Central America and California and the Southern Pacific railways, at an altithe capital of the republic of Salvador, in the valley tude of 135 feet. It is in the orange, lemon, and wine of Las Hamacas, on the river Acelhuate, in 13° 45' N. region of southern California, and its industries are conand 80° 8' W., at an altitude of 2115 feet above sea- nected with the handling and transportation of these level. Population (1892), 30,000. It was founded by products. Population (1890), 3628; (1900), 4933, of Jorge de Alvarado in 1528 at a spot a short distance whom 506 were foreign-born. from the present site, to which it was transferred in 1539. Santa Barbara, a city of California, U.S.A., From 1834 to 1839 it was the capital of the republic. capital of Santa Barbara county. It is on the coast, in Then for a year the chief town was San Vicente. Since the southern part of the state, at the southern foot of 1840 it has remained the capital. Besides all the offices of the Santa Inez Mountains, and is reached by a branch government, the city has a university, an academy of of the Southern Pacific Railroad. On account of its science and belles-lettres, a national library, an astronomical mild and equable climate, it has become a well-known observatory, a museum, botanical garden, a national insti- winter resort. The Spanish mission, founded in 1786, tute, polytechnic school, the Rosales hospital, an asylum is near the city, and is still well preserved. Population and poor house, orphanage, &c. Considerable commerce (1890), 5864; (1900), 6587, of whom 1143 were foreignand manufactures are carried on. The city has in the born and 269 coloured. past often suffered from earthquakes; but a style of buildSanta Catharina, an Atlantic state of Brazil, ing has been adopted with a view to preventing serious damage to the structures. The railway connecting the between 26° 30' and 29° 18' S. and 48° 18' and 54° capital with the port of Acajutala on the Pacific was 12' W. Area, 27,434 square miles. Population in 1890, 283,770; in 1900, estimated at 320,000. It is bounded opened to traffic on 19th March 1900. on the N. by Parana, on the W. by the Argentine republic, San Salvador Island. See Bahamas. on the S. by Rio Grande do Sul, and on the E. by the San Sebastian, capital of the province of Atlantic. Coal, iron, silver, gold, and petroleum are found Guipuzcoa, Spain, the summer residence of the court in the state, but very little is extracted. The capital, since 1886. The influx of visitors, attracted by the Desterro, officially called Florianopolis, has a population presence of the court, and by the prolonged local festivi- of about 25,000. Its trade is effected through the port of ties, the bull-fights, the handsome casino and gambling- Sao Francisco. Amongst other towns are Lages, Laguna, rooms, increases the permanent population by about twelve Sao Francisco, San Jose, and Tubarao. thousand to fifteen thousand. Fixed population, 21,355 Santa Clara, the capital of Santa Clara province, in 1877; 35,975 in 1897. Until very modern times, Cuba, an old town in the interior, founded in 1689. It San Sebastian was a walled and fortified town. On the is surrounded by fertile plains cultivated in cane, which are hill still stand the castle of La Mota and the batteries interspersed with many picturesque hills, and is the eastern and redoubts of both slopes of Monte Urgull. The terminus of the railway system from Havana. Population bull-ring, in Moorish style, will hold 10,000. The new (1899), 13,763. town of San Sebastian begins at the Alameda boulevard Santa Cruz, a city of California, U.S.A., capital on the site of the old fortifications, and occupies the of Santa Cruz county. It is on the north side of Monterey greater part of the peninsula that lies between the river Bay, and on a branch of the Southern Pacific Railroad, Urumea and the Bay of La Concha. In the new town 75 miles south of San Francisco. It is a popular seaside a fine church and markets have been built since 1895, resort. The city has asphalt pavements, water-works, a and a Jesuit college and chapel. On the opposite side of sewerage system, and several large hotels. It is built on Concha Bay, on the brow of a hill, stands the Queen’s the site of the old Santa Cruz mission, founded in 1791. summer palace of Miramar in well laid-out grounds. The Population (1890), 5596; (1900), 5659, of whom 1123 palace is not remarkable for its architecture, being a were foreign-born, and 189 were coloured. chalet-like irregular building, which, however, cost more Santa Fd, a province in the centre of the Argentine than £85,000. In few Spanish towns has more been done to improve public education and with better results republic, bounded on the N. by the territory of Chaco, than in San Sebastian. The industries of the town have on the S. by Buenos Aires, on the E. by Entre developed, and there are many breweries, saw and flour Rios and Corrientes, and on the W. by Cordoba and mills, manufactures of preserves, soap, candles, glass, Santiago del Estero. Official area at the census of 1895, paper, especially in the busy suburb that has sprung up 50,916 square miles. Population (1869), 89,117 ; (1895), on the right bank of the Urumea, connected with San 397,188, or an increase of 3457 per thousand. The 412

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province is divided into 18 departments. In 1895 there were 19,809 farms, 3,688,118 acres planted in cereals, 2,315,007 head of cattle, 422,101 horses, 1,988,777 sheep. Santa Fe, the capital, stands near the junction of the Salada with the Parana, 299 miles north-west of Buenos Aires by rail. The town has quite a modern appearance, and the population (24,755) has more than doubled. There is a normal school for teachers. Three tramways run through the city. The building of small trading vessels is one of the chief industries. Santa a city of New Mexico, U.S.A., capital of Santa Fe county and of the Territory. It is situated in 35° 42' N. and 105° 57' W., on a plain at the west base of the Sangre de Cristo range, north of the centre of the Territory, at an altitude of 6954 feet. The site is nearly level, with a gentle slope to the west, but the town is very irregular in plan, having been laid out centuries ago by the Spaniards, and having undergone little change since it came within the United States. It is the meeting-point of a branch of the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe and of the Denver and Rio Grande railways, but being off the direct line of travel and traffic, it has made no progress. Population (1890), 6185; (1900), 5603, of whom 256 were foreign-born. Santa Maria, a town of the province of Caserta, Campania, Italy, 4 miles west of Caserta, occupying the site of the ancient Capua. It has a cathedral (restored) and a technical school. Glass, bricks, ropes, and leather are manufactured. Population (1881), 17,896; (1900), about 20,000. Santa Maura. See Greece (Ionian Islands). Santander, a province on the north coast of Spain. Area, 2113 square miles. Population in 1887, 244,274, and 263,673 in 1897. The average of births is 3'63 per cent., that of deaths 3-02, and the proportion of illegitimate births 4-60 per cent. The province is traversed by several railways, and possesses besides many good state, provincial, and municipal roads, and several narrow-gauge mining railways. The industries, up to the eve of the loss of the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Spanish - American war in 1898, had steadily increased, except the glass and crystal factories, which decayed rapidly from 1886. Beer is brewed in large quantity. Salt and tinned fish are extensively prepared for export. The export and coasting trade is chiefly carried on through the ports of Santander, Suances, Santona, and Castro Ur diales. A hardy race of seamen mans the fishing fleet at these four ports and many small places along the coast, and there are numerous industries connected with the fisheries. The people have shown considerable energy in agriculture, sylviculture, and mining, but have been greatly assisted by foreign capital and enterprise. In 1897 wheat was grown on 11,272 acres, rye, barley, oats, maize, on 42,957, pod fruit on 4500, vine on 3000. Live stock is both abundant and valuable, especially in the highlands of Santander. In 1897 there were 516,089 head registered, including 5377 horses, 1092 mules, 2228 asses, 193,392 cattle, 178,549 sheepj 65,937 goats, 69.514 pigs. The mining interests are important, and were much developed in the last decade of the 19 th century. Thirty-five zinc, 1 graphite, 31 iron, 1 lignite, and 1 salt mines are worked. These mines give employment to 4773 hands, and the output in 1898 was 34,416 tons of zinc, 756,165 tons of ironore, 352 tons of lignite, 356 tons of lead (from the zinc mines), and 130 tons of salt. The production of calamine was 33,484 tons, valued at £46,034, chiefly at Reocin ; and the Castro Urdiales mines alone produced 188,840 tons of iron-ore. Santander, capital of the above province and one of the most important ports of the peninsula. It is the terminus of the railway from Madrid and Palencia,

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and of the Bilbao-Santander coast line and several provincial and mining lines. Population, 42,725 in 1887; 50,640 in 1897. The industries, the trade and fisheries of Santander are prosperous and important. The primary schools, schools for training teachers, the institute, the nautical school, are numerously attended. There is a tobacco factory, where 1800 women are employed. Among the modern improvements of the town are its town-hall, theatre, markets, barracks, bull-ring, clubs, civil and military governors’ residences, custom house, hospitals. Many of the houses on the bay front and public buildings have been restored since the catastrophe of 3rd November 1893, when the steamer Cabo Machichaco, laden with 1700 cases of dynamite, blew up near the quay. The port of Santander is very important. The dredging of the harbour is satisfactory, and the water in the channel right up to the quays is deep enough to allow heavy-draught vessels to come alongside at almost any state of the tide. In 1898, 222 British vessels entered with cargoes valued at £264,425, and 222 cleared with cargoes valued at £173,682. The vessels of other countries that entered were: 80 French, 39 Swedish and Norwegian, 3 Dutch, and 1176 Spanish, the majority of the last being coasters. The iron-ore trade is steadily increasing, the exports having been 332,974 tons in 1897 and 406,996 tons in 1898, of which 265,549 tons went to the United Kingdom. Santarem, a city of Portugal, capital of the district Santarem, crowning a height above the right bank of the Tagus, 44 miles north-east of Lisbon. Between the foot of the hill and the river is the suburban port of Ribeira de Santarem, where the Tagus is crossed by a fine bridge. The town is still surrounded by walls, pierced by eight gates. Population (1900), 8704. The district of Santarem has an area of 2649 square miles. Population (1890), 254,844; (1900), 283,676, or 107 to the square mile. It consists in great part of the fertile valley of the Tagus. Santa Rosa, a city of California, U.S.A., capital of Sonoma county. It is 51 miles north of San Francisco, on the California North-Western and the Southern Pacific railways, among the Coast ranges, at an altitude of 181 feet. The city is regularly laid out on a level site, and has broad well-shaded streets, and an excellent watersupply. Situated in a region admirably adapted for fruit and grain, its industries in great measure consist in the handling of these products. It has flour-mills and fruit canning and drying works. It is the site of Pacific Methodist College, opened in 1861. This had in 1899 a faculty of 7 teachers and was attended by 42 students. Population (1890), 5220; (1900), 6673, of whom 1029 were foreign-born and 140 were coloured. Santiago, capital of Chile, and also of the province and department of the same name, in 33° 26' 26" S. and 70° 38' 15" W.; mean altitude above sea-level, 1600 feet. Population (1895), 256,413 ; (1900), 269,886. The mean summer temperature is 67° F., the mean winter temperature 47°, that for the whole year 57°. The maximum recorded yearly rainfall is given as 254 inches, the minimum 4 inches. The city is divided into 10 circumscriptions, and 3 municipalities, which form the vmnicipilidad. Besides the Government buildings, the city has 17 charitable institutions, in which are included a lying -in hospital, an orphan asylum, lunatic asylum, poorhouse, Ac. Among its educational establishments mention should be made of the university, the medical school, the national institute, the military school, the agricultural ■ school, conservatory of music, schools of

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painting and sculpture, of mining, normal schools for both sexes, deaf and dumb schools, and professional schools for girls. It has also an astronomical observatory, and a museum of natural history, a zoological garden, and a national library. Eight large daily papers are published, which have a circulation of over 50,000 copies, and about 26 literary, artistic, economic, scientific, and other periodicals. There are some 10 literary, scientific, and other societies in the city, and 9 clubs. Since 1892 Santiago has a superior council of public hygiene, and an institute of hygiene, with bacteriological laboratory, a museum, &c. Santiago, or Santiago de Compostela, a town of Spain, province of Corunna, on the Sar, with a station on the Carril Railway. Population, 16,223 in 1887, and in 1897, 24,335. In the neighbourhood are pastures and fertile valleys that produce much corn, hemp, maize, and fruit. The local industries are distilleries, breweries, soap, chocolate, matches, crystal, linen, and paper. Santiago is still the seat of a university. There are also a veterinary school, an institute founded in 1501, a high normal school, excellent primary schools for both sexes, and a seminary. The library of the university contains 60,000 volumes and several hundred MSS., many valuable and one dating from 788 A.D. The town has several hospitals and refuges, which are open to the pilgrims, still numerous, who flock to the shrine of the patron saint of Spain. Santiago de Cuba, the capital of the province of Santiago, Cuba, situated at the north-eastern end of a capacious harbour indenting the straight south coast of the eastern end of Cuba. It is second only to Havana in population, and equals it in strategic and political importance. It was founded in 1514 by Lieutenant-Governor Diego Yalasquez, and it was made the capital of Cuba in the place of Baracoa a few years later. It continued to be the capital during the first century of Spanish occupation, and from it were fitted out most of the expeditions, including that of Cortez, which explored Spanish North America. The city is very antique and dilapidated in appearance, and is surrounded by a barren, mountainous country. Extensive iron and manganese mines in the vicinity give material support to the population. Much trade from the interior flows into the city through a gap in the mountains to the northward, through which extends a short railway. Extensive commerce is maintained with the remainder of Cuba by coasting vessels, and there are steamer connexions with New York and Europe. The harbour is completely landlocked and easily defensible, entrance being gained through a passage hardly wide enough for vessels to pass, which opens out into a bay sufficient in area to float the navies of the world. It is noted for many historical events connected with the early settlement of Cuba, and the various insurrections. On 3rd July 1898, during the Spanish-American war, the Spanish fleet issued from this harbour and, in the attempt to escape, was destroyed by the blockading American squadron. The surrender of the town to the American army took place a fortnight later. Population (1899), 43,090. Santiago de Las Vegas, an interior town of Havana province, Cuba. Population (1899), 7151. Santipur, a town of British India, in the Nadia district of Bengal, situated on the left bank of the Hooghly, with a railway station, 55 miles north of Calcutta. It is a site of an old commercial factory, and still a centre of the weaving trade. There is a municipal high school. Population (1881), 29,687; (1891), 30,437.

Santley, Charles, (1834 ), English vocalist, son of an organist at Liverpool, was born 28th February 1834. He was given a thorough musical education, and having determined to adopt the career of a singer he went in 1855 to Milan and studied under Gaetano Nava. He had a fine baritone voice, and while in Italy he began singing small parts in opera. In 1857 he returned to London, and on 16th November made his first appearance in the part of Adam in The Creation at St Martin’s Hall. In 1858, after appearing in January in The Creation, he sang the title-part in Elijah in March, both at Exeter Hall; and his future was now assured. In 1859 he sang at Covent Garden as Hoel in the opera Dinorah, and in 1862 he successfully appeared in Italian opera in II Trovatore. He was then engaged by Mapleson for Her Majesty’s, and his regular connexion with the English operatic stage only ceased in 1870, when he sang as Yanderdecken in The Flying Dutchman. His last appearance in opera was in the same part, with the Carl Rosa Company at the Lyceum Theatre in 1876. Meanwhile, in 1861 he sang Elijah at the Birmingham Festival, and in 1862 was engaged for the Handel Festival at the Crystal Palace. From that time he was recognized as the first of English baritones, the wonderful conviction which he threw into his singing and his dramatic fire and religious fervour being specially noteworthy. At the musical festivals and on the concert stage his success was immense. In such songs as “To Anthea,” “Simon the Cellarer,” or “ Maid of Athens,” he was unapproachable, and his oratorio singing carried on the finest traditions of his art. In 1858 Santley married Gertrude Kemble, and their daughter, Edith Santley, had a great success as a concert singer. SantOS, a city and port of southern Brazil, in the state of Sao Paulo, 34 miles from the capital of Sao Paulo by rail. Population (1900), 41,000. It is the principal port of shipment of Brazilian coffee, the total export for 1899 being 364,928,493 kilogrammes, valued at about £8,275,000. In 1900, 5,849,114 bags of 60 kilogrammes each (valued at about £9,000,000) were exported; and in 1896, 4,157,971 bags. In 1900, 699 ships, of 869,718 tons, entered and about the same number cleared at the port of Santos. Santo Domingo. See Hayti. Saone, Haute-, a department of eastern France, resting on the southern end of the Yosges. Area, 2075 square miles. The population, 280,856 in 1891, had decreased to 265,179 in 1901. The births in 1899 were 5773, of which 494 were illegitimate; deaths, 5809 ; marriages, 2038. There were in 1896 1061 schools, with 44,000 pupils, 1 per cent, of the population being illiterate. The land under cultivation in 1896 was 1,210,300 acres ; 577,980 acres being plough-land and 19,760 acres vineyards. The department in 1899 grew wheat to the value of £692,000 ; rye, £80,000 ; oats, £440,000 ; potatoes, £380,000. The vintage of 1899 was valued at £108,000. The live stock (1899) included 22,730 horses, 155,800 cattle, 71,540 sheep, and 65,480 pigs. Mining in 1898 produced 217,000 metric tons of coal, 9000 tons of lignite, 1760 tons of iron, and 6872 tons of rock-salt. The industry in metals yielded 1209 tons of cast-iron, 188 tons of iron, and 1280 tons of steel. There are also extensive industries in textiles, glass, and distillation. Yesoul, the capital, had in 1901, 9704 inhabitants. Sadne-et-Loire, a department in east central France, traversed by the mountains of Morvan and Charolais, and watered by the Sa6ne and the Loire. Area, 3331 square miles. The population, 619,523 in 1891, numbered 616,389 in 1901. The births in 1899 were 14,099, of which 655 wTere illegitimate; deaths, 12,072 ; marriages, 5005. The schools, primary grade, numbered (1896) 1339, with 104,000 pupils, 2 per cent, of the population being illiterate. Out of 1,962,415 acres of land cultivated in 1896, 1,034,930 acres were arable, and 61,750 were in vines, a wide area of the department being in pasture. A

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wheat-growing country, Saone-et-Loire produced in 1899 wheat valued at £1,470,000 ; rye, £96,000 ; oats, £205,000'; maize, £232,000; mangold - wurzel, £108,000; potatoes, in which this department ranks prominently, £846,000. Its vintage in 1899 was valued at £883,000 ; its crop of colza, £32,000 ; its rape, £8800 ; beetroot, £11,200. While its agricultural value is very considerable, the department is not less noted for its live stock, which in 1899 included 25,830 horses, 352,930 cattle, 126,770 sheep, 223,710 pigs, and 33,190 goats. The mineral basin of the SaOne and Loire (Autun, Creuzot) is one of the most important in France, and produced in 1898 2,096,000 metric tons of coal, 125,000 tons of iron, 9000 tons of manganese and other metals, and 142,000 tons of various substances. Creuzot is the chief centre in France of the metallurgical industry, and turned out in 1898 105,000 metric tons of cast-iron, 47,000 tons of iron, and 112,300 tons of steel, of the value of £2,500,000, the workmen employed numbering over 11,000. There are important glass manufactures in the arrondissement of Autun. Distillation produced 44,000 gallons of alcohol. Macon, the capital, had in 1901, 18,928 inhabitants; Chalon-surSaone, 29,058 ; and Creuzot, 30,175. Sao Paulo, an Atlantic state of Brazil, between 19° 54' and 25° 15' S. and 44° 6' and 53° 28' W.; coast line 373 miles. It is bounded on the IST. by Minas Geraes, Goyaz, and Matto Grosso; on the W. and N. by Goyaz; on the S. by Parana; and on the E. by Rio de Janeiro and the Atlantic. Area, 112,330 square miles. Population (1890), 1,384,753. There is a large and constant immigration from Europe, and it is estimated that in 1898 there were about 500,000 Italians in the state. The capital, Sao Paulo, has a population of about 270,000; other towns, Santos (41,000), Sorocabo (14,000), Parahybuna (11,000), Piracicaba (11,000), Itu (11,000), Iguape (10,000), Botucato (7000), Caconde, Braganza and Cacapava, Franca and Sao Sebastiao, each with about 5000. There are over 100 towns in the state. In 1900 there were in operation over 2000 miles of railway. It is the greatest coffee-producing region in the world, and manufactures cottons and flour. Sao Thome, or St Thomas, an island in the Gulf of Guinea, lying immediately north of the equator and belonging to Portugal. Along with the neighbouring island of Principe (Prince’s Island), it forms the province of St Thomas (in Portuguese Sao Thome). During the dry season (June to September) the temperature ranges in the lower parts between 66-2° and 80-6° F., and in the higher parts between 57•2° and 68°; in the rainy season it ranges between 69-8° and 89-6° in the lower parts, and between 64-4° and 80-6° in the higher parts. On Coffee Mount (2265 feet) the mean of ten years was 68 ^ the maximum 90‘5°, and the minimum 47-3°. Area, 318 square miles. Population (1895), 22,000. The natural products of the island embrace oranges, lemons, figs, mangoes, and in the lower-lying districts the vine, pineapple, guava, and banana; and the principal cultivated products are cocoa, coffee, and cinchona. Vanilla, indiarubber, balsam, cinnamon, camphor, cocoa, and kola-nut are also produced. The total trade of the province increased in value from £318,000 in 1888 to £933,900 in 1898; £564,250 being for exports, namely, £234,000 for cocoa, £131,350 for coffee. In 1900 the imports from Portugal were valued at £692,000, and the exports to the same country at £186,310. But the export of cocoa alone to all countries amounted to £587,100 in 1900, and 2405 tons of coffee in all were sent out of the island. The imports coming next in value are cocoa-nut, cinchona, arrowroot, palm oil, bamboo, balsam, kola-nuts, manioc flour, fruit, timber, pepper, and oil-seeds. Cocoa is the principal product of Principe. The total trade in 1899 was valued at £1,188,888. Sapporo.—The official capital of the island of Yezo, Japan, situated in 43° 04' N. and 141° 21' E. It has a population of 37,482. It was chosen in 1870,

415 and owed its prosperity at the outset chiefly to the public institutions established there by the Japanese Government in connexion with the colonization bureau, which had for its object the development of Yezo’s resources. It is now a garrison town, being the headquarters of the 7th division. It has an agricultural college, a museum, sawmills, flour-mills, a brewery, and hemp and flax factories.

Saracco, Giuseppe (1821 ), Italian politician and financier, and knight of the Annunziata, was born at Bistagno on 9th October 1821, and, after qualifying as an advocate, entered the subalpine Parliament in 1849. A supporter of Cavour until the latter’s death, he afterwards joined the party of Rattazzi, and became secretary-general of public works in the Rattazzi Cabinet of 1862. In 1864 he was appointed, by Sella, secretary - general of finance, and after being created senator in 1865, acquired considerable fame as a financial authority. In 1879 he succeeded in postponing the total abolition of the grist tax, and was throughout a fierce opponent of Magliani’s loose financial administration. Selected by Depretis as minister of public works in 1887, and again by Crispi for the same office in 1893, he contrived, by careful management, to mitigate the worst consequences of Depretis’s corruptly extravagant policy, and introduced a sounder system of government participation in public works. In November 1898 he was elected president of the senate, and in June 1900 succeeded in forming a “Cabinet of pacification ” after the Obstructionist crisis which had caused the downfall of General Pelloux. His term of office was clouded by the assassination of King Humbert (29th July 1900), and his administration was brought to an end in February 1901 by a vote of the Chamber condemnatory of his ambiguous attitude towards a great dock strike at Genoa. After his fall he resumed his functions as president of the senate. He received the supreme honour of the knighthood of the Annunziata from King Humbert in 1898. Saran, a district of British India, in the Patna division of Bengal. Area, 2653 square miles. Population (1881), 2,297,666; (1891), 2,467,477. The average density, 930 per square mile, is the highest rate for all India. Classified by religion, in 1891 Hindus numbered 2,174,734; Mahommedans, 290,980; Christians, 278, of whom 178 were Europeans; “others,” 1485. In 1901 the population was 2,361,079, showing a decrease of 4 per cent., compared with an increase of 7 per cent, in the previous decade. The land revenue and rates in 1897-98 were Rs.15,89,076; number of police, 565; boys at school (1896—97), 21,800, being 12'8 per cent, of the male population of school-going age, compared with 28 per cent, for the province generally; registered deathrate (1897), 31-55 per thousand. The principal industry is indigo. There are altogether 42 factories and outworks, with an English capital of £150,000, employing 21,000 persons, and producing 4000 maunds, valued at Rs. 7,00,000. Opium also is largely cultivated. Saran is exposed to the two calamities of drought and flood. It suffered from the famine of 1874, and again in 1896-99. An irrigation scheme from the river Gandak, started in 1878, proved a failure, after a capital expenditure of Rs. 7,00,000. The Bengal North-Western Railway runs through the south of the district. The administrative headquarters are at Chapra. Saransk, a district town of Russia, in the government and 88 miles north of the town of Penza, on the railway from Moscow to Kazan. Its chief factories are steam flour-mills, oil-mills, tobacco and rope-works, and tanneries. A brisk trade is carried on in corn and hemp,

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tallow, spirits, leather, and hemp-seed oil. The town was founded early in the 17th century, when it was a small fort erected against the invasions of the Bashkirs. In 1897 it had a population of 13,743. Sa.ra.pu I, a district town of Russia, in the government and 388 miles south-east of the town of Vyatka, on the right bank of the river Kama. This town, the population of which numbered 21,395 in 1897, is an important centre for the manufacture of boots, shoes, and gloves; no less than 450,000 pairs of boots are made per annum and mostly exported to Siberia, the Caucasus, and Turkestan. It has also many tanneries, flax mills, distilleries, ironworks, and rope - works, and is at the same time an important port; more than 1000 boats clear every year, and the movement of the port is 57,500 tons imported, and 32,500 tons, chiefly corn and timber, exported. There are gymnasia for boys and girls, a lace-making school, a municipal library, and a hospital maintained by the local government. Sa rat off, a government of south-east Russia, on the right bank of the Lower Volga, with an area of 32,624 square miles, and a domiciled population which numbered 2,113,077 in 1882 and 2,419,884 in 1897. The density in the different districts in 1897 varied from 55 to 107 inhabitants per square mile, and the urban population amounted to 319,918; the female population numbered 1,230,957. There are a few Germans, but nearly all the inhabitants are Russians; 83 per cent, belong to the Orthodox Church, 5 per cent, are Nonconformists, 6 per cent. Lutherans, and 2 per cent. Catholics. The government is divided into ten districts, the chief towns of which are Saratoff (see below), Atkarsk (9750), Balashoff (12,166), Kamyshin (15,934), Khvalynsk (15,455), Kuznetsk (20,555), Petrovsk (13,212), Serdobsk (12,721), Tsaritsyn (55,967), and Volsk (27,039). Education makes some progress ; the number of young men taken into the military service in 1897 who could read was 40 per cent, of the total number taken, as against 21 per cent, in 1874. The proportion of women, however, who know how to read and write continues to remain very small. In 1898 primary schools were attended by 56,180 boys and 22,870 girls. Of the total area (19,956,000 acres), 52 per cent, belonged to the peasants in 1896, 38 per cent, to private landowners, 5 per cent, to the Crown, and 5 per cent, to the Imperial family and the municipal authorities. These figures, however, are rapidly altering, as the peasants constantly buy considerable quantities of land. No less than 58 per cent, of the total area, that is, 11,510,000 acres, is under fields, 19 per cent, under meadows and pasture, and 13 per cent. (490,000 acres) under woods, while 10 per cent, is unavailable for culture. Green crops are now being cultivated more widely, both on the private estates and among the peasants. Agriculture suffers, however, very much from droughts, and the attacks of marmots, mice, and insects, and consequently the yield varies from 3,200,000 cwt. to 11,550,000 cwt. in different years. The average yield in 1895-99 was 6,524,000 cwt. of wheat, 14,797,000 cwt. of rye, 5,181,000 cwt. of oats, 357,000 cwt. of barley—for all cereal crops, 30,065,000 cwt.; also 4,198,000 cwt. of potatoes. The field culture of melons and sunflowers is very widely spread, as also is gardening. Cattle-breeding is on the decline; in 1897 there were 535,660 horses, 792,710 horned cattle, 1,199,430 sheep, and 116,750 swine. On the other hand, the export trade in poultry, especially geese, has developed greatly. In 1897 the factories employed 25,165 workers, their aggregate returns being about 34,400,000 roubles. They mainly comprise steam flour-mills, oil-works, distilleries, timber mills, tanneries, and fur-dressing works. Weaving, the

fabrication of agricultural machinery and pottery, bootmaking, and a great variety of other trades are widely spread in the villages as domestic industries. The fairs of the province have lost much of their importance; that at Bekovo, however, in the district of Serdobsk, has held its own, especially as regards trade in cattle and animal products. The province is well provided with railways (862 miles in 1900). Saratoff, the capital of the above government, on the right bank of the Volga, 532 miles by rail southeast of Moscow, and on the railway from Ryazan to the Urals. Its population increased from 86,000 in 1870 to 137,109 in 1897. The city is one of the best built in the provinces. Its factories occupy 3800 workers, and show an aggregate yearly return of 8,400,000 roubles. They chiefly comprise hour-mills, iron-works, oil-works, works for the manufacture of railway plant, and tobacco factories. Saratoff is a very important centre for the trade of eastern Russia. Its port shows an annual movement of 3400 vessels entered and cleared; 125,000 tons of (mainly) corn and hour are sent up the Volga every year, and 557,000 tons, chiehy of naphtha, by rail. In 1896 there were 96 primary schools, with 10,570 pupils, several technical schools, and Radischeff’s museum, which is one of the richest in pictures, sculptures, and archaeological collections in the provinces. The theatre is also one of the best in provincial Russia. Saratoff is the seat of several scientihc societies, and publishes hve newspapers. (p. A. K.) Saratoga Springs, a village of Saratoga county, New York, U.S.A. It is situated in 43° 05' N. and 73° 47r W., in the southern foothills of the Adirondack mountains, in the eastern part of the state,* at an altitude of 323 feet. The village has a fine watersupply from mountain springs. It is reached by three railways, the Delaware and Hudson, the Adirondack, and the Fitchburg. Saratoga is one of the best-known and most fashionable of American summer resorts. There are about forty springs, which differ widely in the constituents of their waters. The city contains many large hotels, boarding-houses, and hundreds of costly and beautiful villas. It has been a popular place for holding political conventions, and contains a Convention Hall, seating 5000 people. Saratoga Lake, 4 miles east of the city, is a favourite place for rowing races. Saratoga is known as the scene of the surrender of Burgoyne’s army to the Americans under General Gates, which took place about 12 miles south-east of the village, on 17th October 1777, after a month’s fighting in the neighbourhood. Population of the village (1890), 11,975; (1900), 12,409, of whom 1684 were foreign-born and 619 negroes. Saravia, a town on island of Negros, Philippine rich sugar-producing region, important industry. The Population, 15,000.

the north-west coast of the Islands. It is situated in a and sugar culture is its only language is Panay-Visayan.

Sarawak, a state situated in the north-west of Borneo, with an area of 50,000 square miles and a population of about 500,000. The coast line extends from Tanjong Datu, a prominent cape in 2° 3' N., northwards to the mouth of the river Trusan, in 4° 58' N. and 115° 13' W., but a tract — 80 miles in length — of Brunei territory still remains between the mouth of the river Baram and the river Limbang, the whole distance being about 440 miles in a straight line (but following the sinuosities, about 560 miles). In the year 1842 the government of the district from Tanjong Datu to the entrance of the river Sumarakan was obtained from the sultan of Brunei by Sir James

SARCEY —SARDHANA Brooke. The frontier of the southern portion of Sarawak is formed by the Serang, Kelingkang, and Batang Lupar ranges of mountains; inland, on the eastern side, the territory, along the watershed, is bounded by the following mountains : Batu Puteh (5000 feet), Tebang (10,000 feet), Ubat Siko (5000 feet), Bela Lawing (7000 feet), and Batu Leihun (8000 feet), from which the Rejang and Baram, on the Sarawak side, and the Koti and Balungun, on the Dutch side, take their rise. To the north of Sarawak is the Pamabo mountain range (8000 feet), situated in 3° 30' 1ST. and 115° 15' W.—whence flow the rivers Limbang and Trusan — and the mountains Batu Lawei (8000 feet) and Lawas (6000 feet). The interior of Sarawak is mountainous, the greatest elevations being that of Mount Mulu (9000 feet), of limestone formation; Batu Lawei (8000 feet), Pamabo (8000 feet), Kalulong, Poeh, and Penrisan. The Rejang is the largest river, the Baram ranking second, the Batang Lupar third, and the Limbang fourth. A formidable bar at the mouth of the Baram proves a great hindrance to shipping. The Rejang is navigable for small steamers for about 160 miles from its mouth. The chief town of Sarawak is Kuching, with a population of about 25,000. In 1885 the state was placed under British protection. The fauna is exceedingly rich in all branches. The most important mammals are the mias, or orang utan, the gibbon, the proboscis, semnopithecus and macacus monkeys; lemurs, cats, otters, bears, porcupines, rhinoceros, wild pigs, wild cattle, deer, and pangolin. Bats, shrews, rats, and squirrels are included among the smaller mammals, while sharks, porpoises, and dugongs are found on the coast. Of birds, Sarawak has over five hundred species, including many kinds of thrushes, flycatchers, swifts, cuckoos, barbets, hawks, owls, pigeons, pheasants, and herons. Fish and reptiles are abundant; the jungle swarms with insect life, and is rich in many varieties of fern and orchid. The mineral wealth gives promise of considerable development in the future. The Borneo Company have commenced working gold from the quartz reefs at Bau, on the Sarawak river, by the cyanide process, and have met with great success. Antimony and cinnabar are worked successfully in the same district by this company. Antimony occurs in pockets in various localities, notably at Sariki, in the Rejang district, and at Burok Buang and Telapak, in the Baram district, and in the river Atun. Cinnabar has also been found in small quantities at Long Liman and in the streams about the base of Mount Mulu. Sapphires of good quality, but too small to be of commercial value, are found in large numbers in the mountain streams of the interior. Coal is worked at Sadong and Brooketon, whence it is shipped to Singapore. The great coal-field of Selantik, along the Kelingkang range in the Batang Lupar district, is about to be developed. Indications of coal seams have also been found in the river Mukah ; at Pelagus, in the Rejang ; at Similajau and Tutau and on Mount Dulit, in the Baram distinct. Timber is one of the most valuable products, but at present, with the exception of billian (iron wood) from the river Rejang, very little is exported. The most important timbers to be found in the Borneo forests are : billian, merebo, rasak, kruin, tapang, kranji, benaga, bintangor, gerunggang, medang, meranti, and kapor. Except near the banks of the rivers, which have been cleared by the natives for farming purposes, the whole country is thickly clothed with timber. The industrial establishments also comprise sago-mills, brickworks, cyanide-works, and saw-mills. In 1900 the total trade was valued at $13,025,000, as compared with $4,564,200 in 1890. The following are the principal articles of export, with quantity and value given for the year 1900 :— Gutta 7,964 piculs $78,829 Rubber 3,464 35,181 Rattans 41,340 27,999 Gambier 36,624 20.060 Pepper 32,967 , 125,442 Sago flour 215,910 , 75,026 Gold 45,180 oz 84,370 Value of total imports ,159,120 or £615,912 exports ,865,860 or £686,586 The revenue for 1900 amounted to $915,966 (as compared with $413,000 in 1890), and the expenditure to $901,172, leaving a surplus of $14,794. The population of the state, in addition to a very small number

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of European government officials and others, consists of Malays, Dyaks, Melanaus, Kayans and Kenyahs, Kedayans and Muruts' with a large number of Chinese traders, and pepper planters. The Government consists of the Raja, Sir Charles Johnson Brooke, G.C.M.G., who is absolute, assisted by a supreme council of seven’ consisting of three chief European residents and four natives nominated by himself; there is also a general council of fifty, which meets every three years. For purposes of administration the country is arranged in four divisions, these being subdivided into districts. The first division consists of Sarawak proper, which comprises the districts of the river Sarawak and those of Lundu and Sadong. The second division is formed by the Batang Lupar, Saribas, and Kelakah districts. The third division consists of the Rejang, Mukah, Oya, and Bintulu districts ; and the fourth division, of the Baram, Limbang, and Trusan districts. Each district is in charge of a Resident. Since 1880 there has been a considerable increase of both population and territory, the increase of the former being estimated at 170,000 people, and of the latter at 15,000 square miles. On 12th August 1882 the Baram district from Kidurong Point to Baram Mouth, situated in the northern part between 3° and 4° 30' X. and 113° and 115° 30' W., with 100 miles of coast line and an area of 10,000 square miles, was ceded to Sarawak by the late sultan Mumin of Brunei. Three years later the Trusan district, in the far north, was also ceded to the Raja by the same sultan. A few years after these cessions had been obtained, many of the people of the Limbang—a large river which has one of its outlets passing through the town of Brunei—rose in rebellion against the sultan of Brunei, and as a solution of the difficulty their territory was annexed by Sarawak, with the subsequent approval of the British Government. The total area is therefore now 50,000 square miles. The coast is well lighted, lighthouses having been built and maintained in good order at Tanjong Po, Sirik, Mukah, Oya, Tanjong Kidurong, Baram Mouth, and Brooketon. The climate is equable, the daily temperature ranging on the average between 70° and 90°. The nights are generally cool. The rainfall averages about 200 inches annually ; but falls during both the fine (S.W.) and the wet (N.E.) monsoon. (c. h.) Sarcey, Francisque (1828-1899), French journalist and dramatic critic, was born at Dourclan, 8th October 1828. After his education was finished, he spent some years as schoolmaster in various lycees, but his independent and impetuous temperament was little fitted to the work. He abandoned it in 1858, and henceforward devoted himself to journalism. He contributed miscellaneous papers to the Figaro, 1?Illustration, Le Gaulois, Le XIXe Siecle, and other periodicals; but his chief bent was towards dramatic criticism, of which he had his first experience in IIOpinion Nationals in 1859. In 1867 he began to contribute to Le Temps the “ feuilleton ” with which his name was associated till his death. His position as dictator of dramatic criticism was unique, and his influence enormous. He had the secret of taking the public into his confidence,* and his pronouncements upon new7 plays were accepted as final. This was to a great extent justifiable, for he was a masterly judge of acting and of stage effect; his views as to the drama itself were somewhat narrow and indifferent to the march of events. He published several miscellaneous works, of which the most interesting are Le Siege de Paris, an account compiled from his diary (1871), Comediens et Comediennes (1878-84), Souvenirs de Jeunesse (1884), Souvenirs d'dgemur (1892), Quarante Ans de Thedtre (1900, Ac.). He died in Paris, 16th May 1899. (r. f. s.) Sard h an a, a town of British India, in the Meerut district of the Horth-Western Provinces; station on the North-Western Railway, 12 miles north-west of Meerut. Population (1891), 12,059; municipal income (1897-98), 11,046. Though now a decayed place, it is historically famous as the capital of the state founded at the end of the 18th century by the Begum Sumru. This extraordinary woman, who survived till 1836, was a Mussulman who married Reinhardt or Sombre (Sumru), the perpetrator of the massacre of British prisoners at Patna in 1763. On her husband’s death in 1778 she succeeded S. VIII. — 53

SARD I N I A to the command of his mercenary troops. Ultimately she The most flourishing districts are those of the Campidano was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church, and be- of Cagliari, where intelligent and enterprising proprietors queathed an immense fortune to charitable and religious have pushed specialization in vine culture to a high uses. Her estate of Sardhana was the subject of litigation, degree, the district of Ogliastra, and the Campidano of and is now under the Court of Wards. She built here Oristano, where the celebrated vernaccia is produced. a Roman Catholic cathedral, a college for training priests, Everywhere notable progress has been made. Though much land previously devoted to grain culture has been and a handsome palace. planted with vines, the area under wheat, barley, beans, and maize still considerable. Most of the Sardinian soil, except the rugged Sardinia (Italian, Sardegna; French, Sardaigne; is mountain regions, is adapted to corn growing. In 1896 the grain Spanish, Cerdend), an island in the Mediterranean, about area was 380,000 acres, a slight diminution having taken place 140 miles from the west coast of Italy, of which kingdom since 1882. The yield of corn varies from six to ten times the it forms a part. Although the Italian Government amount sown. In 1900 the total production of wheat in the island 3,025,000 bushels. The low price of corn renders com cultivaneglected considerably the needs of the island during the was tion hardly profitable. The cultivation of olives is widespread in last quarter of the 19th century, progress has undeniably the districts of Sassari, Bosa, Iglesias, Alghero, and Callura. The been made. In 1881 the population was 682,002, and in Government is taking steps to check the decrease of olive culture 1901 it was estimated to be 789,314, or an average density in Sassari by offering prizes for the grafting of wild olive trees, of vast numbers grow throughout the island. of 85 per square mile. The populations of the chief cities which Next to the wine-making industry, cattle-raising is becoming the are—Cagliari, 53,700; Sassari, 38,200; Iglesias, 12,000; principal source of wealth in Sardinia. Whereas in 1881 Sardinia Alghero, 12,000; Tempio, 12,000; Oristano, 8000; Ozieri, was estimated to possess only 157,000 head of cattle, 478,000 8800; Rosa, 7000; Nuoro, 7000. The Sardinians are sheep, and 165,000 goats, the numbers in 1896 had increased to passionately attached to their island, and as a consequence 1,159,000 head of cattle, 4,960,000 sheep, and 1,780,000 goats. nomadic system prevails in the island. Breeding is unemigration is comparatively small. The year 1896 fur- The regulated and natural selection prevails. The weaker animals nished an exception to this general rule; in that year 2510 either die off or do not breed, while those that do survive are poor in emigrants left the island, as compared with 150 in 1895 quality and in yield of products. A more progressive form of pastoral and 66 in 1892; the statistics for the years 1897-99 industry is that of the tanche, or enclosed holdings, in which the owner is both agriculturist and cattle raiser. On these farms the showed that emigration soon fell once more to insignificant cultivation of the soil and the rearing of stock go hand in hand, to proportions. The Sardinian is, as a rule, mild in character, the great advantage of both. Nevertheless the idea of the value hardworking, simple, and temperate in his habits. His of improving breeds is gaining ground. Good cattle for breeding domestic affections are extremely strong, as is also his purposes are being imported from Switzerland and Sicily, and are likewise being made to improve the breed of horses. attachment to the soil. This last sentiment is the chief efforts Trade and Industry.—Next to agriculture, mining is the princause of the excessive splitting-up of landed property. cipal Sardinian industry. It is carried on on a large scale, with Politically the Sardinians are tenaciously attached to the capital and costly machinery. Although 583 mines of various existing institutions. At Sassari there exists a republican metals have been assayed, only 100 are actively worked. The are those of Monteponi, near Iglesias, and those of Monparty which puts up its own candidates in general elections, principal near Guspini. Lead, mixed with silver, zinc, copper, but it is by no means intransigeant and still less subversive. tevecchio, magnesium, and antimony are the chief minerals ; lignite has The Sardinian clergy is favourably distinguished from the been discovered, and is extracted in considerable quantities. In rest of the Italian clergy by its patriotic spirit. The 1899 the province of Cagliari exported minerals to the value of Catholic party is most tolerant. Socialism counts few 15,883,428 lire (nearly £600,000), an increase of 3,404,427 lire over 1898. The mines give employment to 12,060 workmen. The adherents. For administrative purposes the island retains extraction of salt, monopolized by the Government, is another imthe old division into 9 districts (circondarii) with a total portant industry. Formerly the Government leased the industry of 364 communes. There are 12 parliamentary constitu- to a private company, but in 1900 resumed direct control of the encies, but the island is represented in the senate by only works. The annual average production is 1,500,000 quintals (cwt). In 1899, 1,247,525 quintals were exported, a diminution of 412,148 2 senators. Sardinia has a single court of appeal at quintals as compared with the total for 1898. The value of the Cagliari, 5 assize courts, and 6 common courts. There are salt produced in 1899 was 1,175,342 lire (£47,000). The tunny 3 archbishoprics and 9 suffragan bishoprics; 2 intendants fisheries yielded in 1899 a value of nearly £62,000 ; but the of finance, 2 chambers of commerce, and 9 agricultural industry is rapidly declining; and the coral fishery is almost extinct. Distilleries have grown up in large numbers since the Government unions. abolished, by special laws for Sardinia, the heavy tax upon alcohol. Agriculture.—At least three-fifths of the Sardinian It has, however, abolished also the premium previously accorded to population are engaged in agriculture. Most of the re- distillers for exportation. Thus exportation has become practically maining two-fifths are occupied in subsidiary industries, impossible. Progress worthy of note has also been made in the tanning industry, the manufacture of artistic furniture, and in all based upon the manufacture of agricultural products. kinds of printing. Considerable progress was made in agriculture during the Communications and Transport.—There exists a network of raillast twenty-five years of the 19th century, mainly as a ways and ordinary roads, while numerous lines of steamers place result of the special agricultural schools established the principal ports of the island in direct communication with Italy, throughout the island. The old Sardinian plough is being Sicily, France, and the North African coasts. The high level of tariffs, both railway and maritime, has, however, prevented the replaced by modern ploughs, and attempts are being made realization of the advantages previously hoped for. Nevertheless to spread the use of artificial manure. Improved methods the international trade of the province of Cagliari, where the chief are being adopted for protecting vines against disease, and ports are situated, attained in 1900 a value of £981,075, of which the importation of American vines has now ensured imports represented £238,340, and exports £742,735, 88 percent, this being for minerals. In 1899 this trade reached the value immunity against a repetition of former disasters. The of of £771,590 ; and the coasting trade a total of £1,449,550, making cultivation of the vine prevails especially in the province a total traffic of £2,221,140. While the ports of the island are of Cagliari, considerable progress having been made of late entered annually by vessels aggregating 150,000 to 200,000 tons, both in the extent of land under cultivation and in the engaged in foreign trade, the total entries of the foreign and coasting traffic by sea amounts to about 800,000 tons annually. ratio of produce to area. Between 1889 and 1896, the The tariff war with France between 1887 and 1898 struck a heavy area under vines had increased from about 110,000 acres blow at Sardinian trade. Before that period Sardinian wine found to 180,000 acres in four of the districts alone. The total its chief market in France. The loss of the chief market rendered extent of land covered by vineyards is calculated at inevitable a crisis, the consequences of which were scarcely counterby the efforts to find new outlets. Other industries were 222,000 acres, giving a total average annual product of balanced equally affected. Since the conclusion of the Franco-Italian com5 million gallons. The entire island produced 19,809,000 mercial treaty of September 1898, and especially since the abrogagallons of wine in 1900, but 28,613,000 in the year 1899. tion of the French decree, prohibiting the importation of Sardinian 418

S A R D O U cattle, in April 1899, trade with France has revived to some extent. Considerable trade is done in charcoal, but it leads to increasing deforestation without any rational provision for replanting. Taxation.—It is estimated that Sardinia pays, in local and general, direct and indirect taxation of all kinds, 23,000,000 lire (£920,000), a sum corresponding to 35 ’44 lire per head. Banks and Institutions of Credit.—In 1887 a severe banking crisis occurred in Sardinia. Though harmful to the general economic condition of the island, the crisis left agriculture comparatively unaffected, because the insolvent institutions had never fulfilled the objects of their foundation. Agricultural credit operations in Sardinia are carried on by the Bank of Italy, which, however, displays such caution that its action is almost imperceptible. An agricultural loan and credit company has been formed on the ruins of the former institutions, but hitherto no charter has been granted it. Institutions possessing a special character are the monti frumentarii, or public grain deposits, founded for the purpose of supplying peasant proprietors with seed corn, debts being paid in kind with interest after harvest. After passing through a period of decadence, the monti frumentarii are working well under regulations drafted and applied by the Rudini ministry in 1897. Education.—-Sardinia holds a low place in regard to education. In the province of Cagliari 73 per cent., and in that of Sassari 69 per cent., of the inhabitants neither read nor write. These figures, however, are steadily diminishing now that every commune in the island has at least a mixed school, and other schools are being opened year by year even in the mining districts. The university of Cagliari, which in 1874-75 had only 60 students, had 226 in 1899-1900. At Sassari in the same year there were 151. There are besides in the island 10 gymnasia, 3 lycees, 6 technical and nautical schools and institutes, and 9 other institutes for various branches of special education. A tendency is growing up towards the extension of technical and commercial education in place of the exclusively classical instruction hitherto imparted. To the growth of this tendency the excellent results of the agricultural schools have especially contributed. Police.—A noteworthy improvement in the conditions of public safety has taken place. Robberies by armed bands, formerly frequent, have become rare, and the classical type of bandit is practically extinct. The great needs of the island are (1) a legal remedy for the excessive subdivision of landed property; (2) regulation of the watercourses and mountain torrents ; (3) replanting of forests; (4) a system of irrigation ; (5) a vigorous administration ; and (6) reduction of land and sea transport tariffs. Authorities.—Brf.scioni. Dei Costumi dell’ Isola de Sardegna. Naples, 1880.—Camboni. Storia'popolare della Sardegna. Sassari, 1890.—Mantegazza. Profili e paesaggi della Sardegna. Milan, 1890.—Solinas S. Oocco. Geografia storica della Sardegna. Sassari, 1888.—Niceforo. Le varieta umane pigmee e microcefaliche della Sardegna. Rome, 1896.—Relazione dell’ Inchiesta nelle condizioni economiche e di Sicurezza Pubblica in Sardegna. Rome, 1896. ^M. Vi.) Sardou, Victorien (1831), French dramatist, was born at Paris on 5th September 1831. The Sardous were settled at Le Cannet, a small village in the vicinity of Cannes, where they owned a fairly large estate, planted with olive trees. A night’s frost killed all the trees and the family was ruined. The father of Victorien came to Paris in search of employment. He was in succession a book-keeper at a commercial establishment, a professor of book-keeping, the head of a provincial school, then again a private tutor and a schoolmaster in Paris, besides editing grammars, dictionaries, and treatises on various subjects. With all these trades and manifold occupations, he hardly succeeded in making a bare livelihood, and when at last he gave up the unequal struggle and retired to his native country, the boy Yictorien was left to fight out the battle with his own resources. He had begun studying medicine, but had to desist for want of funds. He taught French to foreign pupils; he also gave lessons in Latin, history, and mathematics to students, and wrote articles for cheap encyclopaedias. At the same time he was trying to make headway in the literary world. His precocious talents had been noticed and encouraged by an old bas-bleu, Mme de Bawl, who had published novels and enjoyed some reputation in the days of the Restoration. But she could do very little

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for her young protegf. Victorien Sardou made desperate efforts to attract the attention of Mile Rachel, and to win her support by submitting to her a drama, La reine Ulfra, founded on an old Swedish chronicle. A play of his, La Taverne des Etudiants, was received and actually produced at the Odeon on the 1st April 1854, but met with a very stormy reception, owing to a rumour which had been circulated to the effect that the young debutant had been instructed and commissioned by the Government to insult and provoke the students. The unlucky Taverne was withdrawn after five nights. Another drama by M. Sardou, Bernard Palissy, was, however, accepted at the same theatre, but the arrangement was cancelled in consequence of a change in the management. A Canadian play, Fleur de Liane, would have been produced at the Ambigu but for the untimely death of the manager. Le Bossu, which he wrote expressly for Fechter, did not satisfy the actor; and when the play was at last successfully produced, the nominal authorship, by some unfortunate arrangement, had been transferred to other men. M. Sardou submitted to Montigny, manager of the Gymnase, a play entitled Paris d VEnvers, which contained the love scene, afterwards so famous, in Nos Intimes. Montigny thought fit to consult Scribe, who was revolted by the scene in question, and pronounced: “It is filthy! Where are we going to?” Such was the old man’s verdict on the young playwright who was destined to follow closely in his footsteps and to uphold his dramatic system to the last. Sardou felt the pangs of actual want, and the long series of misfortunes culminated in a severe attack of typhoid fever. He was dying in his garret, surrounded with his rejected manuscripts. A lady who was living in the same house unexpectedly came to his assistance. Her name was Mile de Brecourt. She had theatrical connexions, and was a special favourite of Mile Dejazet. She nursed him, cured him, and, when he was well again, introduced him to her old friend. Then fortune began to smile on the young author, and her favours rained on him as fast as her cruelties had done formerly. It is true that Candide, the first play he wrote for Mile Dejazet, was stopped by the censor, but Les Premieres Armes de Figaro, Monsieur Garat, and Les Pres Saint Gervais, produced almost in succession, had a splendid run, and Les Pattes de Mouche obtained a similar success at the Gymnase. Then Victorien Sardou carried everything before him, and all theatres were open to him. He soon ranked with the two undisputed leaders of dramatic art, Augier and Dumas. He lacked the powerful humour, the eloquence and moral vigour of the former, the passionate conviction and pungent wit of the latter, but he was a master of clever and easy flowing dialogue. He adhered to Scribe’s constructive methods, which combined the three old kinds of comedy—the comedy of character, of manners, and of intrigue—with the drame bourgeois, and blended the heterogeneous elements into a compact body and living unity. He was no less dexterous in handling his materials than his master had been before him, and at the same time opened a wider field to social satire. He ridiculed the vulgar and selfish middle class person in Nos Intimes, the gay old bachelors in Les Vieux Garmons, the modern Tartufes in Seraphine, the rural element in Nos Bans Villageois, the old-fashioned customs and antiquated political beliefs in Les Ganaches, the revolutionary spirit and those who thrive on it in Rabagas and Le Roi Garotte, the then threatened divorce laws in Divorgons. He struck a new vein by introducing a strong historic element in some of his dramatic romances. Thus he borrowed Theodora from Byzantine annals, La Haine from

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S A R I K O L—S A T A R A

Italian chronicles, La Duchesse d'Athenes from the forgotten records of mediaeval Greece. Patrie is founded on the rising of the Dutch gueux at the end of the 16th century. The French Revolution furnished him with three plays, Les Merveilleuses, Thermidor, and Robespierre. (The last named was produced by Sir Henry Irving at the Lyceum, and has never yet been seen on any French stage.) The Imperial epoch was revived in La Tosca and Madame Sans Gene. In many of these plays, however, it was too obvious that a thin varnish of historic learning, acquired for the purpose, had been artificially laid on to cover modern thoughts and feelings. But a few—Patrie and La Haine, for instance—exhibit a true insight into the strong passions of past ages. M. Sardou married his benefactress, Mile de Brecourt, but eight years later he became a widower, and soon after the revolution of 1870 was married a second time, to Mile Soulie, the daughter of the erudite Eudore Soulie, who for many years superintended the Musee de Versailles. He was elected to the French Academy in the room of Autran, and took formal possession of his seat on the 22nd May 1878. Sarikol. See Pamirs. Sark. See Channel Islands. Sarnen, the capital of the west half (or Obwalden) of the Swiss canton of Unterwalden. It stands at a height of 1558 feet above the sea, at the north end of the Lake of Sarnen (3 square miles in extent), and on the river Aa. In 1900 the little town contained 3949 inhabitants. It has a large parish church on a knoll above, as well as two convents. In the archives is preserved the famous MS. known from the colour of its binding as the “ White Book of Sarnen,” winch contains the earliest known version of the Tell legend. Sarnen is a station on the Briinig Railway, being 4-\ miles from Alpnachstad, its port on the Lake of Lucerne, and 12-t miles below the summit of the Briinig Pass. Sarnia, town and port of entry, Ontario, Canada, capital of Lambton county, 55 miles north-east of Detroit, on the left bank of the river St Clair. It is on the Grand Trunk and Lake Erie and Detroit River railways, and is a port of call for steamers plying on the Great Lakes. It contains a large oil-refinery which handles the whole product of the Ontario oil region; also salt, stove, carriage, and agricultural implement works, and flour-mills. The Grand Trunk Railway crosses the river at this point by the famous St Clair tunnel. 6025 feet long, or, including the approaches, 2| miles. Population 0891), 6692; (1901), 8176. Sdrospatak, a market-town of Hungary, in the county of Zemplen, on the Bodrog, with 6350 inhabitants in 1891 and 7911 in 1901, partly engaged in stone-industry. Its famous Calvinist high school (gymnasium, seminary, law academy) wns founded in 1530, and conducted in the years 1650-54 by the celebrated pedagogue Amos Comenius. It possesses rich foundations and an excellent library (54,700 vols.), and affords free support and instruction yearly to some 300 students. There is an old fort, built in the 11th century, and near it a castle with an extensive park. Sarpsborgf, a seaport and manufacturing town of Norway, county Smaalenene, 68 miles by rail south-southeast of Christiania. It sprang into importance through the utilization of the falls in the river Glommen (Sarpsfos, 140 feet wide, 74 feet descent) for driving saw-mills, and especially for generating electric pow'er. Since 1895 there have been built w7ood-pulp factories (one by an English company employing over 1000 hands), factories for calcium

carbide (used for manufacturing acetylene gas), paper and aluminium factories, and spinning and weaving mills. There are twTo large electric supply stations, one of which furnishes Fredrikstad (7 miles to the south-west) with electric light. The port is at Sannesund, one mile south; its quays can be reached by vessels drawing 20 feet of water. The town w7as originally founded in the 11th century, and destroyed by the Swedes in 1567. The existing towm dates from 1839. Population (1875), 3272 ; (1900), 6888. Sarthe, a department in the north-west of France, watered by the river Sarthe. Area, 2412 square miles. The population, 438,917 in 1881, had decreased to 422,944 in 1901. The births in 1899 were 8593, of which 705 were illegitimate ; deaths, 9596; marriages, 3223. There were in 1896 821 schools, with 54,000 pupils, 8 per cent, of the population being illiterate. The land cultivated in 1896 measured 1,424,990 acres, of which 948,480 acres were arable and 22,230 acres vineyards. The department in 1899 raised wheat valued at £880,000 ; meslin, £160,000 ; rye, £120,000 ; barley, £280,000; oats, £223,000 ; potatoes, £492,000; mangold-wurzel, £44,000 ; vines, £148,000. Sarthe takes the first rank among the departments of France for the production of hemp, which in 1899 was valued at £108,000, while its crop of apples (1899) was estimated at £480,000. It owned in 1898 59,250 horses, 7440 asses, 209,680 cattle, 47,990 sheep, 100,530 pigs, and 20,690 goats. Mining in 1898 produced 10,000 metric tons of coal and 2277 tons of peat, but only 30 tons of iron. The spinning of hemp is extensively carried on. The distillation of 1898 counted only 81,000 gallons of alcohol. Le Mans, the capital, numbered in 1901, 62,948 inhabitants. Sa.rza.ns., a town and episcopal see of the province of Genoa, Liguria, Italy, 10 miles east of Spezia, on a branch of the railway to Pisa. Its principal buildings are the cathedral (1355-1470), the former citadel (now gaol), and the castle of Sarzanello. It was the birthplace of Pope Nicholas Y. It has one of the most important glass-bottle factories in Italy, also brick-works, and a patent fuel factory. Fruit, wine, and olive oil are cultivated in the vicinity. Population of commune (1881), 9845; about 14,500 (1899). Saskatchewan River. See Nelson River. Saskatchewan Territory. See NorthWest Territories. Sassari, a town, archiepiscopal see, and capital of the province of Sassari, Sardinia, Italy, situated near the north-west corner of the island, 12 miles south-east of its port, Porto Torres, on the Gulf of Asinara. Fine modern quarters have been built on and beyond the site of the old Genoese walls and the citadel. It possesses provincial offices, the modern Gothic Giordano Palace, and the Duke's Palace (now municipal offices). The university, which in 1898 was attended by 148 students (24 professors), owns scientific collections, a library of nearly 40,000 volumes, and a collection of Carthaginian and Roman antiquities. There is a bronze bust of Mazzini (1889). The chief industries are the manufacture of matches, tobacco, and macaroni, tanning, and printing. Population (1881), 31,596; (1901), 38,178. Satara, a town and district of British India, in the Deccan division of Bombay. The town is 2320 feet above the sea, near the confluence of the rivers Kistna and Yena, 56 miles south of Poona. Population (1881), 29,028; (1891), 29,601. The high school had 363 pupils in 1897—98. There are sixteen printing-presses, most of which issue a vernacular newspaper. The district of Satara has an area of 4987 square miles. Population (1891), 1,225,989, showing an increase of 15 per cent, after the disastrous famine of 1876-77 ; (1901), 1,146,521 ; average density, 229 persons per square mile, considerably the highest in the Deccan. The land revenue and rates are Rs.27,50,808, the incidence of assessment being R,.1.1.3 per acre, again the highest in Deccan ; cultivated area (1897-98), 1,529,541 acres, of which 124,738 were irrigated from wells, &c., including

S A T O R A L J A U J H E L Y —S A V I N G S 9395 acres from Government canals; number of police, 1022 ; children at school (1897-98), 17,290, being l-5 per cent, of the total population ; registered death-rate (1897), 54 per 1000. The principal crops are millet, pulse, oil-seeds, and sugar-cane. The only manufactures are cotton cloth, blankets, and brass-ware. The district is now traversed from north to south by the Southern Mahratta Railway, which, however, passes 9 miles from Satara town. The Satara Agency comprises the two feudatory states of Phaltan and Aundh. Total area, 844 square miles. Popidation (1891), 131,529 ; (1901), 109,614. The estimated revenue of Phaltan is Rs.2,29,000 ; tribute, Rs.9600 ; estimated revenue of Aundh, Rs.18,900; no tribute. The chief of Aundh is the descendant of a Brahman official of Sivaji, called the Pratinidhi. Sdtoraljaujheiy, a corporate town of Hungary, capital of the county of Zemplen, at the foot of Hegyalja, with 13,017 inhabitants in 1891 and 16,886 in 1901. The most remarkable buildings are the gymnasium, the hospital, and the tobacco factory. Its population is partly engaged in viticulture. In the vicinity is the village of Szephalom, where dwelt Francis Kazinczy, the initiator of modern Hungarian literature. Scitun. See Malay Peninsula. Satsuma Islands, a group of islands belonging to Japan, lying westwards of the province of Satsuma (31° 40' IST. and 129° 40' E.). The two principal are Kami-Koshiki-jima, which measures 24|- miles by 54, and Shimo-Koshiki-jima, which measures 81;- miles by 5^. Saugfor, or Sagar, a town and district of British India, in the Jubbulpore division of the Central Provinces. The town is 1758 feet above the sea; railway station. Population (1881), 44,416 ; (1891), 44,674. The cantonments contain a battery of artillery, a detachment of a European regiment, a native cavalry and a native infantry regiment. The town is handsomely built, and an emporium of trade. The Government high school had 849 pupils in 1896-97. The district of Saugor has an area of 4007 square miles. Population (1891), 591,743, showing an increase of 5 per cent.; (1901), 470,666 ; average density, 117 persons per square mile. The land revenue is Rs. 5,70,000, the incidence of assessment being R.0.4.7 per acre; cultivated area, 754,777 acres, of which 5943 were irrigated from wells ; number of police, 735 ; boys at school (1896-97), 6343, being 13‘8 per cent, of the male population of school-going age ; girls at school, 1391, being 3'2 per cent., the highest proportion in the province; death-rate (1897), 85-39 per 1000. The principal crops are millet, wheat, pulse, oil-seeds, and a little cotton. The branch of the Indian Midland Railway from Etawah to Saugor was extended to Damoh in 1898, and opened throughout to Katni, on the East Indian line, in 1899. Saujbuldgh, the principal town of the Mukri district, in the province of Azerbaijan in Persia, in a fertile valley, about 30 or 40 miles south of Lake Urmia, at an elevation of 4270 feet, in 36° 46' K and 45° 47' E. It has post and telegraph offices, and a population of about iOOO, mostly Kurds of the Mukri tribe, and exports dried fruit, grain, and tobacco. There are many more localities with this name (Turkish, meaning cold stream, or cold spring) in Persia, the most notable, after the above-mentioned Kurdish city, being a district of the province of Tehran, with many villages. Sault ste Marie, a city of Michigan, U.S.A., capital of Chippewa county. It is at the rapids of the river St Mary, the outlet of Lake Superior, at the eastern end of the Upper Peninsula. There are three railways, the Canadian Pacific, the Duluth, South Shore, and Atlantic, and the Milwaukee, St Paul, and Sault Ste Marie. The industries of the city are in great part connected with lumber, there being many saw and shingle mills, besides flour-mills, foundries, and machine shops. The river is here crossed at the head of the rapids by a fine railway bridge. The rapids make a descent of 18 feet in half a mile. For the use of commerce these have

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been avoided by locks; the first, on the American side, having been superseded by a second and larger one, the largest in the world, and capable of holding the largest vessel on the lakes. The Canadians, also, have built a lock on their side of the river. Population (1880), 1947; (1890), 5760 ; (1900), 10,538, of whom 5329 were foreignborn. Savage Island. See Polynesia. Savah, a small province of central Persia, situated north of Irak and south-west of Tehran, comprising the districts of Savah, Khalejistan (inhabited by the Turkish Khalej tribe), Zerend, and Karaghan. It pays a yearly revenue of about £5000. The capital is the ancient city of Savah, which has a population of about 7000, and . is situated 7 2 miles south-west of Tehran, at an elevation of 3380 feet, in 35° 4' N. and 50° 30' E. The soil is very fertile, is well watered, and produces much wheat, barley, and rice. It is occasionally joined to the province of Tehran in order to facilitate the governor’s arrangements for supplying the capital of Persia. Savannah, a city and seaport of Georgia, U.S.A., capital of Chatham county. It is situated in 32° 05' N. and 81° 06' W., on the river Savannah, near its mouth. Its site is in part on low ground, in part on a cliff. It has an excellent water-supply from artesian wells, and is well sewered. The harbour has been deepened by dredging by the United States Government. Formerly one of the chief export ports, especially for cotton, it has lost its relative position, not because of a decrease in business, but because of an increase in that of its rivals, especially Hew Orleans and Galveston. Its exports, chiefly cotton, fertilizers, and naval stores, had a value in 1898 of $28,937,614. Its imports were trifling. It is at the junction of five railways, the Central of Georgia, the Florida Central and Peninsula, the Georgia and Alabama, the Plant System, and the Southern. In 1900 it contained 155 manufacturing establishments, with a total capital of $5,716,491. They employed 2870 hands, and the product was valued at $6,461,816. The principal item of manufacture was fertilizers. The manufacture of lumber also was of importance, as was the cleaning and polishing of rice. The assessed valuation of real and personal property was, in 1900, $37,108,077, the net debt was $3,196,350, and the rate of taxation was $25-95 per $1000. Population (1890), 43,189, of which 22,978, or 53 per cent., were negro; (1900), 54,244, of whom 3434 were foreign - born, and 28,090, or 52 per cent., were negroes. Of 15,994 males 21 years of age and over, 2628 were illiterate (unable to write), of whom 2435 were negroes. Sa.viglia.no, a town of the province of Cuneo, Piedmont, Italy, 32 miles south of Turin by rail. It has important iron-works and foundries and silk manufactures, as well as sugar factories, printing, and cocoon raising; also a technical school. Population (1881), 10,990; (1899), about 11,250. Savings Banks.—The United Kingdom.—The early history and working of savings banks down to 1884 is given in considerable detail in the ninth edition of this work. It is therefore only necessary to repeat that the idea of receiving small sums on deposit from the comparatively poorer classes, which seems to have been first suggested by Daniel Defoe, gradually developed from the middle of the 19th century in various parts of Europe, and especially in the United Kingdom. Like all sound movements for the welfare of the community, that of the extension of savings banks grew on a solid

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basis, and in a great variety of forms. Many Acts of Parliament have been passed for the management of these institutions in Great Britain, culminating in the establishment on a very broad basis of the Post Office savings banks, which are treated in a separate article in this work. It may be said that the promotion of thrift, which was at the end of the 18th century an experiment, commenced and carried on by a few far-seeing individuals, had by the end of the 19th century become to be almost universally adopted, and to be regarded practically as an adjunct to the institutions of every civilized community. Friendly societies, cooperative societies, trade societies, and other agencies, all being based on this same principle of thrift, or the husbanding of small resources for future use, have been brought into existence, and now count their members by hundreds of thousands. The idea has also developed, that in order to render schemes of savings as far-reaching as possible, and to embrace the less thrifty and thoughtful in the community, these institutions should be brought even to the doors of those for whom they are intended, and who might otherwise neglect or overlook the benefits they are intended to afford. Many of the old trustee savings banks which were put on a systematic basis in 1817, have been absorbed by the Post Office, but while the total amount Trustee 0f their deposits increases, the number of Tanks.5

their depositors remains about the same. In 1863 there were 622 of these banks carrying on operations with 1,558,000 depositors, and deposits amounting to £40,563,000. In 1889 the number of banks had decreased to 380, with 1,500,000 depositors, and £45,000,000 of deposits; while in 1898 they had still further decreased in number to 231, but still had 1,527,000 depositors, and their deposits had increased to £49,500,000. The reason for this is that the smaller trustee savings banks, open often only once a week for a short time, do not and cannot give such facilities as the Post Office, which is open every day and all day. Further than this, owing to the break up of the Cardiff bank in 1886, and other smaller irregularities, a select committee of the House of Commons was appointed to inquire into these banks. By the recommendations of this committee, an independent and permanent inspection committee was appointed, which has carried on its work of inspection ever since, and reports annually to Parliament. This action has rather tended to merge the smaller trustee savings banks in the Post Office. At the same time the large banks continue to do a very great business, and have become in many ways similar to ordinary joint stock banks, affording to persons of smaller means daily facilities for saving. Those who have studied the habits of thrift among the people have usually come to the conclusion that its development depends largely on the ready facilities which exist for its exercise. To this fact may perhaps be attributed the efforts, already referred to, that have been made in various directions for establishing some means of saving close to the places where wages are paid. To carry out this idea, some of the large railway corporations have obtained powers in special Acts of Parliament to establish savings banks for those in their employment. The success of these banks has been great, though it has varied much, and it is difficult to trace any general rule of progress. Thirteen of such institutions return their operations to the Registrar of Friendly Societies. The total amount held was, by the same return for 1898, £3,016,146 in 38,503 accounts. In these banks the interest paid, as well as the deposits, are really guaranteed by the whole assets of the companies. Further, in order to encourage thrift among their employes, the companies have formally agreed and

BANKS bound themselves, by the provisions of their special Acts, that the rate of interest paid shall be higher than can be obtained in the open market on the same security. Thus the South-Eastern and Chatham Railway gives 4 per cent., and their 4 per cent, debenture stock, which is not a better security than the savings bank, is considerably above par. Other efforts have been made to establish savings banks at factories, to be open at the time wages are paid. One great difficulty, however, has been met with, and that is the objection many of those employed have to their employers knowing of their savings, and their fear lest it may affect their rate of pay. To get over this objection the plan has been tried of employing an outside agency to hold the savings bank. This has not been much more successful, as the suspicion that accounts may be looked at by employers is difficult to overcome. It is found that the most successful savings banks are those which are carried on as a business, where the transactions are so numerous that the individual feels that his own private account is not likely to become known. Another class of savings bank which of late years has developed considerably, is the penny bank. These banks have a twofold object: one to provide facilities for putting by extremely small sums for those Tanks. whose means are very limited, and the other to attract children in their earliest years so as to train them to habits of thrift and the realization of the importance and use of even quite small savings. Some form of penny bank now exists in nearly every district, and indeed in nearly every parish. Ho returns have been collected, but it may be safely said that there are tens of thousands in operation. Many of these penny banks are feeders to the Post Office, which gives them special advantages to invest in that institution. Hot only is the gross amount of money thus taken large, but (what is more important) the habit of thrift and of husbanding resources is being taught to the young in all parts of the United Kingdom. This has been one cause of the large extension of the Post Office savings bank itself, and has no doubt led to considerable change in the habits of the people. In a few cases successful efforts have been made to establish permanently these penny banks on a commercial basis, as in the case of the Yorkshire Penny Bank, which has 928 branches, 432,786 depositors, and deposits, £12,500,861 ; and the Hational Penny Bank, which has 13 branches in London, most of them open from 9 in the morning till 9 at night, with 129,228 depositors, and £1,811,334 in deposits on the 31st December 1899. The establishment of penny banks in schools has been carried on for many years, and it is difficult to exaggerate the useful work they have done in inculcating habits of thrift in the children, and in adding depositors to the Post Office savings banks when the children start in life. In England and Wales as many as 7393 of these savings banks were held in the 19,937 elementary schools inspected by the Education Department. The number seems to be somewhat diminishing—in 1894, 8668; in 1895, 8410; in 1896, 8065; in 1897, 7489. The reason for this diminution may be the very great amount of clerical labour which the conduct of these institutions imposes on the teachers in addition to their many other duties. The Board schools in London have done much to promote this movement. From the last return of these institutions under the London School Board, it appears that school penny savings banks are held in 231 departments of these Board schools. In these during 1898 there were 41,879 depositors on the books, who deposited £17,428 in the year ; of this sum, £16,692 was withdrawn, leaving with previous balance £6161 in hand. This may not be considered a large financial result with over half a million children on the

SAVINGS registers, but its educational effect is considerable. It is also found that many children open accounts at outside penny banks in preference to going to those carried on at their own schools, though it is probable that the idea of so doing is often suggested by the school savings bank. With a view of bringing the savings bank still nearer the doors of the people, efforts have been made to establish collecting savings banks. In these the collector calls at fixed periods for the deposits. This scheme has grown out of the investigations of a committee of the Charity Organization Society, and is based on the idea, which undoubtedly is the fact, that many people will make contributions when the money is called for, who will not take the trouble to walk a few yards themselves to make the same deposit. That this is so is proved most conclusively by the Post Office life insurance experience, a branch of the Post Office which is scarcely used by the people, while at the same time collecting life insurance companies (which of course must charge a considerable extra premium for collecting) do business to the extent of millions. From the report of these collecting savings banks in 1898, it appears that 49 such institutions were in operation in England, the number of depositors being about 23,000, and the amount deposited in the year about £20,000. In most of these banks no interest is given, but facilities and encouragements are afforded for the transfer of each individual account to the Post Office as soon as it is large enough to earn interest. Closely allied, though essentially different, are the very numerous sharing-out clubs which may be called temporary savings banks. These nearly all take a weekly subscription from their members, and, should any member die, his representative receives a certain sum, the balance left being divided at Christmas equally among the survivors, in proportion to the weekly subscriptions. Some of these clubs are registered, and a rough estimate in 1899 gave the number as 847, with 115,000 members. The unregistered are, however, much more numerous, though no official information is to be had of them, and it is certain that hundreds of thousands of pounds are divided in this way each Christmas. The attempt to induce sailors and soldiers to exercise habits of thrift by the establishment of naval savings banks under the Act of 1866, and military savings banks under the Act of 1859, should be mentioned. The amount in the naval savings bank in March 1898 was £262,772. As might be expected the amount does not grow. This is accounted for by the fact that the depositors leave the service and draw out their savings. About £200,000 a year, however, goes in and out of the naval banks, and £80,000 in the army banks. This sum represents a good deal of self denial, when the margin within which it is possible to save among sailors and soldiers is considered. Closely allied to savings banks are a number of societies which need only be briefly referred to here. The largest of them are building societies under the Act of 1874, which are a very popular form of saving, especially in certain localities. The contributions to the shares of these societies, which are paid by instalments, differ but little from the periodical payments into savings banks; and although the money is not so readily repaid, notice and other forms having to be gone through, large numbers of persons pay in and draw out money, and receive the interest on the shares in much the same way as they do on deposits in savings banks without any idea of building or buying houses. In 1898 the receipts were £38,394,220 in the United Kingdom, and the accumulated capital was more than £57,000,000, with a membership of 619,741. The action of industrial and provident societies

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regulated under the Act of Parliament of 1893, must also be mentioned with reference to that part of their business which is closely allied to savings banks. These societies are divided into three classes :—(a) ordinary cooperative societies with 1,256,666 members; (b) societies for carrying on various businesses, including loan and banking, with 42,312 members; (c) land and building societies, with 11,144 members. The total, therefore, is 1,310,122 members. Most of these societies, indirectly or directly, act as savings banks, and have had considerable influence in the growth of thrift in the United Kingdom. In the co-operative societies the sales amounted to more than £48,000,000, and the profits to nearly £5,000,000. These profits are divided in different ways among the members, and they form a saving fund of large dimensions. The societies for carrying on various businesses, such as working men’s clubs, loan and banking organizations, registered under the 1893 Act, numbered 127 in 1898, with total receipts £1,773,849. These are not rapidly increasing, but they must be included as one exhibition of the savings of the people, and they are practically used as savings banks. The land and building societies under the Act of 1893 are not the same as those above referred to, though their action as regards savings is similar. They are not under the Act of 1874, but carry on a trade or business, including dealings of any kind in land. Their operations are slightly increasing. They received £131,739 from subscriptions and other sources, according to the last return in 1898, and the value of the land and mortgages was £632,790. Two other classes of institutions should be referred to, the friendly and trade societies, which exist for special purposes, namely, to make provision in sickness, for death, for a want of employment, and to a limited extent for old age. They differ essentially from savings banks, as the subscriptions are parted with and cannot be withdrawn. But as the subscriptions are for certain definite needs, almost certain to be required by each member, which but for those societies would have to be provided for by direct savings in banks, they must be mentioned in treating of the subject as a whole. The amount held by the friendly societies is estimated at £37,917,702, subscribed by 11,424,810 members. The income from 630 trade societies in 1898 was £2,856,354, received from 1,219,474 members. The general conclusions to be drawn from the progress of savings banks of all kinds drfring the last quarter of the 19th century must certainly be that facilities exist, and are in active operation for the exercise of thrift in many new channels. The gross number of members must form a large proportion of the entire population, even allowing for the fact that many are making use of several of the forms of savings banks that have been referred to. It was once stated, and with truth, that the national debt was held by a very small proportion of the population; but this is not so now. The various agencies which may be described as savings banks in different forms, hold at least £200,000,000, or a third of the National Debt of Great Britain. (x.) United States. There are two kinds of savings banks in the United States, Mutual Savings Banks, or savings banks proper, and Stock Banks, having capital and doing a combined commercial and savings business. To these might be added School Savings Banks. There are no postal banks of this kind. All these institutions are organized under the laws of the states where they are located, and are generally under the supervision of an officer appointed by the governor. The distinctive feature of Mutual Savings

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Banks is that they have no capital, and do a strictly investment business, all their earnings going to the depositors. Their management is vested in a board of trustees, a selfperpetuating body who serve without pay, except for specific service such as appraising property. Executive officers and clerks are paid moderate salaries. The proportion of annual expense to each dollar of assets is sometimes less than -0025. The rate of interest on deposits usually ranges from 3 to 4 per cent. Depositors have no voice in the management, except as citizens of the state, through their representative in the state legislature. Nearly all the states limit investments carefully, though a few permit considerable latitude: in New York the deposits in savings banks are considered next to Government bonds as safe investments. In eight out of the fifteen states having mutual savings banks, deposits are exempt from taxation; in the others the rate varies from to f of 1 per cent. The amount which each person may deposit each year or half-year and the total amount to his credit are usually limited by the by-laws. Deposits are in practice generally payable on demand, though the banks reserve the right to require notice, generally from sixty to ninety days, and sometimes enforce this right in times of panic. The first savings bank incorporated in the United States was the Provident Institution for Savings, incorporated in Boston in 1816. The oldest in New York is the Bank for Savings, of New York City, incorporated in 1819. The largest deposit of any bank of this kind in the United States, $67,735,560, is that of the Bowery Savings Bank of New York. Mutual savings banks are confined chiefly to the New England and Middle states. There is no other kind of savings bank in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey. The growth of banks in these states from 1887 to 1897 was as follows :— 1887. Number of banks. Number of depositors . Amount of deposits Average to each depositor

593 3,030,094 1,099,313,155 362

1897. 646 4,311,972 ,667,486,734 386

The only mutual banks outside the North-Eastern states are four in Ohio, five in Indiana, four in Minnesota, and one each in West Virginia and Wisconsin. Though the laws governing mutual banks vary in the different states, the following abstract of the New York Savings Bank Law of 1875, re-enacted in 1892, and subsequently amended, gives the main principles on which they are organized. It is of especial interest in view of the fact that the savings banks of New York are the most important banking institutions chartered by any of the states :— Thirteen or more persons may incorporate a savings bank, twothirds of whom shall be residents of the county where the proposed bank is to be situated. When the certificate of organization is filed with the superintendent of banks, who exercises supervision over all hanks chartered by the state, he is required to ascertain whether the bank is in fact needed in the community where it is to be organized, and to investigate the character and general fitness of the trustees. The present superintendent of banks requires that the incorporators of a savings bank shall defray personally the expenses of the institution until its earnings are sufficient to meet such expenses, and also return dividends at the rate of 3 per cent. The board of trustees have entire control of the management of the bank. They elect the president and other officers. A trustee who borrows any of the bank’s funds, or who becomes a surety for any other borrower, forfeits his office. Trustees are not allowed to have any interest in the profits, or to borrow the deposits or funds of the bank. The trustees of any savings bank may invest the moneys deposited therein and the income derived therefrom as follows:—1. In the

BANKS stocks or bonds or interest-bearing notes or obligations of the United States, or those for which the faith of the United States is pledged, including the bonds of the District of Columbia. 2. In the stock or bonds or interest-bearing obligations of this state. 3. In the stocks or bonds or interest-bearing obligations of any of the United States which has not within ten years defaulted in the payment of any part of any debt authorized by its legislature. 4. In the stocks or bonds of any city, county, town, or village, school district bonds, and union free school district bonds, issued for school purposes, or in the interest-bearing obligations of any city or county of this state. 5. In the stocks or bonds of a number of specified cities without the state, subject to the condition that if at any time the indebtedness of any of said cities, less its water debt and sinking fund, shall exceed 7 per cent, of its valuation for purposes of taxation, its bonds and stocks shall cease to be an authorized investment. 6. In bonds and mortgages on unencumbered real property situated in this state, worth at least twice the amount lent thereon. Not more than 65 per cent, of the whole amount of deposits shall be so lent or invested. If the loan is on unimproved and unproductive real property, the amount lent thereon shall not be more than 40 per cent, of its actual value. No investment in any bond and mortgage shall be made by any savings bank, except upon the report of a committee of its trustees. 7. Also, by virtue of a law passed by the legislature of 1898 : In the first mortgage bonds of any railway corporation of this state, or in the mortgage bonds of any such railway corporation of an issue to retire all prior mortgage debt of such railway corporation, provided the bonds satisfy certain precautionary conditions. Not more than 20 per cent, of the whole amount of deposits shall be thus lent or invested. Street railway corporations shall not be considered railway corporations within the meaning of this section. An Act passed in 1900 permits the investment of deposits in the bonds of certain railways situated in other states. These investments must conform to conditions assuring safety. Savings banks in New York are preferred creditors of insolvent state banks and trust companies. In 1901 a law was passed providing for a tax of 1 per cent, on the surplus of savings banks, computed on the par value of their securities. In the year 1900 the resources of the savings banks exceeded those of both the discount and deposit banks and of the trust companies chartered by the state; in 1900 the savings banks held $1,000,209,099; the discount and deposit banks $323,864,743 ; and the trust companies $672,190,671. The deposits in the savings banks amounted to $887,480,650, distributed amongst 1,981,371 depositors ; interest credited for the preceding year amounted to $29,539,688 ; expenses for the year were $2,629,835, or $2’62 for each $1000 of resources. Loans on real estate, secured by bond and mortgage, amount to $406,210,574, and investments in stocks and bonds, market value, $502,265,621. The gain in resources in 1899 was over $76,000,000, and was the highest ever known. The savings depositors through their banks have purchased $3,733,000 of the state debt, $146,399,233 of the bonds of cities in the state, and $43,420,043 of town, county, village, and school district bonds. Stock Savings Banks do not as a rule differ from ordinary banks of deposit and discount, except in receiving smaller sums on deposit. They are found in the more purely agricultural parts of the country, the Southern, Mississippi Valley, and Western states, where only a small proportion of people earn wages in manufactures and commerce, suitable investments are not numerous, the benefits of mutual savings banks are not familiar, and the people are unwilling to accept a low rate of interest. In some states having stock banks there are no laws relating to banking, and in others the savings banks carry on their business under the same laws as commercial banks. Several of the states restrict the investments of the stock savings banks. Prior to 1865, when the issue of circulating notes by state banks was suppressed by a prohibitory tax, there was a distinction between state banks and stock savings banks; the former could issue notes, while the latter, as a rule, could not. Stock savings banks are conducted frequently as adjuncts of state and national banks, occupying the same rooms and being under the same management. The law of the state of Iowa, enacted in 1874, is typical of those states where stock banks are under public supervision. A savings bank may be organized by not less than five persons. In towns of ten thousand inhabitants or less it must have a capital of $10,000, and in towns or cities with more than ten thousand inhabitants $50,000. The usual corporate powers are granted. The amount of deposits is limited to ten times the paid-up capital, and in case

SAVOIE this amount should be exceeded, the capital must be increased in proportion. The usual provisions for repayments of deposits are made, and in addition the savings banks are given the privilege of requiring sixty days’ notice for the withdrawal of deposits. The banks are allowed to invest their funds in the following securities:—(1) Stocks, bonds, or interest-bearing notes of the United States. (2) Stocks, bonds, or evidences of debt bearing interest of the state of Iowa. (3) Stocks, bonds, and warrants of any city, town, village, or school district in the state regularly issued, but the investments of any savings bank should not consist of such bonds or warrants to a greater amount than 25 per cent, of the assets. (4) Mortgages or debts on unencumbered real estate within the state worth at least twice the amount lent. (5) It is lawful for such banks to discount, purchase, sell, and make loans upon personal or public security, except shares of their own capital stock. Property acquired by foreclosure of mortgages, &c., may not be held more than ten years. The rate of. interest to be paid is left to the discretion of the trustees, and the profits, after the payment of such interest and expenses, go to capital stock. Stockholders are liable to the creditors for double their stock, and for such liabilities continued for six months after the transfer of any stock. Directors receive no compensation. Officers and directors of the bank are required to give the same security for loans that is required of others, and such loans can only be made by the board in the absence of the party applying. The savings banks are prohibited from lending to any individual or firm more than 20 per cent, of the capital stock. All savings banks are required to make a quarterly statement to the auditor of the state, giving in detail the statement of condition upon a given day. This statement is made under oath of the officers, and is required to be published. The state auditor is given the power to examine any savings bank at any time, and should the conditions warrant, he is required to report to the attorney-general, who institutes proceedings under the law relating to insolvent corporations. Provision is made for increasing the capital stock by a two-thirds vote of the existing shares. The corporate existence of the banks is placed at fifty years. Under the above law the number of banks increased from 19 in 1875 to 195 in 1899; their capital from $755,500 to $7,800,000 ; and the deposits from $2,338,685 to $48,147,860. In 1899 the 287 stock savings banks of the United States held savings deposits amounting to $218,759,168 and deposits subject to check, $2,538,125. Loans and Investments.—In his annual report dated 31st October 1899, the comptroller of the currency gave data of the loans and investments of 942 out of the 987 savings banks in the United States, of which 655 were mutual and 287 stock banks. As the banks are not under his supervision, being under the control of the respective states, reports are available from only such banks as choose to send them. The loans of the 942 banks aggregate $1,098,598,589, of which $878,126,859 were secured by real estate, $156,359,308 by collateral other than real estate, and $64,112,422 by personal and other security. The investments in United States bonds amount to $136,930,208; state, county, and municipal bonds, $512,777,336; railway bonds and stocks, $167,998,336; bank stocks, $36,637,920; other stocks, bonds, and securities, $230,796,388. The following are the statistics as to the deposits of the total number of mutual and stock savings banks in the United States :— No. Average Average No. of Y ears. of Depositors. Deposits. due each per Caput Banks Depositor. in the U.S. 1896 1897 1898 1899

988 5,065,494 $1,907,156,277 980 5,201,132 1,939,376,035 979 5,385,746 2,065,631,298 987 5,687,818 2,230,366,954

$376.50 372.88 383.54 392.13

$26.68 26.56 27.67 29.24

School Savings Banks were first established in the United States in 1885 by J. H. Thiry, at Long Island City, New York. On 1st January 1900 the system was in use in 526 schools, distributed throughout 97 cities or villages and 15 states. Out of 179,630 pupils registered in these schools, 52,694 have saved $806,0159, of which

SAVORY

425

$525,209 has been withdrawn, leaving a balance of $280,806 due depositors. In those parts of the country where there are no savings banks their place is largely supplied by building and loan associations. For further details see the articles on the several states. (b. r*.) Savoie, a department of the south-east of France, bordering on Italy, traversed by the chain of the Alps and its ramifications, and watered by the Isere and Arc. Area, 2389 square miles. The population, 266,438 in 1881, had decreased to 249,460 in 1901. The births in 1899 were 5853, of which 315 were illegitimate ; deaths, 5577 ; marriages, 1670. The schools in 1896 numbered 989, with 47,000 pupils, 2 per cent, of the population being illiterate. The acreage under cultivation in 1896 amounted to 854,620, of which only 219,830 acres were in plough-land and 24,700 acres in vines. The wheat grown in 1899 was valued at £155,000 ; rye, £98,000 ; oats, £56,000 ; maize, £40,000 ; potatoes, £148,000 ; natural pastures, £402,000; tobacco, £40,000 ; walnuts, £78,000. The vintage of 1899 was valued at £248,000. The horses in Savoie (1899) numbered only 3080, the asses, 5200 ; cattle, 124,840 ; sheep, 71,630 ; pigs, 11,980 ; goats, 15,900. Savoie in 1896 produced 10,582 metric tons of coal, 6217 tons of lignite, 140 tons of peat; 636 tons of iron ; and 69 tons of other minerals, of a total value of £5500. The industry in metals registered (1898) 29 metric tons of iron and 162 tons of steel, amounting, with inclusion of the other metals, to the value of £6100. The other industries are in a backward state. Chambery, the capital, had 22,108 inhabitants in 1901. Savoie, Haute-, a department of south-east France, bordering on the Lake of Geneva and on Switzerland, and dominated by Mont Blanc. Area, 1775 square miles. The population, 274,087 in 1881, had decreased to 259,595 in 1901. The births in 1899 were 6010, of which 310 were illegitimate ; deaths, 5534; marriages, 1771. There were in 1896 917 schools, with 43,000 pupils, 1 per cent, of the population being illiterate. The land under cultivation in 1896 comprised 827,450 acres, of which 291,460 acres were plough-land and 18,525 acres in vines. The wheat produce of 1899 was valued at £358,000; oats, £113,000. The vintage of the same year was estimated at £234,000 ; the potato crop, £241,050. In green crops (trefoil and sainfoin) the department reaped in 1898 the value of £256,000, and its natural pastures and grass lands yielded £412,000. Its live stock included 10,040 horses, 1950 mules, 13,090 cattle, 35,580 sheep, 28,210 pigs, and 23,940 goats. Mining in 1898 produced 215 metric tons of coal, 40 tons of peat, and 2660 tons of bitumen, valued altogether at £1510. Metallurgical industry turned out (1898) 2310 metric tons of iron and 440 tons of steel, valued at £21,000. Other industries are silk, tanning, and weaving. Annecy, the capital, had in 1901, 13,611 inhabitants, Savona, a town and episcopal see of the province of Genoa, Liguria, Italy, on the coast of the west Riviera, 26 miles west by south of Genoa by railway. It is one of the chief seats of the iron industry, having iron-works and foundries, iron shipbuilding, railway workshops, engineering shops, brass foundry, tinplate works, sulphur mills, and glass-works. It is also a considerable seaport, importing commodities to the value of nearly two millions sterling (£1,754,300 in 1899), chiefly coal, with petroleum, iron, cereals, &c. There is a small export trade (£30,000 to £40,000 annually), of which preserved tomatoes, wood, and candied fruits are the chief elements. In 1899 the port (22 to 26 feet deep) was entered by 1139 vessels of 559,200 tons, as compared with 855 vessels of 356,300 tons in 1892. There are a technical institute and a commercial institute. Population (1881), 24,481 ; (1899), about 28,500. Savory, Sir William Scovell, Bart. (18261895), British surgeon, was born 30th November 1826, in London. He entered St Bartholomew’s Hospital in 1844 (M.R.C.S. 1847, F.R.C.S. 1852). From 1849 to 1859 he was demonstrator of anatomy and operative surgery at St Bartholomew’s, and for many years curator of the museum, where he devoted himself to pathological and physiological work. In 1859 he succeeded Sir James Paget as lecturer on general anatomy and physiology. In 1861 he became assistant surgeon, and in 1867 surgeon, holding the latter post till 1891; and from 1869 s. YIII. —.54

426

SAWANTWA RI — SAXONY

to 1889 he was lecturer on surgery. In the College of Surgeons he was a man of the greatest influence, rising to be president for four successive years, 1885-88. As Hunterian professor of comparative anatomy and physiology (1859-61), he lectured on “General Physiology” and the “Physiology of Food.” In 1884 he delivered the Bradshaw Lecture on the “Pathology of Cancer.” In 1887 he delivered the Hunterian Oration. In 1879, at Cork, he had declared against “ Listerism ” at the meeting of the British Medical Association; “ the last public expression,” it has been said, “by a prominent surgeon against the now accepted methods of modern surgery.” In 1887 he became surgeon-extraordinary to Queen Victoria, and in 1890 he was made a baronet. Savory was an able operator, but averse from exhibitions of brilliancy, and was altogether a powerful and authoritative man in his profession; his lucidity of expression being almost as valuable in that respect as his great knowledge of physiology and anatomy. He died in March 1895. Sawantwari, or Sayantvadi, a native state of India, in the Konkan division of Bombay. Area, 926 square miles. Population (1891), 192,948; (1901), 217,800; average density, 235 persons per square mile. The estimated gross revenue is Rs. 4,31,867, of which Rs.46,814 was expended on public works in 1897-98 ; no tribute ; military force, 400 men; number of schools, 170, with 6386 pupils in 1897-98, being 3'2 per cent, of the population, compared with 2‘4 per cent, for Bombay generally. The chief, whose title is Sir Desai, is a Maratha of the Bhonsle family. The late chief, who had been educated at the Rajkot College, died in December 1899, with no direct heir. It has special manufactures of ornaments carved out of bison-horn, painted and inlaid lacquer-work, and gold and silver embroidery. The town of Sawantwari, or Wari, is 17 miles from the seaport of Vengurla. Population (1881), 8584 ; (1891), 9269 ; municipal revenue (1897-98), Rs.6348, the incidence of taxation being 9 annas per head. It was founded in 1670, on the edge of an artificial lake amid hills. There is a high school, and Westropp hospital, with an endowment of Rs.10,000, raised to commemorate the Diamond Jubilee. Saxe, John Godfrey (1816-1887), American poet, was bom at Highgate, Vermont, 2nd June 1816. He graduated at Middlebury College in 1839, and became a^lawyer, being at one time attorney-general of Vermont. He also engaged in politics as a Democrat, and edited a newspaper in Burlington; but be was best known as a humorous poet and a lecturer. His swiftly-moving lines abounded in puns and witty turns, his travesties and satires found many readers or listeners, and some of his love lyrics or other pieces combined sparkle with real feeling. During a part of his later life he was editor of the Evening Journal at Albany, New York, where he died 31st March 1887. Saxe-Altenburg, a duchy of Germany, one of the Thuringian states, has an area of 511 square miles, and a population (1895), 180,313; (1900), 194,273, of whom 95,442 were males and 98,831 females; the density being 380 inhabitants to the square mile. In 1895 the Protestants numbered 168,549, or 93-5 per cent., and the Homan Catholics 2091. In the same year the duchy contained 16,180 farms, of which 13,589, or 84 per cent., were each less than 25 acres. The live stock in 1900 totalled 69,172 cattle, 66,895 pigs, 12,282 horses, and 9860 sheep. The lignite mines yielded (1900) 1,865,517 tons, valued at £229,300. For the period 1899-1901 the state revenue was fixed at £228,600 annually, and the expenditure at approximately the same. The public debt in 1900 amounted to £44,370, and the contribution to the imperial exchequer in 1901 to £98,550. Saxe-Cobu rg-Gotha, a duchy of Germany, one of the Thuringian states, with an area of 755 square miles,

and population (1895), 216,603; (1900), 229,567, of whom 110,949 were males and 118,618 females; the density being 304 inhabitants to the square mile. About 98 per cent., or 212,514, of the inhabitants were Protestants, and 2956 Roman Catholics. In 1895 the duchy comprised 29,458 farms, of which 15,230 were each less than 2^ acres in extent and 11,100 between 2J and 25 acres. The number of persons supported by agriculture was 60,633, or 28 per cent, of the population. In 1900 the live stock numbered 95,988 pigs, 68,780 cattle, 47,718 sheep, and 10,301 horses. The public revenue during the period 1899-1901 was fixed at £135,600 annually, and the expenditure at £165,800; in addition, there was a special revenue for the duchy of Coburg of £70,960 annually, and expenditure of £63,740, and a special revenue of £126,150 annually for the duchy of Gotha and an expenditure of £177,210. The public debt of Coburg amounted in 1900 to £141,560, and of Gotha to £107,330; and in 1901 their joint contribution to the imperial exchequer to £116,350. The duke of Albany, grandson of Queen Victoria, succeeded to the duchy in 1900 on the decease of his uncle, the duke of Edinburgh, who had become duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha in 1893. Saxe-Meiningen, a duchy of Germany, one of the Thuringian states, with an area of 953 square miles, and population (1895), 234,005; (1900), 250,683; of whom 123,027 were males and 127,656 females. Density, 263 inhabitants to the square mile. Of the total population in 1895, 228,969, or 98 per cent., were Evangelical Lutherans, 3188 Roman Catholics, and 1487 Jews. Agriculture supports 67,540, or 29 per cent, of the population. Out of the total number of farms (31,907), in 1895, 15,370 were each under 2-1 acres in extent, 13,469 between 2-1 and 25 acres. In 1900 the live stock numbered 74,491 cattle, 80,322 pigs, 31,232 sheep, and 7780 horses. For the period 1900-02 the public revenue was fixed at £437,225, and the public expenditure at £394,430. The public debt in 1901 amounted to £415,175, and the contribution to the imperial exchequer to £127,225. Saxe-Wei mar, a grand-duchy of Germany, one of the Thuringian states, with an area of 1388 square miles, and a population (1895), 339,217 ; of whom 325,315, or 95‘9 per cent., were Evangelical Lutherans, 12,112 Roman Catholics, and 1290 JewTs. In 1900 the population wTas 362,018, of whom 176,650 were males and 185,368 females. In 1895 the population was rural to the extent of 60,3 per cent., the rest being urban (39'7 per cent.). During the years 1890-98 inclusive, an average of ll9 persons emigrated annually; in 1900 they numbered 86. The university of Jena is common to the four Saxon duchies. The supreme court of Jena serves as a common court of appeal for these duchies, for SchwarzburgRudolstadt, for the two Reuss principalities, and for certain parts of Prussia. The number of persons supported by agriculture in 1895 was 123,011, or 36'2 per cent, of the population. The total number of farms in 1895 was 42,227, of which 16,575 were each less than 2J acres and 19,419 between 2^ and 25 acres. In 1900 the live stock numbered 156,995 pigs, 134,628 cattle, 88,300 sheep, and 22,207 horses. For the financial period, 1899-1901, the state revenue and expenditure were balanced at £523,000. In 1900 the public debt was £97,000, and in 1901 the amount contributed to the imperial exchequer £183,550. Saxony, a kingdom of the German empire, ranking fifth in area, third in population, and first in density. Area and Population.—The census returns for 1885, 1895, and 1900, together with the area and density of the

SAXONY —SAY kingdom and its administrative districts, are given in the subjoined table :— Density per sq. Population, Population, Population, inArea sq. mile District. 1895. 1900. 1885. miles. 1900.in 356,560 385,080 405,092 953 425 Bautzen 726 860,558 1,067,757 1,216,044 1674 Dresden 774,036 945,179 1,059,273 1377 769 Leipzig. / 734,044 791,896 799 Chemnitz 991 -1,190,849 \ 655,628 727,453 984 Zwickau 739 Total

3,182,003 3,787 688 4,199,758

5787

726

The former district of Zwickau has been divided into the two new districts of Chemnitz and Zwickau, and the 1895 population (1,389,672) is duly divided for that year between them. Of the total population in 1900, 2,042,437 were males and 2,157,321 females, or 1056 females to every 1000 males. As will be seen, the density is exceptionally high—in fact, the highest in the empire, with the exception of the Hanseatic towns. The average density of the entire empire in the year 1900 was 270. Of the total population in 1900, 2,100,475, or SO'Ol per cent., lived in towns, the remaining 49'99 per cent, in rural communes. The largest towns of the country in 1900 were Leipzig (455,089), Dresden (395,349), Chemnitz (206,584), Plauen (73,891), Zwickau (55,825), and eight others with above 20,000 inhabitants each. The next table shows the movement of the population for the years 1888 to 1899 :— Illegiti- MarMar- Total Illegiti- Total Birth- Death- macy riage riages. Births. mate. Deaths. rate. rate. per- Rate. centage. Annual average, 1888-97 151,000 96,109 12-6 1898 38,611 162,555 21,059 92,785 41 22 12-9 9-1 1899 38,980 164,164 21,148 99,609 40-4 24-5 12-9 9-6 The number of emigrants gradually diminished from 4920 in 1892 to 950 in 1897, and, after an increase to 1128 in 1898, again fell to 876 in 1900; the annual average for the ten years 1889-98 being 2521. Agriculture.—In 1895 agriculture supported 716,450 persons, or 19 per cent, of the population. The annexed table shows the farms classified according to size :— 2£ Between 25 Above 250 Under 2^ Between Total and 25 and 250 acres. acres. Farms. acres. acres. 96,796

67,685

28,392

754

193,627

427

Church, 140,285 were Roman Catholics, 10,538 were “Reformists,” 15,059 belonged to other Christian sects, and 9902 were Jews. The university of Leipzig ranks after Berlin and Munich in respect of the number of students attending it (3586 in 1900-01). The remaining educational facilities embrace the technical high school (polytechnic) at Dresden, 2 “ provincial ” schools, 17 classical, and 10 semi-classical schools, 34 “modern” schools, 22 seminaries, and 3 higher girls’ schools. There are also about 4340 elementary and advanced elementary schools in the kingdom, and they are attended by approximately 792,200 children. In 1900 the mining academy at Freiberg had 330 students; the 2 mining schools, about 150 pupils ; the academy of forestry at Tharandt, 89 pupils ; the 7 schools of navigation (1898), 17 teachers and 157 pupils; the veterinary high school, 212 students : besides which there are 2 art academies, 3 industrial art schools, 2 conservatories of music, a shorthand institute, school of political economy, 4 architects’ schools, some 200 schools for training artisans and designers in special industries, 8 agricultural and horticultural schools, 44 commercial schools, 15 music schools, and 1 dramatic school. The military schools are mentioned in the next section. Army.—In 1900 the peace footing of the Saxon army (12th Army Corps of the imperial forces) numbered 43,288 men of all arms. The cadet school at Dresden has about 250 pupils, and 2 non-commissioned officers’ schools at Marienberg are attended by 500 men. Finances.—For the period 1900-01 the ordinary annual revenue was fixed at £4,609,900, and the ordinary annual expenditure at the same figure; but there were in addition an extraordinary revenue and an extraordinary expenditure, balancing at £4,934,100, this expenditure being for public works. Of the ordinary revenue £2,504,400, or 54J per cent., was derived from state-owned sources, e.g., forests, domain lands, mines, the porcelain factory of Meissen, and railways (£1,784,100). Direct taxes, chiefly income-tax, yielded £2,105,500. The amount upon which income-tax was levied was £83,326,100 in 1894, and £110,703,670 in 1900. Out of the total number of persons who paid income-tax in 1898, viz., 1,467,070, no less than 1,396,218, or 95 per cent., paid on incomes under £165 per annum, and of these again 319,813 paid on incomes between £20 and £25 a year. In 1900 the amount of the national debt was £41,491,120, and in 1901 the amount contributed to the imperial treasury £2,133,650. See Kalender und Statistisches Jahrbuch fur das Konigreich Sachsen auf das Jahr 1900, Ac. (Dresden, 1899). Saxony, a province of Prussia, with an area of 9750 square miles, and population (1895), 2,698,549; (1900), 2,833,224 ; of whom 1,389,204 were males and 1,444,020 were females. The mines in 1897 yielded 13,009,653 tons of lignite, valued at £1,583,750 (in 1900, 17,035,074 tons valued at £2,101,200); 273,364 tons of coal, valued at £55,700 ; 716,348 tons of kainite, valued at £505,900 ; 640,236 tons of potassium salts, valued at £379,700; and 632,168 tons of copper, valued at £909,700 (in 1900, 671,918 tons valued at £1,108,850); total value in 1897, £3,434,750. The produce of salt-works and furnaces, &c., in 1900 was 108,734 tons of salt, worth £147,600; 163,458 tons of chloride of potassium, worth £1,040,050. The province of Saxony is famous for its high-class farming, and ranks as the first agricultural province of all Germany. Besides the university agricultural college at Halle, there are two agricultural colleges and six agricultural schools, as well as two experimental stations, in the province. The barley and chicory (50 per cent, of that grown in Germany) of Saxony are famous. In 1900 the live stock included 1,259,737 pigs, 833,580 sheep, 778,353 cattle, and 213,040 horses. This province, especially in the neighbourhood of Erfurt, Quedlinburg, and Aschersleben, is far-famed for its gardening and seed farms. The sugar factories in 1900 produced 447,895 tons of sugar; the breweries, 53,700,000 gallons of beer; and the distilleries, 3,897,300 gallons of pure alcohol. For further particulars, see under Prussia. See also “Agriculture in Germany,” Brit. Cons. Rep., Ho. 452 (1898).

In 1900 there were 687,587 cattle, 576,825 pigs, 166,713 horses, and 74,518 sheep in the kingdom. Industry and Mining.—In 1898, 501,677 persons were engaged in these occupations, distributed as follows :—178,571 in the textile industries, 74,234 in the manufacture of machinery and instruments, 92,807 in mining, quarrying, and smelting and founding metals ; 34,573 in forestry, saw-milling, &c.; 27,088 in paper manufacture ; 22,230 in printing and similar branches; and the rest (72,174) in other branches. In 1900, 120 coal-mines were in active work, 89 being lignite mines ; their output was 6,343,213 tons, valued at £3,230,600. There were 13 iron and salt mines at work, and they produced 13,087 tons of ore, valued at £24,000, and 8 mines of cobalt, nickel, and bismuth produced 595 tons of ore valued at £29,650. The iron works, foundries, &c., produced 342,152 tons of iron and steel, valued at £3,507,850 ; the breweries 107,386,650 gallons of beer, the distilleries 2,965,100 gallons of pure alcohol, and the sugar factories 19,850 tons of sugar. Quarrying is extensively carried on, over 3800 persons being employed in quarrying sandstone near Pirna alone. Communications.—In 1900, 1880 miles of railway were open for Say, Jean Baptiste L6on (1826-1896), traffic, all except 25 miles belonging to the state. In 1898 the French statesman and economist, was born in Paris on 6th telegraph lines reached a total of 3750 miles, and telegraph wires June 1826. From his father, Horace Say, and his grand17,910 miles ; the length of telephone lines was 2685 miles. Religion and Education.—In 1895, 3,611,670 persons, or 95 ’3 father, Jean Baptiste, the author of a celebrated Traite per cent, of the population, belonged to the Evangelical Lutheran cVeconomic politique, founded on Adam Smith, he inherited

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an ardent zeal for economic studies, of which he gave a remarkable proof by publishing at the age of twenty-two a brief Histoire de la Caisse d’escompte. He was at first destined for the law, next entered a bank, and finally obtained a post in the administration of the Chemin de fer du bTord. Meanwhile he became a regular contributor to the Journal des Debats, where he established his reputation by a series of brilliant attacks on the financial administration of the prefect of the Seine, Haussmann. He displayed a remarkable talent for interesting popular audiences in economic questions. His sympathies, like those of his grandfather, were with the British school of economists; he was, indeed, the hereditary defender of free-trade principles in France. He had, moreover, an intimate acquaintance with the English language and institutions, and translated into French Goschen’s Theory of Foreign Exchanges. He was one of the pioneers of the co-operative movement in France. Elected to the Assembly of 1871 by the departments of Seine and Seine-et-Oise, he adopted the former, and took his seat among the Moderate Liberals, to whose principles he adhered throughout his life. He was immediately chosen as reporter of the commission on the state of the national finances, and in this capacity prepared two elaborate statements. Thiers, though opposing their publication on grounds of public expediency, was much struck by the ability displayed in them, and on 5th June appointed Say prefect of the Seine. The fall of the Empire, the siege of Paris, and the Commune had reduced the administration of the capital to chaos, and the task of reconstruction, amid the urgent problems that called for immediate solution, severely tried the new prefect’s power of organization. This was, however, a gift with which he was pre-eminently endowed ; and he only quitted his post to assume, in December 1872, the ministry of finance — a remarkable tribute to his abilities from Thiers, who himself held strongly protectionist views. In all other respects Say always regarded himself as the disciple of Thiers, who, in his last public utterance, designated Say as one of the younger men who would carry on his work. He fell from office with Thiers on 24th May 1873, and was elected president of the Left Centre group, as whose candidate he unsuccessfully contested the presidency of the Chamber with Buffet. In spite of their divergence of views, he consented, at the urgent request of President MacMahon, to take office in March 1875 in the Buffet Cabinet; but the strongly reactionary policy of the premier led to a sharp and longcontinued dispute between him and Say both in the press and in the constituencies, and brought about Buffet’s resignation. Say continued to hold the ministry of finance under Dufaure and Jules Simon, and again in the Dufaure ministry of December 1877, and its successor, the Waddington ministry, till December 1879. During this long period, in which he was practically the autocratic ruler of the French finances, he had first to complete the payment of the war indemnity—an operation which, thanks largely to his consummate knowledge of foreign exchanges, was effected long before the prescribed time. It was at a conference held between Say, Gambetta, and M. de Freycinet in 1878 that the great scheme of public works introduced by the latter was adopted. Say’s general financial policy was to ameliorate the incidence of taxation. As a pendant to his free-trade principles, he believed that the surest way of enriching the country, and therefore the Treasury, was to remove all restrictions on internal commerce. He accordingly reduced the rate of postage, repealed the duties on many articles of prime utility, such as paper, and fought strongly, though unsuccessfully, against the system of octrois. On 30th April 1880 he accepted the post of ambassador in London for the purpose of negotiating a

commercial treaty between France and England, but the presidency of the Senate falling vacant, he was elected, on 25th May, to fill the post, having meanwhile secured a preliminary understanding, the most important feature of which was a reduction of the duty on the cheaper class of French wines. In January 1882 he became minister of finance in the Freycinet Cabinet, which was defeated in the following July on the Egyptian question. Say’s influence over the rising generation grew less; his “ academic Liberalism” was regarded as old-fashioned; Socialism, which he never ceased to attack, obtained even greater power, and free-trade was discarded in favour of M. Meline’s policy of protection, against which Say vainly organized the Ligue contre le rencherissement du pain. He had, however, a large share in the successful opposition to the income-tax, which he considered likely to discourage individual effort and thrift. In 1889 he quitted the Senate to enter the Chamber as member for Pau, in the belief that his efforts for Liberalism were more urgently needed in the popular Assembly. Throughout his career he was indefatigable both as a writer and as a lecturer on economics, and in both capacities exerted a far wider influence than in parliament. Special mention must be made of his work, as editor and contributor, on the Dictionnaire des finances and Nouveau dictionnaire d’economic politique. His style was remarkably easy and lucid, and he was often employed in drawing up important official documents, such as the famous presidential message of December 1877. He was for many years the most prominent member of the Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques, and in 1886 succeeded to Edmond About’s seat in the Academie Frangaise. He died in Paris on 21st April 1896. A selection of his most important writings and speeches has since been published in four volumes under the title of Les Finances de la France sous la troisieme Republique (1898—1901). (h. sy.) Sayre, a borough of Bradford county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. It is on the North Branch of the river Susquehanna and on several railways, in the north-eastern part of the state. Population (1900), 5243, of whom 337 were foreign-born. Scarborough, a municipal and parliamentary borough and fashionable watering-place, Yorkshire, England, North Riding, in the Whitby parliamentary division, 40 miles north-east of York by rail. A promontory divides the town into north and south parts. The former was greatly improved by the addition of the promenade and drive, known as the Royal Albert Drive and Clarence Cardens, opened in 1890. In 1891 the corporation purchased Ramsdale Valley bridge, spanning a picturesque ravine which separates the southernmost part of the town from the rest. The People’s Park occupies both sides of the valley. Modern public buildings include the church of St James’s, two Wesleyan chapels, a Congregational chapel, Constitutional and Liberal clubs, and central fire station. Population of the municipal and parliamentary borough (1881), 30,504; (1901), 38,160. SchafFhausen, one of the Swiss cantons. Its total area is IISJ square miles. Of this, 108’4 square miles are classed as “productive,” forests covering 44-8 square miles, vineyards 4‘2 square miles, and arable or pasture land the remaining 59'4 square miles. The population of the canton was 37,783 in 1888, while in 1900 it was 41,514. In 1900 there were 365 inhabitants to each square mile. The people are mostly Protestant—roughly, the Roman Catholics number 10 per cent.—and Germanspeaking. With the exception of a small portion of the town of Stein, the whole canton lies north of the Rhine.

SCHAFFHAUS EN—SCHELDT The cantonal constitution is that of 1876, slightly modified. The legislature is elected as stated in the ninth edition of this work, hut only “communes” with over 250 inhabitants form separate electoral circles, the smaller being united electorally to their greater neighbours. The executive of five members is also elected by popular vote for four years. Besides the right of “initiative” of 1000 citizens as to legislative projects, and the revision of the cantonal constitution, there was adopted in 1895 the “obligatory referendum ” for all legislative projects, as well as a curious institution (formerly existing in several cantons) by which the legislature can consult the people on certain questions involving principles, and not merely fully drafted legislative projects. In 1897 the state revenue of the canton Avas 1,647,481 francs (a rise of 42 per cent, since 1885), and the state expenditure, 1,564,118 francs (a rise of 46 per cent.), while in 1898 the surplus was 95,999 francs; the system of accounts in this canton is rather intricate. In 1897 the public debt was nil. The taxes are very small, while the state property is the most considerable in SAvitzerland, so that from a financial point of view it is the most favoured among the Swiss cantons. Authorities.—Bcitrdge z. vaterldnd. Geschichte. Schaffhausen, 1863-84.—Im Thurx. Der Kant. S. St Gall and Bern, 1840.— Pfaff. Das Staatsrecht d. alten Bidgenosscnschaft. Schaffhausen, 1870 (pp. 89-97 contain a history of Schaffhausen). In 1901 there appeared at Schaffhausen two elaborate historical “ Festschriften,” one for the canton and the other for the town. (w. a. B. C.) Schaffhausen, the capital of the above canton. There is a railway (1 ^ miles) to Feuerthalen (1253 inhabitants), the first station on the line to Constance, which keeps on the Swiss side of the Rhine. There is a fine promenade on the west of the town, called the Fasenstaub. Population (1880), 11,753; (1900), 15,275. Schandorph, Soph US. See Danish Literature. Scharf, Sir George (1820-1895), director of the British National Portrait Gallery, was born in London on 16th December 1820, the son of George Scharf, a Bavarian miniature painter avIio settled in England in 1816, and died in 1860. He was educated at University College School, and studied in the schools of the Royal Academy. In 1840 he accompanied Sir Charles Fellows on the second of his archaeological visits to Asia Minor, and in 1843 acted as draughtsman to a Government expedition to the same country. After his return he devoted himself with great industry and success to the illustration of books relating to art and antiquity, of which the best known are Macaulay’s Laps of Ancient Rome, 1847 ; Milman’s Horace, 1849 ; Kugler’s Handbook of Italian Painting, 1851 ; and Dr Smith’s classical dictionaries. He also engaged largely in lecturing and teaching, and took part in the formation of the Greek, Roman, and Pompeian courts at the Crystal Palace. He acted as art secretary to the great Manchester Art Treasures Exhibition of 1857, and in that year was appointed secretary to the newly founded National Portrait Gallery. The remainder of his life Avas given to the care of that institution, which during the thirty-seven years of his able and zealous management gradually developed into a collection of first-rate importance. Scharf acquired an unrivalled knowledge of all matters relating to historic portraiture, and was the author of many learned essays on the subject. He was elected a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries in 1852, and a corresponding member of the Archaeological Institute of Rome in 1858. In 1885, in recognition of his services to the Portrait Gallery, he was made C.B., and on relinquishing his post, early in 1895, was created K.C.B. and a trustee of the Gallery. He died on the 19th April of the same year. (f. m. o’d.) Schaumburg-Lippe, a principality of Germany, in the valley of the Weser, between the Prussian provinces of Westphalia and Hanover. Area, 131 square miles. Population (1895), 41,224; (1900), 43,132; of Avhom 21,449 Avere males and 21,683 females. The people

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are almost entirely Evangelical Lutherans. Density, 329 inhabitants to the square mile. Of the total population in 1895, 11,725, or 28'4 per cent., were supported by agriculture. The number of farms was 7218, of which 6585, or 91 per cent., were each less than 25 acres; 625 were between 25 and 250 acres, and only 8 exceeded 250 acres. In 1900 the principality contained 32,243 pigs, 12,434 cattle, 4088 horses, and 1632 sheep. The state revenue and expenditure for 1900 were estimated to balance at £53,530. The public debt amounted in 1900 to £24,100, and in 1901 the contribution to the imperial exchequer to £21,845. » Scheffel, Joseph Victor von (1826-1886), German poet and novelist, was born at Garlsruhe, Avhere his father was an officer in the Baden army, 16th February 1826. His mother, nee Krederer, was a poet of some distinction. He went to school at Carlsruhe, and afterAvards studied law at Munich, Heidelberg, and Berlin. After graduating doctor juris, he held a secretaryship for a short time, and subsequently Avas appointed to various judicial posts. Eventually, in 1854, he retired in order to devote himself entirely to his pen, coming to this determination as a consequence of the great success achieved by his poem Der Trompeter von Sdckingen, published in 1853. The popularity of this work in Germany has been extraordinary, more than 200 editions of it having been issued. In 1857 he published Gaudeamus (a volume of poems) and a historical romance, Ekkehard, which also became very popular. In 1864 he married Caroline von Malzen and settled at Carlsruhe, where he lived practically in retirement. He died there on 9th April 1886. His later works never achieved the popularity of those mentioned above, which by themselves were sufficient to procure him enthusiastic eulogiums and various marks of honour on his “jubilee,” which was celebrated all over Germany. He was on this occasion granted a patent of hereditary nobility by the grand duke of Baden. His works subsequent to Ekkehard were Frau Aventure (1863), Juniperus (1868), Waldeinsamkeit (1880), Der Heini von Steier (1883). Volumes of Reisebilder (1887), Gedichte (1888), Episteln (1892), and Briefe (1898) were published posthumously. (r. f. s.) Scheldt, a river flowing through France, Belgium, and Holland. In its Belgian course it is regulated by locks as far as Ghent, below which it flows freely east and north to the estuaries indenting Zeeland, which are, however, really inlets of the sea, being at many places over 3 miles broad from dyke to dyke, and showing no movement but the ebb and flood of the sea. The river water running through these estuaries is, moreover, shrinking in breadth, and the alluvium, especially between the islands, is accumulating. The Dender, a tributary on the right bank, and the Lys, on the left, are both largely canalized. At Antwerp the Scheldt at high water has a breadth of 1706 feet. Sixteen miles north-west of Antwerp the river divides at Fort Bath (Holland) into the Western and the Eastern Scheldt. The Western Scheldt floAvs, between Dutch Flanders on the south and the islands of South Beveland and Walcheren on the north, into the North Sea at Flushing. Altogether the Scheldt is na\ugable for 207 miles. On the north side, near Flushing, and along the south coast of South Beveland, as also on the south side near Terneuzen, the Western Scheldt has a depth of 131 feet. Steamers ply betAveen these places and Fort Breskens, on the south bank opposite Flushing. The roadstead of Zierikzee (island of Schouwen) and the navigable water along the northern coast of North Beveland have a depth of 100 to 130 feet. The strait (Mastgat) betAveen the islands of Tholen and North Beveland is

430

SCHENECTA DY—SCHLAN also very deep. The Sloe, an arm of the Western ments of about 20,000 annual visitors, chiefly Dutch and Scheldt between Walcheren and South Beveland, and also Germans. The fishing fleet comprises about 200 boats, both sides of the dyke connecting South Beveland with and a new fisher-haven is to be constructed at the mouth North Brabant, are silting up; the Braakman, a southern of the Hague-Scheveningen Canal. Population (1900), arm of the Western Scheldt, is fast drying up. The about 20,000. difference of level between ebb and flood tide is at FlushSchiedam, a manufacturing town and seaport in ing 12, at Antwerp 14, feet. the Dutch province of South Holland, near the influx of Schenectady, a city of New York, U.S.A., the Schie into the Maas. In 1899 there were 190 grain capital of Schenectady county. It is situated in 42° 47' N. and 141 other distilleries, producing the “Geneva” or and 73° 57' W., in the valley of the river Mohawk, Dutch gin (Hollands). The yeast and the grain refuse of 17 miles north-west of Albany, in the eastern part of the distilleries form an article of export. Population the state, at an altitude of 246 feet. It is irregularly (1900), 27,081. laid out, the older and business part of the city being Schimmel, Hendrik Jan (1825 ), in the valley, while the newer and residential portion is built on higher land in the rear. Its water-supply is Dutch poet and novelist, was born 30th June 1825, at pumped and filtered. The city is reached by branches of \S Graveland, in the province of North Holland, where his the Delaware and Hudson and the New York Central and father was a notary and the burgomaster. From 1836 to Hudson River railways. The manufacturing interests are 1842 young Schimmel served his apprenticeship in his very important. There are extensive locomotive, electrical, father’s office, and upon his death he was taken into the and agricultural implement works, besides foundries, car office of the agent of the Dutch Treasury in Amsterdam, works, planing mills, and clothing factories of various exchanging the work in 1849 for a post with the Dutch kinds. It is the seat of Union College (founded 1795), Trading Company there. In 1863 he became a director of which had in 1900 a faculty of 24 and was attended by the Amsterdam Credit Association. His first volume of 184 students. Population (1890), 19,902 ; (1900), 31,682, poems appeared in 1852; but it is as a writer of historical of the of whom 7169 were foreign-born and 127 negroes. Of dramas in blank verse, and one of the regenerators r 11,093 males 21 years of age and over, 656 were illiterate Dutch stage, that his literary position w as made. His finest production is his Struensee (1868), which was (could not write). preceded by Napoleon Bonaparte (1851) and Juffrouw Scherer, Edmond Henri Adolphe Serldaas (“Mrs Serklaas,” 1857). Among his other (1815-1889), French theologian, critic, and politician, was born in Paris, 8th April 1815. After a course of dramatic works may be mentioned Joan Woutersz (a legal studies he found himself strongly attracted to theo- drama, 1847), Twee Tudors (“Two Tudors,” 1847), logy, and spent several years in theological study at Gondelbald (1848), Schuld en Boete (“Guilt and RetribuStrasburg, where he graduated and was ordained. In tion,” a drama, 1852), Het Kind van Staat (“The State 1843 he was appointed to a professorship in the Ecole Child,” a dramatic fragment, 1859); Zege na Strijd Evangelique at Geneva, but the development of his (“Struggle and Triumph,” a drama, 1878). Schimmel’s opinions, which were becoming strongly in favour of the renderings of Casimir de la Vigne’s Louis XL., Geibel’s Liberal movement in Protestant theology, led to his resign- Sophonisbe, and Ponsard’s Lucrece are also still acted in ing the post six years later. Having had already some the Netherlands. His novels are distinguished by their experience of journalism, he now settled in Paris, where he vigorous style and able characterization. The earlier, at once attracted attention by brilliant literary criticisms better-known ones betray the writer’s English proclivities. contributed to the Revue des Deux Mondes and other The plots of Mary Hollis (1860, 3 vols.; English translajournals. He was elected municipal councillor at Ver- tion, London 1872, under the title of “Mary Hollis, sailles in 1870, deputy to the National Assembly for the a Romance of the Days of Charles II. and William, Prince department of Seine-et-Oise in 1871, and senator in 1875. of Orange,” 3 vols.) and of Mylady Carlisle (1864, As a politician he was a steady supporter of the Repub- 4 vols.) are laid in England, whereas those of his Sinjeur lican party. Towards the end of his life he devoted him- Semeyns (1875, 3 vols.), a powerful picture of the terrible self mainly to literary and general criticism, and was for year 1672, and of De Kapitein van de Lijfgarde (1888, many years one of the ablest contributors to Le Temps. 3 vols. ; English adaptation, 1896, under the title of His critical work is marked by keen insight, individuality, “The Lifeguardsman,” 1 vol.), a continuation of “Master and remarkable lucidity of expression. He was a frequent Semeyns,” are almost entirely centred in the Holland of visitor to England, and took a lively interest in English those stirring days. He had many points of style and politics and literature. He died at Versailles, 16th March manner in common with Madame Bosboom - Toussaint, 1889. His chief works are: Dogmatique de Veglise re- though both remained highly original in their treatment. formee (1843), De Vetat actuel de Veglise reformee en Both exhausted their foreign themes and heroes, and France (1844), Esquisse d’une theorie de Veglise chretienne finally reverted to essentially national subjects. To the (1845), La Critique et la Foi (1850), Alexandre Vinet earlier romances of Schimmel belong : Bonaparte en zyn (1853), Lettres a mon Cure (1853), Etudes critiques sur Tyd (“Bonaparte and his Time,” 1853), De Eerste Dag Nieuwen Levens (“The First Day of a New Life,” la litterature contemporaine (1863), Etudes critiques de eens 2 vols., 1855), Sproken en Vertellingen (“Legends and litterature (1876), Diderot (1880), La Democratie et la Tales,” 1855), Een Haagsche Joffer (“A Hague Damsel,” France (1883), Etudes sur la litterature au xviiie siecle (1891). A memoir of him, by V. C. O. Greard, appeared 1857), De Vooravond der Revolutie (“The Eve of the Revolution,” 1866). Schimmel was an early collaborator in 1890. (r. f. s.) of Potgieter on the Gids staff. His dramatic works Scheveningen, a fishing village and fashionable appeared in a collected edition in 1885—86 at Amsterdam watering-place in the Dutch province of South Holland, (3 vols.), followed by a complete and popular issue of his 2 miles north-west of The Hague, with which it is con- novels (Schiedam, 1892). nected by the old and the new road, and by horse, steam, SchizoimycetGS- See Bacteriology. and electric tramways. Among modern buildings is the large Kurhaus (1886), with a Kursaal accommodating Schlan (Czech, Slanij), the chief town of a district 2900 guests. Many villas have been built for the require- in Bohemia, Austria, about 40 miles north-west of Prague,

SCHLEIZ—SCHLIEMANN on the railway between the latter town and Briix. There are extensive coal-fields and important iron, metal, and machine industries, together with the manufacture of chemicals and corn-milling. Population (1890), 9115; (1900), 9494, Czechs. Schleiz, a town of Germany, second capital of the principality of Keuss the Younger, 20 miles by rail west by north of Plauen (in Saxony). Here are two royal residences, an old church, with the burial vaults of the reigning princes, a deaf and dumb asylum, teachers’ seminary, wood-carving school, and various small industries (toys, belts, > Island skins » Commander herd. . . 312,247 TLobos 74Q master so desire. But if the signing on does not take place Cape Horn skins ....!'* 12°'390 before a superintendent, the master must cause the agreement to be read and explained to the seaman, and the seaman must sign Grand Total 7,982,768 it in the presence of a witness ; copies of all such agreements must (d. S. J. ; G. A. C.) be transmitted to the proper Board of Trade officials. A copy of Seamanship.—The art of seamanship consists in every agreement with the crew must be posted up in some part of causing a vessel to contend successfully with wind and with the ship which is accessible to the crew. In any British possesabroad other than that in which the ship is registered, a sea. The modern development of steam engines and the sion seaman must be engaged before a superintendent or officer of employment of steel in the construction of the hulls have customs, and at any port abroad where there is a British consular created a further demand for punctuality and comfort in officer, before such officer. Before a seaman can be discharged at the performance of voyages, and have resulted in a great any place abroad, the master must obtain the sanction, endorsed on the agreement with the crew, of the like officials or, in their increase in the size of vessels for all but mere coasting and absence, of merchants there resident. When a seaman is disfishing purposes.^ The tendency of this demand, coupled charged in a foreign country, he is entitled to be provided with inter-oceanic thoroughfares of communication, such with adequate employment on some other British ship bound to as the Suez Canal, has constantly lessened the proportion the port in His Majesty’s dominions at which he was originally shipped, or to a port in the United Kingdom agreed to by the of vessels propelled by sails to that of machine-propelled seaman, or to be furnished with the means of returningv to such steamers, capable of attaining the habitual punctuality of port or of a passage home. It is a misdemeanour wrongfully to the present day. In the United Kingdom, in the middle of force a seaman on shore, or otherwise wrongfully leave him behind the seventies, 132 steam-vessels of wood or of iron were in any place before the completion of the voyage for which he was or the return of the ship to the United Kingdom. The in process of construction, and 317 sailing vessels of the engaged, only persons by whom seamen may be engaged or supplied in the same materials. In the latter part of 1898, 533 steamers United Kingdom are a superintendent, the master, the mate, a of steel, iron, and wood were being built, and only 25 servant bond fide in the constant employ of the owner, and any sailing vessels of greater size than 100 tons; in that year person holding a licence from the Board of Trade. The law as to seamen’s wages has not been altered. Where 646 steamers were completed and added to the mercantile a seaman is discharged before a superintendent in the United s. VIII. — 62

490

SEAMEN,

MERCHANT Kingdom, liis wages must be paid through or in the presence of law. The effect of the Acts is thus given in the report, issued the superintendent, and in the case of home-trade ships may be so in 1896, by a Board of Trade Committee on the Manning of paid if the master or owner so desire. The master must in every Merchant Ships:—“Since the final repeal of the Navigation case deliver e:'ther to the superintendent or to the seaman a full Laws, which required that the master and three - fourths account, in a form approved by the Board of Trade, of the wages of the crew of every British ship should be British subjects, reserved the coasting trade entirely to British ships and and of all deductions therefrom ; such deductions will only be and allowed if they have been entered by the master during the British seamen, the whole world has been open as a recruitvoyage in a book kept for that purpose, together with a statement ing ground to British shipowners, who have not been hampered their selection by any restriction as to colour, language, of the matters in respect of which they are made. Where a sea- in man is left abroad on the ground of his unfitness or inability to qualification, age, or strength. Except with regard to certifiproceed on the voyage, the account of wages must be delivered to cates, which must be held by masters, officers, and engineers in the superintendent, chief officer of customs, consular officer, 01 certain cases, and which, moreover, may be obtained by men of merchants, from whom the master obtains the certificate without any nationality, there is at present practically no bar to the which he may not leave the seaman behind. In order to protect employment of any person of any nationality in any capacity seamen from crimps, advance notes, or documents authorizing or whatsoever on board any British ship.” promising the future payment of money on account of a seaman s Certificates of competency as masters, mates, and wages conditionally on his going to sea from any port of the engineers are granted by the Board of Trade. Such United Kingdom, and made before those wages had been earned, certificates are for the following grades, viz., master or first were from 1880 to 1889 wholly void, and no money paid in satisfaction or in respect of any such document could be deducted from mate, or second mate, or only mate of a foreign-going ship, a seaman’s wages. Since 1889 this restriction has been removed master or mate of a home-trade passenger ship, first or to the extent of one month’s wages, provided that the agreement second class engineer. By virtue of Orders in Council with the crew contains a stipulation for such advance. It is to be under section 102 of the Act of 1894, certificates granted observed that this does not extend to cases where the seaman is going to sea from any port not in the United Kingdom. In such in many of the British colonies have the same force as if cases”there is no limitation upon the right to make any agreement granted by the Board of Trade. The following are the for advances or to make advances to any amount. It has been requirements of the Act as to the officers to be carried by held that the old statute, 8 Geo. I. c. 24, § 7, does not forbid ships ;—Masters : A properly certificated master must be an advance to a seaman engaged abroad, or if it does, does not enable a seaman to recover the sum advanced again as unpaid carried by every foreign-going ship and every home-trade wages. passenger ship, whatever their tonnage. Mates : A mate, As under the former law, the scale of provisions must be with the certificate of the grade of first or only mate, or entered in the agreement with the crew, and compensation master, must, in addition to the certificated master, be made for short or bad provisions, and means are provided carried by every foreign-going ship of 100 tons or upwhereby the crew can raise complaints. But, in addition, wards, unless more than one mate is carried, in which in the case of ships trading or going from any port in the case the first and second mates must have valid certifiUnited Kingdom through the Suez Canal or round the cates appropriate to their several stations on such ship or Cape of Good Hope or Cape Horn, the provisions and of a higher grade; and a mate, with a certificate of the water are put under inspection by the Board of Trade, grade of first or only mate or master, must, in addition to and if they are deficient, the ship may be detained until the certificated master, be carried by every home-trade passenger ship of 100 tons or upwards. Engineers: Every the defects are remedied. foreign-going steamship of 100 nominal horse power or The law as to the property of deceased seamen, the reimbursement of relief to seamen’s families, the relief of destitute and dis- upwards must have two certificated engineers—the first tressed seamen, discipline, and volunteering into the navy, remains possessing a first-class engineer’s certificate, and the second substantially unaltered. The law as to medicines, anti-scorbutics, possessing a second-class engineer’s certificate, or a certifiand medical inspection, and as to crew space, continues the same. cate of the higher grade. Every other foreign-going If a seaman receives hurt or injury in the service of the ship, the steamship, and every sea-going home-trade passenger expense of medical attendance and maintenance, together with the cost of bringing him home, is to be borne by the owner of the steamship, is required to carry as the first or only engineer ship, and cannot be deducted from wages. an engineer having a second-class certificate, or a certificate The safety of the crew is secured by provisions which are of the higher grade. Vessels in the home trade (i.e., designed to prevent overloading and undermanning, to restrict United Kingdom and continent of Europe between the the carriage of dangerous cargoes, to secure adequate life-saving appliances, and generally to prevent ships from being sent to Elbe and Brest) are not required to carry certificated sea in an unseaworthy state. The stringency of these provisions masters or officers unless they are passenger ships of 100 has been much increased. Life-saving appliances, including tons or upwards; and vessels in the foreign trade of less boats, life-belts, and the like, according to a scale and rules than 100 tons are not required to carry any mate. prescribed by the Board of Trade, must be carried by every The Merchant Shipping Act, 1897, gives power to the British ship. Except where the ship is under 80 tons register, employed solely in the coasting trade, or is employed solely in Board of Trade to detain ships unseaworthy by reason of fishing, or is a pleasure yacht, the position of each deck above undermanning, but prescribes no rules for determining water must be marked by conspicuous lines, and the maximum when a ship is to be deemed to be undermanned. And load line in salt water, to which it shall be lawful to load the ship, must be marked at such level as may be approved by the apart from that Act, the law does not interfere with the Board of Trade below the deck line, and in accordance with number or qualifications of the crew. The law does not tables and regulations prescribed by the Board of Trade. It is prescribe that the crew or any portion of it should be this load line which is commonly known as the Plimsoll mark. British, or that it should consist, in any proportion, of It is an offence to load a ship so as to submerge the load line, and a ship so loaded may be detained as unsafe. Dangerous goods, able-bodied seamen. In 1898 a slight attempt was made e.g., explosives, must not be shipped or carried without being dis- to encourage shipowners to carry apprentices to the sea tinctly marked as such. Timber must not be carried on deck in service. The Merchant Shipping Act of that year, which the winter months. In the carriage of grain cargoes, rules pre- dealt with light dues, provided that “ on proof to the scribed by the Board of Trade to prevent shifting must be com- satisfaction of the Board of Trade that a British ship has plied with. The officers of the Board of Trade (subject to appeal to a Court of Survey from an order of final detention) have power during any financial year carried, in accordance with the to detain any unsafe ship, that is a ship which is, by reason of scale and regulations to be made by the Board of Trade, the defective condition of the hull, equipments, or machinery, or with the concurrence of the Treasury, boys between the of undermanning, overloading or improper loading, unfit to proceed to sea without serious danger to human life, having regard ages of 15 and 19, there shall be paid to the owner of the to the service for which she is intended. Provision is made for ship, out of moneys to be provided by Parliament, an the investigation of complaints by seamen that a ship is unfit to allowance not exceeding one-fifth of the light dues paid proceed to sea. The manning of British merchant ships has received much during that year in respect of that ship. Provided that consideration, but has hitherto been little affected by statute no such payment shall be made in respect of anybody

S E A-P O W E R unless lie has enrolled himself in the Royal Naval Reserve, and entered into an obligation to present himself for service when called upon in accordance with rules to be issued by the Admiralty.” This enactment is to continue until 1905; it has been so little acted upon that some more efficient means will have to be devised, if apprenticeship to the sea service is to be revived; at present it has practically ceased to exist, except in the case of boys who intend to become officers. Some only of the provisions of the Acts apply to ships belonging to the general lighthouse authorities and pleasure yachts. But, with these exceptions, the whole of Part II. (Masters and Seamen) applies, unless the contract or subject-matter requires a different application, to all sea-going ships registered in the United Kingdom. Where a ship is a British ship, but not registered in the United Kingdom, the provisions of Part II. apply as follows:—The provisions relating to the shipping and discharge of seamen in the United Kingdom and to volunteering into the navy apply in every case. The provisions relating to lists of the crew and to the property of deceased seamen and apprentices apply where the crew are discharged or the final port of destination of the ship is in the United Kingdom. All the provisions apply where the ship is employed in trading or going between any port in the United Kingdom, and any port not situate in the British possession or country in which the ship is registered. The provisions relating to the rights of seamen in respect of wages, to the shipping and discharge of seamen in ports abroad, to leaving seamen abroad, and the relief of seamen in distress in ports abroad, to the provisions, health, and accommodation of seamen, to the power of seamen to make complaints, to the protection of seamen from imposition, and to discipline, apply in every case except where the ship is within the jurisdiction of the government of the British possession in which the ship is registered. The law as to the registration of fishing boats, and generally as to men employed in fishing, is now to be found in the Merchant Shipping Act, 1894, and especially in Part IV. of that Act. The Act does not apply to fishing boats in British possessions, and, speaking generally, fishing boats in Scotland are governed by Part II. (Master and Seamen) and not by Part IV. By a recent change in the law, a trawler of 25 tons and upwards must carry a certificated second hand as well as a certificated skipper. In most British colonies there are laws affecting merchant seamen. In some cases such legislation is identical with the Imperial Act, but in most there are differences of more or less importance, and the colonial statutes should be consulted. Reference may be made to the following Indian and Colonial Acts and ordinances:— Bahamas: 2 Viet. c. 3 ; 21 Viet. c. 2; 27 Viet. c. 2; 28 Viet. c. 1; 28 Viet. c. 28; 33 Viet. c. 15 ; 36 Viet. c. 1 ; 43 Viet. c. 20. Barbados: No. 45 of 1891 ; No. 12 of 1898. Bermuda: No. 17 of 1782; No. 22 of 1848; No. 6 of 1849 ; No. 14 of 1867 ; No. 13 of 1873; No. 7 of 1876; No. 4 of 1878; No. 10 of 1878; Nos. 2 and 5 of 1880; No. 5 of 1884; Nos. 16, 25, and 31 of 1900. British Guiana: No. 6 of 1864; No. 4 of 1883; No. 2 of 1895; No. 10 of 1900. Canada: Revised statutes, chapters 73, 74, 76 and 77 ; Nos. 21 and 22 of 1889 ; Nos. 38, 40 and 41 of 1891; No. 22 of 1893; Nos. 42, 43, 44 and 45 of 1894; Nos. 45 and 46 of 1898; No. 34 of 1901. Cape of Good Hope: No. 13 of 1855 ; No. 3 of 1863 ; No. 2 of 1870; No. 13 of 1874. Ceylon: No. 7 of 1863; No. 3 of 1880; No. 3 of 1884; No. 3 of 1888; No. 6 of 1899. Honduras: Consolidated Laws, chapters 54 and 55. Honq Kong : No. 36 of 1899. India: No. 1 of 1859; No. 13 of 1873; No. 13 of

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1876 ; No. 7 of 1880; No. 5 of 1883; No. 7 of 1884; Nos. 6, 12, and 17 of 1891; No. 15 of 1894. Jamaica: 2 Will. IV. c. 32; 6 Will. IV. c. 19 ; No. 21 of 1875No. 11 of 1878; No. 17 of 1881; No. 27 of 1900. Leeward Islands: No. 2 of 1878; No. 8 of 1888. Mauritius: No. 17 of 1855; No. 10 of 1858; No. 13 of 1869; No. 5 of 1874; No. 15 of 1887; No. 16 of 1891; No. 7 of 1892 ; No. 40 of 1897 ; No. 18 of 1899; Nos. 8 and 10 of 1900; No. 10 of 1901. Natal: No. 10 of 1883; No. 4 of 1884; No. 1 of 1890. New Brunswick: Revised Statutes, chapters 22, 86, and 87; No. 4 of 1865; No. 21 of 1866. Newfoundland: Consolidated Statutes, chapters 97 and 98; No. 5 of 1891 ; No. 4 of 1901. New South Wales: Nos. 46 and 47 of 1898; No. 60 of 1901. New Zealand: No. 4 of 1860; No. 54 of 1877; No. 15 of 1885; No. 10 of 1889; No. 15 of 1890; No. 62 of 1894. Queensland: No. 17 of 1840; No. 21 of 1843; No. 23 of 1847 ; No. 28 of 1849; No. 25 of 1852; No. 36 of 1853; No. 10 of 1874; No. 3 of 1876; No. 12 of 1882; No. 31 of 1896. South Australia: No. 237 of 1881; No. 541 of 1891 ; No. 614 of 1894; No. 691 of 1897. Straits Settlements: No. 1 of 1859 and 15 of 1863 (Indian Acts); No. 28 of 1867; No. 14 of 1869; No. 1 of 1873 ; No. 18 of 1889. Tasmania: Nos. 7 and 8 of 1859; No. 22 of 1870; No. 11 of 1878; No. 34 of 1889; No. 27 of 1895; No. 33 of 1896. Trinidad: No. 8 of 1883. Victoria: No. 1139 (1890); No. 1165 (1890); No. 1357 (1894); No. 1360 (1894); No. 1557 (1898); No. 1771 of 1901; West Australia: No. 2 of 1870; No. 14 of 1877 ; No. 19 of 1878; No. 1 of 1880. Sea-Power.—A term used to indicate two distinct, though cognate, things. The affinity of these two and the indiscriminate manner in which the term has been applied to each have tended to obscure its real significance. The obscurity has been deepened by the frequency with which the term has been confounded with the old phrase, “ Sovereignty of the sea,” and the still current expression, “Command of the sea” {vide Sea, Command of). A discussion—etymological, or even archaeological in character—of the term must be undertaken as an introduction to the explanation of its now generally accepted meaning. It is one of those compound words in which a Teutonic and a Latin (or Romance) element are combined, and which are easily formed and become widely current when the sea is concerned. Of such are “ sea-coast,” “ sea-forces ” (the “ landand sea-forces ” used to be a common designation of what we now call the “ Army and Navy ”) ; “ sea-service,” “ seaserpent,” and “sea-officer” (now superseded by “naval officer”). The term in one form is as old as the 15th century. Edward III., in commemoration of the naval victory of Sluys, coined gold “ nobles ” which bore on one side his effigy “crowned, standing in a large ship, holding in one hand a sword and in the other a shield.” An anonymous poet, who wrote in the reign of Henry VI., says of this coin :— For four things our noble showeth to me, King, ship and sword, and power of the sea. Even in its present form the term is not of very recent date. Grote (Hist, of Greece, v. p. 67, published in 1849, but with preface dated 1848) speaks of “the conversion of Athens from a land-power into a sea-power.” In a lecture published in 1883, but probably delivered earlier, the late Sir J. R. Seeley says that “ commerce was swept out of the Mediterranean by the besom of the Turkish sea-power ” (Expansion of England, p. 89). The term also occurs in vol. xviii. of this Encyclopaedia, published in 1885. At p. 574 of that volume (Persia) we are

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told that Themistocles was “ the founder of the Attic sea-power.” The sense in which the term is used differs in these extracts. In the first it means what we generally call a “naval power”—that is to say, a State having a considerable navy in contradistinction to a “ military power,” a State with a considerable army but only a relatively small navy. In the last two extracts it means all the elements of the naval strength of the State referred to; and this is the meaning that is now generally, and is likely to be exclusively, attached to the term owing to the brilliant way in which it has been elucidated by Captain A. T. Mahan of the United States Navy in a series of remarkable works {Influence of Sea-power on History, published 1890 ; Influence of Sea-power on ike French Revolution and Empire, 2 vols. 1892; Nelson: the Embodiment of the Sea-power of Great Britain, 2 vols. 1897). The double use of the term is common in German, though in that language both parts of the compound now in use are Teutonic. One instance out of many may be cited from the historian Adolf Holm {Griechische Geschichte, Berlin, 1889). He says (ii. p. 37) that Athens, being in possession of a good naval port, could become “ eine bedeutende Seemacht,” i.e., an important naval power. He also says (ii. p. 91) that Gelon of Syracuse, besides a large army {Ileer), had “ eine bedeutende Seemachtf meaning a considerable navy. The term, in the first of the two senses, is old in German, as appears from the following, extracted from Zedler’s Grosses Universal Lexicon, vol. xxxvi. (Leipzig and Halle, 1743) : “ Seemachten, Seepotenzen; Latin, summae potestates mari potentes.” “Seepotenzen” is probably quite obsolete now. It is interesting as showing that German no more abhors Teuto-Latin or Teutollomance compounds than English. We may note, as a proof of the indeterminate meaning of the expression until his own epoch-marking works had appeared, that Mahan himself in his earliest book used it in both senses. He says (p. 35), “ The Spanish Netherlands ceased to be a sea-power.” He alludes (p. 42) to the development of a nation as a “ sea-power,” and (p. 43) to the inferiority of the Confederate States “ as a sea-power.” Also (p. 225) he remarks of the war of the Spanish Succession that “before it England was one of the sea-powers, after it she was the sea-power without any second.” In all these passages, as appears from the use of the indefinite article, what is meant is a naval power, or a State in possession of a strong navy. The other meaning of the term forms the general subject of his writings above enumerated. In his earlier works Mahan writes “ sea power ” as two words ; but in a published letter of the 19th February 1897, he joins them with a hyphen, and defends this formation of the term and the sense in which he uses it. We may regard him as the virtual inventor of the term in its more diffused meaning, for—even if it had been employed by earlier writers in that sense—it is he beyond all question ■who has given it general currency. He has made it impossible for any one to treat of sea-power without frequent reference to his writings and conclusions. There is something more than mere literary interest in the fact that the term in another language fianof *" was used more than two thousand years ago. sea-power Before Mahan no historian—not even one of by the those who specially devoted themselves to the ancients. narration of naval occurrences—had evinced a more correct appreciation of the general principles of naval warfare than Thucydides. He alludes several times to the importance of getting command of the sea. Great Britain would have been saved some disasters and been less often in peril had British writers—taken as guides by the public —possessed the same grasp of the true principles of defence as Thucydides exhibited. One passage in his

history is worth quoting. Brief as it is, it shows that on the subject of sea-power he was a predecessor of Mahan. In a speech in favour of prosecuting the war, which he puts in the mouth of Pericles, these words occur:—ol p\v yap ony e^owiv aXXyv avTiXafleiv apa\ei, rjpiv Se kcTTL yij TroXXr] Kal ev vijcrots Kal uar i’jTveLpov’ peya yap to rijs daXdcrcn]? Kpdros. The last part of this extract, though often translated “command of the sea,” or “dominion of the sea,” really has the wider meaning of sea-power, the “ power of the sea ” of the old English poet above quoted. This wider meaning should be attached to certain passages in Herodotus (iii. 122 in two places; v. 83), which have been generally interpreted “ commanding the sea,” or by the mere titular and honorific “having the dominion of the sea.” One editor of Herodotus, Ch. F. Baehr, did, however, see exactly what was meant, for, with reference to the allusion to Polycrates, he says, classe maximum valuit. This is perhaps as exact a definition of sea-power as could be given in a sentence. It is, however, impossible to give a definition which would be at the same time succinct and satisfactory. To say that “ sea-power ” means the sum total of the various elements that go to make up the naval strength of a State would be in reality to beg the question. Mahan lays down the “ principal conditions affecting the sea-power of nations,” but he does not attempt to give a concise definition of it. Yet no one who has studied his works will find it difficult to understand what it indicates. Our present task is, within the necessarily restricted limits of an article in an encyclopaedia, to put readers in possession of the means of doing this. The best, indeed—as Mahan has shown us—the only effective way can only be of attaining this object is to treat the matter explained historically. Whatever date we may agree to bistoricassign to the formation of the term itself, the aIIy‘ idea—as we have seen—is as old as history. It is not intended to give a condensed history of sea-power, but rather an analysis of the idea and what it contains, illustrating this analysis with examples from history ancient and modern. It is important to know that it is not something which originated in the middle of the 17th century, and having seriously affected history in the 18th, ceased to have weight till Captain Mahan appeared to comment on it in the last decade of the 19th. With a few masterly touches Mahan, in his brief allusion to the second Punic war, has illustrated its importance in the struggle between Rome and Carthage. What has to be shown is that the principles which he has laid down in that case, and in cases much more modern, are true and have been true always and everywhere. Until this is perceived there is much history which cannot be understood, and yet it is essential to the welfare of Great Britain as a maritime power that she should understand it thoroughly. Her failure to understand it has more than once brought her, if not to the verge of destruction, at any rate within a short distance of serious disaster. The high antiquity of decisive naval campaigns is among the most interesting features of international conflicts. Notwithstanding the much greater frequency of land wars, the course of history has been profoundly changed more often by contests on the water. That this has not received the notice it deserved is true, and Mahan tells us why. “Historians generally,” he says, “have been unfamiliar with the conditions of the sea, having as to it neither special interest nor special knowledge; and the profound determining influence of maritime strength on great issues has consequently been overlooked.” Moralizing on that which might have been is admittedly a sterile process; but it is sometimes necessary to point, if

S E A-P 0 W E R only by way of illustration, to a possible alternative. As in modern times the fate of India and the fate of North America were determined by sea-power, so also at a very remote epoch sea-power decided whether or not Hellenic colonization was to take root in, and Hellenic culture to _ dominate, central and northern Italy as it mlrUfesta- dominated southern Italy, where traces of it tions of are extant to this day. A moment’s considerasea-power. t|on enable us to see how different the history of the world would have been had a Hellenized city grown and prospered on the Seven Hills. Before the Tarquins were driven out of Rome a Phocsean fleet was encountered (537 b.c.) off Corsica by a combined force of Etruscans and Phoenicians, and was so handled that the Phocseans abandoned the island and settled on the coast of Lucania (Mommsen, Hist. Rome, English trans. i. p. 153). The enterprise of their navigators had built up for the Phoenician cities and their great off-shoot Carthage, a sea-power which enabled them to gain the practical sovereignty of the sea to the west of Sardinia and Sicily. The control of these waters was the object of prolonged and memorable struggles, for on it—as the result showed—depended the empire of the world. From very remote times the consolidation and expansion, from within outwards, of great continental States have had serious consequences for mankind when they were accompanied by the acquisition of a coast-line and the absorption of a maritime population. We shall find that the process loses none of its importance in recent years. “The ancient empires,” says the historian of Greece, Ernst Cur tins, “ as long as no foreign elements had intruded into them, had an invincible horror of the water.” When the condition, which Curtius notices in parenthesis, arose the “horror” disappeared. There is something highly significant in the uniformity of the efforts of Assyria, Egypt, Babylon, and Persia to get possession of the maritime resources of Phoenicia. Our own immediate posterity will perhaps have to reckon with the results of similar efforts in our own day. It is this which gives a living interest to even the very ancient history of sea-power, and makes the study of it of great practical importance to us now. We shall see, as we go on, how the phenomena connected with it reappear with striking regularity in successive periods. Looked at in this light the great conflicts of former ages are full of useful, indeed necessary, instruction. In the first and greatest of the contests waged by the nations of the East against Europe—the Persian wars— Wars of sea-power was the governing factor. Until the Greeks Persia had expanded to the shores of the Levant and the European Greeks had little to fear from the Persians. ambj.tion of the great king. The conquest of Egypt by Cambyses had shown how formidable that ambition could be when supported by an efficient navy. With the aid of the naval forces of the Phoenician cities the Persian invasion of Greece was rendered comparatively easy. It was the naval contingents from Phoenicia which crushed the Ionian revolt. The expedition of Mardonius, and still more that of Datis and Artaphernes, had indicated the danger threatening Greece when the master of a great army was likewise the master of a great navy. Their defeat at Marathon was not likely to, and as a matter of fact did not, discourage the Persians from further attempts at aggression. As the advance of Cambyses into Egypt had been flanked by a fleet, so also was that of Xerxes into Greece. By the good fortune sometimes vouchsafed to a people, which, owing to its obstinate opposition to; or neglect of a wise policy, scarcely deserves it, there appeared at Athens an influential citizen who understood all that was meant by the

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term sea-power. Themistocles saw more clearly than any of his contemporaries that, to enable Athens to play a leading part in the Hellenic world, she needed above all things a strong navy. “ He had already in his eye the battle-field of the future.” He felt sure that the Persians would come back, and come with such forces that resistance in the open field would be out of the question. One scene of action remained—the sea. Persuaded by him the Athenians increased their navy, so that of the 271 vessels comprising the Greek fleet at Artemisium, 147 had been provided by Athens, which also sent a large reinforcement after the first action. Though no one has ever surpassed Themistocles in the faculty of correctly estimating the importance of sea-power, it was understood by Xerxes as clearly as by him that the issue of the war depended upon naval operations. The arrangements made under the Persian monarch’s direction, and his very personal movements, show that this was his view. He felt, and probably expressed the feeling, exactly as — in the war of American Independence—Washington did in the words, “ Whatever efforts are made by the land armies, the navy must have the casting vote in the present contest.” The decisive event was the naval action of Salamis. To have made certain of success, the Persians should have first obtained a command of the Aegean, as complete for all practical purposes as the French and English had of the sea generally in the war against Russia of 1854-56. The Persian sea-power was not equal to the task. The fleet of the great king was numerically stronger than that of the Greek allies; but it has been proved many times that naval efficiency does not depend on numerical superiority alone. The choice sections of the Persian fleet were the contingents of the lonians and Phoenicians. The former were half-hearted or disaffected ; while the latter were, at best, not superior in skill, experience, and valour to the Greek sailors. At Salamis Greece was saved not only from the ambition and vengeance of Xerxes, but also and for many centuries from oppression by an Oriental conqueror. Persia did not succeed against the Greeks, not because she had no sea-power, but because her sea-power, artificially built up, was inferior to that which was a natural element of the vitality of her foes. Ionia was lost and Greece in the end enslaved, because the quarrels of Greeks with Greeks led to the ruin of their naval States. The Peloponnesian was largely a naval war. The confidence of the Athenians in their sea-power had a great deal to do with its outbreak. The immediate peioPonoccasion of the hostilities, which in time in- nesian volved so many States, was the opportunity Waroffered by the conflict between Corinth and Corcyra of increasing the sea-power of Athens. Hitherto the Athenian naval predominance had been virtually confined to the Aegean Sea. The Corcyrsean envoy, who pleaded for help at Athens, dwelt upon the advantage to be derived by the Athenians from alliance with a naval State occupying an important situation “with respect to the western regions towards which the views of the Athenians had for some time been directed ” (Thirlwall, Hist. Greece, iii. p. 96). It was the “weapon of her seapower,” to adopt Mahan’s phrase, that enabled Athens to maintain the great conflict in which she was engaged. Repeated invasions of her territory,_ the ravages of disease among her people, and the rising disaffection of her allies had been more than made up for by her predominance on the water. The scale of the subsequent Syracusan expedition showed how vigorous Athens still was down to the interruption of the war by the peace of Nicias. The great expedition just mentioned overtaxed her strength. I Its failure brought about the ruin of the State. It was

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S E A-P O W E R held by contemporaries, and has been held in our own their rule ever extend a day’s march from their ships ” day, that the Athenian defeat at Syracuse was due to the (B. S. Whiteway, liise of the Portuguese Power in India. omission of the government at home to keep the force in Westminster, 1899, p. 12). “The Carthaginians in Sicily, properly supplied and reinforced. This explanation Spain,” says Mommsen, “ made no effort to acquire the of failure is given in all ages, and should always be interior from the warlike native nations; they were suspected. The friends of unsuccessful generals and content with the possession of the mines and of stations admirals always offer it, being sure of the support of the for traffic and for shell and other fisheries.” Allowance political opponents of the administration. After the being made for the numbers of the classes engaged in despatch of the supporting expedition under Demosthenes administration, commerce, and supervision, it is nearly and Eurymedon no further great reinforcement, as Nicias certain that Carthage could not furnish the crews required admitted, was possible. The weakness of Athens was in by both a great war-navy and a great mercantile marine. the character of the men who swayed the popular assem- No one is surprised on finding that the land-forces of blies and held high commands. A people which remem- Carthage were composed largely of alien mercenaries. We bered the administration of a Pericles, and yet allowed have several examples from which we can infer a parallel, a Cleon or an Alcibiades to direct its naval and mili- if not an identical, condition of her maritime resources. tary policy, courted defeat. Nicias, notwithstanding the How, then, was the great Carthaginian carrying-trade possession of high qualities, lacked the supreme virtue of provided for? The experience of more than one country a commander—firm resolution. He dared not face the will enable us to answer this question. The ocean trade obloquy consequent on withdrawal from an enterprise on of those off-shoots or dependencies of the United Kingdom, which the popular hopes had been fixed; and therefore he viz., the United States, Australasia, and India, is largely or allowed a reverse to be converted into an overwhelming chiefly conducted by shipping of the “old country.” So disaster. “ The complete ruin of Athens had appeared, that of Carthage was largely conducted by old Phoenicians. both to her enemies and to herself, impending and These may have obtained a “ Carthaginian Begister,” or irreparable. But so astonishing, so rapid, and so ener- the contemporary equivalent; but they could not all have getic had been her rally, that [a year after Syracuse] she been purely Carthaginian or Liby-Phoenician. This must was found again carrying on a terrible struggle ” (Grote, have been the case even more with the war-navy. British Hist. Greece, v. p. 354). Nevertheless her sea-power had India for a considerable time possessed a real, and indeed indeed been ruined at Syracuse. Now she could wage highly efficient navy; but it was officered entirely and war only “ with impaired resources and on a purely de- manned almost entirely by men from the old country. fensive system.” Even before Arginusae it was seen that Moreover, it was small. The wealth of India would have “ superiority of nautical skill had passed to the Pelopon- sufficed to furnish a larger material element; but, as the nesians and their allies ” (ibid. p. 503). country could not supply the personnel, it would have been The great, occasionally interrupted, and prolonged absurd to speak of the sea-power of India apart from that contest between Borne and Carthage was a sustained of England. As soon as the Bomans chose to make the struggle eff°rf on the part of one to gain and of the other most of their natural resources the maritime predominance between to keep the control of the western Mediter- of Carthage was doomed. The artificial basis of the latter’s 1 ranean age? Cartha' - by Carthage., completelythat hadshe that been sea-power would not enable it to hold out against serious '. exercised hadcontrol anticipated and persistent assaults. Unless this is perceived, it is the Spanish commercial policy in America. The Bomans impossible to understand the story of the Punic wars. were precluded by treaties from trading with the Cartha- Judged by every visible sign of strength, Carthage, the ginian territories in Hispania, Africa, and Sardinia. richer, the more enterprising, ethnically the more preBorne,, as Mommsen tells us, “ was from the first a mari- dominant among her neighbours, and apparently the more time city and, in the period of its vigour, never was so nautical, seemed sure to win in the great struggle with Borne foolish or so untrue to its ancient traditions as wholly to which, by the conditions of the case, was to be waged neglect its war marine and to desire to be a mere con- largely on the water. Yet those who had watched the tinental power.” It may be that it was lust of wealth struggles of the Punic city with the Sicilian Greeks, and rather than lust of dominion that first prompted a trial of especially that with Agathocles, must have seen reason to strength with Carthage. The vision of universal empire cherish doubts concerning her naval strength. It was an could hardly as yet have formed itself in the imagination anticipation of the case of Spain in the age of Philip II. of a single Boman. The area of Phoenician maritime As the great Elizabethan seamen discerned the defects of commerce was vast enough both to excite jealousy and to the Spanish naval establishment, so men at Borne discerned offer vulnerable points to the cupidity of rivals. It is those of the Carthaginian. Dates in connexion with probable that the modern estimate of the sea-power of this are of great significance. A comprehensive measure, Carthage is much exaggerated. It was great by com- with the object of “ rescuing their marine from its condiparison, and of course overwhelmingly great when there tion of impotence ” was taken by the Bomans in the year were none but insignificant competitors to challenge it. 261 b.c. Four guaestores classici — in modern naval Mommsen holds that, in the fourth and fifth centuries English we may perhaps call them port-admirals—were after the foundation of Borne, “ the two main competitors nominated, and one was stationed at each of four ports. for the dominion of the Western waters ” were Carthage The objects of the Boman Senate, so Mommsen tells us, and Syracuse. “Carthage,” he says, “had the pre- were very obvious. They were “ to recover their indeponderance, and Syracuse sank more and more into a pendence by sea, to cut off the maritime communications second-rate naval power. The maritime importance of the of Tarentum, to close the Adriatic against fleets coming Etruscans was wholly gone. . . . Borne itself was not from Epirus, and to emancipate themselves from Carthaexempt from the same fate; its own waters were likewise ginian supremacy.” Four years afterwards the first Punic commanded by foreign fleets.” The Bomans were for war began. It was, and had to be, largely a naval a long time too much occupied at home to take much contest. The Bomans waged it with varying fortune, but interest in Mediterranean matters. The position of the in the end triumphed by means of their sea-power. The Carthaginians in the western basin of the Mediterranean victory of Catulus over the Carthaginian fleet off the was. very like that of the Portuguese long afterwards in Aegadian Islands decided the war and left to the Bomans India. The latter kept within reach of the sea ; “ nor did the possession of Sicily and the power of possessing them-

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selves of Sardinia and Corsica. It would be an interesting to mention others—were largely influenced by the naval and perhaps not barren investigation to inquire to what operations (Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chaps, xxxvi. xli.). A decisive event, the Mahommedan conquest of northextent the decline of the mother states of 1 hoenicia, conern Africa from Egypt westwards, is unintelligible until it sequent on the campaigns of Alexander the Great, had helped to enfeeble the naval efficiency of the Carthaginian is seen how great a part sea-power played in Bxtension defences. One thing was certain. Carthage had now effecting it. Purely land expeditions, or expe- westward met with a rival endowed with natural maritime resources ditions but slightly supported from the sea, had of Mahomgreater than her own. That rival also contained citizens ended in failure. The emperor at Constantinople who understood the true importance of sea-power. With a still had at his disposal a fleet capable of keepstatesmanlike sagacity from which succeeding generations ing open the communications with his African province. might have drawn a lesson, the leading men of the Roman It°took the Saracens half a century (a.d. 647-698) to win Commonwealth perceived that all their coast-fortifications “ their way along the coast of Africa as far as the Pillars and coast-garrisons would prove inadequate unless the of Hercules” (Hallam, Mid. Ages, chap, vi.); and, as war-marine of the State were again placed on a footing Gibbon tells us, it was not till the Commander of the that should command respect” (Mommsen, i. 427). It is. Faithful had prepared a great expedition, this time by sea a gloomy reflection that the leading men of the United as well as by land, that the Saracenic dominion was Kingdom could not see this in 1860. A thorough com- definitely established. It has been generally assumed that prehension of the events of the first Punic war enables the Arabian conquerors who, within a few years of his us to solve what, until Mahan wrote, had been one of the death, spread the faith of Mahommed over vast regions, standing enigmas of history, viz., Hannibal’s invasion of belonged to an essentially non-maritime race; and little Italy by land instead of by sea in the second Punic war. or no stress has been laid on the extent to which they Mahan’s masterly examination of this question has set at relied on naval support in prosecuting their conquests. In rest all doubts as to the reason of Hannibal’s action (In- parts of Arabia, however, maritime enterprise was far from fluence on Hist. pp. 13-21). The naval predominance in non-existent; and when the Mahommedan empire had exthe western basin of the Mediterranean acquired by Rome tended outwards from Mecca and Medina till it embraced the had never been lost. Though modern historians, even coasts of various seas, the consequences to the neighbouring those belonging to a maritime country, may have failed to states w'ere as serious as the rule above mentioned would perceive it, the Carthaginians knew well enough that the lead us to expect that they would be. “ With the conRomans were too strong for them on the sea. Though quest of Syria and Egypt a long stretch of sea-board had other forces co-operated to bring about the defeat of come into the Saracenic power; and the creation, and Carthage in the second Punic war, the Roman navy, as maintenance of a navy for the protection of the maritime Mahan° demonstrates, was the most important. As a ports as well as for meeting the enemy became a matter navy, he tells us in words like those already quoted, “acts of vital importance. Great attention was paid to^ the on an element strange to most writers, as its members manning and equipment of the fleet (Amir Ali, Sj-ed, have been from time immemorial a strange race apart, Short Hist. Saracens, p. 442). At first the fleet was without prophets of their own, neither themselves nor manned by sailors drawn from the Phoenician towns, their calling understood, its immense determining influ- where nautical energy was not yet quite extinct, and ence on the history of that era, and consequently upon later the crews were recruited from Syria, Egypt, and the coasts of Asia Minor. Ships were built at most of the the history of the world, has been overlooked.” The attainment of all but universal dominion by Rome Syrian and Egyptian ports, and “ also at Obolla and was now only a question of time. “ The annihilation of Bushire on the Persian Gulf,” whilst the mercantile the Carthaginian fleet had made the Romans marine and maritime trade were fostered and encouraged. Expansion masters 0f the sea ” (Schmitz, Hist. Rome, p. The sea-powder thus created was largely artificial. It drooped—as in similar cases—when the special encourage°domiaion 256). A lodgment had already been gained in ment was withdrawn. “ In the days of Arabian energy, furthered Illyricum, and countries farther east were before by sea- iong to be reduced to submission. A glance at says Hallam, “Constantinople was twice, in 668 and 716, power. attacked by great naval armaments.” The same authority the map wiq show that to effect this the command of the eastern basin of the Mediterranean, like that believes that the abandonment of such maritime enterof the western, must be secured by the Romans. The old prises by the Saracens may be attributed to the removal historic navies of the Greek and Phoenician States had of the capital from Damascus to Bagdad. The removal declined. One considerable naval force there was which, indicated a lessened interest in the affairs of the Medithough it could not have prevented, was strong enough terranean Sea, which was now left by the administration to have delayed the Roman progress eastwards. . This far behind. “The Greeks in their turn determined to force belonged to Rhodes, which in the years immediately dispute the command of the sea,” with the result that in following the close of the second Punic war reached its the middle of the 10th century their empire was far more highest point as a naval power (C. Torr, Rhodes in Ancient secure from its enemies than under the first successors of Times, p. 40). Far from trying to obstruct the advance Heraclius.” Not only was the fall of the empire, by a of the Romans the Rhodian fleet helped it. Hannibal, rational reliance on sea-power, postponed for centuries, in his exile, saw the necessity of being strong on the sea but also much that had been lost was regained. “ At the if the East was to be saved from the grasp of his heredi- close of the 10th century the emperors of Constantinople tary foe; but the resources of Antiochus, even with the possessed the best and greatest part” of southern Italy, mighty co-operation of Hannibal, were insufficient. In a part of Sicily, the whole of what is now called the Balkan later and more often quoted struggle between East and Peninsula, Asia Minor, with some parts of Syria and West—that which was decided at Actium—sea-power Armenia (Hallam, chap. vi.; Gibbon, chap. In). Neglect of sea-power by those who can be reached by was again seen to “have the casting vote.” When the whole of the Mediterranean coasts became part of a single sea brings its own punishment. Whether neglected State the importance of the navy was naturally diminished ; or not, if it is an artificial creation it is nearly sure to but in the struggles within the declining empire it rose disappoint those who wield it when it encounters a rival again at times. The contest of the Vandal Genseric with power of natural growth. How was it possible for the Majorian and the African expedition of Belisarius—not Crusaders, in their various expeditions, to achieve even

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SEA-POWER the transient success that occasionally crowned their I lasted till the Genoese met with the crushing defeat of efforts h How did the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem Chioggia. “From this time,” says Hallam, “Genoa contrive to exist for more than three-quarters never commanded the ocean with such navies as before ; 1 1 centui aiidthe '* ' an< a moi y^ Why did the Crusades more her commerce gradually went into decay; and the 15th Crusades. ^ 'e become maritime expeditions ? The century, the most splendid in the annals of Venice, is till answer to these questions is to be found in the recent times the most ignominious in those of Genoa.” decline of the Mahommedan naval defences and the rising Venice seemed now to have no naval rival, and had no enterprise of the seafaring people of the West. Venetians, fear that any one could forbid the ceremony in which the Pisans, and Genoese transported crusading forces, kept open Doge, standing in the bows of the Bucentaur, cast a ring the communications of the places held by the Christians, into the Adriatic with the words, “ Desponsamus te, mare, and hampered the operations of the infidels. Even the in signum veri perpetuique dominii.” The result of the great Saladin failed to discern the important alteration of combats at Chioggia, though fatal to it in the long run, conditions. This is evident when we look at the efforts did not at once destroy the naval importance of Genoa. of the Christians to regain the lost kingdom. Saladin A remarkable characteristic of sea-power is the delusive “ forgot that the safety of Phoenicia lay in immunity from manner in which it appears to revive after a great defeat. naval incursions, and that no victory on land could ensure The Persian navy occasionally made a brave show afterhim against an influx from beyond the sea” (Amir Ali, wards ; but in reality it had received at Salamis a mortal Syed, pp. 359-360). Not only were the Crusaders helped wound. Athens seemed strong enough on the sea after by the fleets of the maritime republics of Italy, they also the catastrophe of Syracuse; but, as already stated, her received reinforcements by sea from western Europe and naval power had been given there a check from which it England, on the “arrival of Malik Ankiltar [Eichard never completely recovered. The navy of Carthage had Coeur de Lion] with twenty shiploads of fighting men and had similar experience; and, in later ages, the power of munitions of war.” the Turks was broken at Lepanto and that of Spain at Participation in the Crusades was not a solitary proof Gravelines notwithstanding deceptive appearances afterof the importance of the naval states of Italy. That they wards. Venice was soon confronted on the sea by a new had been able to act effectively in the Levant rival. The Turkish naval historian, Haji Khalifeh {Mari1 ma ontanan " ^ ^ave been in some measure due to the time Wars of the Turks, Mitchell’s trans., p. 12), tells us republics, weakening of the Mahommedans by the disinte- that, “After the taking of Constantinople, when they gration of the Seljukian power, the movements of [the Ottomans] spread their conquests over land and sea, the Moguls, and the confusion consequent on the rise of it became necessary to build ships and make armaments in the Ottomans. However that may have been, the naval order to subdue the fortresses and castles on the Eumelian strength of those Italian states was great absolutely as and Anatolian shores, and in the islands of the Mediwell as relatively. Sismondi, speaking of Venice, Pisa, terranean.” Mahommed II. established a great naval and Genoa, towards the end of the 11th century, says arsenal at Constantinople. In 1470 the Turks, “for the “ these three cities had more vessels on the Mediterranean first time, equipped a fleet with which they drove that of than the whole of Christendom besides ” (Ital. Republics, the Venetians out of the Grecian seas ” (Sismondi, p. 256). English ed., p. 29). Dealing with a period two centuries The Turkish wars of Venice lasted a long time. In that later, he declares it “ difficult to comprehend how two which ended in 1503 the decline of the Venetian naval simple cities could put to sea such prodigious fleets as power was obvious. “ The Mussulmans had made progress those of Pisa and Genoa.” The difficulty disappears when in naval discipline; the Venetian fleet could no longer we have. Mahan’s explanation. The maritime republics of cope with theirs.” Henceforward it was as an allied Italy—like Athens and Ehodes in ancient, Catalonia in contingent of other navies that that of Venice was remediaeval,, and England and the Netherlands in more garded as important. Dyer {Hist. Europe, i. p. 85) modern times — were “peculiarly well fitted, by situa- quotes a striking passage from a letter of iEneas Sylvius, tion and resources, for the control of the sea by both war afterwards Pope Pius II., in which the writer affirms that, and commerce.” As far as the western Mediterranean “ if the Venetians are defeated, Christendom will not conwas concerned, Genoa and Pisa had given early proofs of trol the sea any longer; for neither the Catalans nor the their maritime energy, and fixed themselves, in succession Genoese, without the Venetians, are equal to the Turks.” to the Saracens, in the Balearic Isles, Sardinia, and The last-named people, indeed, exemplified once more Corsica. Sea-power was the Themistoclean instrument the rule that a military State expanding to the sea and with which they made a small State into a great one. absorbing older maritime populations becomes c , its ., neighbours. ■r. i-, ,, . and bea-power A. fertile source of dispute between States is the ac- a serious menace to Even m proquisition of territory beyond sea. As others have done the 15th century Mahommed II. had made before and since, the maritime republics of Italy quarrelled an attack on southern Italy; but his sea-power Turksover this. Sea-power seemed, like Saturn, to devour its was not equal to the undertaking. Suleyman the Magnifiown children. In 1284, in a great sea-fight off Meloria, cent directed the Ottoman forces towards the west. With the Pisans were defeated by the Genoese with heavy loss, admirable strategic insight he conquered Ehodes, and which, as Sismondi states, “ ruined the maritime power ” thus freed himself from the danger of a hostile force on his of the former. From that time Genoa, transferring her flank. “The centenary of the conquest of Constantinople activity to the Levant, became the rival of Venice. The was past, and the Turk had developed a great naval fleets of the two cities in 1298 met near Cyprus in an power besides annexing Egypt and Syria ” (Seeley, British encounter, said to be accidental, that began “a terrible Policy, i. p. 143). The Turkish fleets, under such leaders war which for seven years stained the Mediterranean with as Khair-ad-din (Barbarossa), Piale, and Dragut, seemed blood and consumed immense wealth.” In the next to command the Mediterranean including its western century the two republics, “irritated by commercial basin; but the repulse at Malta in 1565 was a serious quarrels ”—like the English and Dutch afterwards—were check, and the defeat at Lepanto in 1571 virtually put an again at war in the Levant. Sometimes one side, some- end to the prospect of Turkish maritime dominion. The times the other was victorious; but the contest was ex- predominance of Portugal in the Indian Ocean in the hausting to both, and especially to Venice. Within a early part of the 16th century had seriously diminished quarter of a century they were at war again. Hostilities the Ottoman resources. The wealth derived from the

S E A-P O W E R trade in that ocean, the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea, had supplied the Mahommedans with the sinews of war, and had enabled them to contend with success against the Christians in Europe. “ The main artery had been cut when the Portuguese took up the challenge of the Mahommedan merchants of Calicut, and swept their ships from the ocean ” (Whiteway, p. 2). The sea-power of Portugal wisely employed had exercised a great, though unperceived influence. However, though enfeebled and diminishing, the Turkish navy was still able to act with some effect in the 17th century. Nevertheless, the sea-power of the Turks ceased to count as a factor of importance in the relations between great States. In the meantime the State which had a leading share in winning the victory of Lepanto had been growing up in the West. Before the union of its crown with that of Castile and the formation of the Spanish monarchy, Spanish Aragon had been expanding till it reached the sea-power, sea. It was united with Catalonia in the 12th Catalonia, century, and it conquered Valencia in the 13th. &c ‘ Its long line of coast opened the way to an extensive and flourishing commerce; and an enterprising navy indemnified the nation for the scantiness of its territory at home by the important foreign conquests of Sardinia, Sicily, Naples, and the Balearic Isles. Among the maritime states of the Mediterranean Catalonia had been conspicuous. She was to the Iberian Peninsula much what Phoenicia had been to Syria. The Catalan navy had disputed the empire of the Mediterranean with the fleets of Pisa and Genoa. The incorporation of Catalonia with Aragon added greatly to the strength of that kingdom. The Aragonese kings were wise enough to understand and liberal enough to foster the maritime interests of their new possessions (Prescott, Ferdinand and Isabella, Introd. sects, i., ii.) Their French and Italian neighbours were to feel, before long, the effect of this policy; and, when the Spanish monarchy had been consolidated, it was felt not only by them, but by others also. The more Spanish dominion was extended in Italy the more were the naval resources at the command of Spain augmented. Genoa became “ Spain’s water-gate to Italy. . . . Henceforth the Spanish crown found in the Dorias its admirals; their squadron was permanently hired to the kings of Spain.” Spanish supremacy at sea was established at the expense of France (G. W. Prothero, in M. Hume’s Spain, lJ+79~ 1788, p. 65). The acquisition of a vast domain in the New World had greatly developed the maritime activity of Castile, and Spain was as formidable on the ocean as in the Mediterranean. After Portugal had been annexed the naval forces of that country were added to the Spanish, and the great port of Lisbon became available as a place of equipment and as an additional base of operations for oceanic campaigns. The fusion of Spain and Portugal, says Seeley, “produced a single State of unlimited maritime dominion. . . . Henceforth the whole New World belonged exclusively to Spain.” The story of the tremendous catastrophe—the defeat of the Armada— by which the decline of this dominion was heralded is well known. It is memorable, not only because of the harm it did to Spain, but also because it revealed the rise of another claimant to maritime pre-eminence—the English nation. The effects of the catastrophe were not at once visible. Spain still continued to look like the greatest power in the world ; and, though the English seamen were seen to be something better than adventurous pirates—a character suggested by some of their contemporary exploits —few could have comprehended that they were engaged in building up what was to be a sea-power greater than any known to history. They were carrying forward, not beginning, the building

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of this. “ England,” says Professor J. K. Laughton, “ had always believed in her naval power, had always claimed the sovereignty of the Narrow Seas; and more than two hundred years before Elizabeth came to the p throne, Edward III. had testified to his sense manjfesta. of its importance by ordering a gold coinage tions of bearing a device showing the armed strength British and sovereignty of England based on the sea ” sea~power(Armada, Introd.) It is impossible to make intelligible the course of the many wars which the English waged with the French in the Middle Ages unless the true naval position of the former is rightly appreciated. Why were Cretjy, Poitiers, Agincourt—not to mention other combats —fought, not on English, but on Continental soil ? Why, during the so-called “Hundred Years’ war,” was England in reality the invader and not the invaded? We of the present generation are at last aware of the significance of naval defence, and know that, if properly utilized, it is the best security against invasion that a sea-surrounded State can enjoy. It is not, however, commonly remembered that the same condition of security existed and was properly valued in mediaeval times. The battle of Sluys in 1340 rendered invasion of England as impracticable as did that of La Hogue in 1692, that of Quiberon Bay in 1759, and that of Trafalgar in 1805; and it permitted, as did those battles, the transport of troops to the Continent to support Great Britain’s allies in wars which, had she not been strong at sea, would have been waged on the soil of her country. Her early Continental wars, therefore, are proofs of the long-established efficiency of her naval defences. Notwithstanding the greater attention now paid to naval affairs, it is doubtful if Great Britain even yet recognizes the extent to which her security depends upon a good fleet as fully as her ancestors did seven centuries ago. The narrative of pre-Elizabethan campaigns is interesting merely as a story; and, when told—as, for instance, D. Hannay has told it in the introductory chapters of his Short History of the Royal Navy—it will be found instructive and worthy of careful study at the present day. Each of the principal events in England’s early naval campaigns may be taken as an illustration of the idea conveyed by the term “ seapower,” and of the accuracy with which its meaning was apprehended at the time. To take a very early case, we may cite the defeat of Eustace the Monk by Hubert de Burgh in 1217. Reinforcements and supplies had been collected at Calais for conveyance to the army of Prince Louis of France and the rebel barons who had been defeated at Lincoln. The reinforcements tried to cross the Channel under the escort of a fleet commanded by Eustace. Hubert de Burgh, who had stoutly held Dover for King John, and was faithful to the young Henry III., heard of the enemy’s movements. “If these people land,” said he, “ England is lost; let us therefore boldly meet them.” He reasoned in almost the same words as Raleigh about four centuries afterwards, and undoubtedly “had grasped the true principles of the defence of England.” He put to sea and defeated his opponent. The fleet on which Prince Louis and the rebellious barons had counted was destroyed ; and with it their enterprise. “No more admirably planned, no more fruitful battle has been fought by Englishmen on water” (Hannay, p. 7). As introductory to a long series of naval operations undertaken with a like object it has deserved detailed mention here. The 16th century was marked by a decided advance in both the development and the application of sea-power. Previously its operation had been confined to the Mediterranean or to coast waters outside it. Spanish or Basque seamen—by their proceedings in the English Channel— had proved the practicability of, rather than been engaged S. VIIL —63

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in, ocean warfare. The English, who withstood them, were accustomed to seas so rough, to seasons so uncertain, and to weather so boisterous, that the ocean Extending had few terrors for them. All that was wantTa-^ower sea power.

in

8

was a sufficient ^on an(j ainducement development to act

of seek thedistant naval

art that would permit them to be reached. The discovery of the New World supplied the first; the consequently increased length of voyages and of absence from the coast led to the second. The world had been moving onwards in other things as well as in navigation. Intercommunication was becoming more and more frequent. What was done by one people was soon known to others. It is a mistake to suppose that, because the English had been behindhand in the exploration of remote regions they were wanting in maritime enterprise. The career of the Cabots would of itself suffice to render such a supposition doubtful. The English had two good reasons for postponing voyages to and settlement in far-off lands. They had their hands full nearer home; and they thoroughly, and as it were by instinct, understood the conditions on which permanent expansion must rest. They wanted to make sure of the line of communications first. To effect this a sea-going marine of both war and commerce, and, for further expansion, stations on the way were essential. The chart of the world furnishes evidence of the wisdom and the thoroughness of their procedure. Taught by the experience of the Spaniards and the Portuguese, when unimpeded by the political circumstances of the time, and provided with suitable equipment, the English displayed their energy in distant seas. It now became simply a question of the efficiency of sea-power. If this was not a quality of that of the English, then their efforts were bound to fail; and, more than this, the position of their country, challenging as it did what was believed to be the greatest of maritime States, would have been altogether precarious. The principal expeditions now undertaken were distinguished by a characteristic peculiar to the people, and not to be found in connexion with the exploring or colonizing activity of most other great nations even down to our own time. They were really unofficial speculations in which, if the Government took part at all, it was for the sake of the profit expected, and almost, if not exactly, like any private adventurer. The participation of the Government, nevertheless, had an aspect which it is worth while to note. It conveyed a hint—and quite consciously — to all Avhom it might concern that the speculations were “ under-written ” by the whole seapower of England. The forces of more than one State had been used to protect its maritime trade from the assaults of enemies in the Mediterranean or in the Narrow Seas. They had been used to ward off invasion and to keep open communications across not very extensive areas of water. In the 16th century they were first relied upon to support distant commerce, whether carried on in a peaceful fashion or under aggressive forms. This, naturally enough, led to collisions. The contention waxed hot, and was virtually decided when the Armada shaped course to the northward after the fight off Gravelines. The expeditions against the Spanish Indies and, still more, those against Philip IP’s peninsular territory had helped to define the limitations of sea-power. Limita* jt became evident, and it was made still more tionsof evident in the next century, that for a great country to be strong it must not rely upon a navy alone. It must also have an adequate and properly organized mobile army. Notwithstanding the number of times that this lesson has been repeated Great Britain has been slow to learn it. It is doubtful if she has learned it even yet. English seamen in all ages seem to have mas-

tered it fully; for they have always demanded—at any rate for upwards of three centuries—that expeditions against foreign territory over-sea should be accompanied by a proper number of land-troops. On the other hand, the necessity of organizing the army of a maritime insular State and of training it with the object of rendering effective aid in operations of the kind in question, has rarely been perceived and acted upon by others. The result has been a long series of inglorious or disastrous affairs, like the West Indies voyage of 1595-96, the Cadiz expedition of 1625, and that to the lie de Kh of 1627. Additions might be made to the list. The failures of joint expeditions have often been explained by alleging differences or quarrels between the naval and the military commanders. This way of explaining them, however, is nothing but the inveterate critical method of the streets by which cause is taken for effect and effect for cause. The differences and quarrels arose, no doubt; but they generally sprang out of the recriminations consequent on, not producing, the want of success. Another manifestation of the way in which sea-power works was first observed in the 17 th century. It suggested the adoption of, and furni-shed the instrument for, carrying out a distinct maritime policy. What was practically a standing navy had come into existence. As Appearregards England this phenomenon was now of ance of respectable age. Long voyages and cruises of standing several ships in company had been frequent a*vies. during the latter half of the 16th century and the early part of the 17th. Even the grandfathers of the men who sailed with Blake and Penn in 1652 could not have known a time when ships had never crossed the ocean, and squadrons kept together for months had never cruised. However imperfect it may have been, a system of provisioning ships and supplying them with stores, and of preserving discipline among their crews, had been developed, and had proved fairly satisfactory. The Parliament and the Protector in turn found it necessary to keep a considerable number of ships in commission, and make them cruise and operate in company. It was not till well on in the reign of Queen Victoria that the man-of-war’s man was finally differentiated from the merchant seaman; but, two centuries before, some of the distinctive marks of the former had already begun to be noticeable. There were seamen in the time of the Commonwealth who rarely, perhaps some who never, served afloat except in a man-of-war. Some of the interesting naval families which were settled at Portsmouth and the eastern ports, and which—from father to son—helped to recruit the ranks of bluejackets till a date later than that of the launch of the first ironclad, could carry back their professional genealogy to at least the days of Charles II., when, in all probability, it did not first start. Though landsmen continued even after the Civil War to be given naval appointments, and though a permanent corps, through the ranks of which every one must pass, had not been formally established, a body of real naval officers —men who could handle their ships, supervise the working of the armament, and exercise military command—had been formed. A navy, accordingly, was now a weapon of undoubted keenness, capable of very effective use by any one who knew how to torial exwield it. Having tasted the sweets of inter- pansion in course with the Indies, whether in the occu- ^ pation of Portugal or of Spain, both English and Dutch were desirous of getting a larger share of them. English maritime commerce had increased and needed naval protection. If England was to maintain the international position to which, as no one denied, she was entitled, that commerce must be permitted to expand.

SEA-POWER The minds of men in western Europe, moreover, -were set upon obtaining for their country territories in the New World, the amenities of which were now known. From the reign of James I. the Dutch had shown great jealousy of English maritime enterprise. Where it was possible, as in the East Indian Archipelago, they had destroyed it. Their naval resources were great enough to let them hold English shipping at their mercy, unless a grand effort were made to protect it. The Dutch conducted the carrying trade of most of the world, and the monopoly of this they w’ere resolved to keep, while the English were resolved to share in it. The exclusion of the English from every trade-route, except such as ran by their own coast or crossed the Narrow Seas, seemed a by no means impossible contingency. There seemed also to be but one Avay of preventing it, viz., by war. The supposed unfriendliness of the Dutch, or at least of an important party amongst them, to the regicide Government in England helped to force the conflict. The Navigation Act of 1651 was passed and regarded as a covert declaration of hostilities. So the first Dutch war began. It established England’s claim to compete for the position of a great maritime commercial power. The rise of the sea-power of the Dutch, and the magnitude which it attained in a short time, and in the most adverse circumstances, have no parallel in Sea-power history. The case of Athens was different, be°Dutch.

cause the Athenian power had not so much been unconsciously developed out of a great maritime trade, as based on a military marine deliberately and persistently fostered during many years. Thirlwall believes that it was Solon who “ laid the foundations of the Attic navy” (Hist. Greece, ii. p. 52), a century before Salamis. The great achievement of Themistocles was to convince his fellow-citizens that their navy ought to be increased. Perhaps the nearest parallel with the power of the Dutch was presented by that of Khodes, which rested largely on a carrying trade. The Rhodian undertakings, however, were by comparison small and restricted in extent. Motley declares of the Seven United Provinces that they “commanded the ocean” (United Netherlands, ii. p. 132), and that it would be difficult to exaggerate the naval power of the young Commonwealth. Even in the days of Spain’s greatness English seamen positively declined to admit that she was stronger than England on the sea ; and the story of the Armada justified their view. The first two Dutch wars were, therefore, contests between the two foremost naval States of the world for what was primarily a maritime object. The identity of the cause of the first and of the second war will be discerned by any one who compares what has been said about the circumstances leading to the former, with Monk’s remark as to the latter. He said that the English wanted a larger share of the trade enjoyed by the Dutch. It was quite in accordance with the spirit of the age that the Dutch should try to prevent, by force, this want from being satisfied. Anything like free and open competition was repugnant to the general feeling. The high road to both individual wealth and national prosperity was believed to lie in securing a monopoly. Merchants or manufacturers who called for the abolition of monopolies granted to particular courtiers and favourites had not the smallest intention, on gaining their object, of throwing open to the enterprise of all what had been monopolized. It was to be kept for the exclusive benefit of some privileged or chartered company. It was the same in greater affairs. As Mahan says, “To secure to one’s own people a disproportionate share of the benefits of sea commerce every effort was made to exclude others, either by the peaceful legislative methods of monopoly or

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prohibitory regulations, or, when these failed, by direct violence.” The apparent wealth of Spain was believed to be due to the rigorous manner in which foreigners were excluded from trading wdth the Spanish over-sea territories. The skill and enterprise of the Dutch having enabled them to force themselves into this trade, they were determined to j keep it to themselves. The Dutch East India Company was a powerful body, and largely dictated the maritime policy of the country. We have thus come to an interesting point in the historical consideration of sea-power. The Elizabethan conflict with Spain had practically settled the question whether or not the expanding nations were to be allowed to extend their activities to territories in the New World. The first two Dutch wars were to settle the ques- Effect on tion whether or not the ocean trade of the °trade world was to be open to any people qualified to engage in it. We can see how largely these were maritime questions, how much depended on the solution found for them, and how plain it was that they must be settled by naval means. Mahan’s great survey of sea-power opens in 1660, midway between the first and second Dutch wars. “ The sailing-ship era, with its distinctive features,” he tells us, “had fairly begun.” The art of furve” S war by sea, in its more important details, had been settled by the first war. From the beginning of the second the general features of ship design, the classification of ships, the armament of ships, and the handling of fleets, were to remain without essential alteration until the date of Navarino. Even the tactical methods, except where improved on occasions by individual genius, altered little. The great thing was to bring the whole broadside force to bear on an enemy. Whether this was to be impartially distributed throughout the hostile line or concentrated on one part of it depended on the character of particular admirals. It would have been strange if a period so long and so rich in incidents had afforded no materials for forming a judgment on the real significance of sea-power. The text, so to speak, chosen by Mahan is that, notwithstanding the changes wrought in naval materiel since about 1850, we can find in the history of the past instructive illustrations of the general principles of maritime war. These illustrations will prove of value not only “ in those wider operations which embrace a whole theatre of war,” but also, if rightly applied, “in the tactical use of the ships and weapons ” of our own day. By a remarkable coincidence the same doctrine was being preached at the same time and quite independently by the late Vice-Admiral Philip Colomb in his work on Naval Warfare. As a prelude to the second Dutch war we find a repetition of a process which had been adopted somewhat earlier. That was the permanent conquest of trans-oceanic territory. Until the 17 th century had well begun, naval, or combined naval and military operations against the distant possessions of an enemy had been practically restricted to raiding or plundering attacks on commercial centres. The Portuguese territory in South America having come under Spanish dominion in consequence of the annexation of Portugal to Spain, the Dutch—as the power of the latter country declined—attempted to reduce part of that territory into permanent possession. This improvement on the practice of Drake and others was soon seen to be a game at which more than one could play. An expedition sent by Cromwell to the West Indies seized the Spanish island of Jamaica, which has remained in the hands of its conquerors to this day. In 1664 an English force occupied the Dutch North American settlements on the Hudson. Though the dispossessed rulers were not quite in a position to throw

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stones at sinners, this was rather a raid than an operation of recognized warfare, because it preceded the formal outbreak of hostilities. The conquered territory remained in English hands for more than a century, and thus testified to the efficacy of a sea-power which Europe had scarcely begun to recognize. Neither the second nor the third Dutch war can be counted amongst the occurrences to which Englishmen may look back with unalloyed satisfaction ; but they, unquestionably, disclosed some interesting manifestations of sea-power. Much indignation has been expressed concerning the corruption and inefficiency of the English Government of the day, and its failure to take proper measures for keeping up the navy as it should have been kept up. Some, perhaps a good deal, of this indignation was deserved; but it would have been nearly as well deserved by every other Government of the day. Even in those homes of political virtue where the administrative machinery was worked by, or in the interest of speculating capitalists and privileged companies, the accumulating evidence of late years has proved that everything was not considered to be, and as a matter of fact was not, exactly as it ought to have been. Charles II. and his brother, the duke of York, have been held up to obloquy because they thought that the coast of England could be defended against a naval enemy better by fortifications than by a good fleet and, as Pepys noted, w-ere “ not ashamed of it.” The truth is that neither the king nor the duke believed in the power of a navy to ward off attack from an island. This may have been due to want of intellectual capacity; but it would be going a long way to put it down to personal wickedness. They have had many imitators, some in our own day. The huge forts which stud the coast of the United Kingdom, and have been erected within living memory, are monuments, likely to last for many years, of the inability of people, whom no one could accuse of being vicious, to rate sea-power at its proper value. It is much more likely that it was owing to a reluctance to study questions of naval defence as industriously as they deserved, and to that moral timidity which so often tempts even men of proved physical courage, to undertake the impossible task of making themselves absolutely safe against hostile efforts at every point. Charles II. has also been charged with indifference to the interests of his country, or worse, because during a great naval war he adopted the plan of tryto wea plicaUon. ken the enemy by destroying his commerce. The king “took a fatal resolution of laying up his great ships and keeping only a few frigates on the cruise.” It is expressly related that this was not Charles’s own idea, but that it was urged upon him by advisers whose opinion probably seemed at the time as well worth listening to as that of others. Anyhow if the king erred, as he undoubtedly did, he erred in good company. Fourteen hundred years earlier the statesmen who conducted the great war against Carthage, and whose astuteness has been the theme of innumerable panegyrics since, took the same “fatal resolution.” In the midst of the great struggle they “ did away with the fleet. At the most they encouraged privateering ; and with that view placed the war-vessels of the State at the disposal of captains who were ready to undertake a corsair warfare on their own account” (Mommsen, ii. p. 52). In much later times this method has had many respectable defenders. Mahan’s works are, in a sense, a formal warning to his fellow-citizens not to adopt it. In France, within the last years of the 19th century, it found, and appears still to find, adherents enough to form a school. The reappearance of belief in demonstrated impossibilities is a recognized incident in

human history; but it is usually confined to the emotional or the vulgar. It is serious and filled with menaces of disaster when it is held by men thought fit to administer the affairs of a nation or advise concerning its defence. The third Dutch war may not have settled directly the position of England in the maritime world; but it helped to place that country above all other maritime States—in the position, in fact, which Great Britain, the United Kingdom, the British Empire, whichever name may be given it, has retained up to the present. It also manifested in a very striking form the efficacy of sea-power. The United Provinces, though attacked by two of the greatest monarchies in the world, France and England, were not destroyed. Indeed, they preserved much of their political importance in the State system of Europe. The Itepublic “ owed this astonishing result partly to the skill of one or two men, but mainly to its sea-power.” The effort, however, had undermined its strength and helped forward its decline. The war which was ended by the Peace of Byswick in 1697 presents two features of exceptional interest: one was the havoc wrought on English commerce by the enemy ; the other was Torrington’s conduct at and after the engagement off Beachy Head. Mahan discusses the former with his usual lucidity. At no time has Avar against commerce been conducted on a larger scale and with greater results than during this period. England suffered “ infinitely more than in any former war.” Many of her merchants were ruined ; and it is affirmed that the English shipping was reduced to the necessity of sailing under the Swedish and Danish flags. The explanation is that Louis XIY. made great efforts to keep up powerful fleets. The English navy was so fully occupied in watching these that no ships could be spared to protect England’s maritime trade. This is only another way of saying that her commerce had increased so largely that the navy was not strong enough to look after it as well as oppose the enemy’s main force. Notwithstanding her losses she was on the winning side in the conflict. Much misery and ruin had been caused, but not enough to affect the issue of the war. Torrington’s proceedings in July 1690 were at the time the subject of much angry discussion. The debate, still meriting the epithet angry, has been reneAved Avithin the last few years. The matter has to be noticed here, because it involves the consideration of a question of naval strategy Avhich must be understood by those who Avish to know the real meaning of the term sea-power, and who ought to learn that it is not a thing to be idly risked or thrown aAvay at the bidding of the ignorant and the irresponsible. Arthur Herbert, earl of Torrington — the later peerage is a viscountcy held by the Byng family—was in command of the allied English and Dutch fleet in the English Channel. “ The disparity of force,” says Mahan, “ Avas still in favour of France in 1690, but it was not so great as the year before.” We can measure the ability of the then English Government for conducting a great war, A\’hen we know that, in its wisdom, it had still further weakened the fleet by dividing it. Vice-Admiral Killigrew had been sent to the Mediterranean with a squadron, and had neglected, and indeed refused when urged, to take the necessary steps to repair this error. The Government having omitted, as Governments sometimes do, to gain any trustAvorthy intelligence of the strength or movements of the enemy, Torrington suddenly found himself confronted by a considerably superior French fleet under Tourville, one of the greatest of French sea-officers. Since then the intentions of the French have been questioned; but it is beyond dispute that, in England at the time, Tourville’s movements were believed to be preliminary to invasion. Whether

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Tourville deliberately meant his movement to cover an race apart, without prophets of their own, neither theminvasion or not, invasion would almost certainly have selves nor their calling understood.” IVhilst Torrington followed complete success on his part; otherwise, his has had the support of seamen, his opponents have been victory would have been without any valuable result. landsmen. For the crime of being a good strategist he Torrington saw that as long as he could keep his own was brought before a court-martial, but acquitted. His fleet intact, he could, though much weaker than his sovereign, who had been given the crowns of three kingdoms opponent, prevent him from doing serious harm. Though to defend our laws, showed his respect for them by floutpersonally not a believer in the imminence of invasion, ing a legally constituted tribunal and disregarding its the English admiral knew that “ most men were in fear solemn finding. The admiral who had saved his countiy that the French would invade.” His own view was, “ that was dismissed from the service. Still, the principle of the whilst we had a fleet in being they would not dare to make “ fleet in being ” lies at the bottom of all sound strategy. Admiral Colomb has pointed out a great change of an attempt.” Of late years controversy has raged round this phrase, “a fleet in being” and the strategic principle plan in the later naval campaigns of the 17 th century. which it expresses. Most seamen were at. the time, have Improvements in naval architecture, in the in been since, and still are in agreement with Torrington. methods of preserving food, and in the arrangements for keeping the crews healthy, permitted operations This might be supposed enough to settle the question. It has not been allowed, however, to remain one of purely fleets to be employed at a distance from their naval strategy. It was made at the time a matter of party home ports for long continuous periods. The Dutch, as politics. This is why it is so necessary that in a notice of allies of the Spaniards, kept a fleet in the Mediterranean sea-power it should be discussed. Both as a strategist for many months. The great de Buyter was mortally and as a tactician Torrington was immeasurably ahead of wounded in one of the battles there fought. In the war of his contemporaries. The only English admirals who can the Spanish Succession the Anglo-Dutch fleet found its be placed above him are Hawke and Nelson. He paid principal scene of action eastward of Gibraltar. This,, as the penalty of his pre-eminence: he could not make it were, set the fashion for future wars. It became a kind ignorant men and dull men see the meaning or the of tacitly accepted rule that the operation of British advantages of his proceedings. Mahan, who is specially sea-power was to be felt in the enemy s, rather than in qualified to do him full justice, does not devote, much British waters. The hostile coast was regarded strategicspace in his work to a consideration of Torrington s case, ally as the British frontier, and the sea was looked upon evidently because he had not sufficient materials before him as territory which the enemy must be prevented from Acceptance of this principle led in time to the on which to form a judgment. The admirals character invading. so-called “blockades” of Brest and Toulon. The name had been taken away already by Macaulay, who did have ample evidence before him. William III., with all his was misleading. As Nelson took care to explain, there fine qualities, did not possess a military.genius quite equal was no desire to keep the enemy’s fleet in ; what was to that of Napoleon ; and Napoleon, in naval strategy, desired was to be near enough to attack it if it came out. wisdom of the plan is undoubted. The hostile navy was often wrong. William III. understood that subject The even less than the French emperor did; and his could be more easily watched and more easily followed favourites were still less capable of understanding it. if it put to sea. To carry out this plan a navy stronger Consequently Torrington’s action has been put down to in number of ships or in general efficiency than that of jealousy of the Dutch. There have been people who the enemy was necessary. With the exception of that accused Nelson of being jealous of the naval reputation of American Independence, which will therefore require special notice, England’s subsequent great wars were conof Caracciolo ! The explanation of Torrington’s conduct is ducted in accordance with the rule. this He had a fleet so much weaker than Tourville’s In the early part of the 18th century there was . a that he could not fight a general action with the latter remarkable manifestation of sea-power in the Baltic. without a practical certainty of a crushing defeat. Such a result would have laid the kingdom open : a defeat Peter the Great, having created an efficient of the allied fleet, says Mahan, “if sufficiently severe, army, drove the Swedes from the coast pro- ^fa,s might involve the fall of William’s throne in England. vinces south of the Gulf of Finland. Like the sea.power. Given certain movements of the French fleet, Torrington earlier monarchies of which we have spoken, might have manoeuvred to slip past it to the .westward Bussia, in the Baltic at least, now became a naval State. and join his force with that under Killigrew, which would A large fleet was built, and, indeed, a considerable navy make him strong enough Tto hazard a battle. This proved established. It was a purely artificial creation, and impracticable. There w as then one course left—retire showed the merits and defects of its character. At first, before the French, but not to keep far from them. He and when under the eye of its creator, it was strong, knew that, though not strong enough to engage their whole when Peter was no more it dwindled away and, when otherwise unemployed fleet with any hope of success, he needed again, had to be created afresh. It. enabled Peter would be quite strong enough to fight and most likely beat the Great to conquer the neighbouring portion of I inland, it, wdien a part of it was trying either to deal with our to secure his coast territories, and to dominate the Baltic. ships to the westward or to cover the disembarkation of In this he was assisted by the exhaustion of Sweden conan invading army. He, therefore, proposed to keep his sequent on her endeavours to retain, what was no. longer “fleet in being” in order to fall on the enemy when the possible, the position of a ?™-great Power which she latter would have two affairs at the same time on his had held since the days of Gustavus Adolphus Sweden hands. The late Vice-Admiral Colomb rose to a. greater had been further weakened, especially as a naval State, by height than was usual even with him in his criticism of almost incessant wars with Denmark, which prevented all this campaign. What Torrington did was merely to re- hope of Scandinavian predominance in the Baltic, the conproduce on the sea what has been noticed dozens of times trol of which sea has in these days passed into the hands on shore, viz., the menace of the flanking enemy. In land of another State possessing a quickly created navy—the . . . ., . warfare this is held to give exceptional opportunities for modern German empire. The war of the Spanish Succession left Great Britain the display of good generalship, but, to quote Mahan, over Mediterranean power, a position which, in spite of tw icea again, a navy “ acts on an element strange to most writers, its members have been from time immemorial a strange losing Minorca, she still holds. In the war of the Austrian

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S E A-P O W E R Succession, “France was forced to give up her conquests is difficult to repress an emotion of astonishment on findfor want of a navy, and England saved her position by ing that a British Government intentionally permitted de her sea-power, though she had failed to use it Grasse’s fleet and the French army in its convoy to cross Seven to the best advantage ” (Mahan, Influence on the Atlantic unmolested, for fear of postponing for a time Years’ Hist. p. 280). This shows, as we shall find the ^victualling of the garrison beleaguered at Gibraltar. War. that a later war showed more plainly, that even Washington’s opinion as to the importance of the naval the Government of a thoroughly maritime country is not factor has been quoted already; and Mahan does not put always sure of conducting its naval affairs wisely. The the case too strongly when he declares that the success of Seven Tears’ war included some brilliant displays of the the Americans was due to “sea-power being in the hands efficacy of sea-power. It was this which put the British of the French and its improper distribution by the English in possession of Canada, decided which European race authorities.” England’s navy, misdirected as it was, made was to rule in India, and led to a British occupation of a good, fight of it, never allowed itself to be decisively Havana in one hemisphere and of Manila in the other. beaten m a considerable battle, and won at least one great In the same war Great Britain learnt how, by a feeble victory. At the point of contact with the enemy, however, use of sea-power, a valuable possession, like Minorca, may it was not in general so conspicuously successful as it was be lost. At the same time, the maritime trade and the in the Seven Years’ war, or as it was to be in the great general prosperity of the kingdom increased enormously. conflict with the French republic and empire. The truth The result of the conflict made plain to all the paramount is that its opponent, the French navy, was never so importance of having in the principal posts in the Govern- thoroughly a sea-going force as it was in the war of ment men capable of understanding what war is and how American Independence ; and never so closely approached it ought to be conducted. the British in sea-experience as it did during that period. This lesson, as the sequel demonstrated, had not been Gieat Britain met antagonists who were very nearly but learned when Great Britain became involved in a war fortunately not quite, as familiar with the sea as she ^^6 insurgent colonies in North America was; and she never found it so hard to beat them or American JIahan’s comment is striking: “The magni- even to avoid being beaten by them. An Englishman War. ficence of sea-power and its value had perhaps would, naturally enough, start at the conclusion confrontbeen more clearly shown by the uncontrolled ing him, if he were to speculate as to the result of more sway and consequent exaltation of one belligerent; but than one battle had the great Suffren’s captains and the lesson thus given, if more striking, is less vividly crews been quite up to the level of those commanded by interesting than the spectacle of that sea-power meetino- a stout old Sir Edward Hughes. Suffren, it should be said foe worthy of its steel, and excited to exertion by a strife before going to the East Indies, had “thirty-eight years of which endangered not only its most valuable colonies, but almost uninterrupted sea-service ” (Laughton, Studies in even its own shores ” {Influence on Hist. p. 338). Great A aval Hist. p. 103). A glance at a chart of the world Britain was, in fact, drawing too largely on the prestige with the scenes of the general actions of the war dotted on acquired during the Seven Years’ war, and was governed it will show how notably oceanic the campaigns were, by men who did not understand the first principles of naval ihe hostile fleets met over and over again on the far side warfare, and would not listen to those who did. They of the Atlantic and in. distant Indian seas. The French quite ignored the teaching of the then comparatively recent navy had. penetrated into the ocean as readily and as far wars which has been alluded to already—that the enemy’s as the British could do. Besides this, it should be rememcoast should be looked upon as the frontier. A century bered that it was not until the 12th April 1782, when and a half earlier the Dutchman Grotius had written Bodney m one hemisphere and Suffren in the other showed them the way, that British officers were able to escape Quae meta Britannis Litora sunt aliis. from the fetters imposed on them by the Fighting InstrucThough .ordinary, prudence would have suggested ample tions a fact worth remembering in days in which it is preparation, British ministers allowed their country to sometimes proposed, by establishing schools of naval rmnam unprepared. Instead of concentrating their tactics on shore, to revive the pedantry which made a efforts on the main objective, they frittered away force decisive success in b&ttle nearly impossible. The mighty conflict which raged between Great Britain in attempts to relieve two beleaguered garrisons under on one side and France and her allies on the other, with Pretext of yielding to popular pressure, which is the official term for acting on the advice of irresponsible little intermission, for more than twenty years of and uninstructed busybodies. “ Depuis le debfit de la presents a different aspect from that of the war cnse,” says Captain Chevalier, “les ministres de la last mentioned. The victories which the British Revolution Grande Bretagne s etaient montres inferieurs k leur fleet was to gam were generally to be overwhelm- Bm ire P tache.” An impressive result of this was the repeated mg; if not, they were looked upon as almost defeats. Whether the fleet opposed to the British was appearance of. powerful and indeed numerically superior or was not the more numerous, the result was generally hostile fleets in the English Channel. The war notwithstanding that, perhaps because, land operations con- the same—the enemy was beaten. That there was a disstituted an important part of it, and in the end settled coverable reason for this is certain. A great deal has the issue—was essentially oceanic. Captain Mahan says been made of the disorganization in the French navy conit was “ purely maritime.” It may be true that, whatever sequent on the confusion of the Bevolution. That there the belligerent result, the political result, as regards the was. disorganization is undoubted; that it did impair status of the insurgent colonies, would have been the same. discipline and, consequently, general efficiency will not e isputed; but that it was considerable enough to It is in the highest degree probable, indeed it closely account by itself for the French naval defeats is altogether approaches to certainty, that a proper use of the British sea-power would have prevented independence from being inadmissible. Bevolutionary disorder had invaded the land-forces to a greater degree than it had invaded the conquered, as it. were, at the point of the bayonet. There sea oices. he supersession, flight, or guillotining of can be no surprise in store for the student acquainted with tiie vagaries of strategists who are influenced in war by army officers had been beyond measure more frequent political m preference to military requirements. Still, it than was the case with the naval officers. In spite of all tins the Irench armies were on the whole—even in the

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early days of the Revolution—extraordinarily successful. great sea-power of the British in the end asserted its influ* In 1792 “the most formidable invasion that ever threatened ence, and the Americans suffered much more severely, even France,” as Alison calls it, was repelled, though the in- absolutely, than their enemy. At the same time vaders were the highly-disciplined and veteran armies of the British might have learned, for the Ameri- f™"fcan Prussia and Austria. It was nearly two years later that cans did their best to teach it, that over- War confidence in numerical strength and narrow the French and British fleets came into serious conflict. professional self-satisfaction are nearly, sure to lead to The first great battle, “ The Glorious First of June, though a tactical victory for Great Britain, was a strategical reverses in war, and not unlikely to end in grave disasters. defeat. Villaret Joyeuse manoeuvred so as to cover the The British had now to meet the elite of one of the^ finest arrival in France of a fleet of merchant vessels carrying communities of seamen ever known. Even in 1 < / 6 the sorely-needed supplies of food, and in this he was com- Americans had a great maritime commerce, which, as pletely successful. His plan involved the probability, Mahan says, “ had come to be the wonder of the statesalmost the necessity of fighting a general action which he men of the mother country.” In the six-and-thirty was not at all sure of winning. He was beaten, it is true ; years which had elapsed since then this commerce had but the French made so good a fight of it that their further increased. There was no finer nursery of seamen defeat was not nearly so disastrous as the later defeats than the then states of the American Union. Roosevelt of the Nile or Trafalgar, and—at the most—not more says that “there was no better seaman in the world ” than disastrous than that of Dominica. Yet no one even the American, who “had been bred to his work from alleges that there was disorder or disorganization in the infancy.” A large proportion of the population “was French fleet at the date of any one of those affairs. Indeed, engaged in sea-going pursuits of a nature strongly tending if the French navy was really disorganized in 1794, it to ° develop a resolute and hardy character in the men would have been better for France—judging from the that followed them” (Naval War of 1812, 3rd ed., pp. events of 1798 and 1805 —if the disorganization had 29, 30). Having little or no naval protection, the American been allowed to continue. In point. of organization the seaman had to defend himself in many circumstances, and British navy was inferior, and in point of discipline not was compelled to familiarize himself with the use of arms. much superior to the French at the earliest date, at the The men who passed through this practical, and therefore later dates, and especially at the latest, owing to the supremely excellent training school were numerous. Very all-pervading energy of Napoleon, the British was far many had been trained in English men-of-war, and some behind its rival in organization, in “ science,” and in in French ships. The State navy which they were called to man was small; and therefore its personnel, though every branch of training that can be imparted without on without any regular or avowed selection, was virtually going to sea. Great Britain had the immense advantage and in the highest sense a picked body. The lesson of of counting among her officers some very able men. Nelson, of course, stands so high that he holds a place the war of 1812 should be learned by Englishmen of the day, when a long naval peace has generated a entirely by himself. The other British chiefs, good as present confidence in numerical superiority, in the mere, posthey were, were not conspicuously superior to the Hawkes session of heavier materiel, and in the merits of a rigidly and Rodneys of an earlier day. Howe was a great commander, but he did little more than just appear on the uniform system of training, such confidence, as experience shown, being often the forerunner of misfortune. It is scene in the Revolutionary war. Almost the same may be has neither patriotic nor intelligent to minimize the American said of Hood, of whom Nelson wrote, “He is the greatest successes. Certainly they have been exaggerated, by sea-officer I ever knew” (Laughton, Nelson's Lett, and Americans and even by the British. To take the frigate Desp. p. 71). There must have been something, therefore, actions alone, as being those which properly attracted most beyond the meritorious qualities of the principal British attention, the captures in action amounted to three on officers which helped the navy so consistently to victory. The many triumphs won could not have been due in every each side, the proportionate loss to the Americans, considercase to the individual superiority of the British admiral or ing the smallness of their fleet, being immensely greater captain to his opponent. There must have been bad as than to the British. We also see that no British frigate well as good among the hundreds on the lists; and we was taken after the first seven months of a war which cannot suppose that Providence had so arranged it that in lasted two and a half years. Attempts have been made every action in which a British officer of inferior ability to spread a belief that British reverses were due to nothing commanded, a still more inferior French com- but the greater size and heavier guns of the enemy’s Importance mander was opposed to him. The explanation ships. It is now established that the superiority in ofsea : of the nearly thoroughly unbroken success is, navy, that and the these details, which the Americans certainly enjoyed, was experience, sea-going wag a not great, and not of itself enough to account for their became more and more so every month; while the victories. Of course, if superiority in mere materiel, beFrench, since the close of the American war, had lost to yond a certain well-understood amount, is possessed by a great extent its sea-going character and, because it had one of two combatants, his antagonist can hardly escape been shut up in its ports, became less and less sea-going as defeat; but it was never alleged that size of ship or hostilities continued. The war had been for the British, in calibre’ of guns—greater within reasonable limits than the words of President Roosevelt, “ a continuous course of the British had—necessarily led to the defeat of British victory won mainly by seamanship.” The British navy,, as ships by the French or Spaniards. In the words, of regards sea-experience, especially of the officers, was. im- Admiral Jurien de la Graviere, “the ships of the. United mensely superior to the French. This enabled the British States constantly fought with the chances m their Government to carry into execution sound strategic plans, favour.” All this is indisputable. Nevertheless m any in accordance with which the coasts of France and its future war British sea-power, great as it may be, should allied countries were regarded as the British frontier to be not receive shocks like those that it unquestionably did suffer in 1812. , P i i p ,, i watched or patrolled by British fleets. We have now come to the end of the days of the naval Before the long European war had been brought to of the past. The subsequent period has been a formal ending we received some rude rebuffs from wars another opponent of unsuspected vigour. In the quarrel illustrated repeatedly by manifestations of sea-power, often with the United States, the so-called “War of 1812,” the of great interest and importance, though rarely understood

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S E A-P or even discerned by the nations whom they more particularly concerned. The British sea-power, notwithstanding the first year of the war of 1812, had come out of the great European conflict unshaken and indeed more preeminent than ever. The words used half a century before by a writer in the great French Encyclopedic, seemed more exact than when first written. “ L’empire des mers, ’ he says, is “ le plus avantageux de tous les empires ; les Phoeniciens le possedoient autre fois et c’est aux Anglois que cette gloire appartient aujourd’hui sur toutes les puissances maritimes ” (Encyclopedic, 7th January 1165, art. “ Thalassarchie ”). Vast outlying territories had been acquired or were more firmly held, and the communications of all the over-sea dominions of the British crown were secured against all possibility of serious menace for many years to come. Her sea-power was so ubiquitous and all-pervading that, like the atmosphere, Great Britain rarely thought of it and rarely remembered its necessity or its existence. It was not till a late date that the greater part of the nation—for there still are some exceptions—perceived that it was the medium apart from which the British empire could no more live than it could have grown up. Forty years after the fall of Napoleon she found herself again at war with a great Power. She had as her ally the owner of the greatest navy in the

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was within easy distance of this frontier, and the two were not far apart. In wealth, population, and resources the I ederals were enormously superior. They alone possessed a navy, though at first it was a small one. The one advantage on the Confederate side was the large proportion of military officers which belonged to it and their rare excellence as soldiers. In physique as well as in morale the army of one side differed little from that of the other; perhaps the Federal army was slightly superior in the first, and the Confederate, as being recruited from a dominant white race, in the second. Outnumbered, less well equipped, and more scantily supplied, the Confederates nevertheless kept up the war, with many brilliant successes on land, for four years. Had they been able to maintain their trade with neutral States they could have carried on the war longer, and—not improbably—have succeeded m the end. The Federal navy, which was argely increased, took away all chance of this. It established effective blockades of the Confederate ports, and severed their communications with the outside world. Indispensable articles of equipment could not be obtained and the armies, consequently, became less and less able to cope with their abundantly furnished antagonists By dominating the rivers the Federals cut the Confederacy asunder; and by the power they possessed of moving Russian "or^ ®xcePt ^er own. Her foe, as regards his troops by sea at will, perplexed and harassed the defence War, naval forces, came the next in order. Yet so and facilitated the occupation of important points. 1854.56. overwhelming was the strength of Great Britain Meanwhile the Confederates could make no reply on and France on the sea that Russia never attempted to employ her navy against them. Not to mention other the water except by capturing merchant vessels, by which expeditions, considerable enough in themselves, military the contest was embittered, but the course of the war reoperations on the largest scale were undertaken, carried on mained absolutely unaffected. The great numbers of men tor many months, and brought to a successful termination under arms on shore, the terrific slaughter in many battles of on a scene so remote that it was two thousand miles from a war m which tactical ability, even in a moderate degree the country of one, and three thousand from that of the was curiously uncommon on both sides, and the varying other partner in the alliance. “The stream of supplies fortunes of the belligerents, made the land campaigns fa? and reinforcements, which in terms of modern war is more interesting to the ordinary observer than the naval. called ‘ communications,’ ” was kept free from even the It is not surpnsmg, therefore, that peace had been rethreat of molestation, not by visible measures, but by established for several years before the American people the undisputed efficacy of a real, though imperceptible could be made to see the great part taken by the navy in sea-power At the close of the Russian war there were the restoration of the Union; and what the Americans even m influential positions, men who, undismayed by the had not seen was hidden from the sight of other nations In several momentous wars in Europe waged since, consequences of mimicking in free England the cast-iron France and Great Britain made peace with Russia seamethods of Frederick the Great, began to measure British power manifested itself but little. In the Russo-Turkish requirements by standards borrowed from abroad and war the naval superiority of the Turks in the „ altogether inapplicable to British conditions. Because other countries wisely abstained from relying on that which Blank Sea, Avhere the Russians at the time had Turkish they did not possess, or had only imperfectly and with no fleet, governed the plans, if not the course, War, elaborate art created, the mistress of the seas was led to ot the campaigns. The water being denied to 1877-78.. proclaim her disbelief in the very force that had made and them, the Russians were compelled to execute their plan of invading Turkey by land. An advance to the Boskept her dominion, and was urged to defend herself with fortifications by advisers who, like Charles II. and the phorus through the northern part 6f Asia Minor was imduke of York two centuries before, were “not ashamed of practicable without help from a navy on the right flank. it. It was long before the peril into which this brought Consequently the only route was a land one across the the empire was perceived; but at last, and in no small Danube and the Balkans. The advantages, though not degree owing to the teachings of Mahan, the people them- full} utilized, which the enforcement of this line of selves took the matter in hand and insisted that a great advance put into the hands of the Turks, and the difficulties and losses which it caused the Russians, exhibited maritime empire should have adequate means of defending m a striking manner what sea-power can effect even when all that made its existence possible. its operation is scarcely observable. In forms differing in appearance, but identical in This was more conspicuous in a later series of hostilities, essentials, the efficacy of sea-power was proved again in e civil war in Chile between Congressists and Balmaie Later ^ American Civil War. If ever there were cedists was specially interesting, because it threw manitesta- hostilities in which, to the unobservant or short- into sharp relief the predominant influence when Chilian Civii War ’ seafpower* Stmed !gh1fdto’ naval at first seem The des- a non-mantime enemy was to be attacked of a countoperations for little might they were these. navy followed up by an adequate land-force. ^ sequel, however, made it clear that they constituted one of the Brp^6 begmmng dispute allthetheBalmacedists, or /herrfad^,.fact0rs of the success of the victorious lresident,s party had practically army, and the b lllgerents th f1 i\io ® > e Northern or Federal states Congressists or Opposition party, nearly all the Chilian 1 W tbe Soothern or length. Confederate a common land frontier of great The states, capital had of each section rpn ?ri■ Unab 6 to f.en^n 111 the Principal province of the republic, and expelled from the waters of Valparaiso by

SEATTLE the Balmacedist garrisons of the forts—the only and doubtful service which those works rendered to their own side—the Congressists went off with the ships to the northern provinces, where they counted many adherents. There they formed an army, and having money at command, and open sea communications, they were able to import equipment from abroad, and eventually to transport their land-force, secured from molestation on the voyage by the sea-power at their disposal, to the neighbourhood of Valparaiso, where it was landed and triumphantly ended the campaign. It will have been noticed that, in its main outlines, this story repeated that of many earlier struggles. It was itself repeated, as regards its general features, between by story of the war between China and China and Japan in 1894-95. Every aspect of the war, Japan, gayS Colomb, is interesting to Great Britain,7 1894-95 * Japan is to China in a position .. .. “as similar to that which the British Islands occupy to the European continent ” (Naval JFarfare, 3rd ed., p. 436). It was additionally interesting because the sea-power of Japan was a novelty. Though a novelty, it was well known by British naval men to be superior in all essentials to that of China, a novelty itself. As is the rule when two belligerents are contending for something beyond a purely maritime object, the final decision was to be on land. Korea was the principal theatre of the land war; and, as far as access to it by sea was concerned, the chief bases of the two sides were about the same distance from it. It was possible for the Chinese to march there by land. The Japanese, coming from an island State, were obliged to cross the water. It will be seen at once that not only the success of the Japanese in the struggle, but also the possibility of its being carried on by them at all, depended on sea-power. The Japanese proved themselves decisively superior at sea. Their navy effectually cleared the way for one army which was landed in Korea, and for another which was landed in the Chinese province of Shantung. The Chinese land-forces were defeated. The navy of Japan being superior on the sea, was able to keep its sister service supplied or reinforced as required. It was not, however, the navy, but the army, which finally frustrated the Chinese efforts at defence, and really terminated the war. What the navy did was what, in accordance with the limitations of sea-power, may be expected of a navy. It made the transport of the army across the sea possible; and enabled it to do what of itself the army could not have done, viz., overcome the last resistance of the enemy. The issue of the Spanish-American war, at least as regards the defeat of Spain, was a foregone conclusion. That Spain, even without a serious American ^nsurrec^on on her hands, was unequal to the War, 1898. meeting so powerful an antagonist as the United States must have been evident even to Spaniards. However that may be, an early collapse of the Spanish defence was not anticipated, and however one-sided the war may have been seen to be, it furnished examples illustrating rules as old as naval warfare. Mahan says of it that, “ while possessing, as every war does, characteristics of its own differentiating it from others, nevertheless in its broad analogies it falls into line with its predecessors, evidencing that unity of teaching which pervades the art from its beginnings unto this day ” (Lessons of the War with Spain, p. 16). The Spaniards were defeated by the superiority of the American seapower. “A million of the best soldiers,” says Mahan, “would have been powerless in face of hostile control of the sea.” That control was obtained and kept by the United States navy, thus permitting the unobstructed

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despatch of troops—and their subsequent reinforcement and supply—to Spanish territory, which was finally conquered, not by the navy, but by the army on shore. That it was the navy which made this final conquest possible happened, in this case, to be made specially evident by the action of the United States Government, which stopped a military expedition on the point of starting for Cuba until the sea was cleared of all Spanish naval force worth attention. The events of the long period which we have been considering will have shown how sea-power operates, and what it effects. What it involves will have appeared from this narrative more clearly than would have been possible from any mere definition. Like many other things, sea])ower is composed of several elements. To reach the highest degree of efficacy it should be based upon a population naturally maritime, and on an ocean commerce naturally developed rather than artificially enticed to extend itself. Its outward and visible sign is a navy, strong in the discipline, skill, and courage of a numerous personnel habituated to the sea, in the number and quality of its ships, in the excellence of its materiel, and in the efficiency, scale, security, and geographical position of its arsenals and bases. History has demonstrated that sea-power thus conditioned can gain any purely maritime object, can protect the trade and the communications of a widely-extended empire, and while so doing can ward off from its shores a formidable invader. There are, however, limitations to be noted. Left to itself its operation is confined to the water, or at any rate to the inner edge of a narrow zone of coast. It prepares the way for the advance of an army, the work of which it is not intended, and is unable to perform. Behind it, in the territory of which it guards the shores, there must be a land-force adjusted in organization, equipment, and numbers to the circumstances of the country. The possession of a navy does not permit a sea-surrounded State to dispense with all fixed defences or fortification; but it does render it unnecessary and indeed absurd that they should be abundant or gigantic. The danger which always impends over the sea-power of any country is that, after being long unused, it may lose touch of the sea. The revolution in the constructive arts during the latter half of the 19th century, which has also been a period of but little-interrupted naval peace, and the universal adoption of mechanical appliances, both for shippropulsion and for many minor services—mere materiel being thereby raised in the general estimation far above really more important matters—makes the danger mentioned more menacing in the present age than it has ever been before. (c. a. g. b.) Seattle, a city and seaport of Washington, U.S.A., capital of King county. It is situated in 47° 36' N. and 122° 20' W., on the east shore of Elliott Bay, an arm of Puget Sound. Its site rises steeply from the water to a summit and descends eastwards to Lake Washington. On this site the city is laid out with much regularity on the whole, and is divided into nine wards. It has an excellent water-supply and is well sewered, but few of the streets are paved. Among its fine buildings are Providence hospital, the court house, opera house, high school, and many business blocks. It has seven public parks, besides Lake Washington, behind the city, a sheet of water 25 miles long, with very wild, picturesque shores. Seattle is the largest city of Washington and one of the busiest and most active of the North-West. It is an important commercial port of Puget Sound, having lines of steamers to Asiatic ports, to San Francisco, and to Alaska. It has also a large trade with other Puget Sound ports by small steamers. Here is the Pacific coast terminus of the S. VIII. — 64

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SEBASTOPOL —SEELEY Great Northern Railway, and one of the termini of the Sedan, chief town of arrondissement, department of Northern Pacific Railway. The Columbia and Puget Ardennes, France, 12 miles east-south-east of Mezieres on Sound and the Seattle and International railways also the railway from Mezieres to Nancy. There is a municipal enter the city. Seattle has also large manufacturing in- school of weaving, but the value of the textile production terests. In 1900 it contained 953 manufacturing estab- has declined, being estimated in 1898 at only 25,000,000 lishments, with a total capital of $10,131,651. These francs. Population (1891), 17,023; (1901), 19,349. employed 8480 hands, and their product was valued at $26,373,402. Of the various products, lumber, including ^ SedgJey, a parish and urban district, Staffordshire, planing-mill products, had a value of $2,846,558; slaughter- England, 3 miles south and included in the parliamentary ing and meat-packing, a value of $3,072,195 ; foundry and borough of Wolverhampton, 14 miles from Deepfields machine-shop, and flouring and grist mill products, canning Station. Part of the parish is under an urban district and preserving fish, and the products of the building trades council, the remainder being in the urban district of were also large. This city is the seat of the state uni- Coseley. The district abounds in coal, lime, and ironversity, a non-sectarian institution, opened in 1862, which stone. Nails, rivets, chains, fire-irons, locks, and safes are in 1899 had a faculty of 27 and was attended by 264 made here. Population (1891), 14,961 ; (1901), 15,951. students, 122 of whom were women. The assessed Seeley, Sir John Robert (1834-1895), valuation of real and personal property was, in ^OO", English essayist and historian, was born in London in $40,148,265, the net-debt was $5,410,755, and the rate 1834. His father, R. B. Seeley, was a publisher and of taxation was $25.50 per $1000. Seattle was founded author of several religious books and of The Life and in 1852, receiving the name of an Indian chief, and Times of Edward which was highly esteemed by for many years had a slow growth, having in 1880 a historians. From his father Seeley doubtless derived population of only 3533. The rapid development of the his taste for religious and historical subjects. He was lumber industry in this part of the state was mainly respon- educated at the City of London School and at Christ’s sible for the tremendous stride which the city took in the College, Cambridge, where he was head of the classical ten years following, resulting in a population in 1890 of tripos and senior chancellor’s medallist, was elected fellow 42,837. In 1900 the population was returned as 80,671, and became classical tutor of his college. For a time of whom 22,003 were foreign-born and 3856 coloured, he was a master at his old school, and in 1863 was apincluding 406 negroes. Of 39,503 males 21 years of age pointed professor of Latin at University College, London. and over, 598 were illiterate (unable to write). In 1889 His essay Ecce Homo, published anonymously in 1866, the business part of the city was almost entirely burned. and afterwards owned by him, was widely read, and Sebastopol, a district town and military seaport called forth many replies, being held to be an attack of Russia, in the government of Taurida, in the south- on Christianity. Dealing only with Christ’s humanity, it west of the Crimea, in 44° 37' N. and 33° 31' E., dwells on His work as the founder and king of a theocratic 947 miles by rail from Moscow. Since it was connected state, and points out the effect which this society, His with the Russian railway system, a new town has rapidly church, has had upon the standard and active practice of grown on the ruins which were left after the famous morality among men. Some who condemned the book7 siege it sustained during the Crimean war, and in 1897 seem to have forgotten that it was avowedly “ a fragment,’ it contained 50,710 inhabitants, of whom only 18,661 and that the author does not deny the truth of doctrines were women. The town is well built and is becoming a which he does not discuss. Its literary merit is unquesfavourite watering-place on account of its sea-bathing and tionable ; it is written with vigour and dignity; its short numerous sanatoria. It has three libraries, two news- and pointed sentences are never jerky, and there is a. papers, gymnasia for boys and girls, and two navigation certain stateliness in the admirable order of their sequence.. schools. It was at one time hoped that it would become His later essay on Natural Religion, which, premising that, an important commercial seaport ■ its exports rapidly supernaturalism is not essential to religion, maintains that grew from 1885 to 1889, when they totalled as much,as the negations of science tend to purify rather than destroy 370,000 tons, but in the year 1890 Sebastopol was made Christianity, satisfied neither the Christian nor the scientist, a fortress of the third class, and the commercial port has and though well written excited far less interest than his earlier work. In 1869 he was appointed professor of been transported to Theodosia. modern history at Cambridge. His influence as a teacher Sebenico, a coast town on the Adriatic, in the Austrian province of Dalmatia, in about 43° 44' N., was stimulating; he prepared his lectures carefully and nearly midway between Zara and Spalato. Population of they were largely attended. In historical work he is distown (1890), 7014, and of commune, 20,360, chiefly tinguished as a thinker rather than a scholar. Avoiding Serbo-Croatian; (1900), 24,751. It is the seat of a Catholic research and disliking all attempts at a picturesque and a Greek bishop, is a steamship station, has trade with representation of the past, he valued history solely in Turkey, and considerable quantities of wine, oil, corn, and its relation to politics, as the science of the State. He honey are produced in the neighbourhood, a further maintained that it should be studied scientifically and for important resource of the inhabitants being fishing and a practical purpose, that its function was the solution of existing political questions. Hence he naturally devoted seafaring. himself mainly to recent history, and specially to the relaSedalia, a city of Missouri, U.S.A., capital of tions between England and other States. His Life and Pettis county. It is situated in 38° 43' N. and 93° 14' Times of Stein, a valuable narrative of the anti-Napoleonic W., a little north and west of the centre of the state, revolt, led by Prussia mainly at Stein’s instigation, was, at an altitude of 982 feet. It has an elevated prairie site. written under German influence, and shows little of the Three railways intersect here, the Missouri, Kansas and style of his short essays. Its length, its colourlessness, Texas, the Missouri Pacific, and the Sedalia, Warsaw and and the space it devotes to subsidiary matters render it South-Western, making it a centre of importance. Loco- unattractive. Far otherwise is it with his Expansion of motive and car works are situated here, besides which the England. Written in his best manner, this essay answers city has manufactures of flour, wool, iron and steel, and agri- to his theory that history should be used for a practical cultural implements. Population (1890), 14,068; (1900), purpose; it points out how and why Great Britain gained 15,231, of whom 972 were foreign-born and 1725 negroes. her colonies and India, the character of her empire, and the.

‘Ploughing in the Engadine.” By Giovanni Segantini. (By permission ofT. Fisher Unwin, London.)

SEGANTINI — SEIDL

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light in which it should be regarded. As a historical essay the book is a fine composition, and as a defence of the empire is unanswerable and inspiring. It appeared at an opportune time, and did much to make Englishmen regard the colonies, not as mere appendages, but as an expansion of the British state as well as of British nationality, and to remind them of the value of Great Britain’s empire in the East. Seeley was rewarded for this public service by being made K.C.M.G., on the recommendation of Lord Rosebery. His last book, The Growth of British Policy, written as an essay and intended to be an introduction to a full account of the expansion of Great Britain, was published posthumously. Seeley died on 13th January 1895. He married in 1869 Miss Mary Agnes Phillott, who survived him. See G. W. Prothero. Memoir prefixed to Growth of British Policy. London, 1895. (w. Hu.)

(1897), 156,086. The birth-rate is 4T6 per cent., the death-rate 3'41 per cent., and the proportion of illegitimate births 1-80. Few of the inhabitants emigrate. Segovia is connected with Madrid and Medina del Campo by rail. This railway has not, however, stopped much of the traffic that still goes on through the passes of Nava Cerrada and Somosiera. Another line is in construction between Aranda de Duero and Segovia. The province is divided into 5 districts and 275 parishes. The industries of Segovia have much decayed, especially porcelain and woollen stuffs. There are manufactures of coarse porcelain, dyes, chalk, paper, alcohol, rosin, hats, pins and needles, beer, flour, oil. It is estimated that more than 256,000 acres are covered with forests. In 1897 wheat was grown on 121,550 acres, rye, oats, barley, maize on 77,805 acres, pod fruit on 37,742 acres, and vines on 23,595 acres. In the same year the live stock in Segovia included 4714 horses, 12,645 mules, 18,062 asses, 26,687 cattle, 345,302 sheep, 14,063 goats, and 13,119 pigs.

Segantini, Giovanni (1858-1899), Italian painter, was born at Arco in the Trentino on 15th June 1858. His mother, who died in 1863, belonged to an old family of the mountain country. His father, who was a man of the people, went to Milan, whence he set forth with another son to seek his fortune, leaving Giovanni behind. At the age of seven the child ran away; he was found perishing of cold and hunger, and was obliged to earn his bread by keeping the flocks on the hills. He spent his long hours of solitude in drawing everything he saw. Owing to the fame of the boy-prodigy having reached the ears of a syndic, the child was sent back to Milan; but, unable to endure domestic life, he soon escaped again, and led a wandering life till he met at Arco with his halfbrother, who offered him the place of cashier in his provision shop. After more flights and more returns, Segantini remained at ■ Milan to attend classes at the Brera, earning a living meanwhile by giving lessons and painting portraits. His first picture, “ The Choir of Sant Antonio,” was noticed for its powerful quality. After painting this, however, he shook himself free by degrees of academical teaching, as in his picture “ The Ship.” He subsequently painted “The Falconer” and “The Dead Hero,” and then, thirsting once more for liberty, settled in Brianza, near Como. There he gave himself up to the study of mountain life, and became in truth the painter of the Alps. At this time he painted the “ Ave Maria,” which took a gold medal at the Amsterdam Exhibition (1883), “Mothers,” “After a Storm in the Alps,” “A Kiss,” and “Moonlight Effect.” Deeply impressed by Millet, whose influence may be traced in some of Segantini’s drawings, the artist nevertheless quickly strove to reassert his individuality, as may be seen in “ The Drinking-place,” which gained a gold medal in Paris (1889), “In the Sheep-fold,” “By the Spinningwheel,” and “ Ploughing in the Engadine ” (see Plate), for which he was awarded a gold medal at the Turin Exhibition (1892). Besides those works in which he studied simple effects of light and Alpine scenery, such as “ Mid-day on the Alps” and “Winter at Savognino,” he also painted symbolical subjects: “ The Punishment of Luxury,” and the “Unnatural Mothers” (in the Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool). Segantini died at Maloja in October 1899. An exhibition of his works was held in London, and afterwards at Brussels in 1899, and at Milan in 1900. Seven important pictures and nine drawings by Segantini were exhibited with success at the Paris Exhibition in 1900. Authorities.—H. Zimmern, Magazine of Art (London), 1897 ; W. Ritter, Gazette des Beaux-Arts (Paris), 1898 ; Robert de la Sizeranne, Revue de VArt (Paris), 1899 ; and Revue des Deux Mondes (Paris), 1900. (h. Fr.)

Segovia, capital of the above province, on the railway from Yillalba to Medina del Campo, near the river Eresma. It is still a walled city, and all its fine monuments of the Roman occupation as well as its mediaeval buildings are kept in good state of preservation. Outside the older parts of the city modern suburbs have sprung up on all sides. The woollen industry has decayed, and its place has been taken by paper and flour mills, dyeing, foundries, earthenware, and some coarse porcelain. Segovia has a botanical garden, a savings bank, two public libraries, and two remarkable archive depots. Public education is well taken care of in the institute, a dozen primary schools, normal school for teachers, and arts and handicraft schools. Segovia has been for more than a century the royal artillery school of Spain. Population (1877), 11,318; (1897), 14,738.

Sehore, a town of Central India, with British cantonment, within the native state of Bhopal, situated in 23° 11' N. and 77° 7' E., with a station on the BhopalUjain railway, 24 miles west of Bhopal. It is the residence of the political agent for the Bhopal agency, and headquarters of the Bhopal battalion. Population (1881), 15,595; (1891), 16,232. The number of police is 53 men. There are a high school, dispensary, and jail. Seiche. See Tides. Seidl, Anton (1850-1898), Hungarian operatic conductor, was born at Budapest, 7th May 1850. He entered the Leipzig Conservatorium in October 1870, and remained there until 1872, when he was summoned to Bayreuth as one of Wagner’s copyists. There he helped to make the first fair copy of Der Ring des Nibelungen. Thoroughly imbued with the Wagnerian spirit, it was natural that he should assist in the first Bayreuth Festival in 1876. His chance as a conductor came when, on Wagner’s recommendation, he was appointed to the Leipzig Stadt-Theater, where he remained until, in 1882, he went on tour with Angelo Neumann’s Nibelungen Ring company. To his conducting critics attributed much of such artistic success as attended the production of the Trilogy at Her Majesty’s Theatre in June of that year. In 1883 Seidl went with Neumann to Bremen, but two years later was appointed successor to Leopold Damrosch as conductor of the German Opera in New York, and in the same year he married Fraulein Kraus, the distinguished singer. In America Seidl’s orchestra became famous. In 1886 he was one of the conductors at Bayreuth, and in 1897 he filled a similar position at Covent Garden, London. He died in New York, 28th March 1898. Segovia, a province of Spain, in Old Castile. Seidl was essentially a “ modern ” conductor of very con(it. H. L.) Area, 2670 square miles. Population (1887), 154,443; siderable ability.

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SEINE — S E L A N G O R

Seine, a river of France, rising in the Cote d’Or, and flowing generally north-west and west to the English Channel, at Havre. At Chatillon (C6te d’Or), 38 miles from its source, it has an altitude of only 705 feet, more than half its total descent having been accomplished. Its breadth on entering Paris is about 182 yards, and, on leaving, 149 yards. At Clichy, 1 mile north of the fortifications, the great sewer, into which practically the whole drainage system of Paris is directed, is discharged into the Seine. The tide begins to make itself felt at Poses, 11 miles above Elbeuf, and between Caudebec and Villequier the mascaret, or bore, has its greatest development. In 1878 it was decided, in order to facilitate the navigation of the river below Paris, that between the capital and Eouen several additional locks should be constructed and other improvements effected, so as to divide this part of its course into ten easy stretches. The work was completed in 1886. The head of the estuary is now found near Quillebeuf, and four miles lower down, between the lighthouses of Tancarville on the north-north-east, and Pointe de la Eoque on the southsouth-west, the width is miles. A canal 14 miles in length is carried across the alluvial plains north of the bay, between Tancarville and Havre. (See Eiver Engineering.) The Seine is classed as navigable from Mery to the sea, a length of 337 miles, and divided into nine sections. The navigation statistics here given are those for 1900. The total tonnage includes wood floated. 1. Mery to Marcilly, 16 miles. In this section navigation is purely nominal. 2. Marcilly to Montereau, 46 miles, mean depth 5 '25 feet, crossed by 35 bridges ; number of boats, 998 (of which 661 in descent) ; total tonnage, 103,355. 3. Montereau to the limits of the departments Seine-et-Marne and Seine-et-Oise, 36 miles, mean depth 5‘5 feet, 35 bridges ; 11,307 boats (6935 in descent) ; total tonnage, 1,945,287. 4. From preceding limits to Paris fortifications, 25 miles, mean depth 6'5 feet, 20 bridges; number of boats, 29,316 (16,685 in descent) ; total tonnage, 6,496,304. 5. Across Paris, 7^ miles, mean depth 10‘5 feet, crossed by 37 bridges ; number of boats, 32,633 (17,872 in descent); total tonnage, 7,494,037. 6. Paris fortifications to Briche, 13 miles, mean depth 10 '5 feet, crossed by 13 bridges; number of boats, 16,461 (6357 in descent) ; total tonnage, 4,308,548. 7. Briche to confluence of Oise, 26 miles, mean depth 10'5 feet, 15 bridges ; number of boats, 19,382 (4723 in descent); total tonnage, 4,966,029. 8. Confluence of Oise to Rouen, 106 miles, mean depth 10‘5 feet, bridges 23 ; number of boats, 8634 (3184 in descent); total tonnage, 2,054,284. 9. Rouen to Havre, 78 miles, mean depth 22 feet; number of boats, 1808 (772 in descent) ; total tonnage, 328,614. (e. -J. H.) Seine, a department of France, having Paris for its capital, watered by the Seine and the Marne, which unite at Charenton. Area, 185 square miles. The population, 2,799,329 in 1881, had increased in 1901 to 3,599,870, of whom 939,311 were settled outside of Paris. The births in 1899 were 77,010, of which 19,054 were illegitimate ; deaths, 73,219 ; marriages, 32,105. There were in 1896, 1807 schools, with 351,000 pupils, not more than 1 per cent, of the population being illiterate. The area cultivated was in 1896 estimated at 66,339 acres, of which 43,435 were arable and 1198 under vines. The wheat grown in 1899 was valued at £104,000 ; rye, £8000 ; oats, £43,000; potatoes, £92,000; vines, £29,000. The live stock in 1899 comprised 17,000 horses, 13,000 cattle, 1600 sheep, 2700 pigs, and 411 goats. There is no coal nor other minerals, except quarries of stone and plaster of Paris. There is, however, an active industry in metals, yielding in 1898, 34,000 metric tons of iron, 2300 tons of steel, and several tons of other metals, giving a total value of £282,000. Excluding those of the capital, the important industries are spinning, leather-dressing, chemical products, paper, &c. The chief places outside of Paris are St Denis, Boulogne, Puteaux, Choisy, Ivry, Montreuil, Yincennes, Suresnes, and Sceaux.

Seine-et-Marne, a department of northern France, watered by the Seine and the Marne. Area, 2273 square miles. The population, 348,991 in 1881, had grown in 1901 to 355,638. The births in 1899 were 7226, of whicli 441 were illegitimate ; deaths, 7815 ; marriages, 2679. "With 927 primary schools (1896), attended by 52,000 pupils, there was but 1 per cent, of the population illiterate. The land under cultivation in 1896 comprised 1,388,140 acres, of which 992,940 acres were ploughland and 11,115 acres under vines. The harvest of 1899 yielded in wheat the value of £1,801,000 ; rye, £91,800 ; barley, "£43,200 ; oats, £1,593,000 ; potatoes, £160,000 ; mangold-wurzel, £132,000 ; green crop (trefoil, lucerne, and sainfoin), £585,000; vines, £61,000. The live stock of 1899 included 43,960 horses, 92,050 cattle, 439,800 sheep, and 14,200 pigs. The milk produced in 1899 was valued at £1,193,300. With the exception of clay and building stone, Seine-et-Marne produced in 1898, in the way of minerals, only 80 metric tons of peat, and the industry in metals was represented by only 87 tons of iron, valued at £607. The distilleries, on the other hand, produced 1,541,000 gallons of alcohol, while the production of sugar exceeded 913,000 cwt. Melun, the capital, had in 1901, 10,820 inhabitants. Seine-et-Oise, a department of northern France, watered by the two rivers naming it. Area, 2185 square miles. The population, 577,798 in 1881, had increased to 700,405 in 1901. The births in 1^99 were 14,427, of which 1164 were illegitimate ; deaths, 15,849 ; marriages, 5234. There were in 1896, 1419 schools, with 95,000 pupils, 2 per cent, of the population being illiterate. Out of 1,286,870 acres under cultivation in 1896, 886,730 acres were plough-land, 41,990 acres garden land, and 14,820 acres vineyards. This department has a larger area laid out in gardens than any other department of France. The wheat grown in 1899 was valued at £1,204,400 ; rye, £93,000 ; barley, £49,000 ; oats, £853,000 ; potatoes, £47,000 ; natural pastures, £91,200 ; vines, £104,000 ; beetroot, £122,000. The live stock included (1899) 48,690 horses, 3312 asses, 95,700 cattle, 311,200 sheep, and 20,500 pigs. In the way of minerals this department yielded, in 1896, only 260 metric tons of peat. Nor is there any important industry in metals, only 3700 tons of iron having been manufactured in 1898. Only the industries connected with agriculture are on a scale of importance. The distilleries manufactured in 1898, 2,854,000 gallons of alcohol, and the sugar output amounted to 338,000 cwt. Versailles, the capital, numbered in 1901, 44,563 inhabitants. Seine-lnferieure, a department of the north of France, washed by the English Channel and watered by the Seine. Area, 2448 square miles. The population, 814,068 in 1881, had increased to 843,928 in 1901. The births in 1899 were 23,588, of which 3017 were illegitimate ; deaths, 23,481 ; marriages, 6738. There were in 1896, 1479 schools, with 126,000 pupils, 7 per cent, of the population being illiterate. The land under cultivation in 1896 comprised 1,416,545 acres, of which 837,330 acres were ploughland, 14,820 acres in gardens, 148,200 acres in woods, and about 414,960 acres in natural pastures and grass lands, the vine not being cultivated in this department. One of the richest agricultural departments of France, Seine-lnferieure produced in 1899 wheat valued at £1,204,000 ; rye, £73,000 ; barley, £40,000 ; oats, £800,000 ; potatoes, £88,100 ; mangold-wurzel, £92,000 ; colza, £191,000 ; beetroot, £53,000 ; apples, £410,000. The live stock of 1899 included 71,650 horses, 279,010 cattle, 172,800 sheep, and 70,500 pigs. The milk produce of 1899 was valued at £1,402,000. The mining of the department yielded in 1898 only 350 metric tons of peat, silica, and ashlar. The metallurgic production of the copper foundries of Rouen, however, exceeded £190,000. The principal industry is that of cotton carried on in Rouen, Darnetal, Sotteville, Le Havre, and Yvetot, which maintains 1,600,000 spindles and more than 16,000 looms. The woollen industry is also very active in Elbeuf and its environs. The distilleries produced (1898) 1,437,000 gallons of alcohol. A good deal is done in the refining of sugar and the manufacture of glass and paper. The chief towns are Rouen, the capital, with 110,717 inhabitants ; Le Havre, the second port of France, with 127,639, the special commerce of which in 1899 was valued at £54,400,000, and its general commerce at £68,300,000 ; Elbeuf, with 18,164 inhabitants. Seismograph.

See Earthquakes.

Seismometer.

See Earthquakes.

Sel&ngor.

See Malay States (Federated).

SELBORNE

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Selborne, Roundell Palmer, Earl of question, had alienated from him many of his constituents (1812-1895), English lawyer and statesman, was bora at in Plymouth, abandoned the prospect of re-election for Mixbury, in the county of Oxford, on 27 th November that borough, and did not seek for election elsewhere. 1812. His father was rector of the parish: his grand- In 1848 he married Lady Laura Waldegrave, daughter father and great-grandfather were merchants in the City of Earl Waldegrave. In 1849 he had become a Q.C.; of London, where their descendants for a long while and in 1851 he took his seat in the Rolls Court, where continued to be influential people; his mother belonged he soon obtained a leading and very lucrative practice, to the family of Roundell, which had been settled for and was engaged in many of the most important cases four centuries in the West Riding of Yorkshire. He was in the Court of Chancery. In July 1861 he accepted, educated at Rugby and at Winchester, and in 1830 went from Lord Palmerston the office of solicitor-general, a into residence in the University of Oxford as a scholar knighthood, and a safe seat for the borough of Richmond of Trinity College. Here he lived in intimacy with many in Yorkshire, secured for him through the friendly action friends, especially Claughton and Charles Wordsworth. of Lord Zetland, and thus began the second spell of He soon joined the Union Debating Society, of which Palmer’s membership of the House of Commons, which Gladstone was at that time president; and there Palmer continued till his elevation to the woolsack and the first tried his powers in debate. In 1834 he took his peerage. In September 1863 he become attorney-general, degree in the first class of the school of Literal Humaniores ; and so continued till the Government of which he was a he won the Eldon scholarship and was elected to a fellow- member resigned in 1866. The Civil War in America, and the questions which ship at Magdalen College; and after a year, spent chiefly arose from the relations of Great Britain with both in private tuition, partly in Lord Winchilsea’s house and partly in the University, he removed to London (November belligerents, rendered the duties of the law officers of 1835) and commenced reading for the Bar. In London he the Crown more than usually onerous, and Palmer was found himself surrounded by members of his own family, called upon to take part, as adviser of the ministry, and through their influential position, as well as through in the Courts, and in the House, in the questions which his own and his father’s friends, he obtained a freer arose in respect of the Trent and the Peterhoff, the access to much good society than is usually the lot of a cruisers Alabama and Florida, and the Alexandra, a ship young man coming to London from a university. Mean- which was seized by the Government, and other matters. while events had happened which were felt by Palmer, In 1865 he took a large part in the passing of the when he looked back in after life, to ha've been turning Act under which all the law courts were gathered together points in his mental history. In 1832 his mother had in the Strand. In 1866 he expressed himself _ favourable been affected by a very distressing illness, which continued to the making of household suffrage the basis of reprefor years, and in the winter of 1834—35 his brother Hemy sentation, an expression of opinion which probably influenced the Reform Bill of the following year—in the was lost at sea. Palmer was called to the Bar on 7th June 1837, the discussions on which Palmer took a prominent part, and same day on which John Rolt, a man of very different especially in opposition to the so-called “ fancy franchises antecedents, but afterwards a worthy rival of Palmer, was originally proposed by its authors. In the same year he also called. Through his family connexions in the City took part in supporting the measure for the abolition of of London, clients soon came to Palmer’s chambers, compulsory Church rates. In 1868 occurred an event of great importance m and his business at the Chancery bar increased rapidly. his career. In April of that year Gladstone proposed his Meanwhile his interests were not wholly confined to law : for some time (1840—43) he wrote for The Times and the resolutions with reference to the Irish Church on which British Critic y he made a plunge into patristic learning, the Bill for its disestablishment was subsequently based. from which he soon recoiled; he was much interested This measure was opposed to many of the dearest beliefs in the controversies which distracted the Church on the and feelings of Palmer, who ivas a strong and consciensubject of Tract 90; in the treatment of the Episcopal tious Churchman, and he evidenced his disapproval of Church in Canada by the Canadian Government and the his chief’s measure by abstaining from voting on the Colonial Office ; in the establishment by the Crown, in resolutions. At the election of November 1868 Palmer conjunction with the king of Prussia, of the Jerusalem was again returned for Richmond, and Gladstone bishopric; and in the contest for the professorship of offered him the office of lord chancellor or the office of a lord justice with a peerage; both offers were poetry at Oxford on Mr Keble’s retirement. In 1847, and again in 1853, Palmer was returned as declined by Palmer, and he assumed a position of indemember of Parliament for Plymouth, as a Peelitc,. and pendent opposition to the measure relative, to the Irish in the House of Commons he took an active and inde- Church. On the 22nd March 1869 he delivered a very pendent part. He advocated the admission of Jews powerful speech against the second reading of the Bill, to Parliament; he opposed Lord John Russell’s measure and during its later stages exercised a considerable to repel the so-called papal aggression; he opposed the influence in modifying the severity of its provisions. The admission of Dissenters into the University of Oxford; position of Palmer at this time was very remarkable. and he was hostile to the action of the Government The foremost advocate at the Bar, he was known to have in the Crimean war. On the question of the reform declined the highest prize in the profession rather than of the University of Oxford, he sympathized with the promote a measure of which he disapproved; a very reformers, but felt himself prohibited, by the oaths prominent member of the House of Commons whose which he had taken, from assuming any active part in action had been more than usually independent of party the promotion of change. In 1855 he supported he had separated himself from his political friends and Gladstone in the efforts to bring about peace with Russia maintained a position as the dignified and forcible before the capture of Sebastopol; in 1856 he opposed opponent of Disestablishment. Without office and without the opening of museums on Sunday; in the following combination with the Conservative Opposition, he exercised year he supported Cobden in his disapproval of the great influence within and without the walls of St second opium war with China. At the general election Stephen’s. What made his position the more remarkable on March 1857, Palmer, finding that the independent was that he was frequently consulted by the Government part he had taken, especially in reference to the Chinese which he had declined to join, and that on some occasions

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SELBORNE they invoked the assistance which his great influence in court, for once presided over in person by the sovereign the House enabled him to afford to them. could not but recall the Aula Regia, where the Norman In 1869 he sought to modify rather than to oppose kings sat amid their counsellors before equity had arisen the Bill for the abolition of tests in the universities. In to correct law, and before the separation between the 1870 he gave a qualified support to Gladstone’s first three great common law courts had begun. A small Irish Land Act, and in the same year he supported incident may illustrate the novelty of the assemblage Forsters Education Act. In 1872 he undertook the of the one great court on that day. The Queen, on the defence of his friend Lord Chancellor Hatherley, when prayer of the attorney-general, ordered that the proceedattacked for his appointment of Sir Robert Collier to ings of the day should be recorded, an order which caused the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, and, by a a momentary embarrassment to the lord chancellor, as the line of argument more ingenious than convincing, secured court had no existing registrar, and no existing book in a majority for the Government. which the record should be made. On the occasion of the The Treaty of Washington was the means of casting opening of the Royal Courts Lord Selborne received an a great duty upon Palmer. After the conclusion of the earldom. Civil War in America very large claims were preferred The year 1885 was marked in Lord Selborne’s life by against Great Britain for alleged breaches of her duty as the death of his wife, and by his final separation from a neutral Power; and after long negotiations, England and the party of which Gladstone was the acknowledged the United States agreed to arbitration. Palmer, who leader. That statesman had in the latter part of the year had been advising the British Government during these indicated his leaning towards the disestablishment of the negotiations, and who (4th August 1871) had defended Church of England, and towards Home Rule for Ireland. the treaty in the House of Commons, was briefed on Both these leanings were opposed to the deepest convicbehalf of Great Britain. In the end the Geneva tribunal tions of Lord Selborne; and it was an inevitable result made an award requiring the payment by Great Britain that when in January 1886 Gladstone resumed office to the United States of a sum of about £3,000,000. To as premier, Lord Selborne should not be again his those who, in order to promote the cause of international chancellor: on the 30th January in that year they parted arbitration, are desirous of acquiring a knowledge of the for ever; and Lord Selborne felt that his public life, dangers and difficulties which beset this mode of settling except so far as he might serve his country by voice or disputes, the account which Palmer has left of his part pen, was now over, and that his “idols were broken.” in this arbitration may be commended. But neither his.courage nor his industry forsook him; In September 1872 Gladstone again offered him the and he found, in opposing the new views of his old Great Seal, which Lord Hatherley had resigned • and he colleague, ample scope for both voice and pen; and as a also for the first time took up his residence in his newly member of the House of Lords he continued almost to erected house at Blackmoor, in the parish of Selborne, in the last to take part in hearing and deciding appeals, and the county of Hampshire, from which he took his new title sometimes in the ordinary business of the House. as a peer. In the following year (1873) Lord Selborne In addressing the electors of Midlothian in September carried through Parliament the Judicature Act. The 1885, Gladstone had suggested the severance of the foundations of this measure were laid so long ago as Church of England from the State as a subject on which February 1867, when Palmer had moved for a Royal the foundation of discussion had already been laid, and Commission on the constitution of the courts, and had he averred the existence of “a current almost throughtaken an active part in the work of that Commission, of out the civilized world, slowly setting in the direction which the first report was made in 1869. The result of disestablishment.” Such an utterance from such of this Act of 1873 was to effect a fundamental change in a man greatly excited the hopes of Nonconformists the judicature system. By the operation of the Judicature who had previously published a manifesto under the Act one supreme court with several divisions was con- title of “The Case for Disestablisment.” This stirring stituted; each division could administer the whole law; of the question deeply moved Lord Selborne, who was the conflict of divergent systems of law was largely strongly opposed alike to disestablishment and disendowovercome by declaring that when they were at variance, ment, and in the following year, 1886, he published a the principles of equity should prevail over the doctrines work entitled A Defence of the Church of England of the common law. The details of this great change against Disestablishment, with an introductory letter were embodied in a code of general rules prepared by a committee of judges, over which Lord Selborne for addressed to Gladstone. In the introductory letter he criticized Gladstone’s pronouncement on the subject and two years presided week by week, with unfaltering especially examined the allegation of a general tendency attention to the minutest detail. If, wrote Lord Selborne towards, disestablishment in the civilized world at large in his memoirs, speaking of the Judicature Act of 1873, and arrived at a negative conclusion. In the body of the "‘I leave any monument behind me which will bear book the learned author treated of the history of the the test of time, it may be this.” It is impossible to English Church, its endowments, and the case of the separate this fusion of law and equity, this union of all the higher courts into one supreme tribunal, from advocates, of disestablishment. The work is throughout characterized by an abundant supply of learning and of the construction of a single home for this great insti- information as to the history and the state of the tution; and the opening of the Royal Courts in the Church of England at that time, and by great dialectical Strand in the year 1882, when Queen Victoria personally acuteness. It is a powerful defence as well as a valuable presided in her. one supreme court, and handed over the summary of the history of the Established Church in care of the building to Lord Selborne, as her chancellor England. In 1888 Lord Selborne published a second work and as the head of this great body, was impressive as an on the Church question, entitled Ancient Facts and outward and visible sign of the silent revolution, which fallacies concerning Churches and Tithes, in which he owed more to Lord Selborne than to any other individual. o the student of the natural history of jurisprudence the examined more critically than in his earlier book the developments of early ecclesiastical institutions, both on fusion of . the two systems of law and equity may well the Continent and in Anglo-Saxon England, which resulted recall a similar result brought about in Imperial Rome; m the formation of the modern parochial system and its o the student of British institutions, the supreme general endowment with tithes. A second edition of this

SELENGHINS K —S E L K I R K work, embodying the result of its author’s subsequent researches in the Vatican Library and elsewhere, was published in the year 1892. A perusal of these books will show with how wide a range of investigation and with what care Lord Selborne prepared himself for the discussion of these ecclesiastical questions which deeply stirred him. But Lord Selborne did not carry on his opposition to Gladstone’s proposals only in his library or by his pen; in the year 1886-87 he travelled to many parts of the country, and addressed influential public meetings in defence of the union between the Church and State and against Home Rule; and in September 1893, in his eighty-first year, he addressed a powerful speech to the House of Lords in opposition to the Home Rule Bill. Lord Selborne’s health had, with the exception of two collapses in 1883 and 1888, which appear to have been due to overwork, continued excellent till February 1895, when he was attacked by influenza. He died 4th May 1895 at his seat in Hampshire, full of years and of honours. To the subject of university education Lord Selborne at different times in his life gave much time and attention. As a fellow of Magdalen College, he had been desirous of changes which he felt himself bound by his oath from advocating; and he had taken part in the discussions on the abolition of tests in the old universities.1 He gave much time and attention to his duties as chairman of the second Oxford commission under the Act of 1876; in 1878 he filled the office of lord rector of the university of St Andrews; and in the following year he presided over a commission on the subject of university education in London. Lord Selborne’s literary labours included the publication in 1862 of a selection of hymns, under the title of The Book of Praise, a work in which he was greatly assisted by Mr Daniel Sedgwick, a bookseller and publisher in the City of London. The w7ork was characterized by the great pains taken to ascertain the true authorship of hymns which were either anonymous or attributed to those who had not composed them, and by a like effort to exclude all variations grafted on the original language, and to give the hymns “in the genuine uncorrupted text of the authors themselves.” In the course of his labours as editor of this volume he was struck by the unity which was presented by Christian hymnody, “ binding together by the force of a common attraction, more powerful than all causes of difference, times ancient and .modern, nations of various race and language, Churchmen and Nonconformists, Churches reformed and unreformed ” (Preface). In the same field of literature Lord Selborne further laboured by the publication of another collection called The Book of Praise Hymnal; a contribution to an edition of Bishop Ken’s hymns; a paper on English Church Hymnody at a Church Congress; an article in the Encyclopaedia Britannica on the hymns of the Latin and Oriental Churches, as w7ell as those of Germany and Great Britain, which was republished as a separate volume in 1892. During the last few years of his life Lord Selborne engaged in the composition, for the benefit of his children, of memorials of his own life and of the lives of many members of his family. These Memorials, Part /., Family and Personal, in 2 vols., which were published in 1896, Memorials, Part II., Personal and Political, also in 2 vols., were edited by Lady Sophia Palmer and published in 1898. In the years 1880-81 Lord Selborne wrote to 1 In 1867 he founded an association for the improvement of legal education, in the hope of bringing about the establishment or the restoration of “ a general school of law in London on a scale worthy of the importance of the law and of the resources of the Inns of Court.” This enterprise was not successful. The opposing forces were too strong to permit Lord Selborne to succeed, i

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his son a series of letters on religious subjects, dealing in an elementary way with natural and revealed religion, the inspiration of the Bible, and Biblical criticism. These were published in 1898, under the title of Letters to His Son on Religion, by Roundell, First Earl of Selborne. In person Lord Selborne was of about the average height: his manners when among strangers were somewhat reserved; his style, both in speaking and writing, was fluent, tending to diffuseness; his oratory was marked by uniform good sense and lucidity, both of arrangement and language; and if he never reached the highest level of oratorical excellence, he never descended to what was commonplace or irrelevant. As a judge, whether in the Supreme Court or in the House of Lords, he displayed high qualities : he was patient, courteous, logical, and learned, and his judgments contain many valuable expositions of the principles of law. The fusion of law and equity, the reorganization of the whole judicial system of England, and the association of all the supreme tribunals in one common home were works of no ordinary magnitude or importance, and give a character of unusual importance to his chancellorship. That Lord Selborne was a truly religious man it is impossible to doubt: his whole life w7as regulated and inspired by a sense of his duty towards God and his fellowmen, and a long life spent amid the temptations of legal and public life left not the faintest stain on his memory. He was a devout member of the Church of England, to which he looked up with unstinted affection and reverence; and he found in its service and formularies an adequate satisfaction for all his religious feelings. He belonged to the High Church school, w7hich was influenced by the teaching of Newman and Pusey and the Oxford teachers of their day; but he by no means slavishly followed them. With the later High Church movement, usually described as Ritualism, he had less sympathy. His life was prosperous, for from his first prize at the university till his acquisition of an earldom, he went on a course of almost unbroken success. He had the double dignity of having refused the highest prize in his profession for conscience’ sake, and of having accepted that dignity without loss of consistency; in his life he acquired a high reputation and the sincere admiration of his fellowmen, as well as an abundant fortune and ample titular distinctions. His life was also happy, for he had pleasure in his work, he loved and was loved by his wife and children; he had a strong constitution, and retained his bodily and mental powers to the last; his faith in the religion of his youth was unshaken to the end; and he lived throughout his long life with the consciousness of rectitude. (e. f.) Selenghinsk, Old and New, two towns of East Siberia, in the province of Transbaikalia, on opposite banks of the Selenga. The latter, on the left bank, is a district town, but both are small; formerly important centres of trade with China, they lost their importance with the growth of Kiakhta. A colony of English missionaries is close by. It was here that the Treaty of 1688 was concluded by Russia with the Mongol princes, who swore allegiance to their northern neighbour. The population of the district town in 189/ was 1076. Selkirk, a royal and parliamentary burgh (Border group) and the county town of Selkirkshire, Scotland, on the river Ettrick, 37 miles south-south-east of Edinburgh by rail. There are fourteen woollen factories; also, engineering and millwright works. Modern erections include a . United Free church, a public hall, and a free library. Population (1891), 6397 ; (1901), 5701.

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SELKIRK—SELLAR

Selkirk Mountains.

See Canada.

Selkirkshire, an inland lowland county of Scotland, bounded on the N. by Midlothian, on the 1ST. and W. by Peebles, on the S. by Dumfries, and on the E. by Roxburgh. Area and Population.—In 1891 Innerleithen and Peebles parishes were placed wholly in Peebles ; Lyne and Megget was divided, and Lyne was restricted to Peebles, while Megget was added to the Selkirk parish of Yarrow. Part of Yarrow was given to the Peebles parish of Traquair. Selkirk, Ashkirk, and Galashiels were placed wholly in Selkirk, Roberton was placed wholly in Roxburgh, and part of Melrose was transferred to the Selkirk parish of Galashiels. The area of the county is 172,426 acres, or about 269 square miles. The population was, in 1881, 25,564; in 1891, 27,353; in 1891, on the above area, 27,712; in 1901, 23,371, of whom 10,680 were males and 12,691 females. On the old area, taking land only (164,545 acres, or 257'1 square miles), the number of persons to the square mile in 1901 was 90'8, and the number of acres to the person 7'4. In the registration county the population increased between 1881 and 1891 by 6'6 per cent. Between 1881 and 1891 the excess of births over deaths was 3833, and the increase of the resident population 1781. The following table gives particulars of births, deaths, and marriages in 1880, 1890, and 1899 :— of Year. Deaths. Marriages. Births. Percentage Illegitimates. 1880 450 163 927 1890 474 176 757 6-74 1899 365 160 473 5-3 The following table gives the birth-rate, death-rate, and marriagerate per thousand of the population for a series of years :— 1880. 1881-90. 1890. 1891-98. 1899. Birth-rate .. 37-00 29-78 27-09 23-14 16-21 Death-rate . 17-47 14-69 16-96 13-98 12-51 Marriage-rate 6-33 5-45 6-30 5-49 5-47 In 1891 there were 78 Gaelic-speaking persons in the county, and 24 foreigners. Valuation in 1889-90, £63,061 ; 1899-00 £63,806. Administration. —The county unites with Peebles to return a member to Parliament, and contains two burghs of the Border parliamentary group, Selkirk and Galashiels. Selkirk (5701), the county town, is the only royal burgh, and Galashiels (13,598) is the only other place above the rank of village. There are six civil parishes, and the number of paupers and dependents in September 1899 was 432. Selkirk forms a sheriffdom with Roxburgh and Berwick, and a resident sheriff-substitute sits at Selkirk and Galashiels. Education.—Nine school boards manage 17 public schools, which had an average attendance of 3729 in 1898-99, and 5 voluntary schools (2 Roman Catholic and 1 Episcopal) had 533. There are high schools at Galashiels and Selkirk, and 3 other schools in the county earned grants in 1898 for giving higher education. Part of the “residue” grant is spent in supporting short courses of instruction in dairying, and Selkirk Town Council subsidizes popular science classes in the burgh school. Agriculture. —Oats cover all but a few- hundred acres of the corn land. The percentage of cultivated area in 1898 was 17-4. Of the 226 holdings in 1895 the average size was 134 acres. The percentage under 5 acres was 17-70, between 5 and 50 acres 38-50, and over 50 acres 43-80. The number of farms between 50 and 100 acres was 19 ; between 100 and 300, 42 ; between 300 and 500, 18 ; and over 500, 20. The following table gives the principal acreages at intervals of five years from 1885 :— under Corn Green Year. Area Clover. Permanent Crops. Crops. Crops. Pasture. Fallow. 1885 23,320 4656 3013 7598 8,045 14 1890 24,209 4495 2982 7420 9,291 9 1895 30,392 5279 3410 9545 12,065 28 1899 30,054 5239 3296 9116 12,391 The following table gives particulars of the live stock durinothe same years :— ° Total Year. Horses. 1885 1890 1895 1899

567 609 738 714

Cows or Total Heifers in Cattle. Milk or Calf. 2748 1043 3088 1109 3418 1343 3223 1323

Sheep.

Pigs

164,314 163,724 181,031 184,957

495 469 509 373

The area under wood in 1895 was 4942 acres. At the census of 1891, 1084 men and 98 women were returned as being engaged in agriculture. Industries and Trade. —Galashiels and Selkirk produce a large output of woollen yarn, tweeds and tartans, besides hosiery. Galashiels has also iron foundries, engineering works, and dyeworks. There are large market vineries at Clovenfords. In 1891 the industrial population numbered 6004 men and 3600 women, of whom 3434 men and 3048 women were engaged in the manufacture of textiles. See Sir George Douglas. History of the Border Counties. Edinburgh, 1899.-—George Reavely. History of Galashiels. Galashiels, 1875.—Proceedings of Society of Antiquaries of Scotland.—C. Roger. Ettrick Forest. Edinburgh, 1860.—William Angus. Ettrick and Yarrow. Selkirk, 1894.—George Buist. “Geology of Selkirkshire” {Transactions of Highland and Agricultural Society). Second series, vol. xiii.—W. S. Crockett. In Praise of Tweed. Selkirk, 1899.—J. Russell. Reminiscences of Yarrow. 2nd edition. Selkirk, 1894. (W- wa.) Sella, Quint!no (1827-1884), Italian statesman and financier, was born at Mosso, near Biella, on 7th July 1827. After studying at Turin and Paris, he was appointed to the chair of geometry at Turin University in 1852,, and in 1860 was elected deputy. A year later he was. selected to be secretary-general of public instruction, and in 1862 received from Rattazzi the portfolio of finance. The Rattazzi cabinet fell before Sella could efficaciously provide for the deficit of £17,500,000 with which he was confronted; but in 1864 he returned to the ministry of finance in the Lamarmora cabinet, and dealt energetically with the deficit of £8,000,000 then existing. Persuading the king to forego £120,000 of his civil list, and his colleagues in the cabinet to relinquish part of their ministerial stipends, he effected savings amounting to £2,400,000, proposed new taxation to the extent of £1,600,000, and induced landowners to pay one year’s instalment of the land tax in advance. A vote of the Chamber compelled him to resign before his preparations for financial restoration were complete; but in 1869 he returned once more to the ministry of finance in a cabinet formed by himself, but of which he made over the premiership to Lanza. By means of the grist tax (which he had proposed in 1865, but which the Menabrea cabinet had passed in 1868), and by other fiscal expedients necessitated by the almost desperate condition of the national exchequer, he succeeded, before his fall from power in 1873, in placing Italian finance upon a sound footing, in spite of the fiercest attacks and persistent misrepresentation of his aims. In 1870 his great political influence turned the scale against the proposed alliance with France, and in favour of an immediate occupation of Rome. From 1873 until his premature death on 14th March 1884, he acted as leader of the Right, and was more than once prevented by an ephemeral coalition of personal opponents from returning to power as head of a Moderate Conservative cabinet. A man of the utmost integrity and moral courage, Sella combined with both an intelligence and an ability rare among Italian statesmen. As a scientist he was scarcely less eminent than as a politician. Since his death the amplest homage has been rendered to his merits by those who during his lifetime were most active in attempting to thwart his patriotic activity. (H. w. s.) Sellar, William Young: (1825-1890), Scottish classical scholar, was born at Morvich, Sutherlandshire, 22nd February 1825. Educated at the Edinburgh Academy and afterwards at the University, he passed to Balliol College, Oxford, of which he became a scholar. Graduating first class in classics, he was elected fellow of Oriel, and after holding assistant professorships at Durham and Glasgow, was appointed professor of Greek at St Andrews. After filling that office for six years, he was elected in 1863 to the professorship of humanity at

S E L M A — SELWYN Edinburgh University, and occupied that chair down to his death at his residence, Kenbank, near Dairy, Galloway, on 12th October 1890. Sellar was one of the most brilliant of modern classical scholars, and was remarkably successful in his endeavours to reproduce the spirit rather than the letter of Roman literature. The Roman Poets of the Republic (1863), The Roman Poets of the Augustan Age (1877), and Horace and the Elegiac Poets (1892), are his most prominent works, and are recognized as standard authorities on the subjects with which they deal. Professor Sellar also contributed to the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica a series of brilliant articles on the Roman poets. Selma., a city of Alabama, U.S.A., capital of Dallas county. It is situated in 32° 25' 1ST. and 87° W., on the right bank of the river Alabama, near the centre of the state, at an altitude of 126 feet. The river is navigable to this point, and this with the four railways centring here, the Birmingham, Selma, and New Orleans, the Louisville and Nashville, the Southern and the Western of Alabama, give Selma a large trade. This is principally in cotton, the chief crop of the surrounding country, and in lumber from the great pineries. The city contains railway shops and manufactures and large cotton warehouses. Population (1890), 7622, of which 3914, or more than one-half, were coloured; (1900), 8713, of whom 214 were foreign-born and 4429 negroes. Selwyn, George Augustus (1809-1878), bishop of New Zealand, was born at Church Row, Hampstead, 5th April 1809, and was the second son of William Selwyn, a distinguished legal writer. He was educated at Eton. Proceeding to Cambridge, he became scholar and afterwards fellow of his college. He was also famous as an athlete, having rowed in the University boat. He took his degree (second in the classical tripos) in 1831. He then returned to Eton as private tutor, was ordained deacon in 1833, and devoted himself with characteristic energy to work in the parish of Windsor. His vigour, determination, and ability soon marked him out for preferment; but when it arrived, it was hardly in a form expected or altogether approved by his friends. In 1841 it was proposed that he should go out as first bishop to New Zealand, which was just beginning to be colonized. The well-known mot of Sydney Smith embodied the opinion of London society on the unpromising nature of the career thus offered him. Selwyn, nevertheless, accepted the offer without hesitation. He started at once for his diocese, studying Maori on the voyage out, and threw himself into his work with all his heart. He lived a life of continual strain and hardship. He wTas days and sometimes nights in the saddle. He swam broad rivers; and having provided himself with a sailing vessel, soon became as much an expert in navigation as the most experienced sailor in the colony. Unfortunately, when by his devoted labours he had gained the confidence of the natives, his ascendancy was rudely shaken by the first Maori war. Selwyn endeavoured to mediate; but the only apparent result for the time was that he incurred the hostility of both parties. He went to the battlefield to minister to the bodily and sph'itual needs of the sick and wounded in both camps; but the Maoris were persuaded that he had gone out to fight against them, and years afterwards one of them pointed out a scar on his leg to an Anglican bishop, which he declared had been inflicted by Bishop Selwyn’s own hands. Still, the bishop persevered, through evil report and good report, but he was long before he could regain the confidence he had forfeited by his strict adherence to the line of his duty. In 1854 he returned to England for a short period of rest and refreshment; but

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he spent much of it in pleading the needs of his diocese, and there are those still who remember the scene when, in impassioned tones, and with eagle eye glancing round the crowded church, he advocated the cause of missions in his Ramsden Sermon at St Mary’s, Cambridge, and bid those present to “ fill up the void ” then existing, an appeal which drew Bishop Mackenzie to the mission field, and to a virtual martyrdom by the river Zambezi. Selwyn returned to New Zealand with a band of able associates, and henceforth set himself to divide the single diocese he had hitherto endeavoured to administer into sees of more manageable proportions. By degrees he met with the appreciation his lofty character and high sense of duty deserved. The colonists came to respect his uprightness, and the Maoris learned to regard him as their father. In 1868 Bishop Selwyn paid another visit to England to attend the first General Conference of Bishops of the Anglican Communion. While in England, the bishopric of Lichfield became vacant, and it was offered to him, and unhesitatingly declined. A difficulty, however, having arisen about filling up the see, it was once more offered to him, with the intimation that his appointment, and his only, would put an end to the deadlock which had occurred. He then considered that it was his duty to accept it. In his new sphere of work he displayed the same unselfish activity as before, and in the “ Black Country ” portion of his diocese he won the hearts of the working classes by his frank and hearty sympathy. He called his clergy and laity together for consultation in the diocesan conference, a part of the working of his colonial see of the value of which he had become convinced by experience. This was at first resisted as an innovation; but its usefulness was proved by the fact that a similar conference is now a feature in the working of every diocese in England and Wales. The health of the bishop soon began to suffer from the change from the freer life in the open air to which he had been accustomed. His splendid vitality slowly declined, and he died 11th April 1878. The Anglican communion has reason to be grateful to him for the constitution for the Church under his care, which he elaborated in conjunction with Sir George Grey, the bishop and layman working in brotherly accord. This constitution has served as a model for the organization of many other non-established branches of the Anglican Church. (j. j. l*.) Selwyn, John Richardson (1844-1898), bishop of the Melanesian Islands, the son of George Augustus Selwyn, first bishop of New Zealand and afterwards bishop of Lichfield, was born in New Zealand, 20th May 1844. He was educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He intended at first to follow the profession of the law; but fired by the example of the privations cheerfully endured by his father for the sake of the Church, he ultimately offered himself for holy orders. His ordination to the diaconate took place in 1869, after his father had accepted the bishopric of Lichfield. At first he laboured with energy and tact in his father’s English diocese; but the news of the martyrdom of Bishop Patteson in Melanesia led him to volunteer for service in the Australasian Archipelago. After a period of three years, during which the bishopric remained vacant, he was nominated as Bishop Patteson’s successor. This was in 1877. For twelve years he threw himself with intense energy into his most arduous work; and then his health entirely broke down, and he returned to England a hopeless cripple, but found a most appropriate sphere in the headship of Selwyn College, Cambridge, an institution founded in memory of his father’s remarkable S. VIII.— 65

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SEMAPHORE—SEMIRYECHENSK

work in New Zealand. He was appointed in 1893, and until his death, 12th February 1898, he employed such strength as remained to him in inspiring the undergraduates committed to his care with the spirit of unselfish heroism which had characterized his life. (j. J. l*.) Semaphore, a town, South Australia, in the county of Adelaide, 9Jr miles by rail from the town of Adelaide. It is one of the chief watering-places of the state, with a pier 1800 feet long. Its population is about 8000. Semendria (Servian, Smederevo), an important commercial town in the kingdom of Servia, on the Danube, between Belgrade and the Danubian Cataracts. It is believed to stand on the site of the Homan settlement Mom aureus, and there is a tradition that its famous vineyards—supplying Budapest and Vienna with some of the finest table grapes—were planted by the Roman Emperor Probus in the 3rd century of the Christian era. At the eastern end of the town, close to the river, there is a picturesque triangular castle with 24 square towers, built by the Servian Prince Gyuragy Brankovich in 1430, on the model of the Constantinople walls of that time. Semendria was the residence of that Servian ruler and the capital of Servia from 1430 to 1459. It is the seat of the district prefecture and a tribunal, and has a garrison of regular troops. Besides the special export of grapes and white wine, a great part of the Servian export of pigs, and almost all the export of cereals, passes through Semendria. Since 1886 the town has been connected with the Belgrade - Nish Railway by a branch line. Population (1900), 6912. Semenovka, or Semionovka, a town of Russia, in the government of Chernigov, 14 miles by rail from Gomel. Its industries comprise manufactures of leather, sheepskins, boots, pottery, and oil, and it is a centre for trade in bristles, and for pedlars; it also has several fairs of local importance. Population (1897), 15,125. Semipalatinsk, a province of Russian Central Asia belonging to the General-Governorship of the Steppes, bounded on the N. and N.E. by Tomsk, on the S.E. and E. by the Chinese province of Chuguchak, on the S. by the Russian provinces Syr-Daria and Semiryechensk, and on the W. by Akmolinsk. Its area is 184,631 square miles, and in 1897 its domiciled population was 685,197 (688,639 according to other reports), of whom 320,358 were women, and 55,093 lived in towns. Only 6 per cent, of the population was settled, the remainder, chiefly Kirghiz, being nomads. 555,259 were Mussulmans and 65,718 belonged to the Russian Orthodox Church. The province is divided into 5 districts, the chief towns of which are: Semipalatinsk (26,353), Pavlodar (7730), Kokbekty (2908), Karkaralinsk (4455), and Ust Kamenogorsk (8958). The standard of education is low; in 1895 there were only 100 primary schools, attended by 3115 boys and 675 girls, and two gymnasia, one for boys (57), and one for girls (182). The Kirghiz have their own schools, which they are very eager to found, and for which they collect their own funds. Agriculture is the chief occupation of the Russians and of part of the Kirghiz. It is impossible to carry it on without irrigation; but it is nevertheless widely spread, and the average yield in the years 1895 to 1899 was: rye 72,800 cwt, wheat 1,237,800 cwt., oats 408,300 cwt., barley 41,400 cwt., millet 159,500 cwt., and potatoes about 100,000 cwt. Flax and hemp are also grown, and melons are cultivated in fields; tobacco is widely grown. Cattle-breeding is the chief pursuit of the Kirghiz, and there were in 1895, 549,840 horses, 291,400 horned cattle, 1,700,000 sheep, and

61,600 camels. Bee culture is widely spread, especially among the Cossacks, and more than 15,000 beehives were registered in 1895. Fishing, which is carried on on Lakes Zaisan, Balkhash, and others, as also on the Black Irtysh, is of considerable importance. Gold is extracted, to the amount of 464 kilogrammes per annum, by nearly 4500 workers; also silver (896 kilogrammes), copper (850 cwt.), salt (42,000 tons) from the salt lakes, and coal (1500 tons in 1897), which has only begun to be extracted. There are two iron-works, but industry remains in its infancy, and the only other industrial establishments of any size are a large steam flour-mill and a distillery; the annual aggregate return of all factories is only £33,000. A considerable amount of trade is carried on, however, within the province, in which twenty fairs are held every year. The trade with China is chiefly in cattle, hides, wool, and felt, imported; and cottons and other manufactured goods, exported. Semipalatinsk, the capital of the above province, on the right bank of the Irtysh, and on the highway from Central Asia to Omsk, 481 miles southeast of that city. It carries on a considerable trade, especially with the Kirghiz, and has one flour-mill, one distillery, and several tanneries. It has also a library and museum, two gymnasia, for boys and girls, and schools for the Kirghiz. Steamers ply on the Irtysh to Omsk and Lake Zaisan. Population (1881), 17,820; (1897), 26,353. Semiryechensk, a province of Russian Turkestan, bounded on the N. by Semipalatinsk, on the E. and S. by the Chinese provinces of Chuguchak, Kulja, Aksu, and Kashgar, and on the W. by the Russian provinces of Fergana, Syr-Daria, and Akmolinsk, with an area of 152,280 square miles. Its climate is thoroughly continental. In the Balkhash Steppes the winter is very cold; the lake freezes every year, and the thermometer falls to 13° F. In the Alakul Steppes the winds blow away the snow. The passage from winter to spring is very rapid, and the prairies are rapidly covered with vegetation, which, however, is soon dried up by the sun. The average temperatures are : at Yyernyi (2430 feet high), for the year 46° F., for January 17°, for July 74°; at Prjevalsk (altitude 5800 feet), for the year 44°, for January 23°, for July 63°; still higher in the mountains, at Naryn (altitude 6640 feet) the average temperatures are only, for the year 37°, for January 1°, for July 64°. The yearly rainfall at these three places is 2L6, 16'0, and 11‘8 inches respectively. The population, which was estimated at 671,880 in 1891, in 1897 was found to be 990,107 (domiciled only), of whom 458,744 were women, and 59,659 lived in towns. Kirghiz formed 76 per cent, of the population, Taranchis 7 per cent., Russians 14 per cent., and Dungans most of the remainder. Of the Russians, 26,500 were Cossacks, about 15,000 were numbered in the military forces serving in the province, and 53,110 were peasants and artisans in towns. The province is divided into 6 districts, the chief towns of which are: Yyernyi, capital of the province (22,982), Jarkent (16,372), Kopal (2842), Pishpek (6622), Prjevalsk (7987), which has superseded Tokmak, and Sergiopol (1044). The standard of education is low; in 1899 there were only 82 primary schools, attended by 8817 boys and 2473 girls. The chief occupation of the Russians, the Taranchis, and the Dungans, and partly also of the Kirghiz, is agriculture. In an average year the crops yield about 137,500 cwt. of wheat, 47,500 cwt. of barley, 103,750 cwt. of oats, 61,250 cwt. of millet, 3075 cwt. of rice, and 5250 cwt. of potatoes—a supply which more than satisfies the needs of the population. A variety of oil-bearing plants and

SEMMELWEI SS — SENEGAL green fodder, as also hemp, flax, poppies, &c., are grown. Cattle-breeding is very extensively carried on by the Kirghiz, there being in 1899, 755,000 horses, 425,000 horned cattle, 4,274,000 sheep, 100,000 camels, 282,000 goats, and 15,000 pigs. Orchards and fruit gardens are well developed; the Crown maintains two model gardens. Bee culture is also widely spread, nearly 6700 cwt. of honey being obtained every year. Hunting in the mountains still retains its importance. The factories consist of a few flour-mills, distilleries, tanneries, and tobacco works; but a great variety of domestic trades, including carpet-weaving and the making of felt goods, saddlery, and iron goods, are carried on, both among the settled inhabitants and the nomad Kirghiz. Exports to China are valued at about 2,600,000 roubles annually, imports at a little over 1,000,000 roubles. SemmeEweiss, Ignatius Philippus (1818-1865), Hungarian physician, was born at Buda 17th July 1818, and was educated at the universities of Pest and Vienna. At first he intended to study law, but soon abandoned it for medicine; and such was his promise that, even as an undergraduate, he attracted the attention of men like Skoda and Rokitansky. He graduated M.D. at Vienna 4th April 1844, and in the following June was appointed assistant professor in the maternity department, under Professor Klein. In Klein’s time the deaths in this department became portentous, the ratio being rarely under 5‘03 and sometimes exceeding 7 '45 per cent. Between October 1841 and May 1843, of 5139 parturient women 829 died; giving the terrible death-rate of 16 percent, not counting those of patients transferred to other wards. It was observed that this rate of mortality prevailed in the students’ clinic; in the midwives’ clinic it ruled much lower. Mothers, finding themselves in that dreaded quarter, would fall on their knees and pray to be allowed to return to their homes. Profoundly moved by pity and sorrow, Semmelweiss found no satisfactory explanations in such causes as overcrowding, fear, mysterious atmospheric influences, or even contaminated wards; yet that the cause lay in some local conditions he felt certain. The patients would die in rows, others escaping; and women delivered before arrival, or prematurely, would escape. At last, he tells us, the death of a colleague from a dissection wound “ unveiled to my mind an identity ” with the fatal puerperal cases. The students often came to the lying-in wards from the dissecting-room, their hands cleansed with soap and water only. In May 1847 Semmelweiss prescribed ablutions with chlorinated lime water: in that month the mortality stood at 12'24 per cent.; before the end of the year it had fallen to 3'04, and in the second year to 1 '27 ; thus even surpassing the results in the midwives’ clinic. Skoda and other eminent physicians were convinced by these results (Zeitschrift d. k. k. Gesellschaft der Aerzte in Wien, J. vi. B. i. p. 10/). . Klein, however, apparently blinded by jealousy and vanity, supported by other reactionary teachers, and aided by the disasters which then befell the Hungarian nation, drove Semmelweiss from Vienna, and silenced him. Fortunately, at Pest Semmelweiss was appointed obstetric physician in the maternity department, then as terribly afflicted as Klein’s clinic had been; and during his six years’ tenure of office he succeeded, by antiseptic methods, in reducing the mortality to 0'85 per cent. Semmelweiss was slow and reluctant as an author, or no doubt his opinions would have obtained an earlier vogue; moreover, he was not only tender-hearted but also irascible, impatient, and tactless. Thus it cannot be said that the stupidity or malignity of his opponents was wholly to blame

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for the tragical issue of the conflict which brought this man of genius within the gates of an asylum 20th July 1865. Strange to say, he brought with him into this retreat a dissection wound of the right hand; and on the 17th of the following August he died of the very disease for the relief of which he had sacrificed health, fortune, and even life itself. For the relations in the order of discovery of Semmelweiss to Fister the reader is referred to the article on Lister (vol. xxx.). A brief biography of Semmelweiss by Dr Duka was published at Hertford (Austin and Sons) in 1892. (t. c. a.) Senaar. See Sudan : Anglo-Egyptian. Seneca Falls, a village of Seneca county, Hew York, U.S.A. It is situated in 42° 55' N. and 76° 45' W., on the river Seneca, and the New York Central and Hudson River and the Lehigh Valley railways, at an altitude of 463 feet. The falls in the river, from which the village derives its name, are 50 feet in height and furnish ample water-power, which has been put to use in the manufacture of woollen goods, machinery, and other articles. Population (1890), 6116; (1900), 6519, of whom 801 were foreign-born. Senegal, a river of West Africa, entering the Atlantic in 16° N. after a course of about 1000 miles. Explorations have improved our knowledge of the sourceregion of the river, showing that the Bafing, its chief upper branch, rises in 10° 28' N., 12° 5' W., and is joined in about 11° 10' N. by the Tene, formerly supposed to be the headstream of the Faleme. A little south of 12° the Bafing is a large stream 250 yards wide, and is here separated from the sources of the Faleme by a line of hills 2600 feet high, which send to the latter river four important streams rising in about 12° N. The rise of the Lower Senegal is due to the rains in this source-region, the flood water passing down the Faleme more quickly than down the Bafing owing to its shorter course. From July to October the level of the Senegal shows a series of fluctuations, with, however, a general increase till the end of August or beginning of September, when the maximum occurs. Boats drawing from 1 foot to 2 feet 6 inches can ascend to Kayes from the beginning of June to the middle of November ; steamers drawing 4 feet 3 inches, from July to October inclusive; and ocean steamers, lightened so as to draw 11-13 feet, during August and September. Senegal, a French colony in West Africa, situated between the Gambia on the S., the French Sudan on the E., and the Sahara on the N. It covers about 80,000 square miles and presents no prominent orographic feature. The coast is low and bordered with sandhills. The only important river is the Senegal, which is formed by the confluence at Bafulabe of the Bafing and the Bakhu, the former rising in Futa Jallon, belonging to French Guinea, and the latter in French Sudan. It passes, within the government of Senegal, the towns of Bakel, Matam, Salde, Podor, and St Louis; near Bakel it receives the Faleme, which flows from south to north. Senegal is placed under the immediate authority of the governor-general of West Africa, and comprises: (1) four communes with full communal powers (St Louis, Dakar, Goree, and Rufisque), containing a population of about 39,000 ; (2) nine circles, or territories administered directly, with a population of 61,000; (3) twenty-two countries on the middle and lower river, under the immediate protectorate of France, with about a million inhabitants; (4) autonomous countries north of the Senegal, under the political protectorate (the Moorish tribes Trarza, Brakna, and Duaish), with a population of 80,000. To these districts have to be added the western portion of the Sudan, now in

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administrative connexion with Senegal, which has an area of about 120,000 square miles and a population exceeding 2,000,000. Senegal produces, above all, oil-seeds, castor, earth-nut, sesame, and cocoa-nut. The earth-nut, since 1888, has yielded about 30,000 tons a year. Millet, maize, and rice occupy about two-thirds of the cultivated land. On the Lower Senegal there are a model farm and a nursery. Worthy of mention among the products of the country are acacia gum, which the Moors gather in the northern region ; the kola-nut; and especially caoutchouc, which is collected in increasing quantities (350 tons in 1898) in the outlying district of Casamance, which projects between Portuguese Guinea and British Gambia. The herds tend to increase : in 1898 there were about 90,000 cattle, 50,000 sheep, 40,000 goats, 3000 camels, besides asses and horses. Gold, iron, quicksilver, and copper are found. Industry is not organized, but the natives carry on weaving, pottery, brickmaking, and the manufacture of trinkets. The total trade, which in 1882 amounted to the value of