Encyclopaedia Britannica [21, 9 ed.]

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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BBITANNICA NINTH EDITION

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA A

DICTIONARY OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND GENERAL LITERATURE

NINTH EDITION

VOLUME XXI

EDINBURGH: ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK MDCCCLXXXVI

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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

E

RO THE

OTHE, RICHARD (1799—1867), theologian, was bor . Rossn, January 28, 1799, of parents in a goo position. After passing through the grammar schools c btettin and Breslau, he studied theology in the university of Heidelberg and Berlin (1817-20) under Daub, Schleiei macher, and Neander, the philosophers and historian Hegel, Creuzer, and Schlosser, exercising a considerabl influence in shaping his thought. From 1820 to 1822 h was in the clerical seminary at Wittenberg, and spent th next year in private study under his father’s roof a Breslau. In the autumn of 1823 he was appointe< chaplain to the Prussian embassy in Rome, of whici B 0 n B nSen WaS the head This Q oo Ator a professorship in- the P°st lie exchangee in^18^8 Wittenberg seminary and hence in 1837 he removed to Heidelberg as professo and director of a new clerical seminary; in 1849 hi accepted an invitation to Bonn as professor and university preacher, but in 1854 he returned to Heidelberg as pro lessor of theology and member of the Oberkirchenrath a position he held until his death, August 20 1867 Rothe’s mental and religious development was ’one o continuous progress. As a youth he was the subject oi deep religious feeling, with a decided bent towkrds g supernatural mysticism; his chosen authors were those ol the romantic school, and Novaks remained his life through a special favourite. In Berlin and Wittenbera he came under the influence of Pietism as represented by such men as Stier and Tholuck, though the latter pro nounced him a “ very modern Christian.” He afterwards himself confessed that, though he had been a sincere, he was never a happy Pietist. In Rome, where he enjoyed he intimate friendship of Bunsen, and studied church history under the broadening influence of classical and ecclesiastical art, lus mind broke loose from the straitened hie and narrow views of Pietism and he learned to look at Christianity in its human and universalistic aspects. Irom that time he began to develop and work out his great idea, the inseparable relation of religion and morals hnding m the latter the necessary sphere and the realizatmn of the idea of the former. He began then, and particularly after the revolution of July 1830, likewise to give a more definite form to his peculiar view of the relations of church and state. In consequence of this

I enlargement of his ideas of tho world, religion, morals, Christianity, the church and the state, Rothe gradually found himself out of harmony with the Pietistic thought and life of Wittenberg, and his removal to Heidelberg in 1837 and the publication of his first important work (Anfdnge der christlichen Kirche) in that year coincide with the attainment of the principal theological positions with which his name is associated. During the middle period of his career (1837-61) he led the life of a scholastic recluse, taking no active public part in ecclesiastical affairs in any way. During the last six years of his life (1861—67), partly owing to his liberation from great domestic cares and partly to the special circumstances of the church in Baden, he came forward publicly and actively as the advocate of a free theology and of the PROTESTANTENVEREIN (q.v.). This important change in Rothe’s practice was preceded by the publication of a valuable series of theological essays (in the Studien und Kritiken for 1860), afterwards published in a separate volume (Zur Dogmatilc, Gotha, 1st ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1869), on revelation and inspiration more particularly. These essays were a very searching examination of the relation of revelation to Scripture, and provoked much hostile criticism in quarters previously friendly to Rothe, where the relation was usually treated as almost one of identity. In consequence of this publication, and his advocacy of the programme of the Protestantenverein, he was classed at the end of his life amongst the more decided theological liberals rather than with the moderate orthodox party, amongst whom so many of his personal friends were to be found. Rothe was one of the most if not the most profound and influential of modern German theologians next to Schleiermacher. Like the latter he combined with the keenest logical faculty an intensely religious spirit, while his philosophical tendencies were rather in sympathy with Hegel than Schleiermacher, and theosophic mysticism was more congenial to him than the abstractions of Spinoza, to whom Schleiermacher owed so much. He classed himself amongst the theosophists, and energetically claimed to be a convinced and happy supernaturalist in a scientific age. A peculiarity of his thought was its systematic completeness and consistency; aphoristic, unsystematic, XXL — i

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timidly halting speculation was to him intolerable. Though his own system may seem to contain extremely doubtful or even fantastic elements, it is allowed by all that it is in its general outlines a noble massive whole, constructed by a profound, comprehensive, fearless, and logical mind. Another peculiarity of his thought was the realistic nature of his spiritualism : his abstractions are all real existences; his spiritual entities are real and corporeal; his truth is actual being. Hence Rothe, unlike Schleiermacher, lays great stress, for instance, on the personality of God, on the reality of the worlds of good and evil spirits, and on the visible second coming of Christ. Hence his religious feeling and theological speculation demanded their realization in a kingdom of God coextensive with man’s nature, terrestrial history, and human society ; and thus his theological system became a Theologische Ethik. It is on the work published under this title that Rothe’s permanent reputation as a theologian and ethical writer will rest. The first edition, in three volumes, was published in 1845-48, and remained twelve years out of print before the second (1867-71, in five volumes) appeared. It was the author’s purpose to rewrite the whole, but he had completed the first two volumes only of the new edition when death overtook him. The remainder was reprinted from the first edition by Prof. Holtzmann, with the addition of some notes and emendations left by the author. This work begins with a general sketch of the author’s system of speculative theology in its two divisions, theology proper and cosmology, the latter falling into the two subdivisions of Physik (the world of nature) and Ethik (the world of spirit). It is the last subdivision with which the body of the work is occupied. After an analysis of the religious consciousness, which yields the doctrine of an absolute personal and spiritual God, Rothe proceeds to deduce from his idea of God the process and history of creative development, which is eternally proceeding and bringing forth, as its unending purpose, worlds of spirits, partially self-creative and sharing the absolute personality of the Creator. As a thorough-going evolutionist Rothe regards the natural man as the consummation of the development of physical nature, and obtains spirit as the personal attainment, with divine help, of those beings in whom the further creative process of moral development is carried on. His theory leaves the natural man, without hesitation, to be developed by the natural processes of animal evolution. The attainment of the higher stage of development is the moral and religious vocation of man ; this higher stage is self-determination, the performance of every human function as a voluntary and intelligent agent, or as a person, having as its cosmical effect the subjection of all material to spiritual existences. This personal process of spiritualization is the continuation of the eternal divine work of creation. Thus the moral life and the religious life coincide, and when normal are identical; both have the same aim and are occupied with the same task, the accomplishment of the spiritualization of the world. “ Piety, that it may become truth and reality, demands morality as its fulfilment, as the only concrete element in which the idea of fellowship with God is realized ; morality, that it may find its perfect unfolding, requires the aid of piety, in the light of which alone it can comprehend its own idea in all its breadth and depth. ” Rothe follows Schleiermacher in dividing his ethical system into the three parts of the doctrine of moral ends {GiiterUhre), or the products of moral action, the doctrine of virtue [Tugendlehre), or of the power producing moral good, and the doctrine of duty {Pflichtenlehre), or the specific form and manner in which that power obtains its results. The process of human development Rothe regards as necessarily taking an abnormal form and passing through the phase of sin. This abnormal condition necessitates a fresh creative act, that of salvation, which was, however, from the first part of the divine plan of development. As a preparation for this salvation supernatural revelation was required for the purifying and revivification of the religious consciousness, and the Saviour Himself had to appear in human history as a fresh miraculous creation, born of a woman but not begotten by a man. In consequence of His supernatural birth the Saviour, or the second Adam, was free from original sin. By His own moral and religious development He made possible a relation of perfect fellowship between God and man, which was the new and highest stage of the divine creation of mankind. This stage of development inaugurated by the Saviour is attained by means of His kingdom or the community of salvation, which is both moral and religious, and in the first instance and temporarily only religious—that is, a

church. As men reach the full development of their nature, and appropriate the perfection of the Saviour, the separation between the religious and the moral life will vanish, and the Christian state, as the highest sphere of human life representing all human functions, will displace the church. “In proportion as the Saviour Christianizes the state by means of the church must the progressive completion of the structure of the church prove the cause of its abolition.” The decline of the church is therefore not to be deplored, but recognized as the consequence of the independence and completeness of the Christian life. It is the third section of his work—the Pjlichtenlehre—which is generally most highly valued, and where his full strength as an ethical thinker is displayed, without any mixture of theosophic speculation. Since Rothe’s death several volumes of his sermons and of his lectures (on dogmatics, the history of homiletics) and a collection of brief essays and religious meditations under the title of Stille Stunden (Wittenberg, 1872) have been published. See F. Nippold, Richard Rothe, ein christliches LebensHId (2 vols., Wittenberg, 1873-74); Schenkel, “ Zur Erinnerung an Dr R. Rothe,” in the Allgemeine kirchliche Zeitschrift, 1867-68 ; Holtzmann, “Richard Rothe,” in the Jahrbuchdes Protestantenvereins, 1869; Schwarz, Zur Oeschichte der neueaten Theologie(4th ed., Leipsic, 1869, pp. 417-444); Pfleiderer, ReUgionsphilosophieauf geschichtlicher Grundlage (2d ed., Berlin, 1884, vol. i. pp. 611-615). (J. F. S.)

ROTHERHAM, a market-town and municipal borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, is situated at the junction of the Rother with the Don navigation, on several railway lines, 5 miles north-east of Sheffield. The parish church of All Saints, occupying the site of a building dating from Anglo-Saxon times, was erected in the reign of Edward IY., and is a good specimen of Perpendicular. Among the other principal public buildings are the new market-hall, the post office, the court-house, the temperance hall, St George’s Hall, the council hall, and the corporation offices. There are a large number of educational and literary institutions, including the grammar school founded in 1483, the people’s charity school, the Independent college, the mechanics’ institute, the free library, and the literary and scientific society. There is a large hospital, besides almshouses and various other charities. The town possesses extensive iron, steel, and brass works, potteries, glass works, breweries, saw mills, and rope yards. The population of the municipal borough (area 5995 acres) in 1881 was 34,782. The town is of Roman origin, and was of some importance in Anglo-Saxon times. In the time of Edward the Confessor it possessed a market and a church. Mary queen of Scots stayed a night at Rotherham while a prisoner, as did also Charles I. when in the hands of the Scots. During the Civil War it sided with the Parliament. It was taken possession of by the Royalists in 1643, but after the victory of Marston Moor was yielded up to a detachment of the Parliamentary forces. The townships of Rotherham and Kimberworth were incorporated as a municipal borough in August 1871, the adjacent suburbs being included in 1879. The corporation act as the sanitary authority, and own the waterworks, gasworks, and markets. They have introduced a system of main drainage, and have also provided a public park and a free library.

ROTHESAY, a royal burgb, and the principal town of the county of Bute, Scotland, is situated in the island of Bute, at the head of a well-sheltered and spacious bay in the Firth of Clyde, 40 miles W. of Glasgow and 18 S.W. of Greenock, with which there is frequent communication by steamers. The bay affords good anchorage in any wind, and there are also a good harbour and pier. The town is the headquarters of an extensive fishing district, and is much frequented as a watering place. Besides two hydropathic establishments, it has several hotels and numerous lodging houses. Facing the bay there is an extensive esplanade. In the centre of the town are the ruins of the ancient castle, supposed by some to have been erected in 1098 by Magnus Barefoot, and by others at the same date by the Scots to defend themselves against the Norwegians. The village which grew up round the castle was made a royal burgh by Robert III., who created his eldest son David duke of Rothsay. During the Commonwealth the castle was garrisoned by Cromwell’s troops. It was burned by the followers of Argyll in 1685, and remained neglected till the rubbish was cleared away by the marquis of Bute in 1816. The principal

ROTmodern buildings are the aquarium, the town-hall and county buildings, the public halls, the academy, and the Thomson institute. The corporation consists of a provost, three bailies, a dean of guild, a treasurer, and twelve councillors. The population of the royal burgh in 1871 was 8027 and in 1881 it was 8291. ROTHSCHILD, the name of a Jewish family which has acquired an unexampled position from the magnitude of its financial transactions. The original name was Bauer, the founder of the house being MAYER ANSELM (1743-1812), the son of Anselm Moses Bauer, a small Jewish merchant of Frankfort-on-the-Main. His father wished him to become a rabbi, but he preferred business, and ultimately set up as a money lender at the sign of the “ Red Shield ” {Rothschild) in the Frankfort Judengasse. He had already acquired some standing as a banker when his numismatic tastes obtained for him the friendship of William, ninth landgrave and afterwards elector of Hesse-Cassel, who in 1801 made him his agent. In the following year Rothschild negotiated his first great Government loan, ten million thalers for the Danish Government. When the landgrave was compelled to flee from his capital on the entry of the French, he placed his silver and other bulky treasures in the hands of Rothschild, who, not without considerable risk, took charge of them and buried them, it is said in a corner of his garden, whence he dug them up as opportunity arose for disposing of them. This he did to such advantage as to be able afterwards to return their value to the elector at 5 per cent, interest. He died at Frankfort 19th September 1812, leaving ten children, five sons and five daughters. Branches of the business were established at Vienna, London, Paris, and Naples, each being in charge of one of the sons, the chief of the firm always residing at Frankfort, where, in accordance with the wish of the founder, all important consultations are held. By a system of cooperation and joint counsels, aided by the skilful employment of subordinate agents, they obtained unexampled opportunities of acquiring an accurate knowledge. of the condition of the financial market, and practically embraced the whole of Europe within their financial network. The unity of the interests of the several members of the firm has been preserved by the system of intermarriages which has been the general practice of the descendants of the five brothers, and the house has thus grown in solidity and influence with every succeeding generation. Each of the brothers received in 1815 from Austria the privilege of hereditary landowners, and in 1822 they were created barons by the same country. The charge of the Frankfort house devolved on the eldest, ANSELM MAYER (1773-1855), born 12th June 1773, who was chosen a member of the royal Prussian privy council of commerce, and, in 1820, Bavarian consul and court banker. The Vienna branch was undertaken by SOLOMON (1774-1826), born 9th December 1774, who entered into intimate relations with Prince Metternich, which contributed in no small degree to bring about the connexion of the firm with the allied powers. The third brother, NATHAN MAYER (1777-1836), born 16th September 1777, has, however, generally been regarded as the financial genius of the family, and the chief originator of the transactions which have created for the house its unexampled position in the financial world. He came to Manchester about 1800 to act as a purchaser for his father of manufactured goods; but at the end of five years he removed to London, where he found full scope for his financial genius. The boldness and skill of his transactions, which caused him at first to be regarded as rash and unsafe by the leading banking firms and financial merchants, latterly awakened their admiration

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j and envy. By the employment of carrier pigeons and of fast-sailing boats of his own for the transmission of newrs he was able to utilize to the best advantage his special sources of information, while no one was a greater adept in the art of promoting the rise and fall of the stocks. The colossal influence of the house dates from an operation of his in 1810. In that year Wellington made some drafts which the English Government could not meet; these were purchased by Rothschild at a liberal discount, and renewed to the Government, which finally redeemed at par. From this time the house became associated with the allied powers in the struggle against Napoleon, it being chiefly through it that they were able to negotiate loans to carry on the war. Rothschild never lost faith in the ultimate overthrow of Napoleon, his all being virtually staked on the issue of the contest. He is said to have been present at the battle of Waterloo, and to have watched the varying fortunes of the day with feverish eagerness. Being able to transmit to London private information of the allied success several hours before it reached the public, he effected an immense profit by the purchase of stock, which had been greatly depressed on account of the news of Blucher s defeat two days previously. Rothschild was the first , to popularize foreign loans in Britain by fixing the rate in sterling money and making the dividends payable in London and not in foreign capitals. Latterly he became the financial agent of nearly every civilized Government, although persistently declining contracts for Spain or the. American States. He did not confine himself to operations on a large scale, but on the contrary made it a principle to despise or neglect no feasible opportunity of transacting business, while at the same time his operations gradually extended to every quarter of the globe. He died 28th July 1836, and was succeeded in the management of the London house by his son LIONEL (1808-1879), born 22d November 1808, whose name will always be associated with the removal of the civil disabilities of the Jews. He was elected a member for the City of London in 1847, and again in 1849 and 1852, but it was not till 1858 that the joint operation of an Act of Parliament and a resolution of the House of Commons, allowing the omission from the oath of the words to which as a Jew he conscientiously objected, rendered it possible for him to take his seat. He continued to represent the city of London till 1874. JACOB (1792—1868), the youngest of the original brothers, was intrusted with the important mission of starting the business in Paris after the restoration of the Bourbons, for whom he negotiated large loans. At the Revolution of 1848 he was a heavy loser, and had also to be. protected for a time by a special guard. It was by his capital that the earliest railroads were constructed in France; the profits he obtained from the speculation were very large. He died 15th November 1868. The Naples branch was superintended by another of the brothers, KARL (1780—1855). It was always the least important of the five, and after the annexation of Naples to Italy in 1860 it was discontinued. See T)cis Ilaus Rothschild, 1858 ; Picciotto, Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History, 1875 ; Francis, Chronicles and Characters of the Stock Exchange, 1853; Treskow, Biographische Notizen iiber Nathan Meyer Rothschild nebst seinem Testament, 1837 ; Roqueplan, Le Baron James dc Rothschild, 1868.

ROTHWELL, an urban sanitary district in the West Riding of Yorkshire, situated in a pleasant valley four miles south of Leeds. It is of great antiquity, and soon after the Conquest was granted as a dependency of the castle of Pontefract to the Lacys, who erected at it a baronial residence of which there are still some remains. The church of the Holy Trinity is an old structure in

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the Later English style with embattled parapet. There marked, dotted, ridged, or sculptured in various ways (fig. are a mechanics’ institute and a working men’s club. 1, K). The curved spines of Philodina aculeata (fig. 1, G) Coal and stone are obtained in the neighbourhood, and and the long rigid spines of Triarthra are further developthe town possesses match works and rope and twine ments in this direction. The so-called setm of Polyarthra on factories. The population of the urban sanitary district the other hand are more complex in nature, and are moved (area 3302 acres) in J871 was 3733, and in 1881 it was by muscles, and thus approach the “ limbs ” of Pedalion. 5105. ROTIFER A. The Rotifera (or Rotatoria) form a small, in many respects well-defined, but somewhat isolated class of the animal kingdom. They are here treated of separately, partly on account of the difficulty of placing them in one of the large phyla, partly on account of their special interest to microscopists. Now familiarly known as “wheel animalcules” from the wheel-like motion produced by the rings of cilia which generally occur in the head region, the so-called rotatory organs, they were first discovered by Leeuwenhoek (l),1 to whom we also owe the discovery of Bacteria and ciliate Infusoria. Leeuwenhoek described the Rotifer vulgaris in 1702, and he subsequently described Melicerta ringens and other species. A great variety of forms were described by other observers, but they were not separated as a class from the unicellular organisms (Protozoa) with which they usually occur until the appearance of Ehrenberg’s great monograph (2), which contained a mass of detail regarding their structure. The classification there put forward by Ehrenberg is still widely adopted, but numerous observers have since added to our knowledge of the anatomy of the group (3). At the present day few groups of the animal kingdom are so well known to the microscopist, few groups present more interesting affinities to the morphologist, and few multicellular animals such a low physiological condition. General Anatomy.—The Rotifera are multicellular animals of microscopic size which present a coelom. They are bilaterally symmetrical and present no true metameric segmentation. A head region is generally well marked, and most forms present a definite tail region. This tail region has been termed the “pseudopodium.” It varies very much in the extent to which it is developed. It attains its highest development in forms like Philodina, which affect a leech-like method of progression and use it as a means of attachment. We may pass from this through a series of forms where it becomes less and less highly developed. In such forms as Brachionus it serves as a directive organ in swimming, while in a large number of other forms it is only represented by a pair of terminal styles or flaps. In the sessile forms it becomes a contractile pedicle with a suctorial extremity. A pseudopodium is entirely absent in Asplanchna, Triarthra, Polyarthra, and a few other genera. The pseudopodium, when well developed, is a very muscular organ, and it may contain a pair of glands (fig. 2, A, gl) which secrete an adhesive material. The surface of the body is covered by a firm homogeneous structureless cuticle. This cuticle may become hardened by a _ further development of chitin, but no calcareous deposits ever take place in it. The cuticle remains softest in those forms which live in tubes. Among the free-living forms the degree of hardening varies considerably. In some cases contraction of the body merely throws the cuticle into wrinkles (Notommata, Asplanchna); in others Several genera present an external casing or sheath or definite ring-like joints are produced which telescope into tube which is termed an “ urceolus.” In Floscularia and one another during contraction; while in others again it Stephanoceros the urceolus is gelatinous and perfectly becomes quite firm and rigid and resembles the carapace hyaline; in Conochilus numerous individuals live in such a of one of the Entomostraca ■, it is then termed a “lorica.” hyaline urceolus arranged in a radiating manner. The The lorica may be prolonged at various points into spines, urceolus, which is secreted by the animal itself, may which may attain a considerable length. The surface may become covered with foreign particles, and in one species, be variously modified, being in some cases smooth, in others the well-known Melicerta ringens, the animal builds up its 1

These numbers refer to the bibliography at p. A

urceolus with pellets which it manufactures from foreign

ROTIFEKA particles, and deposits in a regular oblique or spiral series, and which are cemented together by a special secretion. The urceolus serves as a defence, as the animal can by contracting its stalk withdraw itself entirely within the tube. Locomotor Organs.—While, as mentioned above, several genera or individual species present long spines, these become movable, and may be spoken of as appendages, in two genera only. In Polyarthra (fig. 1, E, F) there are four groups of processes or plumes placed at the sides of

is moved by muscles running upwards towards the neck and arising immediately under the trochaldisk, the inferior ventro-lateral pair also presenting muscles which form a girdle in the hind region of the body. Various other muscles are present: there are two complete girdles in the neck region immediately behind the mouth; there are also muscles which move the hinder region of the body. In addition to these the body presents various processes which are perhaps some of them unrepresented in other Rotifers. In the median dorsal line immediately below the trochal disk there is a short conical process presenting a pair of muscles which render it capable of slight move^ ment. From a recess at the extremity of this process spring a group of long setose hairs the bases of which are connected with a filament probably nervous in nature. This doubtless represents a structure found in many Rotifers, and variously known as the “calcar,” “siphon,” “tentaculum,” or “antenna.” This calcar is double in Tubicolaria and Melicerta. It is very well developed in the genera Rotifer, Philodina, and others, and is, when so developed, slightly retractile. It appears to be represented in many forms by a pit or depression set with hairs. The calcar has been considered both as an intromittent organ and a respiratory tube for the admission of water. It is now, however, universally considered to be sensory in nature. Various forms present processes in other parts

I< loscularia appendicuiata. A and B represent the same animal, some of the organs being shown in one figure and some in the other, oc, eye-spots: q nerve ganglion ; p, pharynx (the mouth should be shown opening opposite the letter); ma. the mastax; e, oesophagus; st, stomach; a, anus, opening the cloaca; ttf, mucous glands in the pseudopodium; «, nephridia; /, flame-cells; CM, contractile vesicle ; m, m, muscles.

FIG. 2.

the body, each of which groups can be separately moved up and down by means of muscular fibres attached to their bases, which project into the body. The processes themselves are unjointed and rigid. In Pedalion (fig. 3), a remarkable form discovered by Dr C. J. Hudson in 1871 (12, 13, 14, and 15), and found in numbers several times since, these appendages have acquired a new and quite special development. They are six in number. The largest is placed ventrally at some distance below the mouth. Its free extremity is a plumose fan-like expansion (fig. 3, A, a, and H). It is (in common with the others) a hollow process into which run two pairs of broad, coarsely transversely striated muscles. Each pair has a single insertion 3.—Pedalion mira. A, Lateral surface view of an adult female : a, median on the inner wall—the one pair near the free extremity of JIG. ventral appendage;^ 6, median dorsal appendage; c, inferior ventro-lateral appendage : d, superior dorso-lateral appendage ; /, dorsal sense-organ (calcar) ; the limb, the other near its attachment; the bands run >yinthc1858, convention Anfange der Romanen, and Roemer undespecially Romdnen;Romdnische Lad. Rid, Studien-, Abstami ma ner have separate assemblies, but a central commission was to be histm-v^of" J f . }' ’ dp DXenopol, Les Roumains au Moyen Age. For the th down to the end of the last century J. C. Engel’s established at Foksham for the preparation of laws of common wmv/ rp principalities d moot t’ N Walachei and Gesrhichte der Moldau, still &c., the terwar to be most tinstworthy authonties J. A. Vaillant, La Romainie: Histoire, are Langue, acoorf dance Wlth tbls submitted to the respective assSmbboT 11CTh ^ 4\ L ministerial by J^y, f freedom and petition, ofresponsibility, speech ami oftrial the Roumelia was constituted an autonomous province of the N'e||' bvMurv press (except as regards breaches of the criminal code), gratuitous i :oijs Turkish empire by the Berlin treaty of 1878, to be utk. and compulsory primary education, and the right of afylum for governed by a Christian governor-general appointed by the politica! exiles. Legislative power is shared between the prince and _ chambers, but bills relating to the budget and army must sultan for a term of five years. In 1879, in obedience originate with the chamber of deputies. There are two chambers— to an international commission, it was divided into six cha raber f ai d the and tWWHrn election is°carried . out°bydeputies. means of electoral Both houses colleges are classified elective, depaitments and twenty-eight cantons, the departments being Philippopolis (187,095), Tatarbazarjik (117,063),

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Hasskoi (134,268), Eski-Zagra (158,905) Kazanlik, Slivno may also have been watch-towers, and in later times often or Sliven (130,136), and Burgas (88,046). On the 14. contained bells. Their circular form was probably for the and N.W. East Koumelia was bounded by Bulgaria, the sake of strength, angles which could be attacked by a frontier running along the line of the Balkans though not battering ram being thus avoided, and also because no keeping to the watershed; on the S.W. and S. lay the quoins or dressed stones were needed, except for the openvilayets of Salonika and Adrianople, the borderlands form- ings—an important point at a time when tools for working ing part of the Khodope or Despoto mountain system. stone were scarce and imperfect. Both these reasons may The direct distance between the northmost and southmost also account for the Norman round towers which are so point on the Black Sea is only 40 miles, but the actual common at the west end of churches in Norfolk, Suffolk, coast-line is lengthened by the ramifications of the Bay of and Essex, though these have little resemblance to those of Burgas, which is the only part of the Black Sea affording Ireland except in the use of a circular plan. One example several good anchorages. The great bulk of the country exactly like those of Ireland still exists in the Isle of Man, belongs to the basin of the Maritza and its tributary the within the precincts of Peel Castle adjacent to the cathedral Tunja (confluence at Adrianople, to the south of Roumelia), of St German; it was probably the work of Irish builders. though a certain part drains north-eastwards by several There are also three in Scotland, viz. at Egilshay in Orksmall streams. The whole area is estimated at 14,858 ney, and at Abernethy and Brechin. Round towers wider and lower in proportion than those square miles, and the population in 1880 was 815,513, of whom 573,231 were Bulgarians, 176,759 Turks, 42,526 of Ireland appear to have been built by many prehistoric Greeks, 19,524 Gipsies, 4177 Jews, and 1306 Armenians. races at different parts of Europe. Many examples exist This preponderance of Bulgarians led in September 1885 to in Scotland, and in the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. the Philippopolis revolution, which resulted in the princi- The towers of this class in Scotland are called “ brochs ” ; pality of Bulgaria declaring East Roumelia part and parcel they average about 50 feet high and 30 feet in internal of United Bulgaria; and the United Bulgarians have since diameter. Their walls, which are usually about 15 feet been successful in a war with the Servians, who invaded thick at the bottom, are built hollow, of rubble masonry, with series of passages one over the other running all their territory. ROUND TOWERS. A peculiar class of round tower round the tower. As in the Irish towers, the entrance is exists scattered throughout Ireland; about one hundred placed at some distance from the ground; and the whole and twenty examples still remain, mostly in a ruined structure is designed as a stronghold. The brochs appear state, but eighteen or twenty are almost perfect. These to have been the work of a pre-Christian Celtic race. towers were built either near or adjoining a church; they Many objects in bronze and iron and fragments of handare of various dates from perhaps the 8th to the 13th made pottery have been found in and near these towers, century; though varying in size and detail, they have all bearing witness of a very early date. See Anderson, many characteristics which are common to all. They are Scotland in Pagan Times, 1883, and Scotland in Early built with walls slightly battering inwards, so that the Christian Times, 1881. During the 6th century church tower tapers towards the top. The lower part is formed towers at and near Ravenna were usually built round in of solid masonry, the one doorway being raised from 6 to plan, and not unlike those of Ireland in their proportions. 20 feet above the ground, and so only accessible by means The finest existing example is that which stands by the of a ladder. The towers within are divided into several church of S. Apollinare in Classe, the old port of the city stories by two or more floors, usually of wood, but in of Ravenna (see Basilica, vol. iii. p. 415, fig. 5). It is of some cases, as at Keneith, of stone slightly arched. _ The brick, divided into nine stories, with single-light windows access from floor to floor was by ladders, no stone staircase below, three-light windows in the upper stories, and twobeing provided. The windows, which are always high up, lights in the intermediate ones. The most magnificent are single lights, mostly arched or with a flat stone lintel. example of a round tower is the well-known leaning tower In some of the oldest towers they have triangular tops, of Pisa, begun in the year 1174. It is richly decorated formed by two stones leaning together, like the windows with tiers of open marble arcades, supported on free at Deerhurst and other pre-Norman buildings in England. columns. The circular plan was much used by Moslem One peculiarity of the door and window openings in the races for their minarets. The finest of these is the 13thIrish round towers is that the jambs are frequently set century minar of Kootub at Old Delhi, built of limestone sloping, so that the opening grows narrower towards the with bands of marble. It is richly fluted on plan, and top, as in the temples of ancient Egypt. The later when complete was at least 250 feet high. The best account of the Irish round towers is that given by examples of these towers, dating from the 12th and 13th Petrie, in his Ecclesiastical Architecture of Ireland (Dublin, 1845). centuries are often decorated with chevron, billet, and other See also Keane, Towers and Temples of Ancient Ireland. (Dublin, Norman enrichments round the jambs and arches. The 1850) ; Brash, Ecclesiastical Architecture of Ireland (Dublin, 1875); roof is of stone, usually conical in shape, and some of the and Stokes, Early Architecture in Ireland (Dublin, 1878). ROUNDEL. See Rondeau. later towers are crowned by a circle of battlements. The ROUS, or Rouse, Francis (1579-1659), known by height of the round towers varies from about 60 feet to 132; that at Kilcullen is the highest. The masonry his translation of the Psalms; see vol. xii. p. 590. His differs according to its date,—the oldest examples being works appeared at London in 1657. ROUSSEAU, Jacques (1630-1693), painter, a member built of almost uncut rubble work, and the later ones of of a Huguenot family, was born at Paris in 1630. He neatly-jointed ashlar. Much has been written as to the use of these towers, was remarkable as a painter of decorative landscapes and and the most conflicting theories as to their origin have classic ruins, somewhat in the style of Canaletto, but been propounded. It is, however, fairly certain that they without his delicacy of touch; he appears also to have were constructed by Christian builders, both from the fact been influenced by Nicolas Poussin. While quite young that they always are or once were near to a church, and Rousseau went to Rome, where he was fascinated by the also because crosses and other Christian emblems frequently noble picturesqueness of the ancient ruins, and spent some occur among the sculptured decorations of their doors and years in painting them, together with the surrounding windows. The original purpose of these towers was pro- landscapes. He thus formed his style, which was highly bably for places of refuge, for which the solid base and the artificial and conventionally decorative. His colouring door high above the ground seem specially adapted. They for the most part is unpleasing, partly owing to his violent

ROUS S E A U treatment of skies with crude blues and orange, and his chiaroscuro usually is much exaggerated. On his return to Paris he soon became distinguished as a painter, and was employed by Louis XIY. to decorate the walls of his palaces at St Germain and Marly. He was soon admitted a member of the French Academy of the Fine Arts, but on the revocation of the edict of Nantes he was obliged to take refuge in Holland, and his name was struck off the Academy roll. From Holland he was invited to England by the duke of Montague, who employed him, together with other French painters, to paint the walls of his palace, Montague House.1 Rousseau was also employed to paint architectural subjects and landscapes in the palace of Hampton Court, where many of his decorative panels still exist. He spent the latter part of his life in London, where he died in 1693. Besides being a painter in oil and fresco Rousseau was an etcher of some ability ; many etchings by his hand from the works of the Caracci and from his own designs still exist; they are vigorous, though too coarse in execution. ROUSSEAU, Jean Baptiste (1670-1741), a poet of some merit and a wit of considerable dexterity, was born at Paris on the 10th April 1670; he died at Brussels on the 17th March 1741. The son of a shoemaker, he is said to have been ashamed of his parentage and relations when he acquired a certain popularity, but the abundance of literary quarrels in which he spent his life, and the malicious inventiveness of his chief enemy, Voltaire, make any such stories of small account. He was certainly well educated and early gained favour with Boileau, who did not regard many people favourably; but authentic intelligence as to his youth is very scarce. He does not seem to have attempted literature very young, and when he began he began with the theatre, for which at no part of his life does he seem to have had any aptitude. A one-act comedy, Le Cafe, failed in 1694, and he was not much happier with a more ambitious play, Les Flatteurs, or with the opera of Venus and Adonis. He would not take these warnings, and tried in 1700 another comedy, Le Capricieux, which had the same fate. By this time he had already (it is not quite clear how) obtained influential patrons, such as Breteuil and Tallard, had gone with Tallard as an attache to London, and, in days when literature still led to high position, seemed likely to achieve success. To tell the whole story of his misfortunes would take far more space than can be spared him here. They began with what may be called a club squabble at a certain Cafe Laurent, which was much frequented by literary men, and where Rousseau indulged in lampoons on his companions. A shower of libellous and sometimes obscene verses was written by or attributed to him, and at last he was practically turned out of the cafe. At the same time his poems, as yet only singly printed or in manuscript, acquired him a great reputation, and not unjustly, for Rousseau is certainly the best French writer of serious lyrics between Racine and Chenier. He had in 1701 been made a member of the Acad6mie des Inscriptions ; he had been offered, though he had not accepted, profitable places in the revenue department; he had become a favourite of the libertine but not uninfluential coterie of the Temple; and in 1710 he presented himself as a candidate for the Academic Frangaise. Then began the second chapter (the first had lasted ten years) of a history of the animosities of authors which is almost the strangest though not the most important on record. A copy of verses, more offensive than ever, was handed to the original object of Rousseau’s jealousy, and, getting wind, occasioned the bastinadoing of the reputed author by a certain La Faye or La Faille, a soldier who was reflected 1 Montague House stood on the site of the British Museum.

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on. Legal proceedings of various kinds followed, and Rousseau either had or thought he had ground for ascribing the lampoon to Joseph Saurin. More law ensued, and the end of it was that in 1712 Rousseau, not appearing, was condemned par contumace to perpetual exile. He actually suffered it, remaining for the rest of his life in foreign countries except for a short time in 1738, when he returned clandestinely to Paris to try for a recall. It should be said that he might have had this if he had not steadfastly protested his innocence and refused to accept a mere pardon. No one has ever completely cleared up the story, and it must be admitted that, except as exhibiting very strikingly the strange idiosyncrasies of the 18th century in France, and as having affected the fortunes of a man of letters of some eminence, it is not worth much attention. Rousseau’s good and ill luck did not cease with his exile. First Prince Eugene and then other persons of distinction took him under their protection, and he printed at Soleure the first edition of his poetical works. But by fault or misfortune he still continued to quarrel. Voltaire and he met at Brussels in 1722, and, though Voltaire had hitherto pretended or felt a great admiration for him, something happened which turned this admiration into hatred. Voltaire’s Le Pour et Le Centre is said to have shocked Rousseau, who expressed his sentiments freely. At any rate the latter had thenceforward no fiercer enemy than Voltaire. Rousseau, however, was not much affected by Voltaire’s enmity, and pursued for nearly twenty years a life of literary work, of courtiership, and of rather obscure speculation and business. Although he never made his fortune, it does not seem that he was ever in want. When he died his death had the singular result of eliciting from a poetaster, Lefranc de Pompignan, an ode of real excellence and perhaps better than anything of Rousseau’s own work. That work, however, has high merits, and is divided, roughly speaking, into two strangely contrasted divisions. One consists of formal and partly sacred odes and cantates of the stiffest character, the other of brief epigrams, sometimes licentious and always or almost always ill-natured. In the latter class of work Rousseau is only inferior to his friend Piron. In the former he stands almost alone. The frigidity of conventional diction and the disuse of all really lyrical rhythm which characterize his period do not prevent his odes and cantates from showing true poetical faculty, grievously cramped no doubt, but still existing. Besides the Soleure edition mentioned above, Rousseau published (visiting England for the purpose) another issue of his work at London in 1723. The chief edition since is that of Amar in 1820. M. A. de Latour has published (Paris, Gamier, 1869) a useful though not complete edition, with notes of merit and a biographical introduction which would have been better if the facts had been more punctually and precisely stated. ROUSSEAU, Jean Jacques (1712-1778), was born at Geneva on the 28th June 1712. His family had established themselves in that city at the time of the religious wars, but they were of pure French origin. Rousseau’s father Isaac was a watchmaker; his mother, Suzanne Bernard, was the daughter of a minister; she died in childbirth, and Rousseau, who was the second son, was brought up in a very haphazard fashion, his father being a dissipated, violent-tempered, and foolish person. He, however, taught him to read early, and seems to have laid the foundation of the flighty sentimentalism in morals and politics which Rousseau afterwards illustrated with his genius. When the boy was ten years old his father got entangled in a disgraceful brawl and fled from Geneva, apparently without troubling himself about Jean Jacques. The father and son had little more to do with each other and rarely met. Rousseau was, however, taken charge of

24

ROUS S E A U

by bis mother’s relations and was in the first place committed by them to the tutorship of a M. Lambercier, pastor at Bossey. Of these times as of the greater part of his life there are ample details in the Confessions, but it may be as well to remark at once that this famous book, however charming as literature, is to be used as documentary evidence only with great reserve. In 1724 he was removed from this school and taken into the house of his uncle Bernard, by whom he was shortly afterwards apprenticed to a notary. His master, however, found or thought him quite incapable and sent him back. After a short time (April 25, 1725) he was apprenticed afresh, this time to an engraver. He did not dislike the work, but was or thought himself cruelly treated by his master. At last in 1728, when he was sixteen, he ran away, the truancy being by his own account unintentional in the first instance, and due to the fact of the city gates being shut earlier than usual. Then began a very extraordinary series of wanderings and adventures, for much of which there is no authority but his own. He first fell in with some proselytizers of the Roman faith at Confignon in Savoy, and by them he was sent to Madame de Warens at Annecy, a young and pretty widow who was herself a convert. Her influence, however, which was to be so great, was not immediately exercised, and he was, so to speak, passed on to Turin, where there was an institution specially devoted to the reception of neophytes. His experiences here were (according to his own account, it must always be understood) sufficiently unsatisfactory, but he abjured duly and was rewarded by being presented with twenty francs and sent about his business. He wandered about in Turin for some time, and at last established himself as footman to a Madame de Vercellis. Here occurred the famous incident of the theft of a ribbon, of which he accused a fellow servant—a girl too. But, though he kept his place by this piece of cowardice, Madame de Vercellis died not long afterwards and he was turned off. He found, however, another place with the Comte de Gouvon, but lost this also through coxcombry. Then he resolved to return to Madame de Warens at Annecy. The chronology of all these events is somewhat obscure, but they seem to have occupied about three years. Even then Rousseau did not settle at once in the anomalous but to him charming position of domestic lover to this lady, who, nominally a converted Protestant, was in reality, as many women of her time were, a kind of deist, with a theory of noble sentiment and a practice of libertinism tempered by good nature. It used to be held that in her conjugal relations she was even more sinned against than sinning. But recent investigations seem to show that M. de Vuarrens (which is said to be the correct spelling of the name) was a very unfortunate husband, and was deserted and robbed by his wife. However, she welcomed Rousseau kindly, thought it necessary to complete his education, and he was sent to the seminarists of St Lazare to be improved in classics, and also to a music master. In one of his incomprehensible freaks he set off for Lyons, and, after abandoning his companion in an epileptic fit, returned to Annecy to find Madame de Warens gone no one knew whither. Then for some months he relapsed into the life of vagabondage, varied by improbable adventures, which (according to his own statement) he so often pursued. Hardly knowing anything of music, he attempted to give lessons and a concert at Lausanne; and he actually taught at Neuchatel. Then he became or says he became secretary to a Greek archimandrite who was travelling in Switzerland to collect subscriptions for the rebuilding of the Holy Sepulchre; then he went to Paris, and, with recommendations from the French ambas-

sador at Soleure, saw something of good society; then he returned on foot through Lyons to Savoy, hearing that Madame de Warens was at Chambtiry. This was in 1732, and Rousseau, who for a time had unimportant employments in the service of the Sardinian crown, was shortly installed by Madame de Warens, whom he still called Maman, as amant en litre in her singular household, wherein she diverted herself with him, with music, and with chemistry. In 1736 Madame de Warens, partly for Rousseau’s health, took a country house, Les Charmettes, a short distance from Chamb6ry. Here in summer, and in the town during winter, Rousseau led a delightful life, which he has delightfully described. In a desultory way he did a good deal of reading, but in 1738 his health again became bad, and he was recommended to go to Montpellier. By his own account this journey to Montpellier was in reality a voyage a Cythere in company with a certain Madame de Larnage. This being so, he could hardly complain when on returning he found that his official position in Madame de Warens’s household had been taken by a person named Vintzenried. He was, however, less likely than most men to endure the position of second in command, and in 1740 he became tutor at Lyons to the children of M. de Mably, not the well-known writer of that name, but his and Condillac’s elder brother. But Rousseau did not like teaching and was a bad teacher, and after a visit to Les Charmettes, finding that his place there was finally occupied, he once more went to Paris in 1741. He was not without recommendations. But a new system of musical notation which he thought he had discovered was unfavourably received by the Academic des Sciences, where it was read in August 1742, and he was unable to obtain pupils. Madame Dupin, however, to whose house he had obtained the entry, procured him the honourable if not very lucrative post of secretary to M. de Montaigu, ambassador at Venice. With him he stayed for about eighteen months, and has as usual infinite complaints to make of his employer and some strange stories to tell. At length he threw up his situation and returned to Paris (1745). Up to this time—that is to say, till his thirty-third year— Rousseau’s life, though continuously described by himself, was of the kind called subterranean, and the account of it must be taken with considerable allowances. There are, to say the least, grave improbabilities in it; there are some chronological difficulties; and in one or two instances his accounts have been flatly denied by persons more or less entitled to be heard. He had written nothing, and if he was known at all it was as an eccentric vagabond. From this time, however, he is more or less in view; and, though at least two events of his life—his quarrel with Diderot and his death—are and are likely long to be subjects of dispute, its general history can be checked and followed with reasonable confidence. On his return to Paris he renewed his relations with the Dupin family and with the literary group of Diderot, to which he had already been introduced by M. de Mably’s letters. He had an opera, Les Muses Galantes, privately represented; he copied music for money, and received from Madame Dupin and her sonin-law M. de Francueil a small but regular salary as secretary. He lived at the Hotel St Quentin for a time, and once more arranged for himself an equivocal domestic establishment. His mistress, whom towards the close of his life he married after a fashion, was Therese le Vasseur, a servant at the inn. She had little beauty, no education or understanding, and few charms of any kind that his friends could discover, besides which she had a detestable mother, who was the bane of Rousseau’s life. But he made himself at any rate for a time quite happy with her, and (according to Rousseau’s account, the accuracy of

ROUSSEAU which has been questioned) five children were born to them, who were all consigned to the foundling hospital. This disregard of responsibility was partly punished by the use his critics made of it when he became celebrated as a writer on education and a preacher of the domestic affections. Diderot, with whom he became more and more familiar, admitted him as a contributor to the Encyclopedic. He formed new musical projects, and he was introduced by degrees to many people of rank and influence, among whom his warmest patron for a time was Madame d’lilpinay. It was not, however, till 1749 that Rousseau made his mark. The academy of Dijon offered a prize for an essay on the effect of the progress of civilization on morals. Rousseau took up the subject, developed his famous paradox of the superiority of the savage state, won the prize, and, publishing his essay next year, became famous. The anecdotage as to the origin of this famous essay is voluminous. It is agreed that the idea was suggested when Rousseau went to pay a visit to Diderot, who was in prison at Vincennes for his Lettre sur les Aveugles. Rousseau says he thought of the paradox on his way down; Morellet and others say that he thought of treating the subject in the ordinary fashion and was laughed at by Diderot, who showed him the advantages of the less obvious treatment. Diderot himself, who in such matters is almost absolutely trustworthy, does not claim the suggestion, but uses words which imply that it was at least partly his. It is very like him. The essay, however, took the artificial and crotchety society of the day by storm. Francueil gave Rousseau a valuable post as cashier in the receiver general’s office. But he resigned it either from conscientiousness, or crotchet, or nervousness at responsibility, or indolence, or more probably from a mixture of all four. He went back to his music copying, but the salons of the day were determined to have his society, and for a time they had it. In 1752 he brought out at Fontainebleau an operetta, the Devin du Village, which was very successful. He received a hundred louis for it, and he was ordered to come to court next day. This meant the certainty of a pension. But Rousseau’s shyness or his perversity (as before, probably both) made him disobey the command. His comedy Narcisse, written long | before, was also acted, but unsuccessfully. In the same | year, however, a letter Sur la Musique Francgdse again ; had a great vogue.1 Finally, for this was an important 1 Rousseau’s influence on Frencli music was greater than might have been expected from his very imperfect education; in truth, he was a . musician by natural instinct only, but his feeling for art was very I strong, and, though capricious, based upon true perceptions of the good and beautiful. The system of notation (by figures) concerning which he read a paper before the. Academie des Sciences, August 22, 1742, was ingenious, but practically worse than useless, and failed to attract attention, though the paper was published in 1743 under the title of Dissertation sur la musique moderne. In the famous ‘ ‘ guerre des buffons, he took the part of the “ buffonists, ” so named in consequence of their attachment to the Italian “opera buffa,”as opposed to the true French opera ; and, in his Lettre sur la musique Franqaise, published in 1753, he indulged in a violent tirade against French music, which he declared to be so contemptible as to lead to the conclusion ‘ ‘ that the French neither have, nor ever will have, any music of their own, or at least that, if they ever do have any, it will be so much the worse for them.” This silly libel so enraged the performers at the Opera that they hanged and burned its author in effigy. Rousseau revenged himself by printing his clever satire entitled Lettre d un symphoniste de V Academie Roy ale de Musique d ses camarades de l orchestre. His Lettre d M. Burney is of a very different type, and does full justice to the genius of Gluck. His articles on | music in Vnz Encyclopedic deal very superficially with the subject; and his Dictionnaire de Musique (Geneva, 1767), though admirably written, is not trustworthy, either as a record of facts or as a collection of critical essays. In all these works the imperfection of his musical education is painfully apparent, and his compositions betray an equal lack of knowledge, though his refined taste is as clearly displayed there as is his literary power in the Letters and Dicj tionary. His first opera, Les Muses Oalantes, privately prepared at

25 year with him, the Dijon academy, which had founded his fame, announced the subject of “The Origin of Inequality,” on which he wrote a discourse which was unsuccessful, but at least equal to the former in merit. During a visit to Geneva in 1754 Rousseau saw his old friend and love Madame de Warens (now reduced in circumstances and having lost all her charms), while after abjuring his abjuration of Protestantism he was enabled to take up his freedom as citizen of Geneva, to which his birth entitled him and of which he was proud. Some time afterwards, returning to Paris, he accepted a cottage near Montmorency (the celebrated Hermitage) which Madame d’Epinay had fitted up for him, and established himself there in April 1756. He spent little more than a year there, but it was a very important year. Here he wrote La Nouvelle Heloise; here he indulged in the passion which that novel partly represents, his love for Madame d’Houdetot, sister-in-law of Madame d’lflpinay, a lady still young and extremely amiable but very plain, who had a husband and a lover (St Lambert), and whom Rousseau’s burning devotion seems to have partly pleased and partly annoyed. Here too arose the incomprehensible triangular quarrel between Diderot, Rousseau, and Grimm which ended Rousseau’s sojourn at the Hermitage. It is impossible to discuss this at length here. The supposition least favourable to Rousseau is that it was due to one of his numerous fits of half-insane petulance and indignation at the obligations which he was nevertheless always ready to incur. That most favourable to him is that he was expected to lend himself in a more or less complaisant manner to assist and cover Madame d’^pinay’s adulterous affection for Grimm. It need only be said that Madame d’Jf]pinay’s morals and Rousseau’s temper are equally indefensible by anyone who knows anything about either, but that the evidence as to the exact influence of both on this particular transaction is hopelessly inconclusive. Diderot seems to have been guilty of nothing but thoughtlessness (if of that) in lending himself to a scheme of the Le Masseurs, mother and daughter, for getting Rousseau out of the solitude of the Hermitage. At any rate Rousseau quitted the Hermitage in the winter, and established himself at Montlouis in the neighbourhood. Hitherto Rousseau’s behaviour had frequently made him enemies, but his writings had for the most part made him friends. The quarrel with Madame d’Ppinay, with Diderot, and through them with the philosophe party reversed this. In 1758 appeared his Lettre a d’Alembert contre les Spectacles, written in the winter of the previous year at Montlouis. This was at once an attack on Voltaire, who was giving theatrical representations at Les Delices, on D’Alembert, who had condemned the prejudice against the stage in the Encyclopedic, and on one of the favourite amusements of the society of the day. Diderot personally would have been forgiving enough. But Voltaire’s strong point was not forgiveness, and, though Rousseau no doubt exaggerated the efforts of his “enemies,” he was certainly henceforward as obnoxious to the philo-

the house of La Popeliniere, attracted very little attention ; but Le Devin du Village, given at Fontainebleau in 1752, and at the Academie in 1753, achieved a great and well-deserved success. Though very unequal, and exceedingly simple both in style and construction, it contains some charming melodies, and is written throughout in the most refined taste. His Pygmalion (1775) is a melodrama without singing. Some posthumous fragments of another opera, Daphnis et Ghloe, were printed in 1780 ; and in 1781 appeared Les Consolations des Miseres de ma Vie, a collection of about one hundred songs and other fugitive pieces of very unequal merit. The popular air known as Rousseau’s Dream is not contained in this collection, and cannot be traced back farther than J. B. Cramer’s celebrated “Variations.” M. Castil-Blaze has accused Rousseau of extensive plagiarisms (or worse) in Le Devin du Village and Pygmalion, but apparently without sufficient cause. (W. S. R.) XXL — 4

26 -ROUS S E A U sophe coterie as to the orthodox party. He still, how- which he loved. But the Bernese Government ordered him ever, had no lack of patrons—he never had—though to quit its territory. He was for some time uncertain where his unsurpassable perversity made him quarrel with to go, and thought of Corsica (to join Paoli) and Berlin. all in turn. The amiable duke and duchess of Luxem- But finally David Hume offered him, late in 1765, an bourg, who were his neighbours at Montlouis, made asylum in England, and he accepted. He passed through his acquaintance, or rather forced theirs upon him, and Paris, where his presence was tolerated for a time, and he was eagerly industrious in his literary work—indeed landed in England on January 13, 1766. Th6rfese travelled most of his best books were produced during his stay in separately, and was entrusted to the charge of James the neighbourhood of Montmorency. A letter to Voltaire Boswell, who had already made Rousseau’s acquaintance. on his poem about the Lisbon earthquake embittered the Here he had once more a chance of settling peaceably. dislike between the two, being surreptitiously published. Severe English moralists like Johnson thought but ill of La Nouvette Heldise appeared in the same year (1760), him, but the public generally was not unwilling to testify and it was immensely popular. In IB62 appeared the against French intolerance, and regarded his sentimentalContrat Social at Amsterdam, and Smile, which was pub- ism with favour. He was lionized in London to his lished both in the Low Countries and at Paris. For the heart’s content and discontent, for it may truly be said latter the author received 6000 livres, for the Contrat of Rousseau that he was equally indignant at neglect and 1000. intolerant of attention. When, after not a few displays Julie, ou La Nouvelle Heldise, is a novel written in letters of his strange humour, he professed himself tired of the describing the loves of a man of low position and a girl of capital, Hume procured him a country abode in the house rank, her subsequent marriage to a respectable freethinker of Mr Davenport at Wootton in Derbyshire. Here, of her own station, the mental agonies of her lover, and though the place was bleak and lonely, he might have the partial appeasing of the distresses of the lovers by the been happy enough, and he actually employed himself in influence of noble sentiment and the good offices of a writing the greater part of his Confessions. But his philanthropic Englishman. It is too long, the sentiment habit of self-tormenting and tormenting others never left is overstrained, and severe moralists have accused it of a him. His own caprices interposed some delay in the concertain complaisance in dealing with amatory errors; but it ferring of a pension which George III. was induced to is full of pathos and knowledge of the human heart. The grant him, and he took this as a crime of Hume’s. The Contrat Social, as its title implies, endeavours to base all publication of a spiteful letter (really by Horace Walpole, government on the consent, direct or implied, of the one of whose worst deeds it was) in the name of the king governed, and indulges in much ingenious argument to of Prussia made Rousseau believe that plots of the most get rid of the practical inconveniences of such a suggestion. terrible kind were on foot against him. Finally he Emile, the second title of which is De VEducation, is quarrelled with Hume because the latter would not much more of a treatise than of a novel, though a certain acknowledge all his own friends and Rousseau’s supposed amount of narrative interest is kept up throughout. enemies of the philosophe circle to be rascals. He reRousseau’s reputation was now higher than ever, but the mained, however, at Wootton during the year and through term of the comparative prosperity which he had enjoyed the winter. In May 1767 he fled to France, addressing for nearly ten years was at hand. The Contrat Social letters to the lord chancellor and to General Conway, was obviously anti-monarchic j the Nouvelle Heldise was which can only be described as the letters of a lunatic. said to be immoral; the sentimental deism of the “ Profes- He was received in France by the Marquis de Mirabeau sion du vicaire Savoyard ” in Emile irritated equally, the (father of the great Mirabeau), of whom he soon had philosophe party and the church. On June 11, 1^62, enough, then by the Prince de Conti at Trye. From this Emile was condemned by the parlement of Paris, and place he again fled and wandered about for some time in two days previously Madame de Luxembourg and the a wretched fashion, still writing the Confessions, constantly Prince de Conti gave the author information that he receiving generous help, and always quarrelling with, or at would be arrested if he did not fly. They also furnished least suspecting, the helpers. In the summer of 1770 he him with means of flight, and he made for Yverdun in returned to Paris, resumed music copying, and was on the the territory of Bern, whence he transferred himself to whole happier than he had been since he had to leave Metiers in Heuchatel, which then belonged to Prussia. Montlouis. He had by this time married Th6r6se le Frederick II. was not indisposed to protect the persecuted Yasseur, or had at least gone through some form of marriage when it cost him nothing and might bring him fame, and with her. in Marshal Keith, the governor of Neuchatel, Rousseau Many of the best-known stories of Rousseau’s life date found a true and firm friend. He was, however, unable from this last time, when he was tolerably accessible to to be quiet or to practise any of those more or less pious visitors, though clearly half-insane. He finished his Confrauds which were customary at the time with the unor- fessions, wrote his Dialogues (the interest of which is not thodox. The archbishop of Paris had published a pastoral quite equal to the promise of their curious sub-title against him, and Rousseau did not let the year pass Rousseau juge de Jean Jacques), and began his Reveries du without a Lettre d M. de Beaumont. The council of Promeneur Solitaire, intended as a sequel and complement Geneva had joined in the condemnation of Emile, and to the Confessions, and one of the best of all his books. Rousseau first solemnly renounced his citizenship, and then, It should be said that besides these, which complete the in the Lettres de la Montague (1763), attacked the council list of his principal works, he has left a very large number and the Genevan constitution unsparingly. All this of minor works and a considerable correspondence. During excited public opinion against him, and gradually he grew this time he lived in the Rue Plati6re, which is now unpopular in his own neighbourhood. This unpopularity named after him. But his suspicions of secret enemies is said on very uncertain authority to have culminated in grew stronger rather than weaker, and at the beginning of a nocturnal attack on his house, which reminds the reader 17/8 he was glad to accept the offer of M. de Girardin, a remarkably of an incident in the life of the greatest French rich financier, and occupy a cottage at Ermenonville. The man of letters of the present century. At any rate he country was beautiful • but his old terrors revived, and his thought he was menaced if he was not, and migrated to the woes were complicated by the alleged inclination of Th6rfese lie St Pierre in the Lake of Bienne, where he once more for for one of M. de Girardin’s stable boys. On July 2d he a short, and the last, time enjoyed that idyllic existence died in a manner which has been much discussed, sus-

ROUSSEAU picions of suicide having at the time and since been freI quent. On the whole the theory of a natural death due to I a fit of apoplexy and perhaps to injuries inflicted accidentally during that fit seems most probable. He had always {suffered from internal and constitutional ailments not unlikely to bring about such an end. Rousseau’s character, the history of his reputation, and the intrinsic value of his literary work are all subjects of much interest. There is little doubt that for the last ten or fifteen years of his life, if not from the time of his quarrel with Diderot and Madame d’lllpinay, he was not wholly sane—the combined influence of late and unexpected literary fame and of constant solitude and discomfort acting upon his excitable temperament so as to overthrow the balance, never very stable, of his fine and acute but unrobust intellect. He was by no means the only man of letters of his time ; who had to submit to something like persecution. Freron on the orthodox side had his share of it, as well as Voltaire, Helvetius, Diderot, and Montesquieu on that of the innovators. But Rousseau had not, like Montesquieu, a position which guaranteed him from serious danger; he was not wealthy like Helvetius; he had not the wonderful suppleness and trickiness which even without his wealth would probably have defended Voltaire himself; and he lacked entirely the ‘ ‘ bottom ” of Freron and Diderot. When he {was molested he could only shriek at his enemies and suspect his friends, and, being more given than anyman whom history mentions to this latter weakness, he suffered intensely from it. His moral i character was undoubtedly weak in other ways than this, but it is I fair to remember that but for his astounding Confessions the more I disgusting parts of it would not have been known, and that these I Confessions were written, if not under hallucination, at any rate in I circumstances entitling the self-condemned criminal to the benefit 'i of very considerable doubt. If Rousseau had held his tongue, he ^ might have stood lower as a man of letters; he would pretty | certainly have stood higher as a man. He was, moreover, really sinned against, if still more sinning. The conduct of Grimm to him was certainly very bad; and, though Walpole was not his personal friend, a worse action than his famous letter, considering 1 the well-known idiosyncrasy of the subject, would be difficult to find. It was his own fault that he saddled himself with the Le Vasseurs, but their conduct was probably if not certainly ungrateful in the extreme. Only excuses can be made for him; but the excuses for a man born, as Hume after the quarrel said of him, “ without a skin ” are numerous and strong. It was to be expected that his peculiar reputation would increase rather than diminish after his death; and it did so. During his life his personal peculiarities and the fact that his opinions were nearly as obnoxious to the one party as to the other worked against 4 him, but it was not so after his death. The men of the Revolution ' regarded him with something like idolatry, and his literary merits i conciliated many who were very far from idolizing him as a I revolutionist. His style was taken up by Bernardin de Saint i Pierre and by Chateaubriand. It was employed for purposes quite ; different from those to which he had himself applied it, and the I reaction triumphed by the very arms which had been most powerful in the hands of the Revolution. Byron’s fervid panegyric enlisted on his side all who admired Byron—that is to say, the majority of the younger men and women of Europe between 1820 and 1850—and thus different sides of his tradition were continued for a full century after the publication of his chief books. His religious unorthodoxy was condoned because he never scoffed ; his political heresies, after their first effect was over, seemed harmless from the very want of logic and practical spirit in them, while part at least of his literary secret was the common property of almost everyone who attempted literature. At the present day persons as different as M. Renan and Mr Ruskin are children of Rousseau. It is therefore important to characterize this influence which was and is so powerful, and there are three points of view—those of religion, politics, and literature—which it is necessary to take in doing tliis. In religion Rousseau was undoubtedly what he has been called above—a sentimental deist; but no one who reads him with the smallest attention can fail to see that sentimentalism was the essence, deism the accident of his creed. In his time orthodoxy at once generous and intelligent hardly existed in France. There were ignorant persons who were sincerely orthodox; there were intelligent persons who pretended to be so. But between the time j of Massillon and D’Aguesseau and the time of Lamennais and Joseph j de Maistre the class of men of whom in England Berkeley, Butler, j and Johnson were representatives simply did not exist in France. Little inclined by nature to any but the emotional side of religion, and utterly undisciplined in any other by education, course of life, or the general tendency of public opinion, Rousseau naturally took refuge in the nebulous kind of natural religion which was at once fashionable and convenient. If his practice fell very far short even of his own very arbitrary standard of morality as much may be said of persons far more dogmatically orthodox.

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In politics, on the other hand, there is no douht that Rousseau was a sincere and, as far as in him lay, a convinced republican. He had no great tincture of learning, he was by no means a profound logician, and he was impulsive and emotional in the extreme— characteristics which in political matters undoubtedly predispose the subject to the preference of equality above all political requisites. He saw that under the French monarchy the actual result was the greatest misery of the greatest number, and he did not look much further. The Contrat Social is for the political student one of the most curious and interestiug books existing. Historically it is null; logically it is full of gaping flaws; practically its manipulations of the volonti de tons and the volonte generale are clearly insufficient to obviate anarchy. But its mixture of real eloquence and apparent cogency is exactly such as always carries a multitude with it, if only for a time. Moreover, in some minor branches of politics and economics Rousseau was a real reformer. Visionary as his educational schemes (chiefly promulgated in fimile) are in parts, they are admirable in others, and his protest against mothers refusing to nurse their children hit a blot in French life which is not removed yet, and has always been a source of weakness to the nation. But it is as a literary man pure and simple—that is to say, as an exponent rather than as an originator of ideas—that Rousseau is most noteworthy, and that he has exercised most influence. The first thing noticeable about him is that he defies all customary and mechanical classification. He is not a dramatist—his work as such is insignificant—nor a novelist, for, though his two chief works except the Confessions are called novels, fimile is one only in name, and La Nouvelle lleloise is as a story diffuse, prosy, and awkward to a degree. He was perfectly without command of poetic form, and he could only be called a philosopher in an age when the term was used with such meaningless laxity as was customary in the 18th century. If he must be classed, he was before all things a describer —a describer of the passions of the human heart and of the beauties of nature. In the first part of his vocation the novelists of his own youth, such as Marivaux, Richardson, and Prevost, may be said to have shown him the way, though he improved greatly upon them; in the second he was almost a creator. In combining the two and expressing the effect of nature on the feelings and of the feelings on the aspect of nature he was absolutely without a forerunner or a model. And, as literature since his time has been chiefly differentiated from literature before it by the colour and tone resulting from this combination, Rousseau may be said to hold, as an influence, a place almost unrivalled in literary history. The defects of all sentimental writing—occasional triviality and exaggeration of trivial things, diffuseness, overstrained emotion, false sentiment, disregard of the intellectual and the practical—are of course noticeable in him, but they are excused and palliated by his wonderful feeling, and by what may be called the passionate sincerity even of his insincere passages. Some cavils have been made against his French, but none of much weight or importance. And in such passages as the famous “ Voila de la pervenche” of the Confessions, as the description of the isle of St Pierre in the Reveries, as some of the letters in the Nouvelle Helolse and others, he has achieved the greatest success possible—that of absolute perfection in doing what he intended to do. The reader, as it has been said, may think he might have done something else with advantage, but he can hardly think that he could have done this thing better. The dates of most of Rousseau’s works published during his lifetime have been given above. The Confessions and Riveries, which, read in private, had given much umbrage to persons concerned, and which the author did not intend to be published until the end of the century, appeared at Geneva in 1782. In the same year and the following appeared a complete edition in forty-seven small volumes. There have been many since, the most important of them being that of MussetPathay (Paris, 1823). Some unpublished works, chiefly letters, were added by Bosscha (Paris, 1858) and Streckeisen Moultou (Paris, 1861). The most convenient edition is perhaps that of Pidot in 4 vols. large 8vo, but a handsome and well-edited collection is still something of a desideratum. Works on Rousseau are innumerable. The chief are—in French that of Saint Marc Girardin (1874), in English the excellent book of Mr John Morley. (G. SA.) ROUSSEAU, Theodore (1812-1867), a distinguished landscape painter, was born at Paris, and studied in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, after which he spent some time in travelling and making studies of landscape and sky effects. He first exhibited at the Salon in 1834, obtained gold medals in 1849 and 1854, and in 1852 received the Legion of Honour. His paintings became very popular in France, and Rousseau grew to be the acknowledged founder of the modern realistic school of landscape. He was largely influenced in style by Constable and Turner, the former of whom was perhaps more thoroughly appreciated in France than in England. The influence of Turner is clearly seen in some of Rousseau’s pictures, with striking effects of cloud or storm,—as, for example, in his Effet de Soleil and Apr£s la Pluie (1852), in the Matinee

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R 0 U —R 0 y Orageuse (1857), the Coucher de Soleil (1866), and disputes of this monarch with his brother Pedro III. of one of his last works, the Soleil par un Temps Orageux, Aragon were not lost sight of by Philip III. of France in which appeared in the exhibition of 1867. Rousseau’s his. quarrel with the latter about the crown of the Two study of Constable is more especially apparent in some of Sicilies. Philip espoused James’s cause and led his army his fine forest scenes near Fontainebleau, and in some into Spain, but retreating died at Perpignan in 1285, magnificently painted views on the banks of the Loire and James then became reconciled to his brother, and in 1311 other French rivers. His execution was of extraordinary was succeeded by his son Sancho, who founded the brilliance, and he was a thorough master of atmospheric cathedral of Perpignan shortly before his death in 1324. effect and glowing sunset colours. Though in some re- His successor James II. refused to do homage to Philip spects a realistic painter, he treated nature in a strongly ML °f France for the seigniory of Montpellier, and applied dramatic way and showed great imaginative power. His to 1 edro IV. of Aragon for aid. Pedro not only refused style is broad and dashing, with rapid and at times appabut on various pretexts declared war against him, and rently careless handling. His fame has increased rather it,_ seized Majorca and Roussillon in 1344. The province was than diminished since his death in 1867; and one of his now again united to Aragon, and enjoyed peace until paintings has recently received the high distinction of being 1462. In this year the disputes between John II. and transferred from the Luxembourg Palace to the Louvre, an his son about the crown of Navarre gave Louis XL of honour which is but rarely conferred. It is not, however, France an excuse to support John against his subjects, one of the best specimens of his work. Most of Theodore who had risen in revolt. Louis at the fitting time turned Rousseau’s pictures are in private collections in Paris and traitor, and the province having been pawned to him for elsewhere in France. 300,000 crowns was occupied by the French troops until ROUSSILLON, a province of France, which now forms 1493, when Charles VIII. restored it to Ferdinand and the greater part of the department of PYKkNkES Isabella. During the war between France and Spain Okientales (q.v.). It was bounded on the south by the (1496-98) the people suffered equally from the Spanish Pyrenees, on the west by the county of Foix, on the north garrisons and the French invaders. But dislike of the by Languedoc, and on the east by the Mediterranean. The Spaniards was soon effaced in the pride of sharing in the province derived its name from a small bourg near glory of Charles V., and in 1542, when Perpignan was erpignan, the capital, called Ruscino (Rosceliona, Castel besieged by the dauphin, the Roussillonnais remained true Rossello), where the Gallic chieftains met to consider to their allegiance. Afterwards the decay of Spain was Hannibal s request for a conference. The district formed part of the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis from France’s opportunity, and, on the revolt of the Catalans 121 b.c. to 462 a.d., when it was ceded with the rest of against the Castilians in 1641, Louis XIII. espoused the cause of the former, and by the treaty of 1659 secured Septimania to Theodoric II., king of the Visigoths. His Roussillon to the French crown. successor, Amalaric, on his defeat by Clovis in 531 retired (in German sometimes Rofreit), one of to Spain, leaving a governor in Septimania. In 719 the theROVEREDO chief industrial cities in South Tyrol, and, after Trent, Saracens crossed the Pyrenees, and Septimania was held the chief seat of the Tyrolese silk industry, is situated on by them until their defeat by Pippin in 756. On the invasion of Spain by Charlemagne in 778 he found the the left bank of the Adige (Etsch), in the fertile Val Lagarina, 35 miles north of Verona and 100 miles south borderlands wasted by the Saracenic wars, and the inhabitants hiding among the mountains. He accordingly made of Innsbruck. Though there are several open places the town, the streets, except in the newer quarters, grants of land to Visigothic refugees from Spain, and within are narrow, crooked, and uneven. Of the two parish founded several monasteries, round which the people churches, S. Marco dates from the 15th century and gathered for protection. In 792 the Saracens again Sta Maria del Carmine from 1678. The only other invaded France, but were repulsed by Louis, king of interesting building is the quaint old castle known as Aquitaine, whose rule extended over all Catalonia as far as Barcelona. The different portions of his kingdom in Castell Junk. As an active trading town and administrative centre Royeredo is well equipped with commercial, time grew into allodial fiefs, and in 893 Suniaire II. educational, and benevolent institutions. Thou Mi became the first hereditary count of Roussillon. But his judicial, the district between Trent and Verona yields about rule only extended over the eastern part of what became the later province. The western part, or Cerdagne, was 120,000 lb of silk annually, the silk industry of Roveredo, introduced in the 16 th century, has declined during the ruled in 900 by Miron as first count, and one of his last fifty years. The establishments in which the cocoons grandsons, Bernard, was the first hereditary count of the are unwound (filande) are distinct from those in which middle portion, or Bbsalu. In 1111 Raymond-Berenger the silk is spun (filatoje). The silk is not woven at III., count of Barcelona, inherited the fief of Besalu to which was added in 1117 that of Cerdagne; and in 1172 Roveredo. Paper and leather are the other chief manuhis grandson, Alphonso II., king of Aragon, united Rous- factures of the place; and a brisk trade in southern fruits red wine is carried on. The population is 8864. sillon to his other states on the death of the last count and The origin of Royeredo is probably to be traced to the founding Gerard II. The counts of Roussillon, Cerdagne, and oi the castle by William of Castelbarco-Lizzana about 1300. Later Besalu were not sufficiently powerful to indulge in any it passed to the emperor Frederick of the Empty Pockets, who wars of ambition. Their energies had been accordingly sold it to. Venice in 1413. The treaty of Cambray transferred it Venice to the emperor Maximilian in 1510, since which time devoted to furthering the welfare of their people who trom it has shared the fate of southern Tyrol, finally passing to enjoyed both peace and prosperity under their ’ rule Austria in 1814. In September 1709 the French under Massena Under the Aragonese monarchs the progress of the united won a victory over the Austrians near Roveredo. Near the province still continued, and Collioure, the port of neighbouring village of St Marco are the traces of a destructive erpignan, became a centre of Mediterranean trade. But landslip in 883, described in the Inferno (xii. 4-9) by Dante who the country was in time destined to pay the penalty of its spent part of his exile in 1302 in a castle near Lizzana. position on the frontiers of France and Spain in the lono- . ROVIGNO, a city of Austria, in the province of Istria, struggle for ascendency between these two powers. James is picturesquely situated on the coast of the Adriatic’ I. of Aragon had wrested the Balearic Isles from the about 12 miles south of Parenzo, and 10 miles by rail from Mojrs and left them with Roussillon to his son James Canfanaro, a junction on the railway between Divazza (1276), with the title of king of Majorca. The consequent (Trieste) and Pola. It has two harbours, with shipbuilding yards; and it carries on several industries and a

R 0 V- - R O W good export trade, especially in olive-oil and a cement manufactured in tlie little island of Sant’ Andrea. The population was 9564 in 1869 and 9522 in 1880. According to tradition Eovigno was originally built on an island, Cissa by name, which disappeared during the earthquakes about 737. In the 6th century, as the local legend has it, the body of St Euphemia of Chalcedon was miraculously conveyed to the island ; and at a later date it was transported to the summit of the promontory, Monte di Sant’ Eufemia, whither it was restored by the Venetians in 1410 after being in the possession of the Genoese from 1380. The diocese of Rovigno was merged in 1008 in the bishopric of Parenzo ; but its church continued to have the title of cathedral. Rovigno passed definitively into the hands of the Venetians in 1330, and it remained true to the republic till the treaty of Campo Formic (1797). ROVIGO, a city of Italy, the chief town of a province, and the seat of the bishop of Adria, lies between the Po and the Adige, and is traversed by the Adigetto, a navigable branch of the Adige. By rail it is 27 miles southsouth-west of Padua. The architecture bears the stamp both of Venetian and Ferrarese influence. The cathedral church of Santo Stefano (1696) is of less interest than La Madonna del Soccorso, an octagon (with a fine campanile), begun in 1594. The town-hall contains a library of 80,000 volumes belonging to the Accademia de’ Concordi, founded in 1580, and a picture gallery enriched with the spoils of the monasteries. Wool, silk, linen, and leather are among the local manufactures. The population of the city proper was 7452 in 1871 and 7272 in 1881; the commune in 1881 had 11,460 inhabitants. Rovigo (Neo-Latin Rhodigmm) appears to be mentioned as Rudigo in 838. It was selected as his residence by the bishop of Adria on the destruction of his city by the Huns. From the 11th to the 14th century the Este family was usually in authority ; but the Venetians who obtained the town and castle in pledge between 1390 and 1400 took the place by siege in 1482, and, though the Este more than once recovered it, the Venetians, returning in 1514, retained possession till the French Revolution. In 1806 the city was made a duchy in favour of General Savary. The Austrians in 1815 created it a royal city. ROVIGO, Duke of. See Say ary, ROWE, Nicholas (1674-1718), tbe descendant of a family long resident at Lamerton in Devon, was born at Little Barford in Bedfordshire, June 30,1674. The house in which he was born is close to the Great North Road, and a small stone to his memory has been erected in the centre of the garden. His father, John Rowe, took to the law as his profession, and at his death in 1692 (by which time he had attained to the dignity of being a serjeant at law) had amassed sufficient property to leave to his son an income of £300 a year. Nicholas Rowe passed some time in a private school at Highgate, and then proceeded to Westminster School, at that time under the charge of the celebrated master Dr Busby. In 1688 he became a king’s scholar in this foundation, but three years later he was called away from school and entered as a student at the Middle Temple. The study of the law had little attraction for a young man of good person and lively manners, and at his father’s death in the following year he devoted himself to society and to literature. His first play, The Ambitious Stepmother, was produced when he was twenty-five years old. It was followed by Tamerlane, a patriotic composition in which the virtues of William III. were lauded under the disguise of Tamerlane and the vices of the French king, Louis XIV., were denounced in the person of Bajazet. The popularity of this production soon declined, but for many years it was acted once every year, on the anniversary of the landing at Torbay of the Dutch prince. His next play, The Fair Penitent, long retained the favourable reception which marked its first appearance, and was pronounced by the great critic of the 18th century one of the most pleasing tragedies which had ever been written. Through its suc-

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cess the name of the principal male character Lothario became identified in popular language as the embodiment of the manners and habits of a fashionable rake. After the production of two more tragedies, Ulysses and The Royal Convert, of slight account at the time and long since forgotten, Rowe tried^ his hand on a comedy, The Biter. Much to the author’s surprise his attempt in this new direction proved a failure, but Rowe recognized the justice of the verdict of the audience sufficiently to abstain from risking a second disappointment. His two last dramatic works were entitled Jane Shore and Lady Jane Grey, and the former of them, from the popularity of its subject and the elegance of its language, kept its position on the stage longer than any other of his works. Rowe excelled most of his contemporaries in the knowledge of languages. He was acquainted more or less thoroughly with Greek, Latin, French, Italian, and Spanish. The latter tongue he is said to have acquired on the recommendation of Harley and with the expectation that he would afterwards be rewarded by some high office. When, however, he reported his new acquisition to the new minister he was met with the dry remark from Harley—“ How I envy you the pleasure of reading Don Quixote in the original! ” Notwithstanding this disappointment, Rowe enjoyed many lucrative posts during his short life. When the duke of Queensberry was principal secretary of state for Scotland (1708-10), Rowe acted as his under-secretary. On the accession of George I. he was made a surveyor of customs, and on the death of Tate he became poet laureate. He was also appointed clerk of the council to the prince of Wales, and the list of preferments was closed by his nomination by LordChancellor Parker (5th May 1718) as secretary of presentations in Chancery. He died 6th December 1718, and was buried in the south cross of Westminster Abbey. By his first wife, a daughter of Mr Parsons, one of the auditors of the revenue, he left a son John; and by his second wife, Anne, the daughter of Joseph Devenish of a Dorsetshire family, he had an only daughter, Charlotte, born in 1718, who married Henry Fane, a younger brother of Thomas, eighth earl of Westmoreland. The burials of mother and daughter are recorded in Colonel Chester’s Registers of Westminster Abbey. Rowe’s tragedies were marked by passionate feeling set off by a graceful diction, and were well adapted for stage effect. If The Fair Penitent and Jane Shore have been expelled from tbe stage, their historic reputation and their style will repay perusal. Among Rowes other literary efforts may be mentioned an edition of the works of Shakespeare (1709), for which he received from Lintot the bookseller the sum of £36, 10s., a rate of pay not out of proportion to the labour which was bestowed upon the task. At the time of his death he had also finished a translation of Lucan’s Pharsalia, a work then much praised and not yet superseded by any competitor. Rowe’s minor poems were beneath the level of his age. An edition of his works was published in 1720 under the care of Mr (afterwards Bishop) Newton. His translation of Lucan was edited by Dr Welwood, ROWING is the act of driving forward or propelling a boat along the surface of the water by means of oars. It is remarkable how scanty, until quite recent times, are the records of this art, which at certain epochs has played no insignificant part in the world’s history. It was the oar that brought Phoenician letters and civilization to Greece; it was the oar that propelled the Hellenic fleet to Troy; it was the oar that saved Europe from Persian despotism ; it was the skilful use of the oar by free citizens which wTas the glory of Athens in her prime. It is to be regretted that so little is known of the details connected with it, or of the disposal of the rowers on board the splendid fleet which started in its pride for Sicily, when 17,000 oars at a given signal smote the brine, and 100 long ships raced as far as Angina. The vessels of the ancient Greeks and

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ROWING Romans—the biremes, quadriremes, quinquiremes, and mayor’s state barge was a magnificent species of shallop hexaremes—owed their pace to the exertions of men who rowed by watermen; and the city companies had for the p led the oar rather than to the sails with which they were most part barges of their own, all rowed double-banked fitted, and which were only used when the wind was wit i oars in the fore half, the after part consisting of a favourable. Professor Gardner has shown that boat racing was not uncommon among the Greeks;1 and that it was cabin something like that of a gondola. The watermen became by degrees so large and numerous a body that in practised among the Romans Virgil testifies in the well- the sixth year of the reign of Henry VIII. (1514) an known passage in the fifth book of the JEneid. And the Act was passed making regulations for them. This Act Venetian galleys which were subsequently used on the has from time to time been amended by various statutes, shores of the Mediterranean in mediaeval times were only a modified form of the older kind of craft. These were and the last was passed in 1858. Much time seems to for the most part manned by slaves and criminals, and have been spent in pleasuring on the water in the 15 th 16th centuries, and no doubt competitions amonowere in constant employment in most European countries. and Rowing was understood by the ancient Britons, as they the watermen were not uncommon, though there is no of them. The principal occupation of watermen trusted themselves to the mercy of the waves in coracles record who were obliged to serve an apprenticeship, used to bo composed of wicker-work covered with leather, similar no and rowing fares on the Thames, but in process doubt in many respects to those now used in Wales; but ferrying o time the introduction of bridges and steamers drove these frail vessels were propelled by paddles and not by them from this employment, and the majority of them oars. Hie Saxons seem to have been expert in the now work as bargemen, lightermen, and steamboat hands management of the oar, as well as the Danes and Norwe- having still to serve an apprenticeship. For many years gians, as it is recorded that the highest nobles in the land devoted themselves to it. Alfred the Great introduced matches for money stakes were frequent (1831 to 1880) long galleys from the Mediterranean, which were propelled but the old race of watermen, of which Phelps, the senior by forty or sixty oars on each side, and for some time Kelley, Campbell, Coombes, Newell, the MacKinneys these vessels were used for war purposes. It is stated by Messenger, Pocock, and Henry Kelley were prominent William of Malmesbury that Edgar the Peaceable was members, has almost died out, and some of the best English rowed in state on the river Dee from his palace, in the scullers during the last fifteen years have been landsmen. Apart from the reference already made to the ancients, city of West Chester, to the church of St John and back again, by eight tributary kings, himself acting as we do not find any records of boat-racing before the establishment in England of the coat and badge, insticoxswain. Boat quintain, or tilting at one another on the water tuted by the celebrated comedian Thomas Doggett in was first brought into England by the Normans as an 1715, in honour of the house of Hanover, to commemoamusement for the spring and summer season, and prob- rate the anniversary of “King George I.’s happy accession ably much of the success of the champions depended to the throne of Great Britain.” The prize was a red coat upon the skill of those who managed the boats. Before with a large silver badge on the arm, bearing the white the beginning of the 12th century the rivers were horse of Hanover, and the race had to be rowed on the 1st commonly used for conveying passengers and merchandise of August annually on the Thames, by six young watermen on board barges and boats, and until the introduction of who were not to have exceeded the time of their apprenticecoaches they were almost the only means of transit for ship by twelve months. Although the first contest took royalty, and for the nobility and gentry who had mansions place in the year above mentioned, the names of the and watergates on the banks of the Thames. It is, how- winners have only been preserved since 1791. The race ever, impossible to trace the first employment of bargemen continues at the present day, but under slight modifications. The first regatta appears to have occurred about wherrymen, or watermen, but they seem to have been well sixty years later, for we learn from the Annual Register of established by that time, and were engaged in ferrying and the year 1775 that an entertainment called by that name other waterside duties. During the long frosts of the early part of the 13th century, frequent mention is made in the (Ital-,_ regata), introduced from Venice into England, was chronicles of the distress among the watermen, from which exhibited on the Thames off Ranelagh Gardens, and a we may assume that their numbers were large. They were lengthy account of it is given at the end of the work. The employed in conveying the nobles and their retinues to lord mayor’s and several-of the city companies’ pleasure Runnymede, where they met King John and where Ma^na barges were conspicuous, and, although we learn very little Charta was signed. Towards the close of this century the indeed of the competing wager boats, it seems clear they watermen of Greenwich were frequently fined for over- were rowed by watermen. We find from Strutt’s Sports charging at the established ferries, and about the same and Pastimes (first published in 1801) that the proprietor of time some of the city companies established barges for Vauxhall Gardens had for some years given a new wherry water processions. _ We learn from Fabian and Middleton to be rowed for by watermen, two in a boat, which is that m 1454 “Sir John Norman, then lord mayor of perhaps the first pair-oared race on record. Similar prizes ondon, built a noble barge at his own expense, and was were also given by Astley, the celebrated horseman and rowed by watermen with silver oars, attended by such of circus proprietor of the Westminster Bridge Road, about the the city companies as possessed barges, in a splendid same period; but thus far rowing was apparently viewed manner, and further “ that he made the barge he sat in as a laborious exercise, and the rowers were paid. Atr the burn on the water”; but there is no explanation of this commencement of the present century, however, rowim asstatement. Sir John Norman was highly commended for sociations were formed, and the “ Star,” “ Arrow,” “ Shark ” this action by the members of the craft, as no doubt it and “ Siren ” Clubs had races amongst themselves, genelelped to popularize the fashion then coming into vogue of rally over long courses and in heavy six-oared boats.’ The being rowed on the Thames by the watermen who plied Star and Arrow Clubs ceased to exist in the early years or hire in their wherries. The lord mayor’s procession of this century, and were merged in the newly formed by water to Westminster, which figures on the front page Leander Club. The date of its establishment cannot be of the Illustrated London News, was made annually until fixed exactly, but it was probably about 1818 or 1819. the year 1856, when it was discontinued. The lord It ranked high, because the majority of its members had frequently distinguished themselves in matches with the 1 Journal of Hellenic Studies, 1881. oar and sculls. They were the first to patronize and lend

ROW I N G a helping hand to young watermen who showed promise of aquatic fame, and they likewise instituted a coat and badge for scullers. The first record of public-school racing which can now be seen is the Water Ledger of Westminster School, which commences in the year 1813 with a list of the crew of the six-oared Fly. This craft continued for some time to be the only boat of the school, and in 1816 beat the Temple six-oar in a race from Johnson’s Dock to Westminster Bridge by half a length. Eton possessed a fleet of boats in 1811, if not at an earlier date, consisting of a ten-oar and three boats with eight oars. In those days some of the crews had a waterman to pull stroke and drill the crew, but this practice was abolished in 1828, as the waterman frequently rowed a bad stroke and the crew were obliged to subscribe for his day’s pay, beer, and clothes ; thenceforward the captain of each crew rowed the strokeoar. The earliest record of a race at Eton is when Mr Carter’s four rowed against the watermen and beat them in 1817 ; but the professionals had a boat too small for them. In 1818 Eton challenged Westminster School to row from Westminster to Kew Bridge against the tide, but the match was stopped by the authorities ; and it was not until 1829 that the first contest between the two schools was brought to an issue. Rowing appears to have commenced at the universities soon after the beginning of the century, but earlier at Oxford than at Cambridge. There were college boats on the river for some time before there were any races. Those first recorded at Oxford were in 1815, said to be college eights, but the boats used are more likely to have been fours, when Brasenose was “head of the river ” and Jesus their chief opponent. These two clubs were constantly rowing races, but they were not very particular about the oarsmen in the boats, as the Brasenose crew in 1824 was composed of two members of the college, a Worcester man, and a waterman. The first authentic records commence in 1836, and the Oxford University Boat Club was established in 1839. At Cambridge eight-oared rowing was not in fashion so soon as at Oxford, the first eight (belonging to St John’s College) not having been launched until 1826 ; and between that year and 1829 the Cambridge University Boat Club was formed. Eight-oared races were established on the Cam in 1827, when First Trinity was “head of the river,” and in 1828 the first Oxford and Cambridge University boat race was proposed and fixed for June 10, 1829, on the Thames, from Hambledon Lock to Henley Bridge. The race was rowed at intermittent periods up to 1856, since which year it has been annual. In 1830 the amateur championship of the Thames was instituted by Mr Henry C. Wingfield, who presented a pair of silver sculls to be rowed for annually by the amateur scullers of the Thames on the 10th August from Westminster to Putney at half flood, but the course and date of the race have been changed since then. The first scullers’ race for the professional championship of the Thames was rowed from Westminster to Putney on the 8th September 1831, Charles Campbell of Westminster defeating John Williams of Waterloo Bridge. During the next eight years rowing increased in favour among amateurs, and, as it had taken its proper place among the national pastimes, and the want of a central spot for a regatta was much felt, Henleyon-Thames was chosen, and it was decided that a regatta should be held there in 1839, and the Grand Challenge cup for eight oars was established. This has been an annual fixture ever since, prizes being given for four oars, pair oars, and scullers, as well as for eight oars. In 1843 the Royal Thames Regatta was started at Putney, and it gave a gold challenge cup for eight oars and a silver challenge cup for four oars, to be rowed by amateurs. In 1844 Oxford beat Cambridge at this regatta, and in the same year the committee added a champion prize for watermen. About this time the Old Thames Club was established, and they carried off the gold challenge cup by winning it for three years in succession, viz., 1846 to 1848. In 1852 the Argonauts Club first appeared at Henley and won the Visitors’ cup, and in 1853 the Royal Chester Rowing Club were successful in the Stewards’ cup for four oars, and won the Grand Challenge cup for eight oars the next year. In 1856 the London Rowing Club was established, but those members of it who rowed at Henley were obliged to enter under the name of the Argonauts Club, as, not having been in existence a year, its crew could not compete under its name. The next year, however, they carried off the Grand Challenge cup from Oxford University, and were successful in the Stewards’ cup as well. Many more clubs, such as the Kingston, Radley, West London, Twickenham, Thames, Moulsey, and other metropolitan and provincial clubs were subsequently established, and have met with varied success. Boats.—The boats of the present day differ very much from those formerly used, and the heavy lumbering craft which alone were known to our forefathers have been superseded by a lighter description,—skiffs, gigs, and racing outriggers. The old Thames wherry with its long projecting bow is now seldom seen, and a roomy skiff, often used with a sail when the wind is favourable, has taken its plaee. The gig is an open boat with several strakes, having the rowlocks, or pieces of wood between which the oar works, fixed upon the

31

gunwale, which is level all round. The skiff is wider and longer than the gig and of greater depth, and, rising higher fore and aft, with rowlocks placed on a curved and elevated gunwale, has greater carrying power and rows lighter than the gig. The wherry rises high at the bows with a long nose pointed upwards and a very low stern, being consequently unsuited for rough water. The modern racing boat differs much from the foregoing, as its width has been decreased so as to offer as little resistance to the water as possible, while it is propelled by oars working between rowlocks fixed on projecting iron rods and cross pieces which are made fast to the timbers. These rods and cross pieces are rigged out from the side of the boats, and hence the term outriggers. These boats are constructed for single scullers, for pairs, for fours, for eights, and occasionally for twelve oars. The outrigger was first brought to perfection by the late Henry Clasper of Newcastle-on-Tyne, who is generally believed to have been its inventor; but the first outriggers, which were cnly rude pieces of wood fastened on the boat’s sides, were used in 1828, and were fixed to a boat at Ouseburn-on-Tyne. The first iron outriggers were affixed to a boat in 1830 at Dents’ Hole on Tyne. In 1844 Clasper, who had been improving upon these inventions, made his first boat of the kind and brought her to London; but her outriggers were only 8 inches in length, and she was built of several stakes, with a small keel. In process of time keels were dispensed with, the outriggers were lengthened, and the skin of the boat is now composed of a single stake of cedar planed very thin and bent by means of hot water to take the form of the timbers of the boat. It is fastened by copper nails to curved timbers of ash, one extremity of which is fixed into the keelson while the other is made fast to long pieces of deal that run from end to end of the boat and are called inwales. The timbers in the middle are thicker than the rest, so as to support the iron outriggers which are fastened to them, and the thwart, which is wider than it used to be in order to carry the sliding seat, which works backward and forward with the oarsman, is screwed to the inwales. This seat moves to and fro on rollers made of steel, wood, or brass, and travels over a distance varying from 12 to 6 inches according to the judgment of the instructor. The sliding seat seems to have been the invention of an American oarsman, who fixed one to a sculling boat in 1857, but it was not until 1870 that he had mastered the principles sufficiently to discover how much was gained mechanically and physically. The value of the improvement is now universally recognized, but it was some little time before it was understood and came into general use. The members of the London Rowing Club, who defeated the representatives of the Hew York Atalanta Club at Putney in June 1872, used sliding seats, and the club also had them fitted to their eight, which easily carried off the Grand Challenge cup at Henley a few days afterwards. In 1873 the sliding seat was adopted by the crews rowing in the University boat race. The Americans have also the credit of two other inventions, viz., the steering apparatus, which enables a crew to dispense with a coxswain, and the swivel rowlock; but, though the former is now fitted to the majority of non-coxswain pail’s and fours, the use of the latter is confined for the most part to sculling boats. In outrigged eights, fours, and pairs the outriggers are placed, one for each thwart, at each side alternately, but in gigs, skiffs, wherries, and funnies they are placed opposite one another, so as to be used on either side at discretion. The oars generally used are about 12 feet long, varying with the width of the boat, and sculls are as much as 10 feet long. Directions for Bowing.—In modern rowing the oarsman, grasping the handle of the oar with both hands, sits forward on the edge of his seat, stretches out his arms until they are fully extended—the blade of the oar being, just previous to entering the water, at right angles to its surface. It is then dipped into the water just so far as to cover it, and the handle pulled towards the oarsman’s body, the weight bf the latter being thrown backward at the same time, so as to make one movement, and the legs pressed hard against the stretcher, and the handle finally pulled home to the chest with the arms, the elbows being allowed to pass the sides until the handle of the oar just touches the lower extremity of the breast. The blade of the oar thus appears to be forced through the water, but in reality this is very slightly the case, as the water, which is the fulcrum, remains almost immovable. In sculling, the operation is the same except that the sculler has a scull in each hand and drives the boat himself, whereas a man rowing an oar must have one or more comrades to assist him. Rowing is made up of two parts, the stroke and the feather. Feathering is turning the oar at the end of the stroke by lowering the hands and dropping'the wrists, thus bringing the flat blade of the oar parallel with the surface of the water, and is generally considered to include the driving forward of the handle of the oar and the consequent carrying back of the blade previous to the beginning of a new stroke. When prepared to embark, the pupil should lay his oar on the water if an outside or upon the land if a shoreside oar, and step into the boat with his face to the stern, when he should at once seat himself and ship his oar, and then try the length of his stretcher to see that it suits his length of leg. This arranged, he should

32 R O W —R 0 W 7 UP

squarfand iipri-h^kiTnot^l

°ti

his thwart

,

> sitting quite

kep t 1111 0 fhekknees t^ gmust i s'be gradually * straight.straightened On catching the thrown water the andhold the of body back, the two actions going on simultaneously, so that the legs are straight out by the time the stroke is finished and not beforf the

silSHi SanThS°U rS^at the eml °f th6 Str0ke beU thrown’well t the Upri ht osition from hips thlhaids thrownV’600 ^^and ^ P the ]°1 the time nVar tne Knees the body is being drawn forward, andthey the are knees tl rkie7?L hod v l\ - f ’ 7 justbent past The motion then begins the same as before. (E D B wo so as to keep the knees open and separate. Of course ifs then^: nun s“tL?tt\‘ his thfXtaSo’/ fCeriea—? p»s«™ nan be traied b’ack to aitair 1811,—a1 sectional match, York City anainst all affair was wlF inn fall '“T"1, C,: "tl,,,i''NewTbe earliest important Long Island four-oared barges, with coxswains, from Harsimus New Jersey, to the flag-staff on the Battery. New York woneSy fhed“SS rV v po,PuIar enthusiasm oyer the race that its boat sus ended in remaim l for fn^fiff^f ’ WaS a public museum, remained fifty-four years, aP constant recipient of public where admira-it The oar s^Ji Te\^ ^ bolh Kf tion until destroyed by fire in July 1865. Since this historic Con w thout boat rac ll amaten/w ^ \ were unknown and the Kill 0I a + V+1 R®g tta Association. At English is usual to start three boats in a heat, sometimes four, regattas live beingit the utmos? wherea s flip!.!’ regattas of 1874 andsingles 1875 f at Saratoga, t oi e were started abreast, m in the fourgreat separate races, eleven 6611 0XSWanll ess four s and ^Tb^ r : . ’ racing thirteen coxswainless The primary division ofp American craft is into fa)sixes. lapmm&m be aken streaks or clinkers, built of wood in narrow streaks with overlappingS £en°ttfotTp!^^ * ^ ed ges at each joint, and (5) smooth bottoms, made of wood or mper ?rfinthto7thtedrok^t£nitth-l°lf T" ^shouldeTinto Zik’boT "■i,h0w"t rarel l>»j“tingjoint on tXlYX h rap T’ ?leV.er’ ninto ? barges, y ^ed save barge races. before^tlm8 rowlockf0rTo,effect'11^ ^^^^^^^t'portionof the6 boat Slt Then follows the subdivision which areinopen inrigged boats gigs which are open outrigged boats, and shells, which are covered outng^d boats. These three classes of boats are further subdivided, in accordance with the means of propulsion, into single double jind quadruple sculling boats, and pair-, four-, six-, and eight,! oared boats In America the double-scull is more frequent than ssssss^ss the parr, and. the six-oar much more common than the eight-oar , Vie ofSfldl ng Seat Is Im !0Wwhich !:)einothe gradually superseded various styles rolling seats, actual seat travels bv backward and forward on frictionless wheels or balls. The best of these devices run more easily, are cleaner, and less liable to accident than the ordinary sliding seat. English oarsmen use the sliding seat as a means of making their old accustomed stroke longer and more powerful. American oarsmen hold that what is needed by an oars! man is not the addition of the long slide to the old-fashioned long swing, but the almost total substitution of slide for swing thf 8 f rW d should extad^is'lms toXir Si leXhX -SX ° " - transfer of the labour from back to legs-in fact, a totally new style ROWIiANDSON, Thomas (1756-1827), caricatHrL; uSS ttT.t°er SVe^8,sari's7,iXi “'fS^eS cally opened, and the body reached forward as Ssuci “poEFbk.'She was born m Old Jewry, London, in July 1756, the son of a tradesman or city merchant. It is recorded that “he could

R 0 W- -R O X make sketches before he learned to write,” and that he covered his lesson-books with caricatures of his masters and fellow-pupils. On leaving school he became a student in the Royal Academy. At the age of sixteen he resided and studied for a time in Paris, and he afterwards made frequent tours on the Continent, enriching his portfolios with numerous jottings of life and character. In 1775 he exhibited at the Royal Academy a drawing of Delilah visiting Samson in Prison, and in the following years he was represented by various portraits and landscapes. Possessed of much facility of execution and a ready command of the figure, he was spoken of as a promising student; and had he continued his early application he would have made his mark as a painter. But he was the victim of a disastrous piece of good fortune. By the death of his aunt, a French lady, he fell heir to a sum of £7000, and presently he plunged into the dissipations of the town. Gambling became a passion with him, and he has been known to sit at the gaming-table for thirtysix hours at a stretch. In time poverty overtook him; and the friendship and example of Gillray and Bunbury seem to have suggested that his early aptitude for caricature might furnish a ready means of filling an empty purse. His drawing of Vauxhall, shown in the Royal Academy exhibition of 1784, had been engraved by Pollard, and the print was a success. Rowlandson was largely employed by Rudolph Ackermann, the art publisher, who in 18091811 issued in his Poetical Magazine “The Schoolmaster’s Tour”—a series of plates with illustrative verses by Dr William Coombe. They were the most popular of the artist’s works. Again engraved by Rowlandson himself in 1812, and issued under the title of the Tour of Dr Syntax in Search of the Picturesque, they had attained a fifth edition by 1813, and were followed in 1820 by Dr Syntax in Search of Consolation, and in 1821 by the Third Tour of Dr Syntax, in Search of a Wife. The same collaboration of designer, author, and publisher appeared in the English Dance of Death, issued in 1814-16, one of the most admirable of Rowlandson’s series, and in the Dance of Life, 1822. Rowlandson also illustrated Smollett, Goldsmith, and Sterne, and his designs will be found in The Spirit of the Public Journals (1825), The English Spy (1825), and The Humourist (1831). He died in London, after a prolonged illness, on the 22d April 1827. Rowlandson’s designs were usually executed in outline with the reed-pen, and delicately washed with colour. They were then etched by the artist on the copper, and afterwards aqua-tinted— usually by a professional engraver, the impressions being finally coloured by hand. As a designer he was characterized by the utmost facility and ease of draughtsmanship. He poured forth his designs in ill-considered profusion, and the quality of his art suffered from this haste and over-production. He was a true if not a very refined humorist, dealing less frequently than his fierce contemporary Gillray with politics, but commonly touching, in a rather gentle spirit, the various aspects and incidents of social life. His most artistic work is to be found among the more careful drawings of his earlier period ; but even among the gross forms and exaggerated caricature of his later time we find, here and there, in the graceful lines of a figure or the sweet features of some maiden’s face, sufficient hints that this master of the humorous might have attained to the beautiful had he so willed. See J. Grego, Rowlandson the Caricaturist, a Selection from his Works, &c. (2 vols., 1880). ROWLEY, William, actor and dramatist, collaborated with several of the celebrated dramatists of the Elizabethan period—Dekker, Middleton, Heywood, Fletcher, Webster, Massinger, and Ford. Nothing is known of his life except that he was an actor in various companies, and married in 1637. There was another Rowley, an actor and playright in the same generation, Samuel, and probably a third, Ralph. Four plays by W. Rowley are extant,—A Woman never Vext (printed 1632), A Match at Midnight (1633), All’s Lost by Lust (1633), and A Shoemaker a

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Gentleman (1638). From these an opinion may be formed of his individual style. Effectiveness of situation and ingenuity of plot are more marked in them than any special literary faculty, from which we may conjecture why he was in such request as an associate in play-making. There are significant quotations from two of his plays in Lamb’s Specimens. It is recorded by Langbaine that he “ was beloved of those great men Shakespeare, Fletcher, and Jonson”; and the tradition of his personal amiability is supported by the fact of his partnerships with so many different writers. ROWLEY REGIS, an urban sanitary district of Staffordshire, is situated on the Birmingham Canal, and on the Stourbridge branch of the Great Western Railway, 6 miles west of Birmingham. The original village surrounds the parish church, dating from the 13th century, but rebuilt in 1840 with the exception of the tower, which was also rebuilt in 1858. The village is situated in a rich coal and ironstone district, and round it numerous hamlets have grown up within recent years. Lately the parish has been erected into an urban sanitary district, governed by a local board of fifteen members. Besides collieries, iron works, and extensive quarries for “ Rowley rag ” (a basaltic intrusion), there are potteries, rivet, chain, and anchor works, breweries, and agricultural implement works, the district being one of the most important manufacturing centres of Staffordshire. The population of the urban sanitary district (area 3670 acres) in 1871 was 23,534 and in 1881 it was 27,385. ROXANA, or Roxane, daughter of the Bactrian Oxyartes and wife of Alexander the Great (see Alexander, vol. i. p. 484, and Macedonian Empire, vol. xv. p. 142). ROXBURGH, a border county of Scotland, occupying the greater part of the border line with England, is bounded E. and S.E. by Northumberland, S.E. by Cumberland, S.W. by Dumfriesshire, W. by Selkirkshire, N.W. by Midlothian, and N.E. by Berwickshire. It lies between 55° 6' 30” and 55° 42' 30" N. lat., and between 2° 10' and 3° 7' W. long. Its greatest length from north to south is 43 miles, and its greatest breadth about 30 miles. The area is 428,464 acres, or about 670 square miles. Surface and Geology.—The greater part of Roxburgh is included in Teviotdale. The whole course of the Teviot, 40 miles in length, is included within the county. It rises in the ranges of grey wacke hills which separate the county from Dumfriesshire and Selkirk, and runs north-eastwards, following the deposition of the greywacke rocks to the Tweed at Kelso, and dividing the county into two unequal parts. On the north a high range of land runs parallel with its banks and slopes to its margin. South-west between Dumfries and Cumberland the greywacke formation constitutes an almost continuous succession of eminences, through which the Liddel finds its way southwards. The highest summits of the greywacke ranges exceed 1800 feet. Although occasionally rocky and rugged, the hills are for the most part rounded in outline and clothed with grass to their summits. This Silurian formation occupies nearly the whole of the western half of the county, but along with the greywacke rocks is associated clay slate of a bluish colour, glimmering with minute scales of mica and frequently traversed by veins of calcareous spar. The formation is succeeded to the eastward by an extensive deposit of Old Red Sandstone, forming an irregular quadrangular area towards the centre of the county, emitting two irregular projections from its southern extremity, and interrupted towards the north by an intrusion of trap rocks. Owing to the sandstone formation the transverse valleys formed by various affluents of the Teviot present features of great interest. The action of the water has scooped deep channels in the rock, and thus formed picturesque narrowdefiles, of which the high sandstone scaurs are a proXXI. - 5

34

R 0 X — ROY minent characteristic, their dark red colour blending finely 16 184) ; Kelso (4687) is a police burgh. The most important with the bright green woods and sparkling streams. The villages are Melrose (1550), Newcastleton (924), and Yetholm (746). best example of this species of scenery is on the Jed near History and Antiquities.—Among the more important relics of Jedburgh. From the left the Teviot receives the Borth- the early inhabitants of the county are the so-called Druidical remains at Tinmshill between the parishes of Castleton and Canonbie wick and the Ale, both rising in Selkirkshire, and from the at Nmestanerigg near Hermitage Castle, and at Plenderleath between right the Allan, the Slitrig, the Rule, the Jed, the Oxnam, the Oxnam and the Kale. Of old forts there are two of great size on and the Kale, which rise in the high grounds towards the the summits of Caerby and Tinnishill in Liddesdale, and a number English border. As the Teviot approaches Hawick the 111 f the coullt utsTof w nentareparts Y 011 ^e north-a of th^Tn the Eildon Hills two °fossie or ramparts forming county becomes more cultivated, although frequent irrup- west or< tPa a mi1 0n tions of igneous rocks in the shape of isolated hills lend to Brfti«b fn “ \ ? ®Caldshiels Hill there was another British fort, and between them a ditch with rampart of earth defend] it picturesqueness and variety. Towards the Tweed, where ing the country from the east. The famous Catrail, “partition of the fence, the most important of the British remains in the kingthe lower division of the coal formation prevails, it expands into a fine champaign country, richly cultivated and finely dom, extended a distance of 45 miles from near Galashiels in Selthrough Roxburgh to Peel Fell on the border. The Roman wooded. The Tweed, which enters the county about two kirkshn-e Watlmg Street touched on Roxburgh at Broomhartlaw, whence passmiles north of Selkirk, crosses its northern corner, east- ing along the mountains now forming the boundary of the county wards. by Abbotsford, Melrose, and Kelso to Coldstream. for a mile and a half until it entered Scotland at Blackball, it Its tributaries within the county are, besides the Teviot, turned northward by Bonjedward, Mount Teviot, Newton, Eildon Newstead to Channelkirk in the Lammermuirs. On its line the Gala, the Leader, and the Eden. One of the principal and there were important stations at Chewgreen in the Cheviots C Ad features of the Tweed district is the beautiful group of the Fines), Bonjedward (Gadanica), and Eildon Hill (? Trimontium). Eildon Hills near Melrose, consisting of felspathic porphyry Anothe! Roman road called the Maidenway from Maiden Castle entered Roxburgh at Headwater, and under the the highest of the three peaks reaching 1385 feet. The ex- m Westmoreland of™6 Wheelcauseway traversed the north-east corner of tensive range of the Cheviots running along the Northum- Liddesdale into Teviotdale. From Watling Street a branch called berland border is of similar formation. Within Roxburgh- the Devil s Causeway passed to the Tweed. After forming part of shire they reach a height.of over 2400 feet. The lochs are the kingdom of Northumberland for several centuries, Roxburgh was comparatively few, the principal being Yetholm or Primside relinquished along with Lothian to the Scottish king about 1020 (see Lothian, vol. xv. p. 10). It is supposed to have been formed Loch, and Hoselaw in Linton parish. into a shire in the reign of David L, its ancient county town of The principal minerals are calcareous spar and quartz. Roxburgh forming, along with Edinburgh, Berwick, and Stirling The spar is frequently of a red or rose character indicating the court of the four burghs of Scotland, whose laws were collected by the presence of hematite. In the greywacke strata fossils that king. Roxburgh Castle, between the Tweed and Teviot near are very rare, but. in the Old Red Sandstone fossil fishes Kelso was a royal residence of the Saxon kings of Northumbria afterwards of the Scottish monarchs. It was frequently taken of the genus 1 terichthys and Holoptychius are very numer- and jy le English, and Janies II. was killed there by the bursting ous, and a great variety of plant impressions have been of a cannon. After this it remained in ruins till it was repaired found, especially fucoids, but also vegetables of a higher by Protector Somerset, shortly after which it was demolished. Hermitage, in Liddesdale, the scene of Leyden’s ballad of Lord origin, including distinct petrifactions of Calamites. was probabiy built by Nicholas de Sules in the beginning Climate and Agriculture.—The mean annual temperature ap- aSWms, the 13th century. On the forfeiture of the Soulis family in 1320 proxnnates to that of Scotland generally, but it is much warmer itof was granted by Robert the Bruce to Sir John Graham of Aber’in the low and arable portions, where also the rainfall is much less corn, and passed by the marriage of his heiress Mary to her than m the hilly regions. The soil varies much in different dis- husband William knight of Liddesdale, who starved Sir tncts, being chiefly loam in the low and level tracts along the banks Alexander RamsayDouglas, of Dalhousie to death in it in 1342 in revenue of the river where it is also very fertile. In other parts a mixture of clay and gravel prevails, but there is also a considerable extent tIn ,149_ Archibald ? appointment sheriff by David the II. Douglas,asfifth earlofofRoxburgh Angus, exchanged ol mossy land. The hilly district is everywhere covered by a thick Hermitage for Bothwell Castle, on the Clyde, with Patrick Hepgreen pasturage admirably suited for sheep. Both in the pastoral burn first earl of Bothwell; and it was there that his descendant, and in the arable districts agriculture is in a very advanced con- the fourth earl, was visited in 1566 by Mary queen of Scots. The dition. I he chief attention is devoted to cattle and sheen principal of the other old castles are Branxholm on the Teviot long rearing. v the residence of the Buccleuchs and the scene of Sir Walter Scott’s f h total area ,48,506 ° J e °f 428,464 acres, 184,196 were in crops in 1885, Lay of the Last Minstrel; Cessford, on a ridge inclining towards the Q c being under corn crops, 28,385 green crops, 59,937 clover Kale, formerly of great strength, besieged in 1520 by Surrey, to whom 47,058 permanent pasture, and 310 fallow. Of the area under corn surrendered; and Fermehirst, the mansion of the Kers, on the Jed crops 32,624 acres, or fully two-thirds, were occupied by oats, and it the site of a baronial fortress erected in 1410 and the 13,355 acres by barley. Turnips and swedes were the principal occupying of many a fray. The district was for a long time the scene of green crops occupying 25,143 acres, while potatoes occupied only scene border conflicts, the leaders in which were the Armstrongs 21 i8. I he total number of horses was 4420, of which 3697 were continual other chiefs occupying the fortresses or peels, chiefly in used solely for purposes of agriculture ; of cattle 17,831, of which and Liddesdale, as at Gilknockie, Castleton, Whitehaugh, Copshaw 5154 were cows and heifers in milk or in calf; of sheep 502,721; and Syde, Mangerton, Goranberry, Hartsgarth, and Newcastleton! 47 83 The valued rontal Info . ;. in 1674was was £420,403 £314,633 including Scots, or Among many fine modern mansions mention may be made of 1 £26,219 sterling while that in 1883-84 i' loors Castle, the seat of the duke of Roxburghe; Minto House railways. According to the parliamentary return of lands and the seat of the earl of Minto ; and Abbotsford, built by Sir Walter Heritages, the total number of owners was 2455, of whom 1880 Scott. counties can boast of such important ecclesiastical possessed less that one acre. The duke of Buccleuch possessed remains Few those of the abbeys of Melrose, Jedburgh, and Kelso. 104,46! acres or nearly a fourth of the whole ; the duke of Rox- Ihere areasseveral ancient crosses in the county, the principal boiim uTffn’; and ’ i Sir q-; the ceuntesso Kome, 25,380;16,475. marquis of Lothian, those at Ancrum, Bowden, Maxton, and Melrose. Among numei” 19,740 William F. Elliot of Stobs, eminent men connected with Roxburgh mention may be made Manufactures. Though essentially an agricultural county, ous of Samuel Rutherfurd the theologian, James Thomson, author of The Roxburghshire possesses woollen manufactures of some importance seasons, John Leyden the poet, and Sir Gilbert Elliot of Minto including tweeds, blankets, shawls, and hosiery, the principal seats 1 being Hawick, Jedburgh, and Kelso. of%lfZJ;imTy 0fR0XbU^hshire> 4 1^7-64; Armstrongs Railways —^ county is intersected by one of the lines of railROXBURY, formerly a city of Norfolk county, Masstu way from Edinburgh to London (the “Waverley” route), which passes Melrose and Hawick. At Riccarton a branch passes south- chusetts, U.S., now incorporated in Boston (qv) eastwards to Newcastle. The northern district is crossed by the ROY Rammohun (1772-1833). Rdjd Rdmmohun Roy border railway from St Boswells to Kelso, Coldstream, and Berwick (or Rdy), the founder of the Brdhma Sam&j or Theistic a branch passing south from near Kelso to Jedburgh Population. -Between ISSi and 1881 the population increased Church of India, was born at Rhdhdnagar, Bengal, in May 1772, of an ancient and honourable Brahman family. 53,442 (25 436 mal 006 S ’, f> 28>54,119 females), but from lool to 18/1 there was a decrease from to 49 407 The His father gave him a good education; he learnt Persian town population numbered 24,273 in 1881, the village 6627 and at home, Arabic at Patna (where he studied Euclid, Aristhe rural 22,542. Jedburgh (population 2432) is a royal burgh • and the Koran), and Sanskrit at Benares. Although it is also a police and parliamentary burgh, as is likewise Hawick atotle, devout idolater in boyhood, he early began to doubt and

R O Y—R O Y

35

though not a theological success, attracted considerable sympathy among the Hindu monotheists, whose Atmiya SabhA had then become extinct. At last RAmmohun felt able to re-embody his cherished ideal, and on August 20, 1828, he opened the first “BrAhmya Association’’ (Brahma Sabhd) at a hired house. A suitable church building was then erected and placed in the hands of trustees, with a small endowment and a remarkable trust-deed by which the building was set apart “for the worship and adoration During this period he first began to assemble his. friends of the Eternal, Unsearchable, and Immutable Being who together^for evening discussions on the absurdities of is the Author and Preserver of the universe.” The new idolatry and he also issued his first work, luhjat-ai church was formally opened on the 11th MAgh (January 2.3) Muwahhiddin (“ A Gift to Monotheists ”). This treatise 1830, from wdiich day the BrAhma SamAj dates its was in Persian, with an Arabic preface, and was a bold existence. Having now succeeded in his chief projects, protest against superstition and priestcraft. These pro- RAmmohun resolved to visit England, and the king of ceedings brought on him much hostility, and even perse- Delhi appointed him his envoy thither on special business, cution, and in 1814 he retired, to Calcutta for greater and gave him the title of rAjA. He arrived in England on safety Here he soon established a little Friendly Society April 8, 1831, and was received with universal cordiality lAtmiya Sabhd), which met weekly to read the Hindu and respect. He watched with special anxiety the parliaScriptures and to chant monotheistic hymns. In 181b he mentary discussions on the renewal of the. East India translated the VedAnta into Bengali and Hindustani, Company’s charter, and gave much valuable evidence before following this by a series of translations from the Upani- the Board of Control on the condition of India. This he shads into Bengali, Hindustani, and English, with intro- republished with additional suggestions (Exposition of the ductions and comments of his own. These works he pub- Practical Operation of the Judicial and Revenue Systems op lished at his own expense and disseminated widely among India), and also reissued his important Essay on the Right his countrymen. His writings excited much opposition of Hindus over Ancestral Property (183.2). He visited and gave rise to numerous controversies, in which his France, and wished to visit America, but died unexpectedly ability, tact, and learning rendered him fully a match for of brain fever at Bristol, September 27, 1833.. his antagonists. But the deadliest blow which he inflicted His Bengali and Sanskrit works were lately reissued in one upon Hindu superstition was his effective agitation against volume, by Rajnarain Bose and A. C. Yedantabagish (Calcutta, the rite of suttee, the burning of living widows on the 1880) and his English works will shortly be published in two funeral piles of their deceased husbands. In 1811 he had volumes by Eshanchandra Bose. Nagendranath Chattopadhaya s been a horrified witness of this sacrifice in his elder Bengali memoir of him (1881) is the iullest yet published.. ROY, William (c. 1726-1790), a famous geodesist, was brother’s family, and had vowed never to rest until he had uprooted the custom. He exposed the hollow pre- employed in some of the great national trigonometrical tences of its advocates in elaborate pamphlets, both m measurements which were made during last century. In Bengali and English, and pressed the matter m every 1746, at the age of twenty, when an assistant in the office possible way, till at last the tide of public feeling turned of Colonel Watson, deputy quartermaster-general in North and on December 4, 1829, Lord William Bentmck issued Britain, he began the survey of the mainland.of Scotland, a regulation abolishing suttee throughout all the terri- the results of which were embodied in what is known as tories subject to Fort William. RAmmohun was an active the “duke of Cumberland’s map.” In 1756 he obtained politician and philanthropist. He built schoolhouses and a lieutenancy in the 51st regiment, and. proceeded with it established schools in which useful knowledge was gratu- to Germany, where his talents as a military draughtsman itously taught through the medium both of the English and brought him to notice, and procured him rapid promotion. the native languages. He wrote a suggestive Bengali gram- He ultimately reached the rank of major-general. In 1/84, mar of which he published one version m English (182b) while deputy quartermaster-general at the Horse Guards, and’one in Bengali (1833). He wrote valuable pamphlets his services were called into request for conducting the on Hindu law, and made strenuous exertions for the observations for determining the relative positions of the freedom of the native press; he also established (1822) and French and English royal observatories. His measuremainly conducted two native newspapers, the Sambdd ment of a base line for that purpose on Hounslow Heath Kaumudi in Bengali, and (if rightly identified) the dArdb in 1784, which was destined to be the germ of all subseal-Akhbdr in Persian, and made them the means of diffusing quent surveys of the United Kingdom, gained him the gold much useful political information. Becoming interested in medal of the Royal Society of London. Owing to unforeChristianity, he learned Hebrew and Greek in order to read seen delays, the triangulation for connecting the meridians the Bible in the original languages; and in 1820 he issued of the two observatories was not carried out until. 17 87. a selection from the four Gospels entitled The Precepts of He had completed his undertaking, and was finishing an Jesus, the Guide to Peace and Happiness. This was account of it for the Phil. Trans, when he died in 1790. Besides several papers in Phil. Trans., Boy was author ot the attacked by the Baptist missionaries of Serampur, and a entitled Military Antiquities of the Romans in North Britain, long controversy ensued, in which he published three work published in 1798. remarkable Appeals to the Christian Public in Defence^ of ROYBAL HOUSEHOLD. In all the mediaeval monthe u Precepts of Jesus.” Hg also wrote other tlieologica archies of western Europe the general system of governtracts (sometimes under assumed names) in which he ment sprang from, and centred in, the royal household. attacked both Hindu and Christian orthodoxy with a sovereign’s domestics were his officers of state, and the strong hand. But his personal relations with orthodox The leading dignitaries of the palace were the principal adminChristians were never unfriendly, and he rendered valuable istrators of the kingdom. The royal household itself had, assistance to Dr Duff in the latter’s, educational schemes. in its turn, out of an earlier and more primitive He also warmly befriended a Unitarian Christian Mission institution. grown It took its rise in the comitatus described by which was started in Calcutta (1824) by Mr William Tacitus, the chosen band of comites or companions who, Adam, formerly a Baptist missionary, who, in attempting when the Roman historian wrote, constituted the personal to convert RAmmohun to Trinitarianism, had himself been following, in peace as well as in war, of the Teutonic converted to the opposite view. This Unitarian Mission,

speculate, and at fifteen left home to study Buddhism in Tibet where his criticisms on the Lama-worship gave much offence. After some years’ travel he returned, but, his antiidolatrous sentiments obliging him to le^e home, he live at Benares until his father’s death in 1803. After this, he spent about ten years in the East India Company s service, latterly as dew&n or head officer in the collection

36

ROYAL HOUSEHOLD princes or chieftain. In England before the Conquest the comitatus had developed or degenerated into the Black Book of the Household and the Statutes of Eltham thegnhood, and among the most eminent and powerful of compiled the first in the reign of Edward IV. and the second the kings thegns, were his dishthegn, his bowerthegn, and m the reign of Henry VIII., from which a good deal of his horsethegn or staller. In Normandy at the time of detailed information may be gathered concerning the the Conquest a similar arrangement, imitated from the arrangements of the court in the 15th and 16th centuries, ilie statutes of Eltham were meant for the practical guidIrench court, had long been established, and the Norman ance merely of those who were responsible for the good dukes like their overlords the kings of France, had their on er and the sufficient supply of the sovereign’s household seneschal or steward, their chamberlain, and their conat the time they were issued. But the Black Book of the stable. After the Conquest the ducal household of Normandy was. reproduced in the royal household of Household, besides being a sort of treatise on princely magEngland; and since, in obedience to the spirit of feudalism mficence generally, professes to be based on the regulations the great offices of the first had been made hereditary the established for the governance of the court by Edward III great offices of the second were made hereditary also,’ and S°dla urmn’ WaS “the first Setter of certeynties among lb domestical! meyne, upon a grounded rule ” and whose were thenceforth held by the grantees and their descendants as grand-serjeanties of the crown. The consequence palace it describes as “ the house of very policie and flowre Englamd; and it may therefore possibly, and even was that they passed out of immediate relation to the practical conduct of affairs either in both state and court probably take us back to a period much 4more remote than or in the one or the other of them. The steward and that at which it was actually put together. Various orders chamberlain of England were superseded in their political returns, and accounts of the reigns of Elizabeth, James I ’ functions by the justiciar and treasurer of England and Gharies I Charles II., and William and Mary throw com in their domestic functions by the steward and chamber- siderable light on the organization of particular sections5 lain of the household. The marshal of England took the or the royal household in times nearer to our own. place of the constable of England in the royal palace, and Moreover, there were several parliamentary inquiries into was. associated with him in the command of the royal the expenses of the royal household in connexion with the the reigns of armies. In due course, however, the marshalship as well settlement or reform of the civil list during 5 as the constableship became hereditary, and, although the George III. George IV, and William IV. But they add constable and. marshal of England retained their military little or nothing to our knowledge of the subject in what authority until a. comparatively late period, the duties was then its historical as distinguished from its contemthey had successively performed about the palace had porary aspects. So much, indeed, is this the case that, on been long before transferred to the master of the horse the accession of Queen Victoria, Chamberlayne’s Present Under these circumstances the holders of the original State of England which contains a catalogue of the officials great offices of state and the household ceased to attend at the court of Queen Anne, was described by Lord the court except on occasions of extraordinary ceremony Melbourne the prime minister as the “ only authority ” and their representatives, either by inheritance or by special which the. advisers, of the crown could find for their appointment have ever since continued to appear at corona- assistance in determining the appropriate constitution and of the domestic establishment of a queen tions and some other public solemnities, such as the open- dimensions 1 regnant.7 ing of the parliament or trials by the House of Lords.1 In its mam outlines the existing organization of the i ij materials available for a history of the royal house- royal household is essentially the same as it was under hold are somewhat scanty and obscure. The earliest record relating to it is of the reign of Henry II., and is the. Tudors or the Plantagenets. It is now, as it was then, contained in the Black Book of the Exchequer. It enumer- divided into three principal departments, at the head of ates the various inmates of the king’s palace and the which are severally the lord steward, the lord chamberdaily allowances made to them' at the period at which lain, and the master of the horse, and the respective proit was compiled. Hence it affords valuable evidence of V,m.ces„ 0l which may be generally described as “ below above stairs,” and “out of doors.” But at the antiquity and relative importance of the court offices stairs, present, the sovereign being a queen, the royal household to which it refers notwithstanding that it is silent as to is in some other respects rather differently arranged from Ctl S a nd f r m mi0edi fU °2 In ° n ^ subordination thehave persons who what it would be if there were a king and a queen consort. T addition them. to this recordof we a series far later, but for the most part equally meagre, docu- When there is a king and a queen consort there is a ments bearing more or less directly on the constitution of the royal household, and extending, with long intervals, doi/seAoW mag DorEltham tus Regis Edward IV. and the m the seventeenth yearOrdinances of King for Henry of a d. 1526, are the titles of these two documents. The earlier Edward III. to the reign of William and Mary. Among them, however, are what are known as the documents printed m the same collection are Household of King Edward III. m Peace and War from the eighteenth to the twenty-frit year of his reign-, Ordinances of the Household of King Henri IV. Th at omcei s of state an( ™ r f P ' l the household whom we have paitieuiarly mentioned do not of course exhaust the catalogue of D by KildHVrdviTf °fA Regulatl ' - ^ and Articles ordained 1 Wh Se re r n 7 LV' ' 'I °n his Household, a.d. 1A9A he dignitaries the court andiV" functionaries palace areTf still the ■ ,? : Eookff the Household of queen of dStaril ot ofThe^oTr? ? ° ofP the ^entatives Elizabeth as itSovereign was ordained reader consults Hallam {Middle Ages, vol. i. p. isf i ) Freeman in the forty-third year of her Reign delivered to our Lord King James, d:c., is simply a list of officers’ names and allowances It V0L i 91 - Pand vol. v. p 426 an d n p under P 43 ,h”? ‘n(vol. rxu. " pp, 80-85), «* For the*mm£2ZL2 rest of these docu tne details Ahe’„S ot the outline*' we f»ISIS ' fhave ' given>“above. "M be ablehiLlAo” to m Archwologia reC rd m dc 299 P™/ V °, question is entitled Constitutio Domus Reais de ^ R^^ons’ ' -> PP> 340, 347, 352, 18 P rint by Hearne i p sTl Tf Ttnd anaIySed i ?vby Stubbs ConsL (Liber Niger Scaccarii, vol ® Burkes celebrated Act “ for enabling His Majesty to discharge the P. 345). ^ ( vob i. note 2, debt contracted upon the civil list, and for preventing the samefemi P / Cation of Ordinances and Regulations for the Government of in mr Butit wL f ?U/e’ &d’”,22 Ge°' IIL c 82’ was passed the Royal Household, made in Divers Reigns frod King EZardllT 1 r !■ >> delivered two foreshadowed m his Since great speech on “Economical Reform years before. the beginning of the current century select committees of the House of Commoms have small and?UbliS insignificant smalT?nd Td \ portions ^ of the royal establishment.

and°l^Sl0n

t le Cml bSt aUd r yal

°

118 8 Mem0irS f William s

ii p^O? '

°

household in 1803, 1804, 1815,

> ^ond Viscount Melbourne, vol.

37 HOUSEHOLD Whei) there is a king the groom of the stole comes next to the separate establishment “ above stairs ” and “ out of doors ” vice-chamberlain in rank and authority. At present, however, the in some measure occupies the position of the for the queen consort. She has a lord chamberlain s mistress of the robes 8 department and a department of the master of the horse groom of the stole. She is the only lady of the court who comes into office and goes out the administration, and the duties of her own, and all the ladies of the court from the she performs are merelywith occasional formal. She is always mistress of the robes to the maids of honour are in her a duchess, and attends the queen at alland state ceremonies and 9enterservice. At the commencement of the reign of Queen tainments, but is never in permanent residence at the palace. On Victoria the two establishments were combined, and on the contrary the ladies of the bedchamber share the function of personal attendance on the sovereign throughout the year. Ot the whole considerably reduced. Hence the royal house- these there are eight, always peeresses, and each is in waiting for hold, although it is of course much larger than that of a about a fortnight or three weeks at a time. But the women ot the queen consort would be, is also appreciably smaller than bedchamber, of whom there are also eight, appear only at court that of a king and queen consort together has been since ceremonies and entertainments according to a roster annually issued under the authority of the lord chamberlain. They are the reigning family acceded to the throne.1 usually the daughters of peers or the wives of the sons of peers, and I. Department of the Dord Steward of the Household, dlie hall, in the old time, like the mistress of the robes and the ladies of the the' kitchen, ewry, and pantry ; the wine, beer, and coal cellars; bedchamber, habitually assisted the queen at her daily toilette. •md the almonry are in the lord steward’s department. Hie But this has long ceased to be done by any of them. The maids lord steward is the first dignitary of the court, and presides at the of honour, whose situations are by no means sinecures, are likeBoard of Green Cloth, 2where all the accounts of the household are wise eight in number and have the same terms of waiting as the examined and passed. He is always a member of the Govern- ladies of the bedchamber. They are commonly if not always the ment of the day, a peer, and a privy councillor. He receives Ins daughters or granddaughters of peers, and when theyhaveno superior appointment from the sovereign in person, and bears a white stall title and precedence by birth are called “ honourable and placed as the emblem and warrant of his authority.3 In his department next after the daughters of barons. The queen as a special mark ot the treasurer and comptroller of the household are the officers her favour nominates “extra” ladies and women of the bed-chambei next in rank to him. They also sit at the Board of Green Cloth, and maids of honour. But their position is altogether honorary carry white staves, and belong to the ministry. They are always and involves no charge on the civil list. There are eight lends peers or the sons of peers, and privy councillors. But the duties and eight grooms, who are properly described as “ of the. bedwhich in theory belong to the lord steward, treasurer, and comp- chamber” or “in waiting,” according as the reigning sovereign is troller of the household are in practice performed by the master a king or a queen, and whose terms of attendance are of similar of the household, who is a permanent officer and resides in the duration to those of the ladies of the bedchamber and the maids palace. It is he who really investigates the accounts and main- of honour. Occasionally “extra” lords and grooms in waiting tains discipline among the ordinary servants of the royal establish- are nominated by the queen, who, however, are unpaid and have ment. He is a white-staff officer and a member of the Board no regular duties. The master, assistant master, and marshal of of Green Cloth but not of the ministry, and among other things the ceremonies are the officers whose special function it is. to he presides4 at the daily dinners of the suite in waiting on the enforce the observance of the etiquette of the court. The reception sovereign In the lord steward’s department are the secretary of foreign potentates and ambassadors is under their particular and three clerks of the Board of Green Cloth j flip ,coroner and care, and they assist in the ordering of all entertainments and paymaster of the household; and the officers of the almonry, festivities at the palace.10 The gentleman usher of the black namely, the hereditary grand almoner,5 the lord high almoner, the rod—the black rod which he carries being the ensign of his sub-almoner, the groom of the almonry, and the secretary to the office—is the principal usher of the court and kingdom. He is lord high almoner.6 „ one of the original functionaries of the order of the Garter, and II. Department of the Lord Chamberlain of the Household.—1 lie is in constant attendance on the House of Lords, from whom, bedchamber, privy chamber, and presence chamber, the wardrobe, either personally or by his deputy the yeoman usher of the black the housekeeper’s room, and the guardroom, the metropolitan rod, it is part of his duty to carry messages and summonses to the theatres, and the chapels royal are in the lord chamberlain s depait- House of Commons. The gentlemen ushers of the privy chamber ment. The lord chamberlain is the second dignitary of the court, and the gentlemen ushers daily waiters, of whom there are four each, and is always a member of the Government of the day, a peer, and a and the gentlemen ushers quarterly waiters and the sergeants-atprivy councillor. He carries a white staff, and wears a golden oi arms, of whom there are eight each, are in waiting only at drawing jewelled key, typical of the key of the palace, which is supposed to rooms and levees and state balls and concerts. But of the be in his charge, as the ensigns of his office. He is responsible for sovereign’s sergeants-at-arms there are two others to whom special the necessary arrangements connected with state ceremonies, such duties are assigned, the one attending the speaker in the House ot as coronations and royal marriages, christenings, and funerals. All Commons, and the other attending the lord chancellor in the House invitations to court are sent out in his name by command of the of Lords, carrying their maces and executing their orders. The sovereign, and at drawing rooms and levees he stands next to the yeomen of the guard date from the reign of Henry VII., and the sovereign and announces the persons who are approaching the gentlemen-at-arms from the reign of Henry VIII. The captain of throne. It is also part of his duty to conduct the sovereign to and each corps is always a member of the ministry and a peer. Besides from his or her carriage.7 The vice-chamberlain of the household the captains, the former, now called the queen’s bodyguard, consists is the lord chamberlain’s assistant and deputy. He also is one of of a lieutenant, ensign, clerk of the cheque and adjutant, four the ministry, a white-staff officer, and the bearer of a key; and he is exons, and a hundred yeomen; and the latter, once called the always a peer or the son of a peer as well as a privy councillor. gentlemen pensioners, consists of a lieutenant, standard-bearer, clerk of the cheque and adjutant, a sub-officer, and forty gentlemen. 1 Hansard, Pari. Debates, vol. xxxix. pp. 14G sq., 1342 sq. 2 In the Statutes of Eltham he is called “ the lord great master,” hut in the The comptroller and examiner of accounts, the licenser of plays, Household Book of Queen Elizabeth “the lord steward,” as before and since. In the dean and subdean of the chapel royal, the clerk of the closet, 31 Hen. VIII. c. 10, “for placing of the lords," he is described as “the grand the groom of the robes, the pages of the backstairs, of the chamber, master or lord steward of the king’s most honourable household.” The whole business of purveyance and pre-emption was anciently managed by the Board and of the presence, the poet laureate, the royal physicians and of Green Cloth. See under heading “The counting house of the king’s surgeons, chaplains, painters and sculptors, librarians and musicians, household, Damns Compotus Hospitii Regis," in Coke, Institutes, iv. cap. 19. It &c., are all under the superintendence of the lord chamberlain of is 3designated “ the court of the virge or green cloth “in 22 Geo. III. c. 82, § 5. household.12 In the old time the lord steward had three courts besides the board of green theIII. Department of the Master of the Horse.—The stables and cloth under him, namely, the lord steward’s court, the court of the Marshahey, and the palace court (Coke, Inst., iv. caps. 20 and 21; Reeves, Hist, of the coachhouses, the stud, mews, and kennels, are in the mastei. of Law of England, voi. ii. pp. 138 and 297; Stephen, Commentaries on the Law of the horse’s department. The master of the horse is the third England, vol. iv. p. 222). The lord steward or ids deputies formerly administer, d 8 the oaths to the members of the House of Commons, and frequent inconveniences In the reign of Queen Anne, Sarah duchess of Marlborough from 1704, and were the consequence (see Hatsell, Precedents of Proceedings in the House of Elizabeth of Somerset from 1710, held the combined offices of mistress Commons, London, 1818, vol. ii. pp. 84-91). In certain cases now “the lords of the robesduchess and groom of the stole. , 9 with white staves” are the proper persons to bear communications between Since the great “bedchamber question” of 18o9 the settled practice has the sovereign and the Houses or Parliament. been for all the ladies of the court except the mistress of the robes to receive and 4 In the case of the master of the household we see history repeating itself. in their appointments independently of the political connexions of He is not named in the Black Book of Edward IV. or in the Statutes of Henry continue husbands, fathers, and brothers (see Mr Gladstone’s Gleanings of Past Years, VIII., and is entered as “master of the household and clerk of the green cloth” their i. p. 40; and Torrens’s Memoirs of Lord Melbourne, vol. ii. p. 304). in the Household Book of Queen Elizabeth. But practically he has superseded the vol. office of master of the ceremonies was created by James I. The master lord steward of the household, as the lord steward of the household at one time of10theTheceremonies wears a medal attached to a gold chain round his neck, on one superseded the lord high steward of England. side being an emblem of peace with the motto “ Beati pacifici, and on the 6« The marquess of Exeter. an emblem of war with the motto “Dieu et mon droit” (see Imetti In the lord steward’s department the offices of cofferer of the household, other by Sir John Finett, master of the ceremonies to James I. and treasurer of the chamber, paymaster of pensions, and six clerks of the Board of Philoxensis, Charles I., 1656 ; and D’Israeli’s Curiosities of Literature, 10th ed., p. 242 sq.). Green Cloth wore abolished by 22 Geo. III. c. 82. 11 See May, Parliamentary Practice, pp. 236, 244. . 7 The lord chamberlain of the household at one time discharged some importThe offices of master of the great wardrobe and master of the jewel house in ant political functions, which are described by Sir Harris Nicolas {Proceedings of the12 lord chamberlain’s department were abolished by 22 Geo. III. c. 82. the Privy Council, vol. vi., Preface, p. xxiii). ROYAL

38

R 0 Y —R 0 Y ta

n7 tlf tJe C0Urt:,Peerand is ahva1>rivy ys a coun member

Tnfnf of the Govern^noee?e7w?fW^ cillor. All connected with the thorses ’and hounds of the sovereign arematters within ns junsdiction. The master of the buckhounds, who is also one 1St him and h is his dut to ro™Vh™+ 7’+toranhead nS thet0procession ’ y attend loyal hunt and of royal equipages on the racecourse at Ascot where he presents himself on horseback in a unifor 1 WU? ?oldoffice. m wearing the grand couplesfalconer of a hound the badgea ofri his Ihe hereditary is alsoas subd ordin te to the master of the horse. But the practical management of the royal stables and stud in fact devolves on the chief or crown equerry, formerly called the gentleman of the horse, who is never in personal attendance on the sovereign, and whose appointment is permanent. The clerk marshal has the supervision of the accounts of the department before they are submitted to the Board 1 1 TT I-’ ‘“‘V® / waiting the sovereign on state only. _ Exclusive ot the crown onequerry there are sevenoccasions regular equerries, besides extra and honorary equerries, one of whom is always in attendance on the sovereign and rides at the side of the roynl.carnage They are always officers of the army, and each of them is on duty’ for about the same time as the lords and aitl lg T1 er tl ree pages of honour 111 the m^ter l! - ’ s department, i ° Y6 als° who ! must not be confounded master of ^ the horse with the pages of various kinds who are in the department of the lord chamber am. They are youths aged from twelve to sixteen selected by the sovereign in person, to attend on her at state a rrayed in an anti( ue tlm'uroom thntrobes '>? °fmthem - the royal train.l costume assist the groom nf ofVthe carrying 118 be S d at the three anciellt thcmWM 7 i i which l 7we 1° departments of the io} al household have already noticed two others have l een a^ed in comparatively recent times. The departments of the the keeper of the riv whteb are ar!Cfor fetathe +7 and P y Purse the sovereign, vlnch present, combined, originated notolonger ago than 1 . the eaihei part of the current century. Very great doubts were at one time entertained as to whether such an office as that of private secretary to the sovereign could constitutionally exist, and the Unkn own a Act T , organized aftcr the pLingofoftheBurke’s 77 071782 V,82consist - A;s of t the present these royal household private secretary andbranches keeper of the privv purse, two assistant private secretaries and keepers of the privy purse, and a secretary and two clerks of the privy purse. By the C1V1 list at the be innin 2 lc reten (1 &.^Vicf^U - purse was fixed g g£60,000 of the current : t-allowances, c- 2) the privy year and the salaries, and other expenses ofatthe royal ahousehold were fixed at £303,760 a year. (F DR ) EOYAL SOCIETY, The, or, more fully, The Koyal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge is an association of men interested in the advancement of mathematical and physical science. It is the oldest scientific society in Great Britain, and one of the oldest in Europe. The Royal Society is usually considered to have been founded in the year 1660, but a nucleus had in fact been in existence for some years before that date. Wallis informs us that as early as the year 1645 weekly meetings were held of “divers worthy persons, inquisitive into natural philosophy, and other parts of human learning and particularly of what hath been called the New Philosophy or Experimental Philosophy” and there can be little coubt that this gathering of philosophers is identical with the Invisible College” of which Boyle speaks in sundry letters written in 1646 and 1647. These weekly meetings according to Wallis, were first suggested by Theodore Haak, „a German of the Palatinate then resident in -London, and they were held sometimes in Dr Goddard’s Edgings in Wood Street, sometimes at the Bull-Head lavern in Cheapside, but more often at Gresham College On November 28, 1660, the first journal book of the society was opened with a “ memorandum,” from which the an eXtraCtMcmorandurn 9°S TS Novemb. 28 1660 Tn These persons following, accordingthat to the usuall custom of most of them, mett together at Gresham Colledge

PnJte'M B 6n Sir Q-eCRobert 7U7’ VizMoray, ” The LSir °rd Paul Brouncker, Boyle, Mr Bruce Neile Mr Dr Wilkins, Dr Goddard, Dr Petty, Mr Ball, Mr Rooke, Mr Wren, Mr Hill. And after the lecture was ended, they did, according to the usuall manner withdrawe for mutual! The duke of St Albans.

converse. Where amongst other matters that were discoursed of something was offered about a designe of founding a Colledge for the promoting of Physico-Mathematicall Experimental! Learning.” It was agreed at this meeting that the company should continue to assemble on Wednesdays at 3 o’clock; an admission fee of ten shillings

a SabSCnptl n sllill nltw ii ° °nechairman; ing a and weeka list wasofinstituted; Dr Wilkins was appointed forty-one persons judged likely and fit to join the design was drawn up. On the following Wednesday Sir Robert Moray brought word that the king (Charles II.) approved the design of the meetings; a form of obligation was framed, and was signed by all the persons enumerated in the memorandum of November 28, and by seventy-three others. On December 12 another meeting was held at which fifty-five was fixed as the number of the society,—persons of the degree of baron, fellows of the College of Physicians, and public professors of mathematics, physic, and natural P ldos°phy of both universities being supernumeraries. Gresham College was now appointed to be the regular meeting-place of the society. Sir Robert Moray was chosen president (March 6, 1661), and continued in that office until the incorporation of the society, when he was succeeded by Lord Brouncker. In October 1661 the kina offered to be entered one of the society, and next year the society was incorporated under the name of “ The Royal Society,” the charter of incorporation passing the great seal on the 15th July 1662, to be modified, however, by a second charter in the following year. The council of the Royal Society met for the first time on May 13 1663 when resolutions were passed that debate concerning those to be admitted should be secret, and that fellows should pay Is. a week to defray expenses. At this early stage of the society’s history one main part ot. their labours was the “ correspondence ” which was actively maintained with Continental philosophers, and it was from this that the Philosophical Transactions (a publication now of world-wide celebrity) took its rise. At first the Transactions was entirely the work of the secretary, except that it was ordered (March 1 1664-5) “that the tract be licensed by the Council of the Society being first reviewed by some of the members of the same ” ihe first number, consisting of sixteen quarto pages appeared on Monday 6th March 1664-5. In 1750 four hundred and ninety-six numbers or forty-six volumes had been published by the secretaries. After this date the work was issued under the superintendence of a committee dl

10

1,

n umbers

j 7°and1 seventy-five disappeared. present (1885) one T hundred volumes At have been completed. Another matter to vvhich the society turned their attention was the formation of a museum, the nucleus being the collection of rarities formerly belonging to Mr Hubbard, which, by a resolution of council passed F ebruary 21, 1666, was purchased for the sum of ■ For primary instruction there were in 1882 m European Russia proper 28,329 schools, with 1,177,504 male and 362,471 female pupils. Of the 6,231,160 roubles expended on primary schools only 747,772 roubles were contributed by Government, the remainder being supplied by the zemstvos (2,512,113 roubles), by municipalities, or by private persons. Sunday schools and public lectures are virtually prohibited. . A characteristic feature of the intellectual movement. in Russia is its tendency to extend to women the means of receiving higher instruction. The gymnasiums for girls are both numerous and good. In addition to these, notwithstanding Government opposition, a series of higher schools, where careful instruction in natuial and social sciences is given, have been opened in the chief cities under the name of “Pedagogical Courses.’5 At St Petersbuig a women’s medical academy, the examinations of which were even more searching than those of the ordinary academy (especially as regards diseases of women and children), was opened, but. alter about one hundred women had received the degree of M. D., it has been suppressed by Government. In several university towns there are also free teaching establishments for women, supported by subscription, with programmes and examinations equal to those of the universities. In 1882 the students numbered 914 at bt Petersburg, about 500 at Moscow, and 389 at Kazan. . . o• The natural sciences are much cultivated in Russia, especially Scienti c during the last twenty years. Besides the Academy of Science, the societies. Moscow Society of Naturalists, the Mineralogical Society, the Geographical Society, with its Caucasian and Siberian branches, the archaeological societies and the scientific societies of the Baltic provinces, all of which are of old and recognized standing, there have lately sprung up a series of new societies in connexion with each university, and their serials are yearly growing in importance, as

72

RUSSIA [eUKOPEAN RUSSIA. also are those of the recently founded Moscow Society of Friends of Natural Science, the Chenrico-Physical Society, and various medical, Part II.—European Russia—Geography. educational, and other societies. The work achieved by Russian The administrative of European Russia, apart fronm savants, especially in biology, physiology, and chemistry, and in Finland and 1 oland, boundaries broadly coincide on the whole with the the sciences descriptive of the vast territory of Russia/ are well natural limits of the East-European plains, where they suddenly an known to Europe. take, eastward of the Baltic Sea, a great extension towards the Finance. The finances of the empire are in a most unsatisfactory condition. north In the north it is bounded by the Arctic Ocean : the Although the revenue has doubled since 1856, and had reached islands of Nova Zembla, Kolgueff, and Vaigatch also belong to it° 1 697,980,983 roubles (£69,798,098) in 1883, the expenditure, which but the Kara. .Sea is„ reckoned to Siberia. To the east ic it nas has the the ..... , empire, tueKirghiz easi was estimated at 721,337,844 roubles the same year, is always in Asiatic dominions of the Siberia andAWthe Stenne excess of the income. The national debt is rapidly augmented both from both of which it is separated by the Ural Mountains, the by loans and by issues of paper money so depreciated as to be worth Ural river, and the Caspian—the administrative boundary howonly about 60 to 63 per cent, of its nominal value. On January 1, ever, partly extending into Asia on the Siberian slope of the Urals 1884, no less than 1,085,000,000 paper roubles were in circulation ; io the south it has the Black Sea and Caucasia, being separated and the national debt, the paper-money included, reached about from the latter by the double valley of the two Manytches—a £578,000,000, inclusive of the railway debt. The great defect of channel which in Post-Pliocene times connected the Sea of Azoff Russian finance is that its direct taxes are chiefly paid by the with the Caspian. The western boundary is purely conventionalpeasantry (91 per cent, of the whole), and the revenue is chiefly based it crosses first the peninsula of Kola from the Varanger Fiord to on excise duties (direct taxes, 136,105,320 roubles ; excise duties on the northern extremity of the Gulf of Bothnia, making an arbitrary spirits, 250,291,380 ; duties on tobacco and sugar, 28,569 500 • deflexion towards the west; thence it runs to the Kurische Half import duties, 101,053,000). Of the yearly revenue no less'than m the southern Baltic, and thence to the mouth of the Danube 436,000,000 roubles are spent in interest and sinking fund on the taking a great circular sweep to the west to embrace Poland, and debt, and for war purposes.2 Russia, from Prussia, Austrian Galicia, and Roumania The zemstvos, which have an aggregate yearly income of about separating Of this immense frontier line less than one-half is bordered by thirty million roubles, have also a yearly deficit of from three to seas—nearly all of them inland seas. For it is a special feature of five million roubles. The municipalities had in 1882 an income of Russia—a leature which has impressed a special character on its only 40,076,748 roubles, there being only nine cities which had a history—that she has no free outlet to the high seas except on the budget of more than 500,000 roubles, and five above one million. ice-bound shores of the Arctic Ocean. Even the White Sea is rm yRussian army has been completely reorganized since the merely a ramified gulf of that ocean. Another warmer gulf of Crimean War, and compulsory military service was introduced in the Ocean—the Varanger Fiord—separated from Russia’by 1874. In 1884 the strength of the army on a peace footing was the Arctic uninhabitable plateaus of the peninsula of Kola, has been 532,764 men serving with the colours, 68,786 reserve troops abandoned to Norway. The deep indentations of the Gulf of 55,599 Cossacks and irregulars, 72,626 local, depot, and instruction and Finland wash the shores of Finnish territory, and it troops, 27,468 officers, 129,736 horses, and 1844 guns. On a war isBothnia at the very head of the latter gulf that the Russians happen footing there were 986,000 in the active army, 563,373 in the to only have taken a firm foothold by erecting their capital on the reserve, 148,057 Cossacks and irregulars, 178,450 local, depot, and marshes at the mouth of the Neva. The Gulf of Riga and the instruction troops, 41,551 officers, 366,354 horses, and 3778 guns • south-eastern Baltic belong also to territory which is not inhabited that is, about 1,300,000 men in field, to which number 1,000 000 by Slavonians, but by Finnish stems, and by Germans. It is only untrained militia could be added in case of need. These Ilia'll very recently, within the last hundred years, that the Russians figures, ought, however, to be much reduced on account of the definitively took possession of the northern shores of the Black Sea deficiencies of mobilization. the Sea of Azoff. The eastern coast of the Black Sea belongs The irregular troops consist of ten voiskos—Bon, Kuban, Terek, and properly to Transcaucasia, a great chain of mountains separating Astrakhan, Orenburg, Ural, West Siberia, Semiryetchensk, Trans- rttrom Russia. But even this sea is an inland one, the only outlet baikalia, and Amur. All the men of these voiskos between sixteen which, the Bosphorus, is in foreign hands, while the Caspian is and forty-one years of age are bound to be ready for service in turn ol shallow lake, bordered mostly by deserts, and m time of peace, and to equip themselves at their own expense, but an immense more importance as a link between Russia and her tram and artillery being provided by Government. In their twofold possessing than as a channel for intercourse with other countries. capacity as peasant settlers and a military force, these men have colonies The great territory occupied by European Russia—1600 miles in C( contributed much to the conquest of Asia. from north to south, and nearly as much from west to east ra Since 1878 compulsory military service has been introduced in length on the whole a broad elevated plain, ranging between 500 and 4 inland. I he Finnish troops (nine battalions of 4833 riflemen) —is 900 feet above sea-level, deeply cut into by river-valleys, and bounded on all sides by broad hilly swellings or mountains :—the Niw must be employed, as a rule, for outlays, the defence their own Notwithstanding large recent the of Russian navycountry. is bv no lake plateaus of Finland and the Maanselkii heights in the northmeans adapted to the exigencies of modern warfare ; much stress is west ; the Baltic coast-ridge and spurs of the Carpathians in the therefore laid on the good organization of the torpedo flotilla The west, with a broad depression between the two, occupied by Poland • navy consists of 358 vessels, of 196,575 tons, carrying 24,500 men the Crimean and Caucasian mountains in the south ; and the broad and 671 guns. Only 40 of these are armoured ships, the remainder but moderately high swelling of the Ural Mountains in the east. From a central plateau which comprises Tver, Moscow, Smolensk, nin? UI )armoured frigates, corvettes, and cruisers, or torpedo boats and Kursk, and projects eastwards towards Samara, attaining an v or mif’16 Whlle a-great numl(er are mere transports and small craft. ' extensive frontier is defended by many fortresses, chiefly on average height of 800 to 900 feet above the sea, the surface gently tresses, the west. Poland to the west of the Vistula remains quite unpro- slopes m all directions to a level of from 300 to 500 feet. Then it tected, fortifications being only now in course of construction in the again gently rises as it approaches the hilly tracts enclosing the the Vistula is defended by the first-class fortresses gieat plain. I his central swelling may be considered a continuaof Modim (Novogeorgievsk), Warsaw, and Ivangorod, with Brest- tion towards the east-north-east of the great line of upheavals of Bitovsk in the rear. For protecting this line in rear new fortifica- western Europe ; the heights of Finland would then appear as tions are being erected. The space between Poland and the Dima Scanian plateaus, and the northern mountains is protected only by the citadel of Vilna and the marshes of the aG r npet. _lhe second line of fortresses has been erected on the Diina line v of upheaval ctmfhuuitions of the Kjolen, other great of the old continent, whichwhile runs the north-west and a d “ Dumper,—Biga, Diinaburg, Vitebsk, Bobruisk, and Kieff. south-east, would be represented in Russia by the Caucasus in the 1 he south-western frontier is under the protection of the advanced south and the liman ridge of the Petchora basin in the north. works of Bendery and Akerman, while the Black Sea coast is , U® aspects of several parts of the central plateau are not defended by Kmburn and Otchakoff at the entrances of the Dnieper due to foldings of the strata, which for the most part appear to be he Bu horizontal, but chiefly to the excavating action of rivers, whose W't g> Sebastopo in the Crimea, batteries at Odessa and ff and a series of minor fortifications. Formidable defenJN ikolaieff, are deeply dug out in the plateau, especially on its sive works have been erected on the Baltic at Diinamiinde, Reval, valleys borders. The round flattened summits of the Valdai plateau do Narva, Cronstadt, V iborg, Frederikshamn, Rohtensalm, Sveaborg, not rise above 1100 feet, and they present the appearance of angoudd, and in the Aland Islands. A great number of minor mountains m consequence of the depth of the valleys—the forts are scattered throughout Caucasia, Transcaucasia, and levels of theonly rivers flow towards the depression of LlSiKG Lake _ from ~ which lurkestan ; but the Pacific coast has only earth-works at Vladi- Peipus IJ in r\ n a being Iv/v-itv/v* y~.-ni-.-r Ci(\r\ r* r\ feet n c4/ii above i LI1Cthe ... UUUlUaSlUIl ■*only 200 -Lto_ c\250 sea. TheOIcase is vostok and Nikolaievsk. similar with the plateaus of Livonia, “ Wendish Switzerland,” and Kovno which do not exceed 1000 feet at their highest points : taLn throu“houtith0ern,ip^nlOUr 7 are ®xPressD mentioned, the rouble is to be so also with the eastern spurs of the Baltic coast-ridge between of which haf been 2s? Kng The ^tam^oubTe^TT^ ^ Grodno and Minsk. The same elevation is reached by a very few flat summits of the plateau about Kursk, and farther east on the n minal Value in 1861 65 to G0 1882 (see below! p.86) ° P«' cent, in v olga about Kamyshin, where the valleys are excavated in the imSb Volga; Mikhailoff, &c. map ofPeretyatkovitch, Russia in four Volga-. sheets motion, except in subordinate layers of glacial sand and gravel; the size of the boulders decreases on the whole from north to south, of ^f Ras0s'a> and TlUo> Magnetical we alSf-Tll|l0Maps A0r°9rof- Map 7 Russia; ordinance maps the boulder clay, especially in northern and central Russia, Russia,” in Izv. oftheGeogr. cllld looO. ° Soc.,7 1884 and often takes the shape of ridges parallel to the direction of the

SOIL AND CLIMATE.]

RUSSIA

motion of the boulders. Its southern limits, roughly corresponding with those established by Murchison, but not yet settled in the south-east and east, are, according to M. Nikitin, the following from the southern frontier of Poland to Ovrutch, Uman, Krementchug, Poltava, and Razdornaya (50° N. latitude), with a curve northwards to Kozelsk (?); thence due north to Vetluga (58° north latitude), east to Glazova in Vyatka, and from this place towards the north and west along the watershed of the Volga and Fetch ora (?). South of the 50th parallel appears the loess, with all its usual characters (land fossils, want of stratification, &c.), showing a remarkable uniformity of composition over very large surfaces; it covers both watersheds and valleys, but chiefly the former. Such being the characters of the Quaternary deposits in Russia, the majority of Russian geologists now adopt the opinion that Russia was covered, as far as the above limits, with an immense ice-sheet which crept over central Russia and central Germany from Scandinavia and north Russia. Another ice-covering was probably advancing at the same time from the north-east, that is, from the northern part of the Urals, but the question as to the glaciation of the Urals still remains open. As to the loess, the view is more and more gaining ground which considers it as a steppe-deposit due to the drifting of line sand and dust during a dry episode in the Pleistocene period. The deposits of the Post-Glacial period are represented throughout Russia, Poland, and Finland, as also throughout Siberia and central Asia, by very thick lacustrine deposits, which show that, after the melting of the ice-sheet, the country was covered with immense lakes, connected by broad channels (the fjdrden of the Swedes), which later on gave rise to the actual rivers. On the outskirts of the lacustrine region, closely resembling the area of the actual continent, traces of marine deposits, not higher than 200 or perhaps even 150 feet above present sea-level, are found alike on the Arctic Sea and on the Baltic and Black Sea coasts. A deep gulf of the Arctic Sea advanced up the valley of the Dwina ; and the Caspian, connected by the Manytch with the Black Sea, and by the Uzboy valley with Lake Aral, penetrated north up the Volga valley, as far as its Samara bend. Unmistakable traces show that, while during the Glacial period Russia had an arctic flora and fauna, the climate of the Lacustrine period was more genial than it is now, and a dense human population at that time peopled the shores of the numberless lakes. The Lacustrine period has not yet reached its close in Russia. Finland and the north-west hilly plateaus are still in the same geological phase, and are dotted with numberless lakes and ponds, while the rivers continue to dig out their yet undetermined channels. But the great lakes which covered the country during the Lacustrine period have disappeared, leaving behind them immense marshes like those of the Pripet and in the north-east. The disappearance of what still remains of them is accelerated not only by the general decrease of moisture, but also by the gradual upheaval of northern Russia, which is going on from Esthonia and Finland to the Kola peninsula and Nova Zembla, at an average rate of about two feet per century. This upheaval,—the consequences of which have been felt even within the historic period, by the drainage of the formerly impracticable marshes of Novgorod and at the head of the Gulf of Finland,—together with the destruction of forests, which must be considered, however, as a quite secondary and subordinate cause, contributes towards a decrease of precipitation over Russia and towards increased shallowness of her rivers. At the same time, as the gradients of the rivers are gradually increasing on account of the upheaval of the continent, the rivers dig their channels deeper and deeper. Consequently central and especially southern Russia witness the formation of numerous miniature canons, or ovraghi (deep ravines), the summits of which rapidly advance and ramify in the loose surface deposits. As for the southern steppes, their desiccation, the consequence of the above causes, is in rapid progress.1 The soil of Russia depends chiefly on the distribution of the boulder-clay and loess coverings described above, on the progress made by the rivers in the excavation of their valleys, and on the moistness of climate. Vast areas in Russia are quite unfit for cultivation, 27 per cent, of the aggregate surface of European Russia (apart from Poland and Finland) being occupied by lakes, marshes, sands, &c., 38 per cent, by forests, 14 per cent, by prairies, and only 21 per cent, being under culture. The distribution of all these is, however, very unequal, and the five following subdivisions may be established :—(1) the tundras ; (2) the forest region ; (3) the middle region, comprising the surface available for agriculture and partly covered with forests ; (4) the blackearth (tchernoziom) region; and (5) the Steppes. Of these the black-earth region,—about 150,000,000 acres,—which reaches from the1 Carpathians to the Urals, extending to the Pinsk marshes and Bibliography.—Memoirs, Izvestia, and Geological Maps of the Committee for the Geological Survey of Russia; Memoirs and Sborniks of the Mineralogical Society, of the Academy of Science, and of the Societies of Naturalists at the Universities; Mining Journal-, Murchison’s Geology of Russia-, Helmersen's and Mdller’s Geological Maps of Russia and the Urals; Inostrantseff in Appendix to Russian translation of Reclus’s Geogr. Univ., and Manual of Geology (Russian).

75

the upper Oka in the north, is the most important. It is covered with a thick sheet of black earth, a kind of loess, mixed with 5 to 15 per cent, of humus, due to the decomposition of an herbaceous vegetation, which developed richly during the Lacustrine period on a continent relatively dry even at that epoch. On the three-fields system corn has been grown upon it for fifty to seventy consecutive years without manure. Isolated black-earth islands, less fertile of course, occur also in Courland and Kovno, in the Oka, Volga, and Kama depression, on the slopes of the Urals, and in a few patches in the north. Towards the Black Sea coast its thickness diminishes, and it disappears in the valleys. In the extensive region covered with boulder-clay the black earth appears only in isolated places, and the soil consists for the most part of a sandy clay, containing a much smaller admixture of humus. There culture is possible only with the aid of a considerable quantity of manure. Drainage finding no outlet through the thick clay covering, the soil of the forest region is often covered with extensive marshes, and the forests themselves are often mere thickets spreading over marshy ground ; large tracts covered with sand appear in the west, and the admixture of boulders with the clay in the north-west renders agriculture increasingly difficult. On the Arctic coast the forests disappear, giving place to the tundras. Finally, in the south-east, towards the Caspian, on the slopes of the southern Urals and the Obshchiy Syrt, as also in the interior of the Crimea, and in several parts of Bessarabia, there are large tracts of real desert, covered with coarse sand and devoid of vegetation.2 Notwithstanding the fact that Russia extends from north to south through 26 degrees of latitude, the climate of its different Climate, portions, apart from the Crimea and the Caucasus, presents a striking uniformity. The aerial currents—cyclones, anti-cyclones, and dry south-east winds—extend over wide surfaces and cross the flat plains freely. Everywhere we find a cold winter and a hot summer, both varying in their duration, but differing relatively little in the extremes of temperature recorded. From Table III. (page 76) it will be seen that there is no place in Russia, Archangel and Astrakhan included, where the thermometer does not rise in summer nearly to 86° Fahr. and descend in winter to -13° and-22°. It is only on the Black Sea coast that we find the absolute range of temperature reduced to 108°, while in the remainder of Russia it reaches 126° to 144°, the oscillations being between - 22° to - 31°, occasionally - 54°, and 86° to 104°, occasionally, 109°. Everywhere the rainfall is small: if Finland and Poland on the one hand and Caucasus with the Caspian depression on the other be excluded, the average yearly rainfall varies between the limits of 16 and 28 inches. Everywhere, too, we find that the maximum rainfall does not take place in winter (as in western Europe) but in summer, and that the months of advanced spring are warmer than the corresponding months of autumn. Though thus exhibiting all the distinctive features of a continental climate, Russia is not altogether exempt from the moderating influence of the ocean. The Atlantic cyclones also reach the Russian plains, mitigating to some extent the cold of the winter, and in summer bringing with them their moist winds and thunderstorms ; their influence is chiefly felt in western Russia, but extends also towards and beyond the Urals. They thus check the extension and limit the duration of the cold anticyclones. Throughout Russia the winter is of long continuance._ The last days of frost are experienced for the most part in April, but also in May to the north of 55°. The spring is exceptionally beautiful in central Russia ; late as it usually is, it sets in with vigour, and vegetation develops with a rapidity which gives to this season in Russia a special charm, unknown in warmer climates ; the rapid melting of snow at the same time raises the rivers, and renders a great many minor streams navigable for a few weeks. But a return of cold weather, injurious to vegetation, is observed throughout central and eastern Russia between May 18 and 24, so that it is only in June that warm weather sets in definitely, reaching its maximum in the first half of July (or of August on the Black Sea coast). The summer is much warmer than might be supposed; in south-eastern Russia it is much warmer than in the corresponding latitudes of France, and really hot weather is experienced everywhere. It does not, however, prevail for long, and in the first half of September the first frosts begin to be experienced on the middle Urals ; they reach western and southern Russia in the first days of October, and are felt on the Caucasus about the middle of November. The temperature descends so rapidly that a month later, about October 10 on the middle Urals and November 15 throughout Russia,, the thermometer ceases to rise above the freezing-point. The rivers rapidly freeze ; towards November 20 all the streams of the White Sea basin are covered with ice, and so remain for an average of 167 days ; those of the Baltic, Black Sea, and Caspian basins freeze later, but about December 20 nearly all the rivers of the 2 Bibliography.—RvL-gvecht, Geo.-Botanical Researches on the Tchernoziom-, Dokutchaeff, Russian Tchernoziom, 1880; Id., Phys. Chem. Researches ; Materials for Statistics of Russia, published by the Minister of Domains, v., 1871; Wasiltchikoff, “Tchernoziom and its Future,” in Mem. Moscow Soc. of Agr., 1877.

76

RUSSIA [flora. country are highways for sledges. The "Volga remains frozen for Winds, Moisture, Rainfall.—The investigation of the cyclones a period varying between 150 days in the north and 90 days at and anticyclones in Eussia cannot as yet be regarded as completed. Astrakhan, the Don for 100 to 110 days, and the Dnieper for 83 to It appears, however, that in January the cyclones mostly cross 122 days. On the Diina ice prevents navigation for 125 days, and north-west Eussia (north of 55° and west of 40° E. long.), following even the Vistula at Warsaw remains frozen for 77 days. The directions which vary between north-east and south-east. In July lowest temperatures are experienced in January, in which month they are displaced towards the north, and cross the Gulf of Bothnia, the average is as low as 20° to 5° Fahr. throughout Eussia ; in the while another series of cyclones crosses middle Eussia, between 50° west only does it rise above 22°. On the whole, February and and 55° N. laC The laws of the anticyclones are not yet estabMarch continue to be cold, and their average temperatures rise lished. The winds closely depend on the routes followed by both. above zero only on the Black Sea coast. Even at Kieff and Lugah Generally, however, it may be said that alike in January and in the average of March is below 30°, while in central Eussia it is 25° July west and south-west winds prevail in western Eussia, while to 22°, and as low as 20° and 16° at Samara and Orenburg. eastern ones are most common in south-eastern Eussia; northern Isotherms.—All Eussia is comprised between the isotherms of 32° winds are most common on the Black Sea coast. The strength of and 54°. On the whole, they are more remote from one another the wind is greater, on the whole, than in the continental parts of than even on the plains of North America, those of 46° to 32° beino- western Europe, and it attains its maximum in winter. Terrible distributed over 20 degrees of latitude. They are, on the whole, gales blow from October to March, especially on the southern inclined towards the south in eastern Russia ; thus the isotherm of steppes and on the tundras. Gales with snow {burans, myatels), 39° runs from St Petersburg to Orenburg, and that of 35° from lasting from two to three days, or northerly gales without snow| TorneA to Uralsk. The inflexion is still greater for the winter are especially dangerous to man and beast. The average relative isotherms. Closely following one another, they run almost north moisture reaches 80 to 85 per cent, in the north, and only 70 to 81 and south ; thus Odessa and Konigsberg are situated on the same per cent, in southern and eastern Russia. In the steppes it is only winter isotherm of 28° ; so also St Petersburg, Orel, and the 60 per cent, during summer, and still less (57) at Astrakhan. The mouth of the Ural river (about 20°) ; Mezen and Ufa (9°). The average amount of cloud reaches 73 to 75 per cent, on the White summer isotherms cross the above nearly at right angles, so that Sea and in Lithuania, 68 to 64 in central Russia, and only 59 to 53 Kieff and Ufa, Warsaw and Tobolsk, Eiga and the upper Kama in the south and south-east. The amount of rainfall is shown in have the same average summer temperatures of 64°, 62J°, and 61°. the subjoined table (III.):—1 Height Full Average North above Average Temperatures. Range of Latitude. Sea in TherFeet. Year. January. July, Minimum. Maximum, mometer. Archangel... Petrozavodsk Helsingfors.. St Petersburg.. Bogoslovsk Dorpat Kostroma Ekaterinburg.. Kazan Moscow Vilna "Warsaw Orenburg Kursk Kieff Tsaritsyn Lugan Odessa Astrakhan Sebastopol Poti Tiflis

64 34 61 47 60 10 59 57 59 45 56 22 57 46 56 49 55 47 55 45 54 41 52 14 51 45 51 44 50 27 48 42 48 27 46 29 46 21 44 37 42 9 41 42

30 160 40 20 630? 220 360 890 260 520 390 360 360 690 590 100 200 270 -70 130 0 1440

327 3639-0 3829-4 393732-8 37-2 39-0 434437-9 41-0 44-2 444549-0 49-0 5358-4 54-

7'6 11-8 19-5 15-0 -3-8 17'6 9-4 2-2 7-0 12-1 22-1 2347 137 2U0 13-4 17-0 2419-2 35-2 39-0 33-0

60-6 -33 62-1 -24 61-17 64-20 62-47 631 -14 66'3 -27 63-33 67-3 -25 66-0 -22 65-10 65- 2 70-9 -28 67-2 -19 66-13 74-6 73-0 -18 72- 3 77-9 -14 73+ 10 73-3 + 25 757 + 10 Flora. The flora of Russia, which represents an intermediate link between those of Germany and Siberia, is strikingly uniform over a very large area. Though not poor at any given place, it appears so if the space occupied by Eussia be taken into account, only 3300 species of phanerogams and ferns being known. Four great regions may be distinguished the Arctic, the Forest, the Steppe, and the Circum-Mediterranean, The Arctic Region comprises the tundras of the Arctic littoral beyond the northern limit of forests, which last closely follows the coast-line, with bends towards the north in the river valleys (70° N. lat. m Finland, on the Arctic Circle about Archangel, 68° N. lat. on the Urals, 71° on "West Siberia). The shortness of the summer, the deficiency of drainage, and the thickness of the layer ol soil which is frozen through in winter are the elements which go to the making of the characteristic features of the tundras Their flora is far nearer those of northern Siberia and North America than that of central Europe. . Mosses and lichens cover them, as also the birch,_ the dwarf willow, and a variety of shrubs ; but where the soil is drier and humus has been able to accumulate, a variety of herbaceous flowering plants, some of which are familiar e xooa Yestcrn ®ul'°P make within their appearance. to 280 phanerogams are> found this region. Only from 275 ^^ Forest Region of the Russian botanists occupies the greater part of the country from the Arctic tundras to the Steppes, and it maintains over this immense surface a remarkable uniformity of character. M. Beketoff subdivides it into two portions—the forest region proper, and the “Ante-Steppe” (jrredstepie). The northern limit of the Ante-Steppe would be represented by a line drawn from the South Pruth through Zhitomir, Kursk, Tamboff and Stavropol-on-Volga to the sources of the Ural. But the

84 86 80 83 87 85 88 87 89 88 85 86 96 91 89

147 135 112 135 150 124 140 142 129 144 110 123 147 139 122

95 89 97 93 93 96

146 108 135 105 88 100

First Frosts.

Last Frosts.

Number of Days Average Rainfall per Year. in Inches. Bright. Cloudy. Year. November to March.

26 Sept. 20 May

23 199 16-2 44 5 19-6 7'3 0 15 Oct. 8 May 4 35 148 185'3 5 20 Sept. 14 May 43 94 15-8 31 7 Oct. 3 May 5 40 145 24-9 7'3 3 195- 5 21 Oct. 14 May 40 138 14-1 1-6 1 Oct. 27 April 18-0 5-4 7 Oct. 26 April 35 i42 23-0 7-3 6 17 Oct. 27 April 8 23 175 8 18 Oct. 7 April9 40 154 22-8 6'7 4 17-1 51956 19 Oct. 17 April 34 132 206- 3 4 11 Oct. 11 April6 64 124 144-3 10 Nov. 31 Mar. 67 112 8 155'4 3 27 Oct. 5 April 69 114 57 1-5 7 15-4 7-2 8 12 Jan. 1 Mar. 64-9 23-4 18 Nov. 115 Mar. 5 19-3 4-3

forest region proper itself presents a certain variety of aspect in its northern and southern parts, and must in turn be again subdivided into two parts—the coniferous region and that of the oak forests,—these being separated by a line drawn through Pskoff, Kostroma, Kazan, and Ufa. Of course, the oak occurs farther north than this, and conifer forests extend farther south, advancing even to the border-region of the Steppes ; but this line must still be considered as important. To the north of it we have dense forests, covering very large areas, and interrupted oftener by marshes than by meadows or cultivated fields. "Vast and impenetrable forests, unpassable marshes and thickets, frequent lakes, swampy meadows, with cleared and dry spaces here and there occupied by villages, are the leading features of the region. Fishing and hunting are the important sources of livelihood. The characteristics of what may be described as the oak region, which comprises all central Eussia, are totally different. The surface is undulatory; marshy meadow lands no longer exist on the flat watersheds, and only a few shelter themselves in the much deeper and broader river valleys. Forests are still numerous where not destroyed by man, but their character has changed. Conifers are rare, and the Scotch pine, which covers the sandy plains, has taken the place of Abies ; birch, oak, and other deciduous trees 1 Bibliography.—Memoirs of the Central Physical Observatory; Repertorium fur Meteorologie and Meteorological Sbornik, published by the same body; Vesselovsky, Climate of Russia Wild, Temperatur-Verhdltni&se des Buss B., 1881; Woyeikoff, The Climates of the Globe, 1884 (Russ.), containing the best geneial information about the climate of Russia: Klossovsky, Thunderstorms in Bussia, 1885 (Russ.); Memoirs and Izvestia oi the Geographical Society; many papers in the Memoirs and Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences, in the Trudy of the Scientific Societies at the Universities, in the Moscow Bulletin, . In 1853 the king of Prussia (in whom the right of nomina ion had been vested since 1812) restored the original bailiwick o randenburg and the assembled commanders elected Prince Charles lussia errn °f ,1le *f Meister, who notified his election to the lieutenam f ,. 16 Slanu-master cam aat Rome. The “ Johanniter’’did good servici P igns of 1866 and 1870. As regards the Englisl ue 1 \ mElizabeth annexed to the crown propertytino +tli eyorder England.c. 24After the restoration of all thetheBourbons nc Rights met once more in chapter-general and elected £ I1111, v.-'t caP1l'iilar commission, which was officially recognizee thp u nee . r lench -^YUL and acting the pope. Afterwith certain langues, in accord thosenegotiations of Aragor

175

and Castile, agreed to the resuscitation of the dormant langue of England (1827-1831), and Sir Robert Peat was appointed lord prior, taking the customary oath de Jideli administratione in the Court of King’s Bench. During the past half century the good work done by the modern knights—now (1886) once more located in St John’s Gate, Clerkenwell—can honourably compare with the memorable deeds of their predecessors. The establishment of the hospice at Jerusalem is due to the energy and zeal of Sir Edmund Lechmere, who has been mainly instrumental in collecting at St John’s Gate the unrivalled historical literature of which the order can boast. There are few subjects of study which present so rich and so varied materials as the annals of the knights of St John. The archives still preserved in Malta are almost unique in their value and completeness, and each grand-master patronized and encouraged the industrious historiographers who sought to perpetuate the fame of the order to which they belonged. The work of Giacomo Bosio is an elaborate and generally trustworthy record of events from the time of Gerard down to the year 1571. Bartolomeo del Pozzo treats with equal care the period between 1571 and 1636. Editions of these volumes were published in Rome, Naples, Verona, and Venice. The Abbe Vertot concludes his elaborate history with the year 1726. His book enjoyed a considerable popularity, was published in English with the original plates in 1728, but can hardly claim the confidence to which Bosio and Del Pozzo are both entitled. Prom the 16th century down to the appearance of the famous Codice of De Rohan (1782) we have a series of publications on the subject of the statutes of the order. A fresh compilation seems generally to have followed each assembly of the chaptergeneral. Before the time of De Rohan the best-known edition was that of Borgofante (1676), but Bosio produced a translation from the Latin in 1589 when residing at Rome as agent of the grand-master, and another was printed at the press of the order in Malta in 1718. The Mumorie de’ Gran Maestri by Bodoni (Parma, 1780) may also be consulted with advantage. For information concerning the archaeology of the order and the antiquities of Malta itself reference should be made to Abela and Ciantar’s Malta Illustrata, dedicated to Em. Pinto in 1772 ; to Raphael Caruana’s Collezione di monumenti e lapidi sepolcrali di militi Gerosolimitani nelle chiesa diSan Giovanni (Malta, 1838-40); to De Boisgelin’s Malta (3 vols.) ; and to Les Monumens des Grands Maitres, by VilleneuveBargemont (Paris, 1829). The last-named writer has, however, drawn largely on his own imagination for the earlier part of the information he professes to give. In English the most noteworthy treatises concerning the knights are John Taaffe’s History of the Order of Malta (London, 1852, 4 vols.) and General Porter’s History of the Knights of Malta of the Order of St John of Jerusalem (London, 1883). The Rev. W. R. Bedford has recently published a valuable account of the great hospital at Valetta. A useful guide to the contents of the Malta Record Office is to be found in M. Delaville Le Roulx’s Archives de VOrdre de St Jean de Jerusalem (Paris, 1883). (A. M. B.) ST JOHN’S, the capital of Newfoundland, is situated on the eastern shore of the island, 60 miles north of Cape Race, in 47° 33' 33" N. lat. and 52° 45' 10" W. long, (see vol. xvii., plate V.). It is 10° 52' east of Halifax, and stands on what is nearly the most eastern point of America, —Cape Spear, 5 miles south of St. John’s, alone projecting a little farther towards the Old World. It is 1000 miles nearer than New York to England, and but 1640 from the coast of Ireland. The approach to the harbour of St John’s presents one of the most picturesque views along the coast of America. In a lofty iron-bound coast a narrow opening occurs in the rocky wall, guarded on one side by Signal Hill (520 feet) and on the other by South Side Hill (620 feet), with Fort Amherst lighthouse on a rocky promontory at its base. The entrance of the Narrows is about 1400 feet in width, and at the narrowest point, between Pancake and Chain Rocks, the channel is not more than 600 feet wide. The Narrows are half a mile in length, and at their termination the harbour trends suddenly to the west, thus completely shutting out the swell from the ocean. Yessels of the largest tonnage can enter at all periods of the tide. The harbour is a mile in length and nearly half a mile in width. At its head is a dry dock, recently completed at a cost of $550,000; it is 600 feet in length, 83 in breadth, and 26 in depth, capable of admitting the largest steamers afloat. The city is built on sloping ground on the northern side of the harbour, on the southern side of which the hills rise so abruptly from the water that there is only room for a range of warehouses and oil-factories. Three principal streets, winding and irregular, follow the sinuosities of the harbour and of one another the whole length of the city, and these are intersected by a number of cross-streets. Water Street, the principal business locality, presents a very substantial, though not handsome, appearance, the houses being of stone or brick. Shops, stores, and counting-houses occupy the ground floor, while many of the merchants and shopkeepers live in the upper stories. Fish-stores, warehouses, and wharves project from behind on the side next the harbour. The city, three-fourths of which are still of

S A I- -S A I wood, is rapidly extending in several directions, and in (1512 coloured) in 1870, and 32,431 (3227 coloured) in recent years many dwelling-houses of an improved descrip- 1880. Founded in 1843 by Joseph Robidoux, a French Roman Catholic tion have been erected. There is an abundant supply of had settled in the district some years previously as a trader' excellent water, brought in pipes from a lake 5 miles off. who St Joseph in 1846 was made the county seat, and before 1857’ Epidemics are rare, and the city is very healthy. Of the when it received its first city charter, became well known as the public buildings the most important are Government House, great point of departure for emigrants bound for California and a substantial and spacious building erected in 1828 by the the West. During the Civil War, when it was fortified by the its natural development was considerably checked, but Imperial Government; the colonial building (1847), con- Federals, this revived as soon as the struggle was over. taining the chambers of the legislature and Government SAINT-JUST, Antoine (1767-1794), French revoluoffices; the athenaeum (1877), containing a public hall, library, reading-room, savings bank, museum, &c. The tionary leader, was born at Decize in the Nivernais on 25th foundation of a new post-office was laid in the same year. August 1767. He was educated at Soissons, and showed The churches are—the Church of England and Roman his character at school as ringleader of a plot to set Catholic cathedrals, St Thomas’s and St Mary’s (Church the school buildings on fire. Saint-Just was caught redof England), St Patrick’s, three Methodist churches, St handed in the act of incendiarism, and, refusing to exhibit Andrew’s Presbyterian church, and the Congregational any tokens of submission, was ignominiously expelled. church. The manufacture of seal and cod oils has long His education, however, does not appear to have been been carried on upon an extensive scale. Of late years neglected; and the reports and speeches of his short and other manufactures have been introduced, and have made stormy political career exhibit not a little scholarship, considerable progress. There are three iron-foundries, and in particular considerable acquaintance with ancient two large machine-shops, two boot and shoe factories, history. Intoxicated with republican ideas, Saint-Just a nail-factory, three furniture-factories, two tobacco- threw himself with enthusiasm into the political troubles of factories, soap-works, two tanneries, and a large and his time, had himself appointed an officer in the National well-equipped factory for the manufacture of cables, ropes, Guard, and by fraud—he being yet under age—admitted twines, nets, seines, &c. The export trade in fish of as a member of the electoral assembly of his district. various kinds, fish oils, seal oil, and seal skins is very Ambitious of fame, he in 1789 published twenty cantos of large; the greater part of all the imports into Newfound- licentious verses under the title of Organt, and this work land also arrives at St John’s. The city is not yet (1886) was afterwards reissued under the title of My Pastimes; incorporated, the Colonial Board of Works having charge or The New Organt. From that year onwards, however, of all civil affairs. The population, which in 1780 was the open turbulence of his youth gave place to a rigor1605, had in 1801 increased to 3420, in 1812 to 7075, ously stoical demeanour, which, united to a policy tyranin 1835 to 15,000, and in 1874 to 23,890, and in 1884 nical, uncompromisingly thorough, and pitilessly severe, it was 28,610 (Roman Catholics, 17,693; Episcopalians, became the marked and startling characteristic of his life. 5741; Methodists, 3715; Presbyterians, 973; Congrega- He now entered into correspondence with Robespierre, tionalists, 465; other denominations, 23). The census who thenceforward became his hero and ideal. Robeslast mentioned also shows the population of the whole pierre invited him to Paris, felt flattered by his worship, island and Labrador to be 197,589, being an increase of saw that he suited his purpose, and in a short time the 36,209 since 1874, or at the rate of about 22 per cent, two became hand and glove. Thus supported, Saintin ten years. The population of the Atlantic coast of Just became deputy of the department of Aisne to the Labrador, which is under the jurisdiction of Newfound- national convention, where he made his first speech— gloomy, fanatical, remorseless in tone—on 19th November land, was 4211,—1347 being Eskimo. ST JOHNSBURY, a township of the United States, 1792. He had but twenty months to live; but into these capital of Caledonia county, Vermont, on the Passumpsic he seemed to crowd the life of twenty years. In the river (a tributary of the river Connecticut), about 50 convention, in the Jacobin Club, and among the popumiles south of the Canadian frontier, and on the railway lace his relations with Robespierre became known, and between Boston (205 miles) and Quebec. St Johnsbury is he was dubbed the “St John of the Messiah of the the seat of perhaps the largest scale-factory in the world, People.” Hardly a week passed without the attention of which employs about 600 hands and works up 4000 tons France being arrested by his attitude or his utterances. of iron per annum. The township contains an athenaeum, Both were anxiously watched, as the unfailing indication public library (10,000 vols.), and art gallery. The popu- of the trend of Robespierre’s designs. His appointment lation has increased from 2758 in 1850 to 4665 in 1870 as a member of the committee of public safety now and 5800 in 1880. The three villages are distinguished placed him at the very height and centre of the political as St Johnsbury (3360 in 1880), St Johnsbury Centre, fever-heat. In the name of this committee he was and St Johnsbury East. Founded in 1786, the township charged with the drawing up of reports to the convention received its name in honour of St John de Crevecoeur, upon the absorbing themes of the overthrow of the party French consul at New York, and a benefactor of Vermont. of the Gironde, thereafter, when even the “Mountain” ST JOSEPH, a city of the United States, capital of seemed to have fallen in pieces, of the Hebertists, and Buchanan county, Missouri, on the right bank of the finally, as the tragic sequel to the rupture between RobesMissouri, 260 miles west by north of St Louis. It is an pierre and Canton, of that denunciation of the latter important railway junction, possessing since 1873 a which consigned him and his followers to the guillotine. great road and railway bridge over the river constructed What were then called reports were far less statements of of iron; in the extent of its wholesale business it ranks fact than appeals to the passions; in Saint-Just’s hands as the second city in the State; and among its manufac- they furnished the occasion for a display of fanatical darturing establishments are flour-mills, starch-works, boot and ing, of gloomy eloquence, and of undoubted genius; and shoe factories, pork-packing establishments, waggon-fac- —with the shadow of Robespierre behind them—they tories, a distillery, &c. Besides a city-hall and market-house, served their turn. Once a flash of cruel humour lighted it contains a court-house (1875), an opera-house, a State up his angry retorts, and it became memorable. Deslunatic asylum (1874), an agricultural and mechanical ex- moulins, in jest and mockery, said of Saint-Just the position association, a Roman Catholic cathedral, and five youth with the beautiful cast of countenance and the long public libraries. The population was 8932 in 1860, 19,565 fair locks—“ He carries his head like a Holy Sacrament. 176

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St Kilda, or, as it was originally called, Hirt (Hirth, Hyrtha), seems to have been in the possession of the Macleods for 400 or even 500 years. In 1779 it changed hands along with Harris, and again in 1804 and in 1871 (to Macleod of Macleod). The feudal superior is Lord Dunmore, who receives one shilling of feu-duty. From 1734 to 1742 Lady Grange was confined on St Kilda by command of her high-handed husband (see Proceed. Soc. Scot. Antiq., x. and xi.). David Mallet makes the island the scene of his Amyntor and Theodore, or the Hermit. See works on St Kilda by Rev. K. Macaulay (1764), L. MacLean (1838), J. Sands (1876 and 1877), and George Seton (1878). ST KILDA, a watering-place in Victoria, Australia, on the east shore of Hobson’s Bay, 3| miles south of Melbourne, with which it is connected, by a railway. The borough had an area of 1886 acres and a population of 11,662 in 1881. The sea-beach is bordered by an esplanade ; there is a large public park; and portions of the sea have been fenced-in to protect bathers from sharks. A town-hall, an assembly hall, a library, and the large Episcopal church of All Saints are among the public buildings. ST KITTS. See St Christopher. SAINT-LAMBERT, Jean Francois de (1716-1803), French poet, was born at Nancy in 1716, and died at Paris in 1803. During great part of his long life he held various employments at the court of Stanislaus of Poland, when that prince was established in Lorraine. He also served in the French army, and then betook himself to literature, producing among other things a volume of descriptive verse, Les Saisons (wildly overpraised at the time, and now never read), many articles for the Encyclopedic, and some miscellaneous works in verse and prose. SaintLambert’s chief fame, however, comes from the strange fate which made him the successful rival in love of the two most famous men of letters in France, not to say in Europe, during the 18th century. The infatuation of the marquise du Chatelet for him and its fatal termination are known to all readers of the life of Voltaire. His subsequent courtship of Madame d’Houdetot, Rousseau’s Sophie, though hardly less disastrous to his rival, was less disastrous to the lady, and continued for the whole lives of himself and his mistress. They survived till the present century as a kind of irregular Baucis and Philemon, illustrating the manners of the vanished regime, which had been not unjustly celebrated, and vindicating its constancy from a very general opinion. ST LAWRENCE. The river St Lawrence2 in North Plate America, taken in connexion with the great lakes, offers to IVtrading vessels the most magnificent system of inland navigation in the world. Its total length from the source Length, of the St Louis river, which discharges into Fond du Lac at the head of Lake Superior, to Cape Gaspe is 2100 miles. The river St Louis springs from the same spacious plateau in Minnesota that gives birth to the Mississippi and the Red River of the North. The intermediate distances between the source of the St Lawrence and its mouths are shown in Table I. According to the most recent surveys the approximate area of the basin of the St Lawrence is 510,000 square miles, of which 322,560 belong to Canada and 187,440 to the United States. Lake Superior, the most westerly of the lakes, is the Lake largest body of fresh water in the world. In addition to Superior, the river Nipigon, which may be regarded as the chief source of the upper St Lawrence, and the St Louis and Pigeon rivers, which constitute the international boundary, it receives its waters from 200 rivers, draining an aggregate of 85,000 square miles,3 including its own area of 32,000. 2 The name given by Jacques Cartier, who ascended the river in 1535 3 as far as Montreal. The magnitudes and altitudes of the great lakes are derived from the Report of the Canadian Canal Commission, February 1871 ; the engineering data relating to canals have been mainly obtained from 1 No trained geologist seems to have visited the island subsequent other annual reports published by the Canadian Government and from to Macculloch. the annual reports of the chief of engineers, United States army. XXL — 23 “And I,” savagely replied Saint-Just, “will make him carry his like a Saint-Denis.” The threat was not vain : Desmoulins accompanied Danton to the scaffold. The same ferocious inflexibility animated Saint-Just with reference to the external policy of France. He proposed that the national convention should itself, through its committees, direct all military movements. This was agreed to and Saint-Just was despatched to Strasburg, in company with Lebas, to superintend operations. It was suspected that the enemy without was being aided by treason within. Saint-Just’s remedy was direct and terrible: he followed his experience in Paris, “organized the Terror,” and soon the heads of all suspects were falling under the guillotine. The conspiracy was defeated, and the armies of the Rhine and the Moselle having been inspirited by success Saint-Just himself taking a fearless part in the actual fighting—and having effected a junction, the frontier was delivered. Later, with the army of the North, he wrought similar magical changes in the aspect of affairs. Before the generals he placed the terrible dilemma of victory over the enemies of France or trial by the dreaded revolutionary tribunal; and before the eyes of the army itself he organized a force which was specially charged with the slaughter of those who should seek refuge from the enemy by flight. Success again crowned his terrible efforts, and Belgium was gained for France. Meanwhile affairs in Paris looked gloomier than ever, and Robespierre recalled Saint-Just to the capital. As the storm was gathering Saint-Just gave it direction by mooting the dictatorship of his master as the only remedy for the convulsions of society. At last, at the famous sitting of the 9th Thermidor, he ventured to present as the report of the committees of general security and public safety a document expressing his own views, a sight of which, however, had been refused to the other members of committee on the previous evening. Then the storm broke. He was vehemently interrupted, and the sitting ended with an order for Robespierre’s arrest (see Robespierre). On the following day, 28th July 1794, twenty-two men, nearly all young, were guillotined. Robespierre was one, aged thirty-six; Saint-Just another, aged twenty-six. In 1800 there was published at Strasburg a work from the pen of Saint-Just entitled Fragments on Republican Institutions. It is a crude mixture of his opinions on social and political topics. ST KILDA, the largest islet of a small group of the Outer Hebrides, Scotland, 40 miles west of North Uist, in 57° 48' 35” N. lat. and 8° 35' 30" W. long. It measures 3 miles from east to west and 2 from north to south, and has an area of 3000 to 4000 acres. Except at the landingplace on the south-east, the cliffs rise sheer out of deep water, and on the north-east side the highest eminence in the island, Conagher or Conna-Ghair, forms a gigantic precipice, 1220 feet high from sea to summit. According to Professor Judd, St Kilda is probably the core of a Tertiary volcano; but, besides volcanic rocks, it is said to contain hills 1of sandstone in which the stratification is very distinct. While the general relief is peculiarly bold and picturesque, a certain softness of scenery is produced by the richness of the verdure. The inhabitants are an industrious Gaelic-speaking community (110 in 1851, and U in 1881). They cultivate about 40 acres of land (potatoes, oats, barley), keep about 1000 sheep and 50 \\ est Highland cows, and catch puffins and other sea-fowl. Coarse tweeds and blanketing are manufactured for home use. The houses are collected in a little village at the head of the East Bay, which contains a Free church, a manse, and the factor’s house. The island is practically inaccessible for eight months of the year.

LAWRENCE widened and deepened, and a new lock constructed, 515 feet long Table I.—Distances of Sections of St Lawrence. and 80 wide,—the width of the gates being 60 feet, the lift of the Statute lock 18, and the depth of water on the mitre sills 17. There is Miles. now everywhere a navigable depth of 16 feet from Lake Superior through St Mary’s Falls Canal and St Mary’s river to Lake Huron. Sections of NaviLocal 9 °.22 From gation. cl 2 g o In 1883 the registered tonnage passing the canal was 2,042,295 Name. tons,—the annual increase of tonnage during the previous fifteen a'g year's having averaged 107,313 tons. The United States Government engineers have already presented a project for still further 152 152 improvements, namely, to replace the old locks by one only with Source of St Fond du Lac St Louis river Louis river of 700 feet and a width of 70, and with a depth of 21 feet 390 542 aonlength Fond du Lac Pointe aux Lake Superior the sill. Pins 55 597 Lake Huron is 270 miles long and 105 broad and has Lake Saulte St Pointe aux St Joseph’s I. St Mary’s river Pins Mary an area of 23,000 square miles (the area of its basin, Huron, 867 270 Lake Huron Sarnia ... St Joseph's I. Amerherst- St Claire and Detroit 76 943 including the lake, being 74,000), a mean depth variously St Mary Sarnia river burg river 232 1175 stated at from 700 to 1000 feet, and an altitude above the Amerherst- Port Colbome Lake Erie burg 27 1202 sea of 574 feet. Georgian Bay on the north-east lies Niagara Port Colborne Port Dalhousie Welland Canal river 170 1372 entirely within the region of Canada, whilst Thunder Bay Lake Ontario PortDalhousie Kingston 59 1431 and Saginaw Bay on the west and south-west are in the Head of canal section Prescott .... Kingston Lawrence Canal 119 1550 State of Michigan. The north and north-east shores of Prescott .... Montreal .... Stsection of ocean navi 86 1636 Lake Huron are mostly composed of sandstones and limeMontreal.. . Three Rivers Head gation to head of St Lawstones, and where metamorphic rocks are found the surface tidal flow rence Head of tidal flow to 74 1710 is broken and hilly, rising to elevations of 600 feet or more Three Rivers Quebec Quebec 266 1976 above the lake, unlike in this respect the southern shores Cape Chat .. Quebec Cape Chat .. Cape Gaspe ... Mouth of river St 124 2100 skirting the peninsulas of Michigan and south-western Lawrence 1 Ontario, which are comparatively flat and of great fertility. Cape Gaspe .. Belle Isle .. Mouth of the Gulf of St Lawrence As in Lake Superior, regular terraces corresponding to former water-levels of the lake run for miles along the Its length is 390 miles, its greatest breadth 160, and its shores of Lake Huron at heights of 120, 150, and 200 feet; mean breadth 80. Its mean depth is 900 feet and its altitude and deposits of fine sand and clay containing freshwater above the sea-level 600 feet. Its coast is generally rock- shells rise to a height of 40 feet or more above the present bound. Numerous islands are scattered about the north level of the water. At several places these deposits extend side of the lake, many rising precipitously to great heights to a distance of 20 miles inland. The chief tributaries of from deep water,—some presenting castellated walls of the lake on the Canadian side are the French river from basalt and others rising in granite peaks to various eleva- Lake Nipissing, the Severn from Lake Simcoe, the Muskoka, tions up to 1300 feet above the lake. The Laurentian and the Nottawasaga, all emptying into Georgian Bay; and Huronian rocks to the north along the shore abound in and on the United States side the Thunder Bay river, the silver, copper, and iron ores. The United States side is Au-Sable, and the Saginaw. generally lower and more sandy than the opposite shore, Lake Michigan is entirely in the territory of the United Lake and is also especially rich in deposits of native copper and States. It has a maximum breadth of 84 miles and itsMlchlbeds of red haematite iron ores. Both these minerals are length is 345 miles from the north-west corner of Indianasau' extensively worked. Unfossiliferous terraces occur abun- and the north part of Illinois to Mackinaw, where it comdantly on the margin of the lake \ at one point no fewer municates with Lake Huron by a strait 4 miles wide at than seven occur at intervals up to a height of 33 feet its narrowest part. Its depth is variously stated at from above the present level of the water. Lake Superior is 700 to 1800 feet. Its altitude above sea-level is 578 feet. subject to severe storms and the effect of the waves upon Its basin is 70,040 square miles in area, of which the lake the sandstone of the “ picture rocks ” of Grand Island pre- occupies 22,400. Five of its tributaries are from 135 to sents innumerable fantastic and very remarkable forms. 245 miles in length. The country round Lake Michigan The lake never freezes, but cannot be navigated in winter for the most part low and sandy. The rocks are limeon account of the shore ice. At the west end of the lake, is and sandstones of the Sub-carboniferous groups, at the mouth of the St Louis, is situated the city of Duluth, stones lying in strata and never rising into bold cliffs. a place of considerable importance as the eastern terminus Along thehorizontal south shore are Post-tertiary beds of clay and of the Northern Pacific Bailway, and of the St Paul and sand lying a few feet above the level of the lake, the waters Duluth Bailway, which runs to St Paul on the Mississippi, of which probably at one time found their way by the 155 miles south of Duluth.2 St Mary’s river, 55 miles long, is the only outlet from valleys of the Illinois and the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mary’s Lake Superior, and its course to Lake Huron is but a Mexico. Chicago (population, 503,185 in 1880) is situated at the southriver and succession of expansions into lakes and contractions into west angle of the lake. In the receipt and shipment of grain and canal. riVers. St Mary’s rapids, which in a distance of half a pork it is the largest market in the world. In 1883 12,015 vessels mile absorb 18 feet out of the total fall of 22 feet between with a tonnage of 3,980,837 tons cleared from the harbour. Comthe decades of 1864-73 and 1874-83 the total export in the two lakes, are avoided by a ship canal, constructed paring quarters of wheat and corn from Chicago was as follows :— in 1855. Lake. Rail. Total. As originally built, the canal was 1 mile long, had a width of 100 1864-73 43,884,196 6,328,337 50,212,533 feet at the water line and a depth of 12 feet. The locks were two 1874-83 66,265,175 27,342,140 93,607,315 in number, combined, each 350 feet in length, 70 in width, with a lift of 9 feet. At the time the canal was made these dimensions 110,149,371 33,670,477 143,819,848' were sufficient to pass any vessel on the lakes fully laden, but by grain by the lakes amounted to 6,850,722 1870 it became necessary to provide for more rapid lockage and In 1883 the export of for the passage of larger vessels. Accordingly the old canal was quarters (of which 68 l per cent, were shipped direct to Buffalo an only 6'3 per cent, to Kingston and Montreal) as against 3,146,0 sent by rail. The first appropriation for the harbour of Chicago, 1 The distance from Belle Isle to Liverpool is 2234 statute or 1942 is 313 feet above the level of Lake Superior, and in some parts is upgeographical miles. 2 Lake Nipigon is situated 50 miles to the north of Lake Superior, wards of 500 feet in depth. The lake is thickly studded with islands; into which it drains by the river Nipigon ; it is still very little known its shores are undulating and sometimes hilly ; and owing to its numer except from the report of Professor Bell of the Geological Survey. It ous indentations its coast-line measures 580 miles. 178

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made in 1883, was expended in cutting a straight outlet from the Chicago river into the lake. The available depth was only 2 feet, hut since then the harbour accommodation has been extended, by means of piers, dredging, and a breakwater, to accommodate vessels of 14 feet draught. The harbour works at Chicago, as w7ell as at other lake and river ports, are constructed simply of cribs or boxes, composed of logs 12 by 12 inches, filled with stone, and joined to each other, after they have finally settled down, by a continuous timber superstructure raised a few feet above the level of the water. On this plan breakwaters, piers at the mouths of rivers, and wharves have been built within the last sixty years at the most important points along the I shores of the St Lawrence lakes, as well as at most of the river harbours communicating with the Atlantic ; and experience has proved that no cheaper and better system could have been devised for such localities. CL The St Lawrence leaves Lake Huron by the St Clair rer al river at Sarnia, and after a course of 33 miles enters ke - Lake St Clair, 25 miles long, and terminating at the head of the Detroit river, near the city of Detroit in Michigan. Eighteen miles farther on the St Lawrence, with a descent of 11 feet, enters Lake Erie. The navigation through the St Clair river is easy throughout, but in Lake St Clair there are extensive sandbanks covered with a depth of water varying from 6 to 10 feet. Previous to 1858 much inconvenience was experienced in navigating the lake owing to its insufficient depth; but at the end of that year the Governments of the United States and Canada dredged a canal through the bed of the lake, which is of soft material, to a minimum depth of 12 feet, with a width of 300 feet. This channel has since been deepened to 16 feet over a width of 200 feet, and works are now in progress to deepen the rocky shoal called the “Lime-Kiln Crossing” in the Detroit river to 18 feet, to enable vessels drawing 15 feet to pass with safety from lake to lake in stormy weather. The peculiar features of Lake Erie are its shallowness i -i. and the clayey nature of its shores, which are generally low. The south shore is bordered by an elevated plateau, through which the rivers, which are without importance as regards Lake Erie, have cut deep channels. The mean depth of the lake is only 90 feet and its maximum depth 204. Owing to its shallowness it is easily disturbed by the wind, and is therefore the most dangerous to navigate of all the great lakes. Its length is 250 miles and its greatest breadth 60. The area of the basin of Lake Erie is 39,680 square miles, including 10,000 square miles, the area of the lake. Its waters are 564 feet above the sea and 330 above Lake Ontario. The extreme difference observed in the level of the lake between 1819 and 1838 was 5 feet 2 inches, but the average annual rise and fall (taken on a mean of twelve years) is only 1 foot inches. The mean annual rainfall is 34 inches. The navigation of Lake Erie usually opens about the middle of April and closes early in December. Besides the Erie and the Welland Canals, the lake has two other great canal systems on its south shore,—the Ohio and Erie Canal, from Cleveland to Portsmouth, and the Miami and Erie Canal, from Toledo to Cincinnati. Buffalo (population, 171,500 in 1883) is situated at the northas angle oi Lake Erie, and is therefore much exposed to the ° ,, sU1,(1'wesk winds, in which direction the lake has a ttiV C f 0 °ro ., mfies. Thus more than ordinary care has been ,vessels "' 'l constantly P yide safe harbour accommodation the large of arriving at Buffalo from theforupper lakes.fleetsThe a ■ ,° which has been made navigable for more than a mile, at ts mouth b T a lUnfuir .I > breakwater, 4000 feet long, built at la a mi e nf rim ent, ance^ horn the shore. The harbour thus formed allows IVnt y y 6 of vessels of 17 feet draught as against 13 in 1853. rt ™nl-l0n at the head the itErie Canal and n ari, hour sP°sail situated of the Welland Canal,of but is the western minus of the New York Central, Erie, and several other railways, e possession of these exceptional advantages has constituted 0 the reat A/ g thecommercial centre 1883 of the of North menca. For six years ending theinland yearly seas average shipments of wheat and corn received by lake at Buffalo, by the Erie

179 Canal, and by rail from elevators was 5,555,000 quarters by canal and 2,320,000 by rail, or 70‘20 and 29'80 per cent, respectively. There are 38 elevators in the city, comprising storage, transfer, and floating elevators, with a combined storage capacity of 1,125,000 quarters and a daily transfer capacity of 333,000 quarters. During the ten years ending 1883 the annual average number of lake vessels arriving and departing from Buffalo Creek numbered 7438, the aggregate tonnage was 4,165,098 tons, and the average size of craft 560 tons. In 1883 the enrolled tonnage of the United States vessels for the northern lakes, and the enrolled registered tonnage of steam and sailing vessels in the province of Ontario, including tugs and barges on the Ottawa river and barges at Kingston, were as follows (Table II.):— United States. Aggregate No. Tonnage. Sailing vessels Steam vessels

1373 1149 2522

310,454 304,649 615,103

No. 452 352 804

Canada. Aggregate Tonnage. 44,000 64,000 108,000

Freight propellers are now rapidly doing away with sailing vessels, or causing them to be converted into barges or consorts. The rapid increase in their tonnage capacity has been remarkable. In 1841 there was only 1 freight propeller with a tonnage of 128 tons; in 1850 there were 50 with an average of 215 tons, in 1860 there were 197 with an average of 340 tons, and in 1880 there were 202 with an average of 689 tons. The Erie Canal connects Lake Erie with the Hudson river at Erie Troy and Albany and with Lake Ontario at Oswego. The move- Canal, ment of freight of all kinds by the canal was 3,602,535 tons in 1873, and 3,587,102 in 1883, and the average annual movement from 1874 to 1883 was 3,447,464 tons. This canal was constructed in 1825 by the State of New York, for the passage of vessels of 60 tons ; but by the year 1862 it was sufficiently enlarged to allow of the passage of vessels of 240 tons. The dimensions and capacity of the canal and its two principal feeders are given in Table III.:— Size of Canal. No. & Size of Locks. Locality. ° s r- Q £ i-} « | § £-3 So Qj c3 Buffalo to Albany .... 351 Oswego to Syracuse .. 38 Lake Champlain to Albany 455 Albany to New York 145 by the Hudson river

Feet. 70 70 50

Feet. Feet. 56 7 56 7 35 5

Feet. Feet. Feet. 110 18 655 110 18 155 100 18 180

The cost of construction, maintenance, and management of the 455 miles of canal up to 30th September 1873 amounted to £17,460,000. A project has for some time been under serious consideration for the enlargement of one tier of the present locks and the deepening of the canal so that between Buffalo and Albany there would nowhere be a less depth than 8 feet. The estimated cost of this work is about £1,600,000. The Welland Canal flanks the Niagara river and is 27 miles in Welland length from Port Colborne on Lake Erie to Port Dalhousie on Lake Canal. Ontario. It was opened in 1833 for the navigation of small vessels and was first enlarged in 1844. Vessels, however, continued to increase in size until in 1860 there were 341 with an aggregate tonnage of 143,918 tons which were unable to pass through the enlarged canal. In 1870 the number that could not pass had increased to 384, with an aggregate tonnage of 194,685 tons; in 1880 to 460, with an aggregate tonnage of 287,342 tons; and in 1883 (notwithstanding the completion of the second enlargement in 1882) to 557, with an aggregate tonnage of 398,808 tons. The cost of the canal including its maintenance up to 30th June 1883 was $20,859,605. Its dimensions are now as follows :■—number of lift locks, 25 ; dimensions, 270 by 45 feet; total rise of lockage, 326| feet; depth of water on sills, 12 feet. The movement of freight of all kinds by the canal was 1,330,629 tons in 1873 and 827,196 in 1883, and the average annual movement for the decade ending 1883 was 986,441 tons. This serious falling off in traffic is partly due to the numerous competitors by lake and rail which have sprung up during the last ten years for the transportation of products to the east, but principally to the deepening of the channels and harbours of the upper lakes, a work that has encouraged the construction of

LAWRENCE a class of vessels that cannot make use of the Welland Canal even New York Central and Michigan Central Bailways. The after its last enlargement. In order to meet this strong competition total length of the bridge is 910 feet and that of the the Government of the Dominion of Canada was called upon still, centre span 470 feet. The height from the water to the further to deepen the canal so as to allow the passage °f Jd'6 largest level of the rails is 239 feet. existing lake vessels without lightering; and m 1886 contracts Lake Ontario is the easternmost and smallest of the Lake were concluded for deepening it to 14 feet. great lakes of the St Lawrence system. Its basin drains Ontario, The Niagara river flows from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario River Niagara. in a northerly direction. Its width between Buffalo and 29,760 square miles, including the lake surface of 6700 square miles. The length of the lake is 190 miles, its Fort Erie (the site of the international iron-trussed rail- greatest width 52 miles, its mean depth 412 feet, and its way bridge; see sketch map of Niagara river in vol. xvii. elevation above the sea 234 feet. It never freezes except p. 472) is 1900 feet and its greatest depth 48. At this near the shore. Its chief tributaries are the Trent on the point the normal current is 5J miles an hour,—the extreme variation in the level of the river when uninflu- north shore and the Genesee and the Oswego on the south enced by the wind being only 2 feet. During south-west shore, and its chief ports, Toronto, the capital of Ontario, o-ales, however, the water occasionally rises as much as 4 32 miles north of Port Dalhousie, at the foot of the Welland feet in a few hours, and at such times the current attains Canal; Oswego, at the south-east angle of the lake; and a maximum velocity of 12 miles an hour. Two miles Kingston, at its north-east extremity, 52 miles north of below the bridge the river is divided into two arms by Oswego. Trent river navigation is a term applied to a series of reaches Grand Island, at the foot of which they reunite and spread which do not, however, form a connected system of navigation, and over a width of 2 or 3 miles. The river then becomes which in their present condition are efficient only for local use. studded with islands, until about 16 miles from Lake The series is composed of a chain of lakes and rivers extending from at the mouth of the Trent on the Bay of Quinte, north Erie, after a total fall of 20 feet, it narrows again and Trenton, of Lake Ontario, to Lake Huron. The new works (which begins to descend with great velocity. This is the com- shore will have locks 134 feet by 33 feet with a depth of 5 feet on sill) mencement of the rapids, which continue for about a mile will give communication between Lakefield, 9J miles from Peterwith a total descent of 52 feet. The rapids terminate in boro, and Balsam Lake, the headwaters of the system, opening up the great cataract of Niagara, the fall of which on the a total of about 150 miles of direct and lateral navigation. The port of Oswego has been in direct communication with the American side is 164 feet and on the Canadian side 150 Hudson river since 1822, by means of a canal of small capacity as feet. The falls are divided by Goat Island, which rises far as Syracuse, and thence by the Erie Canal to Troy and Albany. 40 feet above the water and extends to the very verge of It is now proposed by the United States Government to enlarge the precipice, where the total width of the river, including this route under the name of the Oneida Ship Canal, so that vessels arriving from the Welland Canal with cargoes of 50,000 bushels of the island, is 4750 feet. The Horse-Shoe Fall on the wheat may be able to tranship them at Oswego into steam barges Canadian shore is 2000 feet long, and the depth of water holding 25,000 bushels, or into barges to be towed with a capacity on the crest of the fall is about 20 feet. The American of 28,000 bushels. The length of the proposed route by the Oneida fall is only one-half that length, and discharges less than Lake and Durhamville is 200 miles, with a lockage of 60.9 feet; its estimated cost, including 20 ascending and 47 descending one-fourth the volume of the Horse-Shoe Fall. United, and locks (each 170 by 28 by 8| feet), is $25,213,857. The Government they discharge nearly 400,000 cubic feet per second or of the Dominion of Canada has also under consideration the follow41,000,000 tons per hour. The upper layer of the escarp- ing projects to connect the St Lawrence with Lake Huron:—(1) ment down which this enormous mass of water leaps con- the Ottawa and Georgian Bay Canal, from Montreal, by the Ottawa Lake Nipissing, to French river ; (2) the Toronto and Georgian sists of hard limestone about 90 feet thick, beneath which and Bay Canal, by way of Lake Simcoe ; (3) the Hur-Ontario Canal, lie soft shales of equal thickness, which are continually from Hamilton to Lake Huron, near Port Franks. being undermined by the action of the spray, driven Kingston, being the port of transhipment for Montreal Kingston violently by gusts of wind against the base of the preci- of three-fourths of the grain that arrives from the upper joj1011' pice. In consequence of this action and that of the frost, lakes, is a place of some commercial importance. Formerly portions of the incumbent rock overhang 40 feet, and lake vessels were sent from Chicago to Montreal through often, when unsupported, tumble down, so that the falls the St Lawrence canals without breaking bulk. But it do not remain absolutely stationary in the same spot. was afterwards found cheaper to transfer grain at Kingston, Sir C. Lyell in 1842 came to the conclusion that the and to send it down the St Lawrence in barges, the cost cataract was receding at an average rate of 1 foot annually, of such transfer being only half a cent per bushel. Kings“in which case it would have required 35,000 years for ton is also at the south terminus of the Rideau Canal, the retreat of the falls from the escarpment at Queens- which connects it with the city of Ottawa. town to their present site.” From the foot of the falls to This canal, 126 miles long, has 33 locks ascending 292 feet and Queenstown, a distance of about 7 miles, the river descends 14 descending 165, and admits vessels 130 by 30 feet drawing L 104 feet through a gorge from 200 to 300 feet deep and feet of water. It was constructed in 1826-32 by the British Governfrom 600 to 1200 feet wide. Midway in this deep defile ment at a cost of about $4,000,000, chiefly with a view to the defence the province, but since the opening of the St Lawrence canals the turbulent waters strike against the cliff on the Canadian of it has become of comparatively little importance as.a means ot side with great violence, and, being thus deflected from transport,—the distance from Montreal to Kingston being 68 miles west to north, give rise to the dangerous eddy called the longer by the Rideau and Ottawa Canals than by the St Lawrence. “Whirlpool.” The escarpments end abruptly at QueensAlmost immediately after leaving Kingston that part of town, where the waters suddenly expand to a great width, the St Lawrence commences which is called the Lake of and finally, 7 miles farther on, tranquilly flow into Lake a Thousand Islands. In reality they number 1692, and Ontario. extend for 40 miles below Lake Ontario. At this point About one-third of a mile below the cataract a carriage- the Laurentian rocks break through the Silurian, an road suspension bridge (built in 1869 by Mr Samuel reach across the St Lawrence, in this belt of islands, to Keefer) spans the river with a single opening of 1190 unite with the Laurentian Adirondack region in the State feet, at a height of 190 feet above the water; and 2 of New York. Near Prescott, a town on the Canadian miles lower down Boebling’s celebrated railway and road side about 60 miles below Kingston, begins the chain o suspension bridge (completed in 1855) crosses the river at the St Lawrence canals proper, which were constructed to a height of 245 feet above the water with a single span overcome a total rise of 206^ feet,—the number of loc s of 800 feet. In November 1883 a double-track railway being 27 and the total length of the six canals 43| Hides., three-span iron and steel cantilever bridge, situated about The canals are called, in the order of their descent, the Galops, 100 yards above Boebling’s bridge, was completed for the “Rapid Plat,” and “Farran’s Point,” with an aggregate length 180

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191 miies (the three forming with their intervening 15 miles of rivernavigation what is called the Williamsburg Canals) the ut to the tenure in direct succession of certain estates, t must of course be understood that the peers were not :lected but nominated. Still they were in a way a standng committee representative of the entire body of nobles, md it was Saint-Simon’s lifelong ideal and at times his tactical effort to convert them into a sort of great council )f the nation. These remarks are almost indispensable jo illustrate his life, to which we may now return. His .nother, Claude de Saint-Simon’s second wife, was Charlotte ,le 1’Aubespine, who belonged to a family not of the ddest nobility but which had been distinguished in the bublic service at least since the time of Francis I. Her ;0n Louis was well educated, to a great extent by herjelf, and he had had for godfather and godmother no ess persons than Louis XIV. and the queen. After some :uition by the Jesuits (especially by Sanadon, the editor of Horace), he betook himself in 1692, at the age of seventeen, L the career of arms, entering the mousquetaires gris. He was present at the siege of Namur, and next year his 'ather died. He still continued in the army and was present at the battle of Neerwinden. But it was at this very time that he chose to begin the crusade of his life by instigating, if not bringing, an action on the part of the [peers of France against Luxembourg, his victorious general, bn a point of precedence. He fought, however, another campaign or two (not under Luxembourg), and in 1695 married Gabrielle de Durfort, daughter of the marechal le Lorges, under whom he latterly served. He seems to liave regarded her with a respect and affection not very usual between husband and wife at the time; and she sometimes succeeded in modifying his aristocratic crotchets. But as he did not receive the promotion he desired he Hungup his commission in 1702. Louis, who was already becoming sensitive on the point of military ill-success, and who was not likely to approve Saint-Simon’s litigiousness on points of privilege, took a dislike to him, and it was only indirectly and by means of establishing interest with the dukes of Burgundy and Orleans that he was able to keep something of a footing at court. He was, however, intensely interested in all the transactions of Versailles, xnd by dint of a most heterogeneous collection of instruments, ranging from dukes to servants, he managed to obtain the extraordinary secret information which he has lianded down to us about almost every event and every personage of the last twenty years of the “grand monarque.” His own part appears to have been entirely subordinate. He was appointed ambassador to Rome in 1705, but the appointment was cancelled before he started. At last he ittached himself to the duke of Orleans and, though this was hardly likely to conciliate Louis’s good will to him, t gave him at least (what was of the first importance in Fat intriguing court) the status of belonging to a definite larty, and it eventually placed him in the position of tried :riend to the acting chief of the state. He was able, moreover, to combine attachment to the duke of Burgundy with Fat to the duke of Orleans. Both attachments were no loubt all the more sincere because of his undying hatred io “ the bastards,” that is to say, the illegitimate sons of Louis XIV. It does not appear that this hatred was ounded on moral reasons or on any real fear that these oastards would be intruded into the succession. The true ;ause of his wrath was that they had precedence of the peers. The death of Louis seemed to give Saint-Simon a chance ’f realizing his hopes. The duke of Orleans was at once icknowledged regent and Saint-Simon was of the council J regency, but no steps were taken to carry out his avourite vision of a France ruled by the nobles for its ;ood (it must always be understood that Saint-Simon’s deal was in no respect an aristocratic tyranny except of he beneficent kind), and he had little real influence with

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the regent. He was indeed gratified by the degradation of “the bastards,” and in 1721 he was appointed ambassador to Spain to arrange for the marriage (not destined to take place) of Louis XV. and the infanta. His visit was splendid; he received the grandeeship, and, though he also caught the smallpox, he was quite satisfied with the business. After his return he had little to do with public affairs. His own account of the cessation of his intimacy with Orleans and Dubois, the latter of whom had never been his friend, is, like his own account of some other events of his life, obscure and rather suspicious. But there can be little doubt that he was practically ousted by the favourite. He survived for more than thirty years; but little is known of his life. His wife died in 1743, his eldest son a little later; he had other family troubles, and he was loaded with debt. When he died, at Paris on 2d March 1755, he had almost entirely outlived his own generation (among whom he had been one of the youngest) and the prosperity of his house, though not its notoriety. This last was in strange fashion revived by a distant relation born five years after his own death, Claude Henri, Comte de Saint-Simon, the subject of the preceding article. It will have been observed that the actual events of Saint-Simon’s life, long as it was and high as was his position, are neither very numerous nor very noteworthy. If nothing more had been known about him than was known at the time of his death he would certainly not have deserved mention at length here. Saint-Simon is, however, an almost unique example of a man who has acquired great literary fame entirely by posthumous publications. He was an indefatigable writer, and not merely from the time he left the army but much earlier he began to set down in black and white all the gossip he collected, all his interminable legal disputes of precedence, and a vast mass of unclassified and almost unclassifiable matter. Most of his manuscripts came into the possession of the Government, and it was long before their contents were published in anything like fulness. Extracts and abstracts, however, leaked out and parts of the manuscript were sometimes lent to privileged persons, so that some notion of the unique value of SaintSimon got abroad within twenty or thirty years of his death. Partly in the form of notes on Dangeau’s Journal, partly in that of original and independen t memoirs, partly in scattered and multifarious tracts and disquisitions, he had committed to paper an amount of matter which has probably never been exceeded by any one except a professional journalist, if indeed the parallel will hold even there. The new edition now publishing of the Memoirs with the notes on Dangeau is estimated to contain thirty large octavo volumes. Besides this, M. Drumont, M. Faugere, and other independent workers are bringing out series of (J/uvres Inedites of a less gossiping and more technical character found in different receptacles of the public archives. But the mere mass of these productions is their least noteworthy feature, or rather it is most remarkable as contrasting with their character and style. The voluminous writer is usually thought of as least likely to be characterized by an original and sparkling style. Saint-Simon, though careless and sometimes even ungrammatical, ranks among the most striking memoir writers of France, the country richest in memoirs of any in the world. His pettiness, his absolute injustice to his private enemies and to those who espoused public parties with which he did not agree, the bitterness which allows him to give favourable portraits of hardly any one, his omnivorous appetite for gossip, his lack of proportion and perspective, are all lost sight of in admiration of his extraordinary genius for historical narrative and character-drawing of a certain sort. He has been compared to Tacitus, and for once the comparison, so often made and generally so ludicrously out of place, is just. In the midst of his enormous mass of writing phrases scarcely inferior to the Roman’s occur frequently, and here and there passages of sustained description equal for intense concentration of light and life to those of Tacitus or of any other historian. As may be expected from the vast extent of his work, it is in the highest degree unequal. But he is at the same time not a writer who can be “sampled” easily, inasmuch as his most characteristic phrases sometimes occur in the midst of long stretches of quite uninteresting matter. Hence he has been even since his discovery more praised than read, and better liked by critics than by the general reader. A few critical studies of him, especially those of Sainte-Beuve, are in fact the basis of much, if not most, that has been written about him. Yet no one is so little to be taken at second-hand. Even his most famous passages, such as the account of the death of the dauphin or of the bed of justice where his enemy the duke of Maine was degraded, will not give a fair idea of his talent. These are his gallery pieces,

S A I -S A I his great “machines,” as French art slang calls them. Much more hospitals, a public reading-room and library, a Government noteworthy as well as more frequent are the sudden touches which college (1877), a Roman Catholic college (St Thomas), a he gives. The bishops are “cuistres violets”; M. de Caumartin Moravian school, and a small theatre. A quarantine laza“porte sous son manteau toute la fatuite que M. de Yilleroy etale sur son baudrier”; another politician has a “mine de chatfache”; retto is maintained on Lighthouse or Muhlenfeldt Point a third is hit off as “comptant faire” (“he would still be doing,” The general health of the town is good. The climate though Saint-Simon certainly did not know that phrase). In short, varies little all the year round, the thermometer seldom the interest of the Memoirs, independent of the large addition of falling below 70° or rising above 90°. In the “hurricane” positive knowledge which they make, is one of constant surprise months—August, September, and October—south winds at the novel and adroit use of word and phrase. It is not superfluous to inform the English reader that some of Macaulay’s most accompanied by sultry heat, rain, and thunder, are not unbrilliant portraits and sketches of incident are adapted and some- common ; throughout the rest of the year the wind blows times almost literally translated from Saint-Simon. The 1st edition of Saint-Simon (some scattered pieces may have been printed between east and north. Earthquakes are not unfrequent before) appeared in 1788. It was a mere selection in three volumes and was but they do little damage in comparison with cyclones' much cut down before it was allowed to appear. Next year four more volumes which sometimes sweep over the island. made their appearance, and in 1791 a new edition, still further increased. The whole, or rather not the whole, was printed in 1829-30 and reprinted some ten St Thomas was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and at that years later. The real creator of Saint-Simon, as far as a full and exact text is time was inhabited by two tribes, the Caribs and the Arrowauks. concerned, was M. Cheruel, whose edition in 20 volumes dates from 1856 and In 1657 it was colonized by the Dutch, and after their departure was reissued again revised in 1872. So immense, however, is the mass of SaintSimon’s MSS. that still another recension has been found necessary, and is now for New York it was held by the English in 1667. The Danish being published by M. de Boislisle in the series of Grands ticrivains, but with West India and Guinea Company took possession in 1671, and M. CherueTs sanction and assistance. Even this, as above noted, will not exhaust available Saint-Simoniana, and it may be doubted whether it will be some eight years later began the introduction of slave labour. It possible for many years to place a complete edition on the shelves. It must, was succeeded in 1685 by the so-called Brandenburgh Company, however, be admitted that the matter other than the Memoirs is of altogether the principal shareholders of which were Dutch. The colony was inferior interest and may be pretty safely neglected by any one but professed strengthened by French refugees from St Christopher’s after the antiquarian and historical students. For criticism on Saint-Simon there is nothing better than Sainte-Beuve’s two sketches in the 3d and 15th volumes of revocation of the edict of Nantes. The neutrality of Denmark led the Causeries du Lundi. The latter was written to accompany M. Cheruel’s 1st to the prizes of the various belligerents being brought to its port for edition. In English by far the most accurate treatment is in a recent Lothian sale. In 1754 the king of Denmark took the management of the prize essay by E. Cannan (Oxford and London, 1885). (G. SA) into his own hands, and in 1764 he threw open the port to ST THOMAS, one of the Danish West India Islands, colony vessels of all nations. The neutrality of Denmark again favoured lies 36 miles east of Porto Rico (Spanish) and 40 north- it in the war of 1792 ; and it became the only market in the West north-west of St Croix (Danish), with its principal town Indies from which the products of the colonies could be conveyed (Charlotte Amalie) in 18° 20' 27" 1ST. lat. and 64° 55' 40" to the north of Europe. In 1801 the island was held by the British ten months, and it was again in their possession from the latter W. long. It is 13 miles long from east to west, with an for part of 1807 to 1815. At that time the harbour was three or four average breadth of 3, and is estimated to have an area of times a year the rendezvous for homeward-bound English ships, 33 square miles. The highest point, West Mountain, is from 200 to 400, as the case might be, which waited there for their 1586 feet above the sea. Previous to the abolition of convoys. The South American War of Independence led a number of Spaniards to settle at St Thomas. A great but temporary stimulus slavery in 1848 the island was covered with sugar planta- was given to its commerce during the American Civil War. In tions and dotted with substantial mansions; but now a 1871 the Danish Government removed the headquarters of their few vegetables, a little fruit, and some guinea grass are all West India possessions from St Croix to St Thomas. that it produces. Greengroceries are imported from the ST THOMAS (Portuguese, Sdo Thome), a volcanic island United States, poultry and eggs from the neighbouring in the Gulf of Guinea (West Africa), lies immediately islands. Nor is the exceptional position which St Thomas north of the equator and in 6° 40' E. long. From the has hitherto enjoyed as a commercial depot any longer Gaboon, the nearest point of the mainland, the distance is secure; the value of the imports in 1880 was less than 166 miles, and from the Cameroons 297. The extreme one-half of what it was in 1870, and the merchants of length of the island is 32 miles and the breadth from west Venezuela, Porto Rico, San Domingo, Hayti, &c., who used to east 21; the area is estimated at 355 square miles. to purchase in St Thomas, now go direct to the markets From the coast it rises pretty uniformly towards the lofty of the United States and Europe. The Royal Mail Com- and verdant mountains, in the midst of which the peak of pany, which at an early date chose the island as the princi- St Thomas towers to a height of 6000 feet. At least a pal rendezvous for its steam-packets in that part of the hundred streams great and small rush down the mountainworld, and whose example was followed by other important sides through deep-cut ravines, many of them forming lines, removed its headquarters to Barbados in 1885. beautiful waterfalls, such as those of Blu-blu, &c., on the The harbour lies about the middle of the south coast and Agua Grande. The bi-seasonal climate of the tropics obis nearly landlocked; its depth varies from 36 to 18 feet. tains a comparatively normal development on the island, A floating dock, 250 feet in length, was completed in 1875 ; which, however, has a very evil repute of unhealthiness, there is in addition a steam-slip capable of taking up a probably owing to the fact that the chief town occupies a vessel of 1200 tons. Along the north side of the harbour peculiarly malarial site on the coast. The first object of lies Charlotte Amalie, popularly known as St Thomas, the European cultivation in St Thomas was sugar, and to this only town on the island. In 1880 the inhabitants of the the colony owed its prosperity in the 16th century; but island numbered 14,389 (males 5757, females 8632), of now it is quite displaced by coffee and cocoa, introduced whom about a sixth are white, of various nationalities; in the beginning of the 19th century. In 1879-80 the the rest have nearly all more or less of Negro blood. export of coffee was 3,778,580 S> and of cocoa 1,026,746 English has gradually become almost the exclusive lan- lb. Vanilla and cinchona bark both succeed well, the latter guage of the educated classes, and is used in the schools between 1800 and 3300 feet of altitude. Though nearly and churches of all the various communities. The curious the whole surface of the island is fitted for cultivation, only Creole speech of the Negroes, which contained a mixture about a fifth part is really turned to account. Along with of broken Dutch, Danish, English, &c., though it was re- Principe, St Thomas forms a Portuguese province, to which duced to writing by the Moravian missionaries subsequent are attached the little island of Rolas and the petty fort of to 1770, is rapidly dying out.1 About a third of the popu- Ajuda on the Guinea coast. lation are Roman Catholics, and the rest mainly Protestants The town of St Thomas, the capital of the province, is situated on of the Lutheran, Dutch Reformed, Moravian, and English the north-east coast of the island, and the neighbouring districts Episcopal Churches. The Jewish community, 500 or 600 form the only well-peopled region. In 1878 the population in the strong, has a synagogue. There are in the town two island was 18,266, of whom 1200 were white. The great bulk consisted of a mixture of Negroes from various parts of the West 1 See specimens and analysis by Dr E. Pontoppidan, in Ztschr. f. Coast, mainly introduced as slaves, and now all using a Negro JEthnol., Berlin, 1881. Portuguese—“lingua de S. Thome.” On the south-west coast are 200

t S A I—S A I )out 1200 Angolares, descendants of a shipload of Angola slaves recked at Sete Pedras in 1544, who still retain their Bunda speech id peculiar customs. St Thomas was discovered about the close of 1470 by the Portuaese navigators Joao de Santarem and Pero de Escobar, who in le beginning of the following year discovered Annobom (“ Good ear They found St Thomas uninhabited. The first attempts - colonization were Joao de Paiva’s in 1485 ; but nothing permanent was accomplished till 1493, when a body of criminals and of omm Jews tom from their parents to be baptized were sent to the land and the present capital was founded by Alvaro de Carminha. onsiderable progress had been made by the 16th century ; but in 567 the settlement was attacked by the French, and in 1574 the ,nws into the Douro, which forms part of the north-west mndary; the Yeltes and the Agueda, also tributaries of e Douro; and the Alagon, an affluent of the Tagus. The i >rthern part of the province is flat, and at its lowest >int (on the Douro) is 488 feet above sea-level. The ghest point (in the Sierra de Pena de Francia) is 5692 et above the sea. The rainfall is irregular; but where is plentiful the soil is productive and there are good irvests of wine, oil, hemp, and cereals of all kinds. The rn harvest is always good, rain or no rain. The principal -■alth of the province consists in the forests of oak and i estnut, which cover the hills in its southern part. Sheep • id cattle also find good pasturage there; and wool and |1erino medium quality are grown. Gold is found in e streams, and iron, lead, copper, zinc, coal, and rock 1 y stal in the hills, but owing to the difficulties of trans] 'it and other causes the mines are only partially deloped. The manufactures of the province are few and

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mostly of a low class, intended for home consumption, such as frieze, coarse cloth, hats, and pottery. The cloth manufactories of Bejar turn out a material of superior quality. The tanning of hides is carried on pretty extensively, and cork and flour are exported via Santander and Barcelona. The province is traversed by a railway line to Portugal, passing Medina del Campo and Ciudad Rodrigo to Figueira da Foz. Administratively the province is divided into eight partidos judiciales, and it has 388 ayuntamientos; of these last only two besides Salamanca, the capital, have a population exceeding 5000,—Bejar (11,099) and Ciudad Rodrigo (6856). It is represented in the cortes by three senators and seven deputies. Apart from that of Leon the province has little history till the Peninsular War, when the battles of Ciudad Rodrigo, Fuentes de Onoro, and Salamanca were fought on its soil. SALAMANCA (Salmantica, Elmantica), the capital of the above province, lies on the banks of the Tonnes, 172 miles north-west of Madrid by rail. The river is here crossed by a bridge 500 feet in length built on twenty-six arches, fifteen of which are of Roman origin, while the remainder date from the 16th century. The town was of importance in times as remote as 222 b.c., when it was captured by Hannibal from the Vettones; and it afterwards became under the Romans the ninth station on the Via Lata from Merida to Zaragoza. It passed successively under the rule of the Goths and the Moors, till the latter were finally driven out about 1055. The city is still much the same in outward appearance as when its tortuous streets were thronged with students. The university was naturally the chief source of wealth to the town, the population of which in the 16th century numbered 50,000. Its decay of course reacted on the townsfolk, but it fortunately also arrested the process of modernization, so that the city retains most of its old features and is now one of the most picturesque in Spain. The ravages of war alone have wrought serious damage, for the French in their defensive operations at the siege almost destroyed the western quarter. The ruins still remain, and give an air of desolation which is not borne out by the real condition of the inhabitants, however poverty-stricken they may appear. The magnificent Plaza Mayor, built by Andres Garcia de Quinones at the beginning of the 18th century, and capable of holding 20,000 people to witness a bullfight, is one of the finest squares in Europe. It is surrounded by an arcade of ninety arches on Corinthian columns, one side of the square being occupied by the municipal buildings. The decorations of the fagades are in the Renaissance style, and the plaza as a whole is a fine sample of plateresque architecture. But the old and new cathedrals (see below) are the chief objects of interest in the city. In the Middle Ages the trade of Salamanca was not insignificant, and the stamped leather-work produced there is still sought after. Its manufactures are now of little consequence, and consist of china, cloth, and leather. The transport trade of the town is, however, of more importance, and shows signs of increasing. But any great revival can only take place when communication with the coast is considerably improved, a result which will no doubt be promoted by the recent opening of the line to the coast of Portugal. The population within the municipal boundaries in 1877 was 18,007, and in 1886 was estimated at about 20,000. The old cathedral is a cruciform building of the 12th century, begun by Bishop Geronimo, the confessor of the Cid. Its style of architecture is that Late Romanesque which prevailed in the south of France, hut the builder showed much originality in the construction of the dome, which covers the crossing of the nave and transepts. The inner dome is made to spring, not from immediately above the arches, hut from a higher stage of a double arcade pierced

SAL- -SAL with windows. The thrust of the vaulting is borne by four massive body. In all the species the body is plump and rounded, pinnacles, and over the inner dome is an outer pointed one covered and there is no dorsal crest or fin; the head is depressed, with tiles. The whole forms a most effective and graceful group. its greatest width being at the angle of the jaws; the snout On the vault of the apse is a fresco of Our Lord in Judgment by Nicolas Florentino. The reredos, which has the peculiarity of is rounded. The vent is a longitudinal slit, the borders fitting the curve of the apse, contains fifty-five panels with paint- of which in the male are slightly swollen. The skin is ings mostly by the same artist. There are many fine monuments smooth and shining; at the junction of the head and neck in the south transept and cloister chapels. An adjoining building, is a pronounced fold of skin called the gular fold. The the Capilla de Talavera, is used as a chapel for service according to the Mozarabic rite, which is celebrated there six times a year. On swollen patches of skin behind the tympana, caused by the north of and adjoining the old church stands the new cathedral, the presence of large cutaneous glands, and known as built from designs by Juan Gil de Ontanon. Begun in 1513 under parotids, are well developed and exhibit the openings of Bishop Francisco de Bobadilla, but not finished until 1734, it is a the glands as distinct pores. Similar gland-openings form notable example of the late Gothic and Plateresque styles. Its a series along either side of the body. In the first two length is 340 feet and its breadth 160 feet. The interior is fairly Gothic in character, but on the outside the Renaissance spirit shows species there is also a longitudinal series of warts on each itself more clearly, and is fully developed in the dome. Everywhere side; these are wanting in S. caucasica. Depressions of the attempt at mere novelty or richness results in feebleness. The the skin between the vertebrae are present, and are known main arch of the great portal consists of a simple trefoil, but the as costal grooves. The palatine teeth-series are S-shaped, label above takes an ogee line, and the inner arches are elliptical. 2 Above the doors are bas-reliefs, foliage, &c., which in exuberance of and the anterior ends of the two series do not meet. S. design and quality of workmanship are good examples of the latest maculosa is the largest of the three species, attaining a efforts of Spanish Gothic. The church contains paintings by Navar- length of 7 to 8| inches. g. atra is about 4-J- and g. rete, Becerra, and Morales, and some overrated statues by Juan de Juni. The treasury is very rich, and amongst other articles pos- caucasica about 6 inches in length. The genus is cohfined to the western sub-region of the sesses a custodia which is a masterpiece of goldsmith’s work, and a bronze crucifix, of undoubted authenticity, which was borne before palaearctic region, extending over almost the whole of the Cid in battle. The tower is too unsafe to allow of the ring- Europe, especially the central and southern parts, and ing of its great bell, which weighs over 23 tons. The interest of Salamanca centred in its university, founded by Alfonso IX. about occurring also in Algiers and Syria. The spotted species 1200 and for four centuries one of the chief seats of European is the commonest and most widely distributed, being found learning. Of the university buildings the facade of the library in nearly all parts of Germany, France, Italy, and Spain. (80,000 volumes, exclusive of MSS.) is a peculiarly rich example The genus is entirely absent from the British Islands. of late 15th-century Gothic. The cloisters are light and elegant; The black salamander, g. atra, is confined to the Alps of the grand staircase ascending from them has a fine balustrade of foliage and figures. The Colegio de Nobles Irlandeses, formerly Central Europe, and there only occurs between the limits Colegio de Santiago Apostol, was built in 1521 from designs by of 2500 to 10,000 feet of altitude; it is found in the Ibarra. The double arcaded cloister is a fine piece of work of the mountains of South Germany, France, Switzerland, and best period of the Renaissance. The Jesuit College is an immense Austria, g. caucasica is only known from one specimen, and ugly Renaissance building begun in 1614 by Juan Gomez de and was sent to Mora. The Colegio Yiejo, also called San Bartolome, was rebuilt which was obtained from the Caucasus in the 18th century, and now serves as the governor’s palace. The the Paris Museum by Dr Waga.3 convent of Santo Domingo, sometimes called San Esteban, shows a The food of galamandra consists of worms and insects, mixture of styles from the 13th century onwards. The church is and, like British frogs and toads, the animals can only Gothic with a plateresque fa9ade of great lightness and delicacy. It is of purer design than that of the cathedral; nevertheless it exist in damp shady localities. As in all galamandrida, shows the tendency of the period. The reredos, one of the finest the process of reproduction is commenced by a true copuRenaissance works in Spain, contains statues by Salvador Carmona, and a curious bronze statuette of the Virgin and Child on a throne lation, which takes place in spring and summer. The of diampleve enamel of the 12th century. The chapter-house, seminal fluid is passed into the female cloaca, where it is built by Juan Moreno in 1637, and the staircase and sacristy are received into a tube-shaped receptaculum seminis. The good examples of later work. The convent of the Augustinas eggs are thus fertilized in the oviduct, but the development Recoletas, begun by Fontana in 1616, is in better taste than any takes place under somewhat different conditions in the two other Renaissance building in the city. The church is rich in marble fittings and contains several fine pictures of the Neapolitan species g. maculosa and g. atra. Both species are viviparschool, especially the Conception by Ribera over the altar. The ous ; in the former thirty to forty eggs undergo developconvent of the Sancti Spiritu has a good door by Berruguete. There ment in the oviducts at one time, and they are brought is also a rather effective portal to the convent of Las Dueiias. The forth and deposited in stagnant or sluggishly-flowing water church of S. Marcos is a curious circular building with three eastern apses; and the churches of S. Martin and S. Matteo have good when they have reached a stage similar to that of adult early doorways. Many of the private houses are untouched ex- Perennibranchiata, the newly-born larvae having long amples of the domestic architecture of the prosperous times in feather-like external gills and a length of 12 to 15 mm. which they were built. Such are the Casa de las Conchas, the (one-third to one-half an inch). After a period of aquatic finest example of its period in Spain ; the Casa de la Sal, with a magnificent courtyard and sculptured gallery ; and the palaces of life, the larvae pass through a metamorphosis: the limbs Maldonado, Monterey, and Espinosa. (H. B. B.) appear; the gill slits close up; and the young animals, SALAMANDRA. In the nomenclature of zoology this having reached the adult condition, leave the water for a name designates a genus of animals belonging to the verte- terrestrial life. In g. atra only the two lowest eggs which brate class Amphibia. The genus was first defined under pass into the oviducts, one in the duct of each side, underthis name by Laurenti.^ It will be seen on referring to go development. The rest of the eggs fuse into a mass of the taxonomic synopsis of the class given at the end of yolk material and are devoured by the two developing the article Amphibia that the genus Salamandra belongs larvae. In this way the larvae are provided with nutriment to the first tribe Mecodonta of the fifth division Salaman- during the later stages of development, for in this species drida. The diagnosis of the genus is as follows: no they are retained within the body of the mother until fronto-squamosal arch in the skull j tongue large, adherent they have reached the air-breathing condition and are in below, free at the sides and slightly so behind; toes five ; all respects similar to the parents. This peculiarity in the tail cylindrical. There are three species, distinguished as process of reproduction bears an obvious relation to the follows :—(1) S. maculosa, Laurenti, tail not so long as physical conditions of the habitat of g. atra. In the rest of body, colour black with yellow spots; (2) g. atra, elevated regions that the species inhabits stagnant and 2 Laurenti, tail not so long as rest of body, colour uniform For a figure of S. maculosa, see Latreille, Hist. Nat. des Sal. de black; (3) S. caucasica, Waga, tail longer than rest of France, Paris, 1800, pi. i. ; Daudin, Hist. Nat. d. Reptiles, pi. xcvii. f. 1 1. 3 For S. atra, see Laur., op. cit., pi. i. f. 2. Synopsis reptilium emendata, &c., Vienna, 1768. See Waga, Rev. Mag. Zool., 1876, p. 326. 204

S A L- -SAL sluggish waters are wanting, and therefore the process of reproduction that occurs in S. maculosa is rendered impossible. The black Salamandra has become adapted to its environment (1) by the slight changes in colour and structure which distinguish it from the spotted, and (2) by a modification in its reproductive processes, which eliminates the aquatic stage of existence from the life-history of the individual. It is to be noted that the stage characterized by the presence of pinnate external gills is exhibited by the larva during its development in the oviduct, and the gills doubtless there perform their function. Fraulein von Chauvin1 made the experiment of taking the larvae of S. atra from the pregnant female when they were in the branchiate condition, and placing them in water to see if they would survive and pass through their metamorphosis under these circumstances. On one occasion the experiment was perfectly successful in the case of one specimen; the rest of the larvae died. The tailed Amphibia of Europe have from the very earliest times down to the present day been almost universally known in popular language as salamanders, and identified in the popular mind with the salamander of myth and fable.2 Besides the species of Salamandra there are, according to Boulanger (Brit. Mus. Cat., 1881), eighteen other species of Urodela in Europe, of which fourteen belong to the genus Triton (q.v.). Chioglossa lusitanica, Bocage, is distinguished by having a tongue supported anteriorly by a protractile median pedicle and free everywhere else, and by having its tail cylindrical at the base but compressed at the end. It occurs in Spain and Portugal. Salamandrina perspicillata, Tschudi, occurs in Italy; like Chioglossa, it belongs to the Mecodonta and is distinguished by the following characters :—tongue large, subtriangular, free everywhere except on anterior median line; toes four; tail slightly compressed; a strong bony fronto-squamosal arch. Spelerpes fuscus, Strauch, occurs in Italy and in France in the Alpes Maritimes. SALAMIS, in modern times called by the people KoXovpi (a ring-shaped cake), and by purists 2aAa/xA, is an island in the Saronic Gulf, off the coast of Attica, Greece. It is said to have been called in ancient times by other names,—Sciras, which associates it with the worship of Athena Sciras; Cychreia, which connects it with the Eleusinian cultus and the sacred serpent (KnypetS^s 6'is) of Demeter; and Pityussa. There was a small stream, Bocarus or Bocalia, in the island. The city, which bore the same name as the island, was originally situated on the south coast opposite xEgina, but was afterwards transferred to a promontory on the east side nearer Athens. The transference corresponds to a total change in the 1 See Zeitschr.f. wiss. Zoologie, vol. xxvii. p. 534, and C. von Siebold, ibid., 2 p. 536 ; M. v. Chauvin, ibid., vol. xxiv. Aristotle (#. A., v. 19) cites the salamander, which “ when it walks through fire extinguishes it,” as a proof that some animal frames are incombustible, and Afiian (Nat. An., ii. 31) will have it that those who work with forges are familiar with this fact and when their bellows fail to quicken the flame know to look for a salamander and put things right by killing it. According to this form of the fable the salamander, as Aflian expressly says, is not born of fire, nor does it live therein. On the contrary, according to Pliny (H. N., x. 67 sq., xxix. 4) it is of a cold complexion and emits a cold venom like aconite, but so virulent that even bread baked with wood of a tree on which a salamander has crept is poisonous. The touch of its saliva even on the foot, says Pliny, causes the hair to fall out. So Dioscorides speaks of salamander prepared in oil as a depilatory ; comp. Petronius, c. 107, and Burman s notes, and for late survivals in Europe of the belief in a deadly lizard, identified with the salamander, Bochart, Hierozoicon, bk. iv. c. 1. That the salamander extinguishes fire appears also in the Physiologus (q.v.), and so became a common part of mediaeval animal lore; but the Arabic Physiologus (Land, Anec. Syr., iv. 166) speaks instead of a stone that quells fire. This stone is asbestos, the salamander of Marco Polo (i. 215, Yule), of whose fibres a sort of incombustible cloth was made, which was represented in the East as made of the hair of the salamander or of its plumage ; for the Arabs mixed up the salamander fable with that of the Phcenix (q.v.) and were not sure whether it was beast or bird. In later story the salamander is represented as born and living in fire and so the name is used by cabbalistic moderns for the spirits of that element. Salamander s wool or hair as a name for asbestos occurs in Bacon and other English writers. Francis I. chose as his emblem a salamander with the motto, “ J’y vis et je 1’eteins.”

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political relations of Salamis. It was originally connected, not with Attica, "but with iEgina and with Megara, the competitors of Athens in the struggle for supremacy in the Saronic Gulf. The most prominent heroes of the island, Telamon, Ajax, and Teucer, were xEacidse from AEgina. But about the end of the 7th century b.c. the war between Athens and Megara for the possession of Salamis was, under the guidance of Solon, determined in favour of Athens. A line of the Iliad (ii. 558) is said to have been interpolated by the Athenians in support of their claim to the island, while the Megarian version of the passage was quite different. The priestess of Athena Polias might not eat Attic cheese, but it was lawful for her to eat foreign or Salaminian cheese. Salamis, having come so late into the hands of the Athenians, retained, like Eleusis, more local independence than the other demes. The island remained subject to Athens in later history, except during the period 318 to 232 b.c., when it was abandoned to the Macedonian rule. The name of Salamis is famous chiefly on account of the great sea-fight, 480 b.c., in which the allied Greeks defeated the Persians under Xerxes. The battle took place beside the town of Salamis and the island of Psyttaleia, at the south-eastern end of the straits. A city on the east coast of Cyprus, near the river Pediseus, said to have been founded by the Salaminian Teucer, son of Telamon, was also called Salamis. SAL AMMONIAC. See Ammoniac, vol. i. p. 741. SALDANHA, Jolo Carlos Saldanha de Oliveira e Daun (1791-1876). See Portugal, vol. xix. pp. 553-554. SALE, an urban sanitary district of Cheshire, England, on the Bridgewater Canal and the Mersey, about 5 miles south of Manchester. At the beginning of the 19th century the greater part of the township was still waste and unenclosed. It owes its increase in population to the neighbourhood of Manchester and contains a number of handsome villas belonging to the wealthier classes. The Moorsland pleasure-grounds in the neighbourhood cover 10J acres. There are national and British schools and a literary institute. Market gardening is extensively carried on. The population of the urban sanitary district (area, 2006 acres) in 1871 was 5573, and in 1881 it was 7915. SALE is one of the forms of Contract (q.v.). The law of contract is accordingly applicable as a whole to the law of sale. But the importance of the contract of sale demands a fuller treatment. The law of the United Kingdom and of the United States is based upon the Roman law in its later stage, as modified by the praetors and by legislation. But there are some considerable differences. In Roman law sale originally meant nothing more than barter; but the introduction of coined money converted the contribution of one of the contracting parties into price (jpretium), as distinguished from article of sale (merx) contributed by the other (see Roman Law, vol. xx. pp. 700-701). Sale fell under the head of consensual contracts, i.e., those in which the causa or that which made the contract enforcible was consent. In all contracts of this class (except mandatum) consent really denoted valuable consideration. The law in the case of movables and immovables was as far as might be the same. The price must be definite. Reduction of the terms to writing was optional; if a writing was used, either party was at liberty to withdraw before the completion of the writing. If earnest or deposit (arrhd)— often a ring, sometimes a part of the price—was given, it was by the legislation of Justinian made the measure of forfeit on rescission, the buyer losing what he had given as arrha, the seller restoring double its value. The seller did not warrant title; his contract was not rem dare, to give the thing, but prsestare emptori rem habere licere, to

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guarantee the buyer possession; the transfer was of vacua possessio, not of property. The buyer was secured by a covenant duplse stipulatio against eviction by a superior title, limited to double the price where there was no fraud by the seller. There was a warranty of quality by the seller. He was bound to suffer rescission or to give compensation at the option of the buyer if the thing sold had undisclosed faults which hindered the free possession of it. The damages to which he was liable differed according as he was guilty of bad faith {dolus) or not. If guilty he was liable for all consequential damage, if innocent only for the diminution in the value of the thing sold by reason of its unsoundness. Thus, if a seller knowingly sold an infected sheep and the whole flock caught the disease and died, he would be liable for the value of the flock; if he was ignorant of the defect, he would be liable only for the difference in value between a sound and an unsound sheep. Mere overpraise did not amount to dolus; nor was inadequacy of price in itself a ground of rescission. When the agreement was complete it was the duty of the seller to deliver the thing sold (rem tradere). In case of a sale on credit, the delivery must be made at the time appointed. Prior to delivery the seller must take due care of the thing sold, the care which a reasonably prudent householder (bonus paterfamilias) was expected to exercise. Delivery did not pass property in the full sense of the word, but rather vacua possessio secured by duplse, stipulatio. Risk of loss (joericulum rei venditse) after agreement but before delivery fell upon the buyer. On the other hand, he was entitled to any advantage accruing to the thing sold between those dates. It was the duty of some one to pay the price; the obligation was discharged if payment were made by the debtor or by any other person, whether authorized or not by the debtor, and even against his-will. The duties of buyer and seller might be varied by agreement, the only restriction being that the seller could not by any agreement be relieved from liability for dolus. Sale in English law may be defined to be “ a transfer of the absolute or general property in a thing for a price in money ” (Benjamin, On Sales, p. 1). The words “ absolute or general” are inserted because there may be both a general and a special property in certain cases, and a transfer of the special property would not be a sale. The above definition, though applied in the work cited only to sales of personalty, seems to be fully applicable to sales of any kind of property. The rules as to legality, capacity of parties, assent, and fraud depend upon the law of Contract (q.v.), of which sale is a particular instance. Incapacity is either absolute or relative, the latter being a bar only in the individual case, e.g., the incapacity of a person. in a fiduciary position (see Trust). The capacity of parties tends to become more extended as law advances; thus m England the Roman Catholic, the alien, and the married woman have all been relieved within a comparatively recent, period from certain disabilities in sale and purchase which formerly attached to them. In England, for historical reasons (see Real Estate) there is a considerable difference in the law as it affects real and personal estate. The main principles of law are perhaps the same, but the sale of real estate is a matter of greater expense and intricacy than the sale of personal estate,, and depends to a large extent upon legislation inapplicable to the latter. It appears, therefore, better to treat the two kinds of sale separately. Real Estate. At common law it was not necessary that there should be written evidence of a contract of sale. The. publicity of the feoffment obviated the necessity of writing, which was not essential to the validity of a feoffment until the Statute of Frauds (see Feoffment). The earliest statute making a written instrument essential to

a sale appears to be the Statute of Enrolments (27 Hen. VIII. c. 16). The bargain and sale operating under the Statute of Uses, and enrolled under the Statute of Enrolments in the High Court of Justice or with the custos rotulorum of the county, is no longer in use; a bargain and sale at common law is a mode of conveyance sometimes used by executors exercising a power of sale. Such a bargain and sale must be by deed since 8 and 9 Viet, c. 106, but need not be enrolled. There was no comprehensive legislative enactment dealing with all cases of sale of real estate until section 4 of the Statute of Frauds. Since that date a contract for the sale of real estate must be in writing (see Fraud, where the provisions of the Act are set out). Sales by auction are within the statute, the auctioneer being the agent of both parties (see Auction). In an ordinary case of the sale of real estate the contract is formally drawn up on the basis of particulars and conditions of sale, which ought fairly to represent the actual state of the property. The statute, however, is satisfied by informal agreements, such as letters, if they contain the means of determining the property, the parties, and the price. The price must be a sum of money. If it is another estate, the contract is one of exchange; if no consideration passes, it is a gift. The price may be left to be determined by a third person, as by arbitration. For the way in which payment of the price may be made, see Payment. The formation of a binding contract of sale is the most important stage in the transfer of real estate. From the moment at which the parties are bound by the contract the sale is made; the purchaser has the equitable estate in the subject-matter of the contract (see Equity), the vendor holding in trust for him, subject to the payment of the purchase money, for which the vendor1 has a lien. The price becomes personal estate of the vendor and the land real estate of the purchaser. The latter has the right to accidental benefits and the burden of accidental losses accruing before completion of the purchase. The rights defined by the contract descend to the representatives of a deceased vendor or purchaser. In most cases the personal representative of a deceased vendor may convey the property under 44 and 45 Viet. c. 41, s. 4. After the contract it becomes the duty of the vendor to deliver an abstract of title, to satisfy the purchaser’s reasonable requisitions as to any question arising on the title of the purchaser, and to pay a deposit, usually ten per cent, of the price fixed, within a certain time, the remainder being paid on completion,—that is, the execution of the conveyance and payment of the balance of the price. He also prepares the conveyance, which since 8 and 9 Viet, c. 106 must be by deed. The costs of execution of the conveyance are paid by the vendor. Any of these duties may be varied by special agreement. The sale is not in ordinary cases avoided because the purchaser is in default in payment of the purchase money on the day appointed. The purchaser does not forfeit his rights if he be ready to complete within a reasonable time after the day fixed for completion and to pay interest on the sum overdue. This rule is an old doctrine of equity, and is generally expressed by saying that time is not of the essence of the contract. As a general rule, any real estate is capable of sale, unless it is altogether extra commercium, as a church or public building. There are, however, a few exceptions introduced by the legislature, such as estates tail not barred, estates which by Act of Parliament are inalienable (see Real Estate), and crown lands, of which all grants for more than thirty-one years are in general void by 1 Anne st. 1, c. 7. Sales of pretended titles to land are void by 32 Vendor and “purchaser ” are the words always used to denote ttie parties to a contract of sale of real estate. Where the sale is of personal estate, “ buyer ” and “ sellermay be used as well.

S A L E Hen. VIII. c. 9. The sale of land to be held in mortmain would be void as contrary to the policy of the Mortmain Acts (see Charities, Corporation). The rights and liabilities of vendors and purchasers have been considerably affected by recent legislation, the principal Acts dealing with the subject being the Vendor and Purchaser Act, 1874, and the Conveyancing Act, 1881. A period of forty years has been substituted for the period of sixty years previously necessary as the root of title,—that is to say, in most cases an abstract showing title for forty years is sufficient. In an abstract of title to leaseholds, the title is to commence with the lease or underlease, in an abstract of title to enfranchised lands, under a contract to sell the freehold, with the deed of enfranchisement. Recitals twenty years old are evidence, except so far as they can be proved to be inaccurate, and recitals of documents dated prior to the commencement of the abstract are to be taken as correct, and their production is not to be required. The expenses of evidence required in support of the abstract and not in the vendor’s possession are thrown upon the purchaser. The Conveyancing Act, 1881, further protects the purchaser by implying in a conveyance by a beneficial owner on sale for valuable consideration covenants for right to convey, quiet enjoyment, freedom from encumbrances, and further assurance. In a conveyance of leaseholds a covenant for the validity of the lease is implied. These covenants protect the purchaser much in the same way as the implied warranty in the sale of personalty. The Act also gives the mortgagee, where the mortgage is by deed, the power of sale generally inserted in mortgage deeds (see Mortgage). The remedies of the vendor are an action for the price or for specific performance according to circumstances. There is also a remedy by mandamus against public companies refusing to complete. Specific performance is a remedy introduced by the Court of Chancery to enforce contracts for the sale or purchase of real estate, it being considered that in such cases the common law action for damages was an insufficient remedy. Strictly, it is only an exercise by the court of its jurisdiction over trustees, the vendor being after the contract, as has been said, a trustee for the purchaser. By the Judicature Act, 1873, actions of specific performance are specially assigned to the Chancery Division. A county court has jurisdiction where the purchase money does not exceed .£500. In spite of the Statute of Frauds, specific performance may in some cases be decreed where a parol contract has been followed by part performance and where the position of the parties has been materially altered on the faith of the contract. Actions for the price or for specific performance are subject to the purchaser’s right to compensation for deficiency of quality or quantity or of the vendor’s interest in the property. The question whether in a particular case the purchaser is entitled to rescind the contract or only to compensation is often a very difficult one. The remedies of the purchaser are an action for specific performance, for rescission of the contract or for damages (in case of fraud), for a return of the deposit, or for expenses. On the principle of caveat emptor, the sale is not avoided by mere commendatory statements, statements of opinion, or non-disclosure of patent defects. Non-disclosure of latent defects or material misrepresentation of facts, on the faith of which the purchaser entered into the contract, will as a rule be a ground for rescission or for damages, and this irrespective of fraud, as a contract for the sale of land is a contract uberrimse Jidei. Where the sale goes off or the vendor without fraud fails to make a good title, the purchaser can only recover the deposit, if any, and any expenses to which he may have been put; he cannot recover damages for the loss of his bargain. Certain frauds by a

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vendor or his solicitor or agent in order to induce the purchaser to accept a title render the offender guilty of a misdemeanour, as well as liable to an action for damages (22 and 23 Yict. c. 35, s. 24). By the Vendor and Purchaser Act, 1874, either a vendor or a purchaser of real or leasehold estate in England may obtain on a summary application the decision of a judge of the Chancery Division on any question connected with the contract, not being a question affecting its existence or validity. (See Sugden, Vendors and Purchasers; Dart, Vendors and Purchasers ' Fry, Specific Performance^) Personal Estate.—At common law, as in the case of real estate, writing was not essential to the validity of a contract of sale. The common law is thus stated by Blackstone : “ A contract of sale implies a bargain, or mutual understanding and agreement between the parties as to terms; and the law as to the transmutation of property under such contracts may be stated generally as follows. If the vendor says the price of the goods is £4 and the vendee says he will give £4, the bargain is struck ; and, if the goods be thereon delivered or tendered, or any part of the price be paid down and accepted (if it be but a penny), the property in the goods is thereupon transmuted and vests immediately in the bargainee; so that in the event of their being subsequently damaged or destroyed he and not the vendor must stand to the loss. This supposes (it will be observed) the case of a sale for ready money; but, if it be a sale of goods to be delivered forthwith, but to be paid for afterwards, the property passes to the vendee immediately upon the striking of the bargain without either delivery on the one hand or payment on the other” (Stephen, Commentaries, vol. ii. bk. ii. pt. ii. ch. v.). Earnest may have been originally the same as the Roman arrha; it was never, however, part payment, as arrha might have been,—in fact, the Statute of Frauds specially distinguishes it from part payment. The giving of earnest has now fallen into disuse. The price need not be fixed; if not fixed, a reasonable price will be presumed. Though writing was in no case necessary at common law, it has become so under the provisions of various Acts of Parliament, prominent among which is the Statute of Frauds, ss. 4 and 17 (see Contract, Fraud). Section 17 of the Statute of Frauds was extended to executory contracts of sale by Lord Tenterden’s Act, 9 Geo. IV. c. 14. The sale of horses in market overt must be entered in a book kept by the toll-keeper (2 and 3 Ph. and M. c. 7, 31 Eliz. c. 12). The sale of ships must by the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854, be made by bill of sale in a certain form. Contracts for the sale of shares in a joint-stock banking company are void unless the contract sets forth in writing the numbers of the shares on the register of the company or (where the shares are not distinguished by numbers) the names of the registered proprietors (29 and 30 Viet. c. 29). Bills of sale of goods must be in writing in a certain form and registered under the Bills of Sale Acts, 1878 and 1882.1 As a general rule the property in goods passes by the contract of sale. This general rule is subject to the following important exceptions : (1) where the vendor is to do anything to the goods for the purpose of putting them into that state in which the purchaser is bound to accept them, the property does not pass until performance of the necessary acts; (2) the same is the case where the goods are to be weighed, tested, or measured; (3) where the purchaser is bound to do anything as a condition on which the passing of the property depends, the property does not pass until the condition is fulfilled, even though the goods may be actually in the possession of the buyer; (4) where an executory contract for the 1 Bills of sale have been included here solely on account of their name ; they are in reality mortgages.

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sale of goods is made, the property does not pass until appropriation of specific goods by the vendor in completion of the contract; (5) where the vendor reserves to himself the jus disponendi or future power of dealing with the goods, as by making a bill of lading deliverable to his order, the property does not pass until the jus disponendi is exercised in favour of the purchaser; (6) where there is fraud on the part of the vendor or purchaser, the sale is voidable, not void; it may be affirmed and enforced or rescinded. In sales of personalty, unlike sales of real estate, time is usually of the essence of the contract. A sale of goods may be accompanied by an express warranty or collateral contract as to the title to or quality of the goods. Ho special form of words is necessary to create a warranty, nor need it be in writing. An implied warranty of title—that is, an affirmation that the vendor has a right to sell—exists certainly in executory contracts of sale. It most probably exists in executed contracts,1 the exceptions to the rule having in recent times become by judicial decision more numerous than the cases falling under the old rule, that there was no such warranty. Warranty of quality exists either by statute or at common law. The Merchandise Marks Act, 1862, implies a warranty from the existence of trade-marks on chattels that the trademark is genuine, and from the existence of any statement respecting number, quantity, weight, place, or country that such statement is not in any material respect false. The rules as to warranty of quality at common law cannot be better stated than in the language of the clear and full judgment of the Court of Queen’s Bench in Jones v. Just {Law Reports, 3 Queen’s Bench, 197). “First, where goods are in esse and may be inspected by the buyer, and there is no fraud on the part of the seller, the maxim caveat emptor applies, even though the defect which exists in them is latent and not discoverable on examination, at least where the seller is neither the grower nor the manufacturer. The buyer in such case has the opportunity of exercising his judgment upon the matter, and if the result of the inspection be unsatisfactory, or if he distrusts his own judgment, he may if he chooses require a warranty. In such a case it is not an implied term of the contract of sale that the goods are of any particular quality or are merchantable. So in the case of the sale in a market of meat which the buyer had inspected, but which was in fact diseased and unfit for food, although that fact was not apparent on examination and the seller was not aware of it, it was held that there was no implied warranty that it was fit for food, and that the maxim caveat emptor applied. Secondly, where there is a sale of a definite existing chattel specifically described, the actual condition of which is capable of being ascertained by either party, there is no implied warranty. Thirdly, where a known described and defined article is ordered of a manufacturer, although it is stated to be required by the purchaser for a particular purpose, still if the known described and defined thing he actually supplied there is no warranty that it shall answer for the particular purpose intended by the buyer. Fourthly, where a manufacturer or dealer contracts to supply an article which he manufactures or produces, or in which he deals, to be applied to a particular purpose, so that the buyer necessarily trusts to the judgment or skill of the manufacturer or dealer, there is in that case an implied warranty that it shall be reasonably fit for the purpose to rvhich it is to be applied. In such a case the buyer trusts to the manufacturer or dealer, and relies upon his judgment and not upon his own. Fifthly, where a manufacturer undertakes to supply goods manufactured by him, sell or m which he deals, but which the vendee has not had the opportunity of inspecting, it is an implied term in the contract that he shall supply a merchantable article. And this doctrine nas been held to apply to the sale of an existing barge by the dealer which was afloat but not completely rigged and furnished • there, inasmuch as the buyer had only seen it when built and not during the course of the building, he was considered as havino- relied on the judgment and skill of the builder that the barge°was 6 reasonably fit for use.” The case of sale by sample is peculiar to personalty. An executed contract passes title, an executory gives a right, purchase for ready money in a shop is an executed contract, an on for a certain chattel to be made is an executory contract. The cc tie

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In such a sale the vendor warrants the quality of the bulk to be equal to that of the sample. There are certain kinds of sale which are governed by special legislation, chiefly on grounds of public policy. A sale contrary to the provisions of any of the Acts is generally void in the same way as though it were illegal at common law, on the principle of the maxim Ex turpi causa non oritur actio. The sale of certain public offices is forbidden by 5 and 6 Edw. YI. c. 16, 49 Geo. III. c. 126, and other Acts dealing with special offices. A sale by a tradesman in the way of his ordinary business upon Sunday is illegal under 29 Car. II. c. 7. The same is the case with the sale of intoxicating liquors during prohibited hours, whether on Sundays or week days (31 and 38 Yict. c. 49, s. 6). Ho action can be brought to recover any debt alleged to be due in respect of the sale of any ale, &c., consumed on the premises where sold (30 and 31 Viet. c. 142). The sale of game in the close season or by an unlicensed person is forbidden by 1 and 2 Will. IY. c. 32. The sale of spirits to a person apparently under the age of sixteen is made penal by 35 and 36 Yict. c. 94, s. 7. These cases are only given as examples; there are numerous other enactments dealing with, inter alia, sales of anchors and chain cables, adulterated food and drugs, explosives, and poisons. Every sale by weight or measure must be according to one of the imperial weights or measures ascertained by the Weights and Measures Act, 1878; if not so made, the sale is void (41 and 42 Yict. c. 49, s. 19). The remedies of the vendor are of two kinds, judicial against the purchaser, extra-judicial against the goods. Judicial remedies are either by action for non-acceptance where the property has not passed or by action for the price where it has passed. The extra-judicial are (1) a lien for the price, so that, in the absence of agreement to the contrary or assent to a sub-sale, the vendor need not deliver the goods until the price is paid; (2) the right of stoppage in transitu. This right is universally acknowledged by the commercial law of civilized nations. It arises on the insolvency of the purchaser before the goods have reached his possession, and is defeasible only by transfer, whether by way of sale or pledge, of the bill of lading or other document of title to a bona fide indorsee for value. The protection afforded at common law to the bona fide transferee has been extended by the Bills of Lading Act, 1855, and by the Factors Act, 1877. There is no general right of resale by the vendor on default of the purchaser. The remedies of the buyer are an action for damages for non-delivery, for conversion, for breach of warranty, for misrepresentation, &c., according to circumstances. He has also a remedy analogous to specific performance under the Mercantile Law Amendment Act, 1856. The Act gives power to the court or a judge, in an action for breach of contract to deliver specific goods, to order execution to issue for the delivery of the goods without giving the defendant the option of retaining them upon paying the damages assessed. The buyer has further a right to reject goods where they are different in kind or quality from those which he had a right to expect. He is entitled to keep them for a sufficient time to give them a fair trial. It should be noticed that the effect of misrepresentation in the sale of real and personal property is not the same. As a rule innocent misrepresentation of facts does not give a right to rescind the sale, since a representation is, like an express warranty, not an integral part of the contract. A representation may, however, if so intended by the parties, become a condition a breach of which will avoid the sale. See Story’s, Blackburn’s, and Benjamin’s treatises on the sale of personal property, especially Benjamin’s, which is now the recognized textbook on the subject.

S A L E 209 It may be useful to recapitulate shortly the main points a pawnee in default of payment (see Pledge). Sales by persons of difference between Eoman and English law. They have not owners at all must as a rule, in order to be valid, be made to all been noticed in the preceding part of this article. (1) purchasers ignorant of the defect of title on the part of the vendor. In the case of real estate a bona fide purchaser for valuable conArrha was not the same as earnest. (2) Written contracts sideration notice, actual or implied, of any adverse title were not necessary in Roman law under any circumstances. is protected.without This is on the principle that equity assists the person (3) There was no warranty of title in Roman law: the in possession of the legal estate. In the case of personal property transfer was of vacua possessio, not of ownership; in Eng- title may be passed by a person not owner under the Factors Acts and in the case of stolen goods. The effect of the Factors Acts is land there is a warranty of title (unless the parties other- to enable title to be given by the vendor or vendee or any person wise intend) on sales of personalty, but not on sales of real on his behalf while he is in possession of the documents of title property, though the covenants for title practically amount (see Factors). The law as to the sale of stolen goods will be found to a warranty. (4) There was a warranty of quality under Theft. Pre-emption. This is a right of purchasing some particular extending to undisclosed defects in Roman law beyond given to some particular person in priority to the public. anything recognized by English law. (5) By Roman law property It is conferred either by agreement between parties or by law. the property did not pass until traditio; even then it was Thus by the Lands Clauses Act, 1845, before the promoters of an only property in a modified sense; it was rather vacua undertaking dispose of superfluous lands not required for the purpossessio secured by duplx stipulatio; by English law the poses of the undertaking they must (with certain exceptions) first oiler to sell the same to the person then entitled to the lands from property in specific ascertained goods vests by the contract which the same were originally severed. In the United States prein the buyer. (6) A sale by a person who was not the emption is very important in its connexion with the homestead owner was not good in Roman law; it is good in certain law (see Homestead). In international law the right is exercisable by a belligerent nation over property not strictly contraband, but cases in English law (see below). which, would still be of advantage to the enemy. The goods are There are certain kinds of sale which it is proposed to consider not seized and condemned,, but purchased by the capturing nation separately on account of the exceptional circumstances in which at a reasonable compensation. The right of pre-emption is given they stand. to,the admiralty by 27 and 28 Yict. c. 25, s. 38 (see Contraband). Compulsory Sale.—As a general rule sale is a matter of contract The old crown prerogative of purveyance and pre-emption was a between the parties, and no one can be forced to sell against his right of buying up provisions and other necessaries for the royal will. But in this, as in other matters, the right of the state comes at a valuation even without the consent of the owner in. Under the powers of the Lands Clauses and other Acts the household also of impressing horses and carriages for the king’s service state, exercising its right of eminent domain, may force an owner and on the public roads upon paying a settled price to the proprietor to sell for the purpose of public improvements,—such as railways. The right was relinquished by the Act abolishing the feudal tenures The power of compulsory sale is less common where the interests (12 Car. II. c. 24). of the state are not involved; an example occurs in the Partition Scotland.—Hie law of Scotland follows the Roman law more Act, 1868, under which the court may order a sale instead of a closely than does English law. Thus in Scotch as in Roman law division, even though some of the parties interested dissent. contract of sale is called a consensual contract; the sale is not Judicial Sale. —Under this head may be grouped all those sales the complete until delivery, and market overt does not afford any prowhich are made under the authority and by the direction of a tection. Writing is essential to the sale of heritable property, not court of justice. In regard to real property the most important ly any statute, as in England, but by the ancient unwritten law. example is the sale by order of the Chancery Division. Such a sale Pei interventus may, however, in some cases, like part performance may be ordered either under the original jurisdiction of the court m England, supply the of writings. The vendor is bound or under the provisions of certain Acts of Parliament, such as the on completion, to supply aplace sufficient progress of titles. In addition Lunacy Regulation Act, 1853, the Partition Act, 1868, the Settled to the protection afforded to the purchaser by the progress of titles Estates Act, 1877, or the Settled Land Act, 1882 (see Settle- the statutory form of warrandice in 31 and 32 Yict. c. 101, s. 8 ment). The Conveyancing Act, 1881, provides for freeing any unless specially qualified, absolute warrandice as regards land from encumbrances on sale by the court, on payment into implies, lands and writs and evidents, and warrandice from fact and court of a sum to meet the encumbrance. The Act also makes the the as regards the rents,—that is to say, that a good title to the order for sale conclusive in favour of a purchaser in almost every deed has been conveyed, and that the granter has not done and case. The abstract of title in a sale by the court is submitted to land will not anything contrary to the writ as regards the rents (see one of the conveyancing counsel of the Chancery Division, and the Watson, do Law Diet., s. v. “ Warrandice ”). In the case of movables particulars and conditions are settled in judges’ chambers. The writing is not necessary for a good contract of sale, except where sale is generally by public auction, the auctioneer being appointed the sale is of a ship, or the parties agree to reduce the terms to by tho judge. The regulations for the conduct of sales by the writing. The Mercantile Law Amendment (Scotland) Act, 1856 court will be found in the Rules of the Supreme Court, 1883, Ord (19 and 20 Yict. c. 60), has made important changes in the law of li. r. 1-13. “ The statute was passed for the purpose of assimilating The Bankruptcy Act, 1883, gives power to a trustee acting under Scotland. law of Scotland to that of England ” (Lord Watson, in M'Bain the authority of a court of bankruptcy to sell all or any part of the v.theWallace, Laic Reports, 6 Appeal Cases, 588). By section 1 goods property of a bankrupt by public auction or private contract. Simisale but before delivery are not attachable by the creditors of lar rights are given by the Scotch Bankruptcy Act, 1856. Judicial after seller. By section 2 the sub-purchaser may demand that delivery sales of the property of a debtor in Scotland are regulated by 19 the be made to him instead of to the original purchaser, without preand 20 Yict. c. 92. The term “judicial sale” does not seem to be judice to the right of retention of the seller. By section 3 the seller used as a technical term in English as it is in Scotch law. In of goods may attach the goods while in his own possession at any admiralty actions a vessel may be sold under a commission of ap- time prior to the date when the sale of such goods shall have been praisement and sale issued by the court. The practice is now intimated to him. By section 5 the English principle of caveat regulated by Ord. Ij. r. 14-16. Similar powers may be exercised emptor is introduced : “where goods shall be sold the seller, if at in an action of sett in Scotland. A common instance of a judicial the time of the sale he was without knowledge that the same were sa(e is the sale by a sheriff of an execution debtor’s goods under a of defective or of bad quality, shall not be held to have warranted writ of fieri facias or venditioni exponas. Where the execution is their quality or sufficiency, but the goods, with all faults, shall be for a sum above £20 the sale is, unless the court otherwise orders, the risk of the purchaser, unless the seller shall have given an to be by public auction. Where the sheriff has seized and a claim at express warranty of the quality or sufficiency of such goods, or by interpleader is set up, the court may order a sale of the whole unless the goods have been expressly sold for a specified and paror part of the goods (Rules of the Supreme Court, 1883, Ord. Ivii. ticular in which case the seller shall be considered, withr. 12). The same rules (Ord. 1. r. 2) give a valuable power to the out suchpurpose, warranty, to warrant that the same are fit for such purcourt or a judge of ordering a sale of any goods of a perishable nature, pose. ” The right of retention corresponds closely to the right of or such as for any reason it may be desirable to have sold at once. lien in England, but rests upon the simpler ground of undivested Sale by Persons not Owners.—-English law in general agrees with property (see Watson, Lavj Diet., s.v. “Sale”). Criminal liability the rule in Dig. 1. 17, 54, “Nemo plus juris ad alhim transferre for fraud seems to be carried farther in Scotland than in England potest quam ipse haberet,” and a purchaser takes his purchase subject (see Fraud). to informalities in the title. To this rule there are several excepStates.—The law as to the sale of real estate agrees genertions, in which title may be given by persons who are limited allyUnited with English law. It is considerably simplified by the system owners or not owners at all. An example of sale by a limited of Registration (q.v.). The covenant of warranty, unknown in owner is a sale by a tenant for life under the powers given by the England, is the principal for title in the United States. Settled Land Act, 1882. Under the same head would fall sales by It corresponds generally tocovenant English covenant for quiet enjoypersons having a qualified right of sale under particular circum- ment. The right of judicialthesale of buildings under a mechanic’s stances, such as a sheriff, the master of a ship in a foreign port, or lien for labour and materials is given by the law of many States. XXI. — 27

S A L —S A L The sale of public lands is regulated by Act of Congress {Revved Bfildghfit is situated above the Ghats on the tableland of Statutes, 2353-2379). In the law of sale of personal property Mysore. The western part of the district is very mountainAmerican law is also based upon English law. the principal di - ous, some of the ranges attaining an elevation of between ferences are that the law of market overt (see Theft) is not recog- 5000 and 6000 feet. Amongst the chief ranges are the nized by the United States, and that an unpaid vendor is the agent Shevaroys, the Kalrdyans, the Melagiris, the Kollimalais, of the vendee to resell on non-payment, and is entitled to recover the difference between the contract price and the price ot resale. the Pachamalais, and the Yelagiris. The chief rivers are The law of Louisiana {Civil Code, § 3194) gives the unpaid vendor the Cauvery with its numerous tributaries, and the Pennar a still greater right in his preferential claim for the pnce against and Palar; the last, however, only flows through a few the creditors of the purchaser, if the property still remains in the latter’s possession. Warranty of title is not carried as far as in miles of the Tirupatur taluk, situated in the north-western Emdand. United States decisions draw a distinction between goods corner of the district. The forests are of considerable value in The possession and goods not in the possession of the vendor at and their area is roughly estimated at 2251 square miles. the time of sale. There is no warranty of title of the latter. The The geological structure of the district is mostly gneissic, Statute of Frauds has been construed in some respects differently from the English decisions. The differences will be found in Mr with a few irruptive rocks in the form of trap dykes and Benjamin’s work. As to unlawful sales, it has been held that a granite veins. Magnetic iron ore is common in the hill sale in a State where the sale is lawful is valid in a State where it regions, and corundum and chromate of iron are also is unlawful by statute, even though the goods are in Jthewlatter obtainable. The qualities of the soil differ very much; in State. ( - +-) SALEIYER (in Mancassarese Sildyara, in Buginese the country immediately surrounding the town of Salem a Sildja), also called Tana-dowang (“ Land of Shrimps ”), is thin layer of calcareous and red loam generally prevails, a Dutch island separated from the south coast of Celebes through which quartz rocks appear on the surface in many (East Indies) by a strait 8 miles wide, which in the west places. The climate, owing to the great difference of monsoon is used by vessels bound for the Moluccas, the elevation, varies considerably; on the hills it is cool and Philippines, and China. With a length of 46 miles and bracing, and for a great part of the year very salubrious; general breadth of 9, the area is estimated at 315 square the average rainfall is about 38 inches. Salem has about miles. Along the east side of the island is a belt of 1400 miles of road, and the length of railway line within volcanic rock; the west side is of limestone or coralline the district is 134 miles. In 1881 the population was 1,599,595 (males 778,483, females formation. The highest point seems to be Haru on the east coast, but estimates of its altitude vary from 1000 to 821,112) ; Hindus numbered 1,531,855, Mohammedans 51,092, Christians 16,567. Besides Salem (see below), the capital, the 3000 feet. There are no navigable rivers, and many of and district contains three other towns with a population exceeding the streams dry up in the west monsoon. Besides most of 10,000 each, viz., Daringambadi (15,426), Tirupatur (14,278), and the ordinary tropical fruits, the cultivated plants comprise Shendamangalam (12,575). Of the total area of the district only Indian corn, barley, potatoes, tobacco, coffee, and indigo, 1,283,190 acres were under cultivation in 1883-84 ; but of these 137,403 acres were twice cropped. The staple crops are rice and and among the trees are cocoanut and areng palms, Jcanari, ragi ; other important crops are pulses and seeds. The chief ebony, and teak (the last considered the property of the industry is weaving, which is carried on in almost every large town Dutch Government). Horses, buffaloes, goats, and sheep and village. Carpets of great beauty and superior workmanship are are kept, and pigs and deer exist in a wild state. The made in the Salem jail. Good iron and steel are made, but only a small scale. The gross revenue of the district in 1883-84 was/ population of Saleiyer and dependencies, mainly a mixed on £260,364, the land-tax contributing £211,062 of the amount. race of Mancassars, Buginese, and natives of Luvu and Though Salem has no connected history, there are few parts of Buton, was in 1869 55,147, and in 1880 66,276. They use Southern India that contain more spots of interest for English the Mancassar language, are for the most part nominally students. As at present composed it was acquired by the treaty Mahommedans (though many heathen customs survive), of peace with Tipu Sultan in 1792 and the partition treaty of in 1799. By the former the Talaghat and Baramahal were and support themselves by agriculture, fishing, seafaring, Mysore ceded, and by the latter the Balaghat, or what is now the Osur tdluk. trade, the preparation of salt (on the south coast), and the SALEM, chief town of the above district, situated in weaving of clothing materials. Field work is largely performed by a servile class. Raw and prepared cotton, 11° 39' 10" N. lat. and 78° 11' 47" E. long., is a busy tobacco, trepang, tortoise-shell, cocoanuts and cocoanut trading place, with a considerable weaving industry. It is tolerably well built and is prettily situated on the river oil, and salt are the principal articles of export. The island is divided into nine regencies :—Tanette, Batammata Tirumanimuttar, 900 feet above sea-level, in a long valley (Batangmata; including the former regency of Onto), Buki, Mare- enclosed by the Shevaroy hills, which are 6 miles distant. Mare, Boneya—all five in the north—Bontobangung, Balia-bulo, The population of the town in 1881 was 50,667 (males Layolo, and Barambarang—in the south. Panggiliyang or Benteng on the west coast, often called also Saleiyer, is the capital of the 24,584, females 26,083). SALEM, a city of the United States, capital of Essex island. It stands in 6° 3’ 3" S. lat. and 120° 31' 48" E. long., and possesses the best harbour on the whole coast, being protected by county, Massachusetts, is built on a peninsula between two Pulo Pasi or Hog Island (also Sariwa or Pulo Babi). To the inlets of the sea (North river and South river), in 42° Saleiyer group belong a variety of small islands, for the most part uninhabited—Tana Jampeya (the largest of all with a good anchor- 31' 18" N. lat. and 70° 53' 53" W. long., 16 miles north by age at Maringi Bay), Gowang, Malimbu, &c. Previous to the Dutch east of Boston, on the Eastern Railroad. In the latter occupation the Saleiyers were subject to the king of Ternate. part of the 18th and the early part of the 19th century SALEM, a British district of India, in Madras presi- Salem was the seat of a flourishing foreign commerce, dency, lying between 11° 1' and 12° 57' N. lat. and 77° 32' especially with the East Indies; but, its comparatively shaland 79° 5' E. long. It embraces an area of 7653 square low harbour failing to accommodate the larger vessels of miles, and is bounded on the H. by Mysore and North modern times, it has been supplanted by Boston and has to Arcot, on the S. by Coimbatore and Trichinopoly, on the E. content itself with a good share of the coasting trade. Its by Trichinopoly and South and North Arcot, and on the W. industrial activity has, on the other hand, increased, and by Coimbatore and Mysore. Except towards the south, it now possesses steam cotton-mills, jute-factories, extensive the district is very hilly, with large plains lying between tanneries, and various minor manufactories. The main the several ranges. Salem is described as consisting of interest, however, of Salem consists in its historical and three distinct tracts of country, known as the Tfilaghdt, literary associations and the institutions by which they the B&ramahdl, and the Bdldghat. The Talaghdt is situated are represented. Best known of these institutions is the below the Eastern Ghats on the level of the Carnatic gener- Peabody Academy, founded in 1867 with funds provided ally ; the Bdramalnil includes the whole Salem face of the by the well-known philanthropist. The academy at once Ghats and a wide tract of country at their base; and the purchased and refitted the East India Marine Hall, origin210

S A L- -SAL ally built in 1824 by the East India Marine Society (1799), which consisted of captains and supercargoes who had doubled either Cape Horn or the Cape of Good Hope; and .the building now contains under the trusteeship of the academy the collections of the old East India Museum and those of the Essex Institute, illustrating the zoology, natural history, and archaeology of the county. The ethnographical collections, such as that dealing with Corea, are especially valuable. The American Naturalist has been the organ of the academy since 1867. The Peabody Institute, not to be confounded with the academy, is in the village of Peabody (Danvers), about 2 miles distant from Salem and about midway between the house in which the philanthropist was born and the grave, in Harmony Grove cemetery, in which he was buried. The institute contains various personal relics of the founder, such as the famous portrait of Queen Victoria. Plummer Hall, a fine building in Essex Street, erected out of funds left to the Salem Athenaeum by Miss Plummer, contains the libraries of the Athenaeum, the Essex Institute, and the South Essex Medical Society, making an aggregate of 50,000 volumes. Behind this hall is the frame of the oldest church edifice in New England, erected in 1634 for Roger Williams. Other buildings of note in Salem are a State normal school, the city hall, the court-house, St Peter’s Episcopal church, the customhouse, in which Nathaniel Hawthorne once acted as clerk, and several of the private houses (such as “ Dr Grimshawe’s house,” the dwelling really occupied by Dr Peabody, Mrs Hawthorne’s father) which, while not exactly prototypes, have lent much of their verisimilitude to the localities of Hawthorne’s fiction. The house in which the novelist was born is 21 Union Street. Salem had 24,117 inhabitants in 1870, 26,063 in 1875, and 27,563 in 1880. Naumkeag (Eel Land) was the Indian name of the district in which Salem stands, and is still used familiarly by the inhabitants. The first house was built by Roger Conants from Cape Ann in 1626, and two years later a settlement was formed by John Endicott and called Salem, “from the peace they had and hoped in it.” In 1630 Governor John Winthrop introduced a large body of colonists from England, including the brave and beautiful Arabella Johnson, daughter of the earl of Lincoln, who died shortly afterwards. In 1661 the Quakers were persecuted at Salem, and in 1692 the town was the scene of Cotton Mather’s terrible proceedings against witchcraft : nineteen persons were hanged on Gallows Hill and Giles Cory was pressed to death. It was in Salem that in 1774 the house of representatives of Massachusetts resolved themselves into a sovereign political power. The town obtained a city charter in 1836. Few cities of the United States have given more eminent men to the world—Timothy Pickering, secretary of state (1795-1880), General Israel Putnam, F. T. Ward of China celebrity, John Rogers the sculptor, Bowditch the astronomer and mathematician, Maria S. Cummins the novelist, W. H. Prescott the historian, and Nathaniel Hawthorne. SALEM, a city of the United States, the county seat of Salem county, New Jersey, on a small stream of the same name, by which it has steam communication with Philadelphia (on the Delaware), 44 miles distant to the northnorth-east by rail. While Salem depends mainly on the agricultural prosperity of the surrounding district, it also contains foundries and machine-shops, fruit-canning establishments, glass-ware factories, oil-cloth factories, Ac. The population was 3052 in 1850, 4555 in 1870, and 5056 in 1880. A colony settled on the site of Salem in 1641 was replaced by a Swedish fort, and this passed through the Dutch to the English. One of the Quakers who in 1673 bought Lord Berkeley’s half of New Jersey gave the place its present name and restored the settlement, which in 1682 was declared a port of entry. In 1778 the town was plundered by Colonel Manhood. SALEM, a city of the United States, the capital of Oregon, in Marion county, on the east bank of Willamette river, 53 miles south of Portland by the Oregon and California Railroad. It lies in a fertile prairie district, adorned with copses, and possesses a good source of waterpower in Mill Creek. The capitol, a rather imposing edifice

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with a tower 180 feet high, erected in 1875-76, occupies a fine site above the city; other public buildings are the Willamette University (Methodist), which grants degrees in medicine, science, and general literature, the opera-house, the Roman Catholic school for girls, the State penitentiary, and State schools for the deaf and dumb and the blind. Lumber, woollen goods, flour, leather, brass castings, furniture, linseed oil, and building materials are the chief articles of manufacture and trade. The population was 2538 in 1881. Settled in 1834, incorporated in 1853, Salem became the State capital in 1860. SALEP (Arab, sahleb, Gr. opy1?), a drug extensively used in the East as a nervine restorative and fattener, and also much prescribed in paralytic affections, probably owed its original popularity to the belief in the so-called “ doctrine of signatures.” In Europe it is chiefly used as a demulcent drink, but is also supposed to possess nutrient properties ; it may be employed with advantage in inflammatory conditions of the mucous membrane, as in bronchitis, diarrhoea, cystitis, and other urinary disorders. It consists of the tuberous roots of various species of Orchis and JSulophia, which are decorticated, washed, heated until horny in appearance, and then carefully dried. The most important constituent of salep is a kind of mucilage which it yields to cold water to the extent of 48 per cent. This mucilage in its chemical reactions is more nearly allied to cellulose than to gum, since when dry it is readily soluble in ammoniacal solution of copper; when boiled with nitric acid it yields oxalic but not mucic acid. Salep also contains sugar and albumen, and when fresh traces of a volatile oil; dried at 100° C. it yields 2 per cent, of ash, chiefly the phosphates and chlorides of potassium and calcium. Salep was formerly imported into Europe from the Levant, but in 1760 the French chemist Geoffroy discovered its true nature and showed how it might be prepared from the species of Orchis indigenous to France. That used in Germany is obtained from plants growing wild in the Taunus Mountains, the Westerwald, the Rhbn, the Odenwald, and Franconia. Grecian salep is chiefly collected in Macedonia. In Asia Minor the tubers are collected near Melassa and Mughla, and about 330 tons are annually exported from Smyrna. The salep of the Bombay market, which is imported principally from Persia, Cabul, and northern India, occurs in three forms, palmate, large ovoid, and small ovoid tubers on strings, all more or less horny and translucent. Salep is also produced on the Nilgiri (Neilgherry) Hills and in Ceylon. Besides the above-mentioned forms, elongated cylindrical tubers, usually in pairs and undecorticated, are occasionally met with. The palmate tubers are the most highly esteemed, being valued at ten rupees per pound. This variety is known in the Bombay market as Persian salep. It is probably derived chiefly from O. latifolia, L., although O. maculata, L., 0. saccifera, Brongn., and O. conopsea, L., also afford palmate tubers. The species known to yield ovate salep are O. mascula, O. Morio, O. pyramidalis, O. ustulata, O. militaris, O. coriophora, L., and O. longicruris, Link. All these species are natives of the greater part of central and southern Europe, Turkey, the Caucasus, and Asia Minor, O. latifolia extending to western India and Tibet and O. conopsea to the Amur, in the extreme east of Asia. Salep is not easily reduced to powder, being both hard and tough, and is therefore usually ground between millstones. This difficulty is said to be lessened if the salep is first soaked in cold water until soft and then rapidly dried. As the powder does not mix readily with water, the authors of Pharmacographia (2d ed. p. 656) recommend that it should be first mixed with U parts of rectified spirits of wine (brandy or other strong spirit would answer equally well), 40 parts of cold water being then added quickly and the mixture boiled. In these proportions salep affords a thick jelly. SALERNO, a city of Italy and the chief town of a province of its own name (formerly Principato Citeriore), is beautifully situated on the west coast 34 miles south-east of Naples, and presents a fine appearance with the ruins of its old Norman castle on an eminence 905 feet above the sea and its background of graceful limestone hills. The town walls were destroyed in the beginning of the 19th century ; the seaward portion has given place to the Corso Garibaldi, the principal promenade. Among the conspicuous buildings are the theatre, the prefecture, and the

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S A L —S A L

cathedral of St Matthew (whose bones were brought from Salicin is a glucoside, having the composition Cj3H1807, and is Psestum to Salerno in 954), begun in 1076 by Eobert Guis- not precipitated by the alkaloidal reagents. It has been prepared from helicin, synthesized from sodium, salicyl-aldehyde card and consecrated in 1084 by Gregory VIL In front artificially and aceto-chlorhydrose, being the first glucoside that has been artiis a beautiful quadrangular court (112 by 102 feet), sur- ficially prepared {Journ. Chem. Soc., 1884, p. 439). According to rounded by arcades formed of twenty-eight ancient pillars Binz, it may be split up by digestion with emulsin or saliva fnto mostly of granite; and the middle entrance into the church salicylic alcohol (saligenol, C7H802) and glucose; heating it gently is closed by a remarkable bronze door of 11th or 12 th with dilute sulphuric acid produces a similar effect. Salicylic alcohol is converted by oxidizing agents into salicylic acid. This century Byzantine work. The nave and two aisles end in acid is formed when salicin is taken internally, since salicin is apses. Two magnificent marble ambos, the larger dating eliminated from the system partly in the form of salicylic and from 1175, several specimens of ancient mosaic, and the salicyluric acids, and partly as saligenin. SALIC LAW, AND other Barbarian Laws. The (1) tombs of Gregory YII. and Queen Margaret of Durazzo deserve to be mentioned. In the crypt is a bronze statue Lex Saliea is one of those Teutonic laws of the early of St Matthew. The lofty aqueduct, one of whose arches Middle Ages which are known as leges barbarorwn, among is now used by the railway, is a building of 1320; the which we also reckon the (2) Lex liipuariorum or JRibuaripresent water-supply is provided by a canal formed in 1865. orum, (3) Ewa {Lex) Francorum Chamavorum, (4) Lex A fine port constructed by Giovanni da Procida in 1260 Alamannorum, (5) Lex Bajuvariorum, (6) Lex Frisionum, was destroyed when Naples became the capital of the king- (7) Lex Angliorum et Werinoruvi, h.e., Thuringorum, (8) dom, and remained blocked with sand till after the unifica- Lex Saxonum, (9) Leges Anglo-Saxonum, (10) Lex Burtion of Italy. A series of works, especially those decreed gundionum, (\0&) Lex Bomana Burgundionum, (11) Lex in 1880, have provided an inner harbour of 40 acres (depth Wisigothorum, (11a) Breviarium Alarici, (11b) Edictum 12 to 22 feet), an outer harbour (22 to 25 feet), and wharves Theodorici, (12) Leges Langobardorum, and to a certain to the extent of 4468 feet. In 1884 180 vessels (29,078 extent (13) Leges Wallix. All these laws may in general tons) entered and 173 (28,069) cleared. Silk and cotton be described as codes of procedure and of rights, which spinning are the principal industries. The population was regulated for some indefinite period the internal affairs of 19,905 in 1870 and 22,328 (commune, 31,245) in 1881. the several Teutonic tribes whose names they bear. A Roman colony was founded at Salerno (Salernum) in 194 b.c. to (1) The Salic Law originated with the Salian Franks, keep the Picentines in check, hut the city makes no figure in history till after the Lombard conquest. Dismantled by order of Charle- often simply called Salians, the chief tribe of that conmagne, it became in the 9th century the capital of an independent glomeration of Teutonic peoples known as Franks {q.v.). principality, the rival of that of Benevento, and was surrounded by The latter first appear in history about 240 (Vopisc., Vit. strong fortifications. The Lombard princes, who had frequently defended their city against the Saracens, succumbed before Robert Guxscard, who took the castle after an eight months’ siege and made Salerno the capital of his new territory. The removal of the court to Palermo and the sack of the city by the emperor Henry VI. in 1194 put a stop to its development. The position which the medical school of the Civitas Hippocratica (as it called itself on its seals) held m mediaeval times has been described under Medicine, vol. xv. pp. 806-807. Salerno university, founded in 1150, and’long one of the great seats of learning in Italy, was closed in 1817 ° SALES, Francois de (1567-1622), see vol. ix. p. '695. SALFOED. See Manchester, vol. xv. p. 459 sq. SALICIN, the bitter principle of willow bark, was discovered by Leroux in 1831. It exists in most species of SaUx and Populus, and has been obtained to the extent of 3 or 4 per cent, from the bark of S. helix and S. pentandra. According to Herberger, the bark of the young blanches affords salicin in larger proportion than that of the trunk and contains less of the other ingredients which interfere with its extraction. Salicin is prepared loni a decoction of the bark by first precipitating the tannin by milk of lime, then evaporating the filtrate to a solt extract, and dissolving out the salicin by alcohol. As met with in commerce it is usually in the form of glossy white scales or needles. It is neutral to test paper inodorous unaltered by exposure to the air, and has a persistently bitter taste. It is soluble in about 30 parts of alcohol or water at the ordinary temperature, and in 0-7 of boiling water or in 2 parts of boiling alcohol, and more freely m alkaline liquids. It is also soluble in acetic AureL, c. 7), after which date we find them carrying on acid without alteration, but is insoluble in chloroform an almost uninterrupted struggle with the Eoman empire, and benzol From phloridzin it is distinguished by its till 486, when they finally established a kingdom of their ammomacal solution not becoming coloured when exposed own in provinces which had previously been considered Cold sulphuric acid dissolves salicin, forming Eoman. The Salian Franks first appear under their specific a bright red solution. . When salicin is heated with sul- name in 358, when they had penetrated westwards as far as Toxandria (Texandria, now Tessenderloo, in Limburg, and ?(VnuLL™Uaci . formed, potassium bichromate, salicylic aldehyde the region to the south and west of the lower Meuse), ) is which possesses the odour of meadow7 6 2 where they were subdued by the emperor Julian (Ammian., sweet flowers {Spiraea Ulmaria, L.). Sahcm is chiefly used in medicine as an antipyretic in xvii. 8). . As regards their previous history nothing is known with certainty, though it seems probable that the 111 1Sm {t is given in doses of 5 Franks who occupied the Batavian island c. 290, and were 30 gratr ! ’i ^ €YTTSr A ptfi < Its,actl°nilsiless powerful than that of Sali- there conquered in 292 by Constantius Chlorus {Paneg. de ressin effec is less rrmrki^’ P S headache t on the marked. It is also given for andcirculation for ague. mcerti auth., c. 4), and thence transplanted into Gaul, were the Salian Franks. We find, moreover, such un-

SALIC mistakable evidence of a connexion between the Sigambri and the Salii1 that the latter are by some regarded as the descendants of the Sigambri whom Tiberius removed in 8 b.c. from their home on the right bank of the Rhine; and it is argued that he did not transform them into the Gugerni, nor place them on the Merwede, a stream and locality near Dordrecht and Zwijndrecht, but transplanted them into the region now called the Veluwe, between the Utrecht Yecht and the Eastern Yssel, where the Romans probably made of them what the Batavi had been for years past—their allies—perhaps on the same condition as the latter, who merely furnished the Romans with men and arms. This accounts for the Sigambrian cohort in the Thracian War in 26 a.d. Some think, however, that the Salians were a separate tribe of the Franks who merely coalesced with the Sigambri (comp. Watterich, Die Gernumen des Rheins; Waitz, Verfass., ii. 24). In 431 the Frankish (Salic) king Chlodio (Chlojo, Chlogio), said to have been a son (or the father) of Merovech, the founder of the Merovingian dynasty (Greg. Tur., ii. 9), took Cambrai and advanced his dominion as far as the Somme (Greg., ib.) Sid. Apoll., v. 211 sq.), though still acknowledging Roman supremacy. Childerich reigned from 457 to 481, and resided at Tournai, where his grave was discovered in 1653. His son Clovis (Ohiovis, Chlodovech) in 486 extended his empire to the Seine (Greg. Tur., ii. 43, 27). For an account of him, see vol. ix. pp. 528, 529. We have very few means of ascertaining when the Salic Law2 was compiled, and how long it remained in force. Our knowledge of the code is derived—(i.) from ten texts, preserved in a comparatively large number of manuscripts, chiefly written in the 8th and 9th centuries; (ii.) from allusions to a Salic Law in various charters and other documents. But the Latin texts do not contain the original Salic Law. This is clear (a) from the allusions we find in them to a “Lex Salica” and “ Antiqua Lex,” which can hardly be anything but references to another and earlier Lex Salica; (6) from a certain peculiarity and awkwardness in the construction of the Latin, which, though it is so-called Merovingian, and therefore very corrupt, would have been different if the texts were original compilations ; (c) from a number of words, found in nearly every paragraph of certain groups of the MSS., and now known as “ Malberg glosses,” which are evidently the remains of a vernacular Salic Law, and appear to have been retained in the Latin versions, in some cases because the translators seemed doubtful as to whether their Latin terms correctly rendered the meaning of the original, in other cases because these words had become legal terms, and indicated a certain fine. We do not know whether the original Frankish law-book was ever reduced to writing, or merely retained in, and handed down to posterity from, the memory of some persons charged with the preservation of the law. All that we know of such an original is contained in a couple of prologues (apparently later than the texts themselves) found in certain MSS. of the existing 1 “Detonsus Vaclialim [the river Waal] bibat Sicamber” (Sid. Apoll., Garm., xiii. 31). “ Ut Salius jam rura colat flexosque Sicambri In falcem current gladios” (Claudian, De Laude Stilic., i. 222). According to the Gesta Franc., c. 1, the Franks at one time inhabited the town of Sicambria. The earliest Frankish kings, who were undoubtedly kings of the Salian Franks, are often called Sigambri, and always with the object of honouring them. St Remigius, when he baptized Clovis, exhorted him, “Mitis depone colla Sicamber” (Greg. Tur.,ii. 31). Venantius Fortunatus (vi. 4) says to King Charibert, “Cum sis progenitus clara de gente Sygamber.” For further evidence, comp. Waitz, Verfass., ii. 22 sq. 2 The origin of the name Salicus, Salius, is uncertain. It is not improbable that it was derived from the river Yssel, called in the Middle Ages Isloa, Hisloa, Isla, Isela, Isalia. The region about Deventer, in the east of Holland, is still called Salland, though it is nowhere expressly said that the Salians ever lived there.

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Latin versions. One of them states that four men “ in villis quae ultra Renum sunt per tres mallos (judicial assemblies) convenientes, omnes causarum origines sollicite discutiendo tractantes, judicium decreverunt,” which must refer to a period before 358, as in that year the Salian Franks had already crossed the Rhine and occupied the Batavian island and Toxandria. Another prologue says that the Salic Law was compiled (dictare) while the Franks were still heathens (therefore before 496), and afterwards emended by Clovis, Childebert, and Chlotar. Nor can it be stated with certainty when the Latin translations which we now possess were made, but it must have been after Clovis had extended his power as far as the Loire (486-507), as in chapter 47 the boundaries of the Frankish empire are stated to be the Carbonaria Silva (in southern Belgium between Tournai and Liege) and the Loire.3 There exist five Latin recensions, more or less different, (i.) The earliest of the code (handed down in four MSS. with little difference, and very likely compiled shortly after Clovis extended his empire to the Loire) consists of sixtyfive chapters (with the Malberg glosses). In the course of the 6th century a considerable number of chapters appear to have been added (under the title of “edicts” or “ decrees ”), some of which are ascribed to Clovis, and the remainder to his successors before the end of the century. One of them (chap. 7 8) may with some certainty be ascribed to Hilperic (c. 574). Some others seem to have originated with Childebert I. and Chlotar I. (whose joint reign lasted from 511 to 558), and are known collectively as “Pactus Childeberti et Chlotharii.” From internal evidence we may infer that this first version dates from a time when Christianity had not yet become general among the Franks, (ii.) Two MSS. contain a second recension, having the same sixty-five chapters (with the Malberg glosses) as the first, but with numerous interpolations and additions, which point to a later period. Especially may this be said of the paragraph (in chap. 13) which pronounces fines on marriages between near relatives, and which is presumed to have been embodied in the Lex Salica from an edict of Childebert II. issued in 596. In chapter 55 paragraphs six and seven speak of a “ basilica,” of a “ basilica sanctificata,” and of a “basilica ubi requiescunt reliquiae,” but it is more than doubtful whether we have here any evidences of Christianity, though a later recension (the fourth) altered “basilica” into “ecclesia,” the “reliquiae” into “ reliquiae sanctorum,” and thereby gave a decidedly Christian aspect to the clause, (iii.) A third recension is contained in a group of nine MSS. (divided into two classes), three of which have the same text (with the Malberg glosses) as the MSS. of the first and second recensions, divided, however, systematically into ninety-nine chapters, while the other six MSS. have the same ninety-nine chapters, with very little difference, but without the Malberg glosses. This text seems to have been arranged in Pippin’s or Charlemagne’s reign (c. 765-779). The clause on marriages between near relatives mentioned above is not found in this recension. On the other hand, we find in chapter 55 (= 77) fines pronounced on the murder of a presbyter and deacon (no bishop yet mentioned), while the six MSS. of the second class do not contain chapter 99 (“De Chrenecruda”), but merely say that the symbolism described in that chapter had been observed in heathen times, and was to be no longer in force, (iv.) The fourth version (handed down in a great number of MSS., and embodying in seventy chapters substantially the whole of the previous versions) is usually called Lex Salica Emendata, as the text bears traces of having been emended (by Charlemagne), which operation seems to have consisted in 3 Some explain Ligeris to be the river Leye, a branch of the Scheldt, in which case the compilation would fall between c. 453 and 486.

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eliminating the Malberg glosses from the text, correcting the Latin, omitting a certain number of paragraphs, and inserting some new ones. In chapter 55 the bishop is mentioned with the jiresbyter and the deacon, (v.) Finally, we have a fifth text, which seems an amalgamation of the previous recensions, more especially of the second, third, and fourth, but here and there with considerable differences. It was published in 1557, at Basel, by Bas. Job. Herold (Originum ac Germanicarum Antiquitatum Libri); but no trace of the Fulda and other MSS. which the editor says that he used has hitherto been found. The Salic code consists of enactments regarding procedure in lawsuits (chaps. 1, 18, 26, 37, 46-53, 56, 57, 60), judicial fines and penalties for various kinds of theft and kidnapping (2-8, 10-12, 2123, 27, 28, 33-35, 38-40, 55, 61), for offences, injuries, &c., to persons, animals, and property (9, 15-17, 19, 20, 24, 25, 29-32, 36, 41-43, 64, 65); it regulates the “wergeld” (a word found only in the text published by Herold ; all the other texts have leodis, people, associate of the people) of all classes of persons living under the Salic Law (41-43, 54, 63), the share of the kindred in the composition for homicide (58-62), the devolution of property and inheritance (59), migration from one village to another (45), &c. The Salic Law speaks of—(a) freeborn persons (ingenuus Francus, Salicus Francus), with a wergeld of 200 solidi, which was tripled when such a person served in the army, and the latter amount again tripled when the person killed was an officer of the king ; (6) serfs (leti or liti), who enjoyed personal freedom though belonging to some master, and (c) pueri regis (probably serfs in the service of the king), both with a wergeld of 100 solidi; (d) the Roman population, not yet placed on the same footing with the Francus {posscssores with a wergeld of 100 solidi; tributarii, perhaps = coloni, with a wergeld of 62J solidi); (e) slaves (servi), with a wergeld of 30 solidi ; and a variety of other persons belonging to one or other of these classes (puer crinitus, class a ; porcdrius, faber ferrarius, aurifex, &c., class e). An aristocracy is not mentioned. The people lived together in villages (chap. 45); they exercised agriculture and reared cattle (2-5, 27, &c.) ; they hunted and fished (6, 33); vineyards and gardens were known to them (27, 6, &c.) ; and gold work and iron work are mentioned (10). The chief of the state was a king ; his officers included the grajio, who was chief of a pagus (shire) ; sacebaro, chief of a hundred (both with a wergeld of 600 solidi; the latter could also be a puer regis, in which case he had a wergeld of 300 solidi); thunginus or centenarius, chief of a hundred, but probably elected by the people from among themselves, as his wergeld seems to have been the ordinary one. The judicial assembly was called mallus, the place where it assembled malloberg, the party in a suit gamallus, the councillor of the assembly rachineburgus, an officer who had to advise upon the sentence to be pronounced, and to value the property in question. The famous clause in the Salic Law by which, it is commonly said, women are precluded from succession to the throne, and which alone has become known in course of time as the Salic Law, is the fifth paragraph of chapter 59 (with the rubric “ De Alodis ”), in which the succession to private property is regulated. The chapter opens with four (five) paragraphs in which it is enacted that—(1) if a man died without male issue, his mother (so in first recension; the second to fifth have “pater aut mater”) would succeed to the inheritance (in hereditatem succedat); (2) failing her (the father and mother), his brother (brothers) or sister (sisters); (3) failing these, the sister of the mother; (4) when there was no sister of the mother, the sisters (sister) of the father; and (5), failing these, the nearest relative. After this the fifth paragraph reads as follows First Second Third Fourth Fifth recension. recension. recension. recension. recension. De terra vero De terra De terra De terra De terra vero imlla in muli- vero Salica vero Salica vero Salica Salica, in mulieere [portioant] in mul i ere nulla in mu- nulla portio rem nulla portio hereditas non nulla per- liere heredihsered i tat is transpertinebit, sed portio, tatis transeat hereditatis mulieri sed hoc virilis ad virilem sex- tinet sed qui fraporcio, ad veniat sed it, sexus acquirit, um qui fratres tres fuerint, virilis sed sexus ad virilem hoc filii in fuerint tota ad virile tota terra 1 sexum tota ipsa est,heereditate terra perti- et sexu tota proprietatis terrae heresuccedunt. Sed neat. terra per- suse possede- ditas per- ubi inter nepotes tineat. ant. veniat. aut pro nepotes post longum tempus de alode terrae contentio suscitatur, non per stirpes sed per capita di vidantur. 1 Text B reads: “ proprietas perveniat.”

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It seems clear that the first four paragraphs of the chapter, which admit women to a share in the inheritance, refer to private, movable property, and that, by the fifth paragraph, the inheritance of land was exclusively confined to males. We know that this exclusion of women from landed property was hardly a rule anywhere in the Frankish empire, and certainly not in the 6th century, but it obtained more or less afterwards, especially during the feudal period, when all the owners of landed property (i.e., the tenants of fiefs) were liable to military service. We do not know when this exclusion of women from landed property began first to be applied and extended to an exclusion from the succession of thrones, as we do not read of such a notion until the middle of the 14th century during the controversy between Edward III. and Philip of Valois, when it was alleged to be derived from the Salic Law. It will be observed that the word Salica is not found in the oldest existing recension, but appears first in the second text, which some would ascribe to the end of the 6th century. Nor is the word found in the corresponding paragraph (56,4) of the Lex Ripuaria, which was based on the Salic Law. This addition (retained in all the other recensions, also in the so-called Lex Emendata) was no doubt made for some purpose, but we do not know whether it was made by a scribe, nor what particular notion it was intended to convey, nor whether it was this special word which gave rise to the idea of women being precluded from the succession of thrones. The various texts of the Lex Salica, arranged in parallel columns, with a commentary on the Malberg glosses, were published in 1880, under the title Lex Salica: the Ten Texts with the Glosses, and the Lex Emendata, ed. J. H. Hessels, with notes on the Frankish words in the Lex Salica by H. Kern, 4to, London, 1880 ; comp, also Geo. Waitz, Das alte Jlccht der salischen Franlcen, 8vo, Kiel, 1846 ; Rud. Sohrn, Die frank. Ileichs- und Gerichls-Verfassung, 8vo, Weimar, 1871; Pardessus, Loi Salique, 4to, Paris, 1843. Having treated of the Salic Law somewhat minutely, we need only say a few words about each of the other leges barbarorum, as they all present somewhat similar features, and hardly differ except in the time of their compilation, the amount of fines, the number and nature of the crimes, the number, rank, duties, and titles of the officers, &c. (2) The Ripuarian Law, or Law of the Ripuarian Franks {Lex Ripuaria or Riboaria, L. Ripuariorum or Ribuariorum, L. Ripuariensis or Ribuariensis), or inhabitants of the river-banks, was in force among the East or Rhenish Franks in the Provincia Ribuaria, also called Ducatus or Pagus Ribuarius (see vol. ix. p. 723), of which Cologne was the chief town. It has much in common with the Salic Law; in fact, chapters 32-64 are, with the exception of some necessary modifications and additions, merely a repetition of the corresponding chapters of the Salic Law, and even follow the same arrangement, so that this part of the code is hardly anything but the Salic Law revised by order of the kings of Austrasia. Professor Sohm (whose edition, published in 1883 in Mon. Germ. Hist., Legg., vol. v. part 2, is based on nearly forty MSS., written between the 8th and the 11th century) divides the ®fofify'nine chapters of this code into four distinct portions, ascribing the first portion (chaps. 1-31), which contains enactments not met with in the Salic Law, to the first part of the 6th century, the second (chaps. 32-64) to the second part of the same century (c. 575), the third (chaps. 65-79) to the 7th century, and the fourth (chaps. 80-89) to the beginning of the 8th century. This result practically agrees with the statements found in a prologue in certain MSS. (which contain some of the barbarian codes), where it is said that the “Leges Francorum ( = Lex Ripuariorum), Alamannorum, et Bajuvariorum ” were compiled at Chalons-sur-Marne at the dictation of Thierry I. (511-534), by wise men learned in the law of his kingdom, and that the codes were afterwards revised and amended by Childebert I., Chlotar L, and Dagobert. Charlemagne promulgated some additional chapters to the Ripuarian Law in 803 {Mon. Germ. Hist., Legg., i. 117). We may here observe that the Salic and Ripuarian Laws were to some extent introduced into England by the R orman Conquest, as appears from the Laws of Henry L, where we find enactments “secundum Legem Salicam ” and “ secundum Legem Ripuariam” ; comp. Leg. Hen. I., capp. 87, §§ 9, 10, 11 (word for word=L. Sal., tit. 43), 89, 90 § 4 ( = L. Rip., 70), and 83 § 5 ( = L. Sal., tit. 55 § 4).

SALIC (3) With the Ripuarian Law the Lex Francorum Chamavorum is intimately connected. The two MSS. in which it is preserved call it “ ISTotitia vel commemoratio de ilia ewa (law) qiue se ad Amorem habet. ” Amor is the district called Hamarlant, Hamalant, Hammelant, Hainuland, in the 9th century. This name was derived from the Chamavi, a German state mentioned by Tacitus (Ann., xiii. 55 ; Germ., c. 33, 34), which afterwards constituted a part of the Frankish empire. In the 9th century Hamalant was a part of the Pagus Ribuariorum. The whole code consists of only fortyeight short paragraphs, which are apparently nothing but statements made in answer to the ‘ ‘ missi dominici ” whom Charlemagne despatched to the various nations of his empire to inquire into their condition and to codify their respective laws. It may therefore be ascribed to the beginning of the 9th century (802 or 803). Professor Sohm has published it as an appendix to the Lex Ripuaria (Mon. Germ. Hist., Legg., vol. v. part 2, p. 269). (4) The Lex Alamannorum was (according to the prologue mentioned above) first compiled by the East-Frankish king Thierry (511-534), and afterwards improved and renewed by Childebert I. (511-558), Chlotar I. (558), and Dagobert I. (622-638). Although not much reliance can be placed on this statement, the researches of Professor Merkel, who edited the code from forty-eight MSS. (Mon. Germ. Hist., Legg., vol. iii.), show that some kind of code called Pactus (of which he published three fragments) was compiled for the Alamanni in the reign of Chlotar I. (537-561). Under Chlotar II. (613-622) a more complete code, consisting of seventyfive chapters, was compiled, which was revised under Dagobert (628) and augmented with chapters 76-97 ; it was again altered and augmented under the Alamannic duke Landfrid (d. 730), whose work Merkel calls Lex Alamannorum Lantfridana, and finally augmented in the Carolingian period (hence called Lex Alamannorum Karolina sive reformata), perhaps early in the 9th century. The code consists of 97 (in some MSS. 98, 99, 105, and 107) chapters. (5) The Lex Bajuvariorum, or Pactus Bawarorum, had the same origin as the Lex Alamannorum, if we accept the somewhat unreliable statement of the prologue spoken of above. It seems probable that some kind of code was compiled for the Bavarians during the reigns of Clovis’s sons. Those paragraphs which treat of ecclesiastical affairs and the position of the Bavarian dukes towards the Frankish kings (tit. ii. chap. xx. § 3) have clearly been inserted in Dagobert’s time, if not later. There is a great similarity between certain provisions of the Bavarian and the Alamannic codes, and also some paragraphs of the former have been derived from the earliest recension of the Lex Wisigothorum. Some additions were made by Duke Thassilo II. (763-775), some by Charlemagne (803), some by King Louis (c. 906), and, finally, some by Duke Henry II. (end of 10th century). The emperor Henry III. is alleged to have granted the law of the Bavarians to the Hungarians in 1044. It consists of twenty-one chapters, each containing several paragraphs. Professor Merkel distinguishes three different recensions of the code and various additions, which he edited in 1863 from thirty-five MSS. for the Mon. Germ. Hist., Legg., iii. p. 183 sq. (6) For the Lex Frisionum, see vol. ix. p. 789. (7) The Leoc Angliorum et Werinorum,hocest, Thuringorurn, consists of seventeen chapters. Early editions of this code contained some legal decisions identical with those of Judge Wlemarus in the appendix to the Lex Frisionum (L. Angl. Jud. Wlem., 1, 2, 6, 7 = L. Fris., 22, §§ 54, 55, 86 ; Addit., i. 18), from which circumstance it was inferred that the compilation, or at least the revision, of both codes took place at one and the same time (802-803). But Richthofen, who edited the work in Mon. Germ. Hist. (Legg., v. p. 103), and who rejects these legal decisions of Wlemarus as not belonging to this code at all, is of opinion (p. 115) that the code was not written even at the end of the 9th century. Opinions have differed also as to the region where the law originated. Some ascribe it to the Angli and Werini, who inhabited the Holstein and Schleswig regions ; others attribute it to Thuringia proper ; and in more recent times it has been ascribed to Thuringia on the left bank of the Rhine (= South Holland, Brabant, &c.). It was also argued that the code must have originated in a region where Frisian and Frankish elements had become mixed, both in language and in law, and where the Frankish preponderated. That the code originated in South Holland was inferred from its agreement in some respects with the Lex Chamavorum, which originated in the region of the lower Rhine and the Yssel. And the law may have come to be in force among the allied tribes on the Elbe in northern Thuringia, even though it originated in South Holland. If it originated in Thuringia, it must have been transplanted to the Holstein and Schleswig regions ; and it was used by the Danes, as is clear from Canute bringing it over to England when he conquered the country in 1013.1 But in England the code was simply called “ Lex Werinorum, h.e., Thuringorum,” but no longer “ Anglorum,” as the Danes called the whole Anglo-Saxon popula1 Comp. Canuti Constit. de Foresta, e. 33, •' Emendet secundum pretium hominis mediocris, quod secundum Legem Werinorum, i.e., Thuringorum [=L. Angl. and Werin., i. 2] est 200 solidorum.”

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tion which they had conquered “Angli,” and the law which they found in force “ Lex Anglorum ” (Legg. Edw. Conf., c. 30). Hence it has been concluded that what was called in England Lex Danorum is nothing but the Lex Werinorum. When the Normans conquered England in 1066 they soon recognized that this Lex Danorum and the Law of the Norwegians (Lex Noricorum or Norwegensium), who had migrated to England in earlier times, were practically one and the same. Hence William L, declaring that the population which he had brought over with him from Normandy were also originally Norwegians, resolved to abrogate the Anglo-Saxon laws and to leave only that of the Danes in force (Legg. Edw. Conf., c. 30),—a plan which only the most persevering entreaties of the Anglo-Saxon barons could induce him to abandon. The latest edition of this code (1875) is by K. F. von Richthofen, who is decidedly against the South Holland origin of the law. (_8) The Lex Saxonum consists of nineteen chapters or sixty-six articles or paragraphs, and appears to be composed of three essential parts, the oldest of which (arts. 1-23) seems to have existed before the later additions known as the Capitulare Paderbornense (de partibus Saxonise) of 785 (or 777) and the Capitulare Saxonicum of 797 (in which a “Lex Saxonum” and “Ewa Saxonum” are referred to; comp, chaps. 33 and 7, 8, 10); the second part (arts. 24-60) must have been compiled after that date; and the third (arts. 61-66) was probably added in 798, when Charlemagne had removed a part of the Saxon nobility as hostages from their own country ; while the whole was united into one code at the diet of Aix-la-Chapelle in 802-803 (Merkel, Lex Saxonum, Berlin, 1853). The enactments of this code are far more severe than those of any other of the barbarian laws, and it often inflicts capital punishment for crimes which the other laws punish with mere pecuniary fines, as, for instance, theft and incendiarism. This rigour Charlemagne softened by reserving to himself the right of asylum and pardon, but it was expressly retained and granted anew by Conrad II. (1024-1039). The code was edited in 1875 by Yon Richthofen in Mon. Germ,. Hist., Legg., v. p. 1 sq. (9) The Leges Anglo-Saxonum are for a great part written in Anglo-Saxon, and as such may be reckoned among the most ancient monuments of the Teutonic language. They appeared mostly in the form of constitutions promulgated by the various kings (somewhat like the Frankish capitularies), with the co-operation of an assembly of leading men (“ sapientes, ” Beda, H. E., ii. 5), and frequently also of the clergy (concilium, synodus). They may be divided into two classes,—secular and ecclesiastical laws. Sometimes they are mere judicial sentences (dom) or treaties of peace (frid). The earliest laws we have are those of iEthelbert, king of Kent (c. 561); then follow those of Hlodhaer (c. 678) and Eadric (c. 685), Wihtraed (c. 691), Ine (after 688), iElfred (after 871), Eadward (after 901), /Ethelstan (after 924), Eadmund (after 941), Edgar (after 959), iEthelred II. (after 978), the Danish Canute (after 1017), William the Conqueror (after 1066). Then follow two collections of laws, the so-called “ Leges Edwardi Confessoris ” and “Leges Henrici I.,” which, drawing from the Anglo-Saxon Law, represent the modifications which had been made in the earliest laws during the Norman period, and the introduction of new elements derived from the Salic and Ripuarian Laws. Besides these there are a good many canons and other ecclesiastical ordinances enacted under the archbishops Theodore and Ecgbert and King Edgar, &c. ; comp. England, vol. viii. pp. 285, 303. There is an edition of these laws by B. Thorpe (fob, London, 1840), another by Dr Reinh. Schmid (Lie Gesetze der Angel- Sachsen, 2d ed., 8vo, Leipsic, 1858). (10) The compilation of the Lex Burgundionum is usually ascribed to Gundobald (d. 516), whence it is also called Lex Gundobada (corrupted Gombata, Fr. Loi Gombette). It consists, according to its first prologue, of a collection of constitutions enacted partly by the earlier kings of Burgundy, partly by Gundobald, and revised by a general Burgundian diet. This agrees with the statements contained in its second prologue, which itself may be regarded as an independent constitution or edict to the counts and judges regarding the introduction of the law. In the rubric which it bears in the MSS. it is said that it was promulgated at Lyons on 29th March in the second year of Gundobald (some MSS. read Sigismund). As the year of Gundobald’s accession is supposed to be 465, the promulgation must have taken place in 467, or, if we assume that the year is meant in which Gundobald became sole king of Burgundy (478), the date of the law would be 480, while it would be 517 if we adopt the reading “ Sigismund ” of some of the MSS. But as the law in its present state contains decrees both of Gundobald and of Sigismund we can only regard the whole as a compilation effected by the latter. In early editions the law was divided into eighty-nine chapters, with two additamenta, the first of which (consisting of twenty chapters) was ascribed to Sigismund, the second (of thirteen chapters) to his brother and successor, the last king of the Burgundians, Godomar. But Professor Bluhme (who published the law in 1863, in Mon. Germ. Hist., Legg., iii. 497) places chap. i. (De causis itineribus et aliis servitutibus) and chap. xix. (De liberali causa) of the first additamentum as chaps.

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xvii. and xliv. in “Papianus” ; chap. xx. as chap. cvi. (extrava- 6th century, i.e., shortly after the compilation of the Breviarium gant) and its remaining chapters as chapters Ixxxix. to cv. The Alarici (506). . Hence the text called “antiqua” may be regarded second additamentum is placed as chap. cvii., the old chap. Ixxxix. as a modification of that of the Paris palimpsest, and was probably as chap, cviii., and a new chapter cix. (a decree of Sigismund “De not made before the end of the 6 th or the beginning of the 7th collectis” of 516) added. It was Gundohald’s intention that his century. Roman law, which is so conspicuous in the later text law should decide all cases between Burgundians and between them may already be traced in that of the palimpsest (taken from the and Romans ; in all other cases the latter would only use Roman Breviarium Alarici), and also in the “antiqua” constitutions, in law (comp, second preface), of which the Lex Burgundionum con- which we find even traces of Justinian’s law. The Lex Wisitains many traces, and even the Burgundians were allowed to use gothorum (the first code in which Roman law and Teutonic law were Roman law (comp. L. Burg., titt. 43, 60, 55 § 2). The Latinity of systematically combined) was no doubt regarded, after Leovigild the Burgundian Law is purer than that of all the preceding bar- and Reccared L, as a code for the Goths as well as for the Romans barian codes, and we find in it a distinct tendency to treat Romans without abolishing the Breviarium among the Romans. But Kimr with greater leniency and to make, them equal to the Burgundians Chindaswinth ordained that the Lex Wisigothorum should be the in the eye of the law. Through Gundobald’s political relations sole code for both nations, prohibiting at the same time the use of with Alaric II., the Lex Burgundionum influenced the West-Gothic the Roman law, thereby materially promoting the amalgamation of legislation, of which traces are found in the Lex Wisigothorum and the two nations. It remained in force in Spain throughout the the interpretatio to Alaric’s Breviarium. Charlemagne promul- Middle Ages, and was translated into Spanish (Castilian) under gated in 813 a Capitulare Aquisgranum {Mon., Legg., i. 817) re- Ferdinand III. (1229-1234, or 1241) under the title Fuero Juzgo garding the Lex Burgundionum, though the text was not altered. or Fuero de Cordova. Agobart, bishop of Lyons, complained to Louis the Pious respecting Editions : (1) Fuero Judzgo en Latin e Castellano cotejado con los mas antiquos certain abuses caused by the Burgundian Law (Bouquet, vi. 356), y preciosos Codices por la Real Academia Espanola, Madrid, 1815, fol • (2) in Portugalias Monumenta Historica, vol. i., Lisbon, 1856, fol. ’ ' but no remedy was effected. On the other hand, towards the end (lla) Here also we may mention a Lex Romana compiled for the of the 9th century the law had gradually fallen into disuse like all the other barbarian laws, though it is said that the emperor Conrad Roman population, just as in Burgundy. It is also known as Liber n. revived and confirmed it. See, besides Professor Bluhme’s Legum, Liber Legum Romanorum, and as Lex Theodosii or Corpus edition, Hube, Hist, de la formation de la loi Bourguignonne, Theodosianum. It received the latter name because the Codex Theodosianus served as its basis. It includes also excerpts from Paris, 1867. (10a) In the second preface to the Lex Burgundionum (published novelise of Theodosius, Valentinian, Marcian, Majorian, Severus, in 502) the Roman subjects of the Burgundian king were promised and from the Institutiones of Gains, the Sententise of Paulus, the a codification of their own laws. This work appears to have been Codices Gregorianus and Hermogenianus, &e. In a MS. of the 10th promptly executed and was published under the title Lex Romana century it is called Breviarium, and the title Breviarium Alarici or Burgundionum, perhaps before the compilation of the Breviarium Alaricianum has become general since the 16th century. The comAlarici (506). This collection is also known as Papianus, of which pilers of the Breviarium are not known, but it was published in name (found already in MSS. of the 9th century) no satisfactory the twenty-second year of Alaric II., i.e., on 5th February 506, at explanation has hitherto been offered, some, perhaps wrongly, sup- Aire (Atures) in Gascony. It was also used in other western proposing that it is a corruption of the name of Papinianus, the Roman vinces of the Roman empire, and was imitated, excerpted, and jurist. It was published by Professor Bluhme as an appendix to altered in other places. One recension, probably dating from the the Lex Burgundionum {Mon. Germ. Hist., Legg., iii. p. 579). 9th century, is known (from the place where the MS. was found) (11) As regards the Lex Wisigothorum (also called Forum Judi- as the Lex Romana Utincnsis. The best edition is that of G. cum, Judicum Liber, Forum Judiciale, &c.), we know with certainty Haenel, Lex Romana Wisigothorum, Berlin, 1847. from Isidore of Seville {Hist. Goth. Hisp., 504) that Euric (466-483) (llb) We have also a code for the Eastern Goths compiled by was the first Gothic king who gave written laws to the West Goths. command of Theodoric after 506, but before 526, and known as It would therefore be erroneous to ascribe (with Mariana, Hist, de Edictum Theodorici. It consists of 155 chapters (with a few addiEspana, v. 6) their first written laws to Euric’s son, Alaric II., tions), which are in reality an epitome of Roman law. It was though it seems probable that the latter, by adding his own laws published in 1875, in Mon. Germ. Hist., Legg., v. p. 145 so., ed. to those of his father, was really the first author of a West-Gothic by Professor Bluhme. codification. Isidore refers to the collection of laws (as it had been (12) Leges Langobardorum. —The first trace of Lombardic law is preserved up to the end of the 5th and the beginning of the 6th an edict of Rothar, consisting of 388 chapters, and promulgated at century) as the Laws of Euric, though we must assume that the a diet held at Pavia on 22d November 643. This was followed by statutes of the kings.who succeeded Euric had already been added laws of Grimoald (668), nine chapters; Liutprand (713-735), six to his collection. Isidore also tells us {Hist. Goth. Hisp., 606-624) books ; Ratchis (746), nine chapters ; Aistulphus (c. 755), fourteen that Leovigild (d. 586) revised Euric’s Laws. As Isidore was chapters. Additions were also made by Charlemagne and his bishop of Seville from 599 to 636, and may therefore be said to successors down, to Lothair II. In the manuscripts the texts are have been a contemporary of Leovigild, his testimony may be arranged, some in a chronological, some in a systematical order. accepted as conclusive, though a much later but untrustworthy The latter arrangement is already found in a MS. of the 9th century. tradition would, have it that the revision was executed by Leovi- The systematic collection, which was used chiefly in Bologna at gild’s son, Reccared I. (the first Catholic king of the Goths) who lectures and for quotations and was known as Lombarda {Liber died in 601 whereby the whole population of Spain was equalized Langobardse s. Lombardse), appears to have been made in the 11th m point ol law. According to Spanish traditions of the 12th century. The text as it exists at present is very corrupt, as a century, the West-Gothic collection of laws was again revised number of glosses (some of great antiquity) and formula!, added under Sisenand, by the fourth council of Toledo (633), a revision m the first instance by those who had to use the code to explain on which Isidore seems to have exercised some influence. It is un- certain enactments of the law, afterwards found their way into the certain, however, whether the code was then systematically arranged text. rl owards the end of the 12th and down to the beginning of and divided into twelve books, as we now have it, or whether this the 16th century various glosses and commentaries on the LomU der Clllnc aswint d bardse made their appearance. The first commentaries were those m1 [ M - 652) or under his son Receswinth of Ariprand and of Albertus (second half of 12th century). The if" the +1, codes ' 1 A^vera booksand of the code are into divided (in and imitation of of Theodosius Justinianus) tituli, those later commentators (Carolus de Tocco, c. 1200 ; Andreas of Barulo, aP r const tutions c. 1230 ; Blasius de Morcone of Naples, before 1338 ; Boherius and a m 77nn nd h s° son and iS fni From Leovigild down to , p ofAthe VP ji before coregent Witiza (d. every c. 701,constituthe last Johannes Nenna of Bari, c. 1540) refer frequently to Roman law. 1 i king Goths the invasion of the Moors) Of the Edictum Rotharis a Greek translation was made, of which 18 nam f kln only fragments have been preserved (comp. C. E. Zacharia, FragbaiinlfffromAbefore TLeovigild ° g who it, while those menta dating have thepromulgated word “antiqua” prefixed f versionis Grsecse Legum Rotharis, Langob. regis, ex. cod. nie f a kin Grsec., No. 1348, Heidelberg, 1835). °f the 11iaby ° "- Thiswho designation*is said Paris. to have been commenced Erwig (680-687), thereby wished 1 T? Editions : (1) C. Baudus a Vesme, Edicta regum Langdbardorum, Turin 1855, to prevent the clergy from claiming the code as their work Of the reprinted by J. F. Neigebaur, Munich, 1855, 1856 ; (2) Mon. Germ. Hist, Legg., texts winch existed before the fourth council of Toledo only one iv. (1868), by Friedr. Bluhme and Alfr. Boretius ; (3) Fr. Bluhme, Edictus ceterxque Langobardonm leges, Hanover, 1870: comp. Merkel, Geschichte des al frag e , ") nt has come down to us, in a palimpsest preserved in Lombardenrechts, Berlin, 1850. Lxbrar ;1S Nat rialsupposed yrecension (No- 1278of)- Reccared Some regard this regard as the (13) The Leges Walliie do not belong to the Teutonic family of lemamder of the I. ; others codes ; but it is not out of place to mention them here. There is, th e Laws of Ei tk be the . the , 1 selves mic, ough it could in no case comparatively speaking, no great distance of time between the 1 Alarie Tr ™ ’ at most their codification by leges barbarorum and the Laws of Wales, while the contents of Th e^ fra n e ™ as kn rS i' n 7 P11 48 ' 0^ .": 52 152 °wn note to the Benedictines (Four. the latter show a similar, nay almost the same, idea of law as the ; and, apart from the fact that Wales became permanently la 18a7 bf^T’ b in 1847 i?i’ 1{Die ’ Westgoth. D* aild was published y Professor Bluhme Antiqua oder das former connected at the end of the 13th century with a Teutonic people, M red Z aUe) The text is £n th ot *n undoubtedly older the Anglo-Saxons, it has been noticed that in Wales Roman and aCt en\S W’A hlch we- find t it could m\hardly n be v placed designated as “antiqua,” so Germanic, but no traces of a specific Welsh, law are found. King that later than the commencement of the 1 Howel Dda {i.e., the Good), who died in 948, is the originator of

S A L- -SAL 1

the Welsh code. In the preface it is stated that Howel, “seeing the laws and customs of the country violated with impunity, summoned the archbishop Menevia, other bishops and the chief of the clergy, the nobles of Wales, and six persons (four laymen and two clerks) from each comot, to meet at a place called Y Ty Gwyn ar Dav, or the white house on the river Tav, repaired thither in person, selected from the whole assembly twelve of the most experienced persons, added to their number a clerk or doctor of laws, named Bllgywryd, and to these thirteen confided the task of examining, retaining, expounding, and abrogating. Their compilation was, when completed, read to the assembly, and, after having been confirmed, proclaimed. Howel caused three copies of them to be written, one of which was to accompany the court for daily use, another was deposited in the court at Aberfraw, and a third at Dinevwr. The bishops denounced sentence of excommunication against all transgressors, and soon after Howel himself went to Rome attended by the archbishop of St David’s, the bishops of Bangor and St Asaph, and thirteen other personages. The laws were recited before the pope and confirmed by his authority, upon which Howel and his companions returned home.” All this could not have been effected before Howel had subjected Wales to his own rule, therefore not before 943. We have three different recensions of the code, one for Yenedotia or North Wales, another for Dimetia or South Wales, a third for Gwent or North-East 'Wales. We do not know how far these recensions were uniform in the beginning; but a variance must have occurred shortly after, for the manuscripts in which the codes are preserved differ greatly from each other. The code was originally compiled in Welsh, but we have no older MSS. than the 12th century, and even the earliest ones (especially those of the Yenedotia recension) contain many interpolations. The Latin translations of the code would seem to be very old, though even here we have no earlier MSS. (belonging to the Dimetia recension) than the 13th century. The Latin text is much shorter than the Welsh, but we do not know whether this abridgment was made on purpose, or whether the translation is an imitation of an earlier text. The texts present only a few traces of Roman law, which, however, are evidently additions of a later period. The whole body of Welsh laws was published in one volume by An. Owen under the direction of the commissioners on the public records (fob, London, 1841). For further information on the barbarian codes, see Heinr. Zoepfl, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, 8vo, Brunswick, 1860, vol. i. p. 8 sq., whose clear and able treatment of the subject has been taken as the basis of paragraphs 4-13 above ; comp, also Stobbe, Geschichte der deutschen Rechtsquellen, 8vo, Brunswick, I860. (J. H. H.) SALICYLIC ACID, an organic acid found in nature, in the free state, in the flowers of the meadow-sweet (Spiraea Ulmaria, L.) and, combined with methylic ether, in the leaves of the wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens, L.) and Andromeda Leschenaultii, in the bark of the sweet birch (Betula lenta, L.), and in several species of Viola. It was discovered in 1838 by Piria, who prepared it artificially by the decomposition of Salicin (q.v.). It is remarkable as being the first organic compound occurring in nature which has been prepared artificially on the large scale as a commercial article. During the last few years it has been extensively used in medicine as a remedy for acute rheumatism, either alone or in the form of its sodium salt. Possessing powerful antiseptic properties and being poisonous only in large doses (the medicinal dose being from 5 to 30 grains), it is capable of manifold uses in the arts and manufactures. In the proportion of from 1 to 10 per cent, it prevents the development of bacteria in fluids containing them, and if added to the extent of 1 part in 60 it will destroy their life. It also kills Torula, and prevents the souring of beer and milk. It hinders the chemical changes brought about by the action of vegetable ferments or enzymes such as amygdalin and sinnigrin, and consequently can prevent the formation of essential oil of almonds or of oil of mustard, &c. Plants watered with its solution speedily die. The addition of a little of the acid to glue renders it more tenacious; skins to be used for making leather do not undergo decomposition if steeped in a dilute 1 There is no historical foundation for the legendary laws of a prince Dymal (or Dyvnwal) Moel Mud, nor for the Laws of Marsia, which are said to belong to a period before the Roman invasion, even so early as 400 years before Christ. An English translation by the side of the Welsh text of the so-called triads of Dyvnwal Moel Mud is given by Owen, The Ancient Laws of Wales, London, 1841, p. 630.

217

solution; butter containing a small quantity of it may be kept sweet for months even in the hottest weather. It also prevents the mouldiness of preserved fruits and has been found useful in the manufacture of vinegar. Unless the perfectly pure acid be employed the addition of salicylic acid to articles of food must be considered dangerous, some persons being peculiarly susceptible to its action. Salicylic acid is met with in commerce in two forms, “natural” and “ artificial.” The former occurs as handsome prismatic crystals resembling those of strychnin, but considerably larger, usually about half an inch in length ; the latter is met with as light minute crystals bearing some resemblance to sulphate of quinine, but smaller. The natural acid is prepared by decomposing the volatile oil of wintergreen or of the sweet birch by a strong solution of potassium hydrate, and treating the resulting potassium salicylate with hydrochloric acid, which liberates the salicylic acid. The artificial acid is prepared according to Robbe’s patent process by passing carbonic anhydride through sodium phenoxide (carbolate) heated in a retort, with certain precautions respecting temperature to prevent the formation of para-hydroxybenzoic acid. It is subsequently purified and recrystallized. An improvement has recently been made on this process by substituting sodium phenol for sodium phenoxide, the whole of the phenol being in this case converted into salicylic acid. Formerly this acid vTas met with in commerce contaminated with phenol, rosolic, and para-oxybenzoic acids, but is now prepared in a perfectly pure condition. The presence of the first-named impurity may be detected by its odour and by the melting-point being lower than when pure, the second by the pink tinge it communicates to the acid, and the third by its comparative insolubility in boiling chloroform, by the greater solubility of its calcium salt, and by its giving a yellow precipitate with ferric chloride. Salicylic acid when pure should be free from odour and should dissolve completely in alcohol, and its solution, when spontaneously evaporated without contact with air, should yield- crystals having colourless points. It has a specific gravity of l 45 and fuses at 155° C. (311° Fahr.); above that temperature it is converted into phenol and carbonic anhydride. Its chemical formula is C6H4(0H)C02H. It is soluble in 760 parts of cold water, in 4 of rectified spirits of wine, and in 200 of glycerin, also in olive and castor oils, in melted fats and vaseline. Alkaline salts of citric, acetic, and phosphoric acids render it more soluble in water, possibly from the base combining with it. An aqueous solution of salicylic acid gives a deep violet colour with ferric salts. The methyl, ethyl, and amyl ethers of the acid are used in perfumery, and the calcium salt if kept for some time and then distilled with water yields a liquid which has a strong odour of roses (Dingier, Polytechn. Journ., ccxvii. p. 136). When administered internally salicylic acid rapidly lowers the bodily temperature and reduces the pulse rate, blood pressure, and rapidity of respiration, causing death when given in excessive doses by paralysis of the respiratory organs. It is excreted in the urine pai'tly as salicylic and partly as salicyluric acid, communicating to it a brown colour by reflected and a green one by transmitted light. When taken for some time it produces deafness, giddiness, headache, and noises in the ears, like quinine. Taken internally in medicinal doses it possesses the same properties as salicin and sodium salicylate (see below), but is much less used in medicine. Applied externally, it has a marked action on thickened epidermis, and is hence used for the cure of corns and warts, to relieve pain and destroy fetor in ulcerated cancer, and also in certain skin diseases in which an antiseptic is useful, as in psoriasis, eczema, intertrigo, lupus, and ringworm. Taken as snuff it relieves hay fever. Salicylate of sodium (NaC7H503) is more frequently used in medicine than salicylic acid because less irritating to the mucous membranes. It is prepared by neutralizing a solution of sodium carbonate with salicylic acid. It occurs in commerce as small white crystalline plates with a slight pearly lustre, having a sweetish saline taste and mildly alkaline reaction. It is soluble in l-5 parts of water and 6 of alcohol at 15° C. (59° Fahr.), but much more so in boiling water and alcohol. It is chiefly employed medicinally as a remedy for acute rheumatism, in which it lowers the temperature and allays pain. It is also useful in headache and in phlegmasia alba; its cholagogic action and its power of rendering the bile more fluid indicate its usefulness in the treatment of gall stones. It has been found of service in Meniere’s disease. Alcohol or other stimulants are often given with it to prevent the depressing influence on the heart’s action which is caused by large doses. Ammonia is, however, unfit for this purpose (Martindale, Extra Pharmacopoeia, 3d ed., p. 57). Like salicylic acid, it produces when given in full doses subjective auditory phenomena, but these symptoms are relieved by the use of ergot and hydrobromic acid. In a few persons it causes most disagreeable visions whenever the eyes are shut, and in others it has even produced delirium. In its action on bacteria it is about one-third less powerful than salicylic acid. XXL — 28

SAL- -SAL SALIERI, Antonio (1750-1825), dramatic composer, and the spire was added between 1335 and 1375. It is was born at Legnano, Italy, August 19, 1750.. In 1766 be the highest in England (404 feet), and is remarkable both was taken to Vienna by a former “Kapellmeister” named for its beauty of proportion and the impression it conveys Gassmann, who introduced him to the emperor Joseph, of lightness and slenderness. The chapel built by Bishop and fairly prepared the way for his subsequent success. Beauchamp (1450-82), that built by Lord Hungerford in His first opera, Le Donne Letterate, was produced at the 147 6, and the fine campanile were all ruthlessly demolished Burg-Theater in 1770. On Gassmann’s death in 1774, by the architect James Wyatt, 1782-1791. The cathedral he received the appointment of Kapellmeister and com- as a whole is a unique specimen of Early English, having poser to the court; aud on the death of Bonno in 1788 the advantage of being practically completed as it now he was advanced to the dignity of “ Hof kapellmeister.” stands within a remarkably short period. For lightness, He held his offices with honour for fifty years, though he simplicity, grace, and unity of design it is not surpassed made frequent visits to Italy and Paris, and composed in England. It is in the form of a Greek or double for many important European theatres. His chef cVoeuvre cross, and comprises a nave of ten bays with aisles and a was Tarare (afterwards called Axur, Re cCOrmus), a lofty northern porch ; two transepts, one of three and the work which was preferred by the public of Vienna to other of two bays, while both have eastern aisles for Mozart’s Don Giovanni, though it is, in reality, quite chapels; a choir of three bays with aisles; a presbytery unworthy of comparison ivith that marvellous inspiration. of three bays with aisles; and a lady-chapel of two bays. It was first produced at Vienna, June 8, 1787, and The total length of the building is 449 feet, the length of strangely enough, considering the poverty of its style, it the nave being 229 feet 6 inches, of the choir 151 feet, was revived at Leipsic in 1846, though only for a single and of the lady-chapel 68 feet 6 inches, while the principal representation. His last opera was Die Neger, produced transept has a length of 203 feet 10 inches, and the in 1804. After this he devoted himself to the composi- eastern transept of 143 feet. The width of the nave is tion of church music, for which he had a very decided 34 feet 4 inches, and of the principal transept 50 feet 4 talent. Salieri lived on friendly terms with Haydn, but inches. The library, built by Bishop Jewel (1560-71), was a bitter enemy to Mozart, whose death lie was sus- contains about 5000 volumes and several MSS. of great pected of having produced by poison ; but no particle of interest. In the close, occupying an area of half a square evidence was ever forthcoming to give colour to the odious mile, and possessing a finely-shaded mall, are the episcopal accusation. He retired from office, on his full salary, in palace, an irregular structure begun by Bishop Poore but 1824, and died at Vienna May 7, 1825. None of Salieri’s of various dates, the deanery house, and other buildings. works have survived the change of fashion. He gave The three parish churches are St Martin’s, with square lessons in composition both to Cherubini and Beethoven ; tower and spire, and possessing a Norman font and the latter dedicated to him his Three Sonatas for Piano- portions of Early English in the choirSt Thomas’s (of forte and Violin, Op. 12. Canterbury), founded in 1240 as a chapel to the cathedral, SALII. See Maes. and rebuilt in the 15th century, a handsome building in the SALISBURY, or New Sarum, a city and municipal and Perpendicular style; and St Edmund’s, founded as the parliamentary borough, the county town of Wiltshire, Eng- collegiate church of secular canons in 1268, but subseland, is situated in a valley at the confluence of the Upper quently rebuilt in the Perpendicular style and lately Avon, the Wily, the Bourne, and the Nadder, on the Great restored at a cost of £6000. The residence of the college Western and South Western Railways, 80 miles west-south- of secular priests is now occupied by the modern west of London. The city at the beginning was regularly ecclesiastical college of St Edmund’s, founded in 1873. laid out by Bishop Poore and still retains substantially its St John’s chapel, founded by Bishop Bingham (1228-46), original plan. In the centre is the market-place, a large is now occupied by a dwelling-house. There is a beautiand handsome square, from which the streets branch off ful chapel attached to the St Nicholas hospital, founded at right angles, forming a series of quadrangles facing a in the reign of Richard II. The poultry cross, or thoroughfare on each side, and enclosing in the interior a high cross, an open hexagon with six arches and a central space for courts and gardens. The streams flowed un- pillar, was erected by Lord Montacute before 1335. In covered through the streets till the visitation of cholera the market-place is Marochetti’s statue to Lord Herbert in 1849 led to their being arched over. The cathedral of Lea. The principal secular buildings are the courtof St Mary was originally founded on the hill fortress house, the market-house, the Hamilton Hall, the county of Old Sarum by Bishop Herman, when he removed the jail, and the theatre. Among the specimens of ancient see from Sherborne between 1075 and 1078. The severe domestic architecture still remaining may be mentioned drought in 1834 caused the old foundations to be dis- the banqueting hall of J. Halle, wool merchant, built in covered. Its total length was 270 feet; the nave was 150 1470, and Audley House, belonging also to the 15th cenfeet by 72, the transept 150 feet by 70 ; and the choir was tury, and repaired in 1881 as a diocesan church house. 60 feet in length. In 1218 Bishop Poore procured a papal There are a large number of educational and other charities, bull for. the removal of the cathedral to New Sarum. Eor including the bishop’s grammar school, Queen Elizabeth’s this various reasons have been given,—the despotism of the grammar school, Talman’s girls’ school, the St Nicholas governor, the exposure to high winds which drowned the hospital, founded in the reign of Richard II., and Trinity voice of the officiating priest, the narrow space for houses, hospital, founded by Agnes Bottenham in 1379. At one and the difficulty of procuring water. Until the Reforma- time the city possessed woollen and cutlery manufactures, tion service still continued to be performed in the old but these have now declined; and, although the manufacchurch. A wooden chapel of St Mary was commenced at ture of hardware and of boots and shoes is still carried on, it New Sarum in the Easter-tide of 1219, and the founda- is on its shops for the supply of the neighbouring villages tions of the new cathedral were laid by Bishop Poore, and its agricultural trade that it now principally depends. 28th April 1220. It was dedicated at Michaelmas 1258’ The population of the city and municipal borough (area 616 the whole cost having amounted to 40,000 marks, or acres) in 1871 was 12,903, and that of the parliamentary ^ie gaiety and charm of his novel surroundings death. lifted a weight from his soul. His cloister, sanctified by unto In the July of the same year he was elected prior of St memories of St Antonine and adorned with the inspired Mark’s. As the convent had been rebuilt by Cosimo, and paintings of Frk Angelico, seemed to him a fore-court of enriched by the bounty of the Medici, it was considered ea\en. But his content speedily changed to horror. I he Florence streets rang with Lorenzo’s ribald songs (the the duty of the new superior to present his homage to canti carnascialeschi ”); the smooth, cultured citizens Lorenzo. Savonarola, however, refused to conform to the were dead to all sense of religion or morality; and the usage. His election was due to God, not Lorenzo; to spmt of the fashionable heathen philosophy had even God alone would he promise submission. Upon this the infected the brotherhood of St Mark. In 1483 Savonarola sovereign angrily exclaimed : “ This stranger comes to was Lenten preacher in the church of St Lorenzo, but his dwell in my house, yet will not stoop to pay me a visit.” plain, earnest exhortations attracted few hearers, while all Nevertheless, disdaining to recognize the enmity of a mere monk, he tried various conciliatory measures. All were the world thronged to Santo Spirito to eujoy the elegant rejected by the unbending prior, who even refused to let rhetoric of Fra Mariano da Genazzano. Discouraged by his convent profit by Lorenzo’s donations. The Magnifico this failure in the pulpit, Savonarola now devoted himself to teaching in the convent, but his zeal for the salvation then sought to undermine his popularity, and Fra Mariano was employed to attack him from the pulpit. But the

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preacher’s scandalous accusations missed their mark, and retaining in Florence those best fitted to aid in intellectual disgusted his hearers without hurting his rival. Savon- labour. To render the convent self-supporting, he opened arola took up the challenge; his eloquence prevailed, and schools for various branches of art, and promoted the Frk Mariano was silenced. But the latter, while feigning study of Oriental languages. His efforts were completely indifierence, was thenceforth his rancorous and determined successful; the brethren’s enthusiasm was fired by their superior’s example; religion and learning made equal profoe. . . 1 • -i t In April 1492 Lorenzo de’ Medici was on his death- gress ; St Mark’s became the most popular monastery in bed at Careggi. Oppressed by the weight of his crimes, Florence, and many citizens of noble birth flocked thither take the vows. he needed some assurance of divine forgiveness from to Meanwhile Savonarola continued to denounce the trustier lips than those of obsequious courtiers, and summoned the unyielding prior to shrive his _ soul. abuses of the church and the guilt and corruption of manSavonarola reluctantly came, and, after hearing the agitated kind, and thundered forth predictions of heavenly wrath. confession of the dying prince, offered absolution upon The scourge of war was already at hand, for in 1494 the three conditions. Lorenzo asked in what they consisted. duke of Milan demanded the aid of France, and King First 41 You must repent and feel true faith in Gods Charles VIII. brought an army across the Alps. Piero de’ mercy.” Lorenzo assented. Secondly, “You must give up Medici, maddened with fear, and forgetting that hitherto your ill-gotten wealth.” This too Lorenzo promised, after Florence had been the firm friend of France, made alliance some hesitation; but upon hearing the third clause, “You with the Neapolitan sovereign whose kingdom was claimed must restore the liberties of Florence,” Lorenzo turned his by Charles. Then, repenting this ill-judged^ step, he in person to the French camp at Pietra Santa, and face to the wall and made no reply. Savonarola waited a hurried humbled himself before the king. And, not content with few moments and then went away. And shortly after_his agreeing to all the latter’s demands, he further promised penitent died unabsolved. Savonarola’s influence now rapidly increased. _ Many large sums of money and the surrender of the strongholds adherents of the late prince came over to his side, of Pisa and Leghorn. This news drove Florence to revolt, and the worst disgusted by the violence and incompetency of Piero de’ Medici’s rule. All state affairs were mismanaged, and excesses were feared from the popular fury. But even at Florence was fast losing the power and prestige acquired this crisis Savonarola’s influence was all-powerful, and a was effected. Piero Capponi’s declaraunder Lorenzo. The same year witnessed the fulfilment bloodless revolution 11 tion that it was time to put an end to this baby governof Savonarola’s second prediction in the death of Innocent VIII. (July 1492); men’s minds were full of ment ” was the sole weapon needed to depose Piero de’ anxiety, and the scandalous election of Cardinal Borgia to Medici. The resuscitated republic instantly sent a fresh the papal chair heralded the climax of Italy’s woes. The embassy to the French king, to arrange the terms of his friar’s utterances became more and more fervent and reception in Florence. Savonarola was one of the envoys, impassioned. Patriotic solicitude combined with close Charles being known to entertain the greatest veneration study of Biblical prophecies had stirred him to a pious for the friar who had so long predicted his coming and frenzy, in which he saw visions and believed himself the declared it to be divinely ordained. He was. most respectrecipient of divine revelations. It was during the delivery fully received at the camp, but could obtain no definite of one of his forcible Advent sermons that he beheld the pledges from the king, who was bent on first coming to celebrated vision, recorded in contemporary medals and Florence. During Savonarola’s absence Piero de’ Medici engravings, that is almost a symbol of his doctrines.. A had re-entered the city, found his power irretrievably lost, hand appeared to him bearing a flaming sword inscribed and been contemptuously but peaceably expelled. It is a with the words: “ Gladius Domini supra terram cito. et proof of the high esteem in which Savonarola’s. convent velociter.” He heard supernatural voices proclaiming was held that, although the headquarters of the victorious mercy to the faithful, vengeance on the guilty, and mighty popular party, Piero’s brother, Cardinal Medici, entrusted cries that the wrath of God was at hand. Then the sword to its care a large share of the family treasures. Returning full of hope from Pietra Santa, Savonarola bent towards the earth, the sky darkened, thunder pealed, might well have been dismayed by the distracted state of lightning flashed, and the whole world was wasted by famine, bloodshed, and pestilence. It was probably the public affairs. There was no Government, and revolted noise of these sermons that caused the friar’s temporary Pisa was secretly favoured by the monarch who was removal from Florence at the instance of Piero de Medici. knocking at the gates of Florence. Nevertheless, with He was presently addressing enthusiastic congregations at the aid of Capponi, he guided the bewildered city safely Prato and Bologna. In the latter city his courage in through these critical days. Charles entered Florence on rebuking the wife of Bentivoglio, the reigning lord, for the 17th November 1494, and the citizens’ fears evaporated interrupting divine service by her noisy entrance nearly in jests on the puny exterior of the “ threatened scourge.” cost him his life. Assassins were sent to kill him in his But the exorbitance of his demands soon showed that he cell; but awed, it is said, by Savonarola’s words and came as a foe. All was agitation; disturbances arose, demeanour they fled dismayed from his presence. At the and serious collision with the French troops seemed close of his last sermon the undaunted friar publicly inevitable. The signory resolved to be rid of their announced the day and hour of his departure from dangerous guests; and, when Charles threatened to sound Bologna ; and his lonely journey on foot over the Apennines his trumpets unless the sums exacted were paid, Capponi was safely accomplished. He was rapturously welcomed tore up the treaty in his face and made the memorable by the community of St Mark’s, and at once proceeded to reply: “Then we will ring our bells.” The monarch re-establish the discipline of the order and to sweep away was cowed, accepted moderate terms, and, yielding to all abuses. For this purpose he obtained, after, much Savonarola’s remonstrances, left Florence on the 24th difficulty, a papal brief emancipating the Dominicans November. The city was now free but in the utmost disorder, its of St Mark from the rule of the. Lombard vicars of commerce ruined, its treasury drained. After seventy that order. He thus became an independent authorsubjection to the Medici it had forgotten the art of ity, no longer at the command of distant superiors. years’ Thoroughly reorganizing the convent, he relegated many self-government, and felt the need of a strong guiding of the brethren to a quieter retreat outside the city, only hand. So the citizens turned to the patriot monk whose

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words had freed them of King Charles, and Savonarola became the lawgiver of Florence. The first thing done at his instance was to relieve the starving populace within and without the walls; shops were opened to give work to the unemployed; all taxes, especially those weighing on the lower classes, were reduced; the strictest administration of justice was enforced, and all men were exhorted to place their trust in the Lord. And, after much debate as to the constitution of the new republic, Savonarola’s influence carried the day in favour of Soderini’s proposal of a universal or general government, with a great council on the Venetian plan, but modified to suit the needs of the city. The Florentines’ love for their great preacher was enhanced by gratitude on this triumphant defence of their rights. The great council consisted of 3200 citizens of blameless reputation and over twenty-five years of age, a third of the number sitting for six months in turn in the hall of the Cinquecento expressly built for the purpose. There was also an upper council of eighty, which in conjunction with the signory decided all questions of too important and delicate a nature for discussion in the larger assembly. These institutions were approved by the people, and gave a fair promise of justice. Savonarola’s programme of the new government was comprised in the following formula:—(1) fear of God and purification of manners; (2) promotion of the public welfare in preference to private interests; (3) a general amnesty to political offenders; (4) a council on the Venetian model, but with no doge. At first the new machinery acted well ; the public mind was tranquil, and the war with Pisa—not as yet of threatening proportions—was enough to occupy the Florentines and prevent internecine feuds. Without holding any official post in the commonwealth he had created the prior of St Mark’s was the real head of the state, the dictator of Florence, and guarded the public weal with extraordinary political wisdom. At his instance the tyrannical system of arbitrary imposts and so-called voluntary loans was abolished, and replaced by a tax of ten per cent, (la decima) on all real property. The laws and edicts of this period read like paraphrases of Savonarola’s sermons, and indeed his counsels were always given as addenda to the religious exhortations in which he denounced the sins of his country and the pollution of the church, and urged Florence to cast off iniquity and become a truly Christian city, a pattern not only to Rome but to the world at large. His eloquence was now at the flood. Day by day his impassioned words, filled with the spirit of the Old Testament, wrought upon the minds of the b lorentines and strung them to a pitch of pious emotion never before—and never since—attained by them. Their fervour was too hot to be lasting, and Savonarola’s uncompromising spirit roused the hatred of political adversaries as well as of the degraded court of Rome. Even now, when his authority was at its highest, when his fame filled the land, and the vast cathedral and its precincts lacked space for the crowds flocking to hear him, his enemies were secretly preparing his downfall. . Pleasure-loving Florence was completely changed. Abjuring pomps and vanities, its citizens observed the ascetic regime of the cloister; half the year was devoted to abstinence and few dared to eat meat on the fasts ordained a u ’t,had f'vonar - Hymns rang dissolute in the streets that so °l recently echoedand withlauds Lorenzo’s songs. Roth sexes dressed with Puritan plainness; husbands and wives quitted their homes for convents; marriage became an awful and scarcely permitted rite; mothers suckled their own babes ; and persons of all ranks—nobles, scholars, and artists—renounced the world to assume the Dominican robe. btill more wonderful was Savonarola’s influence over children, and their response to his appeals is a proof

of the magnetic power of his goodness and purity. He organized the boys of Florence in a species of sacred militia, an inner republic, with its own magistrates and officials charged with the enforcement of his rules for the holy life. It was with the aid of these youthful enthusiasts that Savonarola arranged the religious carnival of 1496, when the citizens gave their costliest possessions in alms to the poor, and tonsured monks, crowned with flowers, sang lauds and performed wild dances for the glory of God. In the same spirit, and to point the doctrine of renunciation of carnal gauds, he celebrated the carnival of 1497 by the famous “burning of the vanities ” in the Piazza della Signoria. A Venetian merchant is known to have bid 22,000 gold florins for the doomed vanities, but the scandalized authorities not only rejected his offer but added his portrait to the pile. Nevertheless the artistic value of the objects consumed has been greatly exaggerated by some writers. There is no proof that any book or painting of real merit was sacrificed, and Savonarola was neither a foe to art nor to learning. On the contrary, so great was his respect for both that, when there was a question of selling the Medici library to pay that family’s debts, he saved the collection at the expense of the convent purse. Meanwhile events were taking a turn hostile to the prior. Alexander VI. had long regretted the enfranchisement of St Mark’s from the rule of the Lombard Dominicans, and now, having seen a transcript of one of Savonarola’s denunciations of his crimes, resolved to silence this daring preacher at any cost. Bribery was the first weapon employed, and a cardinal’s hat was held out as a bait. But Savonarola indignantly spurned the offer, replying to it from the pulpit with the prophetic words : “ No hat will I have but that of a martyr, reddened with my own blood.” So long as King Charles remained in Italy Alexander’s concern for his own safety prevented all vigorous measures against the friar. But no Borgia ever forgot an enemy. He bided his time, and the transformation of sceptical Florence into an austerely Christian republic claiming the Saviour as its head only increased his resolve to crush the man who had wrought this marvel. The potent duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza, and other foes were labouring for the same end, and already in July 1495 a papal brief had courteously summoned Savonarola to Rome. In terms of equal courtesy the prior declined the invitation, nor did he obey a second, less softly worded, in September. Then came a third, threatening Florence with an interdict in case of renewed refusal. Savonarola disregarded the command, but suspending his sermons went to preach for a while in other Tuscan cities. But in Lent his celebrated sermons upon Amos were delivered in the duomo, and again he urged the necessity of reforming the church, striving by ingenious arguments to reconcile rebellion against Alexander with unalterable fidelity to the Holy See. All Italy recognized that a mortal combat was going on between a humble friar and the head of the church. What would be the result ? Savonarola’s voice was arousing a storm that might shake even the power of Rome ! Alive to the danger, the pope knew that his foe must be crushed, and the religious carnival of 1496 afforded a good pretext for stronger j^roceedings against him. The threatened anathema was, for some reason, deferred, but a brief uniting St Mark’s to a new Tuscan branch of the Dominicans now deprived Savonarola of his independent power. However, in the beginning of 1497 the Piagnoni were again in office, with the prior’s staunch friend, Irancesco Valori, at their head. In March the aspect of affairs changed. The Arrabbiati and the Medicean faction merged political differences in their

SAVON A R 0 L A common hatred to Savonarola. Piero de’ Medici’s fresh attempt to re-enter Florence failed; nevertheless his followers continued their intrigues, and party spirit increased in virulence. The citizens were growing weary of the monastic austerities imposed on them, and Alexander foresaw that his revenge was at hand. A signory openly hostile to Savonarola took office in May, and on Ascension Day his enemies ventured on active insult. His pulpit in the duomo was defiled, an ass’s skin spread over the cushion, and sharp nails fixed in the board on which he would strike his hand. The outrage was discovered and remedied before the service began; and, although the Arrabbiati half filled the church and even sought to attempt his life, Savonarola kept his composure and delivered a most impressive sermon. But the incident proved the bitterness and energy of his foes, and the signory, in feigned anxiety for the public peace, besought him to suspend his discourses. Shortly afterwards the threatened bull of excommunication was launched against him, and Frk Mariano was in Rome stimulating the pope’s wrath. Savonarola remained undaunted. The sentence was null and void, he said. His mission was divinely inspired; and Alexander, elected simoniacally and laden with crimes, was no true pope. Nevertheless the reading of the bull in the duomo with the appropriate, terrifying ceremonial made a deep impression on the Florentines. And now, the Arrabbiati signory putting no check on the Compagnacci, the city returned to the wanton licence of Lorenzo’s reign. But in July Savonarola’s friends were again in power and did their best to have his excommunication removed. Meanwhile party strife was stilled by an outbreak of the plague. The prior of St Mark’s used the wisest precautions for the safety of his two hundred and fifty monks, sustained their courage by his own, and sent the younger men to a country retreat out of reach of contagion. During this time Rome was horror-struck by the mysterious murder of the young duke of Gandia, and the bereaved pope mourned his son with the wildest grief. Savonarola addressed to the pontiff a letter of condolence, boldly urging him to bow to the will of Heaven and repent while there was yet time. The plague ended, Florence was plunged in fresh troubles from Medicean intrigues, and a conspiracy for the restoration of Piero was discovered. Among the five leading citizens concerned in the plot was Bernardo del Nero, a very aged man of lofty talents and position. The gonfalonier, Francesco Valori, used his strongest influence to obtain their condemnation, and all five were put to death. It is said that at least Bernardo del Nero would have been spared had Savonarola raised his voice, but, although refraining from any active part against the prisoners, the prior would not ask mercy for them. This silence proved fatal to his popularity with moderate men, gave new adherents to the Arrabbiati, and whetted the fury of the pope, Sforza, and all potentates well disposed to the Medici faction. He was now interdicted from preaching even in his own convent and again summoned to Rome. As before, the mandate was disobeyed. He refrained from public preaching, but held conferences in St Mark’s with large gatherings of his disciples, and defied the interdict on Christmas Day by publicly celebrating mass and heading a procession through the cloisters. The year 1498, in which Savonarola was to die a martyr’s death, opened amid seemingly favourable auspices. The Piagnoni were again at the head of the state, and by their request the prior resumed his sermons in the duomo, while his dearest disciple, Frh Domenico Buonvicini, filled the pulpit of St Lorenzo. Scaffoldings had to be erected to accommodate Savonarola’s congregation, and the Arrabbiati could only vent their spite by noisy riots on the

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piazza outside the cathedral. For the last time the carnival was again kept with strange religious festivities, and many valuable books and works of art were sacrificed in a second bonfire of “ vanities.” But menacing briefs poured in from Rome; the pope had read one of Savonarola’s recent sermons on Exodus; the city itself was threatened with interdict, and the Florentine ambassador could barely obtain a short delay. Now too the Piagnoni quitted office; the new signory was less friendly, and the prior was persuaded by his adherents to retire to St Mark’s. There he continued to preach with unabated zeal; and, since the women of Florence deplored the loss of his teachings, one day in the week was set apart for them. The signory tried to conciliate the pope by relating the wonderful spiritual effects of their preacher’s words, but Alexander was obdurate. The Florentines must either silence the man themselves, or send him to be judged by a Roman tribunal. Undismayed by personal danger, Savonarola resolved to appeal to all Christendom against the unrighteous pontiff, and despatched letters to the rulers of Europe adjuring them to assemble a council to condemn this antipope. The council of Constance, and the deposition of John XXIII., were satisfactory precedents still remembered by the world. One of these letters being intercepted and sent to Rome by the duke of Milan (it is said) proved fatal to the friar. The papal threats were now too urgent to be disregarded, and the cowed signory entreated Savonarola to put an end to his sermons. He reluctantly obeyed, and concluded his last discourse with the tenderest and most touching farewell. Perhaps he foresaw that he should never again address his flock from the pulpit. The Government now hoped that Alexander would be appeased and Florence allowed to breathe freely. But although silenced the prophet was doomed, and the folly of his disciples precipitated his fate. A creature of the Arrabbiati, a Franciscan friar named Francesco di Puglia, challenged Savonarola to prove the truth of his doctrines by the ordeal of fire. At first the prior treated the provocation with merited contempt, but unfortunately his too zealous disciple Frk Domenico accepted the challenge. And, when the Franciscan declared that he would enter the fire with Savonarola alone, Frk Domenico protested his willingness to enter it with any one in defence of his master’s cause. So, as Savonarola resolutely declined the trial, the Franciscan deputed a convert, one Giuliano dei Rondinelli, to go through the ordeal with Frk Domenico. There were long preliminary disputes. Savonarola, perceiving that a trap was being laid for him, discountenanced the “ experiment ” until over-persuaded by his disciple’s prayers. Perhaps because it was a mere reductio ad absurdum of his dearest beliefs, he was strangely perplexed and vacillating with regard to it. With his firm conviction of the divinity of his mission he sometimes felt assured of the triumphant issue of the terrible ordeal. Alternately swayed by impassioned zeal and the promptings of reason, his calmer judgment was at last overborne by° the fanaticism of his followers. Aided by the signory, which was playing into the hands of Rome, the Arrabbiati and Compagnacci pressed the matter on, and the way was now clear for Savonarola’s destruction. On the 7th April 1498 an immense throng gathered in the Piazza della Signoria to enjoy the barbarous sight. Two thick banks of combustibles forty yards long, with a narrow space between, had been erected in front of the palace, and five hundred soldiers kept a wide circle clear of the crowd. Some writers aver that the piles were charged with gunpowder. Not only the square but every window, balcony, or housetop commanding a glimpse of it was filled with eager spectators. The Dominicans XXL - 43

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from one side, the Franciscans from the other, marched in Domenico, armed with an enormous candlestick, guarding solemn procession to the Loggia dei Lanzi, which had been him from the blows of the mob. Profiting by the smoke divided by a hoarding into two separate compartments. and confusion a few disciples dragged their beloved The Dominicans were led by Savonarola carrying the master to the inner library and urged him to escape by host, which he reverently deposited on an altar prepared the window. He hesitated, seemed about to consent, in his portion of the loggia, and when Frk Domenico was when a cowardly monk, one Malatesta Sacramoro, cried out seen to kneel before it the Piagnoni burst into a song of that the shepherd should lay down his life for his flock. praise. The magistrates signalled to the two champions Thereupon Savonarola turned, bade farewell to the brethren, to advance. Fra Domenico stepped forward, but neither and, accompanied by the faithful Domenico, quietly Kondinelli nor Fra Francesco appeared. The Franciscans surrendered to his enemies. Later, betrayed by the same began to urge fantastic objections. The Dominican’s Malatesta, Frk Silvestro was also seized. Hustled, vestments might be bewitched, they said. Then, when he insulted, and injured by the ferocious crowd, the prisoners promptly changed them for a friar’s robe, they pretended were conveyed to the Palazzo Vecchio, and Savonarola was that his proximity to Savonarola had probably renewed lodged in the tower cell which had once harboured Cosimo the charm. He must remove the cross that he wore. de’ Medici. He again complied,—was ready to fulfil every condition in Now came an exultant brief from the pope. His wellorder to enter the fire. But fresh obstacles were suggested beloved Florentines were true sons of the church, but must by the Franciscans, and, when Savonarola insisted that his crown their good deeds by despatching the criminals to champion should bear the host, they cried out against the Rome. Sforza was equally rejoiced by the news, and the sacrilege of exposing the Redeemer’s body to the flames. only potentate who could have perhaps saved Savonarola’s All was turmoil and confusion, the crowd frantic. And, life, Charles of France, had died on the day of the ordeal although Rondinelli had not come, the signory sent by fire. Thus another of the friar’s prophecies was verified, angry messages to ask why the Dominicans delayed the and its fulfilment cost him his sole protector. trial. Meanwhile the Arrabbiati stirred the public disThe result of the trial was a foregone conclusion. The content and threw all the blame on Savonarola. Some signory refused to send their prisoners to Rome, but they Compagnacci assaulted the loggia in order to kill him, did Rome’s behests. Savonarola’s judges were chosen from but were driven back by Salviati’s band. The foreign his bitterest foes. Day after day he was cruelly tortured, soldiery, fearing an attack on the palace, charged the and in his agony, with a frame weakened by constant excited mob, and the tumult was temporarily checked. austerity and the mental strain of the past months, he It was now late in the day, and a storm shower gave the made every admission demanded by his tormentors. But authorities a pretext for declaring that heaven was against directly he was released from the rack he always withdrew the ordeal. The crafty Franciscans slipped away un- the confessions uttered in the delirium of pain. And, these observed, but Savonarola raising the host attempted to being too incoherent to serve for a legal report, a false lead his monks across the piazza in the same solemn order account of the friar’s avowals was drawn up and published as before. On this the popular fury burst forth. De- instead of his real words. frauded of their bloody diversion, the people were wild Though physically unable to resist torture, Savonarola’s with rage. Frk Girolamo’s power was suddenly at an end. clearness of mind returned whenever he was at peace in These Florentines who had worshipped him as a saint his cell. So long as writing materials were allowed him turned on him with rabid hate. Neither he nor his he employed himself in making a commentary on the brethren would have lived to reach St Mark’s but for the Psalms, in which he restated all his doctrines. His doom devoted help of Salviati and his men. They were pelted, was fixed, but some delay was caused by the pope’s stoned, and followed with the vilest execrations. Against unwillingness to permit the execution in Florence. Alexthe real culprits, the dastardly Franciscans, no anger was ander was frantically eager to see his enemy die in Rome. felt; the zealous prior, the prophet and lawgiver of But the signory remained firm, insisting that the false Florence, was made the popular scapegoat. Notwith- prophet should suffer. death before the Florentines whom standing the anguish that must have filled his heart, the he had so long led astray. The matter was finally comfallen man preserved his dignity and calm. Mounting promised. A second mock trial was held by two apostolic his own pulpit in St Mark’s he quietly related the events commissioners specially appointed by the pope. One of the of the day to the faithful assembled in the church, and new judges was a Venetian general of the Dominicans, the then withdrew to his cell, while the mob on the square other a Spaniard. Meanwhile the trial of Brothers outside was clamouring for his blood. Domenico and Silvestro was still in progress. The former Hie next morning, the signory having decreed the remained nobly faithful to his master and himself. No prior’s banishment, Francesco Valori and other leading extremity of torture could make him recant or extract a Piagnoni hurried to him to concert measures for his safety. syllable to Savonarola’s hurt; he steadfastly repeated his Meanwhile the Government decided on his arrest, and no belief in the divinity of the prior’s mission. Fra Silvestro sooner was this made public than the populace rushed to on the contrary gave way at mere sight of the rack, and the attack of the convent. The doors of St Mark’s were this seer of heavenly visions owned himself and master hastily secured, and Savonarola discovered that his guilty of every crime laid to their charge. adherents had secretly prepared arms and munitions and The two commissioners soon ended their task. They were ready to stand a siege. The signory sent to order had the pope’s orders that Savonarola was to die “ even all laymen to quit the cloister, and a special summons to were he a second John the Baptist.” On three successive Valori. . After some hesitation the latter obeyed, hoping days they “ examined ” the prior with worse tortures than by his influence to rally all the Piagnoni to the rescue. before. But he now resisted pain better, and, although But he was murdered in the street, and his palace sacked more than once a promise to recant was extorted from by the mob. The monks and their few remaining friends him, he reasserted his innocence when unbound, crying out, made a most desperate defence. In vain Savonarola “ My God, I denied Thee for fear of pain.” On the evening besought them to lay down their arms. Frk Benedetto of May 22 sentence of death was pronounced on him and the painter and others fought like lions, while some hurled his two disciples. Savonarola listened unmoved to the tiles on the assailants below. When the church was finally awful words, and then quietly resumed his interrupted stormed Savonarola was seen praying at the altar, and Fra devotions. Fra Domenico exulted in the thought of dying

S A V- -SAY by his master’s side ; Fra Silvestro, on the contrary, raved with despair. The only favour Savonarola craved before death was a short interview with his fellow victims. This, after long debate, the signory unwillingly granted, and meanwhile a monk was sent to shrive all the three. The memorable meeting took place in the hall of the Cinquecento. During their forty days of confinement and torture each one had been told that the others had recanted, and the false report of Savonarola’s confession had been shown to the two monks. The three were now face to face for the first time. Fra Domenico’sdoyalty had never wavered, and the weak Silvestro’s enthusiasm rekindled at sight of his chief. Savonarola prayed with the two men, gave them his blessing, and exhorted them by the memory of -their Saviour’s crucifixion to submit meekly to their fate. Midnight was long past when Savonarola was led back to his cell. Jacopo Niccolini, one of a religious fraternity dedicated to consoling the last hours of condemned men, remained with him. Spent with weakness and fatigue he asked leave to rest his head on his companion’s lap, and quickly fell into a quiet sleep. As Niccolini tells us, the martyr’s face became serene and smiling as a child’s. On awaking he addressed kind words to the compassionate brother, and then prophesied that dire calamities would befall Florence during the reign of a pope named Clement. The carefully recorded prediction was verified by the siege of 1529. The execution took place the next morning. A scaffold, connected by a wooden bridge with the magistrates’ rostrum, had been erected on the spot where the piles of the ordeal had stood. At one end of the platform was a huge cross with faggots heaped at its base. As the prisoners, clad in penitential haircloth, were led across the bridge, wanton boys thrust sharp sticks between the planks to wound their feet. First came the ceremonial of degradation. Sacerdotal robes were thrown over the victims, and then roughly stripped off by two Dominicans, the bishop of Vasona and the prior of Sta Maria Novella. To the bishop’s formula, “I separate thee from the church militant and the church triumphant, ” Savonarola replied in firm tones, “Not from the church triumphant; that is beyond thy power.” By a refinement of cruelty Savonarola was the last to suffer. His disciples’ bodies already dangled from the arms of the cross before he was hung on the centre beam. Then the pile was fired. For a moment the wind blew the flames aside, leaving the corpses untouched. “A miracle,” cried the weeping Piagnoni; but then the fire leapt up and ferocious yells of triumph rang from the mob. At dusk the martyrs’ remains were collected in a cart and thrown into the Arno. Savonarola’s party was apparently annihilated by his death, but, when in 1529-30 Florence was exposed to the horrors predicted by him, the most heroic defenders of his beloved if ungrateful city were Piagnoni who ruled their lives by his precepts and revered his memory as that of a saint. Savonarola’s writings may be classed in three categories:—(1) numerous sermons, collected mainly by Lorenzo Yioli, one of his most enthusiastic hearers ; (2) an immense number of devotional and moral essays and some theological works, of which II Trionfo della,' Croce is the chief; (3) a few short poems and a political treatise on the government of Florence. Although his faith in the dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church never swerved, his strenuous protests against papal corruptions, his reliance on the Bible as his surest guide, and his intense moral earnestness undoubtedly connect Savonarola with the movement that heralded the Reformation. See Rudelbach, Hieronymus Savonarola mid seine Zeit, aus den Quellen dargestellt (1835); Karl Meier, Girolamo Savonarola, aus grossentheils handschriftlichen Quellen dargestellt (1836); Padre Vincenzo Mai'chese, Storia di S. Marco di Firenze (1855); F. T. Perrens, Jerdme Savonarola, sa vie, ses predications, ses ecrits (1853); R. R. Madden, The Life and Martyrdom of Girolamo Savonarola, etc. (1854); Bartolommeo Aqnarone, Vita di Frh G. ronimo Savonarola (1857); Pasqualo Villarl, La Storia di Girolamo Savonarola e de' suoi tempi (1882). (L. V.)

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SAVOY. The history of the house of Savoy shows in a striking manner how the destinies of a nation may depend on the fortunes of a princely family. During eight centuries, and through all changes of fortune, the princes of Savoy have kept one end steadily in view, and, in the words of Charles Emmanuel III., have “treated Italy as an artichoke to be eaten leaf by leaf.” The ambitions of princes and the interests of the people have fortunately tended in the same direction, and their work is now perfected in the glory of their house and the freedom of the state. The descent of Humbert the Whitehanded, the founder of the family, is uncertain, but he was most probably a son of Amadeus, the great-grandson of that Boso of Provence (879) who was father of the emperor Louis the Blind. In reward for services rendered to Rudolph III. of Arles, Humbert obtained from him in 1027 the counties of Savoy and Maurienne, and from the emperor Conrad the Salic Chablais and the Lower Valais. His territories, therefore, all lay on the north-western slopes of the Alps. On his death in 1048 he was succeeded perhaps by his eldest son Amadeus L, but eventually by his fourth son Otho, wTho, by his marriage with Adelaide, sole heiress of the marquis of Susa, obtained the counties of Turin and the Val d’Aosta, and so acquired a footing in the valley of the Po. His wife’s rank, too, as marchioness made the family guardians of the frontier by authority of the king of Italy, as they had been before by possession of territory, and was the foundation of their subsequent power as “warders” of the Alps. Otho was succeeded in 1060 by his son Amadeus II., who maintained a judicious neutrality between his brother-in-law the emperor Henry IV. and the pope. In reward for his mediation between them he obtained from the former after Canossa the province of Bugey. The accession of his son Humbert II. in 1080 brought fresh increase of territory in the valley of the Tarantaise, and in 1091 this prince succeeded to the dignities of his grandmother Adelaide, when he assumed the title of prince of Piedmont. Amaleus III. came to the throne in 1103, and in 1111 his states were created counties of the empire by Henry V. On his way home from the crusades in 1149 Amadeus died at Nicosia, and was succeeded by his son Humbert III. This prince did not follow the example of Amadeus II., but took the part of the pope against Barbarossa, who accordingly ravaged his territories until Humbert’s death in 1188. The guardians of his son Thomas acted more discreetly, and reconciled their ward and the emperor. He remained Ghibelline all his life, and received from Henry VI. accessions of territory in Vaud, Bugey, and Valais, with the title of imperial vicar in Piedmont and Lombardy. He was followed in 1233 by Amadeus IV., whose wife was the beautiful Cecilia of Beaux, surnamed Passe Rose. A campaign against the inhabitants of Valais ended in the annexation of their district, and his support of Frederick II. against the pope caused the erection of Chablais and Aosta into a duchy. In 1253 his son Boniface succeeded to his states at the age of nine, but, after giving proofs of his valour by defeating the troops of Charles of Anjou before Turin, he was taken prisoner and died of grief (1263). The Salic law now came into operation for the first time, and Peter, the uncle of Boniface, was called to the throne. This prince, on the marriage of his nieces Eleanor and Sancha of Provence with Henry III. of England and Richard, earl of Cornwall, had visited England, where he had been created earl of Richmond, and built a palace in London afterwards called Savoy House. His brothers Boniface and William were also appointed, the former to the see of Canterbury, and the latter to the presidency of the council. In return he recognized the claims of Richard to the impe-

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SAVOY Genealogical Table of the House of Savoy. HUMBERT = ANC1LL the White-handed, 5th in descent from Boson of Provence (879), d. 1048. Amadeus I. (?)

Otho=Adelaide, dr. and heiress of Oderic Manfred, d. 1060. I marquis of Susa, d. 1091. Amadeus II., d. 1080. Humbert II., the Fat, d. 1103. Amadeus III. = Mathilda, dr. of d. 1149. I Guignes VI. of Alton.

Humbert III. =4 wives, the Saint, d. 1188. I Thomas=Beatrice of Geneva. 1177-1233. = Margaret of Faucigny. Amadeus IV. =Cdcile de Beaux, 1197-1253. “Passe-Rose.” Boniface, 1244-1263

Thomas=Joan of Flanders. 1199-1259. = Beatrice di Fieschi.

Thomas

Philip, prince of Achaia.

Alice = Louis VI. of France. or Adelaide Mathilda=Affonso Henriques, 1st king of Portugal.

Peter=Agnes of earl of Faucigny. Richmond, 1203-1268.

Amadeus V.=Sibylla. Beatrice=Guy the Great, =Mary of Brabant. Vienne. 1249-1323.

Louis.

Philip I. = Alice of 1208-1285. Merania. Eleanor = Henry III. of England.

Boniface, archbishop of Canterbury, d. 1270.

Sancha = Rich., earl of Cornwall.

Beatrice = RaymondBe'renger IV. of Provence.

Margaret = S. Louis of France.

Beatrice = Charles of Anjou.

Edward=Blanche of AYMON=Yolande of Anne=Andronicus III., the Liberal, I Burgundy. the Peaceful, I Montferrato. emperor of 1284-1329. 1291-1343. Constantinople. Joan=John III. Amadeus VI. = Bonne de John of Brittany. the Green Count, Bourbon. Paiaeologus. 1333-1383. Amadeus VII. = Bonne de Berry, the Red Count, ' 1360-1391. Amadeus VIII. = Mary of Burgundy, the first duke, after- ' wards Pope Felix V., 1383-1450. Louis = Anne of Lusignano. 1402-1465. I

Amadeus IX.=Yolande, dr. of 1436-1472. Charles VII. of France. Philibert I. 1465-1482.

Bertha=emperor Henry-IV.

Philip II.=Margaret of Bourbon=Claudine de Penthifevre. of Bresse, 1 | 1438-1497.

Charles I. = Blanche of 1458-1489. I Montferrato.

Philibert II.=Yolande Louise=Charles of Charles III. = Beatrice of Philip, founder 1480-1504. dr. of Chas. I. I Angouleme. the Good, Portugal. of the house 1486-1553. of Nemours. Francis I. I Yolande. of France. Emmanuel Philibert=Margaret, dr. of the Iron-headed, Francis I. of France. 1528-1580. Charles Emmanuel I. = Catherine, dr. of the Great, 1562-1630. I Philip II. of Spain.

Charles II. 1488-1496.

Victor Amadeus I. = Christina, dr. of 1587-1637. I Henry IV. of France. Francis Hyacinth, 1632-1638.

Thomas Francis=Mary of Bourbon, of Savoy-Carignano, I 1596-1656.

Charles Emmanuel II. —Mary of Emmanuel Philibert=Ange Catharina Eugene Maurice=Olympia 1634-16/5. Savoy-Nemours. 1631-1709. I d’Este. 1633-1708. I Mancini. Victor Amadeus II.=Mary of Orleans. Victor Amadeus=Victoria Francesca Prince Eugene, king of Sardinia, gd. dr. of Chas. I. 1690-1766. of Savoy. 1663-1736. 1666-1732, abd. 1730. of England. Charles Emmanuel III. = Anne of Suizbach, Louis Victor=Christina of Hesse. 1701-1773. and two others. 1721- ? . I Victor Amadeus III. —Marie Antoinette 1727-1796. | of Spain.

Victor Amadeus=Mary Josephine 1743-1780. | of Lorraine-Armagnac. Emmanuel=Mary Christina Charles Emmanuel IV., Victor Emmanuel I. Charles Felix, Charles 1770-1800. I of Saxony. 1751-1820, abd. 1802. 1759-1824, abd. 1820. 1765-1831. Charles ALBERT=Maria Theresa 1798-1849. j of Tuscany. Victor Emmanuel II. = Adelaide, dr. of the first king of Italy, I Archduke Rainer 1820-1878. of Austria. Clotilde = Prince Napoleon. 1. 1843.

Humbert I. = Mary of Savoy. 6. 1844.

Amadeus, 6. 1845. king of Spain, 1870-73.

Mary=Prince de 1749-1792. Lamballe.

Maria Pia = Louis, b. 1847. king of Portugal.

SAVOY rial throne, and received from him Kyburg in the diocese of Lausanne, conveniently near to the county of Geneva, which had been willed to him by the last count. But this increase of territory only brought new anxieties, for Peter’s short reign was occupied in reducing refractory vassals to obedience. At his death in 1268 he was succeeded by his brother Philip I., who died in 1285, when their nephew Amadeus V. came to the throne. This prince, surnamed the Great, united Bauge and Bresse to his states in right op his wife Sibylla, and later on Lower Faucigny and part of Geneva. For his second wife he married Mary of Brabant, sister of the emperor Henry VII., from whom, in reward for his services in North Italy, he received the seigneury of Aosta. His life was passed in continual and victorious warfare, and one of his last exploits was to force the Turks to raise the siege of Rhodes. In commemoration of his victory it is said that he substituted for the eagles in his arms the letters F.E.R.T. (Fortitudo ejus lihodum tenuit). He died in 1323 while making preparations for a campaign in aid of his nephew, the emperor of the East. His son Edward succeeded him, and, dying in 1329, was followed by his brother Aymon. This prince died in 1343, when his son Amadeus VI. ascended the throne. His reign was, like his grandfather’s, a series of petty wars, from which he came out victorious and with extended territory, until, accompanying Louis of Anjou on his expedition against Naples, he died there of the plague (1383). The reign of his son Amadeus VII. promised to be as glorious as those of his ancestors, but it was cut short by a fall from his horse in 1391. Before his death, however, he had received the allegiance of Barcelonnette, A^entimiglia, Villafranca, and Nice, so gaining access to the Mediterranean. His son Amadeus VIII. now came to the throne, under the guardianship of his grandmother Bonne de Bourbon. On attaining his majority he first directed his efforts to strengthening his power in the outlying provinces, and in this he was particularly successful. The states of Savoy now extended from the Lake of Geneva to the Mediterranean, and from the Saone to the Sesia. Its prince had therefore considerable power, and Amadeus threw all the weight of this on the side of the emperor. Sigismund was not ungrateful, and in 1416 erected the counties of Savoy and Piedmont into duchies. At this time too the duke recovered the fief of Piedmont, which had been granted to Philip, prince of Achaia, by Amadeus V., and his power was thus thoroughly consolidated. The county of Vercelli afterwards rewarded him for joining the league against the duke of Milan, but in 1434 a plot against his life made him put into execution a plan he had long formed of retiring to a monastery. He accordingly made his son Louis lieutenant-general of the dukedom, and assumed the habit of the knights of S. Maurice, a military order he had founded at the priory of Ripaille. But he was not destined to find the repose he sought. The prelates assembled at the council of Basel voted the deposition of Pope Eugenius IV., and elected Amadeus in his place. Felix V., as he was now called, then abdicated his dukedom definitively, but without much gain in temporal honours, for the schism continued until the death of Eugenius in 1447, shortly after which it was healed by the honourable submission of Felix to Nicholas V. The early years of Louis’s reign were under the guidance of his father, and peace and prosperity blessed his people; but he afterwards made an alliance with the dauphin which brought him into conflict with Charles VII. of France, though a lasting reconciliation was soon effected. His son Amadeus IX. succeeded in 1465, but, though his virtues led to his beatification, his bodily sufferings made him assign the regency to his wife Yolande, a daughter'1 of

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Charles VII. He died in 1472, when his son Philibert I. succeeded to the throne and to his share in the contests of Yolande with her brother and brothers-in-law, who tried to deprive their nephew of his rights. His reign lasted only ten years, when he was succeeded by his brother Charles I. This prince raised for a time by his valour the drooping fortunes of his house, but he died in 1489 at the age of thirty-one, having inherited from his aunt, Charlotte of Lusignano, her pretensions to the titular kingdoms of Cyprus, Jerusalem, and Armenia. He was succeeded by his son Charles II., an infant, who, dying in 1496, was followed by Philip II., brother of Amadeus IX. He died in 1497, leaving Philibert II., who succeeded him, and Charles IIP, who ascended the throne on his brother’s death in 1504. In spite of himself Charles was drawn into the wars of the period, for in the quarrel between Francis I. and the pope he could not avoid espousing the cause of his nephew. But the decisive victory of Francis at Marignano gave the duke the opportunity of negotiating the conference at Bologna which led to the conclusion of peace in 1516. So far well, but Charles was less fortunate in the part he took in the wars between Francis I. and Charles V., the brother-in-law of his wife. He tried to maintain a strict neutrality, but his attendance at the emperor’s coronation at Bologna in 1530 was imperative in his double character of kinsman and vassal. The visit was fatal to him, for he was rewarded with the county of Asti, and this so displeased the French king that, on the revolt of Geneva to Protestantism in 1532, Francis sent help to the citizens. Bern and Freiburg did likewise, and so expelled the duke from Lausanne and Vaud. Charles now sided definitely with the emperor, and Francis at once raised some imaginary claims to his states. On their rejection the French army marched into Savoy, and, finding the pass of Susa unfortified, descended on Piedmont and seized Turin (1536). Charles V. came to the aid of his ally, and invested the city, but, being himself hard pressed, was obliged to make peace. France kept Savoy, and the emperor occupied Piedmont, so that only Nice remained to the duke. On the resumption of hostilities in 1541 Piedmont again suffered. In 1544 the treaty of Crespy restored his states to Charles, but the terms were not carried out and he died of grief in 1553. His only surviving son Emmanuel Philibert succeeded to the rights but not the domains of his ancestors. Since 1536 he had attached himself to the service of the emperor, and had already given promise of a brilliant career. On the abdication of Charles V. the duke was appointed governor of the Low Countries, and in 1557 the victory of St Quentin marked him as one of the first generals of his time. Such services could not go unrewarded, and the peace of Cateau-Cambresis restored him his states, with certain exceptions still to be held by France and Spain. One of the conditions of the treaty also provided for the marriage of the duke with the lovely and accomplished Margaret of France, sister of Henry II. The evacuation of the places held by them was faithfully carried out by the contracting powers, and Emmanuel Philibert occupied himself in strengthening his military and naval forces, until his death in 1580 prevented the execution of the ambitious designs he had conceived. His son Charles Emmanuel L, called the Great, being prevented by Henry III. from retaking Geneva, threw in his lot with Spain, and in 1590 invaded Provence and was received by the citizens of Aix. His intention was doubtless to revive the ancient kingdom of Arles, but his plans were frustrated by the accession of Henry IY. to the throne of France. After effecting with Henry an exchange of Bresse and Bugey for the marquisate of Saluzzo he kept up an intermittent war with him until 1609, when, disgusted with the

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behaviour of Spain, he made a treaty with France against AActor Amadeus III. succeeded him, and devoted the Philip. But he could not remain faithful for long, and, early years of his reign to the improvement of the adminsiding first with one and then with the other, he found istration and the reorganization of his army. The time himself in almost the same straits as his grandfather, soon came for him to use the weapon he had created, and when death put an end to his ambitions and failures in on the outbrea-k of the Revolution in France he headed 1630. The first care of his son A^ictor Amadeus was to the coalition of Italian princes against her. The house of free himself from the double burden of his enemy and his Savoy thus assumed the headship of Italy, but for the time ally, so he concluded peace in 1631. In 1635, however, without much gain, for Napoleon’s brilliant victories of Pdchelieu determined to drive the Spaniards out of Italy, 1796 ended in the peace of Paris, by which Savoy, along and offered the duke the alternatives of war or Milan. He with Nice, was given to France. Victor Amadeus died gave but a half-hearted assent to the schemes of France, shortly afterwards, and was succeeded by his son Charles and, without gaining Milan,- died in 1637, leaving by his wife Emmanuel IV. The fever of the Revolution spread to Christina of France Francis Hyacinth, a minor, who only Piedmont, and in 1798 nothing wras left to the king but to survived till the following year, and Charles Emmanuel retire to Sardinia. In 1802 he abdicated in favour of his II, whose legitimacy was unfortunately rather doubtful. brother, Victor Emmanuel L, who, in his island kingdom, The regency of Christina resembled that of Yolande in the protected by the English fleet, became the symbol of the same need for guarding her son’s interests against the coalition against France. The king returned to Turin in pretensions of his uncles, Louis XIII. and the princes 1814, and in the following year took possession again of Savoy. But fortune favoured her, and on the duke’s of Savoy. The anti-revolutionary measures which wrere reaching his majority in 1648 the wars of the Fronde adopted by the Italian princes on their return caused a occupied all the attention of Mazarin. The brunt of the spirit of rebellion to spring up among their subjects. The conflict with Spain consequently fell upon Savoy, and freedom of the individual and the unity of the nation thus was borne not ingloriously until the conclusion of peace. came to be considered objects to be attained at one and the Charles Emmanuel occupied the remaining part of his reign same time. The influence of Austria was paramount in in repairing the ravages caused by twenty-four years of the Peninsula, but an insurrection broke out at Turin in warfare, and died in 1675, leaving an only son, Victor 1820 demanding war with her, and, rather than embroil Amadeus II., whose minority was as peaceful as his father’s himself both with his people and with Austria, Victor had been the reverse. He married Mary of Orleans, the Emmanuel abdicated in favour of his brother, Charles daughter of Henrietta of England, and consequently the Felix. The general insurrection was suppressed, and for legitimate heiress to the English crown on the death of the next few years Italy suffered everything possible at the Anne and on the exclusion of the Pretender. For a time hands of various petty princes, whose fears and weakness he united with Louis XIV in persecuting the Protestants, left them no weapon but persecution. In 1831 Charles but the overbearing behaviour of his ally made him join Felix died without issue, and in him the elder branch of the coalition of Augsburg in 1690. His campaign against the family ended. He was succeeded by Charles Albert, Louis was carried on with varying results until 1695, when of the line of Savoy-Carignano, which was founded by he accepted proposals of peace. This defection led to the Thomas Francis, son of Charles Emmanuel the Great, and peace of Byswick in 1697, and in reward he received from grandfather of Prince Eugene. The first care of Charles Louis the territories then occupied by France. In 1700 Albert was to reorganize his military and naval forces in he sided with France against Austria, but, an extension of readiness for the conflict with Austria which he foresaw. territory in the Milanese not being granted by Louis, he At the same time he put down the conspiracies wdiich went over to the enemy in 1703. The generalship of his would have forced his hand, among which the most famous relative Prince Eugene proved too much for the French, was that of Mazzini and Ramorino in 1834. The French and in 1706 they were defeated before Turin and driven revolution of 1848 fanned the embers of Italian patriotism, across the frontier. The peace of Utrecht afterwards con- and Charles Albert, without any aid, began the AVar of firmed the duke in the possession of the places granted on Independence. Victory at first followed his arms, but he his joining the coalition, including the long-coveted Mont- was defeated at last by the Austrians at Custozza. In the ferrato, and endowed him besides with the crown of Sicily. next year he was again driven into war with the Austrians, Austrian influences now replaced Spanish in the peninsula, and, after his defeat at Novara, he abdicated in favour of and Charles A I. persuaded him to exchange his kingdom his son, A ictor Emmanuel II. From this point the for that of Sardinia. This was accordingly effected in history of the house of Savoy has been told in the article 1720 by the treaty of Madrid, and afterwards proved the Italy (vol. xiii. pp. 489 sq.). (h. b. b.) very salvation of the house of Savoy. In 1730 the king SAVOY, For the French departments of Savoy and abdicated in favour of his son, in order to marry the Upper Savoy see Savoie and Savoie, Haute-. countess.of San Sebastian, at whose instigation he afterSAW. See Saws. wards tried to regain the crown, but he died in 1732. S A WANT AV ARI, or Sawuntwarrie, a native state Charles Emmanuel III. continued his father’s intrigues forming the southern part of the Concan division of the to obtain possession of Milan, and joined the league of Bombay presidency, India, and lying between 15° 37' and France and Spain against Austria in 1732. But he used 16° 16' N. lat. and between 73° 36' and 74° 21' E. long. the victories of the allied forces over the imperialists in It has a total area of about 900 square miles, and is such a half-hearted way that it seemed as if he did not bounded on the north and west by Ratnagiri district, on wish to break finally with Austria. In the end he only the east by the Sahyddri Mountains, and on the south by gained from the treaty, which he signed in 1739, the the Portuguese territory, of Goa. The general aspect of the Novarese^and Tortona, instead of Milan. The death of country is strikingly picturesque. Its surface is broken Charles VI. in 1740 gave him the chance of expelling the and rugged, interspersed with densely-wooded hills; in the Austrians from Italy, but, though he at first claimed Milan valleys are gardens and groves of cocoa-nut and betel-nut from Maria Theresa, he ended in 1742 by espousing her palms. Sdwantwfiri has no rivers of any considerable cause. The complete defeat of the French in 1747 led to size; the chief streams are the Karli on the north and the the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which Charles Emmanuel Terekhol on. the south, both navigable for small craft. received, the Upper Novarese and ATgevano, after which The climate is humid and relaxing, with an average annual he remained at peace until his death in 1773. His son rainfall of over 130 inches. The forests and wooded

S A Wslopes of the Sahy&dris contain large numbers of wild animals, including the tiger, panther, leopard, bear, hyaena, &c. Snakes and other reptiles also abound. The state possesses no railway ; but there is an excellent trunk road through the territory. The census of 1881 returned the population of Sawantwari at 174,433 (males 86,061, females 88,372) ; Hindus numbered 166,080, Mohammedans 3970, and Christians 4213. Agriculture supports the greater part of the population. The staple product is rice, but excepting rice none but the coarsest grains and pulses are raised, both soil, which is stony, and climate being against the cultivation of wheat and other superior grains ; oil seeds, hemp, and pepper are also grown. The gross revenue of the state in 1883-84 amounted to about £34,000. Before the establishment of Portimuese power (1510) Sawantwari was the highway of a great traffic°; but during the 16th and 17th centuries trade suffered much from the rivalry of the Portuguese, and in the disturbances of the 18th century it almost entirely disappeared. Since the establishment of order under the British (1819), trade has considerably developed. The present chief being a minor, the administration has been in the hands of the British since 1869. SAW-FISH. See Ray, vol. xx. p. 299. SAW-FLIES (Tenthredinidse). This subdivision of the Hymenoptera is characterized by possessing a sessile abdomen which hides the base of the posterior legs. The antennae vary in their structure and in the number of their joints. The ovipositor is modified to form two saws, which when at rest lie in a sheath formed of two valves. The larvae resemble caterpillars, but may be distinguished

Turnip Saw-Fly (Athalia spinarum). Saw-Fly (magnified, with lines to left showing natural size), caterpillars, pupa, and pupa-case. by their greater number of legs; usually 9 to 11 pairs are present. When alarmed they have the habit of rolling themselves up in a spiral fashion; some also discharge a thin fluid from lateral pores situated above the spiracles. The females place their eggs in small incisions made by means of their saws in the soft parts of leaves. Usually one egg is placed in each slit. Some species merely attach their eggs in strings to the exterior of the leaves. With each incision a drop of fluid is usually excreted, which serves to excite a flow of sap to the wounded part. The egg is said to absorb this, sap, and so to increase in size. One genus (Nematus) alone forms galls. These occur in the young leaves of the willow, a tree which the true gall-flies do not attack. Nematus ventricosus resembles the bees and wasps in the fact that the parthenogenetic ova produce only males ; as a rule in the animal kingdom the absence of fertilization results in the production of females. The injury which the saw-flies inflict upon crops or young trees is almost entirely brought about by the voracious habits of the larvae. These possess well developed mouth-appendages, by means of which they gnaw their way out of the leaf in which they have been hatched, and then eat it. In this way the Turnip Saw-Fly (Athalia spinarum), not to be confused with the Turnip Fly (Phyllotreta nemorum), attacks the leaves of the turnip, often completely consuming the leafage of acres at a time. The Pine Saw-Fly (Lophyrus pint) causes great damage to

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plantations of young Scotch firs, devouring the buds, the leaves, and even the bark of the young shoots. Other species infest currant and gooseberry bushes, consuming the soft parts of the leaves, and leaving only the tough veins. The only effectual remedy in most cases is to collect and kill the larvse when they first appear. Syringing the affected parts with hot water or tobacco water is also recommended. SAWS. Blades of steel with serrated edges have been used from time immemorial to rend or divide substances of various kinds, including metals and stone ; but the principal modern use of the saw is to, divide wood. Modern saws are of the finest steel, but the ancients used bronze saws, and among uncivilized nations saws have been made with flakes of flint imbedded in a wooden blade, and held in place by means of bitumen (see Grimshaw, History, Ac., of Saws), while obsidian has been used by the Mexicans, and shark’s teeth and even notched shells form the saws of certain savage islanders. The pyramid-builders in Egypt cut granite and other hard stones by means of bronze saws set with jewels (see vol. xx. p. 124). Space would fail to describe minutely the various adaptations of the saw to mechanical uses. It is indispensable to the carpenter, the furniture-manufacturer, the watchmaker, and manipulator of metals. It is one of the most trustworthy tools of the surgeon’s case, while without it the dentist would of necessity drop back to the barbarous customs of a past century. Iron, horn, pearl, india-rubber, and the thousand and one conveniences of civilized life are dependent upon this useful instrument, which is but an exaggeration after all of the sharpest of knives, whose edge when examined under the microscope exhibits an array of saw teeth so minute as to present a smooth plane to the unassisted eye. As the chief use of the tool is to saw wood, the enormous timber industry of America has given an impetus to the improvement of the saw and its manufacture, which has no parallel elsewhere. Saws may be classified as (1) straight (reciprocating in action), having a flat blade and straight edge, making a plane cut, or (2) circular or disk-like, cutting at right angles to the motion, or (3) cylindrical or barrel-shaped, with a convex edge cutting parallel to its axis, or (4) band-saws, being a continuous ribbon or band running upon an upper and lower pulley, making a plane or curved cut, with a straight edge parallel to the axis of motion. The oldest and commonest, with the widest range of adaptability, _ is the straight saw, with reciprocating rectilinear blade. In this class is included the ordinary hand-saw with its varying range of uses from fine to coarse and from rip to cross-cut, and with teeth of forms as various as are the different duties which it is calculated to perform. The teeth are long or short, cutting one way or both ways according to the “ pitch ” or “ set ” which may be given, and which should be adapted to both the kind and character of the timber to be sawn. The “ pitch ” of a saw-tooth is the angle of the point with reference to the blade, and is found by subtracting the back angle from the front, 60° being the generic angle of saw-teeth, which, however, may be variously placed. From the smallest hand-saw to the largest “ mill-saw ” the same general rules apply. In the largest saws of this class may be named the “ pit-saw,” used in the earliest manufactures of lumber or timber, and worked by one person standing over the log and drawing upward while another in the pit below follows with the downward or cutting thrust. From the pit-saw we advance to the “ gate-saw ” used in the earlier adaptation of motive power to the cutting of timber, thence to the “ muley-saw,”1 suspended without strain upon a pitman beneath, having its upper end hung in slides pendent from a heavy beam above. These saws must of necessity be thick, to sustain the heavy thrusts which they are expected to endure, and are consequently of “heavy gauge,” this being based upon the different sizes of wire, the largest gauge representing the 1 According to some writers the term “muley” (or mulay) is derived from the German “Miihlsage,” mill-saw, but, as this form of saw, when introduced, differed only from the ordinary mill-saws long in use in the manner in which it was hung (free from strain), the name may have been given to signify “hornless,” indicating the absence of the ponderous gate which was the essential feature of strained saws.

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thinner blade ; e.g., a 4-gauge saw is much thicker than an 8-gauge, &c. From the necessity for more rapid production grew the ‘ ‘ gangsaw, ” a modification of the gate, differing from it only in length and thickness (less than one-third the thickness of the ordinary gate-saw and but about two-thirds its length). A large number of these, varying from 2 to 40, are strained in a gate or frame, at such distances apart as the thickness of lumber demands, and the log is wholly made into boards in one operation. Of the reciprocating class of saws is the “ cross-cut,” used for cutting across the grain of the timber or wood to bo converted into shorter lengths. The length, breadth, “pitch,” and “set” of saws vary according to the use which is to be made of them and the kind of timber which is to be manipulated. In a cross-cut saw the cutting edge strikes the fibre at right angles to its length, and while its pitch is but slight (if any) it must sever from each side before dislodging the sawdust. “A slitting or ripping saw has the cutting edge about at a right angle to the fibre of the wood, severing it in one piece,—the throat of the tooth wedging out the piece.” In slitting saws the “rake ” is all in front, in the cross-cut on the side. The circular saw is of comparatively recent origin, its introduction dating from 1790, when Brunei first announced the principle. At first only circular saws of small diameter were used ; but, from the small “ buzz-saw ” of the watchmaker and fine metal worker, or the ripping saw of the planing-mill or carpenter shop, where small diameters have to be divided, the circular saw has passed to the saw-mill, where, in diameters of from 12 to 30 inches, it is the needful instrument for edging or ripping the lumber which drops from the log in an imperfect condition, requiring finer manipulation to prepare it for market; or in diameters of from 40 to 84 inches it may be found as the main saw of the mill for rending the logs as they come from the forest into shapes and sizes adapted for the various purposes of the builder. It is capable of dividing logs into boards one inch thick or upwards at as high a rate as 60,000 superficial feet in a day of twelve hours, while a straight (muley or gate) saw would give only 5000 to 8000 feet. In the chief lumber sections of the United States saws of 60 inches diameter are in most common use ; upon the Pacific coast saws of 8 feet diameter are not unknown. Attempts to work large circular saws in nests or gangs have not hitherto proved successful, but three, four, or five saws of 30 inches diameter hung on a single shaft or “arbor” may be used to trim and divide the boards or planks thrown off from a log. Barrel saws, for the manufacture of staves for barrels, pails, or tubs, are in the form of a straight-sided barrel with both heads removed, and the stave ends of one head serrated. For the manufacture of veneers, where valuable timber is to be economically manipulated, we have the segment-saw, constructed by bolting segments of saw-blades upon the outer rim of a castiron centre, forming a circular saw of the desired diameter, but with a cutting cdge of so light a gauge as to waste but little of the valuable timber to be sawed, the cast-iron centre insuring the requisite stiffness and strength. With these saws veneers scarcely thicker than a sheet of paper may be cut, the width being according to the size of the log; such saws are often from 80 to 100 inches in diameter. Circular saws of the larger size are often constructed with “ inserted ” teeth. A disk of steel of suitable size, having slots cut in its periphery of the exact size and shape of the tooth which is to be inserted, may have these teeth removed as often as the wear upon them may require, without reducing the diameter of the plate. The teeth of lumber saws have to be sharpened with the file at least three or four times in twelve hours’ work, and a saw of five feet in diameter is rapidly reduced in size with a great loss of efficiency. In the insert tooth plate new teeth cost only about three cents (l|d.) each, and the saw plate remains of its original diameter. Inserted teeth are of various forms and shapes, from that of the ordinary saw tooth, held in place by a rivet at the root of the tooth, to a “chisel point” held by an ingenious system of wedging. Band-saws have for many years been used for continuous and rapid cutting in the planing mill or other wood-working establishment, where scrolls or fancy lines and curves were to be followed, requiring great flexibility of the saw-blade. Of late, and notably within the past two years (1884-85), successful endeavours have been made to adapt them to lumber manufacture. The band-saw is a continuous blade or ribbon running over pulleys above and below, forming a “steel belt” whose serrated edge is always m the cut.” These saws are usually from a half inch in width (for shop work) to six and eight inches wide for the heavier woik of the saw-mill, and in the latter have a cutting capacity of from 30,000 to 40,000 superficial feet in twelve hours. They are extremely thm (usually 16-gauge), and the kerf produced is so inucn less than that of the upright or the circular that a saving of at least 20 per cent, of timber is claimed in their use. Saws used by surgeons, butchers, and in all branches of manuacture aie but modifications of one of the varieties above described, and do not demand more extended description.

Saw-Mills are factories for the conversion of forest trees Sawinto lumber and timber. The earliest form of saw-mill was unquestionably the saw-pit, still found in a modified form in shipbuilders’ yards, the log being raised on trestle horses instead of one of the sawyers being sunk in the pit. Saws were run by windmill-power as early as the 13th century ; and the use of water-power soon followed. The primitive water saw-mill consisted of a wooden pitman attached to the shaft of the water-wheel, the log to be sawed being placed on rollers sustained by a framework over the wheel, and being fed forward on the rollers by means of levers worked by hand. Good authorities mention saw-mills running by water-power in Germany as early as 1322. In 1663 an attempt to establish a mill in England was abandoned owing to the opposition of the sawyers, and no further attempt was made till 1768, when a mill was erected at Limehouse, but was soon destroyed by a mob. North America, with its vast forests, may be aptly termed the home of saw-mills. As early as 1634 a saw-mill was erected at the falls of the Piscataqua, near the line dividing Maine from New Hampshire. This was no doubt the pioneer of the vast array of mills which subsequently made Maine famous as a lumber-producing State for many years. From about the same date several mills were erected along the Atlantic coast of America, a description of one being that of all. In these mills the saw was attached by a long pitman from the wheel shaft to a ponderous gate, running in wooden slides upon two heavy posts, crossed above by a beam connecting the two sides of the mill-frame. The mill-carriage on which the log lay was pushed towards the saw by a rack and pinion, Ac., moved by a feed-wheel. The daily capacity of these mills was from 500 to 1500 superficial feet. The first great improvement upon this class of mills was in the introduction of two or more saws to the gate, the general character of the methods remaining the same. With the demand for more rapid production came improvements in the “ gang ” feature, and the wonder of the age was the “ Yankee gang,” so arranged, by placing half the saws facing in one direction and the other half in the opposite, that two logs were worked up in one movement of the carriage, or, as in the “ slabbing ” gang, the outsides or slabs were cut from one log, which was then turned upon its flattened sides to the other set of saws which cut it into boards. The “ stock ” gang, “ pony ” gang, “ slabbing ” gang, and “ Yankee ” gang are favourites with saw-mill proprietors, because of the uniform character of the lumber produced, and the saving of timber realized from the use of saws of scarcely one-third the thickness of the gate, muley, or circular. Gang-saws are seldom thicker than 14-gauge, and are successfully worked at 18-gauge, making a saw-kerf or waste of but | inch, whereas the ordinary gate, muley, or circular takes 1?sinch. The muley was introduced later than the gang, and was received with great favour, entering into more general use because of its comparative cheapness and adaptability where the sawyer had not to deal with large quantities of lumber. The muley mill dispensed with the ponderous gate and heavy posts of the saw-frame. While the lower portion of the mill is arranged much as in the use of the gate-saw, with the addition of necessary slides, the upper end of the saw is guided in a strong iron frame pendent from the weigh-heam overhead. On each side of this frame are slides in which are placed boxes, attached by a noddle pin and strap to the upper end of the saw, keeping the tool in line with the cut, and the cutting is accomplished wholly by the downward thrust, the motion of the crank beneath imparting a forward motion to the blade in its cutting functions and a retreating motion as it rises from the cut. By an ingenious arrangement of the slides an increased oscillation may he imparted, the object being to cause the sawteeth to hug the timber closer on the downward or cutting thrust, and to recede and run clear of the timber on the upward motion, thus decreasing the friction. Muley-saws are usually run at a speed of 300 revolutions of the driving wheel per minute, and the daily capacity may be stated at about 5000 superficial feet.

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Water-power was used almost exclusively in saw-mills until 1835, adjunct to the circular saw is often found in a top or upper saw, after which year steam was rapidly substituted, until at the present overhanging the main’circular a little in advance of its track, for time it is as difficult to find a water-power saw-mill as it is to find the purpose of enabling larger logs to be handled than the diameter of an ordinary circular will permit. The upper saw cuts into the a gate or muley. The use of the circular as the main saw of a mill is of compara- top of the log in a line with the cut of the lower or main saw, tively recent origin, the experimental point in its introduction thus increasing the depth of the cut. In California, where logs of having been passed only about the year 1855. Since that time it 8 and 10 feet diameter are not unusual (larger logs being quartered has rapidly reached the highest efficiency. Driven by engines by the use of gunpowder or other explosive, timber as much as 20 of from 25 to 100 horse-power the circular saw-mill, mider proper and even 25 feet in diameter being found in the redwood forests), management, turns out from 20,000 feet per day for smaller to an ingenious arrangement of four saws placed one higher than the 50,000 and 60,000 feet per day for larger mills, in addition to other, some horizontal and others vertical, permits the handling of running the double-edgers and trimming saws, requisite for huge trees which until recently were not considered available. trimming off the rough edges and bad ends of the lumber A thoroughly modern saw-mill embraces all which has been said regarding the circular, with the addition of the “gang” feature, produced. The modern saw-mill stands upon the banks of a river or pond, for, while a majority of the saw-mills of North America are single at an elevation usually of twelve feet from the level of the land to “circulars,” many of them have a rotary upon each side of the the saw-floor. The logs are floated from the forest (often many mill floor, the log-jack being in the centre of the building rolling hundred miles distant from the mill) down the river, in lengths as its logs either to the right hand or the left. The larger mills desired. Piling driven at convenient distances in the water have in addition to the rotaries from one to four gangs. In serves to hold the long pieces of timber, which, secured to the these cases the log usually goes first to the circular, where the piles by heavy chains, form a strong “ boom,” floating into slabs of two sides are removed, leaving a flat cant, which is then which the logs are penned or “ boomed ” until required. From transferred to the gangs. These mills are fully equipped with all the rear end of the mill, at the second story or saw-floor, a “jack the modern patent improvements. The logs are drawn from the ladder ” is constructed of heavy timber, the lower ends resting in water by an endless chain running in a V-shaped log slide, the the bottom of the stream upon a bed of timber heavily weighted. chains being provided either with spikes or concave chairs which Upon the sides of the jack ladder are laid ribbons of iron forming hold the log from slipping back. One log follows the other in a track for the log car, which, strongly constructed and with its top endless succession. On its arrival at the log deck on the mill floor, cross sections or “bunks” heavily studded with/(-headed bolts, the manipulation of a lever causes an arm or arms to rise through is run under the water at a depth to allow the log to float over it the floor against the side of the log, which is partially raised and in such manner that, as the chain running to the “ bull-wheel” thrown with considerable force upon the skids leading to the saw in the mill is wound up, the spikes of the car catch upon the carriage. When one log has been sawed, another is loaded by the under-side of the log or logs, which thus load themselves and are simple touch of a lever in the hands of the sawyer, causing arms hauled up the incline to the mill floor. Here they are rolled upon to rise in the skids under the log, which is thrown upon the skids leading to the saw-carriage, and are soon running rapidly 1 carriage ready for the saw. When the first slab has been removed, their course of manufacture. Loaded upon the “head-blocks,” the sawyer’s touch of a lever brings through the floor the ‘ ‘ nigger, ” by a quick motion of a lever upon the standard, the “setter ” a piece of strong timber, iron-bound and with sharp teeth or spikes inserts an iron “ dog,” which holds the log firmly in place ready protruding from its front face. Its motion tends slightly forward for advancing to the saw. This is accomplished by one of several as it advances to a height of five or six feet above the floor, its methods :—(1) by rack and pinion worked by “cone feed,” in spiked surface catching the side or face of the log, turning it which a belt is moved upon two parallel cones to impart a more instantly to any desired position. If the log is simply to be rapid or a slower motion to the pinion shaft; (2) by “rope feed,” “ canted” for the gang the two opposite sides or slabs are a rope, usually of wire, being attached to each end of the mill removed, and as the last cut is complete a hook thrown over the carriage, and passing over pulleys in the floor to a drum beneath, rear end of the cant prevents its return with the saw carriage and so arranged as to be under control of the sawyer in its feeding it drops upon rolls which move it so far out of the way of the movement or in reversal to “gig” the carriage back to its first returning carriage with its fresh load as is necessary to start it in position ; or (3) by “steam feed.” This is the more modern and an opposite direction to the gang which is to complete its manurapid means employed, and is sometimes termed ‘ ‘ lightning feed. ” facture. Until now, and until it shall emerge from the gang, no A steam cylinder of 8 or 10 inches diameter is laid upon the floor of hand of man has necessarily touched the log. Machinery guided the mill beneath the saw-carriage, its piston connecting with the by human intelligence has done all the work. When the log carriage. Steam being admitted to the driving end of the cylinder reached the carriage it was dogged, not with the old-fashioned (the length of which is according to the length of timber to be ? lever dog driven by a mallet, but by the simple movement of a sawed, sections being added or removed at pleasure) the saw ' lever. It was brought to its proper position before the saw' by carriage is driven with lightning speed, both in the cutting feed nicely adjusted set works, which graduated its position to oneand reversing “ gig. ” Thirty ordinary cuts per minute, on eighth of an inch. After the slab was removed, if another cut was 12 inches feed to the revolution of the saw, may be attained required the same set works moved it forward with lightning with this adaptation. As the limit of capacity for work with a quickness, leaving it at the exact point, to a nicety, requisite for circular saw is practically the ability of the operators to remove the production of just the thickness desired for the next piece. the lumber, 60,000 to 70,000 feet per day is no unusual cut, From the water to the pile in the millyard hands have necessarily while a rate of 100,000 feet per day has been maintained (for a been employed in actual handling of the product only at the edger short period) by a single circular. The lumber as it drops from and the trimmer, and in assorting the qualities upon the tram-car the saw falls upon “ live rolls,” a series of iron or wooden rollers which removes it from the mill. Machinery, guided by human connected by chain belts, which carry it within reach of the intelligence, has done all the heavy work. A mill answering closely “edger,” who rapidly passes that portion which requires “ edging ” to our description was recently burned at Bay City, Michigan, or splitting through the “ double-edger,” to a carriage or truck the yearly production of which for several years past has been on which it is pushed to the piling ground, or, in some mills, to 40,000,000 feet of lumber, besides shingles, lath, pickets, &c., cut another series of live rolls which take it to the front of the from the slabs and waste. The total production of the saw‘ ‘ trimmer, ” an ingenious arrangement of table, beneath which mills of the United States approximates 26,000,000,000 feet are several saws which advance or recede at the operator’s pleasure, annually. The “ band ” saw-mill is rapidly working its way into public cutting the lumber to even and uniform lengths, or, trimming off such defects as may exist in the end of the piece. Ordinary favour because of the economy attending its use. The band saw is lengths are 12, 14, 16, and 18 feet, and by use of the trimmer all a long ribbon of steel, six to eight inches in width, running over superfluous ends are removed, leaving each piece of uniform length large pulleys above and below, the upper pulley running almost with its fellows. The waste of the log, consisting of the vertically above the lower, the saw acting as a belt between the “ slabs ” and edgings, are carefully gone over, and such as are two and as the driving power to the upper wheel. These saws suitable for that purpose go to the ‘ ‘ lath ” machines, where they are very thin and have a manufacturing capacity of from 30,000 to are cut into strips four feet in length, § inch thick, and 1J inches 40,000 feet per day, with the consumption of 25 to 40 per cent, less wide, for lath and plaster work. In the sawing of logs, imperfec- power than is required for the ordinary circular saw of the same tions are often discovered in the timber, unfitting it for ordinary daily capacity for work. The main advantage found in the use of uses, and in many mills it is customary to saw such timber into the band-saw is in the saving of timber (20 per cent.). The set “cants” of usually six inches thickness. These cants are turned works do not differ from those of rotary mills, and either cone, over to a “butting saw,” where they are cut into lengths of 16 rope, or steam feed may be used in connexion with it. A useful adjunct to the many saw-mills, which produce more inches (in some localities 18 inches) and turned over to the shingle mill to be manufactured into shingles. Shingles are tapering pieces waste than can be consumed in raising the necessary steam, is the f inch thick at one end, and rV inch at the other, and are used as “slab-burner ” or “hell,” a large circular brick furnace often 50 a roof covering in lieu of slating or tiles. They are laid in uniform feet in height by 25 feet internal diameter, erected conveniently courses, with 4-.j to 5 inches of the butt end laid to the weather, near the saw-mill, into which by chain carriers leading to an and are good for from 20 to 30 years’ wear upon a roof. An opening at a sufficient height from the bottom, the sawdust, XXL — 44

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S A X—S A X edgings, worthless slabs, and debris of the mill are conveyed, to be against him, he consented without defence to an annuldestroyed by fire. ment of the marriage in 1721. Meantime, after serving Shingle Shingle. Mills.—A standard shingle is four inches wide, and all in a campaign against the Turks in 1717, he had in 1719 Mills, computations of quantity are based upon that width, although the gone to Paris to study mathematics, and in 1720 obtained individual shingle may be six or eight inches wide or as much as 18 inches, in the latter case counting 4J shingles. A shingle mill the office of “mar^chal de camp.” In 1725 negotiations differs from a saw-mill in the adaptations of machinery. Saws of were entered into for his election as duke of Courland, at 16-gauge, 40 inches in diameter, are most commonly employed. the instance of the duchess Anna Ivanovna, who offered In cases where shingle manufacture is carried on in connexion with the saw-mill, the process of preparing the blocks has already been him her hand. He was chosen duke in 1726, but declindescribed. A majority of the shingles manufactured, however, are ing marriage with the duchess found it impossible to made in mills built for the special purpose. Logs suitable, usually resist her opposition to his claims, although, with the of a medium quality, are placed before a “bolting” or “drag” assistance of £30,000 lent him by the French actress saw, which severs them into the required length. The block is then stripped of its bark and sap by splitting off a section of the Adrienne Lecouvreur, his relations with whom form the outer circumference to the heart wood, with axes ; it is next subject of the drama of that name by Scribe and quartered, and the inside section of heart, which is never sound, Legouvo, published in 1849, he raised a force by which removed; and then it goes to the machine for manufacture. The he maintained his authority till 1727, when he withdrew machines are sometimes horizontal, sometimes vertical, but all and took up his residence in Paris. On the outbreak work upon the same principle, viz., that of a tilting table, allowing a thick butt and a thin point to be alternately taken. The shingles of the war in 1734 he served under Marshal Berwick, as they drop from the saw are rough-edged, and require to be and for a brilliant exploit at the siege at Philippsburg he “jointed,” generally upon a rapidly revolving wheel, upon the face was in August named lieutenant-general. It was, howof which are secured four well-balanced knives, which, as the shingle is pressed against them, eat away the imperfect edge with ever, with the opening of the Austrian Succession War in great rapidity, leaving a straight smooth edge, which when laid 1741 that he first rose into prominence. In command upon a roof makes a good joint with its fellows. The edging or of a division forming the advance guard of an army sent jointing process is often performed with small saws in place of the to invade Austria, he on the 19th November surprised wheel-jointer. The shingles are usually packed in bunches containing the equivalent of one quarter thousand 4-inch pieces, and Prague during the night, and took it by assault before the are more used for roof covering than any other material in the garrison were aware of the presence of an enemy, a coup United States or Canada. (G. W. H.) de main which at once made him famous throughout SAXE, Maurice, Comte de (1696-1750), marshal of Europe. After capturing on the 19th April 1742 the France, was the natural son of Augustus II. of Saxony strong fortress of Eger, he received leave of absence, and and the countess Aurora of Konigsmark. An entry in went to Russia to push his claims on the duchy of Courthe parish registers of Goslar shows that he was born in land, but obtaining no success returned to his command. that town, 28th October 1696. In 1698 the countess His exploits had been the sole redeeming feature in an sent him to Warsaw to his father, who had been elected unsuccessful campaign, and on 26th March 1743 his king of Poland the previous year, but on account of the merits were recognized by his promotion to be marshal unsettled condition of the country the greater part of his of France. In 1744 he was chosen to command the youth was spent outside its limits, a yearly income being expedition to England in behalf of the Pretender, which assigned him. This enforced separation from his father assembled at Dunkirk but did not proceed farther. After made him more independent of his control than he would its abortive issue he received an independent command in otherwise have been, and had an important effect on the the Netherlands, and by dexterous manoeuvring succeeded character of his future career. At the age of twelve he in continually harassing the superior forces of the enemy was present, under the direction of the count of Schulen- without risking a decisive battle. In the following year burg, in the army of Eugene, at the sieges of Tournay and he made a rapid march on Tournay, and, when the allies Mons and the battle of Malplaquet, but the achievements sent an army of 60,000 under the duke of Cumberland ascribed to him in this campaign are chiefly fabulous. A to its relief, gave them battle 11th May, without relaxing proposal to send him at the close of it to a Jesuit college the siege, from a strongly entrenched position at Fonteat Brussels was relinquished on account of the strong noy. The contest raged from early morning till two protests of his mother; and, returning to the camp of the o’clock, when, by a charge at a critical moment which allies in the beginning of 1710, he displayed a courage so annihilated a column of the enemy, fortune was decided in impetuous as to call forth from Eugene the friendly his favour. During the battle he was unable on account admonition not to confound rashness with valour. After of dropsy to sit on horseback except for a few minutes, receiving in 1711 formal recognition from his father, with and was carried about in a wicker basket. In recognition the rank of count, he accompanied him to Pomerania, and of his brilliant achievement the king conferred on him the in 1712 he took part in the siege of Stralsund. As he castle of Chamford for life, and in April 1746 he was grew up to manhood he was seen to bear a strong resem- naturalized. The campaign of 1746 was signalized by blance to his father, both in person and character. His the capture of Antwerp on the 1st June, the capture of grasp was so powerful that he could bend a horse-shoe Namur in September, and the total rout of Prince Charles with his hand, and to the last his energy and endurance at Raucoux 11th October. Having on the 12th January were unsubdued by the severe bodily illnesses resulting 1747 been made marshal-general, he in the following from his many excesses. The impetuosity noted by campaign won the victory of Lawfeldt over the duke of Eugene manifested itself in his private life in a dissolute- Cumberland, and on 16th September he stormed Bergen-opness only slightly tempered by his generosity and good zoom. In May 11 48 he captured Maestricht after a month’s humour. In his military career during his mature years siege. After the peace, he lived in broken health chiefly at it was indicated only in his blindness to danger and his Chamford, and he died there 30th November 1750. unmoved calm amidst the blackest lowerings of misforMaurice de Saxe was the author of a work on military science, tune, for it was tempered by the “ vigilance, forethought, Mes Reveries, described by Carlyle as “a strange military farrago, dictated, as I should think, under opium,” published posthumously sagacious precaution” which Carlyle notes as “singular in in 1757 (last ed., Paris, 1877). His Lettrcs et Memoires Choisis so dissolute a man.” In 1714 a marriage was arranged appeared in 1794. Many previous errors in former biographies between him and one of the richest of his father’s subjects, were corrected and additional information supplied in Carl von the Countess von Loeben, but her immense fortune he Weber’s Moritz, Graf von Sachsen, Marschall von Frankreich, nach Quellen (Leipsic, 1863), and in Taillandier’s Maurice dissipated so rapidly that he was soon heavily in debt, archivalischen Saxe, etude historique d'a/pres les documents des Archives de and, having given her more serious grounds of complaint de Dresdc (1865). See also Carlyle’s Frederick the Great.

S A X —S A X SAXE-ALTENBURGr (Germ. Sachsen-Altenburg), a See Plate V. duchy in Thuringia, and an independent member of the German empire, consists of two detached and almost equal parts, separated from each other by a portion of Reuss (junior line), and bounded on the S. and W. by the grandduchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, on the X. by Prussia, and on the E. by the kingdom of Saxony. There are in addition 12 small exclaves. The total area is 510 square miles (about half the size of Cheshire in England), of which 254 are in the east or Altenburg division and 256 in the west or Saal-Eisenberg division. The former district, traversed by the most westerly offshoots of the Erzgebirge and watered by the Pleisse and its tributaries, forms an undulating and fertile region, containing some of the richest agricultural soil in Germany. The western district, through which the Saale flows, is rendered hilly by the beginnings of the Thuringian Forest, and in some measure makes up by its fine woods for the comparatively poor soil. The mineral wealth of Saxe-Altenburg is scanty; lignite, the chief mineral, is worked mainly in the eastern district. According to the returns for 1883, SSJ per cent, of the entire duchy was occupied by arable land, and 274 Per cent, by forests, of which four-fifths were coniferous. The chief crops were rye (42,317 acres, yielding 20,412 tons), oats (36,807 acres, 22,996 tons), barley (21,390 acres, 13,912 tons), wheat (17,490 acres, 9724 tons), and potatoes (19,870 acres, 113,209 tons). The cattleraising and horse-breeding of the duchy are of considerable importance. In 1883 the duchy contained 9934 horses, 60,335 cattle, 20,996 sheep, 46,387 pigs, and 12,420 goats. About 35 per cent, of the population are directly supported by agriculture. The manufactures of the duchy are very varied, but none is of any great importance ; woollen goods, gloves, hats, porcelain and earthenware, and wooden articles are the chief products. Trade in these, and in horses, cattle, and agricultural produce, is tolerably brisk. The chief seats of trade and manufacture are Altenburg the capital (29,422 inhabitants in 1885), Ronneburg (5485 inhabitants in 1880), Schmdlln (6394), Gossnitz (4949), and Meuselwitz (3402) in the Altenburg division ; and Eisenburg (6277), Roda (3465), and Kahla (2999) in the Saal-Eisenburg division. Besides these there are the towns of Lucka (1505) and Orlamiinde (1461), and 449 villages, of which Russdorf (1781), in an exclave, is the largest. Next to the two principalities of Reuss, Saxe-Altenburg is the most densely peopled part of Thuringia. In 1880 the population was 155,036, or 304 per square mile. Of these 154,187 were Protestants, 741 Roman Catholics, 33 Jews, and 75 of other sects. The population in 1885, according to a provisional return of the census of that year, was 161,129. In the west division the population (49,788) is wholly Teutonic, but in the east (111,341)_ there is a strong Wendish or Slavonic element, still to be traced in the peculiar manners and costume of the country-people, though these are gradually being given up. The farmers and peasant-proprietors of the east division (Altenburger Bauern) are an industrious and well-to-do class, but like similar classes in other countries they are said to be avaricious and purse-proud. Their holdings are seldom divided; a custom corresponding to Borough-Exglish (q.v.), though not supported by law, obtains among them ; and sometimes the elder brothers are employed by the youngest as servants on the paternal farm. The destitution to which the disinherited children are often reduced by this custom is seriously prejudicial to morality. The Altenburg peasants are pleasure-loving, and in spite of their avarice are said to gamble for very high stakes, especially at the complicated card-game of “ skat,” now universal in Germany, which many believe to have been invented here. Saxe-Altenburg is a limited hereditary monarchy, its constitution resting on a law of 1831, subsequently modified. The diet consists of 30 members, elected for 3 years, of whom 9 are returned by the highest taxpayers, 9 by the towns, and 12 by the country districts. The franchise is enjoyed by all males over 25 years of age who pay taxes. The duke has considerable powers of initiative and veto. The government is carried on by a ministry of three members, of whom two administer justice and finance respectively, and the third all the other departments of home and foreign affairs. The budget for 1884-86 estimated the yearly income at £127,180 and the yearly expenditure at £125,530. The Altenburg troops are united with the contingents of Schwarzburg, Rudolstadt, and the two Reusses to form the 7th Thuringian infantry regiment of the imperial army. Saxe-Altenburg has one vote in the Reichstag and one in the federal council. After the conquest of the Wends, the present Altenburg district became an imperial possession, lying partly in the Pleissengau and partly in the Voigtlaud, while the west district was divided among

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a number of small nobles. The margrave of Saxony obtained permanent possession of Altenburg about 1329, and the west division was also early incorporated with- his dominions. Both districts were among the lands assigned to the Ernestine line ol the house of Saxony by the convention of Wittenberg in 1547 (see Saxony). From 1603 till 1672 there existed an independent duchy of Altenburg; but in 1826, when the present division into the four Saxon duchies was made, both Altenburg and Eisenburg belonged to Gotha. Duke Frederick, who exchanged SaxeHildburghausen for the present duchy of Saxe-Altenburg in 1826, was the founder of the reigning lino. A constitution was granted in 1831 in answer to popular commotion ; and greater concessions were extorted by more threatening disturbances in 1848. The second duke (Joseph) abdicated in 1848 in favour of his brother George. Under Ernest, who succeeded his father as fourth duke in 1853, a period of violent reaction set in, so that even now the constitution is considerably less liberal than it was in 1849. In 1873 the long-disputed question as to the public domains was settled, two-thirds of these being now regarded as belonging to the duke in jideicommissum and in lieu of a civil list. SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA (Germ. Sachsen-Koburg- See Gotha), a ducky in Thuringia, and an independent member plate vof the German empire, consists of the two formerly separate duchies of Coburg and Gotha, which lie at a distance of 14 miles from each other, and of eight small scattered exclaves, the most northerly of which is 70 miles from the most southerly. The total area is 760 square miles (about 2 square miles more than the county of Surrey in England), of which 217 are in Coburg and 543 in Gotha. The duchy of Coburg is bounded on the S.E,, S., and S.W. by Bavaria, and on the other sides by SaxeMeiningen, which, with part of Prussia, separates it from Gotha. The considerable exclave of Kbnigsberg in Bavaria, 10 miles south, belongs to Coburg, Lying on the south slope of the Thuringian Forest, and in the Franconian plain, this duchy is an undulating and fertile district, reaching its highest point in the Senichshbhe (1716 feet) near Mirsdorf. Its streams, the chief of which are the Itz, Steinach, and Roclach, all find their way into the Main. The duchy of Gotha, more than twice the size of Coburg, stretches from the south borders of Prussia along the northern slopes of the Thuringian Forest, the highest summits of which (Grosse Beerberg, 3225 feet; Schneekopf, 3179 feet; Inselberg, 2957 feet) rise within its borders. The more open and level district on the north is spoken of as the “open country” (“das Land”) in contrast to the wooded hills of the “forest” (“der Wald”). The Gera, Horsel, Unstrut, and other streams of this duchy flow to the Werra or to the Saale. In both duchies the chief industry is agriculture, which employs 33 per cent, of the entire population. According to the returns for 1883, 53| per cent, of the area was occupied by arable land, 10 per cent, by meadow-land and pasture, and 30 per cent, by forest. In the same year the chief crops were oats (43,715 acres, yielding 19,229 tons), barley (37,387 acres, 20,148 tons), rye (29,077 acres, 12,048 tons), wheat (24,255 acres, 9,272 tons), and potatoes (24,546 acres, 116,695 tons). A small quantity of hemp and flax is raised (less than 1000 acres of each), but a considerable quantity of fruit and vegetables is annually produced. Cattle-breeding is an important resource, especially in the valley of the Itz in Coburg. In 1883 the two duchies contained 8187 horses, 58,196 cattle, 73,249 sheep, 51,549 pigs, and 27,015 goats. The mineral wealth of SaxeCoburg-Gotha is insignificant; small quantities of coal, lignite, ironstone, millstone, &c., are annually raised. There are also saltworks and some deposits of potter’s clay. The manufactures of the duchies, especially in the mountainous parts less favourable for agriculture, are tolerably brisk, but there is no large industrial centre in the country. Iron goods and machinery, safes, glass, earthenware, chemicals, and wooden articles, including large quantities of toys, are produced; and various branches of textile industry are carried on. Ruhla (twofifths of which is situated in Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach) is famous for its meerschaum pipes and cigar-holders, which are exported to all parts of the world; and the maps of Perthes’s geographical institute at Gotha mayalso be reckoned among the national products. Coburg (15,791 inhabitants in 1881) and Gotha (28,100 in 1885) are the chief towns of the duchies, to which they respectively give name ; the latter is the capital of the united duchy. There are seven other ^ small towns, and 320 villages and hamlets. The villages of Fried-

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rieliroda and liuhla and the Inselberg and Schneekopf and other tween its horns, which are 46 miles apart. The districts picturesque points annually attract an increasing number of sum- of Kranichfeld, 15 miles north-west, and Kamburg, 22 mer visitors and tourists. Neudietendorf or Gnadenthal is a miles due north of the eastern horn, together with a Moravian settlement founded in 1742. The population in 1880 was 194,716, or 256 per square mile, of number of smaller scattered exclaves, comprise 74 of the whom 56,728 (261 per square mile) were in Coburg and 137,988 953 square miles now belonging to the duchy (about the (254 per square mile) in Gotha. In the former duchy the people be- size of county Down in Ireland). The surface on the long to the Franconian and in the latter to the Thuringian branch whole is hilly, and is partly occupied by offshoots of the of the Teutonic family. In 1880 there were 192,025 Lutherans, 2062 Roman Catholics, 490 Jews, and 139 others. In 1885 the Thuringian Forest; the highest summits are the Kieserle population was 198,717,—57,355 in Coburg and 141,362 in Gotha. (28ol feet) and the Bless (2834 feet). The chief streams Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is a limited hereditary monarchy, its con- are the Werra, which traverses the south and east of the stitution resting on a law of 1852, modified in 1874. For its own duchy, and various tributaries of the Main and the Saale, immediate affairs each duchy has a separate diet (in Coburg of 11, in Gotha of 19 members); but in more important and general so that Saxe-Meiningen belongs to the basins of the three matters a common diet, formed of the members of the separate great rivers Weser, Khine, and Elbe. diets, meeting at Coburg and Gotha alternately, exercises authority. The soil is not very productive, although agriculture flourishes The members are elected for four years ; the franchise is extended to all male taxpayers of twenty-five years of age and upwards. The in the valleys and on the level ground ; grain has to be imported ministry has special departments for each duchy, but is under a to meet the demand. In 1883 only 41 -8 per cent, of the total common president. In finance the duchies are also separate, the area (in 1878, 41 '6) was devoted to agriculture, while meadow land budget in Coburg being voted for a term of six years, and in Gotha and pasture occupied 11 per cent. The chief grain crops in 1883 for four years. After long disputes between the duke and the were rye (44,442 acres, yielding 16,112 tons), oats (42,447 acres, Government a compromise was effected in 1855, by which the 17,343 tons), wheat (25,252 acres, 9033 tons), and barley (19,015 greater part of the public lands is regarded as a jideicommissum in acres, 94,456 tons). The cultivation of potatoes is very general the possession of the reigning duke, while the income from the rest (31,006 acres, 143,327 tons). Tobacco, hops, and flax (in 1883, is regarded as state-revenue. There are thus two budgets for each 997 acres) are also raised. The Werrathal and the other fertile duchy. The annual income of the public lands in Coburg is valleys produce large quantities of fruit. Sheep and cattle raising estimated for the period 1886-92 at £20,700, and the expenditure is a tolerably important branch of industry throughout the duchy ; at £11,900 ; in Gotha (period 1886-90) the same source is estimated horses are bred in Kamburg. In 1883 Saxe-Meiningen contained to yield £102,621 and to cost £61,996 ;—together producing a 5174 horses, 66,733 cattle, 58,940 sheep, 45,136 pigs, and 26,817 surplus of £49,425, of which the duke receives £29,700 and the goats. The extensive and valuable forests, of which 75 per cent, state-treasury £19,725. The annual state-revenue in the same are coniferous trees, occupy 41'9 per cent, of the entire area. periods was estimated for Coburg at £51,520, or £2246 more than Nearly one half of the forests belong to the state and about onethe estimated expenditure, and in Gotha at £106,020, or £2244 third to public bodies and institutions, leaving little more than more than the expenditure. Besides the civil list the duke of a sixth for private owners. The mineral wealth of the duchy is Saxe-Coburg-Gotha enjoys a very large private fortune, amassed not inconsiderable. Iron, coal, and slate are the chief minerals chiefly by Ernest I., who sold the principality of Lichtenberg to worked. There are salt-works at Salzungen and Suiza, the former Prussia in 1834 for an annual payment of £12,000. The congress the most important in Thuringia ; and the mineral water of of Yienna had bestowed the principality upon him in recognition Friedrichshall is well known. The manufacturing industry of of his services in 1813. The house of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is Saxe-Meiningen is very active, especially in the districts of Sonnedirectly connected with five of the royal houses of Europe, and the berg, Grafenthal, and Saalfeld. Iron goods of various kinds, glass actual rulers or the heirs of three kingdoms trace their descent and pottery, school-slates, marbles, &c., are produced ; the abundfrom it. The succession is hereditary in the male line; and by ant timber fosters the manufacture of all kinds of wooden articles, the deed of succession of 1855 the heir to the throne is the duke especially toys ; and textile industry is also carried on to a slight of Edinburgh, nephew of the present duke. extent. Histovy. The elder line of Saxe-Coburg was founded in 1680 by The capital of the duchy is Meiningen (in 1881 11,227 inhabAlbert, the second son of Ernest the Pious. On his dying child- itants). Of the sixteen other towns (Salzungen, Wasungen, less in 1699, however, the line became extinct, and his possessions Hildburghausen, Eisfeld, Sonneberg, Saalfeld, Possneck, Kamburg, became the subject of vehement contention amongst the other &c.) none has so many as 10,000 inhabitants. There are 392 Saxon houses, until they were finally distributed at the end of the villages and hamlets. In 1880 the population was 207,075 (217 18th century. The present reigning family is the posterity of per square mile), of whom 30 per cent, lived in communities of John Ernest, the seventh son of Ernest the Pious, who originally more than 2000. As in the other Saxon duchies the population is ruled in Saxe-Saalfeld. His two sons, ruling in common, acquired almost exclusively Lutheran; in 1883 202,970 belonged to that possession of Coburg, and, changing their residence, styled them- confession, 2274 were Roman Catholics, 204 of other Christian sects, selves dukes.of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. Under the son and successor and 1627 Jews. of the survivor (who introduced the principle of primogeniture) Saxe-Meiningen is a limited monarchy, its constitution resting Ernest Frederick I. (1764-1800), the land was plunged into on a law of 1829, subsequently modified. The diet, elected for six bankruptcy, so that an imperial commission was appointed on his years, consists of 24 members, of whom 4 are elected by the largest death to manage the finances. The measures adopted to redeem landowners, 4 by those who pay the highest personal taxes, and 16 the country s credit were successful, but imposed so much hardship by the other electors. The franchise is enjoyed by all domiciled on the people that a rising took place, which had to be quelled males over twenty-five years of age who pay at least a minimum of with the aid of troops from the electorate of Saxony. The duke taxes. The government is carried on by a ministry of five, with Francis Frederick Antony died in December 1806, and was suc- departments for the ducal house and foreign affairs, home affairs, ceeded by his son Ernest III. (1806-1844), although the country justice, education and public worship, and finance. The returns was occupied by the French from 1807 until the peace of Tilsit in of the state-lands and the ordinary state-revenue are treated in !816. In the redistribution of the Saxon lands in 1826, Ernest separate, budgets. The estimate for the period 1884-86 puts the resigned Saalfeld to Meiningen, receiving Gotha in exchange and annual income from the former at £105,340 and the annual exassuming the title of Ernest I. of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. The line of penditure at £77,915, while the annual income and expenditure Saxe-Gotha had been founded in 1680 by the eldest son of Ernest of the latter are balanced at £145,148. Half of the surplus of is credited to each fund. The duke’s civil list of £19,714 a!° .cion’ and h1ad b.ecome extinct in 1825. When Ernest II. £27,425 (394,286 marks) is paid out of the returns from the state-lands, at ’• i rfortune succeeded 1844family both the and the one private of theinducal (see public above) finances were flourishing. time in the possession of the reigning house. Saxe-Meiningen In.Ins ^eign various liberal reforms have been achieved, and the has one vote in the federal council and sends two deputies to the union of the duchies has been made closer. reichstag. original territory of the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, founded See SAXE-MEm™ (Germ. Sachsen-Meiningen), a in The 1680 by Bernhard, third son of Ernest the Pious, consisted of Plate V. uchy in Thuringia, and an independent member of the what is now the western horn of the duchy, from Henneberg erman empire, consists chiefly of an irregular crescent- northwards. Bernhard was succeeded in 1706 by his three sons ; shaped territory, which, with an average breadth of 10 but by 1746 the only survivor was the youngest, Antony Ulrich, who reigned alone until his death in 1763. The duchy had meanmiles, stretches for over 80 miles along the south-west slope while been considerably increased in extent; but contentions and of the rhuruigian Forest. The convex side rests upon the petty, wars with the other Saxon principalities on questions of duchy of Coburg, and is in part bounded by Bavaria, inheritance, the extravagance of the court, and the hardships of while the concave side, turned towards the north, contains the Seven. Years’ War plunged it into bankruptcy and distress. A portions of four other Thuringian states and Prussia be- happier time was enjoyed under Charlotte Amalie, Antony’s wife, who ruled as regent for her two sons Charles (1775-1782) and George

S A X —S A X (1782-1803), and also under these princes themselves. George, who had introduced the principle of primogeniture, was succeeded by his infant son Bernhard Erich Freund, born in 1800. The war with France at the beginning of the present century, with its attendant quartering of troops, conscription, and levies of money, joined with cattle-disease and scanty harvests in once more plunging the country into distress, from which it but slowly recovered. Bernhard had already spontaneously granted a liberal constitution to his subjects in 1824, when large additions (530 square miles) consequent upon the redistribution of the Saxon lands in 1826 more than doubled his possessions and rendered reorganization necessary. Among the additions to Saxe-Meiningen were the duchy of Hildburghausen (whence the full title of the present duchy is Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghausen), which had been founded in 1680 by Ernest, the sixth son of Ernest the Pious; the principality of Saalfeld, which, founded by John Ernest, Ernest s seventh son, in 1680, had been united to Coburg in 1735 ; and the districts of Themar, Kranichfeld, Kamburg, and other smaller territories. Saxe-Meiningen, like the other Saxon duchies, enter ed the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806 ; but in 1866, unlike its neighbours, it declared for Austria in the war against Prussia. The land was at once occupied by Prussian troops, and Bernhard abdicated (September 1866) in favour of his son George, who made peace with Prussia and entered the North German Confederation. In 1871 the dispute which had lasted since 1826 between the duke and the diet as to the respective rights of each to the state-lands was terminated by a compromise. See SAXE-WEIMAK-EISENACH (Germ. Sachsen-WeimarPlate V. Eisenach), the largest of the Thuringian states, is a grandduchy and a member of the German empire. It consists of the three chief detached districts of Weimar, Eisenach, and Neustadt, and twenty-four scattered exclaves, of which Allstedt, Oldisleben, and Ilmenau belonging _ to Weimar, and Ostheim belonging to Eisenach, are the chief. The first and last named of these exclaves are 70 miles apart; and the most easterly of the other exclaves is 100 miles from the most westerly. The total area of the grand-duchy is 1387 square miles (or slightly larger than Wiltshire in England), of which 678 are in Weimar, 465 in Eisenach, and 244 in Neustadt. The district of Weimar, which is at once the largest division and the geographical and historical kernel of the grand-duchy, is a roughly circular territory, situated on the plateau to the north-east of the Thuringian Forest. It is bounded on the N. and E. by Prussia, on the S. and W. by the Schwarzburg Oberherrschaft and detached portions of Saxe-Altenburg, and lies 23 miles east of the nearest part of Eisenach, and 7 miles north-west of the nearest part of Neustadt. The exclaves of Allstedt and Oldisleben lie in Prussian territory 10 miles to the north and north-west respectively; Ilmenau as far to the southwest. The surface is undulating and destitute of any striking natural features, although the valleys of the Saale and Ilm are picturesque. The Kickelhahn (2825 feet) and the Hohe Tanne (2641 feet) rise in Ilmenau; but the Grosser Kalm (1814) near Remda, in the extreme south, is the highest point in the main part of Weimar. The broad-based Ettersburg (1519 feet), a part of which is known as “ Herder’s Hill ” after the poet, rises on the Ilm plateau, near Ettersburg, where Schiller finished his Maria Stuart. The Saale flows through the east of the district, but, although the chief river hydrographically, it yields in fame to its tributary the Ilm. The Unstrut joins the Saale from Oldisleben and Allstedt. The chief towns are Weimar, the capital, on the Ilm; Jena, with the common university of the Thuringian states, on the Saale; and Apolda, the “ Manchester of Weimar,” to the west. Eisenach, the second district in size, and the first in point of natural beauty, stretches in a narrow strip from north to south on the extreme western boundary of Thuringia, and includes parts of the church lands of Fulda, of Hesse, and of the former countship of Henneberg. It is bounded on the N. and W. by Prussia, on the S. by Bavaria (which also surrounds the exclave of Ostheim), and on the E. by Saxe-Meiningen and Saxe-Gotha. The

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north is occupied by the rounded hills of the Thuringian Forest, while the Rhon Mountains extend into the southern part. The chief summits of the former group, which is more remarkable for its fine forests and picturesque scenery than for its height, are the Wartburg Hill (1355 feet), the north-western termination of the system, Ottowald (2103 feet), Wachstein (1801 feet), Ringberg (2106 feet), Hohe Yogelheid (2378 feet), and the Glockner (2211 feet). Among the Rhon Mountains in Eisenach the loftiest summits are the Elnbogen (2677 feet), Bayerberg (2359 feet), Hohe Rain (2375), and the Glaserberg (2231 feet). The chief river is the Werra, which flows across the centre of the district from east to west, and then bending suddenly northwards, re-enters from Prussia, and traverses the north-eastern parts in an irregular course. Its chief tributaries in Eisenach are the Horsel and the Ulster. Eisenach is the only town of importance in this division of the grand-duchy. Neustadt, the third of the larger divisions, is distinguished neither by picturesque scenery nor historical interest. It forms an oblong territory, about 24 miles long by 16 broad, and belongs rather to the hilly district of the Yoigtland than to Thuringia. It is bounded on the N. by Reuss (junior line) and Saxe-Altenburg, on the W. by Saxe-Meiningen and a Prussian exclave, on the S. by the Two Reuss principalities, and on the E. by the kingdom of Saxony. The Kesselberg (1310 feet) near the town of Neustadt is the chief eminence. This district lies in the basin of the Saale, its chief streams being the White Elster, the Weida, and the Orla. Neustadt, Auma, and Weida are the principal towns. Agriculture forms the chief occupation of the inhabitants in all parts of the duchy, though in Eisenach and Ilmenau a large proportion of the area is covered with forests. According to the returns for 1883, 56-3 per cent, of the entire surface was occupied by arable land, 25'8 per cent, by forests, 8‘8 by pasture and meadow-land, and 4 ‘1 per cent, by buildings, roads, and water. Only 5 per cent, was unproductive soil or moorland. These figures indicate that Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach has nearly as large a percentage of arable land as Saxe-Altenburg, and, notwithstanding the extensive woods in Eisenach and Ilmenau, a lower proportion of forest than any other Thuringian state. In 1883 the chief grain crops were oats (80,682 acres, yielding 38,271 tons), barley (78,067 acres, 45,249 tons), rye (72,607 acres, 29,006 tons), and wheat (47,732 acres, 19,949 tons). About 50,000 acres were planted with potatoes, yielding 237,627 tons, or nearly 4 per cent, per acre less than the average of the five years immediately preceding. All the grain crops were slightly above the average of the same period. The 79,405 acres devoted to hay produced 98,910 tons. Among the other crops were beetroot for sugar (8602 acres), flax (1300 acres), and oil-yielding plants (4562 acres). Fruit grows in abundance, especially in the neighbourhood of Jena, in the valley of the Gleisse, and on the lower Ilm; 1070 acres, mostly on the banks of the Saale, were occupied with vines. _ Of the forests 38 '5 per cent, are deciduous and 61'5 per cent, coniferous trees ; fully a half of the former are beeches. The greater part of the forests belong to the Government. Cattle-raising is carried on to a considerable extent, especially in Eisenach and Neustadt, while the sheepfarming centres in "Weimar. The grand-ducal stud-farm in Allstedt maintains the breed of horses. In 1883 the duchy contained 17,271 horses, 110,092 cattle, 145,442 sheep, 101,443 pigs, and 41,291 goats. Although iron, copper, cobalt, and lignite are worked, the mineral wealth is trifling. Salt is also worked at different places. The manufacturing industries in the grand-duchy are considerable ; they employ 37’3 per cent, of the population. The most important is the textile industry, which centres in Apolda, and employs more than 20,000 hands throughout the country. The production of woollen goods (stockings, cloth, underclothing) forms the leading branch of the industry; but cotton and linen weaving and yarn-spinning are also carried_ on. Large quantities of earthenware and crockery are made, especially at Ilmenau. The microscopes of Jena, the scientific instruments (thermometers, barometers, &c.) of Ilmenau, and the pipes and cigar-holders of Ruhla (partly in Gotha) are well known. Leather, paper, glass, cork, and tobacco are among the less prominent manufactures. There are numerous breweries in the duchy. The volume of trade is not very great, although some of the productions (chiefly those first mentioned) are exported all over Europe, and in some cases to other continents as well. The chief imports, besides

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S A X —S A X colonial goods, are wool for the manufactures, hides, coal, meer- were neither thorough enough nor rapid enough to avert political schaum (from Smyrna and Vienna), amber, horn, &c. Eisenach commotion in 1848. A popular ministry received power, and and Weimar are the chief seats of trade. numerous reforms were carried through. Reaction set in under The population in 1880 was 309,577, or 223 per square mile, of Charles Alexander, who succeeded his father in 1853, and the union whom 297,735 were Lutherans, 10,267 Roman Catholics, 327 of the state-lands and crown-lands was repealed, though both were Christians of other sects, and 1248 Jews. The Thuringian and appointed to remain under the same public management. In 1866 Franconian branches of the Teutonic family are both represented the grand-duchy joined Prussia against Austria, although its in the duchy. According to the employment census of 1882, troops were then garrisoning towns in the Austrian interest; later agriculture, forestry, and fishing supported 135,200 or 44 per cent, it entered the North German Confederation. The press restricof the population; industrial pursuits, 114,835 or 37'3 percent.; tions were removed in 1868 and the tendency of recent legislation trade, 23,939 or 7'8 per cent.; service, 4086 or 1’3 per cent.; has been liberal. (F. MU.) official, military, and professional - employments, 16,066 or 5'2 per _ SAXIFRAGE (Saxifraga), a genus of plants which cent.; while 13,597 persons or 4 4 per cent, made no returns. Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach is a limited hereditary monarchy, and gives its name to the order of which it is a member, was the first state in Germany to receive a liberal constitution. -there are nearly 200 species distributed in the temperate This was granted in 1816 by Charles Augustus, the patron of and arctic parts of the northern hemisphere, frequently at Goethe, and was revised in 1850. The diet consists of one chamber with thirty-one members, of whom one is chosen by the nobility, considerable heights on the mountains. They are mostly four by owners of land worth at least £150 a year, five by those who herbs with perennial rootstocks, leaves in tufts, or, on the derive as much from other sources, and twenty-one by the rest of flower-stalks, scattered. The arrangement of the flowers the inhabitants. The diet meets every three years ; the deputies are elected for six years. The franchise is enjoyed by all domi- is very various, as also are the size and colour of the ciled citizens over twenty-five years of age. The government is flowers themselves. They have a calyx with a short tube, carried on by a ministry of three, holding the portfolios of finance, five petals, ten (or rarely five) stamens springing, like the of home and foreign affairs, and of religion, education, and justice, petals, from the edge of the tube of the calyx. The pistil with which is combined the ducal household. The budget for the is partly adherent to the calyx-tube, and is divided above finance-period 1884-86 estimated the yearly income at £308,586 and into two styles. The ovules are numerous, attached to the yearly expenditure at about £1560 less. The public debt is more than covered by the active capital. The ducal house receives a axile placentas. The seed-vessel is capsular. Many species civil list of £46,500. The Saxe-Weimar family is the oldest branch are natives of Britain, some alpine plants of great beauty of the Ernestine line, and hence of the whole Saxon house. By (S. oppositifolia, S. nivalis, S. aizoides, Ac.), and others, treaties of succession the grand-duke is the next heir to the throne of Saxony, should the present Albertine line become extinct. He like S. granulata, frequenting meadows and low ground, is entitled to the predicate of “ royal highness.” By a treaty with while S. tridactylites may be found on almost any dry wall. Prussia in 1867, which afterwards became the model for similar Many species are in cultivation, including the Bergenias or treaties between Prussia and other Thuringian states, the troops of Megaseas with their large fleshy leaves and copious panicles the grand-duchy were incorporated with the Prussian army. In early times Weimar, with the surrounding district, belonged of rosy or pink flowers, the numerous alpine species, such to the counts of Orlamiinde, and from the end of the 10th century as 8. pyramidalis, S. Cotyledon, Ac., with tall panicles until 1067 it was the seat of a line of counts of its own. It studded with white flowers, and many others. afterwards fell to the landgrave of Thuringia, and in 1440 passed SAXO GRAMMATICUS, the celebrated Danish hisinto the possession of Frederick the Mild, elector of Saxony. Involved after the convention of Wittenberg (1547) in the com- torian and poet, belonged to a family of warriors, his plicated and constantly shifting succession arrangements of the father and grandfather having served under king Valdemar Ernestine dukes of Saxony, who delayed the introduction of E (d. 1182). He himself was brought up for the clerical primogeniture, Weimar does not emerge into an independent profession, entered about 1180 the service of Archbishop historical position until 1640, when the brothers William, Albert, and Ernest the Pious founded the principalities of Weimar, Absalon as one of his secretaries, and remained with him lijisenacli, and Gotha. Eisenach fell to Weimar in 1644, and, in that capacity until the death of Absalon in 1201. At although the principality was once more temporarily split into the instigation of the latter he began, about 1185, to write the lines Saxe-Wehnar, Saxe-Eisenach (1672-1741), and Saxe- the history of the Danish Christian kings from the time Jena (16/2-1690), it was again reunited under Ernest Augustus (1728-1748), who secured it against future subdivision by adopting of Sven Estridson, but later Absalon prevailed on him to the Principle of primogeniture. His son of the same name who write also the history of the earlier, heathen times, and to succeeded died in 1758, two years after his marriage with Anna combine both into a great work, Gesta Danorum. The Amalia of Brunswick. Next year the duchess Amalia, although not yet twenty years old, was appointed by the emperor regent of archbishop died before the work was finished, and therefore the preface, written about 1208, is dedicated to his Ij guardian of her infant son Charles Augustus (1758-1828). The reign of the latter, who assumed the govern- successor Archbishop Andreas, and to King Valdemar II. inent in 1/75, is the most brilliant epoch in the history of Saxe- Nothing else is known about Saxo’s life and person; a ,,, eirinar- ( -A- gifted and intelligent patron of literature and art, chronicle of 1265 calls him “ mirae et urbanse eloquentiae Charles Augustus attracted to his court the leading authors and schokrs of Germany. Goethe, Schiller, and Herder were members clericusand an epitome of his work from about 1340 deot the illustrious society of the capital, and the university of Jena scribes him as “egregius grammaticus, origine Sialandus became a focus of light and learning, so that the hitherto obscure that he was a native of Zealand is probably correct, inaslittle state attracted the eyes of all Europe.1 The war with France much as,, whereas he often criticizes the Jutlanders and was fraught with danger to the continued existence of the principahty and after the battle of Jena (October 14, 1806) it was mainly the Scanians, he frequently praises the Zealanders. The the skfifulfroni management of the duchess Louise that dissuaded surname of “ Grammaticus ” is probably of later origin, Napoleon removing her husband from among the reigning scarcely earlier than 1500, apparently owing to a mistake. u of twin •In 18ln6rodd’s work above mentioned, partly and chiefly upon Priscian and Donatus.5 Form of The oldest form of the Icelandic language is, however, not prethe lan- served in the above-mentioned earliest manuscripts of the end of guage. the 12th century, which are written in the language of their own age, but in far later ones of the 13th century, which contain poems by the oldest Icelandic poets, such as the renowned Egill Skallagrimson (about 930) and the unknown authors of the so-called Edda-songs. In spite of the late date of the manuscripts, the metrical form has been the means of preserving a good deal of the ancient language.^ But, as already remarked, during the 10th and 11th centuries this dialect differs but little from Norwegian, though in the 12th this is no longer the case. We may here contrast a specimen of the above-mentioned oldest Icelandic manuscript (from the end of the 12th century) with an almost contemporary Norwegian one (Cod. AM. 619; see below):— 1 A complete catalogue of the literature edited hitherto is given by Th. Mobius, Catalogus Librorum Islaiidicorum et Norvegicorum JUatis, Medise, 1856, and Verzeichniss der . . . altislandischen und altnorwegischen . . . von 1855 bis 1879 erschienenen Schriftm, 1880. Compare Iceland. 2 3 See B. Magnusson Olsen, Runerne i den OldislandsJce literatur, 1883. See Kr. Kalund, “Islands fortidslevninger” (in the Aarb&ger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed, 1882). 4 accountin oftheallGott. the Gel. oldest Icelandic (to about 1230) is given by5 J.AnHoffory Anz., 1884, p. manuscripts 478 sq. A short review of the most important Old Icelandic manuscripts (and their classed according to subjects, is given by O. Brenner, AUnordisches llanabuch, pp. 13 sq. The principal collections of manuscripts are—1, the Arnamagnaaan (AM.) in Copenhagen, founded by Arni Magnusson (fl730); 2, 0 0 00 , ,!! and Brynjdlfr the Royal Library (fl674); (Reg.) in 3,Copenhagen, founded by Th. Torfseus (f/A?-. 1719) Sveinsson the Delagardian collection (Delag. or Ups.) at Upsala, founded in 1651 by Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie; 4, the Stockholm collection (Holm.), founded by J whelp; kvern, pron. kvbrn, mill), etc. Although dialectical differences are not altogether wanting, they Dialects, do not occur to any great extent in the Old Icelandic literary language. Thus, in some manuscripts we find ft replaced b_y fst {oft, ofst, often); in manuscripts from the western part of the island there appears in the 13th and 14th centuries a tendency to change If, rf into lb, rb {tolf, tolb, twelve ; pqrf, pnrb, want), &c. To what extent the language of Greenland differed from that of Iceland we cannot judge from the few runic monuments which have come down to us from that colony. Apart from the comparatively inconsiderable attempts at a Gramgrammatical treatment of Old Icelandic in the Middle Ages which niatical we have mentioned above, grammar as a science can only be said treatto have commenced in the 17th century. The first grammar, written ment. by the Icelander Eunolphus Jonas (+1654), dates from 1651. His contemporary and compatriot Gudmund Andre* (+1654) compiled the first dictionary, which was not, however, edited till 1683 (by the, Dane Petrus Eesenius, +1688). The first scholars who studied Old Icelandic systematically were H. K. Rask (1787-1832), whose works 6 laid the foundation to our knowledge of the language, and his great contemporary Jac. Grimm, in whose Deutsche Grammatik (1819 sq.) particular attention is paid to Icelandic. Those who since the time of Rask and Grimm have principally deserved well of Icelandic grammar7 are—the ingenious and learned Norwegian P. A. Munch, 1863, to whom we really owe the normalized orthography that has hitherto been most in use in editing Old Icelandic texts; the learned Icelander K. Gfslason, whose works are chiefly devoted to phonetic researches ;8 the Danish scholars K. J. Lyngby (+1871), the author of an essay 9 which is of fundamental importance in Icelandic orthography and phonetics, and L. F. A. Wimmer, who has rendered great services to the study of 10 the etymology. The latest Icelandic grammar is by the Swede 11 Ad. Noreen. As lexicographers the first rank is held by the 6 E.g., Veiledning til det Islandske sprog, 1811 ; in a new, much improved Swedish edition, Anvisning til Isldndskan, 1818. 7 Fornswenskans och Fornnorskans sprAkbyggnad, 1849, and (along with C. R. Unger) Norrbnasprogets grammatik, 1847. 8 9 Especially Umfrumparta Islenzkrar tungu i fomold, 1846. Den Oldnordiske udtale, 1861. i° Fornnordisk formldra, 1874. 11 Altisldndische und altnorwegische Grammatik unter Beriicksichtigung des Umordischen, 1884. led. —En ))at es vitanda, at allt ma andlega merkiasc oc fyllasc i oss, ]iat es til kirkio bunings eja Jiionosto }>arf at baua, ef ver liuom sva hreinlega at ver sem verier at callasc go])S mustere.

Norw.—En pat er vitanda, at allt ma andlega merkiasc oc fyllasc i os, pat er til kirkiu bunings e'Sa til pionasto parf at hafa, ef ver lifum sva rseinlega, at ver sem vcrSir at kallasc guSs mysteri.

!■

;'odern l.el.mdic. burces.

I Drm of |,e lan-, page.

Meets.

ramatical ileatn.ent.

OREGIAN. Id Noregian.

SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES 369 1 2 Icelanders Sv. Egilsson (+1852), G. Vigfusson, and J. forkels spoken in parts of Ireland and the north of Scotland, the Isle of son,8 and the Norwegian J. Fritzner.4 Man, the Hebrides, Shetland, and Orkney (in the last two groups 2. Modern Icelandic is generally dated from the introduction of of islands it continued to survive down to modern times), and also the Reformation into Iceland; the book first printed, the New in certain parts of western Sweden as at present defined (Bohuslan, Testament of 1540, may be considered as the earliest Modern Sarna in Dalarna, Jamtland, and Harjedalen). Icelandic document. Although, on account of the exceedingly Our knowledge of it is due only in a small measure to runic Sources. conservative tendency of Icelandic orthography, the language of inscriptions,7 for these are comparatively few in number (a Modern Icelandic literature still seems to be almost identical with little more than one hundred) and of trifling importance from a the language of the 17th century, it has in reality undergone a philological point of view, especially as they almost wholly belong constant and active development, and, phonetically regarded, has to the period between 1050 and 1350,8 and consequently are changed considerably. Indeed, energetic efforts to bring about an contemporary with or at least not much earlier than the earliest orthography more in accordance with phonetics were made during literature. The whole literature preserved is written in the Latin the years 1835-47 by the magazine entitled Fjolnir, where we find alphabet. The earliest manuscripts are not much later than the such authors as Jonas Hallgnmsson and Konr. Gislason; but these oldest Old Icelandic ones, and of the greatest interest. On the attempts proved abortive. Of more remarkable etymological whole, however, the earliest Norwegian literature is in quality as well changes in Modern Icelandic we may note the following :—already as in quantity incomparably inferior to the Icelandic. It amounts about the year 1550 the passive termination -zt (-zst) passes into merely to about a score of different works, and of these but few are the till then very rare termination -st (as in kallast, to be called); of any literary value. A small fragment (Cod. AM. 655, 4to, y, y, and ey at the beginning of the 17th century coincided with i, l, Fragm. ix., A, b, c), a collection of legends, no doubt written a and ei ; the long vowels d, eb, and 6 have passed into the diph- little before 1200, is regarded as the earliest extant manuscript. thongs au (at least about 1650), ai (about 1700), ou (as mdl, From the very beginning of the 13th century we have the language, mcela, to speak, stdll, chair); g before i, j is changed Norwegian Book of Homilies (Cod. AM. 619, 4to) and several into dj (after a consonant) or j (after a vowel),—e.g., liggia, fragments of law-books (the older Gula\ingslaw and the older to lie, eigi, not; in certain other cases g has passed into Eiftsiva]>ingslaiv). The chief manuscript (Cod. AM. 243B., fol.) gw or w,—e.g., Idgur, low, ljuga, to lie; initial g before of the principal work in Old Norwegian literature, the Speculum n is silent,—e.g., (g)naga, to gnaw; kn has passed into hn,— Regale, or Konungsskuggsjd (“Mirror for Kings”), is a little later. e.g., knUtr, knot; ps, pt into fs, ft) lb, dd, gg are pronounced Of still later manuscripts the so-called legendary Olafssaga (Cod. as bp, dt, gk, and ll, rl, nn, rn now in most positions (not, Delag. 8, fob), from about 1250, deserves mention. The masses of however, before d, t, and s, and in abbreviated names) as dtl, dtn,— charters9which—occurring throughout the whole Middle Age of a.8fjall, mountain, bjbrn, bear; / before n is now pronounced as bp,— Norway from the beginning of the 13th century—afford much as hrafn, raven, &c. Both in vocabulary and syntax we find early, information, especially concerning the dialectical differences of the e.g., in the lawbook J6nsb6k, printed in 1578(-80), Danish exercis- language, are likewise of great philological importance. ing an important influence, as might be expected from political As in Old Icelandic so in Old Norwegian we do not find the Form of circumstances. In the 18th century, however, we meet with most primitive forms in the oldest MSS. that have come down the lanpurist tendencies. As one of the leading men of this century may to us ; for that purpose we must recur to somewhat [later ones, guage. be mentioned the poet Eggert Olafsson (+1768), whose poems containing old poems from times as remote as the days of Brage were not printed till 1832. Worthy of mention in the history Boddason (the beginning of the 8th century) and JqoSolfr of Hvin of Modern Icelandic language are the learned societies which (end of the same century). It has already been stated that the appeared in the same century, of which the first, under the name language at this epoch differed so little from other Scandinavian of “ HiS osynilega,” was established in 1760. At this time archaic dialects that it could scarcely yet be called by a distinctive name, tendencies, going back to the Old Icelandic of the 13th and 14th and also that, as Icelandic separated itself from the Norwegian centuries, were continually gaining ground. In our century the mother-tongue (about 900), the difference between the two languages following have won especial renown in Icelandic literature:— was at first infinitely small—as far, of course, as the literary Bjarne porarensen (+1841), Iceland’s greatest lyric poet, and Jonas language is concerned. From the 13th century, however, they Hallgrxmsson (+1845), perhaps its most prominent prose-author in exhibit more marked differences ; for, while Icelandic develops to modern times.8 a great extent independently, Norwegian, owing to geographical The dialectical differences in Modern Icelandic are comparatively and political circumstances, is considerably influenced by the trifling and chiefly phonetic. The Westland dialect has, for Eastern Scandinavian languages. The most important differences example, preserved the Old Icelandic long a, while the other between Icelandic and Norwegian at the epoch of the oldest MSS. dialects have changed'it to the diphthong au\ in the Northland (about 1200) have already been noted. The tendency in Norwegian dialect initial kn is preserved, in the others changed into hn; in to retain the use of the so-called Umlaut has already been the northern and western parts of the island Old Icelandic hv mentioned. On the other hand, there appears in Norwegian in appears as kv, in a part of south-eastern Iceland as %, in the other the 13th century another kind of vowel-assimilation, almost dialects as xw>—e.y., hvelpr, whelp. As a matter of curiosity it may unknown to Icelandic, the vowel in terminations being in some be noted that on the western and eastern coasts traces are found of degree influenced by the vowel of the preceding syllable. Thus, a French-Icelandic language, which arose from the long sojourn of for instance, we find in some manuscripts (as the above-mentioned French fishermen there. legendary Olafssaga) that the vowels e, o and long a, se, 0 are Owing to the exclusive interest taken in the ancient language, followed in terminations by e, o ; i, u, y, and short a, se, 0, on but little attention is given even now to the grammatical the other hand, by i, u,—as in bfiner, prayers, honor, women ; but treatment of Modern Icelandic. Some notices of the language tffiir, times, tungur, tongues. The same fact occurs in certain of the 17th century may be obtained from the above-mentioned Old Swedish manuscripts. When Norway had been united later grammar of Runolphus Jonas (1651), and for the language with Sweden under one crown (1319) we meet pure Suecisms of the 18th from Rask’s grammatical works. For the language of in the Norwegian literary language. In addition to this, the our own time there is hardly anything to refer to but N. Fribriks- 14th century exhibits several differences from the old language10 : son’s works, Islenzk mdlmyndalijslng, 1861, and Skyring hinna rl, rn are sometimes assimilated into ll, nn,—as hall (elder karl), almennu m&lfrciSislegu hugmynda, 1864, which, however, are man, konn (korn), corn, prestanner (prestarnir), the priests; i not especially devoted to the modern state of philology; compare passes into y before r, l,—as hyrftir {MfSir), shepherd, lykyl (lykill), also B. Magmisson Olsen’s valuable paper ‘ ‘ Zur neuislandischen key ; final -r after a consonant is changed into -er or -ser, sometimes Grammatik” {Germania, xxvii., 1882).6 A dictionary of merit only -e, -se,—as hester {hesir), horse; bfiker {bfikr), books ; the was that of Bjorn Halldorsen (+1794), edited in 1814 by Rask. names \olleifser (forleifr), GvMseifse, [GuBleifr). About the Cleasby-Vigfusson’s dictionary mentioned above also pays some beginning of the 15th century initial kv occurs for old hv (not, attention to the modern language. A really convenient Modern however, in pronouns, which take kv only in western Norway), as Icelandic dictionary is still wanting, the desideratum being only the local name Qviteseift {hvltr, white). During the 15th century, partly supplied by K. Gislason’s excellent Danish-Icelandic Dbnsk Norway being united with Denmark, and at intervals also with Sweden, a great many Danisms and a few Suecisms are imof8ab6k med Islenzkum \{f§ingum, 1851. II. Norwegian or Norse.—The Old Norwegian language (till ported into the language. As Suecisms we may mention the terthe Reformation) was not, like the modern language, confined to mination -in of the 2d pers. plur. instead of -ir, -AS (as vilin, you Norway and the Faroes, but was, as already stated, for some time will), the pronoun/aA instead of ek, I. The most important Danisms 1 2

Lexicon poeticum, 1854-60. An Icelandic-English Dictionary, based on the MS. collections of the late R.3Cleasby, 1869-74. 4 Supplement til Islandske ordbger, 1876 and 1879-85. 5 Ordbog over det Oamle Norske sprog, 1862-67; new ed., 1883 sq. See R. Arpi, “Islands yngre literatur och sprak” (Spr&kvetenskapHga sdllskapets fbrhandlingar, 1883-85). 6 Notices of the Modern Icelandic pronunciation are also to be found in H. Sweet’s Handbook of Phonetics, 1877, Chr. Yidsteen’s Oplysninger om Bygdemaalene i Hardanger, 1885, and R. Arpi’s above-quoted paper.

7 For these see especially Nicolaysen, Norske fornlevninger, 1862-66. 8 The oldest are those on the Yaldby- (Larvik) and Strand- (Aafjord) stones, both from pagan times. The latest rune-stones are from the end of the 14th century. Owing to influence of the learned such stones appear again in the 17th century, e.g., in Telemarken. 9 On the Old Norwegian manuscripts see the works cited in notes 4, 5, page 368; for10 the literature hitherto edited see note 1, page 368. The present writer is indebted to Prof. Joh. Storm for the following remarks on the history of the Norwegian language and its dialects during the 14th and 15th centuries. XXL — 47

370

SCANDINAVIAN

are the following : b, d, and g are substituted for p, t, and as in the local names Nab# (earlier Napa), Tvedse sogn tyveita s6kn) \ -a in terminations passes into -6,—as hfire (h0yra), to hear,(s0kja), to seek • single Danish words are introduced,—as ye* (ek), I, se (sjd), to see • ’sparge (spyrja), to ask, &c. Towards the end of the Middle Ages the Danish influence shows an immense increase, which marks the gradual decline of Norwegian literature, until at last Norwegian as literary language is completely supplanted by Danish. During the 15th century Norway has hardly any literature except charters, and as early as the end of that century by far the meatest number of these are written in almost pure Danish. In the 16th century, again, charters written in Norwegian occur only as rare exceptions, and from the Reformation onward, when the Bible and the old laws were translated into Danish, not into Norwegian, Danish was not only the undisputed literary language of°Norway, but also the colloquial language of dwellers in towns and of those who had learned to read. For the rise in recent times of a new Norwegian language, employed in literature and spoken by the educated classes, see p. 373. Dialects. Dialectical differences, as above hinted, occur in great number in the Norwegian charters of the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. Especially marked is the difference between the language of western Norway, which, in many respects, shows a development parallel to that of Icelandic, and the language of eastern Norway, which exhibits still more striking correspondences with contemporary Old Swedish. The most remarkable characteristics of the eastern dialects of this epoch are the following :—a is changed into si in the pronouns )>a37in, this, \xt, that, and the particle \aer, there (the latter as early as the 13th century), and later on (in the 14th century) also in terminations after a long root syllable,—as sendee, to send, hfiyrse, to hear (but gera, to do, vita, to know); ia passes (as in Old Swedish and Old Danish) into lA—as hiserta (Icel. hjarta), heart; y sometimes passes into iu before r, 7,—as Murder, shepherd, lykiul, key, instead of hyfftir, lykyl (older still, hirMr, lykill; see above, p. 369); final -r after a consonant often passes into -ar, sometimes only into -a,—as prestar (prestr), priest, bfikar (bfokr), books, dat. sing. br08a (brfSSr), (to a) brother ; tl passes into tsl, si, -as lisla {litla), (the) little, the name Atsle, Asle(Atle)-, rs gives a “thick” s-sound (written Is),—as Bserdols, genitive of the name Berg]>6rr ; nd, Id are assimilated into nn, ll,—as bann {band), band, the local name Westfoll (Vestfold); and (as far back as the 13th century) traces occur of the vowel assimilation, “ tiljsevning,” that is so highly characteristic of the modern Norwegian dialects,—as voko, vuku, for vaJcu, (Icel. vgko, -u), accusative singular of vaka, wake, mykyll for mykill, much. On the other hand, as characteristics of the western dialects may be noted the following :—final -r after a consonant passes into -ur, -or, —as vetur {vetr), winter, rettur {rettr), right, aftor {aftr), again ; si passes into as sytlla [sfjsla), charge ; Aris changed into kv also in pronouns, —as kver {hverr), who, kvassu {hversu), how. This splitting of the language into dialects seems to have continued to gain ground, probably with greater rapidity as a Norwegian literary language no longer existed. Thus it is very likely that the ’present dialectical division was in all essentials accomplished about the year 11600 ; for, judging from the first work on Norwegian dialectology, the S0ndfjord (Western Norway) dialect at least possessed at that time most of its present features. A little clog-calendar of the year 1644 seems to prove the same regarding the Valders (Southern Norway) dialect. How far the Old Norwegian dialects on the Faroes, in Ireland and Scotland, on the Scottish islands, and on the Isle of Man differed from the mother-tongue it is impossible to decide, on account of the few remnants of these dialects which exist apart from local names, viz., some charters2 (from the beginning of the 15th century onward) from the Faroes 3 and Orkneys, (thirty 4 and a few runic inscriptions from the Orkneys in number) and the Isle of Man (fourteen in number).5 These runic inscriptions, however, on account of their imperfect orthography, throw but little light on the subject. Of the Orkney dialect we know at least that initial hi, hn, hr still preserved h in the 13th century,—that is, two hundred years longer than in Norway. GramOld Norwegian grammar has hitherto always been taken up matical in connexion with Old Icelandic, and confined to notes and appentreat- dices inserted in works on Icelandic grammar. A systematic ment. treatise on Old Norwegian grammar is still wanting, with the exception6 of a short work by the Danish scholar N. M. Petersen (+1862), which, although brief and decidedly antiquated, deserves all praise. A most valuable collection of materials exists, however, in the Norwegian charters, carefully and accurately edited by the Norwegian scholars Chr. Lange (+1861) and8 C. R. Unger,7 and in a few texts edited with diplomatic accuracy. 1 Chr. Jensen’s Norsk didionarium eller glosebog, 1646. 2 3 See Diplomatarium Norvegicum vol. i. n. 589 and 591. 4 See Dipl. Norv., i. n. 308. 5 See P. A. Munch, Samlede afhandlinger, iv. 516 sq. G See Munch, Sami, afh., iii. 181 sq. Dot Danske, Norske, og Svenske sprogs historic, part ii. pp. 1-96 (ed. 1830). 78 Diplomatarium Norvegicum, 1857 sqr, 10 vols. have already appeared. Compare the prefaces to Vigfusson’s edition of the Eyrbyggjasaga (1864),

LANGUAGES

III. Swedish.—The Pre-Reformation language is called Old Swedish. Swedish. 1. Old Swedish.—The territory of the Old Swedish compre- Old hended—(1) Sweden, except the most northerly part, where Swedish. Lappish (and Finnish ?) was spoken, the most southerly (Sk&ne, Halland, and Blekinge—see below, p. 873), and certain parts of western Sweden (see above, p. 369); (2) extensive maritime tracts of Finland, Esthonia, and Livonia, with their surrounding islands; and (3) certain places in Russia, where Swedish was spoken for a short time. The oldest but also the most meagre sources Sources, of our knowledge of Old Swedish are those words, almost exclusively personal names (nearly one hundred), which were introduced into the Russian language at the foundation of the Russian realm by Swedes (in 862), and which are for the most part somewhat influenced by Russian phonetic laws, 9 preserved in two Russian documents of the years 912 and 945, —as Igor (0. Sw. Ingvar), Ricrik {Hrftrikr), Oleg (Hialge, secondary form of Helge), Olga {Hialga, Helga). Of about the same date, but of an infinitely greater variety, are the runic inscriptions, amounting in number to about two thousand, which have been found cut on stones (rarely wood, metal, or other materials) almost all over Sweden, though they occur most frequently (about half of the total number) in the province of Uppland, next to which come Sbdermanland, Ostergotland, and Gotland, with about two hundred each. For the most part they are tombstones or monuments in memory of deceased relatives, rarely public notices. Their form is often metrical, in part at least. Most of them are anonymous, in so far that we do not know the name of the engraver, though, as a rule, the name of the man who ordered them is recorded. Of the engravers named, about seventy in number, the three most productive are Ubir, Bali, and Asmundr Karasun, all three principally working in Upland ; the first-mentioned name is signed on about forty, the others on nearly twenty stones each. These inscriptions vary very much in age, belonging to all centuries of Old Swedish, but by far the greatest number of them date from the 11th and 12th centuries. From heathen times—as well as from the last two centuries of the Middle Ages—we have comparatively few. The oldest are probably the Ingelstad inscription in Ostergotland, and the Gursten one found in the north of Sm&land.10 The rune stone from Rok in Ostergotland probably dates from the first half of the 10th century. Its inscription surpasses, all the others both in length (more than one hundred and fifty words) and in the importance of its contents, which are equally interesting as regards philology and the history of culture ; it is a 11 fragment (partly in metrical form) of an Old Swedish heroic tale. From about the year 1000 we possess the inscriptions of Asmundr Karasun, and from about 1050 the so-called Ingvar monuments (about twenty in number), erected most of them in Sodermanland, in honour of the men who fell in a great war in eastern Europe under the command of a certain Ingvar ; the stones cut by Bali belong to the same period. Somewhat later are the inscriptions cut by Ubir, and about contemporary with them, viz., from the beginning of the 12th century, is the remarkable inscription on the door-ring of the church of 12 Forsa in Helsingland, containing the oldest Scandinavian statute now preserved, as well as other inscriptions from the same province, written in a particular variety of the common runic alphabet, the so-called “ staflosa ” (staffless, without the perpendicular staff) runes, as the long genealogical inscription on the Malstad-stone. The inscriptions 13 of the following centuries are of far less philological interest, because after the 13th century there exists another and more fruitful source for Old Swedish, viz., a literature in the proper sense of the word, which was only in a limited degree written in runes. Of the14 runic literature hardly anything has been preserved to our days, while the literature in the Latin letters is both in quality and extent incomparably inferior to Old Icelandic, though it, at least in quantity, considerably surpasses Old Norwegian. In age, however, it is inferior to both of them, beginning only in the 13th century. The oldest of the extant manuscripts is a codex of the Older Vestgotalaw (Cod. Holm. B 59), written about the year 1290, and philologically of the greatest importance. Not much later is a codex of the Uplandslaio (Cod. Ups. 12) of the year 1300. Of other works of value from a philological point of view we only mention a codex of the Sodermannalaw (Cod. Holm. B 53) of about 1330, the two manuscripts containing a Keyser’s and Unger’s editions of the legendary Olafssaga (1849), and Barlaams Saga ok Josaphats (1851), Unger’s ed. of pidrekssaga (1853), and Th. Mobius’s essay Ueber die altnordische Sprache, pp. 15-18 (1872). 9 See V. Thomsen, By ska rikets grundldggning, especially p. 114 sq.\ S. Bugge, “ Oldsvenske navne i Rusland” {Arkiv f. Nord. Filol., ii.). 10 11 Kindly communicated by Prof. S. Bugge. See S. Bugge, “Tolkning af runeindskriften pa Rokstenen” {Antiqvarisk Tidskrift f. Sverige, v., 1878). 42 13 See S. Bugge, Runeindskriften paa ringen i Forsa Kirke, 1877. For the runic inscriptions in general, see above all J. G. Liljegren, Runurkunder, 1833 ; J. Gbransson, Bautil, 1750; R. Dybeck, Svenska runurkunder, 1855-59, and Sverikes runurkunder, 1860-76 ; and the Journals of the antiquarian societies in Sweden. 14 See L. F. Leffler, “ Fomsvenska runhandskrifter ” {Nordisk Tidskrift, 1879).

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vowels are softened into dj and tg {stj); k and i in unac collection of legends generally named Cod. Bureanus (written a palatal syllables often pass into gh, dh (as Svenghe for Svenke, little after 1350) and Cod. Bildstenianus (between 1420 and l450), cented litedh for litet, a little); the articles ],xn (or hm), the, and and the great Oxenstiernian manuscript, which consists chiefly of Sweden, (a little later) en, a, come into use ; the dual pronouns vanish, the a collection of legends written for the most part in 1385. The relative ser, that, is changed with sum) the present participle takes a very numerous Old Swedish charters, from 1343 downwards, are secondary form in -s (as gangandes, beside gangande, going), also of great importance.1 little later the following changes appear :—a short vowel is lengthForm of Old Swedish, during its earliest pre-literary period (900-1200), ened before a single consonant, first when the consonant belongs retains quite as original a character as contemporary Old Icelandic the lanto the same syllable (as hat, hate), afterwards also when it belongs guage. and Old Norwegian. The first part of the inscription of the Rbk- to the following one (as hata, to hate); an auxiliary vowel is instone running thus— serted between l or n and a preceding consonant (as gavel, gable, oA:e», AFT UAMUj) STANTA KUNAi? JlAi? IN UARIN FA})I FAj>I.B AFT desert) ; short i, ending a syllable, passes into e (as leva, to _Iive)_; FAIKIAN SUNU,2 th passes into t) a new conjugation is formed which has no infiniand probably pronounced— tive termination, but doubles the sign of the preterite (as bo, boddc, bolt, to dwell, dwelt, dwelt). Owing to the political and coma;ft Wamod standa ninar jxsE ; en Warenn faSc faften seft fseighian sunu, mercial state of the country the language at this period is deluged would, no doubt, have had the same form in contemporaiy with borrowed words of Low German origin, mostly social and Icelandic, except the last word, which would probably have had industrial terms, such as the great number of verbs m -era (e.g., the less original form sun. The formal changes of the Swedish hantera, to handle), the substantives in -eri (rorm, robbery), -inna language during this period are, generally speaking, such as appear (fbrstinna, princess), -het (fromhet, piety), be- (betala, to pay), about the same time in all the members of the group, as the change and a great many others (Men, weak, smaka,^ to taste, grorer, big, of soft R into common r (the Rok-stone runan, later runar, runes ; vung, purse, tukt, discipline, bruka, to use, tvist, quarrel, stbvel, boot, this appeared earliest after dental consonants, later after an accented arbeta, to work, frokoster, lunch, &c.). Owing to the political cirvowel), and the change of s}) into st (in the 10th century 7ms}tt, later cumstances, we find towards the end of the period a very powerful reisti, raised); or they are, at least, common to it with Norwegian, Danish influence, which extends also to phonetics and etymology, —as the dropping of h before l, n, and r (in the 10th century hraur, so that, for example, nearly all the terminal vowels are supplanted younger rbr, cairn), and the changing of nasal vowels (the long by the uniform Danish e, the hard consonants p, t, k by b, d, g as ones latest) into non-nasalized. A very old specific Swedish charac- in Danish, the second person plural of the imperative ends m -er, beside -en (as tagher, for older takin). . . . . . teristic, however, is the splitting up of i into iu before rtyio, nkw, Dialectical differences incontestably occur m the runic mscrip- Dialects, as siunga, to sing, siunka, to sink, from primitive Scandinavian singwan, sinkwan (Icel.-Norw. syngva, s0kkva). But the case is tions as well as in the literature ; in the former, however, most ol altogether different during what we may call the classical period ot them are hidden from our eyes by the character of the writing, Old Swedish (1200-1350), the time of the later runic inscriptions which is, from a phonetic point of view, highly unsatisfactory, and the oldest literature. During this period the language is already indicating the most different sounds by the same sign (for examdistinctly separate from the (literary) Icelandic-Norwegian (though ple, o, u, y, and b are denoted by one and the same rune); m the literature again they are reduced to a minimum by the awakening not yet from Danish). The words of the Older Vestgotalaw— desire to form a uniform literary language for the whole country, FALDER KLOCKJE NICER I HOVO]) MANNI, BOTI SOPCN MARCHUM and by the literary productivity and consequent predominant J)RIM, EN HAN FAR BANAJ AF—3 influence of certain provinces (as Ostergotland). This question,^ would in contemporary Icelandic be— moreover, has not hitherto been investigated with sufficient care. fellr klukka niSr f hbfuS manni, baffi sokn morkum Jnim, Only one distinct dialect has been handed down to us that ol the ef hann fser bana af. island of Gotland, which differs so essentially from the Old Swedish These few words exhibit instances of the following innovations in of the mainland that it haswith good reasonbeen characterized under Swedish :—d is inserted between ll inn) and a following r (as b the name Forngutniska, as in a certain sense a separate language. 1 orngut between to and l, r, and p between to and t, n, -as hambrctr, Materials for its study are very abundant5 : on one hand we mska. hamrar, hammers, sampt, Icel. samt, together with); an auxiliary possess more than two hundred runic inscriptions, among them a vowel is inserted between final r and a preceding consonant; a in very remarkable one of the 12th or 13th century, counting upwards terminations is often changed into ee ; a u in the final syllable of three hundred runes, cut on a font (now m Aakirkeby on the causes no change of a preceding a; the present tense takes the island of Bornholm), and representing the life of Christ m a senes vowel of the infinitive (and the preterite subjunctive that of preterite of pictures and words ; on the other hand a Lterature has been preindicative plural). Other important changes, appearing at the same served consisting of a runic calendar from 1328, the law of the time, but probably, partly at least, of a somewhat older date, island (from about 1350), a piece of traditional h^tory and a are the following all diphthongs are contracted (as bgha, Icel. guild statute. The language is distinguished from the Old Sw edish auga, eye; drbma, Icel. drftyma,, to dream; sten, Icel. steinn,^ of the mainland especially by the following characteristics . the stone—traces of which we find as early as the 12th century); e old diphthongs are preserved (e.g., auga, eye, droyma, to dream, has passed into se, (as lense, Icel. kne, knee); ia into iae,^ as in stain, stone), and a new triphthong has arisen by the change ot iu Eastern Norwegian (as hiserta, Icel. hjarta, heart); iu into ?/ into iau (as fliauga, to fly); the long vowels c, i, wrath ; the genitive singular ends in -in for -iS, and the passive voice in -s for the earlier of feminines in -a ends in -ur for -u (as kirkiur, of the church). •sk; the dat. plur. of substantives with suffixed article ends in Owing to the entire absence of documentary evidence it is impos-umin (Icel. -onom, as sunumin, sunonom,^ to the sons). The sible to determine how far the dialects east of the Baltic, which no transition to the 14th century is marked by important changes . doubt had a separate individuality, differed from the m°fher-tong short y, e.g., passed into b in many positions (as dor for dyr, The first to pay attention to the study of Old Swedish3 was the ifie stuuy door, &c.), and the forms of the dative and the accusative of Swedish savant J. Bureeus (+1652), who by several works (from of Old pronouns gradually became the same. The number of borrowed 1599 onwards) called attention to and excited a lively interest in Swedish, 6x o1 words is as yet very limited, and is chiefly confined to ecclesiastical the runic monuments, and, by his edition (1634) )j words of Latin and Greek origin, introduced along with Christian- Old Swedish work Um Styrilsi Konunga ok Bofymga, m Old ity (as Icors, cross, href, epistle, sfcoli, school, 'jrrtester, priest, almosa, Swedish literature also. His no longer extant Ptoto™ alms). At the middle of the 14th century the literary language Linguse Scantziante gave but a very short review of Old Swedish undergoes a remarkable reform, developing at the same time to a inflexions, but is remarkable as the first essay of its kind, and is “riksspr&k,” a uniform language, common to the whole country. perhaps the oldest attempt in modern times at a grammatical treatThe chief characteristics of this later Old Swedish are the follow- ment of any old Germanic language. The study ot runes was very ing:—the long a has passed into d (that is, an open o), and to popular in the 17th century; M Celsius (H679) deerpheml the (except before rd, rt) into ib (as sib, sea, lake); at the same “staffless” runes (see above, p. 370), and J. Hadorph (+1693), vho time there appears a so-called law of vowel balance, according also did good work in editing Old Swedish texts, copied more than to which the vowels i and u are always found in terminations a thousand runic inscriptions. During the 18th century, again after a short root syllable, and—at least when no consonant fol- Old Swedish was almost completely neglected ; but m the present lows—e and o after a long one (as Gudi, to God, til sain, for sa e, century the study of runes has been well represented by the colbut i garty, in the court, for visso, assuredly); g and k (sk) before lection of the Swede Liljegren (+1837) and by the Norwegian S. 1 The Old Swedish monuments are for the most part published in the following especially K. J. Lyngby, Antiqu.Tidskr 1|58-60, PP- 242 and260 sg.; collections:—Svenska fomskriftsdllslcapets samlingar, 84 parts, 1844-84; O. J. J 4ESecRydqvist, Sv. Sprakets lagar, iv. 153 sq.\ L. F. Leffler, Schlyter, Samling af Sveriges gamla lagar, vols. i.-vii. and x.-xi.., m , pp. 37 55, 76; S. Bugge, RuneindskrifUn fra Forsa p. 49 sq A. Koc , Svenskt Diplomatarium, 6 vols., 1829-78, new series, 2 vols ,18)5 84 Studieri Fornsvensk ljudidra, i., 1882, pp. 55 sy, 144 sq., 159 *3., 238. 2 in memory of Wdmdd these runes stand; and Waienn, his father, wrote ^ See C. Save, Gutniska urkunder, 1859; J. G. Liljegren, 1 • them in memory of his son, (by destiny) condemned to death. k 6 See A. Noreen, “Aperqu de Thistoire de la science hnguistique Suedoise ) 3 If the bell fall down on anybody s head, the parish pays a fine of three marks (£e Museon, ii., 1883). should he die from it.

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SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES Bugge’s ingenious interpretation and grammatical treatment of as fager, fair, hdrja, to ravage, later, manners, snille, genius, tdrna, some of the most remarkable inscriptions. Old Swedish literature girl, tima, to happen, &c. In addition to this, owing to humanistic has also been made the object of grammatical researches. A first influence, learned expressions were borrowed from Latin during the outline of a history of the Swedish language is to be found in whole 16th and 17th centuries; and from German, chiefly at the the work of N. M. Petersen (1830) mentioned above (p. 370), and Reformation and during the Thirty Years’ War, numberless words a scheme of an Old Swedish grammar in P. A. Munch’s essay, were introduced,—as sprdk, language, tapper, brave, gmikt, magnifiFornswensJcans och Fornnorslcans sprakbyggnad (1849); but Old cence, hurtig, brisk, &c.; among these may be noted especially a Swedish grammar was never treated as an independent branch of great number of words beginning in an-, er-, for-, and gc-. Owing science until the appearance of J. E. Rydqvist’s (+ 1877) monu- to the constantly increasing political and literary predominance of mental work Svcnstca sprakets lagar (in 6 vols., 1850-83), which France French words were largely borrowed in the 17th century, and was followed in Sweden by a whole literature on the same subject. to an equally great extent in the 18th ; such are affdr, business, Thus phonetics, which were comparatively neglected by Rydqvist, respekt, respect, talang, talent, charmant, charming, &c. In the 19th have been investigated with great success, especially by L. F. century, again, especially about the middle of it, we anew meet Leffler and A. Kock; while the other parts of grammar have been with conscious and energetic efforts after purism both in the formatreated of above all by K. F. Soderwall, the chief of contemporary tion of new words and in the adoption of words from the old Old Swedish scholars. His principal work, Ordbok bfver Svenska language {id, diligence, mala, to speak, fyIking, battle-array, &c.), medeltidsspraket (1884 sq.), nowin course of publication, gives the list and from the dialects {Riga, to gaze, Jlis, flake, skrabbig, bad, &c.). of words in the later Old Swedish language, and—taken along with Consequently, the present vocabulary differs to a very great extent the Ordbok till samlingcn af Sveriges ganila lagar (1877), by C. J. from that of the literature of the 17th century. As for the sounds Schlyter, the well-known editor of Old Swedish texts, which con- and grammatical forms, on the other hand, comparatively few tains the vocabulary of the oldest literature—it worthily meets the important changes have taken place during the last two centuries. demand for an Old Swedish dictionary. An Old Swedish grammar, In the 18th century, however, the aspirates dh and gh passed into answering the requirements of modern philology, is still needed.1 d and g (after l and r into/),—as lag for lagh, law, brbd for br'ddh, Modern 2. Modern Swedish. —The first complete translation of the Bible, bread ; hv passed into v (in dialects already about the year 1600),— Swedish, edited in 1541 by the brothers Olaus and Laurentius Petri, and as valp for hvalper, whelp ; Ij likewise into j,—thus ljuster, leister, enera ca occurs written juster. In our time rd, rl, rn, rs, and rt are passing Sources ' Searliest ^yimportant hed themonument Bible of Gustavus L, may regarded the into of this. Owing to be religious andaspolisimple sounds (“ supradental ” d, l, n, s, and t), while the tical circumstances, and to the learned influence of humanism, theo- singular of the verbs is gradually supplanting the plural. A logical and historico-political works preponderate in the Swedish vigorous reform, slowly but firmly carried on almost uniformly literature of the following period, which therefore affords but during all periods of the Swedish language, is the throwing back scanty material for philological research. It is not until the of the principal accent to the beginning of the word in cases where middle of the 17th century that Swedish literature adequately previously it stood nearer the end, a tendency that is characteristic exemplifies the language, for at that period literature first began of all the Scandinavian languages, but no doubt especially of to be cultivated as a fine art, and its principal representatives, such Swedish. In the primitive Scandinavian age the accent was as Stiernhielm, Columbus, and Spegel, were in reality the first to removed in most simple words'; the originally accented syllable, study it as a means of expression and to develop its resources. however, preserved a musically high pitch and stress. Thus there Amongst the authors of the 18th century we have to mention in arose two essentially different accentuations,—the one, with unthe first place Dalin, who was to some extent the creator of the accented final syllable, as in Icel. stlgr (Gr. anlxeis), thou goest, prose style of that epoch ; while of the end of the century Kellgren the comparative betre {cf. Gr. rdaauv from raxvs), better, the and Bellman are the most noteworthy examples, representing the other, with secondary stress and high pitch on the final, as in Icel. higher and the more familiar style of poetry respectively. The pret. plur. butSom (Sanskr. bubudhimd), we bade, part. pret. bitenn language of the 19th century, or at any rate of the middle of it, is (Sanskr. bhinnds), bitten. The same change afterwards took place best represented in the works of Wallin and Tegner, which, on in those compound words that had the principal accent on the account of their enormous circulation, have had a greater influence second member, so that such contrasts as German tirtheil and than those of any other authors. ertheilen were gradually brought into conformity with the former Form of As to the language itself the earliest Modern Swedish texts, as accentuation. At the present day it is quite exceptionally (and the fan- Gustavus I. ’s Bible, differ considerably from the latest Old Swedish chiefly in borrowed words of later date) that the principal accent guage. ones.2 We find a decided tendency to exterminate Danisms and in Swedish is on any other syllable than the first, as in lekdmen, reintroduce native and partially antiquated forms. At the same body, vdlsigna, to bless. time there appear several traces of a later state of the language: The scientific study of Modern Swedish 3 dates from Sweden’s The all genitives (singular and plural), c.g., end in -s, which in earlier glorious epoch, the last half of the 17th century. The first regular study of times was the proper ending of only certain declensions. In spite Swedish grammar was written in 1684 (not edited till 1884) in Modern of the archaistic efforts of many writers, both in forms and in voca- Latin by Er. Aurivillius ; the first in Swedish is by X. Tiallman, Swedish. bulary, the language nevertheless underwent rapid changes during 1696. Nothing, however, of value was produced before the great the 16th and 17th centuries. Thus sj and stj (original as well as work of Rydqvist mentioned above, which, although chiefly dealing derived from sk before a palatal vowel) assimilate into a simple sh- with the old language, throws a flood of light on the modern also. sound ; dj (original as well as derived from g before a palatal vowel), Among the works of late years we must call special attention to at least at the end of the 17th century, dropped its ef-sound (com- the researches into the history of the language by K. F. Soderwall,4 pare such spellings as diufwer, gidttar, envoge, for jufver, udder, F. A. Tamm,5 and A. Kock.6 But little study, and that only in jdttar, giants, envoye, envoy); hj passes into j (such spellings are isolated parts, has been devoted to the grammar of the modern found as jort for hjort, hart, and hjdrpe for jdrpe, hazel grouse); language, if the advanced state of philology is considered. A b and p inserted in such words as himblar, heavens, hambrar, good though short abstract is given in H. Sweet’s essay on hammers, jdmpn, even, sampt, together with (see above, p. 371), are “Sounds and Forms of Spoken Swedish” {Trans. Phil. Soc., 1877dropped ; the first person plural of the verb takes the form of the 79). Attempts to construct a dictionary were made in the 16th centhird, person (as vi fara, foro, for vi farom, forom, we go, went); by tury, the earliest being the anonymous Variarum Rerum Vocabula, the side of the pronoun /, you, there arises a secondary form Ni, cum Sueca Interpretations, in 1538, and the Synonymorum Libellus in full use in the spoken language about 1650 ; the adjective by Elavus Petri Helsingius, in 1587, both of which, however, gradually loses all the case-inflexions ; in substantives the nomin- followed German originals. The first regular dictionary is by ative, dative, and accusative take the same form as early as the H. Spegel, 1712 ; and in 1769 Job. Hire (t 1780), probably the middle of the 17th century ; in the declension with suffixed article greatest philological genius of Sweden, published his Glossarium the old method of expressing number and case both in the substan- Sviogoticum, which still remains the most copious Swedish tive and the article is changed, so that the substantive alone takes dictionary in existence. In the present century the diligent the number-inflexion and the article alone the case-ending; neuter lexicographer A. F. Dalin has published several useful works. At substantives ending in a vowel, which previously had no plural present the Swedish Academy has in preparation a gigantic dicending, take the plural ending -n, some -er,—as bi-n, bees, bageri-er, tionary on about the same plan as Dr Murray’s New English bakeries. About the year 1700 the Old Swedish inflexion may, in ; there will also appear as soon as possible a complete general, be considered as almost completely given up, although a Dictionary (with grammatical and etymological notes), drawn up by A. work of such importance in the history of the language as Charles list Andersson, Ad. Noreen, and F. A. Tamm, of the words in use in XII.’s Bible (so-called) of 1703 (edited by Bishop J. Svedberg), the present language. The characteristic differences between the by a kind of conscious archaism has preserved a good many of the Swedish literary language used in Finland and that of Sweden old forms. To these archaistic tendencies of certain authors at the are exhibited in the Finsk Tidskrift, vol. xix. pts. 5, 6, 1885 end of the 17th century we owe the great number of Old Swedish (“Studier p& Svensk sprakbotten i Finland,” by Karl Lindstrom). and Icelandic borrowed words then introduced into the language,— 3 See A. Noreen, “Aper?!!,” &c.; H. Hernlund, For slag och atgdrder till ' A. an Old Swedish in preparation. skriftsprakets reglerande, 1883. 4 TheNoi'cen printedhascharacters are alsogrammar considerably changed by the introduction Svenska Hufvudepokerna af Svenska sprakets utbildning, 1870 5 of the new letters a (with the transl. of the New Testament of 1526), and a, o' Several essays on the borrowed words in Swedish. (both already in the first print in Swedish of 1495) for aa, «, . 6 Sprakhistoriska undersokningar om Svensk akcent, i., 1878, ii., 1884-6,

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2. Modern Danish. —The first important monument of this is the Modern IY. Danish, like Swedish, is divided into the two great Pretranslation of the Bible, by Chr. Pedersen, Peder Palladius, and Danish, and Post-Reformation epochs of Old and Modern Danish. Old 1. Old Danish.—The territory of Old Danish included not others, the so-called Christian III.’s Bible (1550), famous for the Sources, Danish, only the present Denmark, but also the southern Swedish pro- unique purity and excellence of its language, the dialect of Sealand, vinces of Halland, Sk&ne, and Blekinge, the whole of Schles- then incontestably promoted to be the language of the kingdom. wig, and, as stated above, for a short period also a great part The first secular work deserving of the same praise is Vedel s Sources, of England, and Normandy. The oldest monuments of the lan-1 translation of Saxo (1575). The succeeding period until 1/50 guage are runic inscriptions, altogether about 250 in number. offers but few works in really good Danish ; as perfectly ^classical, The oldest of them go as far back as to the beginning of the 9th however, we have to mention the so-called Christian Y.’s Law of century, the Snoldelev-stone for instance on Sealand, and the Denmark (1683). For the rest, humanism has. stamped a highly Elemlpse-stone on Fiinen. From about the year 900 date the Latin-French character on the literature, striking even in the very long inscriptions of Tryggevselde (Sealand) and Glavendrup works of the principal writer of this period, Holberg. But about (Fiinen); from the 10th century we have the stones of Jiel- the year 1750 there begins a new movement, characterized by. a linge (Jutland), in memory of two of the oldest historical kings reaction against the language of the preceding period and purist of Denmark (Gorm and Harald) ; while from about 1000 we have tendencies, or, at least, efforts to enrich the language with newa stone at Dannevirke (Schleswig), raised by the conqueror of formed words (not seldom after the German pattern), as omkreds, England, Sven Tjuguskfegg. Relics of about the same age are the periphery, selvstsendighed, independence, valgsprog, devise,./fo’pfer, words that were introduced by the Danes into English,_ the oldest poet. The leading representatives of these tendencies were Eilschow of which date from the end of the 9th century, the time of the and Sneedorf. From their time Danish may be said to have first Danish settlement in England ; 2most of these are to be found acquired its present essential features, though it cannot be denied in the early English work Ormulum. No Danish literature arose that several later authors, as J. Ewald and Ohlenschlager, have before the 13th century. The oldest manuscript that has come exercised a considerable influence on the poetical style. As the down to us dates from the end of that century, written in runes most important differences between the grammatical forms of the Form of and containing the law of Sk&ne. From about the year 1300 we 18th and 19th centuries on one hand and those of the 16th and 17th the lanpossess a manuscript written in Latin characters and containing centuries on the other may be noted the following :—most neuter guage, Yaldemar’s and Erik’s laws of Sealand, the Flensborg manuscript substantives take a plural ending; those ending in a vowel form of the law of Jutland, and a manuscript of the municipal laws of their plural by adding -r (as riger, for older rige, plural of rige, Flensborg. These three manuscripts represent three different kingdom), and many of those ending in a consonant by adding -e Dialects, dialects,—that, namely, of Sk&ne, Halland, and Blekinge, that.of (as huse for hus, of hus, house); substantives ending in -ere drop ’ Sealand and the other islands, and that of Jutland and Schleswig. their final -e (as dommer for dommere, judge); the declension with There existed no uniform literary language in the Old Danish suffixed article becomes simplified in the same way as in Swedish period, although some of the most important works of the 15th (see above, p. 372) ; the plural of verbs takes the singular form (as century, such as Michael’s Poems and the Rhymed Chronicle (the drak for drukke, we drank); and the preterite subjunctive is supfirst book printed in Danish, in 1495), on account of their excellent planted by the infinitive (as var for mare, were). The first Modern diction, contributed materially to the final preponderance of their Danish grammar is by E. Pontoppidan, 1668, but in Latin ; the Gramfirst in Danish is by the famous Peder Syv, 1685. The works of matical dialect, that of Sealand, towards the Reformation. Form of As to the form of the language, it hardly differs at all during the self-taught J. Hpjsgaard {e.g., Accentueret og raisonneret treatthe fan- the period between 800 and 1200 A.D. from Old Swedish. It is grammatica, 1747) possess great merit, and are of. especial import- ment. guage. only in the oldest literature that wTe can trace any marked differ- ance as regards accent and syntax. The earlier part. of this ences; these are not very important, and are generally attributable century gave us Rask’s grammar (1830). A thoroughly satisfactory to the fact that Danish underwent a little earlier the same changes Modern Danish grammar does not exist; perhaps the best is that that afterwards took place in Swedish {c.g., h in hv and hj in by Th. Mobius (1871). The vocabulary of the 16th and 17th Danish was mute as early as the end of the 14th century ; cf. centuries is collected in Kalkar’s Ordbog, mentioned above, that of p. 372, above). The laws referred to above only agree in differing the 18th and 19th centuries in the voluminous and as yet Selskab, and in C. from the Swedish laws in the following points:—the nominative unfinished dictionary of Yidenskabernas 3 already takes the form of the accusative (as half, calf, but.Old Sw. Molbech’s Dansk ordbog (2d ed. 1859). As already mentioned (p. 370), Danish at the Reformation Danonom. Tcalvcr, acc. half) ; the second person plural ends in -se, (as h'&piB, but Old Sw. k'&pin, you buy) ; in the subjunctive no differ- became the language of the literary and educated classes of Norences are expressed between persons and numbers. Among them- Norway and remained so for three hundred years, although wegian. selves, on the contrary, they show considerable differences ; the it cannot be denied that many Norwegian authors even during law of Sk&ne most nearly corresponds with the Swedish laws, those this period wrote a language with a distinct Norwegian colour, of Sealand keep the middle place, while the law of Jutland as for instance the prominent prose-stylist Peder ClaussjzSn Fri.is exhibits the most distinctive individuality. The Sk&ne law, e.g., (tl614), the popular poet Peder Dass (F 1708), and, in a certain retains the vowels a, i, u in terminations, which otherwise in degree, also the two literary masters of the 18th century, HolDanish have become uniformly se; the same law inserts b and d berg and Wessel. But it is only since 1814, when Norway between certain consonants (like Old Sw.; see p. 371), has pre- gained her independence, that we can clearly perceive the soserved the dative, and in the present tense takes the vowel of the called Dano-Norwegian gradually developing as a distinct offshoot infinitive; the law of Jutland, again, does not insert b and d, and of the general Danish language. The first representatives of has dropped the dative, while the present tense (undergoing an this new language are the writer of popular life M. Hansen “ Umlaut”) has not always accepted the vowel of the infinitive; in (t 1842), the poet H. Wergeland (t 1845), and above all the taleall three characteristics the laws of Sealand fluctuate. After 1350 writer P. C. AsbjjzSrnsen (t 1885). In our own days it has been we meet an essentially altered language, in which we must first note further developed, especially by the great.poets Ibsen and Bjprnson the change of h, p, t after a vowel into g, b, d (as tag, roof, Ifbc, to and the novelist Lie ; and it has been said, not without reason, to run, sede, to eat); th passes into t (as ting, thing), gh into w (as law have attained its classical perfection in the works of the first-named for lagh, guild) and into i (as vei for wsegh, way); Id, nd are pro- author. This language differs from Danish particularly in its nounced like ll, nn ; s is the general genitive ending in singular vocabulary, having adopted very many Norwegian provincial words and plural, &c. The vocabulary, which in earlier times only (6000 to 7000), less in its inflexions, but to a very great extent borrowed a few and those mostly ecclesiastical words, is now in its pronunciation. The most striking differences in this respect are the following:—Norwegian p, t, k answer to Danish b, Form of —chiefly owing to the predominant influence of the Hanse towns inundated by German words, such as those beginning with be-, d, g in cases where they are of later, date (see above),—as Ifipe, the lanhi-, ge-, for-, and und-, and ending in -hed, and a great number Danish lbe, to run, liten, D. liden, little, bale, D. bag, back) ; to guage. of others, as blive, to become, she, to happen, fri, free, brig, war, Danish k, g before palatal vowels answer Norwegian tj, j ; r (pointtrill, not back-trill as in Danish) is assimilated in some way with buxer, pantaloons, ganshe, quite, &c. GramAn Old Danish grammar is still wanting, and the preparatory following t (d), l, n, and s into so-called supradental sounds (see matical studies which exist are, although excellent, but few in number, p. 372); both the primitive Scandinavian systems of accentuation treat- being chiefly essays by the Danes K. J. Lyngby and L. F. A. are still kept separate from a musical point of view, in opposition the monotonous Danish. There are several other characterment. Wimmer, with N. M. Petersen’s treatise Det Danske, Norske, og to all of which are points of correspondence with Svenske sprogs historic, vol. i. (1829), one of the first works that istics, nearly 4 paid any attention to Old Danish, which till then had been com- Swedish. Dano-Norwegian is grammatically treated by J. Lpkke pletely neglected. A dictionary on a large scale covering the whole (Modersmaalets formleere, 1855), K. Knudsen {Dansk-Norsk sprogof Old Danish literature, except the very oldest, by O. Kalkar, Isere, 1856), and K. Brekke {Bidrag til Dansk-Norskens lydlaere, has been in course of publication since 1881 ; older and smaller is 1881), and others. At the middle of this century, however, far more advanced pre- NorChr. Molbech’s Dansk Glossarium (1857-66). tensions were urged to an independent Norwegian language. By wegian1 — NorSee P. G. Thorsen. De Danske runemindesmxrker, i., 1864, ii., 1879-81; L. F. A. 3 See L/udvig) W(immer), “Det Danske Sprog,” in Nordisk ConversationsWimmer, “ Runeskviftens Oprindelse ” {Aarbfygerfor Nordisk Oldkyndighed.WU). lexikon, 3d ed., 1885 ; T. Strom, Dansk Literaturhistorie, 2d ed., 1878. ° an 2 See E. Brate. “ Nordische Lehnworter ini Orrmulum ” (Vaul-Draune’s Beitrage, i See J. A. Lundell, “Norskt sprak” (Nordisk Tidskrift, 1882). x., 1884). Danish.

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S C A—S C A the study of the Modern Norwegian dialects and their mother lect societies) were founded among the students at the universities of language, Old Norwegian, the eminent philologist J. Aasen was led Upsala, Lund, and Helsingfors (at Upsala alone 13), for a systematic to undertake the bold project of constructing, by the study of these and thorough investigation of dialects. We find remarkable progress two sources, and on the basis of his native dialect (S0ndmjzSre), in scientific method—especially with regard to phonetics-—in the a Norwegian-Norwegian (“ Norsk-Norsk ”) language, the so-called constantly increasing literature; special mention maybe made of the “Landsm&l.” In 1853 he exhibited a specimen of it, and, thanks detailed descriptions of the dialects of Yarmland, Gotland, and to such excellent writers as Aasen himself, the poets 0. Vinje and Dalarna by Ad. Noreen, and A. F. Freudenthal’s monographs on the K. Janson, and the novelist A. Garborg, as well as a zealous pro- Finnish and Esthonian Swedish dialects. Since 1879 the Swedish pagandism of the society “ Det Norske Samlag ” (founded in 1868), dialect societies have published a magazine on a comprehensive plan, there has since arisen a valuable though not very large literature De Svenska Landsm&len, edited by J. A. Lundell, who has invented in the “ Landsm&l. ” But it is nowhere spoken.1 Its grammatical for this purpose an excellent phonetic alphabet (partially based on structure and vocabulary are exhibited in Aasen’s Norsk gram- C. J. Sundevall’s work Omphonetiska bokstdfvcr, 1855). (A. NO.) matik, 1864, and Norsk ordbog, 1873. SCARBOROUGH, a parliamentary borough of England, Dialects. Scandinavian Dialects. —As above remarked, the Scandinavian dialects are not grouped, so far as their relationship is concerned, frequently called “ the Queen of Watering Places,” situas might be expected judging from the literary languages. Leaving out of account the Icelandic dialects and those of the Faroes, each of which constitutes a separate group, the remainder may be thus classified :2— (1) West-Norwegian Dialects,—spoken on the western coast of Norway between Christiansand and Molde. (2) North-Scandinavian,—the remaining Norwegian and the Swedish dialects of Yestmanland, Dalarna, Norrland, Finland, and Russia. (3) The dialects on the island of Gotland. (4) Middle-Swedish,—spoken in the rest of Sweden, except the southernmost parts (No. 5). (5) South-Scandimvian,—spoken in the greater part of Sm&land and Halland, the whole of Sk&ne, Blekinge, and Denmark, and the Danish-speaking part of Schleswig. This group is distinctly divided into three smaller groups,—the dialects of southern Sweden (with the island of Bornholm), of the Danish islands, and of Jutland (and Schleswig). The study of the Modern Scandinavian dialects has been very unequally prosecuted. Hardly anything has been done towards the investigation of the Icelandic dialects, while those of the Faroes have been studied chiefly by Hammershaimb. The Norwegian diale cts have been thoroughly examined by Aasen, whose works give a general account of them; while in our own days Joh. Storm, above all, displays an unwearying activity, especially in the minute investigation of their phonetic constitution, to which Aasen had paid but scant attention. The substance of these researches in the Norwegian dialects has recently been presented in a magazine, called Norvegia, of which the first volume is in course of publication ; it employs an alphabet invented by Storm. For the study of Danish dialects but little has been done, Molbech’s Dialect-Lexicon of 1841 being very deficient. The Schleswig dialect, on the contrary, has been admirably treated of by E. Hagerup (1854) and K. J. Lyngby (1858). At present two important works are in preparation,—H. F. Feilberg’s great dictionary of the dialect of Jutland, and J. C. Espersen’s of the dialect of Bornholm. There is no country in which the dialects have been and are studied with greater zeal and more fruitful results than in Sweden3 during the last 1. Old Town Hall. | 5. News Room. 9. St Mary’s Church. 13. Rom. Cath. Ch. 16. Savings Bank. hundred and fifty years. Archbishop E. 2. Custom House. 6. Theatre Royal. 10. Christ Do. 14. Post Office. 17. Sea-Bathing InOld Post Office, 7. Police Station. 11. St Thomas’ Do. 15. York City and firmary. Benzelius the younger (+1743) made collec- 4.3. Market Hall. 8. Museum. 12. Independ’t Do. County Bank. 18. Theatre. tions of dialect words, and on his work is based the dialectical dictionary of Ihre of 1766. An excellent ated on the east coast of Yorkshire, in the North Riding, work considering its age is S. Hof’s Dialectus Vestrogothica, 1772. the energy and zeal of C. Save (essays on the dialects of Gotland 40 miles from York, and between 54° 15' 0" and 54° 17' 15" and Dalarne) inspired these studies with extraordinary animation N. lat. and 0° 22' 25'' and 0° 26' 24" W. long. Its two at the middle of the 19th century ; in 1867 J. E. Rietz published a parts, north and south, each with a fine stretch of sand voluminous dialect dictionary ; the number of special essays, too, and bay, are divided by a rocky promontory 300 feet above inci eased yearly, from 1872 so-called “ landsm&lsfdreningar ” (dia1 the sea, on which stand the remains of the castle. The See J. Storm, “Det Norske maalstraev” {Nordisk Tidskrift, 1878). cliff is much exposed to denudation by the sea, which has See J. A. Lundell, “ Om de Svenska folkm&lens frandskaper” been proceeding during the present century at the rate of (Antropologiska Sektionens Tidskrift, 1880). See J. A. Lundell, “ Ofversikt af de senaste Actiondenas vark- 1 yard in 17 years. The plateau forming the castle yard samhet for kannedom om folkmal ” {Svenska LandsmAlen, i., 1880). in 1190, according to William of Newburgh, comprised 60

375 S C A —S C A of the present building took place in 1850. There are acres, but it is not now more tban 17 acres 10 perches, or restoration other churches and chapels of a much more recent date, including 43 acres, including store yards, dykes, and holms. The a Roman Catholic church. The racecourse is on the top ol a lull, first castle was built in the Anglo-Norman period, and is commanding fine views of the moors and of the sea. _ The old name of the town was written Skardeburge. It is not referred to as being in decay in 1154—a fact which in Domesday Book, but it was probably waste, as lost], throws back its origin earlier than 1136, the date assigned mentioned count of Northumberland, had ravaged and burnt it some time for its erection by William Le Gros, earl of Albemarle previously. Thorklen mentions it as having been ravaged by and Holderness, its first known governor. The list of its Adelbrecht, king of Northumberland, and by Harold Hardrada. governors stretches from that date to 1832. The streets Douglas, the Scottish chief, also burnt it in 1318. Henry II. comthe count of Aumale to surrender the castle in 1155. Ring of the older part of the town, immediately south of the pelled visited the castle in 1206 and 1216, and the house and castle hill, come down to the sea, but the newer parts of John castle of Scarborough” are mentioned in 1223. When not used as the south as well as the north side are built upon rising a temporary royal residence the castle was a royal prison. In ground. A deep valley (Ramsdale) which divides the 1312 the earl of Pembroke besieged it, and in the Pilgrimage south side is bridged from St Nicholas Cliff to the South of Grace insurrection (1536) it was unsuccessfully besieged by Sir Robert Aske. A detailed survey of it, made in 1538, is Cliff. The approach by rail is through the upper part of still extant, the castle yard and land therein described, with the this valley, by the side of which there is a marsh known as buildings, corresponding with a survey made in 1839. It was the Mere. The town is thus situated in a kind of basin, again besieged in 1644-45 and in 1648. In 1655 George Fox the was imprisoned in the castle. In 1645 the town was which opens out to the north towards extensive and lofty Quaker by assault, and in later years its inhabitants were much moorland ranges. The modern period of its history dates captured impoverished by military exactions and expenses. A view of the from 1620, when Mrs Farren, a lady resident, first discovered town and castle in 1485 is still extant. The precise date when the its mineral springs. The town contained 30,504 inhabi- town-walls were dismantled is not known. In 1730 Daniel Defoe, tants in 1881, but during the season, which lasts from writing from the place, said: “ The town is well-built, pleasant, populous, and we found a great deal of company here, drinkMay to October, its population is augmented by from ten and ing the waters, who have not only com? from the north of England to twenty thousand visitors, for whose convenience there but from Scotland.” See History of Scarborough Spaw, 1679; Gent's History of Scarborough, 1735; is increasingly ample accommodation. The Grand Hotel, Hinderwell’s History of Scarborough, 1798; Cole’s Scarbrough Worthies, 1820; fronting the sea on the south bay, stands on St Nicholas Constitution and Byelaws of the Corporation of Scarbrough, 1827 \ Brief History of St Mary's, Scarbrough, 1845 ; The Geology of Scarbrough, by C. Fox btrangCliff, at the north side of the Ramsdale valley, and^ is ways, 1880; Flora of Scarbrough, by G. Masser, 1881; and Scarborough as a one of the largest in England. An aquarium (1877) Health Resort, by A. Haviland, 1883. stands beneath the Cliff Bridge, and close by is the SCARLATTI, Alessandro (1659-1725), composer of museum, a Roman-Doric rotunda, built in 1828. The sacred and dramatic music, was born at Trapani in Sicily spa saloon, opened in 1800, contains a hall in the Italian- in 1659, and became in early youth a pupil of Carissimi. Renaissance style, a theatre, and refreshment rooms. In 1680 Queen Christina of Sweden appointed him her There is a promenade in front protected by a sea wall. maestro di cappella, and commissioned him to write his The south spring is aperient but contains some iron, while first opera, L’Onesta nelV Amove, for performance at her the north or chalybeate spring is more tonic in its pro- palace in Rome. In 1693 he produced his first oratorio, perties. The waters, however, are seldom taken now, the I Dolori di Maria sempre Vergine. In the following year town being mainly frequented for the sea-bathing. The he was appointed maestro di cappella to the viceroy. of grounds of the present spa are tastefully laid out. A Naples, and from that time forward his works multiplied foreshore road, made in 1878 by the corporation, and with astonishing rapidity, his time being spent partly in shortly to be extended round the castle cliff to the north Naples and partly in Rome, where he entered the service side, makes an excellent drive or promenade. The north of Cardinal Ottoboni, as private maestro di cappella. His side has fine sands, a hoist, and a promenade pier, but is prodigious fertility of invention did not, however, tempt not so attractive as the south side, nor are the houses him to write carelessly. On the contrary he did his best there of so good a character and style. The salubrity of to neutralize the evil caused by the founders of the Scarborough is attested by its vital statistics. The mean monodic school, whose insane hatred of counterpoint and annual mortality from 1873 to 1882 was 18'4 per 1000. form reduced their dramatic music to the dreary level of The death-rate from consumption in all England is 2‘4 monotonous declamation. He was by far the most learned per 1000; amongst the indigenous population of Scar- contrapuntist of his age; and it was to this circumstance borough from 1873 to 1882 it was 1'7 per 1000. The that his compositions owed their resistless power. _ Moremean annual temperature is 47'9 Fahr. In December, over, his sense of form was as just as his feeling for January, and February it is only 0‘6° colder than Brighton, harmony, and to this he was indebted for the originality whilst in the summer months Brighton is 3-6 warmer. of many of his finest conceptions. He has been credited The town is a royal borough, its charter of incorpora- with two very important inventions—accompanied recitation dating from 1161. It returned two members to tive and the da capo. That he really did invent the first parliament from 1283 to 1885, when one of the seats was there is very little doubt. Instances of the latter have taken away. The limits of the municipal and parlia- been found of earlier date than most of his works, but he mentary boroughs coincide,—the area being 2348 acres, was certainly the first to bring it into general use. He the population 24,259 in 1871 and 30,504 in 1881. also struck out ideas in his orchestral accompaniments Shipbuilding, salt-manufacture, and knife-making were formerly which must have seemed bold indeed to the musicians of common, but the only craft now remaining is jet-manufacture. the period, using obbligato passages and other combinaThe fishing trade is, however, very considerable. Disputes about tions previously unknown, and introducing ritornelli and dues for the old pier and the fish-tithe occupy a conspicuous place in the town records ; the pier seems to have suffered sinfonie with excellent effect. In 1/07 Scarlatti was greatly in the various sieges to which the town, after it was walled, appointed principal maestro di cappella at Santa Maria became exposed. The old town-hall in St Nicholas Street, the Maggiore, and soon afterwards he was invested by the new town-hall in Castle Koad, the market-hall in St Helen s pope with the order of the Golden Spur, with which Square, in the Tuscan style, and the new post office in Huntnss Row are conspicuous amongst the public buildings. There are Gluck and Mozart were afterwards honoured. He resigned two theatres. Of the monastic buildings belonging to the Grey his appointment after two years’ service, and died at Naples Friars, Dominicans, and Carmelites there are no remains, but the October 24, 1725. parish church of St Mary, conspicuously situated on a mound to Very few of Scarlatti’s works have been published. His comthe south of Castle Hill, occupies the site of the old Cistercian positions 115 operas (41 only of which are now known to monastery. The old church was made the site of a battery in the exist, andinclude these only in MS.), 200 masses 9 oratorios, more than siege of the castle in 1644, and one of its towers fell in 1659. The

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500 cantatas, and innumerable smaller pieces, both sacred and secular. MSS. of three of bis operas, Gerone, 11 Flavio Cuniberto, and La Teodora Augusta, are preserved in the library of Christ Church, Oxford; and II Prigioniero Fortunato forms part of the “ Dragonetti Collection ” in the British Museum. SCARLATTI, Domenico (1683-1757), son of the preceding, was born at Naples in 1683, and studied music first under his father and then under Gasparini. He began his career by composing a few operas, among them Amleto, produced at Home in 1715, and remarkable as the earliest known attempt to pose Shakespeare’s hero as the primo uomo of a dramma per la musica. But his real strength lay in the excellence of his performances on the harpsichord and organ. During Handel’s first sojourn in Italy in 1708-9 D. Scarlatti was invited to a trial of skill with him on both instruments at the palace of Cardinal Ottoboni, and all present decided that the harpsichord performances terminated in a drawn battle, though Handel had a decided advantage on the organ. The justice of the verdict cannot be doubted; for, whenever Scarlatti was afterwards praised for his organ-playing, he used to cross himself devoutly and say, “You should hear Handel! ” On the death of Bai in 1715 D. Scarlatti was appointed maestro di cappella of St Peter’s in Rome. In 1719 he conducted the performance of his Narciso at the King’s Theatre in London, and in 1721 he played with great success in Lisbon. He then returned to Naples; but in 1729 he was invited to Madrid, with the appointment of teacher to the princess of Asturias, and remained there twenty-five years, returning in 1754 to Naples, where he died in 1757. D. Scarlatti’s compositions for the harpsichord are almost innumerable, and many of them have been published. In the character of their technique they are infinitely in advance of the age in which they were written and played ; and many of them are difficult enough to tax the powers of the best performers of the present day. SCARLET FEYER and Scarlatina are names applied indifferently to an acute infectious disease, characterized by high fever, accompanied with sore throat and a diffuse red rash upon the skin. This fever appears to have been first accurately described by Sydenham in 1676, before which period it had evidently been confounded with smallpox and measles. In connexion with the causation of this disease, the following points have been ascertained. (1) It is a highly contagious malady, the infective material being one of the most subtle, diffuse, and lasting known in fevers. It would seem that the disease is communicable from an early period of its occurrence, all through its progress, and especially during convalescence when the process of desquamation is proceeding, and when the shed-off epidermis which contains the germs of the disease in great abundance is apt to be inhaled, to become attached to articles of clothing, to find entrance into food, or to be transmitted in other ways to healthy persons. (2) It is a disease for the most part of early life, young children being specially susceptible; but adults may also suffer if they have not had this fever in childhood. (3) It occurs both in isolated cases (sporadically) and in epidemics. (4) One attack in general, although not always, confers immunity from a second. (5) Certain constitutional conditions act as predisposing causes favouring the development of the fever. Thus, where overcrowding prevails, and where the hygienic state of children is ill attended to, the disease is more likely to prevail and spread, and to assume unfavourable forms. Further, in the puerperal state in women there appears to be a special susceptibility to suffer in a dangerous manner should there be exposure to the infection of the fever. As to the nature of the infecting agent, nothing positive is known, although from the analogy of similar diseases it is

probable that specific micro-organisms or germs are concerned in its production. The period of incubation in scarlet fever (that is, the time elapsing between the reception of the poison and the development of symptoms) appears to vary. Sometimes it would seem to be as short as one or two days, but in most instances it is probably about a week. The invasion of this fever is generally sudden and sharp, consisting in rigors, vomiting, and sore throat, together with a rapid rise of temperature and increase in the pulse. Occasionally, especially in young children, the attack is ushered in by convulsions. These premonitory symptoms usually continue for about twenty-four hours, when the characteristic eruption makes its appearance. It is first seen on the neck, chest, arms, and hands, but quickly spreads all over the body, although it is not-distinctly marked on the face. This rash consists of minute thickly-set red spots, which coalesce to form a general diffuse redness, in appearance not unlike that produced by the application of mustard to the skin. In some instances the redness is accompanied with small vesicles containing fluid. In ordinary cases the rash comes out completely in about two days, when it begins to fade, and by the end of a week from its first appearance it is usually gone. The severity of a case is in some degree measured by the copiousness and brilliancy of the rash, except in the malignant varieties, where there may be little or no eruption. The tongue, which at first was furred, becomes about the fourth or fifth day denuded of its epithelium and acquires the peculiar “ strawberry ” appearance characteristic of this fever. The interior of the throat is red and somewhat swollen, especially the uvula, soft palate, and tonsils, and a considerable amount of secretion exudes from the inflamed surface. There is also tenderness and slight swelling of the glands under the jaw. In favourable cases the fever departs with the disappearance of the eruption and convalescence sets in with the commencement of the process of “ desquamation ” or peeling of the cuticle, which first shows itself about the neck, and proceeds slowly over the whole surface of the body. Where the skin is thin the desquamation is in the form of fine branny scales; but where it is thicker, as about the hands and feet, it comes off in large pieces, which sometimes assume the form of casts of the fingers or toes. The duration of this process is variable, but it is rarely complete before the end of six or eight weeks, and not unfrequently goes on for several weeks beyond that period. It is during this stage that complications are apt to appear, particularly those due to cold, such as inflammation of the kidneys; and all throughout its continuance there is the further danger of the disease being communicated to others by the cast-off epidermic scales. Scarlet fever shows itself in certain well-marked varieties, of which the following are the chief :— 1. Scarlatina Simplex is the most common form; in this the symptoms, both local and general, are moderate, and the case usually runs a favourable course. It is always, however, to be borne in mind that the duration and the infectiveness of the disease, including its convalescence, are uninfluenced by the mildness of the attack. In some rare instances it would seem that the evidences of the disease are so slight, as regards both fever and rash, that they escape observation and only become known by the patient subsequently suffering from some of the complications associated with it. In such cases the name latent scarlet fever {scarlatina latens) is applied. 2. Scarlatina Anginosa is a more severe form of the fever, particularly as regards the throat symptoms. The rash may be well marked or not, but it is often slow in developing and in subsiding. There is intense inflammation of the throat, the tonsils, uvula, and soft palate being swollen and ulcerated, or having upon them membranous patches not unlike those of diphtheria, while externally the gland tissues in the neck are enlarged and indurated and not unfrequently become the seat of abscesses. There is difficulty in opening the mouth ; an acrid discharge exudes from the nostrils and excoriates the lips ; and the countenance is pale and waxy-

SCARLET looking. This form of the disease is marked by great prostration of strength, and it is much more frequently fatal than the preceding. 3. Scarlatina Maligna is the most serious form of all. The malignancy may be variously displayed. Thus a case of scarlatina anginosa may acquire such a severe character, both as to throat and general symptoms, as rapidly to produce profound exhaustion and death. But the typically malignant forms are those in which the attack sets in with great violence and the patient sinks from the very first. In such instances the rash either does not come out at all or is of the slightest amount and of livid rather than scarlet appearance, while the throat symptoms are often not prominent. Death in such cases may take place in from twentyfour to forty-eight hours, and is frequently preceded by great elevation of the temperature of the body and by delirium, coma, or other nervous symptoms. A further example of a malignant form is occasionally observed in cases where the rash, which had previously been well-developed, suddenly recedes, and convulsions or other nervous phenomena and rapid death supervene. The complications and effects of scarlet fever are, as already indicated, among the most important features in this disease, and, although their occurrence is exceptional, they appear with sufficient frequency, and are of such a nature, as ought to make the medical attendant carefully watch every case for any of their early indications. The most common and serious of these is inflammation of the kidneys, which may arise during any period in the course of the fever, but is specially apt to appear in the convalescence, while desquamation is in progress. Its onset is sometimes announced by a return of feverish symptoms, accompanied with vomiting and pain in the loins; but in a large number of instances it occurs without these and comes on insidiously. One of the most prominent symptoms is slight swelling of the face, particularly of the eyelids, which is rarely absent in this complication. If the urine is examined it will probably be observed to be diminished in quantity and of dark smoky or red appearance, due to the presence of blood; while it will also be found to contain a large quantity of albumen. This, together with the microscopic examination which reveals the presence of tube casts containing blood, epithelium, &c., testifies to a condition of acute inflammation of the kidney (glomerular and tubal nephritis). In favourable cases these symptoms may soon disappear, but they may on the other hand prove extremely serious,—the risks being the suppression of urine, leading to uraemic poisoning and causing convulsions which may terminate fatally, or, further, the rapid development of general dropsy, and death from this cause. Although thus a very formidable complication, it is yet one which is amenable to treatment, and by the prompt and judicious application of remedies lives may often be saved, even in desperate circumstances. Occasionally this condition does not wholly pass off, and consequently lays the foundation for Bright’s Disease (q.v.). Another of the more common complications or results of scarlet fever is suppuration of the ears, due to the extension of the inflammatory process from the throat along the Eustachian tube into the middle ear. This not unfrequently leads to permanent eardischarge, with deafness from the disease affecting the inner ear and temporal bone, a condition implying a degree of risk from its proximity to the brain. Other maladies affecting the heart, lungs, pleura, &c., occasionally arise in connection with scarlet fever, but they are of less common occurrence than those previously mentioned. Apart, however, from such definite forms of disease there may remain as the result of scarlet fever simply a general weakening of health, which may render the patient delicate and vulnerable for a long time. In the treatment of scarlet fever, one of the first requirements is the isolation of the case, with the view of preventing the spread of the disease. In large houses this may be possible, but in most instances it can only be satisfactorily accomplished by sending away those other members of the

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family who have not suffered from the fever. The establishment in many large towns of hospitals for infectious diseases, which provide accommodation for patients of all classes, affords the best of all opportunities for thorough isolation. In large families, where few or none of the members have had the disease, the prompt removal of a case to such an hospital will in many instances prevent the spread of the fever through the household, as well as beyond it, and at the same time obviate many difficulties connected with the cleansing and purification of the house, which, however carefully done, may still leave remaining some risk in the case of a fever the contagious power of which is so intense. When, however, the patient is treated at home, the sick room should contain only such furniture as may be required, and the attendants should come as little as possible in contact with other members of the household. Should other children be in the house, they should be kept away from school during all the time that the risk of infection continues. The possibility of the fever being communicated by letters sent from the sick room should not be forgotten by those in attendance. Disinfectants, such as carbolic acid, Condy’s fluid, &c., maybe used freely in the room and passages, and all body or bed clothes when removed should be placed at once in boiling water, or in some disinfecting fluid. In convalescence, with the view of preventing the transmission of the desquamated cuticle, the inunction of the body with carbolized oil (1 in 40) and the frequent use of a bath containing soda are to be recommended. All books, toys, &c., used by the patient during the illness should be carefully destroyed or given to fever hospitals, as their preservation has frequently been known to cause an outbreak of the disease at a subsequent time. With respect to the duration of the infective period, it may be stated generally that it is seldom that a patient who has suffered from scarlet fever can safely go about before the expiry of eight weeks, while on the other hand the period may be considerably prolonged beyond this, the measure of the time being the completion of the process of desquamation in every portion of the surface of the body. As to general management during the progress of the fever,—in favourable cases little is required beyond careful nursing and feeding. The diet all through the fever and convalescence should be of light character, consisting mainly of milk food. Soups may be taken, but solid animal food should as far as possible be avoided. During the febrile stage a useful drink may be made by a weak solution of chlorate of potash in water (1 drachm to the pint), and of this the patient may partake freely. In the more severe forms of the disease, where the throat is much affected, the application with a brush of a strong solution of Condy’s fluid or other disinfectant, such as boroglyceride, glycerine of carbolic acid, quinine, &c., may be required, or gargling with these substances when this can be done. In the malignant variety, where the eruption is not appearing, or is but ill developed, stimulants internally, and the hot bath or pack, may sometimes afford a chance, or the hypodermic use of pilocarpin,-—although it must be confessed that in such cases little can be expected from any remedies. The treatment of the kidney complication and its accompanying dropsy is similar to that for acute Bright’s disease. Depletion by leeching or cupping the loins, and the promotion of cutaneous action by a hot air bath or a hot wet pack, or by pilocarpin, are the most useful measures, and will often succeed in saving life. The abscesses of the neck which occasionally occur as complications should be opened antiseptically, while the ear disorders, which are apt to continue long after the termination of convalescence, will demand the special attention of the aurist. (j. o. A.) XXI. — 43

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SCARRON, Paul (1610-1660), poet, dramatist, novelist, and husband of Madame de Maintenon, was born or at least baptized on the 4th July 1610. His father, of the same name, was a man of position, and a member of the parlement of Paris. Paul the younger (who is said to have quarrelled with his stepmother) became an abbe, was not ill-allowanced, and travelled to Rome in 1634. He returned and became a well-known figure in literary and fashionable society. A wild story used to be told of his having (when in residence at his canonry of Le Mans) tarred and feathered himself as a carnival freak, of his having been obliged to take refuge from popular wrath in a swamp, and of his consequent deformity from rheumatism. The simple fact seems to be that in 1637 he had an attack of fever with the usual sequelae of rheumatic attacks, and that he put himself into the hands of a quack doctor. This at least is how Tallemant tells the story, though he substitutes a less creditable disease for fever. What is certain is that Scarron, after having been in perfect health for nearly thirty years, passed twenty more in a state of miserable deformity and pain. His head and body were twisted, and his legs became useless. Nevertheless he bore up against his sufferings with invincible courage, though they were complicated by his inheriting nothing from his father, and by the poverty and misconduct of his sisters, whom he supported. For a few years he really held a benefice at Le Mans, but was then in no case to play pranks. It is said, however, that here he conceived the idea of the Roman Comique and wrote the drama of Jodelet, which gave a nickname to the actor who performed it. In 1646 he returned to Paris and worked hard for the booksellers, from the name of one of whom he is said to have called literature pleasantly his “ marquisat de Quinet.” He had also a pension from Mazarin and one from the queen, but lost both from being accused of “ Frondeur ” sentiments. The most singular action of his life remains to be told. In his early years he had been, as hinted, something of a libertine, and a young lady of some family, Celeste Palaiseau, had openly lived with him. But in 1652, sixteen years after he had become almost entirely paralysed, he married a girl of much beauty and no fortune, Frangoise or Francine d’Aubigne, granddaughter of Agrippa d’Aubigne, afterwards famous as Madame de Maintenon. Scarron’s house was, both before and after the marriage, a great centre of society, despite his narrow means. Yet only the most malignant and unscrupulous libellers of the future favourite accuse her of light conduct during the eight years of her marriage to this strange husband, and the well-informed author of the Historiettes distinctly acquits her of any such. But Scarron, who had long been able to endure life only by the aid of constant doses of opium, was at length worn out, and died on the 6th October 1660. Scarron’s work is very abundant, and, written as it was under pressure of want and pain, it is very unequal. The piece most famous in his own day, his Virgile Travesti (1648-53), is now thought, and not unjustly, a somewhat ignoble and unprofitable waste of singular powers for burlesque. But the Roman Comique (1651) is a work the merit of which can be denied by no competent judge who has read it. Unfinished, and a little desultory, this history of a troop of strolling actors is almost the first French novel, in point of date, which shows real power of painting manners and character, and is singularly vivid. It furnished Theophile Gautier with the idea and with some of the details of his Capitaine Fracasse. Scarron also wrote some shorter novels of merit, which are thought to have inspired Moliere and Sedaine. Of his plays Jodelet (1645) and Don Japhet d’Armenie (1653) are the best. Both these and the others which he wrote are of course somewhat antiquated in style, but with Corneille’s Menteur they stand above everything else in comedy before Moliere. He also produced many miscellaneous pieces. Scarron is generally spoken of and thought of as a representative writer of burlesque, but in reality he possessed in abundance the faculty of true comedy. The most complete edition of his works is

held to be that of 1737 (10 vols., Amsterdam), but his more celebrated pieces, including all those mentioned above, have been frequently reprinted. SCAUP,—the wild-fowler’s ordinary abridgment of Scaup-Duck, meaning a Duck so called “ because she feeds upon Scaup, i.e., broken shelfish,” as may be seen in Willughby’s Ornithology (p. 365); but it would be more proper to say that the name comes from the “Musselscaups,” or “Mussel-scalps,1” the beds of rock or sand on which Mussels (Mytilus edulis, and other species) are aggregated,—the Anas marila of Linnaeus and Fuligula marila of modern systematic writers, a very abundant bird around the coasts of most parts of the northern hemisphere, repairing inland in spring for the purpose of reproduction, though so far as is positively known hardly but in northern districts, as Iceland, Lapland, Siberia, and the fur-countries of America. It was many years ago believed (Edin. N. Philos. Journal, xx. p. 293) to have been found breeding in Scotland, but assertions to that effect have not been wholly substantiated, though apparently corroborated by some later evidence {Proc. N. 11. Soc. Glasgow, ii. p. 121, and Proc. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, vii. p. 203). The ScaupDuck has considerable likeness to the Pochard (vol. xix. p. 252), both in habits and appearance; but it much more generally affects salt-water, and the head of the male is black, glossed with green, and hence the name of “ Blackhead,” by which it is commonly known in North America, where, however, a second species or race, smaller than the ordinary one, is also found, the Fuligida affinis. The female Scaup-Duck can be readily distinguished from the Dunbird or female Pochard by her broad white face. (a. n.) SCEPTICISM signifies etymologically a state of doubt or indecision in the face of different mutually conflicting statements (o-kcVto/acu, I consider, reflect, hesitate, doubt). It is implied, moreover, that this doubt is not merely a stage in the road to certainty and true knowledge. The provisional suspense of judgment recommended by Descartes and others as the true beginning of philosophy is no more than a passing phase of the individual’s mind in his search for truth. But the doubt of the sceptic is professedly the last result of investigation; it is the renunciation of the search for truth on the ground that truth or real knowledge is unattainable by man. An account of the chief historical appearances of scepticism and its different motives will serve to illustrate and amplify this statement, and will lead up to any further considerations of a general nature. At the outset, and in general terms, scepticism may be summarily defined as a thoroughgoing impeachment of man’s power to know—as a denial of the possibility of objective knowledge. Trust, not distrust, is the primitive attitude of the mind. HistoriWhat is put before us, whether by the senses or by the cal aP' statements of others, is instinctively accepted as a veracious Pearance3, report, till experience has proved the possibility of deception. In the history of philosophy, in the same way, affirmation precedes negation; dogmatism goes before scepticism. And this must be so, because the dogmatic systems are, as it were, the food of scepticism; without them it would be without motive, without a basis operandi. Accordingly, we find that sceptical thought did not make its appearance till a succession of positive theories as to the nature of the real, by their mutual inconsistency, had suggested the possibility that they might all alike be false. The Sophistic epoch of Greek philo- The sophy was, in great part, such a negative reaction against Sophists, the luxuriance of self-confident assertion in the naturephilosophies of the preceding age. Though scepticism as a definite school of opinion may be said, in accordance 1 ‘ ‘ Scalp ” primarily signifies a shell; cf. Old Dutch schelpe and Old Fr. escalope (Skeat, Etymol. Dictionary, p. 528).

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with old precedent, to date only from the time of Pyrrho Cynics also, who denied the possibility of any but identical of Elis, there can be no doubt that the main currents of judgments, must be similarly regarded as a solvent of Sophistic thought were sceptical in the wider sense of that knowledge. But with these insignificant exceptions it holds term. The Sophists were the first in Greece to dissolve true that, after the sceptical wave marked by the Sophists, knowledge into individual and momentary opinion (Prota- scepticism does not reappear till after the exhaustion of goras), or dialectically to deny the possibility of know- the Socratic impulse in Aristotle. The first man in antiquity whose scepticism gave name ledge (Gorgias). In these two examples we see how the weapons forged by the dogmatic philosophers to assist in to his doctrine was Pyrrho of Elis (about 360-270 b.c.). Pyrrho. the establishment of their own theses are sceptically Pyrrho proceeded with the army of Alexander the Great turned against philosophy in general. As every attempt as far as India, in the company of Anaxarchus, the to rationalize nature implies a certain process of criticism Democritean philosopher. He afterwards returned to his and interpretation to which the data of sense are subjected, native city, where he lived in poor circumstances, but; and in which they are, as it were, transcended, the anti- highly honoured by his fellow-citizens. Pyrrho himself thesis of reason and sense is formulated early in the left no writings, and the accounts of his doctrine are history of speculation. The opposition, being taken as mainly derived from his pupil Timon of Phlius (about absolute, implies the impeachment of the veracity of the 325-235 b.c.). Timon is called the Sillographist, from his senses in the interest of the rational truth proclaimed by satirical poem (2iAAoi), in which all the philosophers of the philosophers in question. Among the pre-Socratic Greece are held up to ridicule, with the exception of nature-philosophers of Greece, Heraclitus and the Eleatics Xenophanes, who honestly sought, and Pyrrho, who are the chief representatives of this polemic against the succeeded in finding, the truth. Other disciples are “ lying witness ” of the senses. The diametrical opposi- mentioned besides Timon, but the school was short-lived, tion of the grounds on which the veracity of the senses is its place being presently taken by the more moderate and impugned by the two philosophies (viz., by Heraclitus cultured doubt of the New Academy. Zeller sums up because they testify to an apparent permanence, and Pyrrho’s teaching in three propositions:—We know nothing identity in things, by the Eleatics because they testify to about the nature of things; hence the right attitude an apparent multiplicity and change) was in itself sugges- towards them is to withhold judgment; the necessary tive of sceptical reflexion. Moreover, although these philo- result of withholding judgment is imperturbability. The sophers are not in any sense themselves sceptical, their technical language of the school expresses the first position arguments are easily susceptible of a wider application. by the word d/caraA^'a; things are wholly incompreAccordingly we find that the arguments by which Heraclitus hensible or inaccessible; against every statement the supported his theory of the universal flux are employed by opposite may be advanced with equal justice (laocrdeveLa Protagoras to undermine the possibility of objective truth, twv Xoywv). The sceptical watchword which embodies the by dissolving all knowledge into the momentary sensation second position is cttoxVi reserve of judgment, or, as it is or persuasion of the individual. The idea of an objective put by Timon, ovSev /aolWov, that is, no one assertion is flux, or law of change constituting the reality of things, is truer than another. This complete suspense of opinion is abandoned, and subjective points of sense alone remain,— also expressed by the terms appeif/ta, or equilibrium, and which is tantamount to eliminating the real from human a^acria, or refusal to speak, as well as by other expressions. The Pyrrhonists were consistent enough to extend their knowledge. , t, Still more unequivocal was the sceptical nihilism ex- doubt even to their own principle of doubt. They thus pressed by Gorgias in his three celebrated theses :—(1) attempted to make their scepticism universal, and to nothing exists; (2) if anything existed, it would be un- escape the reproach of basing it upon a fresh dogmatism. knowable j (3) if anything existed and were knowable, Mental imperturbability (arapa^Lo) was the result to be the knowledge of it could not be communicated. The attained by cultivating such a frame of mind. The arguments of his book, “ Concerning the Non-existent, or happiness or satisfaction of the individual was the end Nature,” were drawn from the dialectic which the Eleatics which dominated this scepticism as well as the contemhad directed against the existence of the phenomenal porary systems of Stoicism and Epicureanism, and all three world. But they are no longer used as indirect proofs of philosophies place it in tranquillity or self-centred indifa universe of pure and unitary Being. The prominence ference. Scepticism withdraws the individual completely given by most of the Sophists to rhetoric, their cultiva- into himself from a world of which he can know nothing. tion of a subjective readiness as the essential equipment It is men’s opinions or unwarranted judgments about for life, their substitution of persuasion for conviction, all things, say the sceptics, which betray them into desire, mark the sceptical undertone of their teaching. . This and °painful effort, and disappointment. From all this a attitude of indifference to real knowledge passed in the man is delivered who abstains from judging one state.to younger and less reputable generation into a corroding be preferable to another. But, as complete inactivity moral scepticism which recognized no good but pleasure would have been synonymous with death, it appears to have been admitted that the sceptic, while retaining his and no right but might. What Socrates chiefly did was to recreate the instinct consciousness of the complete uncertainty enveloping every for truth and the belief in the possibility of its attain- step, might follow custom in the ordinary affairs of life. The scepticism of the New Academy (or, to speak more Sceptiment. The scientific impulse thus communicated was f sufficient to drive scepticism into the background during strictly, of the Middle Academy, under Arcesilaus and e ° Carneades, founders respectively of the so-called second demy. Ac a the great age of Greek philosophy (i.e., the hundred years preceding Aristotle’s death, 323 b.c.). The captious and third Academies) differed very little from that of the logic of the Megaric school,—in which the Eleatic in- Pyrrhonists. The differences asserted by later writers are fluence was strong,—their devotion to eristic and the elab- not borne out on investigation. But the attitude mainoration of fallacies, was indeed in some cases closely related tained by the Academics was chiefly that of a negative to sceptical results. The school has been considered with criticism of the views of others, in particular of the somesome truth to form a connecting link with the later scep- what crude and imperious dogmatism of the Stoics. They ticism, just as the contemporary Cynicism and Cyrenaicism also, in the absence of certainty, allowed a large scope to may be held to be imperfect preludes to Stoicism and probability as a motive to action, and defended their Epicureanism. The extreme nominalism of some of the doctrine on this point with greater care and skill. The

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SCEPTICISM ■whole position was stated with more urbanity and cul- objects they represent, we are reduced to judging them by ture, and was supported, by Carneades in particular, by their relation to ourselves, i.e., by their greater or less argumentation at once more copious and more acute. It clearness and appearance of truth. Though always falling seems also true that the Academics were less overborne short of knowledge, this appearance of truth may be than the Pyrrhonists by the practical issue of their doubts strong enough to determine us to action. Carneades recog(imperturbability); their interest was more purely intel- nized three degrees of probability. The first or lowest lectual, and they had something of the old delight in is where our impression of the truthfulness of an idea mental exercitation for its own sake. Arcesilas or is derived simply from the idea itself ; the second degree Arcesi- Arcesilaus (about 315-240 B.c.) made the Stoic theory of is where that impression is confirmed by the agreement laus. irresistible impressions (^avracrt'at KaraX^TrrtKat) the special of related ideas; if a careful investigation of all the object of his attack. Mere irresistibleness (KardXrjxf/Ls), individual ideas bears out the same conclusion, we have he maintained, is no criterion of truth, since false the third and highest degree of probability. In the first perceptions may equally possess this power to sway the case, an idea is called probable (TnOavrj); in the second, mind. He seems chiefly to have supported his position by probable and undisputed (rndavr] Kal airepLcnracrTO's) ; in adducing the already well-known arguments of former the third, probable, undisputed, and tested (mdavrj Kal The scepticism of philosophers against the veracity of the senses, and he OLTrefucnraa'TO'S Kal TrepLOiSevixevrj). evidently held that by these arguments the possibility of Carneades was expounded by his successor Clitomachus, knowledge in general was sufficiently subverted. We can but the Academy was soon afterwards (in the so-called know nothing, he concluded,—not even this itself, that we fourth and fifth Academies) invaded by the Eclecticism know nothing. He denied that the want of knowledge which about that time began to obliterate the distinctions reduces us to inaction. Notions influence the will of philosophical doctrine which had hitherto separated immediately, apart from the question of their truth, and, the schools. Cicero also, who in many respects was in all questions of conduct, probability (to evXoyov) is strongly attracted by the Academic scepticism, finally our sufficient guide, as it is our highest attainable took refuge in a species of Eclecticism based upon a standard. It is stated that Arcesilaus made his negative doctrine of innate ideas, and on the argument from the criticism merely a preliminary to the inculcation of a consensus gentium. The later scepticism—which is sometimes spoken of as Later modified Platonism. But this account, though not in sceptiitself incredible, is not borne out by any evidence at our the third sceptical school—claimed to be a continuation of Cli Cardisposal. The theory of Carneades (213-129 B.c.) repre- the earlier Pyrrhonism. iEnesidemus, though not abso- ’™ °f neades. sents the highest development of Academic scepticism. lutely the first to renew this doctrine, is the first of whose The dogmatic system which Carneades had in view was doctrine anything is known. He appears to have taught that of Chrysippus, the Stoic, whose main positions, in Alexandria about the beginning of the Christian era. whether in the theory of knowledge, in morals, or in Among the successors of iEnesidemus, the chief names theology, he subjected to an acute and thorough-going are those of Agrippa, whose dates cannot be determined, criticism. As to the criterion of truth, Carneades denied and the physician Sextus Empiricus (about 200 a.d.), that this could be found in any impression, as such; for in whose Pyrrhonic Hypotyposes, and his work Adversus order to prove its truth an impression must testify, not Mathematicos, constitute a vast armoury of the weapons of only to itself, but also to the objects causing it. We find, ancient scepticism. They are of the utmost value as an however, admittedly, that in many cases we are deceived historical record. With Saturninus, the pupil of Sextus, by our impressions; and, if this is so, there is no kind of and Favorinus, the grammarian, ancient scepticism may impression which can be regarded as guaranteeing its own be said to disappear from history. What speculative truth. According to his own examples, it is impossible to power remained was turned entirely into Neoplatonic distinguish objects so much alike as is one egg to another; channels. To iEnesidemus belongs the first enumeration at a certain distance the painted surface seems raised, and of the ten so-called tropes (rpoiroi), or modes of sceptical Sceptical a square tower seems round; an oar in water seems argument, though the arguments themselves were, of tropes, broken, and the neck-plumage of a pigeon assumes course, current before his time. The first trope appeals to different colours in the sun; objects on the shore seem the different constitution of different animals as involving moving as we pass by, and so forth. The same applies, different modes of perception; the second applies the he argued, to purely intellectual ideas. Many fallacies same argument to the individual difierences which are cannot be solved, and we cannot, for example, draw any found among men; the third insists on the way in which absolute distinction between much and little, or, in short, the senses contradict one another, and suggests that an between any quantitative differences. Our impressions, endowment with more numerous senses would lead to a therefore, furnish us with no test of truth, and we can different report as to the nature of things; the fourth derive no aid from the operations of the understanding, argues from the variability of our physical state and which are purely formal, combining and separating ideas mental moods; the fifth brings forward the diversities of without giving any insight into their validity. Besides appearance due to the position and distance of objects; this general criticism of knowledge, Carneades attacked the sixth calls attention to the fact that we know nothing the cardinal doctrines of the Stoic school,—their doctrine directly, but only through some medium, such as air or of God and their proof of divine providence from the moisture, whose influence on the process cannot be elimievidences of design in the arrangements of the universe. nated ; the seventh refers to the changes which the supMany of his arguments are preserved to us in Cicero’s posed object undergoes in quantity, temperature, colour, Academics and De Natura Deorum. His criticism of the motion, &c.; the eighth really sums up the thought which contradictions involved in the Stoic idea of God really underlies the whole series, when it argues from the relaconstitutes the first discussion in ancient times of the tivity of all our perceptions and notions; the ninth points personality of God, and the difficulty of combining in one out the dependence of our impressions on custom, the new conception the characters of infinity and individuality. and strange impressing us much more vividly than the As a positive offset against his scepticism, Carneades customary; the tenth adduces the diversity of customs, elaborated more fully the Academic theory of probability, manners, laws, doctrines, and opinions among men. for which he employed the terms quietens and Tu^avor^s. HCnesidemus likewise attacked the notion of cause at conBeing necessarily ignorant of the relation of ideas to the siderable length, but neither in his arguments nor in the

S C E P T I C I s M numerous objections brought against the notion by Sextus Empiricus do we meet with the thought which furnished the nerve of modern scepticism in Hume. The practical result of his scepticism iEnesidemus sought, like the Pyrrhonists, in drapa^ta. He is somewhat strangely said to have combined his scepticism with a revival of the philosophy of Heraclitus; but the assertion perhaps rests, as Zeller contends, on a confusion. To Agrippa is attributed the reduction of the sceptical tropes to five. Of these, the first is based on the discrepancy of human opinions; the second on the fact that every proof itself requires to be proved, which implies a regressus in infinitum ) the third on the relativity of our knowledge, which varies according to the constitution of the percipient and the circumstances in which he perceives. The fourth is really a completion of the second, and forbids the assumption of unproven propositions as the premises of an argument. It is aimed at the dogmatists, who, in order to avoid the regressus in infinitum, set out from some principle illegitimately assumed. The fifth seeks to show that reasoning is essentially of the nature of a circulus in probanda, inasmuch as the principle adduced in proof requires itself to be supported by that which it is called in to prove. The attack made in several of these five tropes upon the possibility of demonstration marks this enumeration as distinctly superior to the first, which consists in the main of arguments derived from the fallibility of the senses. The new point of view is maintained in the two tropes which were the result of a further attempt at generalization. Nothing is self-evident, says the first of these tropes, for, if all things were certain of themselves, men would not differ as they do. Nor can anything be made certain by proof, says the second, because we must either arrive in the process at something self-evident, which is impossible, as has just been said, or we must involve ourselves in an endless regress. When we review the history of ancient thought, we find, as Zeller puts it, that “the general result of all sceptical inquiries lies in the proposition that every assertion may be opposed by another, and every reason by reasons equally strong—in the urocrfleveia rwv Adycov. Or, as the same thing may be expressed, what all sceptical Comproofs come back to is the relativity of all our ideas. We parison of can never know the nature of things as they are, but ancitmt always only the manner in which they appear to us. The modern scepticism.

criterion of the sceptic is the appearance. Not even his own proof can claim truth and universal validity : he does not assert; he only seeks to relate how a thing strikes him at the present moment. And even when he expresses his doubts in the form of universal statements they are intended to be included in the general uncertainty of knowledge ” (Phil. d. Griechen, iii. 2, p. 58). Both Zeller and Hegel, it may be added, remark upon the difference between the calm of ancient scepticism and the perturbed state of mind evinced by many modern sceptics. Universal doubt was the instrument which the sceptics of antiquity recommended for the attainment of complete peace of mind; rest and satisfaction can be attained, they say, in no other way. By the moderns, on the other hand, doubt is portrayed, for the most part, as a state of unrest and painful yearning. Even Hume, in various noteworthy passages of his Treatise, speaks of himself as recovering cheerfulness and mental tone only by forgetfulness of his own arguments. His state of universal doubt, so far from being painted as a desirable goal, is described by him as a “ malady ” or as “ philosophical melancholy and delirium.” The difierence might easily be interpreted either as a sign of sentimental weakness on the part of the moderns or as a proof of the limitation of the ancient sceptics which I’endered them more easily satisfied in the

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absence of truth. It seems to prove, at all events, that the ancient sceptics were more thoroughly convinced than their modern successors of the reasonableness of their own attitude. But whether the ancients were the better. or the worse sceptics on that account is a nice question which need not be decided here. It may be doubted, however, whether the thoroughgoing philosophical scepticism of antiquity has any exact parallel in modern times, with the single exception possibly of Hume’s Treatise on Human Nature. It is true we find many thinkers who deny the competency of reason when it ventures in any way beyond the sphere of experience, and such men are not unfrequently called sceptics. This is the sense in which Kant often uses the term, and the usage is adopted by others,—for example, in the following definition from Ueberweg’s History of Philosophy \—“The principle of scepticism is universal doubt, or at least doubt with regard to the validity of all judgments respecting that which lies beyond the range of experience.” The last characteristic, however, is not enough to constitute scepticism, in the sense in which it is exemplified in the ancient sceptics. Scepticism, to be complete, must hold that even within experience we do not rationally conclude but are irrationally induced to believe. “ In all the incidents of life,” as Hume puts it, “ we ought still to preserve our scepticism. If we believe that fire warms, or water refreshes, ’tis only because it costs us too much pains to think otherwise ” (Treatise, bk. i. iv. 7). This tone, which fairly represents the attitude of ancient sceptics, is rare among the moderns, at least among those who are professed philosophers. It is more easily matched in the unsystematic utterances of a man of the world like Montaigne. One form of scepticism, however, may be claimed as Sceptian exclusively modern growth, namely, philosophical cism ^ scepticism in the interests of theological faith. These •QtergSt sceptics are primarily Apologists. Their scepticism is not 0f faith. “ de bonne foy ” ; it is simply a means to the attainment of a further end. They find that the dogmas of their church have often been attacked in the name of reason, and it may be that some of the objections urged have proved hard to rebut. Accordingly, in an access of pious rage, as it were, they turn upon reason to rend her. They deny her claim to pronounce upon such matters ; they go further, and dispute her prerogative altogether. They endeavour to show that she is in contradiction with herself, even on matters non-theological, and that everywhere this much vaunted reason of man (la superbe raison) is the creature of custom and circumstance. Thus the “imbecility ” of reason becomes their warrant for the reception by another organ—by faith—of that to which reason had raised objections. The Greeks had no temptation to divide man in two in this fashion. When they were sceptics, their scepticism had no ulterior motives; it was an end in itself. But this line of argument was latent in Christian thought from the time when St Paul spoke of the “foolishness” of preaching. Tertullian fiercely re-echoed the sentiment in his polemic against the philosophers of antiquity :—“ Crucifixus est Dei filius ; non pudet, quia pudendum est. Et mortuus est Dei filius; prorsus credibile est, quia ineptum est. Et sepultus resurrexit; certum est, quia impossibile est. But, as Christianity became firmly established, Christian writers1 became more tolerant of speculation; and, instead of 1 This turn of thought is not confined, however, to Christian thinkers; it appears also in the Arabian philosophy of the East. Al- GhazzaK (Algazel) (1059—1111) in his Tahdfot dl- Fil&sifu ( The Collapse of the Philosophers”) is the advocate of complete philosophical scepticism in the interests of orthodox Mohammedanism an orthodoxy which passed, however, in his own case into a species of mysticism. He did his work of destruction so thoroughly that Arabian philosophy died out after his time in the land of its birth.

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Theory of the twofold nature of truth.

Pascal.

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flaunting the irreconcileable opposition of reason and dogma, they laboured to reduce the doctrines of the church to a rational system. This was the long task essayed by Scholasticism; and, though the great Schoolmen of the 13th century refrained from attempting to rationalize such doctrines as the Trinity and the Incarnation, they were far from considering them as essentially opposed to reason. It was not till towards the close of the Middle Ages that a sense of conflict between reason and revelation became widely prevalent and took shape in the essentially sceptical theory of the twofold nature of truth. Philosophical truth, as deduced from the teaching of Aristotle, it was said, directly contradicts the teaching of the church, which determines truth in theology; but the contradiction leaves the authority of the latter unimpaired in its own sphere. It is difficult to believe that this doctrine was ever put forward sincerely; in the most of those who professed it, it was certainly no more than a veil by which they sought to cover their heterodoxy and evade its consequences. Rightly divining as much, the church condemned the doctrine as early as 1276. Nevertheless it was openly professed during the period of the break up of Scholastic Aristotelianism. Pomponatius, the Alexandrist of Padua (06. 1525), was one of its best known advocates. The typical and by far the greatest example of the Christian sceptic is Pascal (1623-1662). The form of the Pensees forbids the attempt to evolve from their detached utterances a completely coherent system. For, though he declares at times “Le pyrrhonisme est le vrai,” “Se moquer de la philosophie c’est vraiment philosopher,” or, again, “ Humiliez-vous, raison impuissante, taisez-vous, nature imbecile,” other passages might be quoted in which he assumes the validity of reason within its own sphere. But what he everywhere emphatically denies is the possibility of reaching by the unassisted reason a satisfactory theory of things. The contradictions which meet us everywhere are summed up and concentrated in the nature of man. Man is a hopeless enigma to himself, till he sees himself in the light of revelation as a fallen creature. The fall alone explains at once the nobleness and the meanness of humanity; Jesus Christ is the only solution in which the baffled reason can rest. These are the two points on which Pascal’s thought turns. “ There is nothing which is more shocking to our reason ” than the doctrine of original sin; yet, in his own words, “ le noeud de notre condition prend ses replis et ses tours dans cet abime; de sorte que I’homme est plus inconcevable sans ce myst&re que ce mystere n’est inconcevable k Ihomme.” Far, therefore, from being able to sit in judgment upon the mysteries of the faith, reason is unable to solve its own contradictions without aid from a higher source. In a somewhat similar fashion, in the present century, Lamennais (in the first stage of his speculations, represented by the Essai sur VIndifference en Matiere Religieuse, 1817-21) endeavoured to destroy all rational certitude in order to establish the principle of authority; and the same profound distrust of the power of the natural reason to arrive at truth is exemplified (though the allegation has been denied by the author) in the writings of Cardinal Newman. In a different direction and on a larger scale, Hamilton’s philosophy of the conditioned may be quoted as an example of the same religious scepticism. Arguing from certain antinomies, said to be inherent in reason as such, Hamilton sought to found theology (in great part at least) upon our nescience, and to substitute belief for knowledge. He also imitated Pascal at times in dilating upon the “ impotence ” and “imbecility” of our faculties; but, as with Pascal, this was rather in reference to their incapacity to evolve an

“absolute” system than to their veracity in the ordinary details of experience. The theological application and development of Hamilton’s arguments in Mansel’s Bampton Lectures On the Limits of Religious Thought marked a still more determined attack, in the interests of theology, upon the competency of reason. Passing from this particular vein of sceptical or semi- Sceptics sceptical thought, we find, as we should expect, that the in 16th downfall of Scholasticism, and the conflict of philosophical Centuries theories and religious confessions which ensued, gave a decided impetus to sceptical reflexion. One of the earliest instances of this spirit is afforded by the book of Agrippa of Nettesheim (1487—1535), De Incertitudine et Vanitate Scientiarum. Sceptical reflexion rather than systematic scepticism is what meets us in Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592), though the elaborate presentation of sceptical and relativistic arguments in his “Apologie de Raimond Sebond ” (Rssais, ii. 12), and the emblem he recommends —a balance with the legend, “ Que scay-je 1 ”—might allowably be adduced as evidence of a more thoroughgoing Pyrrhonism. In his “ tesmoynages de nostre imbecillit6,” he follows in the main the lines of the ancients, and he sums up with a lucid statement of the two great arguments in which the sceptical thought of every age resumes itself—the impossibility of verifying our faculties, and the relativity of all impressions.1 The argument from the mutability of opinions and customs was probably the one which appealed most strongly to himself. In the concluding lines of this essay, Montaigne seems to turn to “nostre foy chrestienne ” as man’s only succour from his native state of helplessness and uncertainty. But undoubtedly his own habitual frame of mind is better represented in his celebrated saying—“ How soft and healthful a pillow are ignorance and incuriousness .... for a well-ordered head.” More inclined than Montaigne to give a religious turn to his reflexions was his friend Pierre Charron (1541-1603), who in his book Re la Sagesse systematized in somewhat Scholastic fashion the train of thought which we find in the Essais. Francis Sanchez (1562-1632), professor of medicine and philosophy in Toulouse, combated the Aristotelianism of the schools with much bitterness, and was the author of a book with the title Quod nihil scitur. Of more or less isolated thinkers, somewhat later in point of time, who wrote in the same sceptical spirit, may be mentioned the names of Frangois de la Mothe le Yayer (1588-1672), whose Cinq Dialogues appeared after his death under the pseudonym of Orosius Tubero; Samuel SorbRre (1615-1670), who translated the Hypotyposes Pyrrhonex of Sextus Empiricus; Simon Foucher (1644-1696), canon of Dijon, who wrote a History of the Academics, and combated Descartes and Malebranche from a sceptical standpoint. The work of Hieronymus Hirnhaim of Prague (1637-1679), De Typho Generis Humani sive Scientiarum Humanarum Inani ac Ventoso Tumore, was written in the interests of revelation. This is still more the case with the bitter polemic of Daniel Huet (1630-1721), Censura Philosophise Cartesianse, and his later work, Traite Philosophique de la Faiblesse de VEsprit Humain. The scepticism of Joseph Glanvill (1636-1680), in his two works The Vanity of Dogmatizing (1661) and Scepsis Scientifica (1665), has more interest for Englishmen. Glanvill was not a sceptic at all 1 “Pour juger des apparences que nous recevons des subjects, il nous fauldra un instrument judicatoire; pour verifier cet instrument, il nous y fault de la demonstration ; pour verifier la demonstration, un instrument; nous voyla au rouet. . . Finalement il n’y a aulcune constante existence, ny de nostre estre ny de celuy des objects ; et nous, et nostre jugement, et toutes choses mortelles, vont coulant et roulant sans cesse ; ainsin, il ne se peult establir rien de certain de 1’un a 1’aultre, et le jugeant et le juge estants en continuelle mutation et bransle ” {Essais, Gamier, i. 570).

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points, seeing that he was full of enthusiasm for the repetition or custom. This point of view is applied in advance of physical science and for the newly-founded the Treatise universally. All real connexion or relation, Boyal Society. But he attacked unsparingly the Aristotel- therefore, and with it all possibility of an objective ianism of the schools, which was still dominant at Oxford. system, disappears; it is, in fact, excluded by Hume ab Against this, and also against the materialistic dogmatism initio, for “the mind never perceives any real connexion of Hobbes, he invoked the weapons of scepticism; and he among distinct existences.” Belief, however, just because said, on custom and the influence of was led by his own arguments to query “ whether there be it rests, as has been 1 any science in the sense of the dogmatists.” He based the imagination, survives such demonstrations. “ Nature,” this conclusion partly upon the ground that our knowledge as Hume delights to reiterate, “ is always too strong for of causes, being derived simply from “ concomitancy,” is principle.” “ Nature, by an absolute and uncontrollable far from being “infallibly conclusive.” “The causality necessity, has determined us to judge as well as to breathe itself,” he says, anticipating Hume, “is insensible”; and feel.” The true philosopher, therefore, is not the accordingly, “the foundation of scientifical procedure is Pyrrhonist, trying to maintain an impossible equilibrium too weak for so magnificent a superstructure.” More or suspense of judgment, but the Academic, yielding celebrated than any of the above was Pierre Bayle (1647- gracefully to the impressions or maxims which he finds, as 1706), whose scepticism lay more in his keen negative matter of fact, to have most sway over himself. “ I may— criticism of all systems and doctrines which came before nay, I must—yield to the current of nature, in submitting him as literary historian than in any theoretic views of to my senses and understanding; and in this blind subhis own as to the possibility of knowledge. Bayle also mission I show most perfectly my sceptical principles,” for, paraded the opposition between reason and revelation; but after all, “if we believe that fire warms or water refreshes, because it costs us too much pains to think otherthe argument in his hands is a double-edged weapon, and Tis only 2 when he extols the merits of submissive faith his sincerity wise.” The system of Kant, or rather that part of his system Sceptical is at least questionable. si *’> ent species,—spherical, (after k, l, and m, successive stages in the germinaof the spore, {a X 250; all the rest ovoid, reticular, filament- tion X 600.) ous, fruticose, lamellar, &c.,—but these vary considerably as the mass increases or comes in contact with others. Older zoogloeoe may precipitate oxide of iron in the matrix, if that metal exists in small quantities in the medium, binder favourable conditions the elements in the zoogloea again become active, and move out of the matrix, distribute themselves in the surrounding medium, to grow and multiply as before (fig. 4). If the zoogloea is formed on a solid substratum it may become firm and horny; immersion in water softens it as described above.

FIG V).—Bacillus anthracis. (After Koch.) A, Bacilli mingled with bloodcorpuscles from the blood of a Guinea pig; some of the bacilli dividing. B, the rodiets after three hours’ culture in a drop of aqueous humour. They grow out into long leptothrix-like filaments, which become septate later, and spores are developed in the segments. (x 650.) Spores.—Spores or resting-cells are now known in many Spores. Schizomycetes (fig. 5). They may be formed in two ways. In Leuconostoe, Bacterium zopfii, Crenothrix, Beggiatoa, and Cladothrix the spore is simply one of the smallest segments (“cocci”) into which the filament at length breaks up. De Bary terms such forms “ arthrosporous ” (cf. figs. 8, 13, 14, and 16). In others the formation of the spore is “ endosporous ” (De Bary). It begins with the appearance of a minute granule in the protoplasm of a vegetative cell; this granule enlarges, and in a few

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hours has taken to itself all the protoplasm, secreted a dense envelope, and is a ripe ovoid spore, smaller than the mother-cell, and lying loosely in it (c/. figs. 9, 11, and 12). In the case of the simplest and most minute Schizomycetes {Micrococcus, &c.) no definite spores 0 n have been discovered ; any one of the vegetative micrococci may commence 0 a new series of cells by growth and division. We may call these forms “ asporous,” at any rate provisionally. The spore may bo formed in short or long segments, the cell-wall of which may undergo change of form to accom© modate itself to the contents. As a rule only one spore is formed in a cell, and the process usually takes place in a bacillar segment. In some cases the spore-forming protoplasm gives a blue reaction with iodine solutions. The spores may be developed in cells which are actively swarming, the movements not being interfered with by the process (fig. 5, D). The so-called A “Kopfchenbacterien” of older writers are simply bacterioid segments with a spore at one end, the mother cell-wall having adapted itself to the outline of the spore (fig. 5, F). The ripe spores fig. il—a, Bacillus anthracis. (After De Bary.) of Schizomycetes are spherical, ovoid, Two of the long filaments or long-ovoid in shape, and extremely (B, fig. 10), in which spores deminute {e.g., those of Bacillus subtilis veloped. areThebeing specimen cultivated in broth, measure O'OO^ mm. long by 0-0006 was and the spores are drawn mm. broad according to Zopf), highly a little too small—they be of the same refractive and colourless (or very dark, should diameter transversely as probably owing to the high index of the segments, (x 600.) B, Bacillus subtilis. refraction and minute size). The mem- (After De Bary.) 1, of filaments brane may be relatively thick, and even fragments with ripe spores; 2-5, exhibit shells or strata. successive stages in the of the spores, The germination of the spores has germination the remains of the spore attached to the germinal now been observed in several forms with care. The spores are capable of rodlets. (x 600.) germination at once, or they may be kept for months and even years, and are very resistent against desiccation, heat and cold, &c. In a suitable medium and at a proper temperature the germination is completed in a few hours. The spore swells and elongates, and the contents grow forth to a cell like that which produced it, in some cases clearly breaking through the membrane, the remains of which may be

Fjg. 12.—-Bacillus subtilis. (After Strasburger). A, zooglcea pellicle (x 500). B, motile rodlets ( x 1000). C, development of spores ( x 800). seen attached to the young germinal rodlet(figs. 5,9, and 11); in other cases the surrounding membrane of the spore swells and dissolves. The germinal cell then grows forth into the forms typical for the particular Schizomycete concerned.1 / 1885; Beitrage Biologic, Zopf, Die &c., Spaltspilze, 3d ed., De Bary,zurMorph, undpassim; Biol, der Pilze, 1884, and

Pleomorphism.—As already stated, some Schizomycetes Pleohave been shown to present as vegetative forms, or phases morphia one and the same life-history, “ cocci,” “ bacteria,”isTn' “ leptothrix-filaments,” and even spiral and curved forms known as “ spirillum,” “ vibrio,” &c. On the other hand, several Schizomycetes which have been long and diligently investigated by the best observers show no such pleomorphism. As examples of the latter we may select Bacillus megaterium (fig. 9) and numerous Micrococci which produce similar cells generation after generation. A remarkable example of a pleomorphic form is Cladoihrix dichotoma (fig. 16). According to Zopf this species passes successively through the stages known as “coccus,” “ bacterioid,” “ bacillar,” and “ leptothrix,” by mere

n2, a filament ^ breaking up ; 3, 4, 5, portions i, a group oi attacfied filaments 540); of filaments treated with (x methylviolet so as to show the septa, which are usually obscured by the sulphur granules in the filaments; in 5 some of the segments are undergoing longitudinal as well as transverse divisions prior to forming cocci (spores): 6. cocci becoming isolated (x 900). and L. ochracea, Kiitz.). Certain of the threads then partially break up, and the portions become slightly displaced from the linear series; these portions go on growing in a direction at an angle with the previous one, but still in contact, and thus produce the “ false-branching ” to which Cladothrix owes its name. Finally the filaments break up into segments corresponding with the septa which have been formed across them. This fragmentation is peculiar in that the filaments separate first into shorter filaments, then into rodlets, and finally into “ cocci.” Portions of the filaments or branches may become separated and travel with a gliding movement, or even become more active and swarm by means of cilia. Such portions may break up into shorter filaments or rods which also Vorlesungen iiber Bacterien, 1885. The enormous and scattered literature on the morphology of Schizomycetes is collected to a great extent in the works cited.

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swarm. But, in addition to these straight and more or of organisms which within our experience exhibit periodiless rigid forms (which, it will be noticed, simulate Ehren- cal repetitions of a process of development, i.e., all the berg and Cohn’s “genera ” Micrococcus, Bacterium, Bacillus, individuals of successive generations go through the same phases periodically. It matters not that variations—illand Leptothrix so closely defined deviations from an average or “type”-—occur on that any of them observed the part of individuals or generations; the periodically alone would undoubtedly repeated life-history or development marks what we term have been formerly placed a species. apart in one of those “ geneThe difficulties presented by such minute and simple ra ”), it is interesting to find organisms as the Schizomycetes are due partly to the few that some of the filaments | “ characters ” which they possess, and partly to the become spirally twisted and dangers of error in manipulating them; it is anything but simulate Spirillum, Spiroan easy matter either to trace the whole development of a chxte, and Vibrio, the dissingle form or to recognize with certainty any one stage tinctions depending on the in the development unless the others are known. This relative length and thickbeing the case, and having regard to the minuteness and ness of the filament, and the ubiquity of these organisms, we should be very careful in closeness or steepness of accepting evidence as to the continuity or otherwise of any the coils. Moreover these two forms which falls short of direct and uninterrupted twisted filaments also break observation. The outcome of all these considerations is up into shorter gliding or that, while recognizing that the “genera” and “species” ciliated portions, which at as defined by Cohn must be recast, we are not warranted length fall into rodlets and in uniting any forms the continuity of which has not been “ cocci” as before. directly observed; or, at any rate, the strictest rules should A branched zoogloea form adduced to render the also OCCUrs, and this COn- Fig_ 15._5wa*oa alba. (After Zopf.) be followed in accepting the evidence 1 union of any forms probable. tains cocci, bacterium-like Curved and spiral forms. C, D, separ-n rods, j or Cl ated spirally-wound pieces, which Classification.—The limits of this article prevent our ex- Classifior \bacillar filaments breaking up still further in H. are E, resembling Leptothrix or motne jinm™ form with a ciiium at amining in detail the system of classification proposed by Cohn, cation, or the modifications of it followed by other authorities. Zopf, Vibrio according to circumin the third edition of his work (1885), proposes a scheme based on stances. In Lankester’s Bacterium rubescens we have an- the modern views as to the pleomorphism: we must refer to the other species which is variable in a high degree. Many original for the details, simply remarking that, apart froni the exother Schizomycetes have now been shown to be more treme views accepted by the author, his system is impracticable to a degree and recognized by him as provisional only. Indeed any or less pleomorphic, , such classification must be provisional, for we are at the threshold and the researches of only of a knowledge of the Schizomycetes. Lankester, Nageli, The best starting-point for a modern classification of these organisms is that suggested by De Bary—the two modes of formaZopf, Miller, Kurth, tion of the spores,—and as a provisional scheme, and simply to De Bary, and others facilitate comparison of the groups, we might perhaps employ have laid the founDe Bary’s two groups, and a third one to include those simple dation for a knowforms which show no trace of spore-formation. Many gaps exist, and many changes will probably have to be made. Meanwhile it ledge of the cirmight be advisable to classify the Schizomycetes provisionally as cumstances which follows:— induce the changes Croup A. Asporese. in form referred to ; There are no spores distinct from the vegetative cells. it is at least certain I. Coccace.® (figs. 6 and 7). that alterations in Genera : 1, Micrococcus (and Streptococcus); 2, Sarcina (and the nutritive meZopf s Merismopedia); 3, Ascococcus. dium, in the quanGroup B. Arthrosporeso (De Bary). tity of oxygen at The vegetative cells differ in shape, size, growth, or other the disposal of the characters from the spores: the latter are produced by segmentaorganism, and in tion. II. Arthrobacteriace.®. the temperature, Genera: 4, Bacterium (fig. 8) ; 5, Leuconostoc; 6, &c., play their part Spirochsde (?). in the matter. III. Leptotriche^!. It by no means Genera: 7, Crenothrix (fig. 13); 8, Beggiatoa (figs. 14 and follows, however, 15); 9, Phragmidothrix (?) ; 10, Leptothrix. that because some IY. Cladotricheal Genus: 11, Cladothrix (fig. 16). species are pleomorphic all must be so, Group C. Endosporem (De Bary). and still less that no Genera: 12 (figs. 9-12), Bacillus (and Clostridium)-, 13, Vibrio (?); 14, Spirillum (at least in part).2 species of Schizomycetes—or only Fig. 16.—Gladothrix dichotoma. A, branched plant, 1 Lankester, Quart. Jour. Micr. Sc., 1873 and 1876; Nageli one—exist at all; the branches in part spiral and of the form known and Ray Buchner, Niedere Pilze, 1882; Billroth, Untersuchungen uber die as Vibrio (a) or Spirillum (6) (slightly magnified). those who deny the B, a long coiled branch more highly magnified. Vegetationsformen der Coccobacteria septica, Berlin, 1874 ; Klebs, existence of species C, portion of branch resembling Spirillum at one numerous papers in Archiv f. exp. Pathol, und Pharmacol. ; Kurth, Vibrio at the other. 1), coiled branches,— Bot. Zeitung, 1883; Prazmowski, Biol. Centralblatt, 1884; Zopf, Zur among the Schizo- aendnotandsegmented; 6, c, segmented into rodlets and cocci. E, Spirochxte-Kks portions breaking up into Morph, der Spaltpflanzen, Leipsic, 1882; Cienkowski, Zur Morphomycetes on the evi- rodlets logic and cocci. 2 d. Bacterien, 1876. dence to hand must, For the definitions of the genera (and species) the reader is reto be logically consistent, deny the existence of species ferred to the special works, especially those of Zopf and De Bary ; altogether. But even if that be allowed, some name of also Winter-Rabenhorst, Kryptogamen Flora—Pilze, i., 1881 ; and similar intention must be employed to denote any group Grove, Synopsis of the Bacteria and Yeast-Fungi, 1884.

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SCHIZOMYCETES

Physiology.—As in the case of other plants, we are here concerned with the functions of the Schizomycetes and their relations to the environment; for convenience, the subject may be treated under various headings. Limitation of space prevents our doing more than touch lightly upon such matters as the action of the Schizomycetes as ferments, and their relations to disease, though both subjects belong strictly to the physiology of their nutrition and actions on the environment. Nutrition.—Having no chlorophyll, the Schizomycetes of course Nutridepend on other organisms for their carbonaceous food, and are tion. either saprophytes—i. e., live on the remains of dead organisms— or parasites—i.e., obtain their food direct from living organisms. Pasteur, Nageli, and others have shown that these organisms can derive their carbon from very numerous and widely different organic substances, e.g., sugars of all kinds, mannite, glycerine, tartaric and other vegetable acids, &c., and even from ethylalcohol, benzoic, salicylic, and carbolic acids to some extent. Carbonic, formic, and oxalic acids, cyanogen, urea, and oxamide are, however, useless for this purpose. The nitrogen and carbon together may be obtained from leucin, asparagin, methylamine, &c., or the nitrogen alone from these or urea, and compounds of ammonia with vegetable acids or phosphorus. The best nutritive substances are proteids (peptones) and sugars (glucoses); others must be passed over here. The nature of the particular Schizomycete has to be studied as well as the solution, and external agents affect the matter also. Certain minerals are of course necessary,—sulphur, phosphorus, potassium (or rubidium or caesium), and calcium (or magnesium, barium, or strontium) being indispensable. As one of many suitable nutritive solutions we may select the following :— Di-potassium phosphate 0'20 gramm. Magnesium sulphate 0--04 ,, Calcium chloride 0 02 „ Peptone 1-00 ,, Water 100 •00 For other solutions, particulars as to changes of concentration, &c., and the peculiarities of different Schizomycetes in this connexion, special works must be consulted. The chief sources of error in cultures of these very minute forms are the introduction of spores, &c., from without into the vessels, and on the instruments, &c., and the difficulty of continuously observing a developing individual with the necessary high powers. Numerous errors have arisen from inferences being employed to fill up gaps in life-histories which have only been partly observed. The first object of the cultivator, then, is to guarantee the purity of his materials, instruments, &c., and then to keep one form (or even a single specimen) under observation for a sufficiently long period and under suitable conditions. The practical difficulties are enormous, of course, and are very rarely entirely overcome for periods at all long. Here again we must refer to the special works for details as to the beautiful and refined methods now devised or employed by De Bary, Cohn, Koch, Brefeld, Lister, Nageli, and others, calling special attention to the gelatine method devised by Yittadini and Brefeld and so successfully used and improved by Koch. Thoroughly conducted cultivations should decide in what medium the Schizomycete flourishes best, and how it behaves in others,—what vegetative forms it presents normally, and how changes in the environment affect these. They should also decide the characters of the aggregates or colonies ; at what temperatures germination, growth, division, spore-formation, &c., take place or cease, and so on ; the necessity or otherwise of free oxygen ; the effects of the organism on its substratum or medium—whether it cause fermentation, or putrefaction, or excrete soluble ferments, and so on. Moreover, the products of these actions should be examined in detail. Where the particular Schizomycete is a parasite (wholly or partially) the methods of culture are even more refined. Here the fluids or tissues of the host must be regarded as a soil in which (by means of “infection,” “inoculation,” &c.) the observer sows the spores or vegetative cells of the parasitic organism. It is impossible to go more into details in the limits of this article, however, and we must dismiss the subject with the remark that, having regard to the complexity of the medium (e.g., blood) and the organization of the host, the difficulties of manipulation become greater than ever. Physical lemperature.—As with other plants, so with the Schizomycetes, condi- their various functions, e.g., germination, growth, division, formations. tion of spores, &c., can only be carried on at certain temperatures : W9. for average temperature about 85° C., but optimum may differ each species and for is each function. The the same is generally true for the minimum and maximum temperatures, which have to bo determined separately also. Remarkable phenomena are connected with the death-points of certain Bacilli, &c. The spores of some of these forms have been frozen for days or weeks without injury, and some are said to have resisted temperatures as low as - 100 C., or even lowerit appears to be all but impossible to kill such spores hy cold. High temperatures are more fatal; but the

spores of Bacilli have germinated after the fluid containing them was boiled for an hour, and even a temperature of 110° C. and higher has been withstood. The vegetative states are less resistent ; nevertheless the bacilli of anthrax were not killed by heating the fluid to 75-80° for an hour or more. Speaking generally, ripe spores are most resistent and germinating ones least so ; dry cells or spores resist extreme temperatures better than normally saturated ones. Of course time is an important factor ; and other conditions also affect the matter, e.g., slightly acid media are more fatal than neutral or feebly alkaline ones, denser less so than thin ones {cxteris paribus), and so on. To illustrate the importance of these facts we may note Tyndall’s method of “discontinuous heating”: by boiling the solutions containing the spores for 5-10 minutes daily all the life was destroyed in two or three days, though an exposure of an hour or more to a temperature of 100° C. did not kill the spores if not repeated. The explanation is that the spores which resist the first or second short boiling have time to begin germinating in the interval,1 and they then succumb at once when the liquid is again boiled. Light, Electricity, Gravitation, &c.—The relations between these and the functions of Schizomycetes have been partly investigated, but the results must be passed over here. A few of the higher genera2 show polarity—or at any rate difference between base and apex. Effects of Chemical Agents. —Oxygen. —Pasteur showed that, while Chemsome Schizomycetes require free oxygen like other plants, there istry. are some which need none, or at most very little—the extreme case is perhaps still doubtful ; but “ anaerobiotic ” forms like Bacillus butyricus stand in sharp contrast to such exquisitely “ aerobiotic ” ones as Bacterium aceti, Bacillus subtilis, &c. A few are known to flourish best—or at any rate they are more active—when supplied with oxygen in proportion less than that in the atmosphere. Engelmann showed that, while some species congregated close to a bubble of air, others collected at a certain distance from it, and came nearer when the bubble contained less oxygen. The same is true for the same species when brought near an Alga which is evolving oxygen—the aerobiotic forms collect where the oxygen is being evolved (in the yellow-red, &c., of the spectrum). Some Schizomycetes are powerful deoxidizing and reducing agents: it has already been stated that Beggiatoa deposits pure sulphur in its filaments. Bacterium aceti and others, on the contrary, transfer oxygen in large quantities to the medium in which they live, and the carbon in that may be entirely consumed. Fermentation once started may go on without free oxygen or not (according to the particular Schizomycete, &c.), but it is necessary at the commencement. Oxygen is of 3course necessary for the respiration of the growing Schizomycete. Water is absolutely necessary for the life and growth of the Schizomycetes, but the spores (and to a less extent the vegetative cells) of some can resist desiccation for long periods ; others {e.g., Bacterium zopfii) soon die. Those of Bacillus subtilis have been kept air-dry for years ; and those of B. anthracis were not killed after several weeks in absolute alcohol. A year in water failed to kill the spores of B. subtilis. Zoogloea and vegetative cells of some resist drying for some time—how long is uncertain. In the dry state spores and cells are disseminated by currents of air : how far spores may be buried and still retain life (carried down by rain, &c.) is uncertain. The importance of these facts, however, is obvious.4 Adds, Poisons, &c.—The reader must be referred to the literature for details as to the quantities of acids and other products of their own decomposition which can be endured by given Schizomycetes (see especially the literature on fermentation and cultivation, and also respecting the action of poisons, antiseptics, &c.).5 Attraction towards Proteid Food-Substances.—Bacteria have long Attracbeen known to swarm around pieces of organic food-materials, but tion to although Ehrenberg and Cohn noticed the fact it was not investi- foodgated in detail until quite recently. Pfeifer finds that Bacteria materials, and Spirilla are attracted in a definite manner towards minute tubes containing extract of meat or solution of asparagin, just as he finds antherozoids and zoospores of various kinds attracted by definite substances into tubes designed to imitate archegonia. For Pfeifer’s proofs that the substances mentioned exert a specific 1 See Cohn, lieitr. zur Biol. d. Pfl., i. Hft. 2, 1872, ii. Hft. 2, 1876 ; Eidam, Beitr. zur Biol., i. Hft. 3, 1875; Brefeld, Unters. uber Schimmelpilze, iv. ; Tyndall, Floating Matter of the Air, 1881; Roberts, Phil. Trans., 1874; Pasteur, Ann. de Chimie, 1862. 2 See Engelmann, Unters. aus d. Physiol. Lab. zu Utrecht, 1882 ; Cohn and Mendelssohn in Beitr. zur Biol. d. Pfl., iii. Hft. 1, 1879 ; Pfeifer, Pflanzenphysiologie, ii. p. 156, 1881. 3 See Pasteur, Comptes Rendus, 1861-62 ; Nageli, Theorie der Odhring, 1879 ; Schiitzenherger, Fermentation, 1876; Engelmann, Bot. Zeitung, 1881 and 1882; Pfeffer, Pflanzenphysiologie, 1881. 4 See Pasteur, Comptes Rendus, 1883; Kurth, “Bacterium zopfii,” in Bot. Zeitung, 1883; Brefeld, Schimmelpilze, iv.; see also the literature on distribution5 and occurrence of Schizomycetes. See Woodhead and Hare, Pathological Mycology, \.,l&&b. Further literature is there quoted.

SCHIZOMYCETES attraction on the organism the reader is referred to his treatise, “ Locomotorische Richtungsbewegungen durch chemische Reize, ” in Unters. aus clem, hot. Inst, zu Tubingen, i. Hft. 3, 1884. Fermen- Fermentation and Putrefaction.—The growth and development tation. of a Schizomycete in any organic medium results in a breaking down of the complex food-materials into simpler bodies, which may then become oxidized and still further decomposed. Such processes are known as fermentation in the wider sense. The particular kind of fermentation depends on the medium and on the species of Schizomycete, and may be affected by other circumstances ; as the process goes on volatile substances may escape and others remain behind. Where proteid substances are being decomposed by Schizomycetes and evil-smelling gases escape, the fermentation is spoken of as putrefaction ; in certain cases, where intense oxidation follows and still further consumes the products of decomposition, the process has been termed eremocausis. In a few instances a process of reduction sets in, as when sulphur salts are decomposed by Beggiatoa. The theory of Fermentation {q.v.) cannot be treated in detail here, but it is important to note that side by side, with the actions referred to another kind of action may go on. Many Schizomycetes excrete what are called “ soluble ferments,” which are capable of changing proteids into peptones, sugar into glucose, and so on. These processes of inversion, &c., result simply in an alteration of the proteid, &c., from the nondiffusible and non-assimilable condition to the diffusible and assimilable one, and are in no way destructive as are the fermentations described above. Nevertheless it is the custom to speak of both as cases of fermentation ; the one series of changes renders the medium less and less capable of supporting life at every stage, the other series does not do so, yet the same name is frequently given to both kinds of action. It is a curious fact that the same Schizomycete may produce a different fermentation in each of two different media. The various fermentations are distinguished and valued according to the products which result; these bye-products are usually injurious to the ferment organism as they accumulate, and often complicate the investigation. Of important fermentations due to Schizomycetes may be mentioned those concerned in the making of vinegar and cheese, in the preparation of flax, hemp, &c., in the souring and diseases of beer, wines, &c., the destruction of sugars, preserved food, &c. Others are of importance in the soil, and in the destruction of organic matter in ponds, rivers, drains, &c. In fact, much of the raison d'itre of sanitary science may be referred here ; and it may turn out to be still more true than we now know that Schizomycetes are important in agriculture. In pathology the changes due to these organisms are at length being duly recognized. Apart from the comparatively harmless actions of those forms normally existing in the alimentary canal— Leptothrix aids in the decay of teeth, &c.—it is now certain that some invasions are dangerous. The injurious effects of some Schizomycetes when introduced into open wounds, &c., against which the brilliant labours of Lister have been so successfully directed, are acknowledged everywhere; but it is important to recognize that on the whole the diseases due to organisms in the blood depend fundamentally upon changes of the same category as those referred to. Of course the fluids of a living body present complicated conditions, and the action of a pathogenous Schizomycete cannot be treated and studied simply as a typical fermentation ; but, although the conditions presented are involved and special, it cannot be doubted that common principles lie at the base of all the phenomena, and that the fluids of the diseased organism must be treated, so to speak, as fermentable media. Numerous other fermentations of scientific interest are due to Schizomycetes : e.g., those in which colours are formed, certain cases of phosphorescence, the ammoniacal fermentation of urine, &C.1 RelaSchizomycetes and Disease.—The presence of Schizomycetes tions to in the blood, tissues, or organs of animals and man suffering from disease, certain specific diseases is admitted, and has naturally suggested the question—Are they accompaniments only or have they any causal relations to the diseased conditions? Their constancy in given cases excluded the former view. Next arose the discussion as to how the causal connexion comes about and in what it consists, a discussion which is still going on as to the details. The chief points now established may be expressed generally somewhat as follows. In a given specific disease, due to the action of a definite Schizomycete, the latter may be conceived to be injurious in 1 Watson Cheyne, Antiseptic Surgery, 1882 ; Duclaux, Chimie Biologique, 1883; Fitz, “ Ueber Schizomyceten-Gahrungen,” various papers in Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Gesellschaft, 1876 1884; Lister, Pharm. Jour., 1877; Nageli, Theorie der Gahrung, 1879 ; Wortmann, Zeitschr. f. physiol. Chemie, vi. ; Schutzenberger, Fermentation, 1876 ; Muscuius, “ Ueber die Gahrung des Harnstoffs,” in Pfluger’s Archiv, xii. ; Pasteur, Ann. de Chim. et Phys., 1858,. and various papers in Comptes Rendus, also Ftudes sur la Biere, 1876, and Etudes sur le Viv1866; Schibssing and Miintz, Comptes Rendus, ixxxiv., Ixxxix.; Pasteur: his Life and Labours, London, 1885 ; Schroeter in Cohn’s Beitr. zur Biol., Hft. 2, 1872; Van Tieghem, “Bacillus Amylobacter,” in Comptes Rendus, 1879.

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several ways. If it robs the blood or tissues of oxygen or of any other valuable constituent, or if its activity results in the excretion of poisonous substances or in their formation as products of degradation of the matrix, or if it simply acts more or less as a mechanical obstruction or irritant,—in any of these cases harm may result to the delicately adjusted organism of the host. It being known that Schizomycetes act thus in nutrient pabula outside the body, their rapid growth and multiplication inside can of course only be explained as due to their success in the pabula there met with, and are indications that they produce changes there which must result in abnormality so far as the host is concerned. This does not end the matter, however. The living tissues of a healthy animal exert actions which are antagonistic to those of the parasitic invader ; and it is now generally admitted that the mere admission of a Schizomycete into an animal does not necessarily cause disease. Were it otherwise it is difficult to see how the higher organisms could escape at all. Schizomycetes abound all over, about and around us ; many, of course, are unable to live in the fluids of the body, but many are able to do so. Something must therefore be placed to the action of the tissues of the host, which when healthy can “resist” the attempts of a Schizomycete to settle, grow, and multiply with fatal effect. Much can undoubtedly be explained by this struggle for existence between the cells of the parasite and those of the healthy tissues invaded. But the higher organisms, again, present obstacles of other kinds to the lodgment of Schizomycetes : ciliary actions, active excretions, isolating processes of tissue-formation, &c., may be mentioned. Thus not every Schizomycete met with in the body can do harm. But even when a Schizomycete has gained access to the bloodvessels, lymph-passages, &c., and has succeeded in establishing itself and multiplying, there are other facts to be taken into account before we dismiss the question as to its relations to disease. The rapidity of its growth may vary according to many circumstances,—temperature, oxidation, &c.,—as well as the still partially obstructive action of the invaded organism ; whether the parasite excretes a poison, or simply robs the host, or distributes injurious agents of any kind, it is clear that everything which favours it aids in intensifying its action. And this may be local or general also according to complex circumstances. Of course sores, open wounds, &c., may render the access of a given Schizomycete very easy, and pave the way for its success in the tissues, &c., different strata of which may be exerting less and less resistance to its attacks. The study of this subject has led to the methods of modern surgery devised by Lister. It may be mentioned that Schizomycetes which produce bad effects on injured or dead tissues of wounds are not necessarily able to live in the healthy organism, however deadly the poisonous products of their action may be when they succeed in establishing themselves. All these and many other facts, then, point to the conclusion that the mere presence of a Schizomycete in an organ or tissue is not sufficient proof of its causal relation to disease, and lead us to the following requirements to be satisfied before any such relation can be admitted (Koch);—(1) given a specific disease in which a definite Schizomycete is constantly detected, and with a constant disposition with respect to the tissues, organs, &c.,—this organism should be absent from animals free from the disease ; (2) the Schizomycete should be cultivated in nutrient media outside the body, kept pure for several “generations,” and obtained in some quantity by these means ; (3) inoculation of a small amount of this pure cultivation should reproduce the specific disease in a healthy animal; (4) the same foreign elements as before should be clearly detected in the tissues of the now diseased subject, and in the same relations as before. The satisfying of all these requirements is difficult, and the necessity of overcoming the difficulties has led to what may almost be termed a special branch of medical art. At the same time the majority of the principles which are here becoming recognized have long been known to biologists, and especially to botanists, and there are still numerous indications of a want of botanical training on the part of writers on these subjects. It is impossible here to even mention all the methods devised for staining, preparing, and examining tissues, &c., and the Schizomycetes they contain, or for cultivating these minute organisms under constant conditions on sterilized potatoes, bread-paste, jelly, blood-serum, &c., or in animal infusions or fluids, &c. Some of the more important points in cultivation have already been 2 referred to ; the literature must be consulted for further details. (H. M. W.) 2 Only a few authorities can he mentioned here, for the literature on pathogenous Schizomycetes and methods is simply enormous; further references may be made to the works of Babes, Koch, Davaine, Pasteur, Chauveau, Bollinger, Fehleisen, Klein, Gaffky, Miller, Rosenbach, Oertel, Obermeyer, BurdonSanderson, Toussaint, Waldeyer, Watson Cheyne, Dresehfeld, and many others. Fliigge, “Ferment und Mikroparasiten,” in Ziemssen’s Handbuch der Hygiene, Leipsic, 1883 ; Magnin, Les Bacteries, Paris, 1878; Klein, Micro-organisms and Disease, 1884; Woodhead and Hare, Pathological Mycology, 1885. Valuable papers are also to be found in the following periodicals :—Brit. Med. Jour., Trans, of the Pathol. Soc., Virchow's Archiv, Archiv f. exp. Pathol., Centralbl. f. d. med. Wise., Bull, de VAcad. de Med., Deutsche med. Wochenschrift, The Lancet, Quart. Jour, of Micr. Sc., and others.

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SCHLAGINTWEIT-SAKUNLUNSKI, Hermann yon (1826-1882), the eldest of a band of brothers, all more or less noted as scientific explorers or students of foreign countries, sons of an oculist of Munich. Hermann was born on the 13th of May 1826. His first scientific labours were studies in the Alps, carried on between 1846 and 1848 in association with his brother Adolf (born January 9, 1829). The publication of the Studien iiber die physikalische Geographic der Alpen in 1850 founded the scientific reputation of the two brothers, and their reputation was increased by their subsequent investigations in the same field, in which the third brother Robert (born Oct. 27, 1837) also took part. Soon after the publication of the Neue Untersuchungen iiber die phys. Geog. u. Geol. der Alpen (1854, 4to), the three brothers received, on the recommendation of Alex, von Humboldt, a commission from the East India Company to travel for scientific purposes in their territory, and more particularly to make observations on terrestrial magnetism. Their explorations extended over the period 1854-57, during which they travelled, sometimes in company, sometimes separately, in the Deccan and in the region of the Himalayas, even prosecuting their investigations beyond the frontiers of the Company’s territory into the region of the Karakorum and Kuenlun Mountains. Hermann and Robert were the first Europeans who crossed the latter mountains, and it was in honour of that achievement that the former had the title or surname of Sakunliinski bestowed upon him (in 1864). The two returned to Europe in the summer of 1857, but Adolf, who remained to prosecute his explorations in Central Asia, was put to death by the emir of Kashgar on the 26th of August. Between 1860 and 1866 Hermann and Robert published in four volumes the “ Results of a Scientific Mission to India and High Asia.” The extensive collections of ethnography and natural history made by them were ultimately deposited in the Burg at Nuremberg through the intervention of the king of Bavaria (May 1877). Hermann spent the last years of his life chiefly in literary and scientific activity, partly at Munich partly at the castle of Jagernburg near Forchheim. He died at Munich on the 19th of January 1882. His brother Robert was appointed professor of geography at Giessen in 1864, but his academical labours were sometimes interrupted by travels, especially in the United States, which furnished him with material for more or less important works. He died at Giessen, June 6, 1885. Of two other brothers, one, Edward (born March 23, 1831), killed in battle at Kissingen in 1866, made himself known by an account of the Spanish expedition to Morocco in 1859-60. Emil (born July 7, 1835) is the author of several learned works relating to India and Tibet. SCHLANGENBAD. See Schwalbach. SCHLEGEL, August Wilhelm yon (1767-1845), German poet, translator, and critic, was born on the 8th September 1767 at Hanover, where his father, J. Adolf Schlegel, was a pastor. He was educated at the Hanover gymnasium and at the university of Gottingen. Having spent some years as a tutor in the house of a banker at Amsterdam, he went to Jena, where he was made a professor, and received from the duke of Weimar the title of “ Rath.” Here he began his translation of Shakespeare, which was ultimately completed, under the superintendence of Tieck, by Tieck’s daughter Dorothea and Count Baudissin. A revised edition of this rendering, which is considered one of the best poetical translations in the German language, has been issued by the German Shakespeare society. At Jena Schlegel contributed to Schiller’s periodicals the Horen and the Musenalmanach and with his brother Friedrich he conducted the A thenaeum, which ranked among the most powerful organs of critical opinion in Germany. He also published a volume of poems, and carried on a rather bitter controversy with Kotzebue. At

this time the two brothers were remarkable for the vigour and freshness of their ideas, and commanded respect as the leaders of the rising Romantic school. In 1802 Schlegel went to Berlin, where he delivered lectures on art and literature; and in the following year he issued Ion, a tragedy in the antique style, which gave rise to a suggestive discussion on the principles of dramatic poetry. About the same time appeared his Spanish Theatre, in which he presented admirable translations of five of Calderon’s plays ; and in another volume he gave translations of Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian lyrics. In 1807 he attracted much attention in France by an essay in the French language, in which he compared Racine with Euripides. His lectures on dramatic art and literature, which have been translated into most European languages, were delivered at Vienna in 1808. Meanwhile he had been travelling in France, Germany, Italy, and other countries with Madame de Stael, who owed to him many of the ideas which she embodied in her work, De VAllemagne. In 1813 he acted as the secretary of the crown prince of Sweden, through whose influence the right of his family to noble rank was revived. Schlegel was made a professor at the university of Bonn in 1818, and during the remainder of his life he occupied himself chiefly with Oriental studies, although he continued to lecture on art and literature, and in 1828 he issued two volumes of critical writings. In 1823-30 he published the Indische Bibliothek; and as separate works appeared (1823) the Bhagavad-GUa with a Latin translation, and (1829) the Rdmdjana. Schlegel was twice married—first to a daughter of Prof. Michaelis of Gottingen, then to a daughter of Prof. Paulus of Heidelberg. Both wives separated from him soon after their marriage. He died at Bonn on the 12th May 1845. As an original poet Schlegel is unimportant, but as a poetical translator he has rarely been excelled, and in criticism he exercised a strong influence by the emphasis with which he marked the distinction between classical and romantic literature. By his study of Sanskrit he helped to prepare the way for the development of the science of language. In 1846-47 Schlegel’s German works were issued in twelve volumes by Rocking. There is also an edition of his CEuvres, tcrites en francpis, and of his Opuscula Latina. SCHLEGEL, Johann Elias (1718-1749), a German dramatic writer, was born at Meissen on the 28th January 1718. He was educated at Schulpforta and at the university of Leipsic. In 1743, having finished his studies, he became private secretary to his relative, Von Spener, the Saxon ambassador at the Danish court. Afterwards he was made professor extraordinary at the academy of Soroe, where he died on the 13th August 1749. Schlegel was a contributor to the Bremischen Beitrdgt, and for some time, while he was living in Denmark, he edited a weekly periodical, Der Fremde. He was also known as a writer of clever poetical epistles. Incomparably his best works, however, are his dramas, which did much to prepare the way for the dramatic achievements of Lessing, by whom his genius was warmly appreciated. He wrote two lively and well-constructed comedies, the Triumph der guten Frauen and the Stumme SchAnheit, the latter in alexandrines, the former in prose. Hermann and Kanut (in alexandrines) are generally considered his best tragedies. His works were edited after his death by his brother, J. H. Schlegel, who had a considerable reputation as a writer on Danish history. Another brother, J. Adolf Schlegel, an eminent preacher, and author of some volumes of verse, was the father of August Wilhelm and Friedrich von Schlegel. SCHLEGEL, Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von (17721829), known chiefly as an historian of literature, was the brother of August Wilhelm von Schlegel. He was born

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at Hanover on the 10th March 1772. Having studied at practised as advocate in Hamburg till 1831, but not Gottingen and Leipsic, he attracted some attention by a succeeding he studied botany and medicine at Gottingen book on the Griechen und Homer (1797), which was and Berlin, and graduated in Jena in 1839, where he praised by Heyne. This work was soon followed by his afterwards became professor of botany (1846-50). In Geschichte der Poesie der Griechen und Homer. At Jena, 1863 he was called to Dorpat, but resigned the following where he lectured as a privat-docent at the university, he year and returned to Germany, where he lived as a private contributed to the Athenaeum many striking critical articles, teacher. He died at Frankfurt in 1881. His title to and a number of lyrical poems which were afterwards remembrance is twofold. Uniting the labours of two included in a volume entitled Gedichte. Here also he centuries of workers in vegetable histology, from Malpighi wrote Lucinde, an unfinished romance, which was held by and Grew to Mirbel and Robert Brown, he proved that a some of the best of his contemporaries to be of a deeply nucleated cell is the only original constituent of the plant immoral tendency, and Alarcos, a tragedy, in which he embryo, and that the development of all vegetable tissues attempted without much success to combine romantic and must be referred to such cells, thus preparing the way for classical elements. In 1802 he went to Paris, where he the epoch-making cell theory of Schwann; and his Prinedited Europa, lectured on philosophy, and carried on ciples of Scientific Botany, which went through several Oriental studies, some results of which he embodied in a editions (1842-50), did much to shake the tyranny of the well-known book, Ueber die Sprache und Weisheit der purely systematic Linnean school, whose accumulations he Indier. In 1803 he and his wife joined the Roman was accustomed irreverently to describe as “ hay.” Despite Church, and from this time he became more and more a certain inability to criticize and verify his own opposed to the principles of political and religious freedom. hypotheses, he gave, both by his speculative activity and He went to Vienna in 1808, and in the following year by the introduction of improved technical methods, so was engaged as imperial court secretary at the head- vivid an impulse to the younger botanists of his time as quarters of the archduke Charles. At a later period he to have earned from De Bary the title of reformer of was for some time councillor of legation in the Austrian scientific botany. His botanical labours practically ceased embassy at the Frankfort diet, but in 1818 he returned after 1850, when he entered on various philosophical and to Vienna. Meanwhile he had published two series of historical studies. See Schwann. SCHLEIERMACHER, Friedrich Daniel Ernst lectures, Ueber die neuere Geschichte (1811) and Geschichte (1768-1834), theologian and philosopher, was the son of der alien und neuen Literatur (1815). After his return to Vienna from Frankfort he edited Concordia, and began a Prussian army-chaplain of the Reformed confession, and the issue of his Sdmmtliche Werlce. He also delivered was born November 21, 1768, at Breslau. In his fifteenth lectures, which were republished in his Philosophic des year the boy, who was of a weak constitution, was placed Lebens (1828) and in his Philosophic der Geschichte by his parents in a Moravian school at Niesky in Upper (1829). He died on the 11th January 1829 at Dresden, Lusatia, and two years later in the seminary of the same where he was delivering the course of lectures which sect at Barby near Halle. Here Moravian theology proved appeared in 1830 under the title Philosophische Vorles- inadequate to satisfy the deep religious needs and awakungen, insbesondere iiber die Philosophic der Sprache und ening intellect of the youth. It was particularly the des Wortes. His own collection of his works included ten doctrines of eternal punishment, of the deity and the volumes, and to this number five volumes were added substitutionary sufferings of Christ, and of the total after his death. A permanent place in the history of corruption of human nature that were stumbling-blocks to German literature belongs to Friedrich Schlegel and his him. He was also unable to make his own the peculiar brother August Wilhelm as the critical leaders of the religious experiences of his Moravian and pietistic teachers. Romantic school, which derived from them most of its The efforts of his strictly orthodox father and of the heads governing ideas as to the characteristics of the Middle of the seminary to lead him to crush his doubts as sinful, Ages, and as to the methods of literary expression. In and to shun modern theology and literature, tended only to their writings, too, there is the fullest and most impres- strengthen his desire to explore the great world of knowsive statement of the mystical spiritual doctrines of the ledge. Reluctantly his father gave him permission to leave Romantic school. Of the two brothers, August Wilhelm Barby for the university of Halle, and the corresponddid the highest permanent service to his countrymen ence between the father and the son on this painful by his translations from Shakespeare and Calderon. The crisis in Friedrich’s life supplies a striking illustration of best of Friedrich’s works is his Geschichte der alien und a typical phase of distressing modern mental history. neuen Literatur, in which was presented for the first time When Schleiermacher entered the university of Halle a systematic account of the development of European (1787) the reign of pietism there had ceased, having given way to the rationalistic philosophy of Wolf with the literature as a whole. Friedrich Schlegel’s wife, Dorothea, a daughter of Moses Men- critical theology of Semler, though the new philosophy of delssohn, was born at Berlin about the year 1770, and died at Kant was rapidly displacing Wolf’s. As a student he Frankfort in 1839. She was an eccentric but remarkably clever pursued an independent course of reading and neglected woman, and wrote or edited several works, issued by her husband, — to his permanent loss the study of the Old Testament and the unfinished romance Florentin (1801), the first volume of the the Oriental languages. But he frequented the lectures of Sammlung romantischer Dichtungen des Mittelalters (2 vols., 1804), Semler and of J. A. Eberhard, acquiring from the former and Lother und Mailer (1805). By her first marriage she had a son, Philip Veit, who became one of the most eminent painters of the principles of an independent criticism of the New Testahis day in Germany. ment and from the latter his love of Plato and Aristotle. SCHLEICHER, Avgust (1821-1868), born at Meinin- At the same time he studied with great earnestness the gen on February 19, 1821, studied at the universities of writings of Kant and Jacobi. He commenced thus early Leipsic and Tubingen, became extraordinary professor of his characteristic habit of forming his opinions by the philology in Prague in 1850, removed to Jena as ordinary process of patiently examining and weighing the positions professor in 1857, and died there December 6, 1868. His of all thinkers and parties. But with the receptivity of work is characterized in the article Philology, vol. xviii. a great eclectic he combined the reconstructive power of a profoundly original thinker. While yet a student he p. 782. SCHLEIDEN, Matthias (1804-1881), was born at began to apply ideas gathered from the Greek philosophers At the completion Hamburg in 1804. He studied law at Heidelberg and in a reconstruction of Kant’s system. XXL — 52

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of his three years’ course at Halle he obtained through the influence of the court-chaplain Sack an appointment as private tutor in the family of Count Dohna-Schlobitten, which he held upwards of two years, developing in a cultivated and aristocratic household his deep love of family and social life. After short engagements in tuition and as locum tenens to a clergyman of the small town of Landsberg, he received (1796) the appointment of chaplain to the Charit6 Hospital in Berlin, a position which he held nearly six years, and which offered no scope for the development of his powers as a preacher. He was the more induced to seek the satisfaction of his mental and spiritual necessities in the cultivated society of Berlin, and in profound philosophical studies. This was the period in which he was constructing the framework of his philosophical and religious system. It was the period too when he made himself widely acquainted with art, literature, science, and modern culture generally. He was at that time profoundly affected by German Bomanticism, as represented by his friend Friedrich Schlegel, and it required all the energy of his moral nature and the force of his intellect to preserve himself from its moral and mental extravagances. Of this his Confidential Letters on Schlegel’s Lucinde (1801), as well as his perilous relation to Eleonore Grunow, the wife of a Berlin clergyman, are proof and illustration. Gradually his sound moral nature, his deep religiousness, and his powerful intellect enabled him to emancipate himself entirely from the errors and weaknesses of a transient phase of mental and social history, and to appropriate at the same time the elements of truth and goodness which it possessed in rich measure. Romanticism unlocked for him the divine treasures of life and truth which are stored in the feelings and intuitions of the human soul, and thus enabled him to lay the foundations of his philosophy of religion and his ethical system. It enriched his imagination and life too with ideals ancient and modern, which gave elevation, depth, and colour to all his thought. Meantime he studied Spinoza and Plato, and was profoundly influenced by both, though he was never a Spinozist; he made Kant more and more his master, though he departed on fundamental points from him, and finally remodelled his philosophy; with some of Jacobi’s positions he was in sympathy, and from Fichte and Schelling he accepted ideas, which in their place in his system, however, received another value and import. The literary fruit of this period of intense fermentation and of rapid development was his “ epoch-making ” book, Reden iiber die Religion (1799), and his “new year’s gift” to the new century, the Monologen (1800). In the first book he vindicated for religion an eternal place amongst the divine mysteries of human nature, distinguished it from all current caricatures of it and allied phenomena, and described the perennial forms of its manifestation and life in men and society, giving thereby the programme of his subsequent theological system. In the Monologen he threw out his ethical manifesto, in which he proclaimed his ideas as to the freedom and independence of the spirit, and as to the relation of the mind to the world of sense and imperfect social organizations, and sketched his ideal of the future of the individual and society. In 1802, to his great advantage morally and intellectually, Schleiermacher exchanged the brilliant circle of Berlin Romanticists for the retired life of a pastor in the little Pomeranian town of Stolpe. Here he remained two years, which were full of pastoral and literary work, as well as rich in personal and moral progress. He relieved Friedrich Schlegel entirely of his nominal responsibility for the translation of Plato, which they had together undertaken, and regarded the completion of it as the work of his life. The first volume was published in 1804, and the last (the

Republic) in 1828. At the same time another work, Grundlinien einer Kritik der bisherigen Sittenlehre (1803), the first of his strictly critical and philosophical productions, occupied him. This work is a severe criticism of all previous moral systems, especially those of Kant and Fichte, Plato’s and Spinoza’s finding most favour; its leading principles are that the tests of the soundness of a moral system are the completeness of its view of the laws and ends of human life as a whole and the harmonious arrangement of its subject-matter under one fundamental principle; and, though it is almost exclusively critical and negative, the book announces clearly the division and scope of moral science which Schleiermacher subsequently adopted, attaching prime importance to a “ Giiterlehre,” or doctrine of the ends to be obtained by moral action. But the obscurity of the style of the book as well as its almost purely negative results proved fatal to its immediate success. In 1804 Schleiermacher removed as university preacher and professor of theology to Halle, where he remained until 1807, and where he quickly obtained a reputation as professor and preacher, and exercised a powerful influence in spite of the contradictory charges of his being an atheist, Spinozist, and pietist. In this period he wrote his dialogue the Weihnachtsfeier (1806), a charming production, which holds a place midway between his Reden and his great dogmatic work the Christliche Glaube, and presents in the persons of its speakers phases of his growing appreciation of Christianity as well as the conflicting elements of the theology of the period. After the battle of Jena he returned to Berlin (1807), was soon appointed pastor of the Trinity Church there, and the next year married the widow of his friend Willich. At the foundation of the Berlin university (1810), in which he took a prominent part, he was called to a theological chair, and soon became secretary to the Academy of Sciences. He was thus placed in a position suited to his powers and in domestic and social surroundings adapted to meet the wants of his rich nature. At the same time he approved himself in the pulpit and elsewhere as a largehearted and fearless patriot in that time of national calamity and humiliation, acquiring a name and place in his country’s annals with Arndt, Fichte, Stein, and Scharnhorst. He took a prominent part too in the reorganization of the Prussian church, and became the most powerful advocate of the union of the Lutheran and Reformed divisions of German Protestantism. The twenty-four years of his professional career in Berlin were opened with his short but important outline of theological study {Kurze Darstellung des theologischen Studiums, 1810), in which he sought to do for theology what he had done for religion in his Reden. While he preached every Sunday, he also gradually took up in his lectures in the university almost every branch of theology and philosophy—New Testament exegesis, introduction to and interpretation of the New Testament, ethics (both philosophic and Christian), dogmatic and practical theology, church history, history of philosophy, psychology, dialectics (logic and metaphysics), politics, paedagogy, and aesthetics. His own materials for these lectures and his students’ notes and reports of them are the only form in which the larger proportion of his works exist,—a circumstance which has greatly increased the difficulty of getting a clear and harmonious view of fundamental portions of his philosophical and ethical system, while it has effectually deterred all but the most courageous and patient students from reading these posthumous collections. As a preacher he produced a powerful effect, yet not at all by the force of his oratory but by his intellectual strength, his devotional spirit, and the philosophical breadth and unity of his thought. In politics he was an earnest friend of

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a conscious power in man it finds itself in conflict as well liberty and progress, and in the period of reaction which becomes as in harmony external nature. The whole efiort and end of followed the overthrow of Napoleon he was charged by human thoughtwith and action is the gradual reduction of the realm the Prussian Government with “ demagogic agitation ” in and the power of this antithesis in the individual, the race, and conjunction with the great patriot Arndt. At the same the world. Though the antithesis is real and deep, the human cannot admit its absolute nature ; we are compelled to suptime he prepared for the press his chief theological work mind pose a transcendental reality or entity in which the real and the Der christliche Glaube nach den Grundsatzen der evan- ideal, being and thought, subject and object, are one. Consciousgelischen Kirche (1821-22; 2d edition, greatly altered, ness itself involves the union of the antithetic elements, and prior 1830-31). The fundamental principle of this classical to moral action nature is found organized and reason manifested symbolized therein. We are ourselves proofs of the unity of the work is, that religious feeling, the sense of absolute or and the ideal, of thought and being, for we are both, our selfdependence on God as communicated by Jesus Christ real consciousness supplying the expression of the fact. As we have in through the church, and not the creeds or the letter of ourselves an instance of the identity of thought and being, we Scripture or the rationalistic understanding, is the source must suppose a universal identity of the ideal and real behind the which constitutes the world. This supposition is the and law of dogmatic theology. The work is therefore antithesis basis of all knowledge, for thought becomes knowledge only when simply a description of the facts of religious feeling, or of it corresponds to being. The supposition may be called a belief, the inner life of the soul in its relations to God, and but it is so only in the sense in which belief appears in the religious these inward facts are looked at in the various stages of department, where it is the ultimate ground of all action. The is the basis of all ethics, for without the conviction of their development and presented in their systematic con- supposition correspondence of thought and reality action would be fruitless nexion. The aim of the work was to reform Protestant the and in the end impossible. It is above all the substance of religious theology by means of the fundamental ideas of the Reden, feeling, which is the immediate consciousness of the unity of the to put°an end to the unreason and superficiality of both world, of the absolute oneness behind the infinite multiplicity of super naturalism and rationalism, and to deliver religion contrasts ; indeed, it is the religious conviction of the unity which best guarantee of the truth of the suppositions of philosophy. and theology from a relation of dependence on perpetually isIt the is “ the religious consciousness of the unity of the intellectual changing systems of philosophy. Though the work added and physical world in God ” which is to overcome the scepticism of to the reputation of its author, it naturally aroused the the critical philosophy. But, though this unity must be laid down increased opposition of the theological schools it was as the basis of knowledge, it is absolute and transcendental. In with the “world,” as the totality of being in its differenintended to overthrow, and at the same time Schleier- contrast tiation, this absolute unity, or God, in whom the real as manifold, macher’s defence of the right of the church to frame its and the spirit as one, find their unifying base, by its very nature own liturgy in opposition to the arbitrary dictation of is unphenomenal, indefinable, and inconceivable. The idea is the monarch or his ministers brought upon him fresh outside the boundary of thought, though its necessary postulate, it is no less inaccessible to religious feeling, though it is its life troubles. He felt himself in Berlin more and more and and soul. Neither member of the antithesis of the real and the ideal isolated, although his church and his lecture-room con- must be conceived as producing the other ; they are both equally tinued to be largely attended. But he prosecuted his existent and equally constituent elements of the world; but in God translation of Plato and prepared a new and greatly they are one, and therefore the world must not be identified with The world and God are distinct, but correlative, and neither altered edition of his CJiv'tsiliche Gletube, anticipating Him. can be conceived without the other. The world without God the latter in two letters to his friend Liicke (in the would be “chaos,” and God without the world an empty phanStudien und Kritilcen, 1829), in which he defended with a tasm.” But though God is transcendent and unknowable He is masterly hand his theological position generally and his book immanent in the world. In self-consciousness God is present as basis of the unity of our nature in every transition from an act in particular against opponents on the right and the left. the of knowledge to an act of will, and vice versa. As far as man is The same year he lost his only son—a blow which, he said, the unity of the real and the ideal, God is in him. He is also m “ drove the nails into his own coffin.” But he continued all things, inasmuch as in everything the totality of the world and to defend his theological position against Hengstenberg’s its transcendental basis is presupposed by virtue of their being and The unity of our personal life amidst the multiplicity party on the one hand and the rationalists Von Colin and correlation. of its functions is the symbol of God’s immanence in the world, D. Schulz on the other, protesting against both subscrip- though we may not conceive of the Absolute as a person. Ihe tion to the ancient creeds and the imposition of a new idea of the world as the totality of being is, like the correlative rationalistic formulary. In the midst of such labours, idea of God, only of regulative value ; it is transcendent, as we do more than make approaches to a knowledge of the sum ol and enjoying still full bodily and mental vigour, he was never being. The one idea is the transcendental terminus a quo and the carried off after a few days’ illness by inflammation of the other the transcendental terminus ad. quern of all knowledge. But lungs. He died thinking “the profoundest speculative though the world cannot be exhaustively known it can be known ideas which were one with his deepest religious feeling, very extensively, and though the positive idea of God must always unattainable we are able to reject those ideas which involve and partaking of the sacrament of the Lord’s supper, remain a contradiction of the postulate of the Absolute. Thus the panFebruary 12, 1834. theistic and the theistic conceptions of God as the supreme power, Schleiermacher’s friend, the naturalist and poet Steffens, as the first cause, as a person, are alike unallowable, since they all has left the following description of his appearance about briim God within the sphere of antithesis and preclude His absolute On the other hand, the world can be known as the realm the beginning of the century :—“ Schleiermacher was of unitv. of antithesis, and it is the correlative of God. Though He may small stature, a little deformed, yet hardly enough to not be conceived as the absolute cause of the world, the idea ot disfigure him ; all his movements were animated, and his absolute causality as symbolized in it may be taken as the best features in the highest degree expressive; a certain keen- approximate expression of the contents of the religious consciousThe unbroken connexion of cause and effect throughout the ness in his glance produced perhaps a repellent effect; ness. world becomes thus a manifestation of God. God is to be sought indeed, he appeared to see through every one; his face onlv in ourselves and in the world. He is completely immanent rather long, all his features sharply cut, the lips firmly in the universe. It is impossible that His causality should have any closed, the chin projecting, the eyes animated and flashing, other sphere than the world, which is the totality of being. bi o God without a world, and no world without God. ” The divine omnihis look always serious, collected, and thoughtful.” is quantitatively represented by the sum of the forces ol uloso- Schleiermacher’s Philosophical System.—A great antithesis lies potence and qualitatively distinguished from them only as the unity lical at the basis of all thought and life—that of the real and the idea , nature, of infinite from the multiplicity of its finite phenomena. stem, of organism, or sense, and intellect. But the antithesis is not abso- Throughoutcausality the world—not excepting the realm of mind—absolute lute, for in life and being both elements are united though wit i- necessity prevails. As a whole the world is as good and peifect as out its presence life and thought would be impossible. In the a world could possibly be, and everything in it, as occupying its actual world the antithesis appears as reason and nature, in eacii necessary place in the whole, is also good, evil being only the of which, however, there is a combination of its two elements—the necessary limitation of individual being. _ ideal and the real,—the reason having a preponderance of the first Schleiermacher’s psychology takes as its basis the phenomenal and nature a preponderance of the second. At the basis ot nature dualism of the ego and the non-ego, and regards the life of man as lies universal reason as its organizing principle, and when reason

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the interaction of these elements with their interpenetration as these deficiencies. It connects the moral world by a deductive its infinite destination. The dualism is therefore not absolute, process with the fundamental idea of knowledge and being; it and, though present in man’s own constitution as composed of offers a view of the entire world of human action which at all events body and soul, is relative only even there. The ego is itself aims at being exhaustive; it presents an arrangement of the both body and soul,—the conjunction of both constitutes it; our matter of the science which tabulates its constituents after the “ organization ” or sense nature has its intellectual element, and our model of the physical sciences ; and it supplies a sharply defined “ intellect ” its organic element. There is no such thing as “ pure treatment of specific moral phenomena in their relation to the mind” or “pure body.” The one general function of the ego, fundamental idea of human life as a whole. Schleiermacher thought, becomes in relation to the non-ego either receptive or spon- defines ethics as the theory of the nature of the reason, or as taneous action, and in both forms of action its organic, or sense, and the scientific treatment of the effects produced by human reason its intellectual energies co-operate ; and in relation to man, nature, in the world of nature and man. As a theoretical or speculative and the universe the ego gradually finds its true individuality by science it is purely descriptive and not practical, being correlated becoming a part of them, “every extension of consciousness being on the one hand to physical science and on the other to historv. higher life. ” The specific functions of the ego, as determined by the Its method is the same as that of physical science, being disrelative predominance of sense or intellect, are either functions of tinguished from the latter only by its matter. The ontological the senses (or organism) or functions of the intellect. The former basis of ethics is the unity of the real and the ideal, and the fall into the two classes of feelings (subjective) and perceptions psychological and actual basis of the ethical process is the tendency (objective) ; the latter, according as the receptive or the spontaneous of reason and nature to unite in the form of the complete organizaelement predominates, into cognition and volition. In cognition tion ot the latter by the former. The end of the ethical process being is the object and in volition it is the purpose of thought: in is that nature (i.e., all that is not mind, the human body as well the first case we receive (in our fashion) the object of thought into as external nature) may become the perfect symbol and organ of ourselves; in the latter we plant it out into the world. Both cogni- niind. Conscience, as the subjective expression of the presupposed tion and volition are functions of thought as well as forms of moral identity of reason and nature in their bases, guarantees the action. It is in those two functions that the real life of the ego is practicability of our moral vocation. Nature is preordained or manifested, but behind them is self-consciousness permanently constituted to become the symbol and organ of mind, j ust as mind is present, which is always both subjective and objective—conscious- endowed with the impulse to realize this end. But the moral law ness of ourselves and ot the non-ego. This self-consciousness is the must not be conceived under the form of an “ imperative ” or a third special form or function of thought,—which is also called ; it differs from a law of nature only as being descriptive feeling and immediate knowledge. In it we cognize our own inner ofSollcn the fact that it ranks the mind as conscious will, or zweckdcnhend* life as affected by the non-ego. As the non-ego helps or hinders, above nature. Strictly speaking, the antitheses of good and bad enlarges or limits, our inner life, we feel pleasure or pain. ^Esthetic, of free and necessary have no place in an ethical system, but moral, and religious feelings are respectively produced by the and simply in history, which is obliged to compare the actual with the reception into consciousness of large ideas,—nature, mankind, and ideal, but as far as the terms “ good ” and “ bad ” are used in morals the world; those feelings are the sense of being one with these they express the rule or the contrary of reason, or the harmony or vast objects. Religious feeling therefore is the highest form of the contrary of the particular and the general. The idea of “ free ” thought and of life ; in it we are conscious of our unity with the as opposed to necessary expresses simply the fact that the mind world and God; it is thus the sense of absolute dependence. can propose to itself ends, though a man cannot alter his own nature. Schleiermacher’s doctrine of knowledge accepts the fundamental In contrast to Kant and Fichte and modern moral philosophers principle of Kant that knowledge is bounded by experience, but Schleiermacher reintroduced and assigned pre-eminent importance it seeks to remove Kant’s scepticism as to knowledge of the Ding to the doctrine of the summum bonum, or highest good. It an sich, or Sein, as Schleiermacher’s term is. The idea of knowledge represents in his system the ideal and aim of the entire life of man or scientific thought as distinguished from the passive form of supplying the ethical view of the conduct of individuals in relation thought—of aesthetics and religion—is thought which is produced to society and the universe, and therewith constituting a philosophy by all thinkers in the same form and which corresponds to beino*. of history at the same time. Starting with the idea of the highest All knowledge takes the form of the concept (Begrijf) or the good and of its constituent elements {Giiter), or the chief forms of judgment (Drtheil), the former conceiving the variety of beino- as the union of mind and nature, Schleiermacher’s system divides itself a definite unity and plurality, and the latter simply connecting into the doctrine ends, the doctrine of virtue, and the the concept with certain individual objects. In the concept there- doctrine of duties ;ofinmoral other words, as a development of the idea of fore the intellectual and in the judgment the organic or sense the subjection of nature to reason it becomes a description of the element predominates. The universal uniformity of the production actual forms of the triumphs of reason, of the moral power maniof judgments presupposes the uniformity of our relations to the fested therein, and of the specific employed. Every moral outward world, and the uniformity of concepts rests similarly on good or product has a fourfold methods character: it is individual and the likeness of our inward nature. This uniformity is not based universal; it is am organ and symbol of the reason, that is, it is the on the sameness of either the intellectual or the organic functions of the individual with relation to the community, and alone- but on the correspondence of the forms of thought and pioduct represents or manifests as well as classifies and rules nature. The sensation with the forms of being. The essential nature of the first two characteristics provide for the functions and rights of the concept is that it combines the general and the special, and the individual well as those of the community or race. Though a same combination recurs in being; in being the system of sub- moral actionas may have these four characteristics at various degrees stantial or permanent forms answers to the system of concepts and of strength, it ceases to be moral if one of them is quite absent. the relation of cause and effect to the system of judgments the All moral products may be classified according to the predominance higher concept answering to “force” and the lower to the pheno- of one or the other of these characteristics. Universal organizing mena of force, and the judgment to the contingent interaction of action produces the forms of intercourse, and universal symbolizing T le SUI of t,ein action produces the various forms of science; individual organiz^ S consists of the systems ofin substantial forms and? interactional relations, andtwo it reappears the ing action yields the forms of property and individual symbolizfor in of concept and judgment, the concept representing being and action the various representations of feeling, all these constitutthe judgment being in action. Knowledge has under both forms ing the relations, the productive spheres, or the social conditions re same object, the relative^ difference of the two being that when ing of moral action. Moral functions cannot be performed by the indithe conceptual form predominates we have speculative science and vidual in isolation but only in his relation to the family, the state, when the form of judgment prevails we have empirical or historical school, the church, and society,—all forms of human life which science. Throughout the domain of knowledge the two forms are the ethical science finds to its hand and leaves to the science of natural found in constant mutual relations, another proof of the funda- history account for. The moral process is accomplished by the mental unity of thought and being or of the objectivity of know- various to of humanity in their individual spheres, and the ledge It is obvious that Plato, Spinoza, and Kant had contri- doctrinesections of virtue deals with the reason as the moral power in buted characteristic elements of their thought to this system, and each individual by which the totality of moral products is obtained. directly or indirectly it was largely indebted to Schelling& for Schleiermacher classifies the virtues under the two forms of fundamental conceptions. and Fertigkcit, the first consisting of the pure ideal Ethics. Schleiermacher’s Ethics. -Next to religion and theology it was Gesinnung in action and the second the form it assumes in relation to the moral world, of which, indeed, the phenomena of religion element to circumstances, each of the two classes falling respectively into and theology were in his systems only constituent elements, that he specially devoted^ himself. In his earlier essays he endeavoured the two divisions of wisdom and love and of intelligence and applito point out the defects of ancient and modern ethical thinkers cation. In his system the doctrine of duty is the description of the of the attainment of ethical ends, the conception of duty particularly of Kant and Fichte, Plato and Spinoza only finding method avoui in Ins eyes._ He failed to discover in previous moral systems as an imperative, or obligation, being excluded, as we have seen. No action fulfils the conditions of duty except as it combines the th u ht an nbpnnmeSSaiyofrbaS1S ? g any ’ ysystematic completeness as regardsof the phenomena moralY* action, arrangement its three following a,ntitheses : reference to the moral idea in its whole extent and likewise to a definite moral sphere; connexion with existany C ar and dlstin t treat and^G+f w own moral? systemment specific moral acts ing conditions and at the same time absolute personal production ; and relations. His is anof attempt to supply the fulfilment of the entire moral vocation every moment though

413 S C H —S C H it can only be done in a definite sphere. Duties are divided with whole, and its conception of the way in which Deity deals with reference to the principle that every man make his own the entire this effort by mediatorial agencies, which are both divine and It is the religion of mediatorial salvation, and, . as moral problem and act at the same time in an existing moral human. emphatically taught in his riper works, of salvation society. This condition gives four general classes of duty : duties Schleiermacher the mediation of Christ; that is, its possessors are conof general association or duties with reference to the community through of having been delivered by Jesus of Nazareth from a con(Rcchtspflicht), and duties of vocation (Berufspflicht)—both, with a scious in which their religious consciousness was overridden by the universal reference, duties of the conscience (in which the indi- dition vidual is sole judge), and duties of love or of personal association. sense-consciousness of the world and put into one in which it domiand everything is subordinated to it. The consciousness of It was only the first of the three sections of the science of ethics nates, saved in this sense is now transmitted and mediated by the —the doctrine of moral ends—that Schleiermacher handled with being approximate completeness ; the other two sections were treated Christian church, but in the case of Jesus, its originator, it was an new and original factor in the process of religious developvery summarily. In his Christian Ethics he dealt with the subject entirely and in so far, like every new and higher stage of being., a from the basis of the Christian consciousness instead of from that ment, revelation. It was at the same time a natural attainof reason generally; the ethical phenomena dealt with are the supernatural in as far as man’s nature and the universe were so constituted same in both systems, and they throw light on each other, while ment, to involve its production. The appearance of the Saviour in the Christian system treats more at length and less 7aphoristically as history is therefore as a divine revelation neither absolutely the principal ethical realities—church, state, famil} , art, science, human supernatural nor absolutely beyond reason, and the controversy of and society. Rothe, amongst other moral philosophers, bases his the 18th century the rationalists and supernaturalists rests system substantially, with important departures, on Schleier- on false grounds, between leads to wrong issues, and each party is right and macher’s. In Beneke’s moral system his fundamental idea was wrong (see Rationalism). As regards Christian theology, it is not worked out in its psychological relations. _ _ . business to formulate and establish a system of objective truth, Religious Schleiermacher’s Religious System.—From Leibnitz, Lessing, its simply to present in a clear and connected form a given body svstem. Fichte, Jacobi, and the Romantic school he had imbibed a pro- but Christian faith as the contents of the Christian consciousness. found and mystical view of the inner depths of the human per- of theology is a connected and accurate account of the docsonality. The ego, the person, is an individualization of universal Dogmatic held at a particular time in a given sectionof the Christian reason; and the primary act of self-consciousness is the first con- trine But such doctrines as constitute no integral part of the junction of universal and individual life, the immediate union or church. consciousness—e. g., the doctrine of the Trinity—must be marriage of the universe with incarnated reason. Thus every Christian excluded from the theological system of the evangelical theologian. person becomes a specific and original representation ot the uni- As regards the relation of theology and philosophy, it is not one of verse and a compendium of humanity, a microcosmos in which the dependence or of opposition on either side, but of complete indeworld is immediately reflected. While therefore we cannot, as we pendence, equal authority, distinct functions, and perfect harmony. have seen, attain the idea of the supreme unity of thought and Feeling is not a mental subordinate to cognition , or volibeing by either cognition or volition, we can find it in our own tion, but of equal rank function authority; yet feeling, cognition, and personality, in immediate self-consciousness or (which is the same volition alike conduct toand faith in in Schleiermacher’s terminology) feeling. Feeling in this higher by different paths and processes. the unknown Absolute, though sense (as distinguished from “organic” sensibility, Envpfindung), The marked feature of Schleiermacher’s thought in every departwhich is the minimum of distinct antithetic consciousness, the ment the effort to combine and reconcile, in the unity of a cessation of the antithesis of subject and object, constitutes like- systemis the antithetic conceptions of other thinkers. He. is. realwise the unity of our being, in which the opposite functions of istic and idealistic, individualistic and universalistic, monistic and cognition and volition have their fundamental and permanent dualistic, sensationalist and intellectualist, naturalist and superbackground of personality and their transitional link. . Having naturalist, rationalist and gnostic and agnostic.. He is its seat in this central point of our being, or indeed consisting in the prince of the Vermittlermystic, philosophy, ethics, religion, and the essential fact of self-consciousness, religion lies at the basis of theology. But he does not in seek to reconcile the antitheses of all thought and action. At various periods of his life Schleier- thought and being by weakening hiding the points of macher used different terms to represent the character and relation difference ; on the contrary, he bringsand them out in their sharpest of religious feeling. In his earlier days he called it a feeling or outlines. His method is to distinctly define the opposing elements intuition of the universe, consciousness of the unity of reason and and then to seek their harmonious combination by the aid of a nature, of the infinite and the eternal within the_ finite and the deeper conception. Apart irom the positive and permanent value temporal. In later life he described it as the feeling of absolute the higher unities which he succeeds in establishing, the light dependence, or, as meaning the same thing, the consciousness of of suggestiveness of his discussions and treatment of the gieat being in relation to God. In our consciousness of tbe world the and at issue in all the principal fields of human thought, unfeelings of relative dependence and relative independence are found; points satisfactory as many of his positions may be considered, make we are acted upon, but we also react. In our religious conscious- him one of the most helpful and instructive of modern thinkers. ness the latter element is excluded, and everything within and And since the focus of his almost universal thought and inquiry and without us is referred to its absolute cause, that is, God. But, of his rich culture and varied life was religion and theology, he must when we call this absolute cause God, the name stands solely as be regarded as the classical representative of modern eltort to indicating the unknown source of our receptive and active existence; reconcile science and philosophy with religion and theology, and on the one hand it means that the world upon which we can react the modern world with the Christian church. is not the source of the feeling, on the other, that the Absolute is collected works have been published in three sections: not an object of thought or knowledge. This feeling of absolute I Schleiermacher’s II. Sermons, III. Philosophical and Miscellaneous, Beilin, 1835-64, dependence can arise only in combination with other forms of con- in Theological, so vols. Of lives of him the best are his own correspondence, Mms Schleierlf vo sciousness. We derive the idea of a totality by means of its parts, macher's, Leben in Briefen, published by W. Dilthey (Berlin, ^8-1863,in4 ls Eng. transl. by Rowan); Leben Schleiermacher s by Wilhelm Dilthey (vol.i., the and the transcendental basis of being comes to us through the agency period from 1768-1804, all published as yet); Friedrich Schleiermacher, ein of individual phenomena. As in every affection of our being by llbem- u. Charakterbild, by D. Schenkel (Elberfeld, 1868). The accounts and individual phenomena we are brought into contact with the whole critiques of his philosophy, ethics, and theology are numerous; some of the most are—J. Schaller, Vorlesungen uber Schleiermacher (Ualje, 1844), Weis universe, we are brought into contact with God at the same time valuable Darstellung und Kritik der Schleiermacherschen OlaubensfeAre (1849), as its transcendental cause. This religious feeling is not know- senborn, Siegwart, “Schleiermacher’s Erkenntnisstheone und 1 ^ 1]er ledge in the strict sense, as it is purely subjective or immediate ; Glaubenslehre,” in the Jahrbb. f. Dent- Theol., vol. u. pp. 367-327, 820-864 .Zeller, “ Schleiermacher’s Lehre von der Personiichkeit Gottes, in Vac Theol. Jahrbb but it lies at the basis of all knowledge. As immediate know- 184‘> T)P 263 so ; F. Vorlander, Schleiermacher s Sittenlehre (Marburg, 1851), ledge, however, it is no more than the consciousness of the unity W Bender, Theologie mil ihren philosophischen Grundlagen of the world, a unity which can never be reached by human (1876-78). SeeSchleiermachers also the histories of philosophy and theology by Zellei., Uebei weg, inquiry. Religious truths, such as the determination of all things Chalybseus, Dorner, and Gass, and the article by the last-named in Herzogs ' ‘ ‘ ’’ by God, are simply the implications of the feeling of absolute Encyklopddie. dependence. While that feeling is the characteristic of religion SCHLESWIG (Danish Slesvig), the capital of the generally, this assumes various forms as the religions of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, is situated at world. The so-called natural as distinguished from positive reli- the west end of the long narrow arm of the sea called gion, or the religion of reason, is a mere abstraction. All religions are positive, or their characteristics and value are mainly deter- the Schlei, 30 miles to the north-west of Kiel. The mined by the manner in which the world is conceived and imagined. town consists mainly of a single street, 3jr miles long, But these varying conceptions with their religious meaning become forming a semicircle round the Schlei, and is divided into religiously productive only in the souls of religious heroes, who the Altstadt (with the Holm), the Lollfuss, and the are the authors of new religions, mediators of the religious lite, founders of religious communities. For religion is essentially Eriedrichsherg. The principal church, erected as a social. It everywhere forms churches, which are the necessary cathedral about 1100, but renewed in the Gothic style in instruments and organs of its highest life. The specific feature of the 15th century, contains a very fine carved oak altarChristianity is its mediatorial element, its profound feeling, ol the screen, regarded as the most valuable work of art in striving of the finite individual to reach the unity of the infinite

414

SCHLESWIG

Schleswig-Holstein. Between Friedrichsberg and Lollfuss is the old chateau of Gottorp, now despoiled of its art treasures and used as barracks. The former commercial importance of the town has disappeared, and the Schlei now affords access to small vessels only. Fishing and the manufacture of a few articles of common use are the chief occupations of the inhabitants. The population in 1885 was 15,187, all Protestants except about 250 Roman Catholics and 70 Jews. Schleswig (ancient forms SliestJwrp, Sliaswic, i. e., the town or bay of the Slia or Schlei) is a town of very remote origin, and seems to have been a trading place of considerable importance as early as the 9th century. It served as a medium of commercial intercourse between the North Sea and the Baltic, and was known to the old Arabian geographers. The first Christian church in this district was built here by Ansgarius about 850, and it became the seat of a bishop about a century later. The town also became the seat of the dukes of Schleswig, but its commerce gradually dwindled owing to the rivalry of Liibeck, the numerous wars in which the district was involved, and the silting up of the Schlei. At the partition of 1544 the old chateau of Gottorp, originally built in 1160 for the bishop, became the residence of the ducal or Gottorp line of Schleswig-Holstein, which remained here till expelled by Frederick IV. in 1713. From 1731 to 1846 it was the seat of the Danish governors of the duchies. In the wars of 1848 and 1864 Schleswig was an important strategical point on account of its proximity to the Danewerk, and was occupied by the different contending parties in turn. It has been the capital of SchleswigHolstein since its incorporation by Prussia. To the south of Schleswig are the scanty remains of the Danewerk or Dannewirke, a line of entrenchments between the Schlei and the Treene, believed to have been originally thrown up in the 9th century or even earlier, and afterwards repeatedly strengthened and enlarged. After the union of Schleswig and Holstein it lost its importance as a frontier defence, and was allowed to fall into disrepair. The Danewerk was stormed by the Prussians in 1848, but was afterwards so greatly extended and strengthened by the Danes that it would have been almost impregnable if defended by a sufficient number of troops. In the war of 1864, however, the Danish army was far too small for this task, and General de Meza abandoned the Danewerk without striking a blow, a step which caused deep disappointment to the Danes and led to the dismissal of the general. Since then the works have been entirely levelled. SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN, a maritime province in the north-west of Prussia, formed out of the once Danish duchies of Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg, is bounded on the W. by the German Ocean, on the N. by Jutland, on the E. by the Baltic, Liibeck, and Mecklenburg, and on the S. by Mecklenburg and the lower course of the Elbe (separating it from Hanover). It thus consists of the southern half of the Cimbric peninsula, and forms the connecting link between Germany and Denmark. In addition to the mainland, which decreases in breadth from south to north, the province includes several islands, the most important being Alsen and Fehmarn in the Baltic, and Rom, Sylt, and Fohr in the North Sea. The total area of the province is 7280 square miles, 450 of which belong to the small duchy of Lauenburg in the south-east corner, while the rest are divided almost equally between Holstein to the south of the Eider and Schleswig to the north of it. From north to south the province is about 140 miles long, while its breadth varies from 90 miles in Holstein to 35 miles at the narrower parts of Schleswig. Schleswig-Holstein belongs to the great North-German plain, of the characteristic features of which it affords a faithful reproduction in miniature, down to the continuation of the Baltic ridge or plateau (see Germany) by a range of low wooded hills skirting its eastern coast and culminating in the Bungsberg (570 feet), a little to the north of Eutin. This hilly district contains the most productive land in the province, the soil consisting of diluvial drift or boulder clay. The central part of the province forms practically a continuation of the great Liineburg Heath, and its thin sandy soil is of little use in cultivation. Along the west coast extends the “ Marsh-

land,” a belt of rich alluvial soil formed by the deposits of the German Ocean, and varying in breadth from five to fifteen miles. It is seldom more than a few feet above the sea-level, while at places it is actually below it, and it has consequently to be defended by an extensive system of dykes or embankments, 25 feet high, resembling those of Holland. The more ancient geological formations are scarcely met with in Schleswig-Holstein. The contrast between the two coast-lines of the province is very marked. The Baltic coast, about 300 miles in length, has generally steep well-defined banks and is very irregular in form, being pierced by numerous long and narrow fjords, which run deep into the interior of the land and often afford excellent harbours. The islands of Alsen and Fehmarn are separated from the coast by very narrow channels. The North Sea coast (200 miles), on the other hand, is very low and flat, and its smooth outline is interrupted only by the estuary of the Eider and the peninsula of Eiderstedt. Dunes or sand-hills, though rare on the protected mainland, occur on Sylt and other islands, while the small unprotected islands called “ Halligen ” are being gradually washed away by the sea. The numerous islands on the west coast probably formed part of the peninsula at no very remote period, and the sea between them and the mainland is very shallow and full of sandbanks. The climate of Schleswig-Holstein is mainly determined by the proximity of the sea, and the mean annual temperature, varying from 45° Fahr. in the north to 49° Fahr. in the south, is rather higher than is usual in the same latitude. Rain and fog are frequent, but the climate is on the whole very healthy. The lower course of the Elbe forms the southern boundary of Holstein for 65 miles, but the only river of importance within the province is the Eider, which rises in Holstein, and after a course of 120 miles falls into the North Sea, forming an estuary 3 to 12 miles in breadth. It is navigable from its mouth as far as Rendsburg, and the waterway between the two seas is completed by a canal from Rendsburg to Kiel. The new Baltic Canal, which is to be navigable for large vessels, will also intersect Holstein. There are numerous lakes in north-east Holstein, the largest of which are the Ploner See (12 square miles) and the Selenter See (9 square miles). Of the total area of the province 58 '3 per cent, is occupied by tilled land, 28 '5 per cent, by meadows and pastures, and only 6 '4 per cent, by forests. The ordinary cereals are all cultivated with success and there is generally a considerable surplus for exportation ; rape is grown in the marsh lands and flax on the east coast, while large quantities of apples and other fruit are raised near Altona for the Hamburg and English markets. In 1883 the province contained 156,534 horses, 727,505 cattle, 320,768 sheep, 268,061 pigs, and 42,580 goats. The marsh lands afford admirable pasture, and a greater proportion of cattle (65 per 100 inhabitants) is reared in Schleswig-Holstein, mainly by small owners, than in any other Prussian province. Great numbers of fat cattle are exported to England. The Holstein horses are also in request, but sheepfarming is comparatively neglected. Bee-keeping is found a productive industry, and in 1883 the province possessed 113,836 hives. The hills skirting the bays of the Baltic coast are generally pleasantly wooded, but the forests are nowhere of great extent except in the duchy of Lauenburg. The fishing in the Baltic is productive ; Eckernforde is the chief fishing station in Prussia. The oysters from the beds on the west coast of Schleswig are widely known under the misnomer of “Holstein natives.” The mineral resources of the province are almost confined to a few layers of rock-salt near Segeberg. The manufacturing industry is also insignificant and does not extend much beyond the large towns, such as Altona, Kiel, and Flensburg. The shipbuilding of Kiel and other seaports is, however, important; and lace is made by the peasants of North Schleswig. The commerce and shipping of Schleswig-Holstein, stimulated by its position between two seas, as well as by its excellent harbours and waterways, are much more prominent than its manufactures. Kiel is the chief seaport of Prussia, while an oversea trade is also carried on by Altona and Flensburg. The main exports are grain, cattle, horses, fish, and oysters, in return for which come timber, coal, salt, wine, and

SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN

415

colonial produce. The trading fleet of Schleswig-Holstein in 1884 Holstein, holding the first as a fief of the Danish crown and the consisted of 713 vessels (142 steamers), with a total burthen of other as a fief of the German empire. The history of Holstein before its union with Schleswig has been 115,600 tons ; more than half the ships belonged to the North partly indicated in the foregoing paragraph. Nordalbingia, or the Sea’coast, but 90 per cent, of the steamers and 65 per cent, of the land to the north of the Elbe, was inhabited by the Saxons, under tonnage must be credited to the Baltic. The population of the province in 1880 was 1,127,149, compris- whom it was divided into four gaus or hundreds Dithmarschen on the west, Holstein proper or Holtsaten (“men of the ing 1,111,383 Protestants, 8903 Roman Catholics, and 3522 Jews. (q.v.) in the middle, Wagria on the east, and Stormarn on the The urban and rural communities are in the proportion of 4 to 6. forest”) The Nordalbingians were the last of the Saxons to be subAbout 38 per cent, of the population are supported by agriculture, south. dued by Charlemagne (804), who gave Wagria to his Wendish allies 26 per cent, by manufacturing industry, 10 per cent, by trade, Obotrites, and established a Wendish mark on their frontier at while 12 per cent, are domestic servants and day-labourers, 6 per the same time that he established a Danish mark on the Eider. cent, is absorbed by the official and professional classes, and 5| the other three gaus were incorporated with the duchy of Saxony, per cent, by those who returned no occupation. The great bulk The being included in the countship of Stade while of the Holsteiners and more than half the Schleswigers are of Dithmarschen Holstein and Stormarn had a count of their own. In 1110 o-enuine German stock, but there are about 150,000 Danes in the the countship of Holstein was conferred upon Adolphus I. of north part of Schleswig. Among the Germans the prevalent Schauenburg, who founded the influential line that eventually tongue is Low German, but the North Frisians on the west coast of ruled over Schleswig-Holstein. Wagria was added to Holstein by Schleswig and the North Sea islands (about 30,000 in all) still speak Adolphus II. about 1140. In the beginning of the 13th century a Frisian dialect, which, however, is gradually dying out. The the kings extended their sway over all German territory to peninsula of Angeln, between the Gulf of Flensburg and the Schlei, the Danish north of the Elbe, and their conquests were confirmed by an is supposed to have been the original seat of the English, and most imperial grant in 1214. This state of affairs, however, was of no observers profess to see a striking resemblance between this long continuance, and Adolphus III. of Holstein succeeded in redistrict and the counties of Kent and Surrey. The peasants of establishing his independence 1225. The Holstein family now Dithmarschen also retain many of their ancient peculiarities. The became split up into severalin branch-lines, of which that of boundary between the Danish and German languages is approxi- Rendsburg proved the most lasting and important. A daughter mately a line between Flensburg and Tondern ; not more than 15 of this line married Duke Abel of Schleswig, and the Holstein per cent, of the entire population of the province speak Danish counts lent faithful aid to their kinsmen in resisting the encroachas their mother-tongue. The chief educational institution in ments and claims of the kings of Denmark. In the distracted Schleswig-Holstein is the university of Kiel; and the excellence of of Denmark at the beginning of the 14th century Count the ordinary school system is proved by the fact that in 1883—84 the state of Holstein became the practical ruler of the kingdom, but Schleswig-Holstein recruits showed a smaller proportion of illiter- Gerhard to place the crown on the head of his nephew Valdemar. acy (0T1 per cent.) than those from any other part of the German preferred Legally speaking, Holstein remained a mediate fief of Saxony; empire. Schleswig is the official capital of the province, but but with the decline of the Saxon duchy this relationship became Altona and Kiel are the largest towns, the former being also the obscured, and, when the Holstein lands were created a duchy in headquarters of an army corps and the latter the chief naval station 1474, the new duke held his lands directly from the emperor. of Germany. Kiel and Friedrichsort are fortified, and the old lines In 1448 the royal line of Denmark became extinct, and the of Diippel are also maintained. The province sends ten members crown offered to Adolphus VII. of Schleswig-Holstein, who to the reichstag and nineteen to the Prussian house of deputies. refusedwas it for himself but exerted his influence to secure it for his The provincial estates meet in Rendsburg. nephew Christian of Oldenburg. Adolphus died in 1459, leaving History.—The history of the southern part of the Cimbnc sons. Christian was the legal heir of Schleswig, but his claims peninsula is the record of a struggle between the Danes and the no Holstein were by no means so strong. The estates of SchleswigGermans, ending in the meantime in favour of the latter. The to however, decided in his favour on the plea that the earliest inhabitants of whose existence we have any trace seem to Holstein, duchies2 could not be separated^ and exacted from him a confirmahave been of German stock, and German authorities maintain that tion this indissoluble connexion. It was also formally stipulated it was the emigration to England of the Jutes and Angles that first that of the duchies should never be actually incorporated with the gave the Scandinavian or Danish element scope to develop in the kingdom of Denmark, while the hereditary nature of the fief was district. In the early part of the ninth century we find given up and the estates acquired the right to choose as theii duke Charlemagne in conflict with the Danish rulers of South Jutland or any one of Christian’s descendants. _ This Succession Act was the Schleswig1 and establishing a “ Danish mark ” between the Eider basis of the two duchies for the next four hundred and the Schlei. Some attempt to introduce Christianity was also years ofandthetheunion contradiction between their own inseparable made at this time by Bishop Ansgarius, but it was not till the connexion andpractical feudal duty to different sovereigns is at once middle of the following century that the new creed found anything the cause and their the explanation of the complicated “ Schleswigapproaching to general acceptance. In 1027 the Danish king Holstein question.” . Knud (the English Canute) obtained from Conrad the recognition follows a series of endless shiftings, divisions, and reunions of Schleswig’s independence of the empire, and henceforth the of Now the two duchies. After 1580 the various collateral lines of the Eider became the recognized boundary between Germany and Oldenburg family thus formed are represented by two main Denmark (‘ ‘ Eidora Romani terminus imperii”). Schleswig, though branches,—the royal or Gliickstadt line and the Gottorp or ducal a Danish province, was not merged in the other possessions of line. In the division Schleswig-Holstein between these two no Denmark, but enjoyed a certain measure of independence under regard was paid to theofboundary of the Eider ; each of them ruled the rule of viceroys or dukes chosen from the younger sons of the over detached parts of both duchies, the whole of Schleswig royal house. One of the most vigorous of these rulers was Knud was still under the sovereignty of though Denmark and the whole of Laward (1115-1131), who extended his_ sway over the Wendish Holstein under that of Germany. Practically Schleswig came to be district of Wagria (see below) and held it as a fief of the German regarded merely as a part of Denmark, while Holstein’s empire. He was thus the first ruler of Schleswig to hold that with Germany preserved for it a flicker of independence. connexion 1660 singular double relationship to the king of Denmark and the German Denmark became an absolute monarchy and the principle ofInfemale empire which afterwards became so important a factor in the histoi} succession was acknowledged. As in Schleswig-Holstein the right of the country. Valdemar, son of Knud, became king of Denmark of inheritance was confined to the male line, the policy of Denmark and Knud’s grandson, King Yaldemar II., conferred the duchy ot was vigorously directed towards doing away as. far as possible with South Jutland or Schleswig on his son Abel in 1232. The terms all separate rights in the duchy and to getting the Gottorp or of this investment afterwards became a fertile subject of dispute portions into the possession of the crown. This policy between the dukes and the crown, the former maintaining that they ducal naturally more successful in Schleswig than m Holstein, held their land as an hereditary and inalienable fief, while the kings was in 1721 Frederick IV. was able to gain the guarantee of the argued that the fief was revocable at pleasure. The dukes, however, and for the incorporation of the whole of Schleswig with the assisted by their kinsmen, the counts of Holstein, succeeded m powers Danish He had, however, to give up his claim to establishing their position and finally remained m undisputed Holstein.monarchy. In 1762 the Holstein-Gottorp line succeeded to the possession of their duchy. In 1326 Duke Valdemar V. of Schleswig throne of Russia in the person of Peter III., and this led in 1773 to was raised to the throne of Denmark through the influence of an agreement by which the Gottorp line resigned its share of Holstein his uncle, Count Gerhard of Holstein, to whom in return he ceded to the king of Denmark in exchange for Oldenburg and Delmenhis duchy. Yaldemar had to abdicate in 1330 and received his horst. The whole of Schleswig-Holstein thus came once more duchy back again, granting, however, the “ Constitutio \ alde- under the sway of a ruler who was at the same time king of maria, ’’ which ensured the rights of eventual succession ni Schleswig to the Holstein counts. This compact came to fruition in 13/5. ^fl'hTpe'riod from 1773 to 1846 was one of peace for the duchies, when the male ducal line became extinct, and Margaret of Denmark with considerable progress in material prosperity. The fall of the formally recognized the union of the two territories 138 . 2 Henceforth we have the same prince ruling over Schleswig and This use of the term “ duchies” anticipates a little, as Holstein was not made a duchy till 1474. Dithmarschen, indeed, which was supposed to be a part of i The name of Schleswig did not come into general use for this part of the ducal Holstein, was not subdued till 1559. Cimbric peninsula until the end of the 14th century.

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German empire in 1806 released Holstein for a time from any connexion with a power outside of Denmark, but in 1815 the Danish monarch had to enter the German Confederation for Holstein and for the recently acquired duchy of Latjenburg (q.v.). A strong feeling of German patriotism gradually arose in Holstein, affecting part of Schleswig also, and dissatisfaction with the delay of the Danish crown in recognizing the constitutional rights of the duchies led to the events forming the recent history of Schleswig-Holstein. These will be found described with some detail in the articles Denmark (vol. vii. pp. 88, 89) and Germany (vol. x. pp. 507, 509-512). (J. F. M.) SCHLETTSTADT, a small town in Lower Alsace, stands on the 111, 26 miles to the south of Strasburg. It possesses two fine churches, relics of a period of former importance, and carries on manufactures of wire gauze, and a considerable trade in country produce. The population in 1880 was 8979 (7755 Eoman Catholics), showing a slight decrease since it has passed into German hands. Schlettstadt is a place of very early origin, and became a free town of the empire in the 13th century. In the 15th century it was the seat of a celebrated academy, founded by Agricola, which contributed not a little to the revival of learning in this part of Germany ; Erasmus of Rotterdam was one of its students. In 1634 the town came into the possession of France, and it was afterwards fortified by Vauban. It offered little resistance, however, to the Germans in 1870, and the fortifications have been razed. SCHLOZER, August Ludwig yon (1735-1809), German historian, was born at Gaggstedt, in the county of Hohenlohe-Kirchberg, on the 5th July 1735. Having studied at the universities of Wittenberg and Gottingen, he went in 1755 as a tutor to Stockholm, and afterwards to Upsala; and while in Sweden he wrote in the Swedish language an Essay on the History of Trade (1758). In 1759 he returned to Gottingen, where he began the study of medicine. Afterwards he went to St Petersburg with Muller, the Russian historiographer, as Muller’s literary assistant and as tutor in his family. Here Schlozer learned the Russian language and devoted himself to the study of Russian history; and in 1762 he was made an adjunct of the Academy and a teacher at the Rasumovski educational institute. A quarrel with Muller placed him in a position of some difficulty, from which he was happily delivered by a call to a professorship at the university of Gottingen. He began his career at Gottingen in 1767, and soon ranked among the foremost historical writers of his day. His most important works were his Allgemeine nordische Geschichte (1772) and his translation of the Russian chronicler Nestor to the year. 980 (1802-9). He awoke much intelligent interest in universal history by his Weltgeschichte im Auszuge und Zusammenhange (1792—1801); and in several works he helped to lay the foundations of statistical science. He also produced a strong impression by his political writings, the Briefwechsel (10 vols., 1776-82) and the Staatsanzeigen (18 vols., 1782-93). In 1804 he was ennobled by the emperor of Russia. He withdrew from active life in 1805, and died on the 9th September 1809. See Zermelo, August Ludwig Schlozer (1875), and Wesendonk, Vie Begriindung der neuern deutschen Geschiditschreibung durch Gatterer und Schlozer (1876). Schlozer’s daughter, Dorothea, born on the 10th August, 1770, was one of the most learned women of her time, and received in 1787 the degree of doctor. She was recognized as an authority on several subjects, especially on Russian coinage. After her marriage with Rodde, the burgomaster of Lubeck, she devoted herself to domestic duties. She e 12th 1825 4l - Bonn, Schlbzer’s Christian (born 1774, died4 1831) was a professor at and son published Anfangsgriinde der Staatswirthschaft (1804-6) and his father’s Oeffentliches und rnvat-Lcben aus OngmalurkuTiden (1828). SCHMALKALDEN, a town of Prussia, in the province of Hesse-Nassau, lies about 30 miles to the southwest of Erfurt, and in 1885 contained 6788 inhabitants, S 16 7 empl°yed in the manufacture of hardware articles. It still possesses the inn in which the important Protestant League of Schmalkalden or Smalkald was concluded

in 1531, and also the house in which the articles were drawn up in 1537 by Luther, Melanchthon, and other Reformers. See Germany, vol. x. p. 498, and Luther, vol. xv. p. 83. SCHNEIDEMUHL (Polish Pila), a small town of Prussia, in the province of Posen, lies on the Ciiddow, 45 miles north of Posen and 140 miles east by north of Berlin. It is a railway junction of some importance, carries on a trade in wood, grain, and potatoes, and possesses an iron foundry, several glass works and machineshops, and other industrial establishments. In 1885 the population was 12,259, of whom 7700 were Protestants and about 1000 Poles. SCHNORR YON KAROLSFELD, Julius (17941872), of a family of artists, was born in 1794 at Leipsic, where he received his earliest instruction from his father, a draughtsman, engraver, and painter. At seventeen he entered the Academy of Vienna, from which Overbeck and others of the new school who rebelled against the old conventional style had been expelled about a year before. In 1818 he followed the founders of the new school of German pre-Raphaelites in the general pilgrimage to Rome. This school of religious and romantic art abjured modern styles with three centuries of decadence, and reverted to and revived the principles and practice of earlier periods. At the outset an effort was made to recover fresco painting and “monumental art,” and Schnorr soon found opportunity of proving his powers, when commissioned to decorate with frescos, illustrative of Ariosto, the entrance hall of the Villa Massimo, near the Lateran. His fellowlabourers were Cornelius, Overbeck, and Veit. His second period dates from 1825, when he left Rome, settled in Munich, entered the service of King Louis, and transplanted to Germany the art of wall-painting learnt in Italy. He showed himself qualified as a sort of poetpainter to the Bavarian court; he organized a staff of trained executants, and set about clothing five halls in the new palace with frescos illustrative of the Nibelungenlied. Other apartments his prolific pencil decorated with scenes from the histories of Charlemagne, Frederick Barbarossa, and Rudolph of Hapsburg. These vast and interminable compositions display the master’s merits and defects : they are creative, learned in composition, masterly in drawing, but exaggerated in thought and extravagant in style. Schnorr’s third period is marked by his “ Bible Pictures ” or Scripture History in 180 designs. The artist was a Lutheran, and took a broad and unsectarian view which won for his Pictorial Bible ready currency throughout Christendom. The merits are unequal: frequently the compositions are crowded and confused, wanting in harmony of line and symmetry in the masses; thus they suffer under comparison with Raphael’s Bible. Chronologically speaking, the style is severed from the simplicity and severity of early times, and surrendered to the florid redundance of the later Renaissance. Yet throughout are displayed fertility of invention, academic knowledge with facile execution; and modern art has produced nothing better than Joseph Interpreting Pharaoh’s Dream, the Meeting of Rebecca and Isaac, and the Return of the Prodigal Son. The completion of the arduous work was celebrated in 1862 by the artists of Saxony with a festival, and other German states offered congratulations and presented gifts. Biblical drawings and cartoons for frescos formed a natural prelude to designs for church windows. The painter’s renown in Germany secured commissions in Great Britain. Schnorr made designs, carried out in the royal factory, Munich, for windows in Glasgow cathedral and in St Paul’s cathedral, London. This Munich glass provoked controversy: mediasvalists objected to its want

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of lustre, and stigmatized the windows as coloured blinds the schools by the men of the new time. But, although and picture transparencies. But the opposing party every systematic account of Scholasticism finds it necessary claimed for these modern revivals “the union of the severe to begin with Erigena, that philosopher is of the spiritual and excellent drawing of early Florentine oil-paintings kindred of the Neoplatonists and Christian mystics rather with the colouring and arrangement of the glass-paintings than of the typical Scholastic doctors. In a few obscure of the latter half of the 16th century.” Schnorr’s busy life writings of the 9 th century we find the beginnings of discussion upon the logical questions which afterwards proved closed at Munich in 1872. SCHOLASTICISM is the name usually employed to of such absorbing interest; but these are followed by the denote the most typical products of mediaeval thought. intellectual interregnum of the 10th century. The activity The final disappearance of ancient philosophy may be of Scholasticism is therefore mainly confined within the dated about the beginning of the 6 th century of our era. limits of the 11th and the 14th centuries. It is clearly Boetius, its last representative in the West, died in 525, divisible (by circumstances to be presently explained) into and four years later the Athenian schools were closed two well-marked periods,—the first extending to the end by order of the emperor Justinian Before this time of the 12th century and embracing as its chief names Christian thought had already been active in the fathers Roscellinus, Anselm, William of Champeaux, and Abelard, of the church, but their activity had been entirely devoted while the second extended from the beginning of the 13th to the elaborating and systematizing of theological dogmas. century to the Renaissance and the general distraction of Although the dogmas unquestionably involve philosophical men’s thoughts from the problems and methods of Schoassumptions, the fathers deal with them throughout simply lasticism. In this second period the names of Albertus as churchmen, and do not profess to supply for them a Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus represent (in philosophical or rational basis. Only incidentally do some the 13 th century and the first years of the 14th century) of them—like Augustine, for example—digress into strictly the culmination of Scholastic thought and its consolidation philosophical discussion. After the centuries of intellectual into system. It is a remark of Frantl’s that there is no such thing as Logic darkness during which the settlement of the new races jnd and their conversion to Christianity proceeded and the philosophy in the Middle Ages; there are only logic andtneo ogy foundations of the modern European order were being theology. If pressed literally the remark is hypercritical, for it overlooks two facts,—in the first place that the main laid, the first symptoms of renewed intellectual activity appear contemporaneously with the consolidation of the objects of theology and philosophy are identical, though empire of the West in the hands of Charlemagne. That the method of treatment is different, and in the second enlightened monarch endeavoured to attract to his court place that logical discussion commonly leads up to metathe best scholars of Britain and Ireland (where the physical problems, and that this was pre-eminently the classical tradition had never died out), and by imperial case with the logic of the Schoolmen. But the saying decree (787) commanded the establishment of schools draws attention in a forcible way to the two great inin connexion with every abbey in his realms. Peter of fluences which shaped mediaeval thought—on the one side Pisa and Alcuin of York were his advisers in directing the traditions of ancient logic, on the other the systern of this great work, and under their fostering care the Christian theology. Scholasticism opens with a discussion opposition long supposed to exist between godliness and of certain points in the Aristotelian logic; it speedily secular learning speedily disappeared. Besides the cele- begins to apply its logical distinctions to the doctrines of brated school of the Palace, where Alcuin had among his the church; and when it attains its full stature in St hearers the members of the imperial family and the Thomas it has, with the exception of certain mysteries, dignitaries of the empire as well as talented youths of rationalized or Aristotelianized the whole churchly system. humbler origin, we hear of the episcopal schools of Lyons, Or we might say with equal truth that the philosophy of Orleans, and St Denis, the cloister schools of St Martin St Thomas is Aristotle Christianized. It is, moreover, the of Tours, of Fulda, Corbie, Fontenelle, and many others, attitude of the Schoolmen to these two influences that besides the older monasteries of St Gall and Reichenau. yields the general characteristic of the period. Their These schools became the centres of mediaeval learning attitude throughout is that of interpreters rather than of and speculation, and from them the name Scholasticism is those conducting an independent investigation. And derived. They were designed to communicate instruction though they are at the same time the acutest of critics, in the seven liberal arts which constituted the educational and offer the most ingenious developments of the original curriculum of the Middle Ages—grammar, dialectic, and thesis, they never step outside the charmed circle of the rhetoric forming the trivium of arts proper, while system they have inherited. They appear to contemplate geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music constituted the universe of nature and man not at first hand with the quadrivium of the sciences. The name doctor scholas- their own eyes but in the glass of Aristotelian formulae. ticus was applied originally to any teacher in such an Their chief works are in the shape1 of commentaries upon ecclesiastical gymnasium, but, as the study of dialectic or the writings of “ the philosopher.” Their problems and logic soon became the object of absorbing interest to the solutions alike spring from the master’s dicta—from the best intellects of the time, it tended to overshadow the need of reconciling these with one another and with the more elementary disciplines, and the general acceptation conclusions of Christian theology. The fact that the channels of thought during the Middle Reason of “ doctor ” came to be one who occupied himself with the teaching of logic and the discussion of the philo- Ages were determined in this way by the external influence sophical questions arising therefrom. The philosophy of of a twofold tradition is usually expressed by saying that ity_ the later Scholastics is more extended in its scope; but to reason in the Middle Age is subject to authority. It the very end of the mediaeval period philosophy centres has not the free play which characterizes its activity in in the discussion of the same logical problems which began Greece and in the philosophy of modern times. Its conclusions are predetermined, and the initiative of the to agitate the teachers of the 9 th and 10th centuries. ChronoScholasticism in the widest sense thus extends from the individual thinker is almost confined, therefore, to formal logical 9th to the end of the 14th or the beginning of the 15th details in the treatment of his thesis. From the side of limits. century—from Erigena to Occam and his followers. . The the church this characteristic of the period is expressed in that reason has its proper station as the handbelated Scholastics who lingered beyond the last-mentioned the saying 1 The common designation of Aristotle in the Middle Ages. date served only as marks for the obloquy heaped upon XXL - 53

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maid of faith (ancilla fidei). But it is only fair to add that this principle of the subordination of the reason wears a different aspect according to the century and writer referred to. In Scotus Erigena, at the beginning of the Scholastic era, there is no such subordination contemplated, because philosophy and theology in his work are in implicit unity. According to his memorable expression, “ Conficitur inde veram esse philosophiam veram religionem, conversimque veram religionem esse veram philosophiam ” (De Divisione Naturae, i. 1). Reason in its own strength and with its own instruments evolves a system of the universe which coincides, according to Erigena, with the teaching of Scripture. For Erigena, therefore, the speculative reason is the supreme arbiter (as he himself indeed expressly asserts); and in accordance with its results the utterances of Scripture and of the church have not infrequently to be subjected to an allegorical or mystical interpretation. But this is only to say again in so many words that Erigena is more of a ISeoplatonist than a Scholastic. In regard to the Scholastics proper, Cousin suggested in respect of this point a threefold chronological division,—at the outset the absolute subordination of philosophy to theology, then the period of their alliance, and finally the beginning of their separation. In other words, we note philosophy gradually extending its claims. Dialectic is, to begin with, a merely secular art, and only by degrees are its terms and distinctions applied to the subject-matter of theology. The early results of the application, in the hands of Berengarius and Roscellinus, did not seem favourable to Christian orthodoxy. Hence the strength with which a champion of the faith like Anselm insists on the subordination of reason. To Bernard of Clairvaux and many other conservative churchmen the application of dialectic to the things of faith at all appears as dangerous as it is impious. At a later date, in the systems of the great Schoolmen, the rights of reason are fully established and amply acknowledged. The relation of reason and faith remains, it is true, an external one, and certain doctrines—an increasing number as time goes on—are withdrawn from the sphere of reason. But with these exceptions the two march side by side; they establish by different means the same results. For the conflicts which accompanied the first intrusion of philosophy into the theological domain more profound and cautious thinkers with a far ampler apparatus of knowledge had substituted a harmony. “The constant effort1 of Scholasticism to be at once philosophy and theology” seemed at last satisfactorily realized. But this harmony proved more apparent than real, for the further progress of Scholastic thought consisted in a withdrawal of doctrine after doctrine from the possibility of rational proof and their relegation to the sphere of faith. Indeed, no sooner was the harmony apparently established by Aquinas than Duns Scotus began this negative criticism, which is carried much farther by William of Occam. But this is equivalent to a confession that Scholasticism had failed in its task, which was to rationalize the doctrines of the church. The two authorities refused to be reconciled. The Aristotelian form refused to fit a matter for which it was never intended; the matter of Christian theology refused to be forced into an alien form. The Scholastic philosophy speedily ceased therefore to possess a raison d'etre, and the spread of the sceptical doctrine of a twofold truth proclaims the destruction of the fabric erected by mediaeval thought. The end of the period was thus brought about by the internal decay of its method and principles quite as much as by the variety of external causes which contributed to transfer men’s interests to other subjects. 1 Milman’s Latin Christianity, ix. 101.

But, although the relation of reason to an external Scholasauthority thus constitutes the badge of mediaeval thought, ticism it would be in the last degree unjust to look upon Scholas-llot ticism as philosophically barren, and to speak as if g^sive reason, after an interregnum of a thousand years, resumed its rights at the Renaissance. Such language was excusable in the men of the Renaissance, fighting the battle of classic form and beauty and of the manysidedness of life against the barbarous terminology and the monastic ideals of the schools, or in the protagonists of modern science protesting against the complete absorption of human talent by metaphysics—an absorption never witnessed to the same extent before or since. The new is never just to the old; we do not expect it to be so. It belongs to a later and calmer judgment to recognize how the old contained in itself the germs of the new; and a closer study of history is invariably found to diminish the abruptness of the picturesque new beginnings which furnish forth our current divisions of epochs and periods. In the schools and universities of the Middle Age the intellect of the semi-barbarous European peoples had been trained for the work of the modern world. It had advanced from a childish rudeness to an appreciation of the subtlest logical and metaphysical distinctions. The debt which modern philosophy owes to the Schoolmen for this formal training has been amply acknowledged even by a writer like J. S. Mill. But we may go further and say that, in spite of their initial acceptance of authority, the Scholastics are not the antagonists of reason; on the contrary they fight its battles. As has often been pointed out, the attempt to establish by argument the authority of faith is in reality the unconscious establishment of the authority of reason. Reason, if admitted at all, must ultimately claim the whole man. Anselm’s motto, Credo ut intelligam, marks well the distance that has been traversed since Tertullian’s Credo quia absurdum est. The claim of reason has been recognized to manipulate the data of faith, at first blindly and immediately received, and to weld them into a system such as will satisfy its own needs. Scholasticism that has outlived its day may be justly identified with obscurantism, but not so the systems of those who, by their mighty intellectual force alone, once held all the minds of Europe in willing subjection. The scholastic systems, it is true, are not the free products of speculation; in the main they are summse theologix, or they are modified versions of Aristotle. But each system is a fresh recognition of the rights of reason, and Scholasticism as a whole may be justly regarded as the history of the growth and gradual emancipation of reason which was completed in the movements of the Renaissance and the Reformation. Indeed, the widening of human interests which then took place is not without its prelude in the systems of the second period of Scholasticism. The complementary sciences of theology and philosophy remain, of course, the central and dominating interest; but Albertus Magnus was keenly interested in natural science, and a system like that of Aquinas is as wide as Aristotle’s in its range, and holds no part of nature to lie outside its inquiries. In speaking of the origin of Scholasticism—name and “ Unithing—it has been already noted that mediaeval specula- versals.” tion takes its rise in certain logical problems. To be more precise, it is the nature of “ universals ” which forms the central theme of Scholastic debate. This is the case almost exclusively during the first period, and only to a less extent during the second, where it reappears in a somewhat different form as the difficulty concerning the principle of individuation. Otherwise expressed, the question on which centuries of discussion were thus expended concerns the nature of genera and species and their relation to the individual. On this, Nominalists and

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Realists take opposite sides; and, exclusively logical as of Greek, and possessed no philosophical works in their original, while in translations their stock was the point may at first sight seem to be, adherence to one Greek to the Categories and the De Interpretations of side or the other is an accurate indication of philosophic limited Aristotle in the versions of Boetius, and the Timxus of tendency. The two opposing theories express at bottom, in the phraseology of their own time, the radical diver- Plato in the version of Chalcidius. To these must be gence of pantheism and individualism—the two extremes added, of course, Boetius’s translation of Porphyry s between which philosophy seems pendulum-wise to oscil- Isagoge already referred to. The whole metaphysical, and physical works of Aristotle were thus unknown, late, and which may be said still to await their _ perfect ethical, and it was not till the 12th century (after the year 1128) reconciliation. First, however, we must examine the the Analytics and the Topics became accessible to the form which this question assumed to the first mediaeval that thinkers, and the source from which they derived^. „ A logicians of the time. Some general information as to single sentence in Porphyry’s Isagoge or “ introduction to the Platonic doctrines (chiefly in a Neoplatonic garb), was Porphyry’s the Categories of Aristotle furnished the text of the pro- obtainable from the commentary with which Chalcidius Isagoge. longed discussion. The treatise of Porphyry deals with (6th cent.) accompanied his translation, from the work of Apuleius (2d cent.) De Dogmate Platonis, and indirectly what are commonly called the predicables, i.e., the notions from the commentary of Macrobius (c. 400) on the Somnium of genus, species, difference, property, and accident; and Scipionis of Cicero, and from the writings of St Augustine. he mentions, but declines to discuss, the various theories As aids to the study of logic, the doctors of this period that have been held as to the ontological import of genera possessed two commentaries by Boetius on the Isagoge (Ad and species. In the Latin translation of Boetius, m Porphyrium a Victorino translatum and In Porphyrium a which alone the Isagoge was then known, the sentence se translatum), two commentaries by the same author on runs as follows :—11 Mox de generibus et speciebus illud the De Interpretatione and one on the Categories,^ as well quidem sive subsistant, sive in ■ soils nudis intellectibus as another, mainly rhetorical, Ad Ciceronis Topica. To posita sint, sive subsistentia corporalia sint an incorporalia, these are to be added the following original treatises of et utrum separata a sensibilibus an in sensibilibus posita et Boetius:—Introductio ad Categories Syllogismos, De Syllocirca haec consistentia, dicere recusabo; altissimum enim gismo Categorico, De Syllogismo Hypothetico, De Divisions, negotium est hujusmodi et majoris egens inquisitionis. De Definitions, and De Differentiis Topicis, the last dealing The second of these three questions may be safely set almost exclusively with rhetoric. There were also in circuaside; the other two indicate with sufficient clearness lation two tracts attributed to St Augustine, the first of three ’ possible positions with regard to universal. It which, Principia Dialecticae, is probably his, but is mainly may be held that they exist merely as conceptions m our grammatical in its import. The other tract, known as minds (in solis nudis intellectibus) ; this is Nominalism or Categoriae Decern, and taken at first for a translation o Conceptualism. It may be held, in opposition to the Aristotle’s treatise, is really a rapid summary, of. it, and Nominalistic view, that they have a substantial existence certainly does not belong to Augustine. To this list there of their own (subsistentia), independent of their existence must be added three works of an encyclopedic character in our thoughts. But Realism, as this doctrine is named, which played a great part as text-books in the schools. Of may be again of two varieties, according as. the substan- these the oldest and most important was the Satyncon oi tially existent universals are supposed to exist apart from Marcianus Capella (close of 5 th century), a curious medley the sensible phenomena (separata a sensibilibus) or only m of prose and allegorical verse, the greater part of which is and with the objects of sense as their essence (in sensibihbus a treatise on the seven liberal arts, the fourth book, dealing posita et circa haec consistentia). The first form of Realism with logic. Similar in its contents is the work of Cassiocorresponds to the Platonic theory of the transcendence of dorus (468-562), De Artibus ac Disciplinis Liberahum the ideas; while the second reproduces the Aristotelian Literarum, of which the third work referred to, the Origmes doctrine of the essence as inseparable from the individual of Isidore of Seville (ob. 636), is little more than a rething. But, though he implies an ample previous treat- production. The above constitutes without exception the ment of the questions by philosophers, Porphyry gives no whole material which the earlier Middle Age had at its references to the different systems of which such distinctions are the outcome, nor does he give any hint of his The grandly conceived system of Erigena (see Erigena Engena. own opinion on the subject, definite enough though that and Mysticism) stands by itself in the 9th century like was. He simply sets the discussion aside as too difficult the product of another age. John the Scot was still for a preliminary discourse, and not strictly relevant to a acquainted with Greek, seeing that he translated the work purely logical inquiry. Porphyry, the Neoplatomst, the of the pseudo-Dionysius; and his speculative genius disciple of Plotinus, was an unknown personage to those achieved the fusion of Christian doctrine and Neoplaearly students of the Isagoge. The passage possessed for tonic thought in a system of quite remarkable metathem a mysterious charm, largely due to its isolation and physical completeness. It is the only complete and indeto their ignorance of the historic speculations which sug- pendent system between the decline of ancient thought gested it. And accordingly it gave rise to the three great and the system of Aquinas in the 13th century, if indeed doctrines which divided the mediaeval schools: Realism we ought not to go further, to modern times, to fand a of the Platonic type, embodied in the formula universaha parallel Erigena pronounces no express opinion upon ante rem; Realism of the Aristotelian umversalm in the question which was even then beginning to occupy re; and Nominalism, including Conceptualism, expressed men’s minds; but his Platonico-Christian theory of the by the phrase universalia post rem, and also claiming to e Eternal Word as containing in Himself the exemplars of based upon the Peripatetic doctrine. created things is equivalent to the assertion of umversaha To form a proper estimate of the first stage of Scholastic Extent of the discussion it is requisite above all things to have a clear ante rem. His whole system, indeed, is based upon the early idea of the appliances then at the disposal of the writers. idea of the divine as the exclusively real, of which the world of individual existence is but the theophany; the Schoolmen’s In other words, what was the extent of their knowledge special and the individual are immanent, therefore, in the know- of ancient philosophy? Thanks to the researches of general. And hence at a much later date (in the beginledge. Jourdain and others, it is possible to answer this question ning of the 13th century) his name was invoked to cover with something like precision. To begin with, we know the pantheistic heresies of Amalrich of Bena. Erigena that till the 13th century the Middle Age was ignorant

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does not separate liis Platonic theory of pre-existent exemplars from the Aristotelian doctrine of the universal as in the individuals. As Ueberweg points out, his theory is rather a result of the transference of the Aristotelian conception of substance to the Platonic Idea, and of an identification of the relation of accidents to the substance in which they inhere with that of the individuals to the Idea of which, in the Platonic doctrine, they are copies (Hist, of Philosophy, i. 363, Eng. trans.). Hence it may be said that the universals are in the individuals, constituting their essential reality (and it is an express part of Erigena’s system that the created but creative Word, the second division of Nature, should pass into the third stage of created and non-creating things); or rather, perhaps, we ought to say that the individuals exist in the bosom of their universal. At all events, while Erigena’s Realism is pronounced, the Platonic and Aristotelian forms of the doctrine are not distinguished in his writings. Prantl has professed to find the headstream of Nominalism also in Scotus Erigena; but beyond the fact that he discusses at considerable length the categories of thought and their mutual relations, occasionally using the term “voces” to express his meaning, Prantl appears to adduce no reasons for an assertion which directly contradicts Erigena’s most fundamental doctrines. Moreover Erigena again and again declares that dialectic has to do with the stadia of a real or divine classification:—“Intelligitur quod ars ilia, quae dividit genera in species et species in genera resolvit, quae SiaAe/a-uo) dicitur, non ab humanis machinationibus sit facta, sed in natura rerum ab auctore omnium artium, quae verae artes sunt, condita et a sapientibus inventa ” (De Divisione Naturae, iv. 4). The immediate influence of Erigena’s system cannot have been great, and his works seem soon to have dropped out of notice in the centuries that followed. The real germs of Realism and Nominalism, as they took shape in mediaeval thought, are to be found in the 9th century, in scattered commentaries and glosses (mostly still in manuscript) upon the statements of Porphyry and Boetius. Influ- Boetius in commenting upon Porphyry had already ence of started the discussion as to the nature of universals. He Boetius. is definitely anti-Platonic, and his language sometimes takes even a nominalistic tone, as when he declares that the species is nothing more than a thought or conception gathered from the substantial similarity of a number of dissimilar individuals. The expression “ substantial similarity ” is still, however, sufficiently vague to cover a multitude of views. He concludes that the genera and species exist as universals only in thought; but, inasmuch as they are collected from singulars on account of a real resemblance, they have a certain existence independently of the mind, but not an existence disjoined from the singulars of sense. “Subsistunt ergo circa sensibilia, intelliguntur autem praeter corpora.” Or, according to the phrase which recurs so often during the Middle Ages, “ universale intelligitur, singulare sentitur.” Boetius ends by declining to adjudicate between Plato and Aristotle, remarking in a semi-apologetic style that, if he has expounded Aristotle’s opinion by preference, his course is justified by the fact that he is commenting upon an introduction to Aristotle. And, indeed, his discussion cannot claim to be more than semi-popular in character. The point in dispute has not in his hands the all-absorbing importance it afterwards attained, and the keenness of later distinctions is as yet unknown. In this way, however, though the distinctions drawn may still be comparatively vague, there existed in the schools a Peripatetic tradition to set over against the Neoplatonic influence of John the Scot, and amongst the earliest remains of Scholastic thought we find this tradition asserting itself some-

what vigorously. There were Nominalists before Roscellinus among these early thinkers, Alcuin, the first head of the school of the Palace, does nothing more in his Dialectic than abridge Boetius and the other commentators. But in the school of Fulda, presided over by his pupil Hrabanus Maurus (776-856), there Hrabanus are to be found some fresh contributions to the discussion. Maum. The collected works of Hrabanus himself contain nothing new, but in some glosses on Aristotle and Porphyry, first exhumed by Cousin, there are several noteworthy expressions of opinion in a Nominalistic sense. The author interprets Boetius’s meaning to be “ Quod eadem res individuum et species et genus est, et non esse universalia individuis quasi quoddam diversum.” He also cites, apparently with approval, the view of those who held Porphyry’s treatise to be not de quinque rebus, but de quinque vocibus. A genus, they said, is essentially something which is predicated of a subject; but a thing cannot be a predicate (res enim non praedicatur). These glosses, it should be added, however, have been attributed by Prantl and Kaulich, on the ground of divergence from doctrines contained in the published works of Hrabanus, to some disciple of his rather than to Hrabanus himself. Fulda had become through the teaching of the latter an intellectual centre. Eric or Heiricus, who Eric, studied there under Haimon, the successor of Hrabanus, and afterwards taught at Auxerre, wrote glosses on the margin of his copy of the pseudo-Augustinian Gategoriae, which have been published by Cousin and Hamfiau. He there says in words which recall the language of Locke (Essay, iii. 3) that because proper names are innumerable, and no intellect or memory would suffice for the knowing of them, they are all as it were comprehended in the species (“Sciendum autem, quia propria nomina primum sunt innumerabilia, ad quae cognoscenda intellectus nullus seu memoria sufficit, haec ergo omnia coartata species comprehendit, et facit primum gradum”). Taken in their strictness, these words state the position of extreme Nominalism; but even if we were not forbidden to do so by other passages, in which the doctrine of moderate Realism is adopted (under cover of the current distinction between the singular as felt and the pure universal as understood), it would still be unfair to press any passage in the writings of this period. As Cousin says, “Realism and Nominalism were undoubtedly there in germ, but their true principles with their necessary consequences remained profoundly unknown ; their connexion with all the great questions of religion and politics was not even suspected. The two systems were nothing more as yet than two different ways of interpreting a phrase of Porphyry, and they remained unnoticed in the obscurity of the schools. ... It was the 11th century which gave Nominalism to the world.”1 Remi or Remigius of Auxerre, pupil of Eric, became Remi. the most celebrated professor of dialectic in the Parisian schools of the 10th century. As he reverted to Realism, his influence, first at Rheims and then in Paris, was doubtless instrumental in bringing about the general acceptance of that doctrine till the advent of Roscellinus as a powerful disturbing influence. “ There is one genus more general than the rest,” says Remi (apud Haureau, De la Philosophic Scolastique, i. 146), “beyond which the intellect cannot rise, called by the Greeks ova-la, by the Latins essentia. The essence, indeed, comprehends all natures, and everything that exists is a portion of this essence, by participation in which everything that is hath its existence.” And similarly with the intermediate genera. “ Homo est multorum hominum substantialis unitas.” Remigius is thus a Realist, as Haureau remarks, 1 Ouvrages inedits d'Abelard, Introd., p. Ixxxv.

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not so much in the sense of Plato as in the spirit of Rcmusat characterizes his view on the Eucharist as a Parmenides, and Haureau applies to this form of Realism specific application of Nominalism (“un nominalisme Bayle’s description of Realism in general as “ le Spinosisme special ou restreint k une seule question”). More intinon developp6.” The 10th century as a whole is especially mately connected with the progress of philosophical marked out as a dark age, being partly filled with civil thought was the tritheistic view of the Trinity propounded troubles and partly characterized by a reaction of faith by Roscellinus as one of the results of his Nominalistic Roscelagainst reason. In the monastery of St Gall there was theory of knowing and being. The sharpness and one- lopconsiderable logical activity, but nothing of philosophical sidedness with which he formulated his position were the interest is recorded. The chief name of the century is immediate occasion of the contemporaneous crystallization Gerbert. that of Gerbert (died as Pope Sylvester II. in 1003). _ He of Realism in the theories of Anselm and William of studied at Aurillac under Otto of Clugny, the pupil of Champeaux. Henceforth discussion is carried on with a Remigius, and later among the Moors in Spain, and taught full consciousness of the differences involved and the issues afterwards himself in the schools of Tours, Fleury, Sens, at stake; and, thanks to the heretical conclusion disclosed and Rheims. He was a man of universal attainments, by Roscellinus, Realism became established for several but only his treatise De Rationali et Ratione uti need be centuries as the orthodox philosophical creed. Roscellinus mentioned here. It is more interesting as a display of (06. c. 1125) was looked upon by later times as the the logical acquirements of the age than as possessing any originator of the sententia vocum, that is to say, of NomSchool of direct philosophical bearing. The school of Chartres, inalism proper. Unfortunately, we are reduced for a Chartres, founded in 990 by Pulbert, one of Herbert’s pupils, was knowledge of his position to the scanty and ill-natured distinguished for nearly two centuries not so much for its notices of his opponents (Anselm and Abelard). From dialectics and philosophy as for its humanistic culture. these we gather that he refused to recognize the reality of The account which John of Salisbury gives of it in the anything but the individualhe treated “ the universal first half of the 12th century, under the presidency of substance,” says Anselm, as no more than “ flatum vocis, Theodoric and Bernard, gives a very pleasant glimpse into a verbal breathing or sound; and in a similar strain he the history of the Middle Ages. Since then, says their denied any reality to the parts of which a whole, such as regretful pupil, “less time and less care have been a house, is commonly said to be composed. The parts in bestowed on grammar, and persons who profess all arts, the one case, the general name or common attributes in liberal and mechanical, are ignorant of the primary art, the other, are only, he seems to have argued, so many without which a man proceeds in vain to the rest. For subjective points of view from which we choose to regard albeit the other studies assist literature, yet this has the that which in its own essence is one and indivisible, existing in its own right apart from any connexion with sole privilege of making one lettered.”1 ApplicaHitherto, if dialectical studies had been. sometimes other individuals. This pure individualism, consistently tion of viewed askance by the stricter churchmen it was not interpreted, involves the denial of all real relation whatlogic to pecause logic had dared to stretch forth its hands towards soever ; for things are related and classified by means of theology. ^ ark of God) but simply on the ground of the old their general characteristics. Accordingly, if these general opposition between the church and the world: these characteristics do not possess reality, things are reduced secular studies absorbed time and ability which might to a number of characterless and mutually indifferent have been employed for the glory of God and the service points. It is possible, as Haureau maintains, that Roscelof the church. But now bolder spirits arose who did not linus meant no more than to refute the untenable Realism shrink from applying the distinctions of their human which asserts the. substantial and, above all, the indewisdom to the mysteries of theology. It was the excite- pendent existence of the universal. Some of the expresment caused by their attempt, and the heterodox con- sions used by Anselm in controverting his position favour clusions which were its first result, that lifted these this idea, since they prove that the Realism of Anselm Scholastic disputations into the central position which, himself embraced positions discarded by the wiser advothey henceforth occupied in the life of the Middle Ages. cates of that doctrine. Anselm upbraids Roscellinus, for And whereas, up to this time, discussion had been in the example, because he was unable to conceive whiteness main of a purely logical character, the next centuries apart from its existence in something white. But this is show that peculiar combination of logic and theology precisely an instance of the hypostatization of abstracwhich is the mark of Scholasticism, especially in the tions in exposing which the chief strength and value of period before the 13th century. For reason, having Nominalism lie. Cousin is correct in pointing out, from already asserted itself so far, could not simply be put the Realistic point of view, that it is one thing to deny under a ban. Orthodoxy had itself to put on the armour the hypostatization of an accident like colour or wisdom, of reason; and so panoplied its champions soon proved and another thing to deny the foundation in reality of themselves superior to their antagonists on their own those “true and legitimate universals” which we understand by the terms genera and species. “The human battlefield. BerenOne of tlie first of th.ese attacks was made by race is not a word, or, if it is, we are driven to assert that garius. Berengarius of Tours (999-1088) upon the doctrine of there is really nothing common and identical in all men— transubstantiation; he denied the possibility of a change that the brotherhood and equality of the human family of substance in the bread and wine without some corre- are pure abstractions, and that, since individuality is the sponding change in the accidents. Berengarius had sole reality, the sole reality is difference, that is to say, studied at Chartres, where his exclusive devotion to hostility and war, with no right but might, no duty but dialectic caused Fulbert more than once to remonstrate interest, and no remedy but despotism. These are the and history with his pupil. According to the testimony of his oppo- sad but necessary consequences which logic 2 impose upon Nominalism and Empiricism.” It is not for nent and former fellow-student, Lanfranc, he seems even a moment to be supposed that the full scope of his doctrine in his student days to have been by temperament a against authority. “When we were in the schools was present to the mind of Roscellinus; but Nominalism hardly have made the sensation it did had its together,” says Lanfranc, “it was your part always to would assertions been as innocent as Haureau would, make .collect authorities against the Catholic faith. M. de them. Like most innovators, Roscellinus stated his posi1 2 Metalogicus, i. 27, quoted in Poole’s Illustrations of Mediaeval Ouvrages inedits d’Abelard, Introd., p. cvi. Thought.

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tion in bold language, which emphasized his opposition to accepted doctrines; and his words, if not his intentions, involved the extreme Nominalism which, by making universality merely subjective, pulverizes existence into detached particulars. And, though we may acquit Roscellinus of consciously propounding a theory so subversive of all knowledge, his criticism of the doctrine of the Trinity is proof at least of the determination with which he was prepared to carry out his individualism. If we are not prepared to say that the three Persons are one thing—in which case the Father and the Holy Ghost must have been incarnate along with the Son—then, did usage permit, he says, we ought to speak of three Gods. Anselm. It was this theological deduction from his doctrine that drew upon Roscellinus the polemic of his most celebrated opponent, Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109). Roscellinus appears at first to have imagined that his tritheistic theory had the sanction of Lanfranc and Anselm, and the latter was led in consequence to compose his treatise De Fide Trinitatis. From this may be gathered, in a somewhat indirect and incidental fashion, his views on the nature of universals. “How shall he who has not arrived at understanding how several men are in species one man comprehend how in that most mysterious nature several persons, each of which is perfect God, are one God 1” The manner in which humanity exists in the individual was soon to be the subject of keen discussion, and to bring to light diverging views within the Realistic camp ; but St Anselm does not go into detail on this point, and seems to imply that it is not surrounded by special difficulties. In truth, his Realism, as has just been seen, was of a somewhat uncritical type. It was simply accepted by him in a broad way as the orthodox philosophic doctrine, and the doctrine which, as a sagacious churchman, he perceived to be most in harmony with Christian theology. But Anselm’s heart was not in the dialectical subtleties which now began more and more to engross the schools. The only logical treatise which he wrote, De Grammatical falls so far below the height of his reputation that it leads Prantl into undue depreciation of Anselm’s eminence as a thinker. Anselm’s natural element was theology, and the high metaphysical questions which are as it were the obverse of theology. Haureau calls him with truth “the last of the fathers”; the sweep of his thought recalls St Augustine rather than the men of his own time. On the other hand, as the first to formulate the ontological argument for the existence of God, he joins hands with some of the profoundest names in modern philosophy. This celebrated argument, which fascinated in turn Descartes, Leibnitz, and Hegel, not to mention other names, appears for the first time in the pages of Anselm’s Proslogium. To Anselm specially belongs the motto Credo ut intelligam, or, as it is otherwise expressed in the sub-title of his Proslogium, Fides quaerens intellectum. “ His method, ” says Cousin (p. ci.), “is to set out from the sacred dogmas as they are given by the hand of authority, and without at any time departing from these dogmas to impregnate them by profound reflexion, and thus as it were raise the darkness visible of faith to the pure light of philosophy.” In this spirit he endeavoured to give a philosophical demonstration not only of the existence of God but also of the Trinity and the Incarnation, which were placed by the later Scholastics among the “ mysteries.” The Christological theory of satisfaction expounded in the Cur Deus Homo falls beyond the scope of the present article. But the Platonically conceived proof of the being of God contained in the Monologium shows that Anselm’s doctrine of the universals as substances in things (universalia in rc) was closely connected in his mind with the thought of the universalia ante rem, the exemplars of

perfect goodness and truth and justice, by participation in which all earthly things are judged to possess these qualities. In this way he rises like Plato to the absolute Goodness, Justice, and Truth, and then proceeds in Neoplatonic fashion to a deduction of the Trinity as involved in the idea of the divine Word. Besides its connexion with the speculations of Anselm, the doctrine of Roscellinus was also of decisive influence within the schools in crystallizing the opposite opinion. William of Champeaux is reputed the founder of a William definitely formulated Realism, much as Roscellinus isof Cham. regarded as the founder of Nominalism. William ofpeauxChampeaux (1070-1121) was instructed by Roscellinus himself in dialectic. His own activity as a teacher belongs to the first years of the 12th century. He lectured in Paris in the cathedral school of Notre Dame till the year 1108, when he retired to the priory of St Victor on the outskirts of Paris. But soon afterwards, unable to resist the importunities of his friends and pupils, he resumed his lectures there, continuing them till his removal to the see of Chalons in 1113, and thus laying the foundation of the reputation which the monastery soon acquired. Unfortunately none of the philosophical works of William have survived, and we are forced to depend for an account of his doctrine upon the statements of his opponent Abelard, in the Historia Calamitatum Mearum, and in certain manuscripts discovered by Cousin. From these sources it appears that William professed successively two opinions on the nature of the universals, having been dislodged from his first position by the criticism of Abelard, his quondam pupil. There is no obscurity about William’s first position. It is a Realism of the most uncompromising type, which by its reduction of individuals to accidents of one identical substance seems to tremble on the very verge of Spinozism. He taught, says Abelard, that the same thing or substance was present in its entirety and essence in each individual, and that individuals differed no whit in their essence but only in the variety of their accidents. “Erat autem in ea sententia de communitate universalium, ut eandem essentialiter rem totam simul singulis suis inesse adstrueret individuis, quorum quidem nulla esset in essentia diversitas, sed sola multitudine accidentium varietas.” Thus “Socratitas” is merely an accident of the substance “humanitas,” or, as it is put by the author of the treatise De Generibus et Speciebus,1 “ Man is a species, a thing essentially one (res una essentialiter'), which receives certain forms which make it Socrates. This thing, remaining essentially the same, receives in the same way other forms which constitute Plato and the other individuals of the species man; and, with the exception of those forms which mould that matter into the individual Socrates, there is nothing in Socrates that is not the same at the same time under the forms of Plato. . . . According to these men, even though rationality did not exist in any individual, its existence in nature would still remain intact ” (Cousin, Introduction, &c., p. cxx.). Robert Pulleyn expresses the same point of view concisely when he makes the Realist say, “Species una est substantia, ejus vero individua multae personae, et hae multae personae sunt ilia una substantia.” But the difficulties in the way of treating the universal as substance or thing are so insuperable, and at the same time so obvious, that criticism was speedily at work upon William of Champeaux’s position. He had said expressly that the universal essence, by the addition 1

This treatise, first published by Cousin in his Ouvrages inedits d'Abelard, was attributed by him to Abelard, and he was followed in this opinion by Haureau ; but Prantl adduces reasons which seem satisfactory for believing it to be the work of an unknown writer of somewhat later date (see Prantl, Oeschichte d. Logik, ii. 143).

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individuum, sed et illud aliter et aliter attentum species of the individual forms, was individualized and present et genus et generalissimum est.;; Adelard of Bath (whose secundum totam suam quantitatem in each individual. But if homo is wholly and essentially present in Socrates, treatise De Eodem et Diver so must have been written then it is, as it were, absorbed in Socrates ; where Socrates between 1105 and 1117) was probably the author or at all is not, it cannot be, consequently not in Plato and the events the elaborator of this doctrine, and he sought by other individua hominis. This was called the argument its means to effect a reconciliation between Plato and of the homo Socraticus; and it appears to have been with Aristotle:—“ Since that which we see is at once genus the view of obviating such time and space difficulties, and species and individual, Aristotle rightly insisted that emphasized in the criticism of Abelard, that. William the universals do not exist except in the things of sense. latterly modified his form of expression. But his second But, since those universals, so far as they are called genera position is enveloped in considerable obscurity. Abelard and species, cannot be perceived by any one in their says, “Sic autem correxit sententiam, ut deinceps rem purity without the admixture of imagination, Plato maineamdem non essentialiter sed individualiter diceret.” In tained that they existed and could be beheld beyond the other words, he merely sought to avoid the awkward con- things of sense, to wit, in the divine mind. Thus these sequences of his own^doctrine by substituting “individu- men, although in words they seem opposed, yet held m aliter ” for “essentialiter ” in his definition. _ If we are to reality the same opinion.” Prantl distinguishes from the put a sense upon this new expression, William may pro- system of indifference the “ status ” doctrine attributed by John of Salisbury to Walter of Mortagne (oh. 1174), bably have meant to recall any words of his which seemed, according to which the universal is essentially united to by locating the universal in the entirety of its essence in the individual, which may be looked upon, e.g., as Plato, each individual to confer upon the individual. an . inde- man, animal, &c., according to the “status” or point of pendence which did not belong to it thus leading in the view which we assume. But this seems only a different end to the demand for a separate universal for each expression for the same position, and the same may doubtindividual. In opposition to this Nominalistic view, be said of the theory which employed the outlandish which implied the reversal of his whole position, William less word “ maneries ” (Fr. maniere) to signify that genera and may have meant to say that, instead of the universal being species represented the different ways in which individuals multiplied, it is rather the individuals which are reduced might be regarded. The concessions to Nominalism to unity in the universal. The species is essentially one, which such views embody make them representative of but it takes on individual varieties or accidents. If, what Haureau calls “ the Peripatetic section of the Realistic however, we are more ill-natured, we may regard the . phrase, with Prantl, as simply a meaningless makeshift m school.” Somewhat apart from current controversies stood the extremities; and if so, Abelard’s account of the subse- teaching of the school of Chartres, humanistically nourished quent decline of William’s reputation would be explained. the study of the ancients. Bernard of Chartres (oh. Bernard But there is in some of the manuscripts the various read- on 1167), called by John of Salisbury “ perfectissimus inter ing of “indifferenter” for “individualiter,” and this is Platonicos seculi nostri,” taught at Chartres in the beginaccepted as giving the true sense of the passage by ning of the 12th century, when WTlliam was still lecturCousin and Bemusat (Haureau and Prantl taking, on & at St Victor. He endeavoured, according to John of different grounds, the opposite view). According to this ing to reconcile Plato and Aristotle; but his reading, William sought to rectify his position by assert- Salisbury, doctrine is almost wholly derived from the former through ing, not the numerical identity of the universal in each St Augustine and the commentary of Chalcidms. The individual, but rather its sameness in the sense of indis- universalia in re have little place in his thoughts which tinguishable similarity. Ueberweg cites a passage from directed by preference to the eternal exemplars as his theological works which apparently bears out this are they exist in the supersensible world of the divine thought. view, for William there expressly distinguishes the two His Megacosmus Microcosmus are little more than a senses of the word “same.” Peter and Paul, he says, are poetic gloss uponand the Timaeus. William of Conches, a the same in so far as they are both men, although the pupil of Bernard’s, was more eclectic in his views, and, humanity of each is, strictly speaking, not identical but devoting himself to psychological and physiological quessimilar. In the Persons of the Trinity, on the other hand, tions, was of less importance for the specific logico-metathe relation is one of absolute identity. physical pruuiem. pnysicai problem. But Gilbert de la“7" Porree (Gilbertus \ u j rlGilbert P la Theory Whether this view is to be traced to William or not, it Porretanus, or, from his birthplace, Poitiers, also called ^e< of indif- is certain that the theory of “indifference or . nonference. difference ” (indifferentia) was a favourite solution in the Pictaviensis, 1075-1154), who was also a pupil of Bernard s, who was afterwards for about twenty years chancellor idealistic schools soon after his time. The inherent diffi- and of the of Chartres before he proceeded to culties of Realism, brought to light by the explicit state- lecture incathedral Paris, is called by Haureau the most eminent ment of the doctrine and by the criticism of Abelard, led logician of the Realistic school in the 12 th century and to a variety of attempts to reach a more satisfactory the most profound metaphysician of either school. The formula. John of Salisbury, in his account of the con- views which he expressed in his commentary on the troversies of these days (Metalogicus, ii. 17) reckons up pseudo-Boetian treatise, De Trinitate, are certainly much nine different views which were held on the question ot more important than the mediatizing systems already the universals, and the list is extended by Prantl (11. referred to. The most interesting part of the work is the 118) to thirteen. In this list are included of course all distinction which Gilbert draws between the manner of shades of opinion, from extreme Nominalism to extreme existence of genera and species and of substances proper. Realism. The doctrine of indifference as it appears in He distinguishes between the quod est and the quo est. later writers certainly tends, as Prantl points out, towards Genera and species certainly exist, but they do not exist Nominalism, inasmuch as it gives up the substantiality ot in their own right as substances. What exists as a subthe universals. The universal consists of the non-different stance and the basis of qualities or forms (quod est) may elements or attributes in the separate individuals, which be said substare; the forms on the other hand by which alone exist substantially. If we restrict attention to these such an individual substance exists _ qualitatively (quo est) non-different elements, the individual becomes for us the subsistunt, though it cannot be said that they suhstant. species, the genus, &c.; everything depends on the point ot The intellect collects the universal, which exists but not view from which we regard it. “ Nihil omnmo est piaeter

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as a substance (est sed non substat), from the particular things which not merely are (sunt) but also, as subjects of accidents, have substantial existence (substant), by considering only their substantial similarity or conformity. The universals are thus forms inherent in things—“native forms,” according to the expression by which Gilbert’s doctrine is concisely known. The individual consists of an assemblage of such forms; and it is individual because nowhere else is exactly such an assemblage to be met with. The form exists concretely in the individual things (sensibilis in re sensibili), for in sensible things form and matter are always united. But they may be conceived abstractly or nou-sensuously by the mind (sed mente concipitur insensibilis), and they then refer themselves as copies to the Ideas their divine exemplars. In God, who is pure form without matter, the archetypes of material things exist as eternal immaterial forms. In this way Gilbert was at once Aristotelian and Platonist. The distinctions made by him above amount to a formal criticism of categories, and in the same spirit he teaches that no one of the categories can be applied in its literal sense to God. Gilbert was also the author of a purely logical work, De Sex Principiis, in which he criticized the Aristotelian list of the ten categories, drawing a distinction between the first four—substance, quality, quantity, and relation (i.e., according to Gilbert, indeterminate or potential relation)—which he called formae inhaerentes, and the remaining six, which he maintained belong to an object only through its actual relation to other objects (respectu alterius). To these six, therefore, he gave the name of formae assistentes. This distinction was adopted in all the schools till the 16 th century, and the treatise De Sex Principiis was bound up with the Isagoge and the Categories. Abelard. But by far the most outstanding figure in the controversies of the first half of the 12th century is Abelard (Petrus Abselardus, also called Palatinus from Pallet, the place of his birth, 1079-1142). Abelard was successively the pupil of Boscellinus and William of Champeaux, and the contrast between their views doubtless emphasized to him at an early period the extravagances of extreme Nominalism and extreme Realism. He speedily acquired a reputation as an unrivalled dialectician, the name Peripateticus being bestowed upon him in later years to signify this eminence. Almost before he had emerged from the pupillary state, he came forward in public as the acute and vehement critic of his masters’ doctrines, especially that of William of Champeaux, whom Abelard seems ultimately to have superseded in Paris. About Abelard’s own system there is far from being perfect unanimity of opinion, some, like Ritter and Erdmann, regarding it as a moderate form of Realism,—a return indeed to the position of Aristotle,—while others, like Cousin, Remusat, Haureau, and Ueberweg, consider it to be essentially Nominalistic, only more prudently and perhaps less consistently expressed than was the case with Roscellinus. His position is ordinarily designated by the name Conceptualism, though there is very little talk of concepts in Abelard’s own writings ; and Conceptualism, Haureau tells us, “ c’est le nominalisme raisonnable.” There can be no doubt, at all events, that Abelard himself intended to strike out a via media, between the extreme Nominalism of Roscellinus and the views of the ordinary Realists. As against Realism he maintains consistently Res de re non praedicatur • genera and species, therefore, which are predicated of the individual subject, cannot be treated as things or substances. This is manifestly true, however real the facts may be which are designated by the generic and specific names ; and the position is fully accepted, as has been seen, by a Realist like Gilbert, who perhaps adopted it first from Abelard. Abelard also perceived that Realism, by separ-

ating the universal substance from the forms which individualize it, makes the universal indifferent to these forms, and leads directly to the doctrine of the identity of all beings in one universal substance or matter—a pantheism which might take either an Averroistic or a Spinozistic form. Against the system of non-difference Abelard has a number of logical and traditional arguments to bring, but it is sufficiently condemned by his fundamental doctrine that only the individual exists in its own right. For that system still seems to recognize a generic substance as the core of the individual, whereas, according to Cousin’s rendering of Abelard’s doctrine, “ only individuals exist, and in the individual nothing but the individual.” The individual Socrates may be said to be made Socrates by the form Socratitas-, now “the subject of this form is not humanity in itself but that particular part of human nature which is the nature of Socrates. The matter in the individual Socrates is therefore quite as much individual as his form ” (p. clxxiv.). Holding fast then on the one hand to the individual as the only true substance, and on the other to the traditional definition of the genus as that which is predicated of a number of individuals (quod praedicatur de pluribus), Abelard declared that this definition of itself condemns the Realistic theory; only a name, not a thing, can be so predicated,—not the name, however, as & flatus vocis or a collection of letters, but the name as used in discourse, the name as a sign, as having a meaning—in a word, not vox but sermo. Sermo est praedicabilis. By these distinctions Abelard hoped to escape the consequences of extreme Nominalism, from which, as a matter of history, his doctrine has been distinguished under the name of Conceptualism, seeing that it lays stress not on the word as such but on the thought which the word is intended to convey. Moreover, Abelard evidently did not mean to imply that the distinctions of genera and species are of arbitrary or merely human imposition. His favourite expression for the universal is “ quod de pluribus natum est praedicari ” (a translation of Aristotle, De Interpretations, 7), which would seem to point to a real or objective counterpart of the products of our thought; and the traditional definitions of Boetius, whom he frequently quotes, support the same view of the concept as gathered from a number of individuals in virtue of a real resemblance. What Abelard combats is the substantiation of these resembling qualities, which leads to their being regarded as identical in all the separate individuals, and thus paves the way for the gradual undermining of the individual, the only true and indivisible substance. But he modifies his Nominalism so as to approach, though somewhat vaguely, to the position of Aristotle himself. At the same time he has nothing to say against the Platonic theory of universalia ante rem, the Ideas being interpreted as exemplars, existing in the divine understanding before the creation of things. Abelard’s discussion of the problem (which it is right to say is on the whole incidental rather than systematic) is thus marked by an eclecticism which was perhaps the source at once of its strength and its weakness. R6musat characterizes his teaching as displaying “ rather an originality of talent than of ideas,” and Prantl says that in the sphere of logic his activity shows no more independence than that of perhaps a hundred others at the same time. But his brilliant ability and restless activity made him the central figure in the dialectical as in the other discussions of his time. To him was indirectly due, in the main, that troubling of the Realistic waters which resulted in so many modifications of the original thesis; and his own somewhat eclectic ruling on the question in debate came to be tacitly accepted in the schools, as the ardour of the disputants began to abate after the middle of the century.

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Abelard’s application of dialectic to theology betrayed yet they are in a way just the obverse of his deep mystical the Nominalistic basis of his doctrine. He zealously piety. This is the judgment of Otto of Freising, a. concombated the Tritheism of Roscellinus, but his own views temporary :—“ He was, from the fervour of his Christian on the Trinity were condemned by two councils (at religion, as jealous as, from his habitual meekness, he was Soissons in 1121 and at Sens in 1140). Of the alterna- in some measure credulous; so that he held in abhorrence tiveg—three Gods or una res—which his Nominalistic those who trusted in the wisdom of this world and were logic presented to Roscellinus, Rosceliinus had chosen the too much attached to human reasonings, and if anything first; Abelard recoiled to the other extreme, reducing the alien from the Christian faith were said to him in reference three Persons to three aspects or attributes of the Divine to them he readily gave ear to it.” The same attitude is Being (Power, Wisdom, and Love). For this he was maintained by the mystical school of St Victor. Hugo Hugo Sernard called to account by Bernard of Clairvaux (1091-1153), of St Victor (1097-1141) declares, that “the uncor'f Clair- the recognized guardian of orthodoxy in France. Bernard rupted truth of things cannot be discovered by reason- and the aux - declared that he “ savoured of Arius when he spoke of the ing.” The perils of dialectic are manifold, especially in gummists. Trinity, of Pelagius when he spoke of grace, and of Nestorius the overbold spirit it engenders. Nevertheless Hugo, by when he spoke of the person of Christ.” “ While he the composition of his Summa Sententiarurn, endeavoured laboured to prove Plato a Christian, he showed himself a to give a methodical or rational presentation of the conheathen.” Nor can it be said that the instinct of the tent of faith, and was thus the first of the so-called Sumsaint was altogether at fault. The germs of Rational- mists. Richard of St Victor, prior of the monastery from ism were unquestionably present in several of Abelard s 1162 to 1173, is still more absorbed in mysticism, and his opinions, and still more so, the traditionalists must have successor Walter loses his temper altogether in abuse, of thought, in his general attitude towards theological the dialecticians and the Summists alike. The Summists questions. “ A doctrine is believed,” he said, “ not have as much to say against the existence of God as for because God has said it, but because we are convinced by it, and the dialecticians, having gone to school to the reason that it is so.” “ Doubt is the road to inquiry, and pagans, have forgotten over Aristotle the way of salvation. by inquiry we perceive the truth.” (u Dubitando enim ad Abelard, Peter Lombard, Gilbert de la Porree, and Peter inquisitionem venimus, inquirendo veritatem percipimus.”) of Poitiers he calls the “ four labyrinths of France.” This anger and contempt may have been partly justified DecllI^e The application of dialectic to theology was not new. ot loglc Anselm had made an elaborate employment of reason m by the discreditable state into which the study of logic had fallen. The speculative impulse was exhausted which the interest of faith, but the spirit of pious subordination which had marked the demonstrations of Anselm seemed marks the end of the 11th and the first half of the 12 th wanting in the argumentations of this bolder and more century,—a period more original and more interesting in restless spirit; and the church, or at least an influential many ways than the great age of Scholasticism in the 13th section of it, took alarm at the encroachments of Rational- century. By the middle of the century, logical studies had ism. Abelard’s remarkable compilation Sic et Non was lost to a great extent their real interest and application, displays of ingenuity. On not calculated to allay their suspicions. In bringing and had degenerated into trivial 1 together the conflicting opinions of the fathers on all the the other hand, the Summists occupied themselves merely chief points of Christian dogmatics, it may be admitted in the systematizing of authorities. The mystics held aloof that Abelard’s aim was simply to make. these contradic- from both, and devoted themselves to the practical work tions the starting point of an inquiry which should deter- of preaching and edification. The intellect of the age mine in each case the true position and yia media of thus no longer exhibited itself as a unity; disintegration Christian theology. Only such a determination could had set in. And it is significant of this that the ablest enable the doctrines to be summarily presented as a system and most cultured representative of the second half of the was rather an historian of opinion than himself a of thought. The book was undoubtedly the precursor of century or theologian. John of Salisbury (Johannes John of the famous Boohs of Sentences of Abelard’s own pupil Peter philosopher Sarisberiensis) was educated in France in the years a is u y Lombard and others, and of all the Summae Theologiae with which the church was presently to abound. But the anti- 1136-48—in Paris under Abelard (who had then returned nomies, as they appeared in Abelard’s treatise, without to Paris, and was lecturing at St Genevieve) and Robert of their solutions, could not but seem to insinuate a deep-laid Melun, at Chartres under William of Conches, then again scepticism with regard to authority. And even the pro- in Paris under Gilbert de la Porree and Robert Pulleyn. posal to apply the unaided reason to solve questions The autobiographical account of these years contained in which had divided the fathers must have been resented his Metalogicus is of the utmost value as a picture of the by the more rigid churchmen as the rash intrusion of an schools of the time ; it is also one of the historian’s chief sources as a record of the many-coloured logical views of over-confident Rationalism. Realism was in the beginning of the 12th century the the period. John was a man of affairs, secretary to three dominant doctrine and the doctrine of the church; the successive archbishops of Canterbury, of whom Becket Nominalists were the innovators and the especial repre- was one. He died in 1180 as bishop of Chartres. When sentatives of the Rationalistic tendency. In order to see a pupil there, he had imbibed to the full the love of classlearning which was traditional in the school. An the difference in this respect between the schools we have ical ardent of Cicero, he was himself the master of an only to compare the peaceful and fortunate life of William elegantadmirer Latin style, and in his works he often appears of Champeaux (who enjoyed the friendship of St Bernar ) 1 with the agitated and persecuted existence of Roscellinus Among these may be mentioned Robert Pulleyn {ob. 1150), and, in a somewhat less degree, of Abelard. But now Peter Lombard {ob. 1164), called the Magister Sententiarum, whose the greater boldness of the dialecticians awakened a spirit work became the text-book of the schools, and remained so for cenof general distrust in the exercise of reason on sacred turies. Hundreds of commentaries were written upon it. Peter ot the pupil of Peter the Lombard, flourished about 1160-/0. subjects, and we find even a Realist, like. Gilbert de la Poitiers, Other names are Robert of Melun, Hugo of Amiens, Stephen Porr6e arraigned by Bernard and his friends before a Langton, and William of Auxerre. More important is Alain de Lille general council on a charge of heresy (at Rheims, 11 . )• (Alanus de Insulis), who died at an advanced age in 1203. . His De Arte Though Gilbert was acquitted, the fact. of his being sen de Articulis Catholicae Fidei is a Summa of Christian theology, with a greater infusion than usual of philosophical reasoning. brought to trial illustrates the growing spirit of suspicion. but Alanus was acquainted with the celebrated Liber de Causis. Those heresy-hunts show us the worst side of St Bernard, XXL — 54

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more as a cultivated humanist than as a Scholastic divine. His Policraticus, it has been said, “ is to some extent an encyclopaedia of the cultivated thought of the middle of the 12th century.” The Metalogicus is a defence of logic against those who despised all philosophical training. But John recoiled from the idle casuistry which occupied his own logical contemporaries; and, mindful probably of their aimless ingenuity, he adds the caution that dialectic, valuable and necessary as it is, is “like the sword of Hercules in a pigmy’s hand ” unless there be added to it the accoutrement of the other sciences. Catholic in spirit rather than dogmatic, John ranks himself at times among the Academics, “ since, in those things about which a wise man may doubt, I depart not from their footsteps.” The list which he gives of things which may be doubted {quae sunt dubitabilia sa/pienti) is at once curious and instructive. It is not fitting to subtilize overmuch, and in the end John of Salisbury’s solution is the practical one, his charitable spirit pointing him in particular to that love which is the fulfilling of the law. The first period of Scholasticism being thus at an end, there is an interval of nearly half a century without any Extension noteworthy philosophical productions. The cause of the of know- new development of Scholasticism in the 13th century theworks WaS translation into Latin for the first time of the ofAris- complete works of Aristotle. An inventory has been given totle. of the scanty stock of works accessible to students in the 9th century. The stock remained unenlarged till towards the middle of the 12th century, when the remaining treatises of the Organon became known. Abelard expressly states that he knew only the Categories and the De Interpretatione; but it seems from passages adduced by Prantl that he must, before the date of his Dialectica, have had some indirect and hearsay knowledge of the contents of the other treatises, though without being able himself to consult a copy. The books made their way almost noiselessly into the schools. In 1132 Adam de Petit-Pont, it is stated, made a version of the Prior Analytics. Gilbert de la Porree, who died in 1154, refers to the Analytics as currently known. His disciple Otto of Freising carried the Analytics, the Topica, and the Soph. Elenchi from France to Germany, probably in the translation of Boetius. John of Salisbury was acquainted with these and also with newer and more literal translations. But, while the fuller knowledge of the ancient logic resulted in an increase of formal acuteness, it appears to have been of but small benefit to serious studies till there was added to it a knowledge of the other works of Aristotle. This knowledge came to the Scholastics in the first instance through the medium of Arabian philosophy. (See Arabian Philosophy.) The doctrines and the works of Aristotle had been transmitted by the Nestorians to the Arabs, and among those kept alive by a succession of philosophers, first in the East and afterwards in the West. The chief of these, at least so far as regards the influence which they exerted on mediaeval philosophy, were Avicenna, Avempace, and Averroes. The unification by the last-mentioned of Aristotle’s active intellect in all men, and his consequent denial of individual immortality are well known. The universal human intellect is made by him to proceed from the divine by a series of Neoplatonic emanations. In the course of the 12th century the writings of these men were introduced into France by the Jews of Andalusia, of Marseilles, and Montpellier. “ These writings contained, ” says Haureau, “ the text of the Organon, the Physics, the Metaphysics, the Ethics, the De Anima, the Parva Naturalia, and a large number of other treatises of Aristotle, accompanied by continuous commentaries. There arrived besides by the same channel the glosses of Theophrastus, of Simplicius, of Alexander

of Aphrodisias, of Philoponus, annotated in the same sense by the same hands. This was the rich but dangerous present made by the Mussulman school to the Christian ” (i. 382). To these must be added the Neoplatonically inspired Eons Vitae of the Jewish philosopher and poet Ibn Gebirol, whom the Scholastics cited as Avicebron and believed to be an Arabian. By special command of Raimund, archbishop of Toledo, the chief of these works were translated from the Arabic through the Castilian into Latin by the archdeacon Dominicus Gonzalvi with the aid of Johannes Avendeath ( = ben David), a converted Jew, about 1150. About the same time, or not long after, the Liber de Causis became known—a work destined to have a powerful influence on Scholastic thought, especially in the period immediately succeeding. Accepted at first as Aristotle’s, and actually printed in the first Latin editions of his works, the book is in reality an Arabian compilation of Neoplatonic theses. Of a similar character was the pseudoAristotelian Theologia which was in circulation at least as early as 1200. The first effects of this immense acquisition of new First material were markedly unsettling on the doctrinal ortho- effects of doxy of the time. The apocryphal Neoplatonic treatises j*e new and the views of the Arabian commentators obscured for the fg1^' first students the genuine doctrine of Aristotle, and the 13th century opens with quite a crop of mystical heresies. The mystical pantheism taught at Paris by Amalrich of Bena (ob. 1207 ; see Amalrich and Mysticism), though based by him upon a revival of Scotus Erigena, was doubtless connected in its origin with the Neoplatonic treatises which now become current. The immanence of God in all things and His incarnation as the Holy Spirit in themselves appear to have been the chief doctrines of the Amalricans. They are reported to have said, “ Omnia unum, quia quicquid est est Deus.” About the same time David of Dinant, in a book De Tomis (rendered by Albertus De Divisionibus), taught the identity of God with matter (or the indivisible principle of bodies) and nous (or the indivisible principle of intelligences)—an extreme Realism culminating in a materialistic pantheism. If they were diverse, he argued, there must exist above them some higher or common element or being, in which case this would be God, nous, or the original matter. The spread of the Amalrican doctrine led to fierce persecutions, and the provincial council which met at Paris in 1209, after condemning the heresies of Amalrich and David, expressly decreed “ that neither the books of Aristotle on natural philosophy, nor commentaries on the same, should be read, whether publicly or privately, at Paris.” In 1215 this prohibition is renewed in the statutes of the university of Paris, as sanctioned by the papal legate. “ Et quod legant libros Aristotelis de dialectica tarn veteri quam de nova. . . Non legantur libri Aristotelis de metaphysica et natural] philosophia, nec summa de iisdem.” Permission is thus given to lecture on the logical books, both those which had been known all along and those introduced since 1128, but the veto upon the Physics is extended to the Metaphysics and the summaries of the Arabian commentators. By 1231, however, the fears of the church were beginning to be allayed. A bull of Gregory IX. in that year makes no mention of any Aristotelian works except the Physics. As these had been “ prohibited by the provincial council for specific reasons,” they are not to be used in the university “ till such time as they have been examined and purged of all suspicion of errors.” Finally, in the year 1254, we find the university officially prescribing how many hours are to be devoted to the explanation of the Metaphysics and the principal physical treatises of Aristotle. These dates enable us to measure accurately the stages by

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which the church accommodated itself to, and as it were there is more freshness and interest m the speculations of took possession of, the Aristotelian philosophy. Growing which burst forth so ardently in the end of the 11th and knowledge of Aristotle’s works and the multiplication of the first half of the 12th century. Albert and Aquinas gecond translations enabled students to distinguish the genuine no doubt stood on a higher level than Anselm and Abelard, peri0d. Aristotle from the questionable accompaniments with not merely by their wider range of knowledge but also by which he had made his first appearance in Western Europe. the intellectual massiveness of their achievements; but it Fresh translations of Aristotle and Averroes had already may be questioned whether the earlier writers did not a greater force of originality and a keener talent. been made from the Arabic by Michael Scot and possess Originality was at no time the strong point of the Middle Hermannus Alemannus, at the instance of the emperor Ages, but in the later period it was almost of necessity Frederick II.; so that the whole body of Aristotle’s works buried under the mass of material suddenly thrust upon was at hand in Latin translations from about 1210 to 1225. the age, to be On the other hand, the Soon afterwards efforts began to be made to secure influence of this assimilated. new material is everywhere evident m more literal translations direct from the Greek. _ Robert Grosseteste (pb. 1253) was one of the first to stir in this the wider range of questions which are discussed by the matter, and he was followed by Albertus Magnus and doctors of the period. Interest is no longer to the same concentrated on the one question of the universals. Thomas Aquinas. Half a century thus sufficed to remove extent Other questions, says Haureau, are “ placed on the order the ban of the church, and soon Aristotle was recognized of the day,—the question of the elements of substance, on all hands as “the philosopher” par excellence, the that of the principle of individuation, that of the origin of master of those that know. It even became customary to ideas, of the manner of their existence in the human draw a parallel between him as the praecursor Chnsti in the understanding and in the divine thought, as well as naturalibm and John the Baptist, the praecursor Chnsti various others of equal interest” (i. 420). Some of these, in gratuitis. may be said, are simply the old Scholastic problem in a This unquestioned supremacy was not yielded, however, it different garb ; but the extended horizon of which Haurcau at the very beginning of the period. The earlier doctors speaks is amply proved by mere reference to the treatises who avail themselves of Aristotle’s works, while bowing to of Albert and St Thomas. They there seek to reproduce his authority implicitly in matters of logic, are generally for their own time all the departments of the Aristotelian found defending a Christianized Platonism against the Alexander doctrine of the Metaphysics. So it is with Alexander of ^ John of Rochelle was succeeded in 1253 by John of Hales. Hales {pb. 1245), the first Scholastic who was acquainted Fidanza, better known as Bonaventura (1221-74), who ™^rawith the whole of the Aristotelian works and the Arabian had also been a pupil of Alexander of Hales. But the fame commentaries upon them. He was more of a theologian “ the Seraphic Doctor ” is connected more closely with than a philosopher; and in his chief work, Summa Uni- of the of mysticism (see Mysticism) than with the versae Theologiae, he simply employs his increased philo- mainhistory stream of Scholastic thought. Like his master, he sophical knowledge in the demonstration of theological defended Plato—or what he considered to be the I latomc doctrines. So great, however, did his achievement seem theory—against the attacks of Aristotle. Thus he dethat he was honoured with the titles of Doctor Irrefraga- fended the universalia ante rem as exemplars existent. in bilis and Theologorum Monarcha. Alexander of Hales be- the divine intelligence, and censured Aristotle’s doctrine Mendi- longed to the Franciscan order, and it is worth remarking of the eternity of the world. Among the earlier teachers cant that it was the mendicant orders which now came forward and writers of this century we have also to name William WiRiamo friars as the protagonists of Christian learning and faith and, of Auvergne {ob. 1249), whose treatises De Universo and as it were, reconquered Aristotle for the church. During De Anima make extensive use of Aristotle and the Arabians, the first half of the 13th century, when the university of but display a similar Platonic leaning. The existence of Paris was plunged in angry feuds with the municipality, intellections in our minds is, he maintains, a sufficient feuds which even led at one time (1229) to the flight of demonstration of the existence of an intelligible world, the students in a body, the friars established teachers in lust as the ideas of sense are sufficient evidence of a their convents in Paris. After the university had settled sensible world. This archetypal world is the Son of God its quarrels these continued to teach, and soon became and true God. Robert Grosseteste, important in the sphere Grosseformidable rivals of the secular lecturers. After a severe of ecclesiastical politics, has been already mentioned as es e. struggle for academical recognition they were finally active in procuring translations of Aristotle from the Greek. admitted to all the privileges of the university by a bull He also wrote commentaries on logical and physical works of Alexander IV. in 1253. The Franciscans took the lead of Aristotle. Michael Scot, th e renowned wizard of popular Michael in this intellectual movement with Alexander of Hates tradition, earned his reputation by numerous works on and Bonaventura, but the Dominicans were soon able to astrology and alchemy. His connexion with philosophy boast of two greater names in Albert the Great and was chiefly in the capacity of a translator. Y^cent of Vmcent of Thomas Aquinas. Still later Duns Scotus and Occam Beauvais {ob. 1264) was the author of an encyclopedic woik were both Franciscans. Alexander of Hales was succeeded called Speculum Majus, in which, without much independent John of in his chair of instruction by his pupil John of Rochelle, ability, he collected the opinions of. ancient and medieval Rochelle. wp0 died in 1271 but taught only till 1253. His treatise writers on the most diverse points, transcribing the De Anima, on which Haureau lays particular stress, is fragments of their works which he deemed most interesting. interesting as showing the greater scope now given to Albertus Magnus introduces us at once to the great age Albert psychological discussions. This was a natural result ot of Scholasticism. Bom m Swabia in 1193, be lived to the acquaintance with Aristotle’s De Anima and the numerous great age of eighty-seven, dying at Cologne in 1280. ihe Greek and Arabian commentaries upon it, and it is limits of his life thus include that of his still greater pupil observable in most of the writers that have still to be Thomas Aquinas, who was born in 1227 and died while mentioned. Even the nature of the universal is no longer still comparatively young in 1274. For this reason, and discussed from a purely logical or metaphysical point ot because the system of Thomas is simply that of) Albert view, but becomes connected with psychological questions. rounded to a greater completeness and elaborated m parts And, on the whole, the widening of intellectual interests is by the subtle intellect of the younger man, it will be conthe chief feature by which the second period of Scholasti- venient not to separate the views of master and scholar, cism may be distinguished from the first. In some respects

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SCHOLASTICISM except where their differences make it necessary; and in Aristotelian Realism which treats genera and species only giving an account of their common system it will be well as substantiae secundae, yet as really inherent in the to present it at once in its most perfect form. Albert was individuals, and constituting their form or essence. The “the first Scholastic who reproduced the whole philosophy universals, therefore, have no existence, as universals, in of Aristotle in systematic order with constant reference rerum natura; and Thomas endorses, in this sense,’the to the Arabic commentators, and who remodelled it polemic of Aristotle against Plato’s hypostatized abstracto meet the requirements of ecclesiastical dogma ” tions. But, in the Augustinian sense of ideas immanent (Ueberweg, i. 436). On this account he was called by in the divine mind, the universal ante rem may well his contemporaries “ the Universal Doctor.” But in Albert be admitted as possessing real existence. Finally, by it may be said that the matter was still too new and too abstraction from the individual things of sense, the mind multifarious to be thoroughly mastered. The fabric of is able to contemplate the universal apart from its accomknowledge is not fitly jointed together in all its parts; paniments (animal sine homine, asino, et aliis speciabus 'j; the theologian and the philosopher are not perfectly fused these subjective existences are the universalia post rem of into one individual, but speak sometimes with different the Nominalists and Conceptualists. But the difficulties voices. In St Thomas this is no longer so; the fusion is which embarrassed a former age in trying to conceive the almost perfect. The pupil, entering into his master’s mode in. which the universal exists in the individual labours, was able from the first to take a more compre- reappear in the systems of the present period as the prohensive survey of the whole field; and in addition he was blem of the principium individuationis. The universal, The doubtless endowed with an intellect which was finer, as the form or essence of the individual, is called its principle though it might not be more powerful, than his master’s. qmdditas (its “what-ness” or nature); but, besides pos-ofindi; Albert had the most touching affection for his distinguished sessing a general nature and answering to a general defi- viduationscholar. When he went to Paris in 1245 to lecture and to nition (i.e., being a “ what ”), every man, for example, is take his doctor’s degree, his pupil accompanied him; and, this particular man, here and now. It is the question of on their return to Cologne, Aquinas taught along with his the particularity or “ this-ness ” (haecceitas, as Duns Scotus master in the great Dominican school there. At a later afterwards named it) that embarrasses the Scholastics. date, when Aquinas proceeded to Paris to lecture inde- Albert, and Aquinas agree in declaring that the principle pendently, he occupied the Dominican chair at the same of individuation is to be found in matter, not, however, in time that Bonaventura held the Franciscan professorship. matter.as a formless substrate but in determinate matter They received the degree of doctor in the same year, 1257. {materia signata), which is explained to mean matter quanEiyals in a manner though they were, and differing on titatively determined in certain respects. “The variety points of philosophy, the Angelic and Seraphic Doctors were of individuals,” says Albert, “ depends entirely upon the united in friendship and Christian charity. division of matter (individuorum multvtudo Jit omms per “ Mys,; The monotheistic influence of Aristotle and his Arabian divisionem materiae) ; and Aquinas says “ the principle of commentators sllows ifcself excluded ip Albert and Aquinas, at the the diversity of individuals of the same species is the from outset, in the definitive fashion in which the “ mysteries ” quantitative division of matter ” {divisio materiae secundum philo- °f the Trinity and the Incarnation are henceforth detached quantitatem), which his followers render by the abbreviated sophy. from the sphere of rational or philosophical theology. So phrase materia quanta. A tolerably evident shortcoming long as the Neoplatonic influence remained strong, of such, a doctrine is that, while declaring the quantitative attempts were, still made to demonstrate the doctrine of determination of matter to be the individual element in the Trinity, chiefly in a mystical sense as in Erigena, but the individual, it gives no account of how such quantitative also by orthodox churchmen like Anselm. Orthodoxy, determination arises. Yet the problem of the individual whether Catholic or Protestant, has since generally is really contained in this prior question ; for determinate adopted Thomas’s distinction. The existence of God is matter already involves particularity or this-ness. This maintained by Albert and Aquinas to be demonstrable by reason; but here again they reject the ontological argu- difficulty was presently raised by Duns Scotus and the realment of Anselm, and restrict themselves to the a posteriori istically-inclined opponents of the Thomist doctrine. But, as Ueberweg points out, it might fairly be urged by Aquinas proof, rising after the manner of Aristotle from that that he does not pretend to explain how the individual is 1 c 1 w f ^ is prior for us (jrpoTfpov irpos rjp.a ,an.such monochromatic as a portrait group in fresco by Melozzo painting of St these collections contain some good Flemish and Dutch pictures. In the church of Santa Croce are the chief works of Giotto, in S. rmvmff4 11 Fethe hnestadoof na Raphael’s early works,—the Maria Novella the best pictures of Orcagna and Ghirlandaio, and di figuration ». m 1:,Foligno, and the Trans- in the monastery of S. Marco the principal frescos of Fra Angelico. of*} tlie Vlr h?s nanJPpictures, ® ? natl< y Pinturicchio one of Some of the chief frescos of Spinello Aretino, much repainted, exist his best panel andfa portrait ofS a Doge by Titian aismasterpiece of portraiture. The Last Communion of St Jerome by Do- in the sacristy of S. Miniato, and the most important frescos of Andrea del Sarto are in the church of S. Annunziata. Smaller 1 0 1S hls dne t work The small galleries at Perugia and Siena are of great interest for Italian bvFri ^ r (see Fiesole), ® - the TheAppartamenti chapel of San Borgia Lorenzo,bypainted y a Angelico Pintu- their collections of rare works by painters of the local schools. The galleries.

447 OF PAINTING England,” in Archseologia, ix. p. 141, and other papers in the same publicasmall collection at Pisa also possesses some curious early panels by in tion ; the Vetusta Monumenta, published by the Society of Antiquaries, has local painters ; in the church of S. Caterina is a magnificent altar- valuable reproductions of the 14th-century wall-paintings in St Stephens Westminster, which are now destroyed, except a few fragments in tfte niece by Fran. Traini, Orcagna’s chief pupil. At Prato are the Chapel, British Museum ; many articles on medieval painting occur in the volumes oi finest frescos of Lippo Lippi. The gallery at Bologna contains some the Archeeological Journal, and in the Proceedings of many other societies in of Francia’s chief works, the St Cecilia of Raphael, and a number England and abroad. Italian Schools generally. Crowe and Cavalcaselle, of examples of the Caracci and others of the later Bolognese school. History of Painting in Italy, London, 1864-66, and History of Painting in North 1871; Woermann and Woltmann, History of Painting, ed. by S. Colvin, Parma is specially rich in the works of Correggio and Parmigiano ; Italy, London, 1880; Kugler, Handbook of Painting, London, 1874; Lanzi, Storm unhappily the great frescos by the former in the cathedral have pittorica, Florence, 1822; Rosini, Storia della Pittura Italiana, Pisa, 1839-47 ; almost wholly perished. The small collection at Ferrara possesses Rumohr, Italienische Forschungen, Berlin, 1826-31; Forster, Denkmale ital. Malerei, Leipsic, 1870-73; Dohme, Kunst und Kiinstler Ital., Berlin, 1878; Burckinteresting examples of paintings of the local school. Brescia and hardt, Cicerone, best ed. London, 1879 ; Coindet, Histoire de la Peinture en Bergamo are very rich, in fine works of Moretto and Moroni, and Itcdie, The 1861; Lilbke, Gesch. der ital. Malerei, Stuttgart, 1878 ; Ottley, also possess a number of fine Venetian paintings of various dates. Itcdian Paris, School, London, 1823 ; W. B. Scott, Pictures by Italian Masters, London, Padua has but a small and unimportant gallery, but the town is 1876 ; Mrs Jameson, Early Italian Painters, London, 1859 ; Symonds, Renaisin Italy (Fine Arts), London, 1877 ; Tytler, Old Masters and their Futures, rich in frescos by Giotto, Altichiero, and Jacopo Avanzi, and most sance 1873 ; Bernasconi, Storia d. Pittura Italiana, Pisa, 1864 ; Clement, La noble frescos by Andrea Mantegna. Mantua, also contains some London, Peinture Itcdienne, Paris, 1857 (on early painters); Pascoli, Vite dei Pitton, rrand frescos by Mantegna in the Gastello di Corti,. and a laige Rome, 1736; Poynter, Painting, Early Christian, &c., small handbook, London, f • L. Scott, Renaissance in Italy, small handbook, London, 1883 ; Richter, quantity of showy and cleverly executed wall and ceiling paintings 1882 Italian Art in National Gallery, London, 1883; Frizzoni, VArte Italiana by Giulio Romano in the Palazzo del Te. The Verona gallery con- nella Gal. Nat. the di Londra, Milan, 1880, published in the Archivio Stonco di tains some few good examples of the local school. The church of Milano: Reiset, in the Gaz. des B.-Arts for 1877, gives a valuable senes of articles entitled “ Une Visite anx Musees de Londres ” ; Morelli , Italian Masters S. Zenone possesses a magnificent altarpiece by Mantegna ; and m in Galleries, trans., London, 1883, and his valuable series of articles on S. Anastasia is the wreck of a fine fresco of St George and the theGerman Gallery in Liitzow’s Zeitschrifi filr bildende Kunst This very able Dragon by Pisanello. The Vicenza collection contains little oi art Borghese critic, who also writes under the name of “ Lermolieff,” has developed a value except some good examples of Bart. .Montagna. The Turin somewhat new system of criticism, based on minute observation of the way which each painter treated details, such as the hand and ear, in most cases gallery possesses a few good pictures, especially some fine panels by in to Morelli) a safer guide than the general impression derived from Botticelli and splendid portraits by Vandyck. Many of Vandyck s (according the whole effect or spirit of a picture, and less misleading than a judgment finest works exist in the various palaces of Genoa. . The large gallery formed from technical peculiarities ; the Comm. Morelli, aided by a good knowof the documentary history of art, has thus been enabled to give back to at Naples contains an unusual proportion of bad pictures ; there are, ledo-e right authors many paintings which for long have been wrongly named. however, some fine works of Titian and some interesting examples ot their Italian Schools. — Bordiga, Opere del Gaud. Ferrari, Milan, 1835; the early Flemish school which have been in Naples ever since the Pagani LeSpecial Pitture di Modena, Modena, 1770; Vedriani, Pittori, &c., Modanesi^ )15th century. The only painting of much importance in the gallery Modena, 1662; Zaist, Pittori Cremonesi, Cremona, 1774; Graselli, Biog. dei Cremonesi, Cremona, 1827 ; Arco, Delle Arti di Mantova, Mantua, 1857at Palermo is a very beautiful triptych of the school of Van Eyck, Pittori * Codde, Dizionario dei Pittori Mantovani, Mantua, 1837; Pozzo, Vite dei nice. Venice is extraordinarily rich in the works of its own school, v ith 58 Pittori Veronesi, Verona, 1718; Ferri, Pittori Milanesi, Rome, 1868; Rio, L. the exception of those of Crivelli, who is completely absent, liie da Vinci etson tcole, Paris, 1855 ; Moschini, La Pittura in Padova, Padua, 1826 ; Pitture Parmensi, Parma, 1809; Off6, Vita del. Parmigianino, Parma, works in Venice of the Bellini family, of Carpaccio and others ot Bodoni • Leoni, Pitture di Correggio, Modena, 1841; Pungileoni, Memorie storiche Gian Bellini’s pupils, of Titian, Tintoretto, and Paul Veronese, 1784 di Correggio Parma, 1817-21; Malvasia, FelsinaPittrice, Bologna, 1678; Barotti, are among the chief glories of the world. The Gnmani breviary, Pitture di Ferrara, Ferrara, 1770 ; Laderchi, La Pittura Ferrarese, Ferrara, 1856 ; in the doge’s library, contains, a very beautiful series ot miniature Baruffaldi, Vite dei Pittori Ferraresi, Ferrara ; Mesnard, La Peinture, d Sienne, Paris 1878; Della Valle, Lettere Sanesi, Venice, 1782-86; Lasinio, .Pitture . . . pictures of the school of Memling. Siena Florence, 1825 ; Milanesi, Documeuti dell' Arte Senese, 1858 ; Boullier, Ulan. The Brera Gallery at Milan contains a large number of master- di L’Art vlnitien, Paris, 1870 ; W. B. Scott, Pictures by Venetian Painters, London, nieces, especially of the Lombard and Venetian schools, among 1875 • Raskin St Mark’s Rest, London, 1879, Stones of Venice, 1856, and Guide to Pictures at Venice, 1878 ; Zanetti, Storia d. Pittura Veneziana, Venice them the chief work of Gentile Bellini, St Mark at Alexandria, vrincival • Longhi, Vite dei Pittori Veneziani, Venice, 1762; Ridolfi, Maravighe dell some unrivalled portraits by Lorenzo Lotto, and very important 1771 Arte’Venice, 1648 ; Verci, Pittori, &c., di Bassano, Venice, 1775 ; Tassi, Vite dei examples of Moretto’s religious paintings One of its greatest Pittori &c., Bergamaschi, Bergamo, 1793 ; Chizzola, Pitture di Brescia, Brescia, treasures is the altarpiece painted for the duke of Montefeltro by 1809- 'calvi, Vita di Francia, Bologna, 1812, and Vita di Fran. Barbiem (Guercino), Ratti, Pittura, &c., -in Genova, Genoa, 1780; Pasco!!, Vite Piero della Francesca, and wrongly attributed to his pupil Ira dei Pittori, 1808; Perugini, Rome, 1732; Mariotti, Lettere Pittoriche Perugme, Carnovale. The celebrated Sposalizio is the most important work Perugia 1788Ac., • Fiorillo, Gesch. der Malerei in Toscana, Berlin, 1850 ; Marchese, of Raphael, executed wholly under the influence of Perugino. I he Pittori Domenicani, Florence, 1845 ; Ricci, Mem. di Melozzo daForh, Forli, 1834.; Mem. star, d, Arti della Marca di Ancona, Macerata, 1834 ; Domemci, gallery is especially rich in works of the pupils and imitators ot Reo-o-iani Vite dei Pittori Napoletani, Naples, 1840-46,—not trustworthy in its account of Leonardo and other Milanese painters. The Biblioteca Ambrogiana supposed early Neapolitan painters; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Life of Titian, contains some priceless drawings by Leonardo da \ mci and a large London 1878 and Life of Raphael, 1880-85 ; Vischer, L. Signorelli und die ital. number of his autograph MSS., selections from which have been Renaissance, Leipsic, 1879. German, Flemish, and Dutch ScHOOLS.-Bode Hals und seine Schule, Leipsic, 1871, Die Kunstler von Haarlem, im, and published by Dr Richter, London, 1883. Another important MS. Frans der holldndischen Malerei, 1883; Biirger, Etudes sur les Peintres Hollandais, of Da Vinci from the same library, the Codice Atlantico, is now Gesch. Paris 1859; Burnet, Rembrandt and his Works, London, 1859 ; bcheltema, Jcem(1886) in course of publication in Rome in its entirety. . hrand Redevoerinq, Ax., Amsterdam, 1845 ; Fairholt, Homes, Ac., of the Dutch 6 London,^ 1871 ; R. Gower, Figure Painters of Holland, London, 1880; This i^iry scanty sketch of the contents of the chief galleries of Painters, Havard L’Art Hollandais, 1879, and Histoire de la Peinture Hollandaise, Europe will give some notion of the places where the works of Paris 1882 * Kramm, LevensParis, en Werken der Hollandische Kunstschilders, Amsterspecial schools and masters can best be studied. In some cases dam 1857-64; Rathgeber, Annalen der niederldndischen Malerei, Gotha, 1842there is but little choice : the greatness of Giotto can only be lully 44 • Renouvier Les Peintres de VAneienne Ecole Hollandaise, Pans, 1857; Van Le Livre des Peintres, Paris, 1884 ; Riegel, Beitragezur nwderlandischen realized in Florence and Padua, of Carpaccio and Tintoretto m Ma’nder Berlin, 1882; Van Bynden Geschiedmis der vaterlandsche Venice, of Signorelli at Orvieto and Monte Oliveto, of Fra Angelico Kunstgeschichte, Schilderkunst, Amsterdam, 1842 ; Vloten, NederlanclsSchilderkunst, Amsterdam, in Florence, of Correggio in Parma, of Velazquez m Madrid, and 1874 • Van Gool, Nieuwe Schouburg der Kunstschilders, Amsterdam, 1858 ; Hotb’o Gesch. der deutschen und niederland. Malerei, Berlin, 1840-43 ; Descamps, of Murillo in Seville. . . , . Vie des Peintres Flamands, Paris, 1753-64; Debaisnes, L’Art Chret. en List of Works to U cojisuMJ-Painting genbrally.-Agmcourt Histoire La Douai, 1860; Fetis, Les Artistes Beiges, Brussels, 1857 ; Fromentm, de 1’Art Paris, 1811-23; Bell, Schools of Painting, London, 1842 , Blanc,. His- Flandre Maitres d'autrefois, Paris, 1876; Saint-Germain, Guide de Tableaux, Ecole toire des Peintres de toutes les ficoles, Paris, 1848-76 ; Buchanan Memmrs of Les Allemande Ac., Paris, 1841; Heris, Histoire de l Ecole Flamande, Brussels, Painting, London, 1824; Chabert, Galerie des Peintres, Paris, 1822, Daryl, 1856 * Houssaye, Histoire de lo. 1846, Peiuture Flcimcinde, (&c., Paris, 1866 , Michiels, Dictionary of Painters, London, 1878 ; Duchesne, Museum of Pans, Peintres Bruaeois, Histoire de la Peinture Flamande, Ac., 184,, 1829-34; Eastlake, Handbook of Painting, 4th ed., London, 18/4 » Goilmg, and L’Acole d’Anvers, Brussels, 1877 ; Potvin, L’Art Flamand, Pans, 1868 ; Booses Geschichte der Malerei, Leipsic, 1867;Havard, Histoire de la Pemture, Paris Gesch der Malerschule Paris, Antwerpens, Munich, 1880; Stanley, Principal Painters 1882 ; Mrs Heaton, Concise History of Painting, London, 1872 , Heinrich, Leben Dutch and Flemish Schools, London, 1855 ; Head, Handbook of Painting, German,of nnd Werke der beruhmtesten Maler, Berlin, 1854; Lecarpentier, Ga me to Flemish and Dutch, London, 1846 ; Waagen, Die deutschen und niederlandischen Peintres CeWbres Paris, 1810-21; Menard, Histoire des Beam-Arts, Pans, 1873 , Malerschulen, Stuttgart, 1862; Kugler, Handbook of Painting, 2d ed. London, KStaS Siif ® !« ?«, r.4. 1M.51; pyrod, * to • Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Early Flemish Painters, London, 18/2 ; J. Smith, Peinture, Paris, 1862 ; Destreman, Frsfoire de {Art Pans., 1882, Diderot, Lssais 1874 of Works of Dutch, Flemish, and French Painters, London, 1829-42 ; tnr la Peinture Leiosic 1862 ; Emeric-David, La Peinture Moderns, 1862 , Catalogue Sandrart, L’Accademia Tedesca, Nuremberg, 1675-79; Lindau, Lucas Cranach, Michiels, La Peinture du IVme an XFIme Stole, Brussels, 1853; Muntz flistoire Leipsic 1883 Heller, Cranach’s Leben und Werke, Nuremberg, 1804 ; Willigen, de la Peinture, Paris, 1881; Stendhal, Moire de la Pei.ntrire, Pans, 1860 Miss Les Artistes de• Haarlem, Haarlem, 1870 ; Woltmann, Hans Holbein, Berlin, 1865 ; K. Thompson, Handbook to Picture Galleries of Europe, 3dPaintl ed., riLondon,. 1880 , Wornum, Life of Holbein, 1866; Thausing, Albrecht Purer, Berlin, Wornum, History of Painting, London, 1847, and Epochs °f : 3, }^J: ’ .Vw. 1872-76 ; Mrs Heaton, Life ofLondon, A. Diirer, London, 1881; Heller, Leben und V erke and Atz, Die Madonna als Gegenstand christlicher Kunstmalerei, Bnxen, IS ■ , A. Diirers, Leipsic, 1831; Innstadten, der Gesch. der Malerei, Vienna, Hotho, Gesch. der christlichen Malerei, Stuttgart, 1873; Argens, Examen des 1853 • Knirim, Die Hartzmalerei, Ac., Darstellung Leipsic, 1839; Passavant, Beitrdge zur Scales de Peinture, Berlin, 1768.; Hobbes, Picture-Collectors Slv Manual, London, Kenntniss, Ac., Berlin, 1846 ; Houbraken, NederlandscheKunstschilders, Amster1849; Bryan, Dictionary of Painters, London, 1865 ; ®L Dwtion,. Hist. « dam 1718-21; Immerzeel, De Levens en Werken der Hollandsehe, Ac., Amsterdam, Peintres, Paris, 1855; Bartsch, Peintre graveur, Vienna, 1802-21, Sorg, Gesc/i. 1842-43 ; Weale, Notes sur Jean Van Eyck, London, 1861; Carton, Les trois van der christlichen Mcderei, Berlin, 1853 ; Waagen, Treasures of Art in Britawi, Eyck, Bruges, 1848; Heinecken, Neue Nachrichten von Kuiisllern, Dresden, London, 1854-57 ; Rebre, Kunstgeschichte des Mvttelalters, Leipsic, 1885.. Early 1768-71 ; Gwinner, Kunst und Kunstler in Frankfurt, Frankfort, 186l ; Merlo, Mediaeval Schools.—Mullooly, Paintings in S. Clemente, Rome, 1866 , Pen e , Nachrichten von dem Leben, &c., kblnischer Kunstler, Cologne, 1850 ; Busscher, Catacombes de Rome, Paris, 1852-57 ; De Rossi, Roma So«e?Ta«ea., Rome, 1864-80, Corporation des Peintres a Gand, Brussels, 1853 ; Taurel, UArt en Hollande, &c., Didron, Manuel d'Iconographie Chretienne, Pans, 1845 (in this is printed the Amsterdam, 1872; Burget, Musees de la Hollande, Brussels, 1858-60 ; Aus.m 11th-century MS. ’'Eppngveia rrjs foiypaipucgs, on the hieratic rules of ByzanKunstdenkmdler des christ. Mittelalters, Leipsic, 1857-60; Saint-Germain, tine artl • Bavet, La Peinture Chretienne en Orient, Paris, 1879; Carter, Specimens Weerth, de Tableaux (German, Flemish, and Dutch), Paris, 1841; Dohme, Bode, of Ancient Sculpture and Painting, London, 1812; Pownall, “ Ancient Painting Guide and others, Gesch. der deutschen Kunst, Berlin, 1885 ; W. B. Scott, The, Little 1 For further lists of authorities see the various articles on the separate painters. Masters, London, 1879. Modern German Schools.—Bouniol, L'Art chretien et SCHOOLS

448 S C H —S C H VEcole Allemande, Pans, 1856; Ormos, Peter von Cornelius, &c., Berlin, 1866; and Dictionary of Artists (English), 1878 ; W. B. Scott. Our British Tan/ts^ Ranzoni, Malerei in Wien, Vienna, 1873; Riegel, Gesch. der deutschen Kumt, 0n< Hanover, 1876; Wustmann, Gesch. der Malerei in Leipzig, Leipsic, 1879 ; WafnniA* ^Anecdotes !7 of Painting ®he.Pllerd British School of Painting, London, 1880*/ m > England, London, 1861; Wodderspoon Schasler, Die Wandgemdlde von Kaulbachs, Berlin, 1854; Pecht, Deutsche Walpole, Crvne and his IForfcs, Norwich, 1858 ; Chesneau, La'Peinture AngU%e?P^ Kiinstler, Nordlingen, 1877-81 ; Leixner, Die moderne Kunst, Berlin, 1878; 1882 , Clayton, English Female Artists, London, 1876; Cunningham Lives of Rosenberg, Gesch. der mod. Kunst, Leipsic, 1882. Spanish School.—Head’ Painters, ed. Mrs Heaton, 1879; Dallaway, PaintinginE^Mnd Handbook of Painting (Spanish), London, 1847 ; Stirling, Annals of the Artists of British London, 1849 , Hannay and others, Works of Hogarth, London, I860' Hoare’ Spain, London, 1848, and Velasquez and his Works, 1855 ; O’Neil, Dictionary of Acadennc Annals of Painting, London, 1805-9 ; Dumas, Modern Artists Paris’ Spanish Painters, London, 1833 ; Montecuccoli, Storia della Pittura in Ispagna, 1882 , Ruskin, Modern Painters, London, 1851-60; Livino Painters (moo Modena, 1841; Cumberland, Eminent Painters in Spain, London, 1782 ; Laforge, ^?nd°n’18^,; Monkhouse, Masterpieces of English Our Art, London, 1868 ; Britton Des Arts en Espagne, Lyons, 1859; W. B. Scott, Murillo and the Spanish School, fth Eng Sc h00 Loildon ^ rLondon, A 1881; m^ Leslie . 1812Life ; Brock-Arnold, Gainsborough and London, 1872; Curtis, Murillo and Velasquez, London, 1883 ; Davies, Life of T !’ and Taylor, and Times of Reynolds, London Murillo, London, 1819; Viardot, Les Principaux Peintres de VEspagne, Paris, Reynolds 1865, Conway, Reynolds and Gainsborough, London, 1886. Early Treatises 1839; Eusebi, Las diferentes Escuelas de Pintura, Madrid, 1823; Malpica, El on Painting.—Theophilus, Diversarum Artium Schedula, trans., London 1847 • Arte de la Pintura, Madrid, 1874 ; Bermudez, Dicionario de las Bellas Artes en Trattato della Pittura, trans., together with other early docuEspana, Madrid, 1800; Robinson, Early Portuguese Painting, Bungay, 1866; Cenmno011Cennirn, ai ntl n r S Memfleld Davillier, Mariano Fortuny, sa Vie, £c., Paris, 1875. French School. Mrs’ FWlafc jpr i - f ^> > Painting, Treatises 1847-69; on Painting, London^ 1848of• .H}-storayshort ?f 0ilhistor the Commentary M. Pattison, Renaissance of Art in France, 1879 ; La Chavignerie, Dictionnaire de VEcole Frangaise, Paris, 1883 ; Beraud, Annales de VEcole Frangaise, Paris, no^ ?-1Gh^bertlt.NC01ntarer ^ll;gins . y of Florentine art, has been pub1827 ; Berger, L’Ecole Frangaise, Paris, 1879 ; Dufour, Peintres Parisiens twm/ h du ^ > Ghiberti et son Ecole, Paris, 1836; Filarete aux XIV et XV Siecles, Paris, 1879; Parrocel, Annales de la Peinture, Paris, LiSa r ^P’Architettura, &c.,; written Florence,della 1464, Pretiosa Margarita ^®d1by Al s, 0m Venice, 1546 Da Vinci,at Trattato Pittura, Bologna, 1786’ 1862; De Saint-Germain, Trois Siecles de la Peinture en France, Paris, 1808 • forty t Laborde, Renaissance des Arts a la Cour de France, Paris, 1850-55; Goncourt,’ London, 1883; Lomazzo, T ' ^'° autograph MSS. at Milan, edited by Richter’ Trattato d. Pittura, Milan, 1584; Vasari, Vite del VArt dans le XVIIIme Slide, Paris, 1880-84. Modern French School.— S C0 1 01 6110 1 8 best edition by Chesneau, La Peinture Frangaise au XlXme Slide, Paris, 1862; Claretie, L’Art ence°ni878 ' !’. ^ Milanesi, Flor8 82 8 2 - Mo r!lH 11 Ao< lct Jn 0i7er,e Frangais Contemporain, Paris, 1876; Pesquidoux, L’Art au XIXme Sikle, wArV nfV n Q’ic+n V f T^ Bwgno ■ ■ ■ scritta da un Anonimo Paris, 1881; Jourdan, Les Peintres Frangais, Paris, 1859 ; Laforge, La Peinture 1; Bassano^lSOO, by Frizzoni, best edition S®1.1?.11’ 1 lt.e Pittori, Rome, 16i 2; Ridolfi, Maraviglie dell’ Arte,Bologna, Venice en France, Paris, 1856; Laurent-Pichat, L’Art en France, 1859 ; Leclercq ld4|>; .Bafdmucci, Pro/esson del Disegno, Florence, 1681-88; Du Fresnoy Art VEcole Frangaise, Paris, 1881; Merson, La Peinture en France, 1861; Meyer LOnd n 1695 : Va LaiTesse Art Gesch. der mod. franzdsischen Malerei, Leipsic, 1867 ; Rosenberg, Gesch. der 1738,_ ?, produced in 1841,—the year after his marriage with 1813’to 1815, and then became professor of astronomy Clara Wieck, now so well known to the world as Madame in Copenhagen. From 1817 he directed the triangulation Clara Schumann, the accomplished pianiste, to whose faultof Holstein, to which a few years later was added a com- less interpretation of her husband’s works we are indebted plete geodetic survey of Denmark; the latter was left in- for our fullest appreciation of their inherent beauty. complete by Schumacher, but was finished after his death. Another symphony, in D minor, and an orchestral oveiFor the sake of the survey an observatory was established ture, scherzo, and finale, appeared in the same year; and at Altona (see Observatory) and Schumacher resided from this time forward works on an equally grand scale there permanently, chiefly occupied with the publication appeared in rapid succession, culminating with his first 1 A. Schultens’s chief works are Origines Hebraam{2 vols., 1724,1738), 2d ed., 1761, with the De defectibus lingvm Hebraese (1st ed., 1/rfl); and only opera, Genoveva, which, though completed in 1848, Com. on Job, 1737 ; Com. on Proverbs, 1748 ; Hebrew grammar (Insti- was not produced until 1850. In 1843 Schumann was tutiones), 1737 ; Vetus et regia via Hebraizandi, 1/38 • Monumenta appointed professor of composition in Mendelssohn’s newly vetustiora Arabum (1740—extracts from Nowain, Masudi &c ); ed founded conservatory of music at Leipsic. Two years after of Beha-ed-din's Life of Saladin; his Opera Minora (1769) and a Mendelssohn’s death he endeavoured to obtain the appointSylloge Dissertationum (1772, 1775) appeared posthumously.

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ment of director of the Gewandhaus concerts, but was rejected in favour of J. Kietz. In 1850 he was invited to Diisseldorf as musical director—a post in which Mendelssohn had greatly distinguished himself many years previously. Schumann retained this until 1853, when his mental powers began to decline rapidly through a disease of the brain from which he had long suffered, and of which he died at Endenich, near Bonn, 29th July 1856. Schumann’s position in the history of German music is very important and marks the last stage hut one of its progress towards its present condition. His style was very advanced and strikingly original. His published works include one opera, four symphonies, five overtures, a series of scenes from Faust, and other choral and orchestral works written on a very extensive scale, and a large quantity of songs, pianoforte pieces, and other smaller works of the highest excellence and beauty. SCHWABE, Samuel Heinrich (1789-1875), German amateur astronomer, was born on 25th October 1789 at Dessau, where he died on 11th April 1875; he observed the sun-spots regularly from 1826 and pointed out (in 1843) the periodicity in the number of these objects. SCHWALBACH, or Langenschwalbach, a favourite German health resort, in the Prussian province of HesseNassau, is pleasantly situated in the deep valley of the Miinzenbach near its junction with the Aar, 12 miles northwest from Wiesbaden, with which it has regular communication by diligence. Besides a large kursaal, the town has four churches, a synagogue, a real school, and a higher school for girls. The three principal springs, which are largely impregnated in varying proportions with iron and carbonic acid (compare Mineral Waters), are connected by promenades. The permanent population of the town was 2811 in 1880, and the number of visitors reaches about 5000 annually. About 4|miles to the south of Schwalbach is Schlangenbad (360 inhabitants), the thermal springs of which are efficacious in nervous complaints and attract about 2000 visitors (chiefly ladies) every year The water is used externally only. SCHWANN, Theodor (1810-1882), author of the cell theory in physiology, was born at Neuss in Khenish Prussia on 7th December 1810. His father was a man of great mechanical talents; at first a goldsmith, he afterwards founded an important printing establishment. Schwann inherited his father’s mechanical tastes, and the leisure of his boyhood was largely spent in constructing little machines of all kinds. He studied at the Jesuits’ college in Cologne and afterwards at Bonn, where he met Johannes Muller, in whose physiological experiments he soon came to assist. He next went to Wurzburg to continue his medical studies, and thence to Berlin to graduate in 1834. Here he again met Muller, who had been meanwhile translated to Berlin, and who finally persuaded him to enter on a scientific career and appointed him assistant at the anatomical museum. Schwann in 1838 was called to the chair of anatomy at the Homan Catholic university of Louvain, where he remained nine years. He then went as professor to Liege, where, in spite of brilliant offers from many German universities, he led a very quiet uneventful life, broken only by the international commemoration of the fortieth anniversary both of his professoriate and the publication of his magnum opus, till his death on 11th January 1882. He was of a peculiarly gentle and amiable character and remained a devout Catholic throughout his life. It was during the four years spent under the influence of Muller at Berlin that all Schwann’s really valuable work was done. Muller vas at this time preparing his great book on physiology, and Schwann assisted him in the experimental work required. His attention being thus directed to the nervous and muscular tissues, besides making such histological discoveries as that of the envelope of the nerve-fibres which now bears his name, he initiated those researches in muscular contractility since so elaborately worked

out by Du Bois Reymond and others. He was thus the first of Muller’s pupils who broke with the traditional vitalism and worked towards a physico-chemical explanation of life. Muller also directed his attention to the process of digestion, which Schwann showed to depend essentially on the presence of a ferment called by him pepsin, thus not only practically bringing the subject up to its modern state but preparing for the subsequent advances in medical treatment made by Roberts. Schwann also examined the question of spontaneous generation, which he aided greatly to disprove, and in the course of his experiments discovered the organic nature of yeast. His theoiy of fermentation was bitterly attacked and ridiculed by Liebig, but has been, after the lapse of a quarter of a century, triumphantly confirmed. In fact the whole germ theory of Pasteur, as well as the antiseptic application of Lister, is thus traceable to the influence of Schwann. Once when dining with Schleiden, in 1837, the conversation turned on the nuclei of vegetable cells. Schwann remembered having seen similar structures in the cells of the notochord (as had been shown by Muller) and instantly seized the importance of connecting the two phenomena. The resemblance was confirmed without delay by both observers, and the results soon appeared in the famous Microscopic Investigations on the Accordance in the Structure and Growth of Plants and Animals (Berlin, 1839 ; trans. Sydenham Society, 1847), and the cell theory (see Morphology) was thus definitely constituted. In the course of his verifications of the cell theory, in which he traversed the whole field of histology, he proved the cellular origin and development of the most highly differentiated tissues, nails, feathers, enamels, &c. Although mistaken in his view of the origin of new cells, his generalization at once became the foundation of all modern histology, and in the hands of Virchow (whose cellular pathology is an inevitable deduction from Schwann) has afforded the means of placing modern pathology on a truly scientific basis. An excellent account of Schwann’s life and work is that by Leon Frederica (Liege, 1884). SCHWANTHALER, Ludwig Michael (1802-1848), German sculptor, was born in Munich on 26th August 1802. His family had been known in Tyrol by its sculptors for three centuries; young Ludwig received his earliest lessons from his father, and the father had been instructed by the grandfather. The last to bear the name was Xaver, who worked in his cousin Ludwig’s studio and survived till 1854. For successive generations the family lived by the carving of busts and sepulchral monuments, and from the condition of mechanics rose to that of artists. From the Munich gymnasium Schwanthaler passed as a student to the Munich academy; at first he purposed to be a painter, but afterwards reverted to the plastic arts of his ancestors. His talents received timely encouragement by a commission for an elaborate silver service for the king’s table. Cornelius also befriended him; the great painter was occupied on designs for the decoration in fresco of the newly erected Glyptothek, and at his suggestion Schwanthaler was employed on the sculpture within the halls. Thus arose between painting, sculpture, and architecture that union and mutual support which characterized the revival of the arts in Bavaria. Schwanthaler in 1826 went to Italy as a pensioner of King Louis, and on a second visit in 1832 Thorwaldsen gave him kindly help. His skill was so developed that on his return he was able to meet the extraordinary demand for sculpture consequent on King Louis’s passion for building new palaces, churches, galleries, and museums, and he became the fellow-worker of the architects Klenze, Gartner, and Ohlmiiller, and of the painters Cornelius, Schnorr, and Hess. Owing to the magnitude and multitude of the plastic products they turned out, over-pressure and haste in design and workmanship brought down the quality of the art. The works of Schwanthaler in Munich are so many and miscellaneous that they can only be briefly indicated. The new palace is peopled with his statues : the throne-room has twelve imposing gilt bronze figures 10 feet high; the same palace is also enriched with a frieze and with sundry other decorations modelled and painted from his drawings. The sculptor, like his contemporary painters, received help from trained pupils. The same prolific artist also furnished the old Pinakothek with twenty-five marbles, commemorative of as many great painters; likewise he

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supplied a composition for the pediment of the exhibition of Saxony. See plate Y. As the dignity of prince is building facing the Grlyptothek, and executed sundry held in virtue of the Oberherrschaft alone, a share of botii figures for the public library and the hall of the marshals. baronies was given to each sub-line of the main house. T le Sacred art lay outside his ordinary routine, yet in the total area of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt is 363 square miles, churches of St Ludwig and St Mariahilf he gave proof of of which 283 are in the upper and 80 in the lower barony; chief towns in the former district are Rudolstadt (8747 the widest versatility. The Kuhmeshalle afforded further the crauge of unexampled power of production; here alone is inhabitants), the capital, and Blankenburg (1889), and m work which, if adequately studied, might have occupied a the latter Frankenhausen (4985). Both baronies are hilly, lifetime; ninety-two metopes, and, conspicuously, the giant but no great height is anywhere attained. The scenery of figure of Bavaria, 60 feet high, rank among the boldest the Thuringian portion of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt attracts feats of physical force. A short life of forty-six years many visitors annually, the most beautiful spots being the of the Schwarza and the lovely circular valley in did not permit serious undertakings beyond the Bavarian gorge the village of Schwarzburg nestles at the foot of a capital, yet time was found for the groups within the north which curiously isolated hill, crowned by the .ancient castle of the pediment of the Walhalla, Ratisbon, and also for numerous portrait statues, including those of Mozart, Jean. Paul princely line. Cattle-rearing and fruit-growing flourish in Richter Goethe, and Shakespeare. Schwanthaler died at the lower barony, while the upper barony is finely wooded. the whole country 44 per cent, is under forest (mainly Munich in 1848, and left by will to the Munich academy Of coniferous trees), and 41 per cent, is devoted to agriculall his models and studies, which now form the Schwan- ture. The chief grain crops are rye, oats, and barley, but thaler Museum. The sculptor’s style may be designated in 1883 thrice as much ground was occupied by potatoes as romantic-classic or modern-antique, and its conventional as by all these three together. The live-stock returns, in ideal stands far removed from the schools of naturalism 1883 showed 19,831 cattle, 39,024 sheep, 19,544 pigs, and of realism. SCHWARZ, or Schwartz, Christian Friedrich 14,420 goats, and 2813 horses. Agriculture and forestry (1726-1798), Protestant missionary to India, was born on support about 35 per cent, of the population, and mining and cognate industries about 10 per cent. Trade and 8th October 1726 at Sonnenburg, in the electorate of manufactures are insignificant; iron, lignite, cobalt, alum, Brandenburg, Prussia. After attending the grammar and vitriol are among the mineral productions.. In 1880 school of his native town and an academy at Kiistrin, he the population was 80,296 (an increase of 1779 since 1875), in 1746 entered the university of Halle.. Having learned or about 221 to the square mile. Of these 79,832 were Tamil to assist in a translation of the Bible into that lan- Protestants guage, he was led to form the intention of becoming a Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt is a limited hereditary sovereignty, its missionary to India. He received ordination at Copen- constitution resting on laws of 1854 and 1870, though a diet has hagen on the 8th August 1749, and, after spending some met at intervals since 1816. The present diet consists of sixteen time in England to acquire the English language,_ embarked members elected for six years, four chosen by the highest taxpayers, others by general election. The diet must be summoned eveiy early in 1750 for India, and arrived at Trichmopoly on the three years. The budget for 1885-87 estimated revenue and exthe 30th July. Tranquebar was for some time his head- penditure each at £101,210; £57,670 was the estimated income quarters, but he paid frequent visits to Tanjore and Tri- from the public lands and forests. The public debt was £230,350 chinopoly, and in 1766 removed to the latter place. Here The troops of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt have been incorporated v ith Prussian army since the convention of 1867. The principality he acted as chaplain to the garrison, who erected a church the has one vote in the Reichstag and one in the federal council. for his general use. In 1769 he secured the friendship Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt is the cadet branch of the family. In of the rajah of Tanjore, who, although he never embraced 1710 the count was made a prince, in spite of the remonstrances ot Christianity, afforded him every countenance in his .mis- the elector of Saxony, although he was prevented from taking his in the imperial college until 1754. The principality entered sionary labours. Shortly before his death he committed seat the Confederation of the Rhine in 1807 and the German League m to Schwarz the education of his adopted son and successor. 1815. In 1819 it redeemed the Prussian claims of superiority by In 1779 Schwarz undertook, at the request of the Madras surrendering portions of its territory. SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN, a small ThurGovernment, a private embassy to Hyder Ali, the chief of Mysore. When Hyder invaded the Carnatic, Schwarz ingian principality and an independent member of the was allowed to pass through the enemy’s encampment German empire, shares the old Schwarzburg lands with without molestation. After twelve years in Trichmopoly Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, as explained m the preceding he removed to Tanjore, where he spent the remainder of article. Its total area is 333 square miles, of which 133 his life. He died on 13th February 1798. Schwarzs are in the upper and 200 in the lower barony . The chief direct success in making converts exceeded that of any towns are Arnstadt (10,516 inhabitants), which at one other Protestant missionary in India, in addition to which time gave name to a line of counts, in the latter district, he succeeded in winning the esteem of Mohammedans anc and Sondershausen (6110), the capital, in the former The Hindus. The rajah of Tanjore erected a monument, exe- general description of the nature and resources ot Schwarzcuted by Flaxman, in the mission church, in which he is burg-Rudolstadt applies also to this principality,, except represented as grasping the hand of the dying missionary that 58 per cent, of the whole is devoted to agriculture and receiving his benediction. A splendid monument to and 30 per cent, to forests, only about two-fifths of which Schwarz by Bacon was placed by the East India Company are coniferous trees. The chief crops are oats, barley, in St Mary’s church at Madras. wheat, and rye; but here also by far the most land is planted See Remains of Schwarz, with a sketch of his llfe> with potatoes. In 1883 the principality contained 21,205 Memoirs of Life and Correspondence, by H. N. Pearson, 18-J4, If they could be raised out of the sea they that the present lakes are being visibly diminished, and they Thai tinT6 S eniSf "?th lak1es. fillinS OP their deeper portions y been 11, lllst01 cannot, therefore, be of high geological antiquity. It is worthy question mWim, They Tias real i J11?land-valleys, 'y can hardly admit of are submerged and as they run down oi lemaik that the glen lakes are almost wholly confined to the the whole western coast they show that side of the country to have western half of the Highlands, where they form the largest sheets subsided to a considerable depth beneath its former level. The ot fresh water. Hardly any lakes are to be seen east of a line cottish sea lochs must be viewed in connexion those of drawn from Inverness to Perth. West of that line, however, they western Ireland and of Norway. The whole of this with north-western abound in both the longitudinal and the transverse valleys. The coast-hne of Europe bears witness to recent submergence. The bed most remarkable line of them is that which fills up so much of the t m IS 01 th Sea, which at no distant date in geological history was Great Glen. Loch Ness, the largest, is upwards of 20 miles lono- a land surface across which plants and animals migrated freely into about 1J miles broad, and not less than 774 feet deep in the Great Britain beneath the sea-level, while the Atlantic addeepest part. This great depression exceeds the general depth vanced upon thesank margin of the continent and filled the seareached by the floor of the North Sea between Great Britain and ward ends of whatwestern had previously been valleys open to the sun. Notthe opposite shores of the Continent. Other important longitudinal improbably the amount of subsidence was greater towards the west. fakes are Lochs Tay, Awe, Ericht, and Shiel. The most picturesque glen lakes, however, lie in transverse valleys, which beino- side • 1Neail y thecountry, whole coast-lme Scotland is rocky. east of the indeed, theofshores of the estuariesOnarethe genercut across the strike of the rocks present greater variety, and ally low, but the land between the mouths of these inlets is more usually also more abruptness of outline. Lochs Lomond, Katrine oi less precipitous. On the west side the coast is for the most part and Lubnaig in the southern Highlands, and Lochs Maree and either a steep rocky declivity or a sea-wall, though strips of lower More in the north, are conspicuous examples. are found m the bays. The sea-cliffs everywhere vary in Rock(2) Rock-tarns are small lakes lying in rock-basins on the sides ground then characters according to the nature of the rock out of which tarns. of mountains or the summits of ridges, and on rocky plateaus or they have been carved. At Cape Wrath precipices nearly 300 feet p ams. Unlike the glen lakes, they have no necessary dependence high have been cut out of the Archsean gneiss. The varying texupon lines of valley. On the contrary, they are scattered as it ture this rock, its irregular foliation and jointing, and its ramiwere broadcast over the districts in which they occur, and are by fynigofveins of pegmatite conspire to give it very unequal powers of far the most abundant of all the lakes of the country. Dispersed m different parts ot its mass. Consequently it projects over all parts of the western Highlands, they are most numerous resistance m irregular bastions and buttresses and retires into deep recesses m the north-west, especially in the Outer Hebrides and in the west and tunnels, showing everywhere a ruggedness of aspect which is of Ross-shire and Sutherland. The surface of the Arabian gneiss is so thickly sprinkled with them that many tracts consist almost rZs/nf trp11!10- In f ikinS contrast t0 precipices br as much of water as of land. They almost invariably.lie on strongly vlf ^-, fi heiiCail T shoot T1 samlstone a few milesto toa height the east. ofr rock up from the waves of ice-worn platforms of rock. Their sides and the rocky islets winch Aastveiticalwalls 600 feet, cut by their perpendicular joints into quadrangular piers diversify their surface have been powerfully glaciated. They cannot and projections, some of which even stand out alone as cathedralbe due to either fracture or subsidence, but are obviously hollows profront of the main cliff. The sombre colouring is duced by erosion. They have accordingly with much probability been hke isletsby mlines of vegetation along the edges of the nearly flat assigned to the gouging action of the sheets of land-ice by which relieved. beds which project like vast cornices and serve as nesting-places the general glaciation of the country was effected. In the southern 0l tbe W6st Side of the C0lmtr uplands, owing probably to the greater softness and uniformity of notable l the most cliffs south from those of Cape Wrath and theyCambrian texture among the rocks, rock-tarns are comparatively infrequent, uMaT sandstones of Sutherland are to be found among the basaltic islands, except m Galloway, where the protrusion of granite and its associated Sk e a metamorphism have given rise to conditions of rock-structure more to In ^nnn f1! Vbounds y > the where magnificent of precipices rising 1000 feet western coast-line.rangeThe highest cliffs in like those of the Highlands. Over the rocky hill-ranges of the the country are found among the Shetland and Orkney Islands. Ce a L0wlan(ls rock tarns ‘ occasionally make their back appearance. Moraine- ?o[ (o) i Moraine-tarns—small sheets of water ponded by some Irm f rA R1 ^m Toula, the walls Shetland group, and the western of Hoy Orkneyone riseoflike to heights of 1100 or 1200 tarns. of the last moraines shed by the retreating glaciers—are confined front feet above the waves that tunnel their base. Caithness is one wide to the more mountainous tracts. Among the southern uplands almost evei ywhere in a range of sea-precipices many beautiful examples may be seen, probably the best known f Gld R A, ed Sandstone Along the eastern coast-line most of the and certamly one of the most picturesque being the wild lonely ° . a e k)rmed of rocks I 0 el aVen an almost belonging to the same formation. Beginin a recess Mir of Whitecoomb at the parts head of of the ioffatr \V ater. Others are sprinkled over the higher the t unbroken line of precipice varying t 20a a ? ! ^n n„ p leet m height runs southwards to the mouth of the Gallowa Ifm “i yNone occur in the central Lowlands. In the 6 souGlern Highlands they may be counted by hundreds, nestling in the riie ■ ° ‘vt- ami rr uplands plunge abruptly into s Head bottoms of the comes. In the north-western counties, where the oOO 5nn feet f r nea ir Stwbband inwestern a nobleside range precipices 300 to 1 on the in height, the ofsame high grounds

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terminate in a long broken line of sea-wall, which begins at the mouth of Loch Ryan, extends to the Mull of Galloway, and reappears again in the southern headlands of Wigtown and Kirkcudbright. One of the most picturesque features of the Scottish seacliffs is the numerous “stacks” or columns of rock which during the demolition and recession of the precipices have been isolated and left standing amidst the waves. These remnants attain their most colossal size and height on the cliffs of Old Red Sandstone. Thus the Old Man of Hoy in Orkney is a huge column of yellow sandstone between 400 and 500 feet high, forming a conspicuous landmark in the north. The coast of Caithness abounds in outstanding pillars and obelisks of flagstone. The low shores on the west coast are not infrequently occupied by sand-dunes. Such accumulations fringe the western margin of North and South Hist, and are found in many bays from the north of Sutherland to the coast of Ayrshire. They are more abundant on the east coast, especially on the shores of Aberdeenshire, between the mouths of the two Esks, on both sides of the mouth of the Firth of Tay, and at various places in the Firth of Forth. Raised sea-beaches likewise play a part in the coast scenery of the country. These alluvial terraces form a strip of low fertile land between the edge of the sea and the rising ground of the interior, and among the western fjords sometimes supply the only arable soil in their neighbourhood, their flat green surfaces presenting a strong contrast to the brown and barren moors that rise from them. Most of the seaport towns of the country stand upon platforms of raised beach. Considerable deposits of mud, silt, and sand are accumulating in most of the estuaries. In the Tay, Forth, and Clyde, where important harbours are situated, considerable expense is involved in dredging to remove the sediment continually brought down from the land and carried backward and forward by the tides. Wide alluvial flats are there exposed at low water. Islands. While no islands except mere solitary rocks like May Island, the Bass Rock, and Inchkeith diversify the eastern seaboard, the western side of Scotland presents a vast number, varying in size from such extensive tracts as Skye down to the smallest sea-stack or skerry. Looked at in the broadest way, these numerous islands may be regarded as belonging to two groups or series,—the Outer and the Inner Hebrides. The Outer Hebrides, extending from Barra Head to the Butt of Lewis, consist of a continuous chain of islands composed (with the exception of a small tract in the east of Lewis) entirely of Archaean rocks. Most of the ground is low, rocky, and plentifully dotted over with lakes; but it rises, into mountainous heights in Harris, some of the summits attaining elevations of 2600 feet. The general trend of this long belt of islands is north-north-east. The Inner Hebrides form a much less definite group. They may be regarded as beginning with the Shiant Isles in the Minch and stretching to the southern headlands of Isla, the most important members being Skye, Mull, Isla, Jura, Rum, Eigg, Coll, Tiree, and Colonsay. . The irregularity of this fringe of islands has no doubt been in chief measure brought about by its remarkable diversity of geological structure. Archaean gneiss, Cambrian sandstone, Silurian quartzite, limestone, and schist, Jurassic sandstone and limestone, Cretaceous sandstone, and Tertiary basalts, gabbros, and granitic rocks all enter into the composition of the islands. InfluWithin the limits of this article it is only possible to allude to ences of some of the more important influences of the topography on the topo- history of the inhabitants. How powerfully the configuration of graphy the country affects the climate is shown in the remarkable difference on between the rainfall of the mountainous west and of the lowland inhabit- east. This difference has necessarily affected the character and ants. employments of the people, leading to the development of agriculture on the one side and the raising of sheep and cattle on the other. The fertile low grounds on the east have offered facilities for the invasions of Romans, Norsemen, and English, while the mountainous fastnesses of the interior and the west have served as secure retreats for the older Celtic population. While., therefore, Teutonic people have spread over the one area, the earlier race has to this day maintained its ground in the other. Not only the external configuration but the internal geological structure of the country has profoundly influenced the progress of the inhabitants. In the Highlands no mineral wealth has been discovered to stimulate the industry of the natives or to attract the labour and capital of strangers. These tracts remain still as of old sparsely inhabited and given over to the breeding of stock and the pursuit of game. In the Lowlands, on the other hand, rich stores of coal, iron, lime, and other minerals have been found. The coal-fields have gradually drawn to them an ever-increasing share of the population. Villages and towns have there sprung recently into existence and have rapidly increased in size. Manufactures have been developed and commerce has advanced with accelerated pace. Other influences have of course contributed largely to the development of the country, but among them all the chief place must undoubtedly be assigned to that fortunate geological structure which, amid the revolutions of the.past, has preserved in the centre of Scotland those fields of coal and ironstone which are the foundations of the national industry. (A. GE.)

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Climate.—In considering the climate of Scotland the.first place Climate, must be assigned to the temperature of the various districts during the months of the year, it being this which gives the chief characteristics of climate and not the mean temperature of the whole year. Thus, while the annual temperatures of the west and east coasts are nearly equal, the summer and winter temperatures are very different. At Portree (on east coast- of Skye) the mean temperatures- of January and July are 39° and 56° 8, whereas at Perth they are.37° 5 and 59o-0. The prominent feature of the isothermals of the winter months is their north and south direction, thus pointing not to.the. sun but to the warm waters of the Atlantic as the more powerful influence in determining the Scottish climate at this season through the agency of the prevailing westerly winds. The Atlantic is in truth a vast repository of heat, in which the higher temperature of summer and that of more southern latitudes are treasured up against the rigours of winter ; and .in exceptionally cold seasons the ocean protects all places in its more immediate neighbourhood against the severe frosts which occur in inland situations. While this influence of the ocean is felt at all seasons, it is most strikingly, seen in winter ; and it is more decided in proportion as the locality is surrounded by the warm waters of the Atlantic. At Edinburgh the temperature is 27°'0 and at Lerwick 32°'5 higher than would otherwise be the case ; in other words, but for the ameliorating influence of the Atlantic the temperature of Edinburgh in midwinter would only be 12°'5 and of Lerwick 7°‘5, or such winters as characterize the climates of Greenland and Iceland. The influence of the North Sea is similarly apparent, but in a less degree. Along the whole of the eastern coast, from the Pentland Firth southwards, temperature is higher than what is found a little inland to the west. The lowest temperature yet observed in the British Isles was -16°'0, which occurred near Kelso in December 1879. In summer, everywhere, latitude for latitude, temperature is lower in the west than in The east and inland situations. In winter the inland climates are the coldest, but in summer the warmest. The course of the isothermal lines at this season is very instructive. Thus the line of 59° passes from the Solway directly northwards to the north of Perthshire and thence curves round eastwards to near Stonehaven. From Teviotdale to the Grampians temperature falls only one degree ; but for the same distance farther northwards it falls three degrees. The isothermal of 56° marks off the districts where the finer cereals are most successfully raised. This distribution of the temperature shows that the influence of the Atlantic in moderating the heat of summer is very great and is felt a long way into the interior of the country. On the other hand, the high lands of western districts by robbing the westerly winds of their moisture, and thus clearing the skies of eastern districts, exercise an equally striking effect in the opposite direction,—in raising the temperature. There is nearly twice as much wind from the south-west as from the north-east, but the proportions vary greatly in different months. The south-west prevails most from July to October, and again from December to February ; accordingly in these months the rainfall is heaviest. These are the summer and winter portions of the year, and an important result of the prevalence of these winds, with their accompanying rains, which are coincident with the annual extremes of temperature, is to imprint a more strictly insular character on the Scottish climate, by moderating the heat of summer and the cold of winter. The north-east winds acquire their greatest frequency from March to June and in November, which are accordingly the driest portions of the year. The mountainous regions of Scotland are mostly massed in the west and lie generally north and south, or approximately perpendicular to the rain-bringing winds from the Atlantic. Hence the westerly winds are turned out of their horizontal course, and, being thrust up into the higher regions of the atmosphere, their temperature is lowered, when the vapour is condensed into, cloud and deposits in rain the water they can no longer hold in suspension. Thus the climates of the west are essentially wet. On the other hand, the climates of the east are dry, because the surface is lower and more level ; and the breezes borne thither from the west, being robbed of most of their superabundant moisture in crossing the western hills, are therefore drier and precipitate a greatly diminished rainfall. It thus happens that the driest climates in the east are those which have to south-westwards the broadest extent of mountainous ground, and that the wettest eastern climates are those which are least protected by high lands on the west. The breakdown of the watershed between the Firths of Clyde and Forth exposes southern Perthshire, the counties of Clackmannan and Kinross, and nearly the whole of Fife to the clouds and rains of the west, and their climates are consequently wetter than those of any other of the eastern slopes of the country. The driest climates of the east, on the other hand, are in Tweeddale about Kelso and Jedburgh, the low grounds of East Lothian, and those on the Moray Firth from Elgin round to Dornoch. In these districts the annual rainfall for the twenty-four years ending 1883 was about 26 inches, whereas over extensive breadths in the west it exceeds 100 inches, in Glencroe being nearly 130 inches and on the top of Ben Nevis 150 inches. ®-)

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[statistics.

PART III.—STATISTICS. Popula Population ; Vital and Social Statistics.—At the end of the 15th 10 per cent, in each county, with the exception of Argyll, Perth, tion. century it is supposed that the population of Scotland did not and Sutherland. The census returns for these years do not exceed 500,000,—Edinburgh having about 20,000 inhabitants, supply materials for an accurate estimate as to the increase of followed by Perth with about 9000, and Aberdeen, Dundee, and the purely rural or agricultural population, but it must have been St Andrews each with about 4000. By the time of the Union in considerable. Between 1841 and 1881 the following counties 1707 it is supposed to have reached 1,000,000, while according declined in population: —Argyll, Inverness, Kinross, Perth, Ross to the returns furnished by the clergy to Dr Webster in 1755 it and Cromarty, Sutherland, and Wigtown,—all chiefly agricultural, was 1,265,380. At the time of the first Government census in and five of them in the Highlands, where much of the land 1801 it had reached 1,608,420. The increase through all the was held by crofters. Only one county, Kinross, has a smaller succeeding decades has been continuous, though fluctuating in population in 1881 than in 1801. Between 1851 and 1881 the amount, and in 1881 it had reached 3,735,573 (males 1,799,475, island population, chiefly crofters, decreased by 4866, and the rural females 1,936,098),—an increase within the eighty years of 132 population between 1861 and 1881 by 125,583. In the following per cent. During the same period the population of England and Highland counties the diminution in rural population between 1861 A\ ales had increased 192 per cent., while the population of and 1881 was as follows Argyll from 60,109 to 46,081, Caithness Ireland, owing to a rapid decrease since 1841, does not now differ from 28,279 to 24,309, Inverness from 74,439 to 67,355, Perth from greatly from what it was at the beginning of the century. The 69,480 to 57,016, Ross and Cromarty from 59,147 to 49,882, and following table (I.) gives the areas of the various counties and of Sutherland from 21,560 to 18,696. In the total population of, the whole of Scotland, the population in 1871 and 1881, the num- Scotland the rate of increase was considerably less between 1841 and ber of persons to the square mile of land-surface in the latter year, 1881 than during the first forty years of the century,—42-5 to 62‘9 and the increase or decrease per cent, between 1871 and 1881 per cent. The rates per cent, of increase in the several decades from 1801 have been as follows 12-27, 15-82, 13-04, 10-82, 10-25, Increase 6, 972, and 11-18. The high rate of increase between 1871 and 1881 Population. Pop. per or Area in was due to an exceptional briskness of trade, and unless it has been Counties. Sq. Mile, Decrease Acres. per cent. maintained (which is not probable) the- estimate of the registrar1881. 1871-1881. general, which makes the population in 1885 number 3,907,736, must be regarded as much too sanguine. Table III. (see below) Aberdeen 1,262,098 244,603 267,990 + 9-56 137 gives the population of the eight largest towns of Scotland at Argyll 2,134,274 75,679 76,408 24 + 1-04 Ayr decennial periods since 1801. It is a curious fact that each of 735,262 200,809 217,519 193 + 8-32 Banff 413,791 62,023 62,736 these towns has maintained its place in the “eight,” although 98 + 1-15 Berwick 297,161 36,486 35,392 77 - 3-00 several towns now- tread closely on the heels of Perth, whose rate Bute 143,997 16,977 17,657 81 + 4'00 of progress with that of Paisley has lagged greatly behind that of Caithness 448.867 39,992 38,865 57 2-82 Clackmannan . 31,876 the other six. 23,747 25,680 539 + 8-14 Dumbarton ... 172,677 58,857 75,333 312 +27-99 While in England and ales the number of persons to the square DistribuDumfries 705,946 74,808 76,140 72 + 1-78 mile in 1881 wras 452 and in Ireland 159, in Scotland the number tion of Edinburgh ... 234,926 328,379 389,164 1075 +18-51 Elgin or Moray was only 125. The small density of Scotland is due chiefly to the popula312,346 43,128 43,788 92 + 1-53 Fife 328.427 160,735 171,931 large proportion of mountainous land. In the north-w-estern coun- tion. 349 + 6-96 Forfar 569,851 237,567 266,360 304 + 12-12 ties the density was only 23 to the square mile, in the northern 34, Haddington ... 179,142 37,771 38,502 142 + 1-94 in the vvest midland 68, in the southern 68, while in the northInverness 2,767,078 88,015 90.454 22 + 2-77 Kincardine ... 248,195 eastern it w-as 115, in the east midland 149, in the south-eastern 34,630 34,464 90 - 0-48 Kinross 49,812 7,198 6,697 92 - 6-96 299, and in the south-w-estern—Renfrew, Ayr, and Lanark—614. Kirkcudbright. 610,343 41,859 42,127 47 + 0-64 Table IV. (see p. 529) shows by the excess of births over deaths the Lanark 568.868 765,339 904,412 1026 +18-17 Linlithgow ... increase that should have taken place between 1861 and 1871, and 81,113 40,965 43,510 363 + 6-21 Nairn 127.906 10,225 10.455 between 1871 and 1881 (but for the balance of emigration over 58 + 2-25 Orkney and Orkney 85 + 2-46 immigration), compared with the actual increase, the grouping being Shetland ... 638,332 62,882 61,749 Shetland 54 - 6-02 into towns with over 25,000 inhabitants, towns between 10,000 and Peebles 227.869 12,330 13,822 39 +12-10 Perth . 1,664,690 127,768 129,007 25,000, towns under 10,000 and above 2000, and rural districts. It 51 + 0-97 Renfrew 162.428 216,947 263,374 1075 +21-40 is impossible to make a comparison betw-een 1861 and 1881 inasmuch Ross and Croas the proportion of large and small towns and rural districts has marty 2,078,896 80,955 78,547 25 - 2-97 Roxburgh varied. It must also be explained that in comparing 1861 and 428,464 49,407 53,442 80 + 8-17 Selkirk 166,524 18,572 25,564 99 1871 the census of 1861 is taken as the authority for the grouping +37-65 Stirling 298,579 98,218 112,443 251 +14-48 and in comparing 1871 and 1881 the census of 1871. This table Sutherland .... 1,359,846 24,317 23,370 12 3-89 Wigtown show-s in both decades an actual increase in the large and in 327.906 38,830 38,611 79 - 0-56 the principal towns greater than that resulting from excess of Total 19,777,490 ;,360,018 3,735,573 + 11-18 births over deaths. It is the result not only of migration from small ttowns and rural districts but of the immigration of fable II. (see below) affords a comparison of the numbers of the the English, Irish, and foreigners, and the return of natives of Scotland population m 1861, 1871, and 1881 as grouped in towns, villages from abroad. By a comparison with Table II. it w-ill be observed and rural districts. The returns do not afford a means of comparison that the increase in the rural districts betw-een the decades in Table between earlier years than those given. A striking fact deserving IV. occurs in the villages, and a closer examination of Table ot mention is that in every county in Scotland the population IV. furtheronly that any seeming increase is really delusive, and increased between 1801 and 1841, the increase being more than arises from show-s the fact that ther-e is no provision for the increase in Table II. Increase or Decrease, 1861 to-1871. Actual. Percentage. +335,570 +20-76 + 47,253 +13-90 - 85,099 - 7-69 +297,724 + 9-72

Total Population.

Groups. 1861. 1,616,134 339,740 1,106,420 3,062,294

Towns Villages Rural districts Scotland .

1871. 1,951,704 386,993 1,021,321 3,360,018

1881. 2,306,852 447,884 980,837 3,735,573

Increase or Decrease, Percentage 1871 to 1881. to Total Population. Actual. Percentage. 1861. 1871. +355,148 + 18-20 52-78 58-09 61-75 + 60,891 + 15-73 11-09 11-52 11-99 - 40,484 - 3-96 36-13 30-39 26-26 +375,555 +11-18 100-00 100-00 100-00

Table III. Name. Edinburgh ) Leith j Glasgow .... Aberdeen .. Dundee .... Paisley Greenock .. Perth

81,404 77,058 26,992 27,396 25,058 17,190 16,388

1811.

1821.

1831.

1841.

1851.

1861.

1871.

1881.

101,492 103,224 34,640 31,058 29,461 18,750 16,564

136,351 140,432 43,821 32,126 38,102 21,719 18,197

' 136,548 25,855 193,030 56,681 48,026 46,222 27,082 19,238

132,977 25,984 261,004 63,288 64,629 48,263 36,169 20,407

160,302 30,919 329,097 71,973 78,931 47,952 36,689 23,835

168,121 33,628 394,864 73,805 90,417 47,406 42,098 25,250

196,979 44,280 477,156 88,108 118,977 48,240 57,146 25,585

228,357 59,485 551,415 105,189 140,239 55,638 66,704 28,980

Estimate 1885. 250,616 68,414 519,965 113,212 152,838 59,108 73,095 31,322

STATISTICS.]

SCOTLAND 529 the number of small towns. Thus according to the grouping of of illegitimate to the total number of births in 1855 was 7’8, 1871 the rural population of 1871 was nearly 28,000 less than the and reached its maximum in 1865, when it was 10-2, while in rural population of 1861 according to the grouping of 1861. It 1885 it was 8-46. It is much higher in the lowland rural is from the villages and small towns that the large towns are districts than in the Highland rural districts, and lowest in the principally recruited, the purely rural population preferring as a large towns. The percentages of births, deaths, and marriages rule to emigrate. to population in the annual reports of the registrar-general are in NationTable V. shows the nationalities of the people of Scotland in 1871 a great degree misleading, inasmuch as the estimated population and 1881, with the nationalities in 1881 in those burghs which generally differs greatly from the actual. They place it, however, ality. had a population of 10,000 and upwards :— beyond doubt that the greatest birth, marriage, and mortality rates are in the town districts, that the smallest birth and marriage Scotland 1871. Scotland 1881. Burghs 1881. rates are in the insular districts, after which come the mainland rural districts, and that the mortality is not so high in the insular PerNationalities. PerPerNumber. centage Number. centage Number. centage rural as in the mainland rural districts. Table VII. (see below) to Pop. to Pop. to Pop. gives the percentage of single, married, and widowed to the total of each sex in Scotland, England and Wales, and Ireland respect8,061,531 91-117 3,397,759 90-957 1,429,012 87T16 ively Scots in 1881. 207,770 6-184 218,745 5-856 141,626 8-634 Irish 69,401 2-065 90,017 2-410 51,402 3 134 English The number of blind persons in Scotland in 1881 was 3158 Blind, British colonials.. 9,740 0-290 12,874 0-345 7,768 0-473 (males 1556, females 1602), the proportion to the total population &c. British subjects 5,068 0"151 7,024 0-188 from abroad 4,954 0-254 being 1 in 1182 (males 1156, females 1208); the proportion in 1871 4,698 0T40 Foreigners 6,399 0-171 4,171 0-302 was 1 in 1112. The deaf and dumb in 1881 numbered 2142 (males 1,081 0-032 Welsh 1,806 0-048 882 0-054 1149, females 993), the proportion to the total population being 1 From Channel Isles 729 0-021 949 0-025 545 0-033 in eveiy 1744 as against 1 in every 1610 in 1871. The number of 3,360,018 100-000 3,735,573 Totals lunatics was returned as 8406 (males 3939, females 4467) or 1 in 1,640,360 every 444 of the total population, the proportion in 1871 being 1 This table indicates not merely an actual but a proportional in- in every 494. In addition to this there were 5991 imbeciles (males crease in non-natives, there being an actual increase but a pro- 2896, females 3095), or 1 to every 623 of the population, the proportional decrease of natives of Ireland, and both an actual and a portion in 1871 being 1 in every 727. Table VIII. gives a classification of the population according to Occupaproportional increase of natives of England. Over the whole of tions. Scotland the proportion of non-natives is a little over 9 per cent., occupations in 1871 and 1881:— ivhile in the burghs it is nearly 13 per cent. The number of Per cent, of Total Pop. persons of Scottish birth in Ireland in 1881 was 22,328, and in 1881. England it was 253,528,— a total in the two countries of 275,856. Classes of Occupation. 1871. 1871. 1881. On the other hand, the natives of the two countries in Scotland Professional .. 72,911 96,103 22in 1881 were together 308,762, so that there is a smaller migra- 1.2. Domestic 159,403 176,565 4-74 4-73 tion from Scotland to these countries than from these countries to 3. Commercial...... 114,694 132,126 33Scotland. 4. Agricultural .. 270,008 269,537 8-04 7-21 Industrial ..., 751,281 932,653 22-36 24-97 EmigraThe following table (VI.) shows the emigration of persons of 6.5. Unproductive 1,991,721 2,128,589 59-28 56-98 tion. Scottish origin from the United Kingdom at various periods since 1853 :— It should be explained that the apparent diminution in the pro- PauperYears .... 1853-55 1856-60 1861-65 1866-70 1871-75 1876-80 1881-85 1853-85 portion of the unproductive class may be accounted for by the fact ism. in 1871 paupers were returned in this class, whereas in 1881 Emigrants 62,514 59,016 62,461 85,621 95,055 70,596 133,527 568,790 that they were returned under the occupation at which they used to The increase in the proportion of the professional and Comparing 1856-60 with 1881-85 it will be seen that the number work. commercial classes is at least a slight indication of higher average of emigrants has more than doubled,—an increase of course propor- prosperity, but this is more conclusively established by the fact tionately much greater than the population. There are no statistics that the number of paupers has for many years been steadily on as to the number of immigrants into Scotland; and the significance the decline, the proportion now (1886) only 2-4 of the of Table VI. is further lessened by the fact that it includes persons population. The average costbeing of maintenance is, however, on the who may have been for some time resident in England or Ireland, or increase, owing entirely to the increased cost of the maintenance of who may have been born there of Scottish parentage, and also sup- the lunatic poor. plies no information regarding emigration to the Continent. Only Crime, like pauperism, is also steadily declining, as is shown Crime, the principal ports, moreover, are included in the return. by Table IX. The male population in 1881 was 1,799,475, an increase since Vital statistics. 1871 of 12- -2 percent. ; the female population 1,936,098,- an increase Average. of only 10 2 per cent. Since 1811, when there were 118 5 females to Offences. Total, 183618511875- 1880every 100 males, the proportion has been continuously diminishing, 40. 55. 79. 84. Males. Females. and in 1881 it was 107-6, but still greater than prevails -either in England, which was 105-5, or in Ireland, which was 104 3. The Against person 751 1014 881 838 905 980 proportion differs greatly in different counties, being as high as Against property with violence 530 532 520 524 515 595 property without vio134-71 in Shetland, chiefly on account of the number of males at Against lence 1676 1102 1916 930 649 262 911 sea. In Scotland the proportion of female births is smaller than Against property, malicious.. 47 62 122 52 8 60 120 109 44 48 36 that of male births: in 1885 it was 100 to 105 ; and males Forgery, &c 6 42 266 247 112 122 82 7 89 preponderate in the population up till the age of twenty-five, Other offences clearly showing that the excess of females is due to male emigra3390 3880 2781 438 2677 tion or the greater mortality of male occupations. The percentage

Groups. Principal towns . Large towns ... Small towns .., Rural districts , Scotland

Sexes. Males .. Females

Table IV. Increase or Decrease Population according to Population according to Grouping in 1871. from 1861 to 1871. Grouping in 1861. Births Deaths Births Deaths Excess 1861-71. 1861-71. 1871-81. 1871-81. Births 1881. 1871. Actual. of over 1861. 1871. Deaths. 1,193,940 1,411,536 884,955 1,068,556 376,856 274,511 429,679 296,285 +183,601 +102,345 327,734 310,165 103,519 68,769 150,095 94,498 + 56,135 + 34,750 254,030 388,797 696,958 502,833 540,807 790,796 190,128 115,147 293,220 171,485 + 37,974 + 74,981 1,141,386 1,144,444 1,420,476 1,440,490 450,288 247,769 361,357 203,200 + 20,014 +202,519 3,062,294 3,360,018 3,360,018 3,735,573 1,120,791 706,196 1,234,351 765,468 +297,724 +414,595

Single. 66-281 62-854

Scotland. Married. 30-441 28-957

Table VII. England and Wales. Widowed Single. Married. Widowed. 34-628 3-278 61-932 3-440 33-282 8-189 59-226 7-492

Single. 68-714 63-442

Increase or Decrease from 1871 to 1881. Excess Births Actual. of over Deaths. +217,596 +133,394 + 61,063 + 55,597 + 93,838 +121,735 + 3,058 +158,157 + 375,555 +468,883

Ireland. Married. Widowed. 27-501 3-785 26-976 9-582 XXL — 67

SCOTLAND

[statistics. Roads. Communication.—In the 12th century an Act was passed provid- the Highland, formed by amalgamation in 1865, total capital ing that the highways between market-towns should be at least £4,445,316 ; and the Great North of Scotland, 1846, total capital 20 feet broad. Over the principal rivers at this early period there £4,869,983. The management of the small branch lines belonging were bridges near the most populous places, as over the Dee near to local companies is generally undertaken by the larger companies. Aberdeen, the Esk at Brechin, the Tay at Perth, and the Forth By 1849 there were 795 miles of railway in Scotland. The follownear Stirling. Until the 16th century, however, traffic between ing table (X.) shows the progress since 1857 (see also Railway, distant places was carried on chiefly by pack-horses. The first vol. xx. pp. 226-230):— stage-coach in Scotland was that which ran between Edinburgh Passengers. and Leith in 1610. In 1658 there was a fortnightly stage-coach •&0 “c Receipts from Total. between Edinburgh and London, but afterwards it would appear Year. Third and s a |-g Goods Second First Mixed Total. to have been discontinued for many years. Separate Acts enClass. Class. Classes. Trains. joining the justices of the peace, and afterwards along with them the commissioners of supply, to take measures for the £ £ £ 1243 1,823,542 2,180,284 10,729,677 14,733,503 916,' 1,584,781 2,501,478 maintenance of roads were passed in 1617, 1669, 1676, and 1857 1874 2700 4,261,473 38,220,892 3,769,485 30,189,934 2,350,593 3,884,424 6,235,017 1686. These provisions had reference chiefly to what afterwards 1884 2999 4,711,500 2,715,932 46,877,642 54,305,074 2,931,737 4,426,0237,357,760 came to be known as “statute labour roads,” intended primarily to supply a means of communication within the several parishes. Agriculture.—Table XL shows the divisions of land as regards OwnerThey were kept in repair by the tenants and cotters, and, when ownership according to the return (the latest) of 1873 :— ship of their labour was not sufficient, by the landlords, who were required soil. to “ stent ” (assess) themselves, customs also being sometimes levied O03 c4SO®G at bridges, ferries, and causeways. By separate local Acts the Gross “statute labour” was in many cases converted into a payment Owners holding each *3° Annual S£ Value. called “conversion money,” and the General Roads Act of 1845 made the alteration universal. By the Roads and Bridges (Scotland)

a + c of the police committee. Practically, however, the office Government, Law, and Local Administration.—By _ the Act ot member Parlialittle more than honorary, and the real administration of county mentary Union in 1707 Scotland ceased to have a separate parliament and isaffairs is in the hands of commissioners of supply, who were originally repre- its government was assimilated to that of England. In the appointed to apportion and collect the national revenue, but who now senta- parliament of Great Britain its representation was fixed at sixteen regulate the land-tax, control the county police, raise the militia peers (the same number as at present) elected by the peers of and levy rates to meet the county expenditure. In 1878 an Act tion. Scotland at each new parliament, in the House of Lords, and at was passed for the creation of road trustees, who have the power to forty-five members in the House of Commons, the counties levy rates for the maintenance throughout the county of roads and returning thirty and the burghs fifteen. The power of the sove- bridges (see p. 530 above). The practical administration of the law reign to create new Scottish peerages lapsed at the Union, and their in the county is under the control of the sheriff. See Sheriff. number has already diminished by nearly one-half. _ By the Reform A large proportion of his duties are, however, delegated to the Act of 1832 the number of Scottish representatives in the Commons sheriffisubstitute. At one time the functions of the sheriff-principal was raised to fifty-three, the counties under a slightly altered were confined to one county, but by an Act passed in 1855 it was arrangement returning thirty members as before, and the burghs, that as sheriffdoms fell vacant certain counties should be reinforced by the erection of various towns into parliamentary arranged grouped into districts, each under the control of one sheriff-prmciburghs, twenty-three ; the second Reform Act (1868) increased pal and in 1870 this arrangement was further modified and exthe number to sixty, the universities obtaining representation by tended. The sheriff-clerk, appointed by the crown, has, under the two members, while three additional members were assigned to the Ballot Act of 1872, the charge of ballot papers m connection with counties and two to the burghs ; by the Redistribution of Seats Act the parliamentary elections, and is custos rotulorum. The I,U^1C of 1885 an addition of six members was made to the representation prosecutor for counties is the procurator-fiscal, who takes the of the counties and six to that of the burghs, the total representation initiative in regard to suspected cases of sudden death, although being raised to seventy-two. The management of Scottish business in this respect the law of Scotland is less strict than that of England. in parliament has since 1885 been under the charge of the secretary Justices of the peace, who are unpaid and require no special qualification but who, as they are recommended by the lord-lieutenant, ^At the Union Scotland retained its old system of law and legal are generally persons of position in the county, exercise r certain Law. administration, a system modelled on that of France ; but since the subordinate jurisdiction. Their office expires on the demise of the Union the laws of England and Scotland have been on many crown In every commission of the peace certain public officials points assimilated, the criminal law of the two countries being are included. The justices of the peace hold quarter sessions, take now practically identical, although the methods of procedure are affidavits and declarations (such as declarations of marriage), sign in many respects different. The Court of Session, as the supreme warrants, try petty criminal cases (such especially as poaching and court in civil causes is called, dates from 1532, and was formed assault), and regulate public-house licences. Under Borough (yol. on the model of the parlement of Paris ; it is held at Edinburgh, iv. pp. 63-64) will be found an account of the history and constituthe capital. Since the Union it has undergone^ certain modifica- tion of the three classes of ancient burghs in Scotland,—royal tions It consists of thirteen judges, acting in an Inner and burghs, burghs of regality, and burghs of barony. Police burghs, an Outer House. The Inner House has two divisions with four which may include any of the other classes of burghs, are formed fudges each, the first being presided over by the lord president of those places which have adopted the General Police and Improveof the whole court, and the second by the lord justice^ clerk. In ment Acts (13 and 14 Viet. c. 33 and 25 and 26 Viet. c. 101). Ihey the Outer House five judges, called lords ordinary, sit m separate are governed by police commissioners, who have power to regulate courts. Appeals may be made from the lords ordinary to either all sanitary matters. They may include more than one of the of the divisions of the Inner House, and, if the occasion demands, other burghs and may extend into another county. Under the the opinion of all the judges of the Court of Session may be Improvement Act (25 and 26 Viet. c. 101) most of the burghs with called for ; but whether this be done or not the decision is re- over 7000 inhabitants maintain their own police. The parliamentgarded as a decision of the Court of Session. Appeals may be ary burghs do not now include all the royal burghs and include made from the Court of Session to the House of Lords The lord justice general (lord president), the lord justice clerk, and five other various other towns in addition to them. The number of royal

promotion of secondary education, and also for a scheme of systematic inspection. These educational endowments-the result of private bequest—yield an annual income of £175,000, and, on account of the changed conditions of society, the primary objects of the donors were in a great degree frustrated by the manner in which they were being administered. Some of the best secondaiy schools in Scotland are under the management of trustees. Tor the four universities of Scotland (St Andrews, Aberdeen, Glasgow, and Edinburgh) see the articles on these cities, also Universities. University College in Dundee and Anderson’s College m Glasgow have similar courses of instruction to the universities, but possess no power to grant degrees and receive no _ Government aid A notice of the various medical schools and scientific colleges vill be found in the articles on the towns in which they are situated. Presby- Religion.—For an historical account of the more important terian religious denominations of Scotland the reader is referred to the churches, articles Scotland, Church of, Free Church of Scotl^d United Presbyterian Church, and Presbyterianism. The bulk of the population is Presbyterian, and the following table (XXIY.) gives particulars reported in 1885 regarding the Church ot Scotland and other churches originated by secessions from it at various times,—the “ contributions ” indicating the amounts raised by the churches for all purposes, and of course excluding the endowments of the Established Church : Original Reformed U.P. Evang. Seceders. Church of Free Church. Presby. Union. Scotland. Church. 12 27 87 543 1,067 1,479 Congregations.. 1037 3249 13,210 565,261 329,541 177,517 £21,760 Members £2592 £5606 £387,355 Contributions .. £366,431 £626,028

536

SCOT LAND [church. burghs is seventy, and, as was to be expected, while some since certain civil parishes may be classed as burghal, landward and their formation have enormously increased in population and wealth, mixed. Under Graham’s Act (7_and 8 Yict. c. 44) a parish quoad others have so declined or made so little progress that they now era may be erected on the application of persons who have built rank only as villages. In 1881 there were ten royal burghs which and endowed a church. For administrative purposes the oldest had less than 1000 inhabitants each and four which had less than parish organization is that of the heritors or landowners, who are 500 each, Earlsferry (Fife) having only 286. Under the Public to provide and maintain a church, churchyard, manse Health Act of 1867, amended in 1879, the erection of urban and required Cl Ur h Slebe? nd efore the )assill rural sanitary districts was provided for. The corporation of the 18/2, 1879 nhad^ to + maintain ! ’\ I school. S of theInEducation in the parochial 1579 the Act power burghs is formed of the provost (or lord provost), bailies, and was granted them of assessment for poor relief, but in 1600 the councillors. Bailie courts are held in the burghs for the trial of 10n t hem for these minor offences. The civil parish or parish quoad omnia, origin- tion "!+T| -T ^mnithose i;ed Wlth . purposes. This organizastill exists parishes, now very few in number which ally the ecclesiastical parish or area subject to one cure of souls, is have not adopted the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1845 ; this Act a division of the county for registration of births, deaths, and marriages and for poor law administration. The boundaries are flntTuf8 f°f A C 1C0jlstltutl0n of a parochial board composed of determined by the boundaries of the estates which appear to lie in iiv tm +° the klrl5'session and a proportion of persons elected the parish, but may be altered by consent of proprietors holdino' by the ratepayers. Under the Education Act of 1872 the countv the major value of the property in it. For all sanitary purposes is divided into school-board districts, whose area corresponds with SaCra r landward or the areas of burghs are removed from those of the parishes, and p 534 b 01> )the ’° ’ kurghal parish (see Administration, local, 535. Agricola, 471. Agriculture, 530. Albany, dukes of, 491, 497. Alexander I., 482. ,, II., 484. „ III., 485. Angus, earls of, 495, 498. Angus MacFergus, 476. Area, 521, 528. Argyll, earls of, 513, 517. Arran, earl of, 498 sg. Baliol, 486. Bannockburn, 488. Beatons, 498. Berwick, treaty of, 489. Books of Discipline, 503, 534. Bothwell Bridge, 516. Bothwell, earl of, 504. Boundaries, 521. Boyd of Kilmarnock, 495. Brigham, treaty of, 486. Britons of Strathclyde, 473, 475 sq. Bruce, competitor, 486. Bruce, Robert, 488-489. Brunanburgh, 479. Burghs, 484, 535. Cambuskenneth, 487. Canals, 530. Celtic Church, 475. Celts, 473, 480. Charles I., 511. „ II., 514. Chastelherault, duke of, 502 sq.

Civil War, 513. Climate, 527. Coast-line, 526. Cochrane, 495. Colonization, 511, 518. Columba, 474, 475. Commerce and trade, 492, 496, 534. Confession of Faith, 503. Congregation, Lords of, 501 sq. Constantine L, 478. „ II., 478. Constantins, 472. Conversion to Christianity, 474. Court of Session, 498, 535. Covenant, 512. Covenanters, persecution of, 515 sq. Crichton, William, 493. Crofters, 531. Cromwell’s invasion, 514. Crops, 531. Culloden, 520. Cuthbert, 475. Dalriada, 473 sq., 477. Damley, 504. David I., 482. „ II., 489. David, earl of Huntingdon, 484, 486. Donald I., 478. „ II., 478. Douglas, 487 sq., 491, 494. Dunbar, battle of, 514. Duncan, 480. Ecclesiastical history, 482, 501 sq.

Index. Edgar, 481. III., 494. Edinburgh, treaty of, 502. James ,, IV., 496. Education, 534. „ V., 497. Emigration, 529. ,, VI., 507 sq. Episcopacy, 507, 510. „ VIE, 517. Falaise, treaty of, 484. Kennedy, bishop, 494. Falkirk, 487. Kenneth I. (Macalpine), Fisheries, 532. 477-478. Flodden, 497. „ II., 479. Forests, 532. Kentigern, 474. France, relations with, Killiecrankie, 517. 489 sq. Kirkaldy of Grange, 502. Game, &c., 532. Knox, 500 sq., 503, 506. Geography, 471, 522 sq. Lakes, 526. Geology, 521 sq. Largs, battle of, 482, 485. Glasgow, assembly of, Lauderdale, 515. 512. Law, 488, 535. Glencoe, 518. Lennox, regents, 506, 507. Glens, 525. Liturgy, introduction of, Government, 535. 511. Gowrie conspiracy, 509. Livingstone, 493. Hadrian, 471, 472. Lothian, conquest of, 480. Halidon Hill, 489. Lowlands, central, 523. Hastings, the competitor, Macbeth, 480. 486. of Lethington, Highlands, pacification Maitland 502. of, 517. Malcolm I., 479. Highlands, physical fea„ II., 479. tures of, 522-523. „ III. (Canmore), Highlands, subjugation 480. of, 493. „ IV., 483. Huntly, 498. Manufactures, Inhabitants, early, 472. Mar, regent, 506.533. Iona, 474 sq. Margaret, Maid of NorIslands, 527. way, 486. Isles, reduction of, 485. Margaret, sister of the Jacobite risings, 520. Atheling, 481. James I., 491. Margaret Tudor, 496. „ IL, 493. Mary of Guelders, 494.

SCOTLAND, Church of. In the article Presbyterianism the history of the Church of Scotland was brought down to the middle of the 18th century, and the story of the secessions of 1733 and 1751 was there told. We take up here the church’s history at the beginning of the 11 Moderate ” rule. Her annals during the next threequarters of a century are singularly uneventful. In close alliance with the state, she increases in power and dignity, and becomes the home of letters and philosophy. But there is no great movement of a theological nature, no striking religious development to lend her popular interest. The strength of the church as well as her tendency to moderation arose in great part out of the political circumstances of the early part of the 18th century. Presbytery, being loyal to the house of Hanover, while Episcopacy was Jacobite, enjoyed the royal favour and was treated as a firm ally of the Government. The Patronage Act of 1712 threw the filling up of parishes into the hands of those well-affected to the Government, and the example of the mode of patronage practised in England may have tended to promote a disregard of the religious feelings of the people. The effect on the clergy was to encourage them to seek the friendship of the landed gentry and to regard he higher rather than the lower orders of society as their natural allies, so that they were at the same time led to hberal ways of thinking and rendered largely independent ot their congregations.

Mary of Guise, 500. Mary Stuart, 499 sq. Melville, Andrew, 506. Melville, Sir James, 505. Middleton, 515. Minerals, 532. Monk’s administration, 514. Montrose, 513. Moray, regent, 505 sq. Morton, regent, 506. Mountains, 522, 524. Nationalities, 529. Neville’s Cross, 489. Newcastle, treaty of, 489. Ninian, 474. Norsemen in Scotland, 477 sq., 482. Northampton, treatv of, 488. Northumbrian supremacy, 475. Occupations, 529. Octavians, 509. Otterburn, 490. Ownership of soil, 530. Parliamentary representation, 535. Pauperism, 529. Piets, 473 sq., 476 sq. Pinkie, 500. Population, 528. Presbyterianism, 504 sq. Pretenders, 520. Railways, 530. Reformation, 497, 501. Religion, 535, 536. Rivers, 524.

Roads, 471, 472, 530. Robert I., 488. „ IE, 490. ,, HE, 490. Romans in Scotland, 471. Ruthven, Raid of, 507. St Andrews, bishopric of, 474, 477, 482. Sauchie, 495. Scone, monarchy of, 477. 480. ’ Scots of Dalriada, 473, 477. Severus, 472. Sheriff, 483, 535. Shipping, &c., 533-534. Solemn League and Covenant, 513. Southern uplands, 523. Statistics, 528 sq. Stirling, 494, 496, 507. Stuart, Lord James, regent, 501, 507. Stuarts, 490-520. Tacitus, on ancient inhabitants, 472. Trade and commerce, 492, 496, 534. Union of crowns, 509. Union of parliaments, 515, 518. Valleys, origin of, 524. Vital statistics, 529. Wallace, 487-488. Wall of Antoninus, 471. „ ,, Hadrian, 471. Wealth, national, 534. William III., 517. William the Lion, 484.

It is remarked by Dr Hill Burton, and Carlyle repeats the Period of remark, that “ Scots dissent never was a protest against the Modeprinciples of the church, but always tended to preserve the rate d old principles of the church, whence the Establishment—by “ ' the progress of enlightenment as some said, by deterioration } ’ according to others—was lapsing.” The secessions carried oft the more fervent elements; yet enough of the old leaven always remained to exert a powerful influence. Thus, while the church as a whole was more peaceful, more courtly, more inclined to the friendship of the world than at any former time, it contained two well-marked parties, in one of which these characteristics of the religion of the 18th century were more marked than in the other. The Moderate party, which maintained its ascendency till the beginning of the 19th century, and impressed its character on the church, sought to make the working of the church in its different parts as systematic and regular as possible, to make the assembly supreme and enforce respect for its decisions by presbyteries, and to render the judicial procedure of the church as exact and formal as that of the civil courts. The popular party regarding the church less from the side of the Government, had less sympathy with the progressive movements of the age, and desired greater strictness in discipline. The main Question subject of dispute arose at first from the exercise of patronage. Presbyteries in various parts of the country were stillpatron' disposed to disregard the presentations of lay patrons, and age' to settle the men desired by the people; but legal decisions

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had shown that if they acted in this way their nominee, while legally minister of the parish, could not claim the stipend. To the risk of such sacrifices the church, led by the Moderate party, refused to expose herself. By the new policy inaugurated by Dr Robertson, which led to the second secession, the assembly compelled presbyteries to give effect to presentations, and in a long series of disputed settlements the “call,” though still held essential to a settlement, was less and less regarded, until it was declared that it was not necessary, and that the church courts were bound to induct any qualified presentee. The substitution of the word “concurrence” for “call” about 1764 indicates the subsidiary and ornamental light in which the assent of the parishioners was now to be regarded. The church could have given more weight to the wishes of the people; she professed to regard patronage as a grievance, and the annual instructions of the assembly to the commission (the committee representing the assembly till its next meeting) enjoined that body to take advantage of any opportunity which might arise for getting rid of the grievance of patronage, an injunction which was not discontinued till 1784. It is not likely that any change in the law could have been obtained at this period, and disregard of the law might have led to an exhausting struggle with the state, as was actually the case at a later period. Still it was in the power of the church to give more weight than she did to the feelings of the people; and her working of the patronage system drove large numbers from the Establishment. A melancholy catalogue of forced settlements marks the annals of the church from 1749 to 1780, and wherever an unpopular presentee was settled the people quietly left the Establishment and erected a meeting-house. In 1763 there was a great debate in the assembly on the progress of schism, in which the popular party laid the whole blame at the door of the Moderates, while the Moderates rejoined that patronage and Moderatism had made the church the dignified and powerful institution she had come to be. In 1764 the number of meeting-houses was 120, and in 1773 it had risen to 190. Nor was a conciliatory attitude taken up towards the seceders. The ministers of the Relief desired to remain connected with the Establishment, but were not suffered to do so. Those ministers who resigned their parishes to accept calls to Relief congregations, in places where forced settlements had taken place, and who might have been and claimed to be recognized as still ministers of the church, were deposed and forbidden to look for any ministerial communion with the clergy of the Establishment. Such was the policy of the Moderate ascendency, or of Principal Robertson’s administration, on this vital subject. It had the merit of success in so far as it completely established itself in the church. The presbyteries ceased to disregard presentations, and lay patronage came to be regarded as part of the order of things. But the growth of dissent steadily continued and excited alarm from time to time; and it may be questioned whether the peace of the church was not purchased at too high a price. The Moderate period is justly regarded as in some respects the most brilliant in the history of the church. Her clergy included many distinguished Scotsmen, of whom an account is given under their respective names. See Reid (Thomas), Campbell (George), Ferguson (Adam), Home (John), Blair (Hugh), Robertson (William), and Erskine (John). The labours of these men were not mainly in theology; in religion the age was one not of advance but of rest; they gained for the church a great and widespread respect and influence. Another salient feature of the Moderate policy was the consolidation of discipline. It is frequently asserted that discipline was lax at this period and that ministers of scandalous lives were allowed to continue in their charges. It cannot, however, be shown that the leaders of the church

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at this time sought to procure the miscarriage of justice in dealing with such cases. That some offenders were acquitted on technical grounds is true; it was insisted that in dealing with the character and status of their members the church courts should proceed in as formal and punctilious a manner as civil tribunals and should recognize the same laws of evidence, in fact, that the same securities should exist in the church as in the state for individual rights and liberties. The religious state of the Highlands, to which at the Reperiod of the Union the Reformation had only very par- ligious tially penetrated, occupied the attention of the church dur- con(li' ing the whole of the 18th century. In 1725 the gift called High” the “royal bounty” was first granted,—a subsidy amounting lands, at first to £1000 per annum, increased in George IV.’s reign to £2000, and continued to the present day; its original object was to assist the reclamation of the Highlands from Roman Catholicism by means of catechists and teachers. The Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge, incorporated in 1709, with a view partly to the wants of the Highlands, worked in concert with the Church of Scotland, setting up schools in remote and destitute localities, while the church promoted various schemes for the dissemination of the Scriptures in Gaelic and the encouragement of Gaelic students. In consequence of these efforts Roman Catholicism now lingers only in a few islands and glens on the west coast. In these labours as well as in other directions the church was sadly hampered by poverty. The need of an increase in the number of parishes was urgently felt, and, though chapels began to be built about 1796, they were provided only in wealthy places by local voluntary liberality ; for the supply of the necessities of poor outlying districts no one as yet looked to any agency but the state. In every part of the country many of the ministers were miserably poor ; there were many stipends, even of important parishes, not exceeding £40 a year; and it was not till after many debates in the assembly and appeals to the Government that an Act was obtained in 1810 which made up the poorer livings to £150 a year by a grant from the public exchequer. The churches and manses were frequently of the most miserable description, if not falling to decay. With the close of the 18th century a great change passed over the spirit of the church. The new activity which sprang up everywhere after the French Revolution produced in Scotland a revival of Evangelicalism which has not yet spent its force. Moderatism had cultivated the ministers too fast for the people, and the church had become to a large extent more of a dignified ruler than a spiritual mother. About this time the brothers Robert and James Haldane devoted themselves to the work of pro- The Halmoting Evangelical Christianity, James making missionary danes. journeys throughout Scotland and founding Sunday schools; and in 1798 the eccentric preacher Rowland Hill visited Scotland at their request. In the journals of these evangelists dark pictures are drawn of the religious state of the country, though their censorious tone detracts greatly from their value; but there is no doubt that the efforts of the Haldanes brought about or coincided with a quickening of the religious spirit of Scotland. The assembly of 1799 passed an Act forbidding the admission to the pulpits of laymen or of ministers of other churches, and issued a manifesto on Sunday schools. These Acts helped greatly to discredit the Moderate party, of whose spirit they were the outcome; and that party further injured their standing in the country by attacking Leslie, afterwards Sir John Leslie, on frivolous grounds,—a phrase he had used about Hume’s view of causation—when he applied for the chair of mathematics in Edinburgh. In this dispute, which made a great sensation in the country, the popular party successfully defended Leslie, and thus obtained the sympathy of XXL— 68

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the enlightened portion of the community. In 1810 the Christian Instructor began to appear under the editorship of Dr Andrew Thomson, a churchman of vigorous intellect and noble character. It was an ably written review, in which the theology of the Haldanes asserted itself in a somewhat dogmatic and confident tone against all unsoundness and Moderatism, clearly proclaiming that the former things had passed away. The question of pluralities began to be agitated in 1813, and gave rise to a long struggle, in which Dr Chalmers took a notable part, and which terminated in the regulation that a university chair or principalship should not be held along with a parish which was not close to the university seat. The growth of Evangelical sentiment in the church, along with the example of the great missionary societies founded in the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19 th century, led to the institution of the various missionary schemes still carried on, and their history forms the chief part of the history of the church for a number of years. The education scheme, having for its object the planting of schools in destitute Highland districts, came into existence in 1824. The foreign mission committee was formed in 1825, at the instance of Dr Inglis, a leader of the Moderate party; and Dr Duff went to India in 1829 as the first missionary of the Church of Scotland. The church extension committee was first appointed in 1828, and in 1834 it was made permanent. The colonial scheme Avas inaugurated in 1836, and the Jewish mission in 1838, M'Cheyne and Andrew Bonar setting out in the following year as a deputation to inquire into the condition of the Je\Ars in Palestine and Turkey and on the Continent of Church Europe. Of these schemes that of church extension has exten- most historical importance. It was originally formed to sion scheme. collect information regarding the spiritual Avants of the country, and to apply to the Government to build the churches found to be necessary. As the population of Scotland had doubled since the Reformation, and its distribution had been completely altered in many counties, while the number of parish churches remained unchanged, and meeting-houses had only been erected where seceding congregations required them, the need for hoav churches Avas very great. The application to Government for aid, however, proved the occasion of a “Voluntary controversy,” which raged with great fierceness for many years and has never completely subsided. The union of the Burgher and the Antiburgher bodies in 1820 in the United Secession—both having previously come to hold Voluntary principles— added to the influence of these principles in the country, AAThile the political excitement of the period disposed men’s minds to such discussions. The Government built fortytAvo churches in the Highlands, providing them xvith a slender endowment; and these are still knoAvn as parliamentary churches. Under Dr Chalmers, however, the church extension committee struck out a neAv line of action. That great philanthropist had come to see that the church could only reach the masses of the people effectively by greatly increasing the number of her places of worship and abolishing or minimizing seat-rents in the poorer districts. In his poAverful defence of establishments against the \roluntaries in both Scotland and England, in Avhich his ablest assistants Avere those avIio aftenvards became, along with him, the leaders of the Free Church, he pleaded that an established church to be effective must divide the country territorially into a large number of small parishes, so that every corner of the land and every person, of whatever class, shall actually enjoy the benefits of the parochial machinery. This “territorial principle” the church has steadily kept in view ever since. With the view of realizing this idea he appealed to the church to provide funds to build a large number of neAv churches, and personally

[church.

carried his appeal throughout the country. By 1835 he had collected £65,626 and reported the building of sixtytwo churches in connexion with the Establishment. The keenness of the conflict as it approached the crisis of 1843 checked the liberality of the people for this object, but by 1841 £305,747 had been collected and 222 churches built. The zealous orthodoxy of the church found at this period several occasions to assert itself. M‘Leod Campbell, minister of Row, A\Tas deposed by the assembly of 1830 for teaching that assurance is of the essence of faith and that Christ died for all men. He has since been recognized as one of the profoundest Scottish theologians of the 19th century, although his deposition has never been removed. The same assembly condemned the doctrine put forth by Edward Irving, that Christ took upon Him the sinful nature of man and was not impeccable, and Irving was deposed five years later by the presbytery of Annan, Avhen the outburst of supposed miraculous gifts in his church in London had rendered him still more obnoxious to the strict censures of the period. In 1841 Wright of Borthwick was deposed for a series of heretical opinions, which he denied that he held, but Avhich were said to be contained in a series of devotional works of a somewhat mystical order which he had published. The influence of dissent also acted along with the rapidly Disruprising religious fervour of the age in quickening in thetion of church that sense of a divine mission, and of the right and 1843, power to carry out that mission without obstruction from any worldly authority, which belongs to the essential consciousness of the Christian church. An agitation against patronage, the ancient root of evil, and the formation of an anti-patronage society, helped in the same direction. The Ten Years’ Conflict, which began in 1833 with the passing by the assembly of the Veto and the Chapel Acts, is treated in the article Free Church of Scotland. It is not therefore necessary to dwell further in this place on the consequences of those Acts.' The assembly of 1843, from Avhich the exodus took place, proceeded to undo the Acts of the church during the preceding nine years. The Veto Avas not repealed but ignored, as having never had the force of kw; the Strathbogie ministers Avere recognized as if no sentence of deposition had gone forth against them. The protest Avhich the moderator had read before leaving the assembly had been left on the table; and an Act of Separation and deed of demission Avere received from the ministers of the newly formed Free Church, Avho Avere now declared to have severed their connexion with the Church of Scotland. The assembly addressed a pastoral letter to the people of the country, in AA’hich, while declining to “ admit that the course taken by the seceders was justified by irresistible necessity,” they counselled peace and goodAAull toAvards them, and called for the loyal support of the remaining members of the church. Two Acts at once passed through the legislature in answer to the claims put forward by the church. The Scottish Benefices Act of Lord Aberdeen, 1843, gave the people poAver to state objections personal to a presentee, and bearing on his fitness for the particular charge to Avhich he Avas presented, and also authorized the presbytery in dealing Avith the objections to look to the number and character of the objectors. Sir James Graham’s Act, 1844, provided for the erection of new parishes, and thus created the legal basis for a scheme under which chapel ministers might become members of church courts. The Disruption left the Church of Scotland in a sadly Developmaimed condition. Of 1203 ministers 451 left her, and™®ntof among these Avere many of her foremost men. A third of c]iurch her membership is computed to have gone Avith them. In since Edinburgh many of her churches were nearly empty. The 1843. Gaelic-speaking population of the northern counties com-

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pletely deserted her. All her missionaries left her but and also an organ Dr Lee stirred up vehement controversies one. She had no gale of popular enthusiasm to carry her in the church courts, which resulted in the recognition of forward, representing as she did not a newly arisen principle the liberty of congregations to improve their worship. A but the opposition to a principle which she maintained to church service society, having for its object the study of be dangerous and exaggerated. For many years she had ancient and modern liturgies, with a view to the preparamuch obloquy to endure. But she at once set herself to tion of forms of prayer for public worship, was founded in the task of filling up vacancies and recruiting the mission- 1865; it has published five editions of its “ Book of ary staff. A lay association was formed, which raised large Common Order,” which, though at first regarded with sums of money for the missionary schemes, so that their suspicion, is now recognized as a useful and respected adincome was not allowed seriously to decline. The good junct. Church music has been cultivated and improved works of the church, indeed, were in a few years not only in a marked degree; a fine collection of hymns has been continued but extended. All hope being lost that parlia- introduced to supplement the psalms and paraphrases. ment would endow the new churches built by the church And architecture has restored the larger churches from extension scheme of Dr Chalmers, it was felt that this their disfigurement by partition walls and galleries also must be the work of voluntary liberality. Under Dr though much still remains to be done in this way and James Robertson, professor of church history in Edinburgh, has erected new churches of a style favourable to devotion. The fervour of the church has, on the other hand, found Commitone of the leading champions of the Moderate policy in the u Ten Years’ Conflict, the extension scheme was transformed a channel in the operations of a Committee on Christianteem^ into the endowment scheme, and the church accepted it as Life and Work,” appointed in 1869 with the aim of exercis- Life and her duty and her task to provide the machinery of new ing some supervision of the work of the church throughout \yorb. parishes where they were required. By 1854 30 new the country, stimulating evangelistic efforts, and organizing parishes had been added at a cost of £130,000, and from the labours of lay agents. This committee publishes a this time forward the work of endowment proceeded still magazine of “Life and Work,” which has a circulation of more rapidly. In 1860 61 new parishes had been endowed, about 100,000, and has lately been seeking to organize in 1870 150, in 1876 250, while in 1886 there were 351.1 young men’s guilds in connexion with congregations. It In 1843 the number of parishes was 924. Of 42 parlia- was to reinforce this element of the church’s activity, as mentary churches existing at that time 40 have been well as to strengthen her generally, that Mr James Baird erected into parishes quoad sacra; hence the total number in 1873 made the munificent gift of £500,000. This fund of parishes in Scotland at midsummer 1886 was 1315. is administered by a trust which is not under the control By the Poor Law Act of 1845 parishes were enabled to of the church, and the revenue is used mainly in aid of remove the care of the poor from the minister and the church building and endowment throughout the country. The church has greatly increased of late years in liberalkirk-session, in whom it was formerly vested, and to appoint a parochial board with power to assess the ratepayers. ity of sentiment, and there has been no deposition for The Education Act of 1872 severed the ancient tie con- heresy since 1843. A volume of Scotch Sermons pubnecting church and school together, and created a school lished in 1880 by ministers holding liberal views brought board having charge of the education of each parish. At out the fact that the church would not willingly be led that date the Church of Scotland had 300 schools, mostly into such prosecutions. An agitation on the part of the in the Highlands. The church, however, continues to Dissenters for disestablishment sprang up afresh after the carry on normal schools for the training of teachers in passing of the Patronage Act and has continued ever since; while a counter-movement was represented by a Bill, introEdinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen. AboliIn 1874 patronage was abolished. The working of Lord duced into parliament in 1886 to declare the spiritual tion of Aberdeen’s Act had given rise to many unedifying scenes independence of the Church of Scotland, which, if successpatron- anq t0 lengthy struggles over disputed settlements, and it ful, would, it was understood, have2 opened the way for a age ‘ was early felt that some change at least was necessary in reunion of the Presbyterian bodies. Church Membership. —The Church of Scotland has now (1886) Statistics the law. The agitation on the subject went on in the 1315 parishes, 160 non-parochial churches, and 121 preaching and of memassembly from 1857 to 1869, when the assembly by a mission stations, in all 1596 charges. The number of presbyteries bership, large majority condemned patronage as restored by the is 84, and there are 16 provincial synods. The general assembly &c. Act of Queen Anne, and resolved to petition parliament consists of 252 clerical and 118 lay members elected by presbyteries, 73 representatives of royal burghs and universities, and 4 for its removal. The request was granted, and the right with representatives of churches abroad, in all 447 members. In 1873 of electing parish ministers was conferred on the congrega- the number of communicants as returned to parliament in 1874 was tion ; thus a grievance of old standing, from which all the 460,526 ; in 1878 the number as returned to parliament in 1879 ecclesiastical troubles of a century and a half had sprung, was* 515,786 ; in 1883 the number returned to the assembly of was removed and the church placed on a thoroughly demo- 1884 was 543,969 ; in 1885, 564,435. The professors of divinity at four Scottish universities must be ministers of the church, and cratic basis. This Act, combined with various efforts made the students aspiring to the ministry are required to attend one of the within the church for her improvement, has secured for the divinity halls of the universities for three sessions, after an arts Scottish Establishment a large measure of popular favour, course of three years. A large number of ministers of the church and during the last quarter of a century she has grown are employed elsewhere than in Scotland. The Church of Scotland England consists of 16 charges. There are 31 chaplains minisImprove- rapidly both in numbers and in influence. This revival is in to Presbyterians in the army and navy, 15 of these being ments in iargely due on the one hand to the improvement of her tering in India. The foreign mission employs 15 ordained and public worship which began with the efforts of Dr Robert Lee stationed 11 unordained European missionaries, with a large number ol native wore up. ^1804_186g)} minister of Old Greyfriars, Edinburgh, and agents, in India, East Africa, and China. The Jewish mission em6 ordained ministers, with other agents, at Constantinople, professor of Biblical criticism in Edinburgh university. ploys Smyrna, Salonica, Beyrout, and Alexandria. The colonial comBy introducing into his church a printed book of prayers mittee supplies religious ordinances to emigrants from Scotland in India, Eiji, Cyprus, Mauritius, Ceylon, and the West Indies, besides 1 Those branches of the church extension scheme which dealt with assisting Presbyterian colleges in Canada and Australia. A ministei church building, and with the opening of new missions to meet the of the church presides over a Scots church of old standing at Amsterwants of increasing populations, were taken up by a new department, dam. Two lectureships have been founded in recent times in concalled the home mission scheme. The home mission as the pioneer nexion with the church—one by Mr James Baird (already mentioned), 2 in opening up new fields of labour, and the endowment scheme which For the period since 1843 the most useful book is Dr Story’s renders permanent the religious centres that the mission has founded, Life of Dr Robert Lee, 1870. are both traceable to Dr Chalmers.

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SCOTLAND [literature. the other by Mr John Croall of Southfield—and these have already far north as Aberdeen. Its earliest writer is Thomas of produced several notable contributions to Scottish theology. An association for augumenting the smaller livings was formed Lrcildoune, or Thomas the Rhymer, who reached the height in 1866, and the church now has a smaller livings scheme, which o his fame m 1280. The fairy tale or romance that bears aims at bringing up to £200 a year all livings that fall below that his name may be regarded as the earliest example of sum. Such numbered 311 in 1885 ; and the sum distributed among romance poetry in Britain. Nearly contemporary with them was £8537, which, however, was £5000 short of the sum necesthe Rhymer were two other distinguished Scots, Michael sary to accomplish fully the desired object. In the following details of the income of the church we give first Scot (y.p.) and John of Duns, or Duns Scotus (y.v.), both the value of her endowments and then some figures showing the of whom however, wrote in Latin. Three Arthurian Artier, growth of her voluntary liberality. ian roFinance. Means from Endowments.—{!) From a parliamentary return ob- lomances taken from Anglo-Norman sources relating tomauces tained in 1874 the church is seen to derive from teinds, includ- Sir C a wain, one of the most celebrated knights of the ing the value of manses and glebes, the annual sum of £289,413. Round Table, seem to have been composed about the end Augmentations have been obtained since that date amounting to of the 13th century. These were—Ayr Gawayn and the upwards of £10,000, but the fiars prices have declined durino- the GreneKnycht, the Knightly Tale of Golagros and Gawayne, same period by nearly 25 per cent., so that the total amount so derived has not increased. The unexhausted teinds amounted in and the Awntyrs of Arthur at the Temewathelyne. Sir 1880 to £134,413. (2) The exchequer pays to 190 poor parishes Cawam s exploits were so popular in the south of Scotland and to 42 Highland churches, from church property in the hands that he was claimed by the people as one of their own of the crown, £17,040. (3) From local sources the church derives chieftains and called the lord of Galloway. The Awntyrs £23,501. (4) The endowments raised by the church for 342 new of Arthur, or the adventures of King Arthur at the Ternparishes amount to £42,500. The total endowments, not counting wadhng, a small lake near Carlisle, and the Pystil of Swete church buildings, amount to £383,041. Means from Voluntary Liberality.—T\\q following table (I.) gives ousan, a version of the apocryphal story of Susanna, are a view of the financial progress of certain of the schemes of the supposed to have been the productions of Sir Hew of church since the secession :— Eglmtoun about that period. The Taill of Rauf Coilzear Foreign Education. Colonial in which the adventures of the emperor Charlemagne in Jewish Year. Home Mission. Scheme. Mission. Mission. the house of a charcoal-burner named Ralph in the neigh1842 £6,748 £3630 £3,753 £4298 bourhood of Paris are related with much poetic humour 1845 3,572 3688 2,481 1867 £2,615 1850 6,047 and the fairy tale of Orfeo and Heurodis were written in 4019 2,707 2472 3,567 1855 3,712 4466 3,060 2619 3,866 the early part of the 14th century and were very popular 1860 4,873 4487 3,228 2804 4,858 1865 5,822 4952 m Scotland in former times. 3,696 3299 5,389 1870 7,754 8245 4,634 4101 7,082 1875 12,315 9035 8,371 5644 . Aar Independence gave a new impetus to Scot11,163 1880 16,270 11,674 tish nationality and produced a corresponding effect on the 4715 15,604 1885 13,346 4,750 5128 9,450 literature of the country. The Brus, or metrical account 1 No attempt was made until 1873 to collect statistics of the whole of the deeds of Robert Bruce, was written by John Bar-Barbour. liberality of the church; and changes introduced from time to time in the mode of stating the various sums make it impossible to give bour {q.v.), archdeacon of Aberdeen, in the latter part of a complete comparative statement since that date. The following the .14th century. To him we owe a translation of a table (11.) shows the amount at quinquennial periods down to 1885 mediaeval romance on the Trojan War, nearly 3000 lines the church-door collections and seat-rents probably affording the ln1!en&dh, and a large collection of metrical lives of saints most accurate indication of the general progress of the body. The building operations of which the values are given include only such which, after being long preserved in manuscript, have rebuilding as is the result of voluntary effort. Under the head of cently been printed by Dr Horstmann. About this time general church objects are included the collections for missions, was compiled the first formal history of Scotland by John oi small livings, aged and infirm ministers, zenana missions, &c of Iordun {q.v.), which was written in Latin and brought Fordun. These figures do not include income from trust funds or endowments ; they state what was given in the year referred to A down to the death of David I. He, however, left materials number of objects of liberality are not included in the table. completion of the work, the last date of which is 1385. In 1441 a continuation of it was made by Walter Church Bower or Bowmaker. The whole work was then styled Bower Church-door Seat or Manse General Year. Collections. Other Church Objects. Total. Rents. Building or Objects. Vm bcotichronwon, and brings the history of Scotland down Repairs. to 143/. A metrical history was written between 1420 1872 £41 561 £31,851 £43,618 £27,224 £255,350 and 1424 by Andrew of Wyntoun, a canon regular of St Wyn1877 65,827 £35,225 53,094 69,800 40,117 54,572 373,715 1882 76,399 59,859 67,134 51,520 Andrews and prior of St Serf’s Inch in Loch Leven. This toun. 61,253 386,061 1885 80,887 63,197 59,395 60,110 61,739 374,576 work, known as the Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland, is preThe following sums were raised during the thirteen years 1872- faced by an account of the human race from the creation *7 =—congregational and charitable purposes, £233,406; £1,462,091 education : support and, although for the most part its verse is homely and of ordinances and supplement of stipends, (exclusive of sums raised for training colleges), £161,931 : home dull, its author occasionally describes stirring incidents mission work, £358,543 ; church building, £737,775 ; endowment with consMeratle power. The beautiful poem of James I. James L cafled 1/ie Kingis Quhair, written about this period, was £ 86 69 ; mission aV 81 d QfiT Ar t ’ lBaird’s Lreign work, £376,523 total, far m advance of the contemporary metrical chronicles. £3,816,962. Mr James gift is not included in this; statement ' (A M* ) It possesses a melody of verse unknown before and gives SCOTLAND, Literature of. Literature in Scotland the king a conspicuous place in early Scottish literature. as distinct from England, dates from the time of Columba Adam- {q.v.j. Adamnan, abbot of Iona, who in 690 wrote in He is supposed to have also written A Ballad of Good nan. Latin the life of his predecessor, may be regarded as the Counsel and a song On Absence-, but two poems, Christis first author that Scotland produced. In addition to his Bn L of the Grene and Peblis to the Play, believed to have biography of St Columba, a long extract from a work of been his composition, have been recently shown by the Ins on the “ Holy Places ” is incorporated by Bede in his Rev. W. W. Skeat to be by some other early poet. An Ecclesiastical' History. The greater part of Scotland was allegorical poem called the Buke of the Ilowlat was written at that tune inhabited by a Celtic population and the period about 1450 by Sir Richard Holland, an adherent of the from the 7th to the 13th century has left but few literary noble family of Douglas. It is a warning against pride, remains (see Celtic Literature, vol. v. p. 313). In the exemplified by the owl, decked out in the splendour of latter part of the 13th century what may be called the borrowed feathers, compelled on account of his insolence ancient literary language of Scotland was used in the dis- to resume his original form. The poem displays some trict between the Humber and the Forth and coastwise as , inventive and descriptive power, though marred by its alliteration. The exploits of Sir William Wallace found

LITER ATUEE.]

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Blind about 1460 a worthy chronicler in Henry the Minstrel, or Harry. Blind Harry, who, born with such a serious defect, must be regarded as one of the most extraordinary individuals recorded in the annals of literature. His well-known poem, which bears the name of his hero, is in versification, expression, and poetic imagery a remarkable production for Henry- that period. The grave and thoughtful poetry of Robert son. Henryson (q.v.), notary public and preceptor in the Benedictine convent at Dunfermline, who flourished about 1470, contrasts favourably with that of his English contemporaries. His Testament of Cresseid was often incorporated in the old editions of the works of Chaucer, to whose poetry it is not inferior. His Robene and Makyne is the earliest specimen of pastoral poetry in the Scottish language. These, with his Fables and other works, entitle him to a high place amongst the early Scottish poets. Nearly coeval with Henry son was Sir Gilbert Hay, chamberlain to Charles YI. of France, who made several translations from the works of French authors. One of these, taken from a popular French romance of Alexander the Great, extends to upwards of 20,000 lines. A long anonymous poem called Clariodus belongs to this period. It is a romance founded on a French original, the more material incidents of which are supposed to have happened at the English court. It abounds with illustrations of the manners and customs peculiar to the age of chivalry. Being nearly 3000 lines in length, it is, like the last-mentioned, an extensive specimen of the language and versification of the time. The Thrie Tales of the Thrie Preistis of Peblis (1490), the authorship of which is unknown, are moral tales possessing considerable freshness. As a fragment of an old version of them occurs in the Asloan MS., written in 1490, they must have existed long before the edition printed by Henry Charteris in 1603, in which form only they are now accessible. The Ledger of Andrew Halyburton, conservator of the privileges of the Scottish nation in the Netherlands, 1492-1503, is a valuable source of information regarding the early trade of Scotland. The close of the 15th century exhibited a considerable growth of literary ability in the writings of William Dunbar. Dunbar (g.vf and his contemporaries. His works were so highly esteemed at the time he wrote that he was raised to the dignity of “ the makar ” or poet-laureate of Scotland. Such of Dunbar’s writings as have come down to the present time are of a miscellaneous character, in which there is much power of description and command of verse. The Thistle and the Rose and the Golden Targe are excellent specimens of his poetic power. His satirical poems, such as the Tim Mariit Wemen and the Wedo and the Flyting with Kennedie, contain much coarse humour. Seven of his poems were the first specimens of Scottish typography, having been printed by Chepman and Myllar at Edinburgh in 1508, followed in 1509 by the well-known Breviary for the church of Aberdeen. A humorous poem called the Freiris of Berwik has been attributed to Dunbar and is usually printed with his works. Contemporary with Dunbar were a number of minor Scottish poets, of whose works only a few specimens have come down to the present time. These were Walter Kennedie, with whom he had his “flyting” or poetical contest, Sir John Rowll, Quintyne Shaw, Patrick Johnestoun, Merseir, James Afflek, and others.1 The most classical of the Scottish poets was Gawyn Gavin or Gavin Douglas (q.v.), bishop of Dunkeld, whose great Douglas, literary work was the translation of the FEneid of Virgil into Scottish verse. To each book he prefixed a prologue; 1 Kennedie wrote The Praise of Aige and The Passioun of Christ; Rowll, The Cursing on the Steilaris af his Fowlis •, Shaw, Advice to a Courtier; Johnestoun, The Three Deid Poiois; Merseir, Perrcll in Paramours’, and Afflek, The Quair of Jelousy.

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the one before the twelfth is an admirable descriptive poem of the beauties of May. His Police of Honour and Kyng Hart, two allegorical poems, are able productions, the latter of which is full of dramatic vigour. Contemporary with Douglas was Sir David Lyndsay (q.v.), Lyon king-of-arms Sir in the feign of James V., who may be regarded as the most David popular of the early Scottish poets. His Monarchic, or Lyndsay‘ ane Dialog betuix Experience and one Gourteour of the Miserabyl Estait of the World gives a short survey of sacred and classical history which rendered it very popular in its time. His Satire of the Thrie Estaitis is a skilfully written attempt to reform the abuses of the period, especially those of the church. While some of its characters recite long and erudite political speeches, he introduces interludes of a farcical kind suited to the tastes of the times. This work may be considered the first dramatic effort of any British author. In his Testament of Squire Meldrum he relates the adventures of his hero with much poetic fire. Lyndsay’s other poems consist of appeals to the king for advancement and some jeux d'esprit of no great length. One of the best scholars and teachers of this period was John Major or Mair, a native of Haddington, who was principal of St Salvator’s College, St Andrews. Besides being the author of learned commentaries on Aristotle, he wrote a well-known work, De historia gentis Scotorum libri sex, printed in 1521. Another Scottish author that wrote in Latin with considerable elegance was Hector Boece (q.v.), principal of King’s College, Aberdeen. Boece. His great work, Historia gentis Scotorum a prima gentis origins, was published in Paris in 1526. It was translated into Scottish by John Bellenden, archdeacon of Moray, under the title of the Hystory and Croniklis of Scotland, printed at Edinburgh in 1536. Bellenden also translated the first five books of Livy into Scottish. The Chronicle of Boece was versified in Scottish in 1531-35 by William Stewart, a descendant of the first earl of Buchan. It was written by command of Margaret, sister of Henry VIII. of England, for the instruction of her son, the youthful James V. A Latin poem of much merit, entitled De animi tranquillitate, was published in 1543 by Florence Wilson, master of Carpentras School. It is in the form of a dialogue and displays much variety of knowledge, while its Latinity has long been celebrated. In an anonymous work, written in 1548 or 1549, and called the Complaynt of Scotland, the author deplores the calamities to which Scotland was then subject. These are stated to be the wrongs done to the Scottish labourers at the hands of the landholders and the clergy, the difficulties with England, and the treachery of the Scottish nobility. The work is valuable as affording a glimpse of the literature then popular in Scotland, some pieces of which are no longer to be found,—such as The Tayle of the Reyde Eyttyn [red giant] with the Thre Heydes, The Tayl of the Volfe of the Varldis End, The Tayl of the Giantis that eit Quyk Men, The Tayl of the thrie futtit Dog of Norroway, and Robyn Hude and Litil Jhone. In 1552 there was printed at St Andrews a Catechism, that is to say ane Commons and Catholike Instructioun of the Christian People in Materis of our Catholike Faith and Religioun, written by John Hamilton, archbishop of St Andrews, the last primate of the Roman Catholic faith in Scotland. The poems of Sir Richard Maitland, which are Maitof a somewhat satirical kind, are valuable, as they, like landthose of Lyndsay, contain much information about the abuses of the time (1560), such as the oppressive conduct of the landholders, vexatious lawsuits, and the depredations of the Border thieves. Sir Richard deserves the thanks of posterity for the large manuscript collection of poems by Scottish authors which he and his daughter formed, and which is now preserved in the Pepysian Library, at Magdalene College, Cambridge. The name of George

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SCOTLAND Bannatyne is inseparably connected with the history of Winzet, a priest of considerable ability and one familiar Winzet Scottish poetry, as in 1568 he too formed an extensive with the scholastic learning of the age. He began life as collection of Scottish poetry which is certainly the most master of Linlithgow school and subsequently became valuable now extant. It was written by him at Edin- abbot of St James’s at Ratisbon. He wrote se'veral tracts burgh in the time of the plague, when the dread of in- in which he strenuously recommended the observance of fection confined him closely at home. The Bannatyne certain popish festivals. In 1562 he published his Buke MS. now preserved in the Advocates’ Library extends to of Four Scoir Thrie Questions inching Doctrine, Ordour, and 800 pages folio, and includes several of Bannatyne’s own Maneris proponit to the Prechouris of the Protestantis in poems, of which the two most considerable are of an Scotland and deliverit to Jhone Knox the 20th day of amatory character. The works of Alexander Scott, con- February 1562. The writings of James VI., who was a James sisting principally of love poems, embrace also a spirited man of scholarly attainments, embrace several works both VI. account of a Jousting betwix Adamson and Sym at the in poetry and prose. His earliest production, published Drum, a place a little to the south of Edinburgh. The in 1584, when he was only eighteen, was the Essayes of author, who was one of the most elegant poets of this a Prentice in the Divine Art of Poesie. This was followed period, has sometimes been called the “Scottish Anacreon.” by his poetical Exercises at Vacant Houres (1591). He Two poems of some merit—the Praises of Wemen and also wrote a great many sonnets and a translation of the Miseries of a Puir Scalar—were written by Alexander the Psalms. ^ His prose works are Dsemonologie (1597), Arbuthnot, principal of King’s College, Aberdeen, about Bao-tAtKov Awpov (1599), Counterblast to Tobacco, Para1570. A poem of considerable length, called the Sege of phrase on Revelation, Law of Free Monarchies, Ac. Among the Castell of Edinburgh, published in 1573, was by Bobert the Scottish poets who frequented his court were William Semple, who also wrote an attack on Archbishop Adamson, Fowler, the elegant translator of the Triumphs of Petrarch, called the Legend of the Bishop of Sand Androis Lyfe. and Stewart of Baldinnies (Perth), a translator of Ariosto. Rolland. To this period belong two poems of considerable length— Both these poets wrote other works which exist in MS., the Court of Venus (1575), an imitation of the Police of but are still unpublished. The zeal of Sir David Lyndsay ReliHonour of Gawyn Douglas, and the romance of the Seaven and others for the reformation of the church initiated a gious Seages (1578), a Scottish version of one of the most re- religious revival, and in 1597 was published the collection Poets* markable mediaeval collections of stories belonging to the known as Ane Compendious Boole of Godly and Spiritual same class as the Arabian Nights, in which one single Sangs for avoiding of Sinne and Harlotrie. This very story is employed as a means of stringing together a multi- curious work is attributed to John and Robert Weddertude of subsidiary tales. These poems were written by burn, the latter of whom was vicar of Dundee. A number John Rolland, notary in Dalkeith. One of the best Latin of religious poems were written about the end of the 16th Buchanan, scholars that modern Europe has produced was George century by James Melville, minister of Anstruther, afterBuchanan (g.v.), who flourished in the middle of the wards of Kilrenny, both in Fife. His Morning Vision, 16th century. He wrote several Latin tragedies and an printed in 1598, consists of paraphrases of the Lord’s unrivalled translation of the Psalms. His De jure regni Prayer, the Shorter Catechism, and the Ten Commandapud Scotos was composed to instruct James VI., to whom ments. He also wrote the Black Bastel, a lamentation over he had been tutor, in the duties belonging to his kingly the Church of Scotland, which is dated 1611. Another office. His last and most important labour was his History religious poet was James Cockburn, a native of Lanarkof Scotland, originally printed in 1582, of which seventeen shire, who wrote Gabriel’s Salutation to Marie (1605), and Lyndsay editions have appeared. An excellent specimen of the some other poems not destitute of merit. An eminent ancient theological writer of this era, Robert Rollock, first principal 0 ie scottie vernacular is theItChronicle * by Robert Lyndsay language of Pitscottie. includes oftheScotland period of the university of Edinburgh, wrote many commentaries from 1436 to the marriage of Mary to Darnley in 1565. on the Scriptures which show extensive learning. Most Although its author was a simple-minded and credulous are in Latin •, but one or two are in the Scottish language. man, he describes events of which he was an eye-witness A very popular poem, the Cherrie and the Slae, first printed Montwith circumstantiality and great prolixity of detail. An- by Waldegrave at Edinburgh in 1597, afterwards went gomcriB. other historical work of greater importance was the De through many editions. Its author was Alexander MontLesley. origins, moribus, et rebus gestis Scotorum (1578) by John gomerie, who also wrote some translations of the Psalms Lesley, bishop of Ross. A translation of this work made and the Flyting betwixt Montgomerie and Polwarth, in by Father James Dalrymple, a religious in the Scottish imitation of Dunbar’s Flyting xvith Kennedie. In 1599 cloister of Ratisbon, 1596, is in course of publication by was published an interesting volume of poems written by the Rev. Father E. B. Cody for the Scottish Text Society. Alexander Hume, entitled Hymnes or Sacred Songs, ivherein Lesley also wrote in Scottish a History of Scotland from the Right Use^ of Poesie may be espied. One is on the defeat the death of James I. in 1436 to the year 1561. This of the Spanish Armada. To the beginning of the 17th work, intended for the perusal of Mary while in captivity century belongs a comedy in rhyming stanza, the authorship in England, is written in an elegant style. The bishop of which is unknown,—Ane verie Excellent and Delectabill was the champion of that unfortunate queen, and in 1569 Treatise intitulit Philotus, quhairin ive may perceive the Greit wrote a Defence of the Honour of Alarie Queue of Scotland Lnconveniences thatfallis out in the Marriage betuix Aige and and Doivager of France, with a declaration of her right, Youth (1603). Its versification is easy and pleasant, and title, and interest to the succession of the crown of England. its plan a nearer approximation to the modern drama than The Reformation exerted a considerable influence on the satire of Lyndsay. In the same year appeared the Scottish literature. Amongst the earliest Protestant writers poems of Sir William Alexander (q.v.), earl of Stirling. Sir of the country may be mentioned Alexander Ales or Alesius, One, called Doomsday, or the Great Day of the Lord’s Judg- William a native of Edinburgh, who published several controversial ment, consists of 11,000 verses. His Monarchicke Traqedies, works and commentaries on various parts of the Bible. lour in number, were not intended for representation on Knox. But the most eminent promoter of the reform was John the, stage. His exhortation or Parsenesis to Prince Henry Knox (q.y.), who wrote several controversial pamphlets and (1604) is his best poem. He also wrote Recreations with some religious treatises; his great work was the History the Muses (1637), which is of a somewhat philosophical of the Reformation of Religion in Scotland, first printed in character. One of the most distinguished writers of this 1586. One of the principal opponents of Knox was Nmian era was William Drummond {q.v.) of Hawthornden, who Bannat ue y -

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published Poems, amorous, funerall, divine, pastor all (1616), gravity which had always been characteristic of the artist into gloom; he shrank from society and led a and Flowers of Zion, or Spiritual Poems (1623). He also passed wrote a History of Scotland during the Reigns of the Five secluded life, hardly quitting his studio, his mind conJameses (1-655), some political tracts, and the Cypress stantly occupied with the great problems of life and of Grove, a moral treatise in prose. As a writer of sonnets his art. The works of his later years include Vasco da encountering the Spirit of the Storm, a picturehe has always been highly esteemed. Nearly contemporary Gama immense in size and most powerful in conception finishe Hannay. with Drummond was Patrick Hannay, a native of Gallo- in 1842, and now preserved in the Trinity House, Leith, way, who seems to have followed James to England. He published his poems in 1622, the principal of which are the Duke of Gloucester entering the Water Gate of Calais Philomela the Nightingale and Sheretrine and Mariana. (1841), an impressive subject, more complete and harin execution than was usual with the artist; the He occupies a favourable pbsition amongst the minor monious Scottish poets. After the removal of the Scottish court Alchemist (1838), Queen Elizabeth at the Globe Theatre and Peter the Hermit (1845), remarkable for their to London and the union of the crowns in 1603, the old (1840), varied and elaborate character-painting ; and Ariel and language began to be considered as a provincial dialect; (1837) and the Triumph of Love (1846), distinand the writers subsequent to Drummond, who was the Caliban by their beauty of colouring and depth of poetic first Scottish poet that wrote well in English, take their guished feeling. The most important of his religious subjects are places amongst British authors. To the short sketch above given may be added a notice of the the Descent from the Cross (1835) and the Crucifixion— early Scottish writers on mathematics, philosophy, jurisprudence, the Dead Rising (1844). In addition to his works in Mathe- and medicine. In mathematical science the name ot Joannes colour Scott executed several remarkable series of designs. mati- Sacro Bosco (John Holywood or Holybush) may be mentioned, as Two of these—the Monograms of Man and the illustracians. he is believed to have been a native of Nithsdale and a canon oi tions to Coleridge’s Ancient Mariner—etched by his the monastery of Holywood, from which he took his name. He flourished about the beginning of the 13th century, and his treatise own hand, and published in 1831 and 1837 respectively, Be Sphera Mundi was very generally taught in colleges and schools. while his subjects from the Pilgrim’s Progress and Nichols The system of astronomy and the other mathematical treatises ot Architecture of the Heavens were issued after his death Janies Bassantie, who taught at Paris about 1560 with much success, Among his literary productions are five elaborate and were celebrated in their time. The greatest of the Scottish mathematicians, however, was John Napier {q.v.) of Merchiston, who thoughtful articles on the characteristics of the Italian wrote on various kindred subjects, and in 1614 astonished the masters, published in Blackwood’s Magazine, 1839 to 1841, Philo- world by his discovery of logarithms. In philosophy, besides the and a pamphlet on British, French, and German Painting, sophers. voluminous works of Duns Scotus and John Major already men- 1841. He died in Edinburgh on the 5th of March l849. tioned, various learned commentaries on Aristotle, of which Scottish philosophy then almost entirely consisted, were published by As a colourist David Scott occupies a high place in the Robert Balfour, principal of the college of Guienne; by John Ruther- Scottish school, but the most distinctive merit of his works ford, professor of philosophy at St Andrews (under whom Admirable lies in the boldness of their conception and their imaginaCrichton was a pupil); and by James Cheyne, professor of philosophy tive and poetic power. Writers at Douai. In jurisprudence a celebrated treatise on the Peuaal W. B. Scott, Memoir of David Scott, E.S.A. (1850), ami on juris Lmv was written by Sir Thomas Craig about 1603. It was not, J. See M. Gray, David Scott, B.S.A., and his Works (1884). prud- however, published till about half a century after his death, as the SCOTT, Sir George Gilbert (1811-1878), one of the printing of any treatise on the law of Scotland while he lived seems ence. to have°been considered as out of the question. Commentaries on most successful ecclesiastical architects of the 19th century, some of the titles of the Pandects of Justinian, and a treatise Be, was born in 1811 at Gawcott near Buckingham, where his Potestate Papes, (1609), in opposition to the usurpation of temporal power by the pope, were written by William Barclay, professor oi father was rector; his grandfather was Thomas Scott law in the university of Angers. Another early legal work was a (1747-1821), the well-known commentator on the Bible. treatise On the Connexion between Government. and Religion, by In 1827 young Scott was apprenticed for four years to an Adam Blackwood, judge of the parlement of Poitiers, who was the architect in London named Edmeston, and at the end of antagonist of Buchanan and a strenuous defender of Mary queen Medical of Scots. In medicine the principal early Scottish works were his pupildom acted as clerk of the works at the new writers. written by Duncan Liddell, a native of Aberdeen, who m 1605 Fishmongers’ Hall and other buildings in order to acquire published at Helmstadt his Disputationes medidnales, containing a knowledge of the practical details of his profession In the theses or disputations maintained by himself and his pupils Edmeston’s office he became acquainted with a fellowfrom 1592 to 1606. He also published other works, which contain an able digest of the medical learning of his age. Henry Blackwood, pupil, named Moffat, a man who possessed considerable dean of faculty to the college of physicians at Paris, wrote various talents for the purely business part of an architect s work, treatises on medicine, of which a list will be found m Mackenzie s and the two entered into partnership. In 1834 they Lives of the Scottish Writers, but which are now only historically (J were appointed architects to the union workhouses of interesting. . , . - ' ,'' SCOTT, David (1806-1849), historical painter, was born Buckinghamshire, and for four years were busily occupied at Edinburgh in October 1806, and studied under his father, in building a number of cheap and ugly unions, both there Robert Scott, an engraver of repute in the city. For a and in Northamptonshire and Lincolnshire. In 1838 built at Lincoln his first church, won in an open time in his youth he occupied himself with the burin; Scott but he soon turned his attention to original work in colour, competition, and this was quickly followed by six others, and in 1828 he exhibited his first oil picture, the Hopes of all very poor buildings without chancels; that was. a Early Genius dispelled by Death, which was followed by period when church building in England had reached its Cain, Nimrod, Adam and Eve singing their Morning very lowest point both in style and in poverty of construcHymn, Sarpedon carried by Sleep and Death, and other tion. About 1839 his enthusiasm was aroused by some subjects of a poetic and imaginative character. In 1829 of the eloquent writings of Pugin on mediseyal architectand by the various papers on ecclesiastical subjects he became a member of the Scottish Academy, and in ure 1832 visited Italy, where he spent more than a year in published by the Camden Society. These opened a new study. At Rome he executed a large symbolical painting, world to Scott, and he thenceforth studied and imitated entitled the Agony of Discord, or the Household Gods the architectural styles and principles of the Middle Ages Destroyed. On his return to Scotland he continued the with the utmost zeal and patient care. The first result of strenuous and unwearied practice of his art; but his pro- this new study was his design for the Martyrs Memorial ductions were too recondite and abstract in subject ever to at Oxford, erected in 1840, a clever adaptation of the late become widely popular, while the defects and exaggerations 13th-century crosses in honour of Queen Eleanor. . From of their draftsmanship repelled connoisseurs. So the that time Scott became the chief ecclesiastical architect in

Drummond of Hawthornden.

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SCOTT England, and in the next twenty-eight years completed an almost incredibly large number of new churches and ftTSe^nSr °f "’Mdl lle' ^ “ the0,3r “4 ™ “ restorations,” the fever for which was fomented by the SCOTT, John. See Eldon, Earl of. Ecclesiological Society and the growth of ecclesiastical SCOTT, Michael. See Scot, Michael feeling in England. SCOTT, Sir Walter (1771-1832), poet and novelist, In 1844 Scott won the first premium in the competition was born at Edinburgh on 15th August 1771. His pedifor the new Lutheran church at Hamburg, a noble building gree, in which he took a pride that strongly influenced the with a very lofty spire, designed strictly in the style of the course of his life, may be given in the words of his own 13th century.. In the following year his partnership with fragment of autobiography. “ My birth was neither disMoffat was dissolved, and in 1847 Scott was employed to tinguished nor sordid. According to the prejudices of my renovate and refit Ely cathedral, the first of a long series country it was esteemed gentle, as I was connected, though of English cathedral and abbey churches which passed remotely, with ancient families both by my father’s and through his hands. In 1851 Scott visited and studied the mother’s side. My father’s grandfather was Walter Scott architecture of the chief towns in northern Italy, and in well known by the name of fieardie. He was the second 1855 won the competition for the town-house at Hamburg son of Walter Scott, first laird of Raeburn, who was third designed after the model of similar buildings in north son of Sir William Scott, and the grandson of Walter Scott Germany. In spite of his having won the first prize, commonly called in tradition Auld Watt of Harden. I another architect was selected to construct the building’ am therefore lineally descended from that ancient chiefafter a very inferior design. In 1856 a competition was tain, whose name I have made to ring in many a ditty lield for designs of the new Government offices in London * and fiom his fair dame, the Flower of Yarrow,—no bad Scott obtained the third place in this, but the work was genealogy for a Border minstrel.” afterwards given to him on the condition (insisted on by Scott’s desire to be known as a cadet of the house of Lord Palmerston) that he should make a new design, not Haiden, and his ruling passion—so disastrous in its Gothic, but Classic or Renaissance in style: This Scott ultimate results to found a minor territorial family of very unwillingly consented to do, as he had little sympathy Scotts, have been very variously estimated. He himself, with any styles but those of England or France from the in a notice of John Home, speaks of pride of family as 13th to the 15th century. In 1862-63 he was employed to natural to a man of imagination,” remarking that, “in design and construct the Albert Memorial, a very costly this motley world, the family pride of the north country and elaborate work, in the style of a magnified 13th-century has its effects of good and of evil.” Whether the good or reliquary or ciborium, adorned with many statues and re- the evil preponderated in Scott’s own case would not be liefs in bronze and marble. On the partial completion of easy to determine. It tempted him into courses that this he received the honour of knighthood. In 1866 he ended m commercial ruin; but throughout his life it was competed for the new London law-courts, but the prize was a constant spur to exertion, and in his last years it proved adjudged to his old pupil, G. E. Street. In 1873, owing itself as a working principle capable of inspiring and mainto illness caused by overwork, Scott spent some time in taining a. most chivalrous conception of duty. If the tome and other parts of Italy. The mosaic pavement ancient chieftain Auld Watt was, according to the anecdote which he designed for Durham cathedral soon afterwards told by his illustrious descendant, once reduced in the was the result of his study of the 13th-century mosaics in matter of live stock to a single cow, and recovered his the old basilicas of Rome. On his return to England he dignity by stealing the cows of his English neighbours, resumed his professional labours, and continued to work Professor Yeitch is probably right in holding that Scott’s 0 intermission tin his sllort • i!8/8. ?toVith0Ut and death Border ancestry were, as a matter of literal fact, sheepm He was buried in the nave illness of Westminster farmers, who varied their occupation by “ lifting ” sheep Abbey, and an engraved brass, designed by G E Street and cattle, and whatever else was “neither too heavy was placed over his grave. In 1838 Scott married his nor too hot.” The Border lairds were really a race of cousin, Caroline Oldrid, who died in 1870; they had five shepherds in so far as they were not a race of robbers. sons, two of whom have taken up their father’s profession Professor Yeitch suggests that Scott may have derived Scott s architectural works were more numerous than those of from this pastoral ancestry an hereditary bias towards the observation of nature and the enjoyment of open-air life. unLrSnl Yfar0 UteCt theitccntury; unfortunately for his fame, he undertook more than was possible for him really to design or He certainly inherited from them the robust strength of ca 1 He of remb’ ol repair,6 refurnishing, rcf^ ^gllt and restoration f carried in the following out extensive buildings works• constitution that carried him successfully through so many -the cathedrals of Ely, Hereford, Lichfield, Salisbury” Chichester exhausting labours. And it was his pride in their real B an 0r i 3 ’ the fu Aabbeys fph’ Chestcr ’ Gloucester, Ripon’ or supposed feudal dignity and their rough marauding \\ mcestei, Exeter, Rochester, of Westminster, St Albans Tewkesbury and countless minor churches. He also built the new exploits that first directed him to the study of Border history and poetry, the basis of his fame as a poet and Hud ° ICe311^India ’ fo/cigib Home, ande Colonial), the Mid- romancer. His father, a writer to the signet (or attorney) 1 1 S aud hote1 and alar In T - ?dv UgS His st ’ S number of private of the rote he1’ beloffi< i s ; a carefuy]ec was (^th the one exception in Edinburgh—the original of the elder Fairford in fiedof the MiddleT™^ USedf )lth a r i °Py °f architectural periods gauntlet was the first of the family to adopt a town life witbmu muchnAg • ^' power, P ofound knowledge of rather detail, dull but or a learned profession. His mother was the daughter of without leali’ inventive and consequently Dr. Rutherford, a medical professor in the university of d 111 effect As a —^ “restorer ” of ancient buildings he ty f imme n so Edinburgh, who also traced descent from the chiefs of tino w any other architect i . amount of the mostwould irreparable destrucon, but of Ins generation probably have famous Border clans. The ceilings of Abbotsford display Aca emvToV; ^ While a “embef of theVoya? the arms of about a dozen Border families with which tt 1 1 Published a d ,ep0rts 011 lnan ofin 1879, and also a iS idtwmvi ntlft f i 1 0 V1Og toyhis tbe of the one and acquired the best qualities of the other. had t0 numancient buildamong whom erous pupils, n ' The details of his early education are given with great leadmg U some Cme 1 16 v for+ some vl, m spread architects, hisrapidly influence was precision in his autobiography. Stuart Mill was not more I ? eiy widely ; but it is now passing away, mainly owing to the growing reaction against tie somowhat minute in recording the various circumstances that shaped

SCOTT his habits of mind and work. We learn from himself the secret—as much at least as could be ascribed to definite extraneous accident—of the “ extempore speed ” in romantic composition against which Carlyle protested in his famous review of Lockhart’s Life of Scott.1 The indignant critic assumed that Scott wrote “ without preparation ”; Scott himself, as if he had foreseen this cavil, is at pains to show that the preparation began with his boyhood, almost with his infancy. The current legend when Carlyle wrote his essay was that as a boy Scott had been a dunce and an idler. With a characteristically conscientious desire not to set a bad example, the autobiographer solemnly declares that he was neither a dunce nor an idler, and explains how the misunderstanding arose. His health in boyhood was uncertain;2 he was consequently irregular in his attendance at school, never became exact in his knowledge of Latin syntax, and was so belated in beginning Greek that out of bravado he resolved not to learn it at all. Left very much to himself throughout his boyhood in the matter of reading, so quick, lively, excitable, and uncertain in health that it was considered dangerous to press him and prudent rather to keep him back, Scott began at a very early age to accumulate the romantic lore of which he afterwards made such splendid use. As a child he seems to have been an eager and interested listener and a great favourite with his elders, apparently having even then the same engaging charm that made him so much beloved as a man. Chance threw him in the way of many who were willing to indulge his delight in stories and ballads. Not only his own relatives—the old women at his grandfather’s farm at Sandyknowe, his aunt, under whose charge he was sent to Bath for a year, his mother—took an interest in the precocious boy’s questions, told him tales of Jacobites and Border worthies of his own and other clans, but casual friends of the family —such as the military veteran at Prestonpans, old Dr Blacklock the blind poet, Home the author of Douglas, Adam Ferguson the martial historian of the Roman republic—helped forward his education in the direction in which the bent of his genius lay. At the age of six 1 2

Latest edition in 10 vols. fcap. 8vo, Edinburgh, 1847-48. Dr Charles Creighton supplies us with the following medical note on Scott’s early illness :—“ Scott’s lameness was owing to an arrest of growth in the right leg in infancy. ' When he was eighteen months old he had a feverish attack lasting three days, at the end of which time it was found that he ‘had lost the power of his right leg,’—i.e., the child instinctively declined to move the ailing member. The malady was a swelling at the ankle, and either consisted in or gave rise to arrest of the bone-forming function along the growing line of cartilage which connects the lower epiphysis of each of the two leg-bones with its shaft. In his fourth year, when he had otherwise recovered, the leg remained ‘ much shrunk and contracted. ’ The limb would have been blighted very much more if the arrest of growth had taken place at the upper epiphysis of the tibia or the lower epiphysis of the femur. The narrowness and peculiar depth of Scott’s head point to some more general congenital error of bone-making allied to rickets but certainly not the same as that malady. The vault of the skull is the typical ‘ scaphoid ’ or boat-shaped formation, due to premature union of the two parietal bones along the sagittal suture. When the bones of the cranium are universally aifected with that arrest of growth along their formative edges, the sutures become prematurely fixed and effaced, so that the brain-case cannot expand in any direction to accommodate the growing brain. This universal synostosis of the cranial bones is what occurs in the case of microcephalous idiots. It happened to me to show to an eminent French anthropologist a specimen of a miniature or microcephalic skull preserved in the Cambridge museum of anatomy ; the French savant, holding up the skull and pointing to the ‘ scaphoid ’ vault of the crown and the effaced sagittal suture, exclaimed ‘ Yoila Walter Scott! ’ Scott had fortunately escaped the early closure or arrest of growth at other cranial sutures than the sagittal, so that the growing brain could make room for itself by forcing up the vault of the skull bodily. When his head was opened after death, it was observed that ‘ the brain was not large, and the cranium thinner than it is usually found to be. ’ In favour of the theory of congenital liability it has to be said that he was the ninth of a family of whom the first six died in ‘ very early youth.’ ”

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he was able to define himself as “a virtuoso,” “one who wishes to and will know everything.” At ten his collection of chap-books and ballads had reached several volumes, and he was a connoisseur in various readings. Thus he took to the High School, Edinburgh, when he was strong enough to be put in regular attendance, an unusual store of miscellaneous knowledge and an unusually quickened intelligence, so that his master “ pronounced that, though many of his schoolfellows understood the Latin better, Gualterus Scott was behind few in following and enjoying the author’s meaning.” Throughout his school days and afterwards when he was apprenticed to his father, attended university classes, read for the bar, took part in academical and professional debating societies, Scott steadily and ardently pursued his own favourite studies. His reading in romance and history was really study, and not merely the indulgence of an ordinary schoolboy’s promiscuous appetite for exciting literature. In fact, even as a schoolboy he specialized. He followed the line of overpowering inclination; and even then, as he frankly tells us, “fame was the spur.” He acquired a reputation among his schoolfellows for out-of-the-way knowledge, and also for story-telling, and he worked hard to maintain this character, which compensated to his ambitious spirit his indifferent distinction in ordinary school-work. The youthful “ virtuoso,” though he read ten times the usual allowance of novels from the circulating library, was carried by his enthusiasm into fields much less generally attractive. He was still a schoolboy when he mastered French sufficiently well to read through collections of old French romances, and not more than fifteen when, attracted by translations to Italian romantic literature, he learnt the language in order to read Dante and Ariosto in the original. This willingness to face dry work in the pursuit of romantic reading affords a measure of the strength of Scott’s passion. In one of the literary parties brought together to lionize Burns, when the peasant poet visited Edinburgh, the boy of fifteen was the only member of the company who could tell the source of some lines affixed to a picture that had attracted the poet’s attention,—a slight but significant evidence both of the width of his reading and of the tenacity of his memory. The same thoroughness appears in another little circumstance. He took an interest in Scottish family history and genealogy, but, not content with the ordinary sources, he ransacked the MSS. preserved in the Advocates’ Library. By the time he was one and twenty he had acquired such a reputation for his skill in deciphering old manuscripts that his assistance was sought by professional antiquaries. This early, assiduous, unintermittent study was the main secret, over and above his natural gifts, of Scott’s extempore speed and fertility when at last he found forms into which to pour his vast accumulation of historical and romantic lore. He was, as he said himself, “like an ignorant gamester who keeps up a good hand till he knows how to play it.” That he had vague thoughts from a much earlier period than is commonly supposed of playing the hand some day is extremely probable, if, as he tells us, the idea of writing romances first occurred to him when he read Cervantes in the original. This was long before he was out of his teens; and, if we add that his leading idea in his first novel was to depict a Jacobitic Don Quixote, we can see that there was probably a long interval between the first conception of Waverley and the ultimate completion. Scott’s preparation for painting the life of past times was probably much less unconsciously such than his equally thorough preparation for acting as the painter of Scottish manners and character in all grades of society. With all XXL — 69

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the extent of his reading as a schoolboy and a young man he was far from being a cloisteral student, absorbed in his books. In spite of his lameness and his serious illnesses in youth, his constitution was naturally robust, his disposition genial, his spirits high: he was always well to the front in the fights and frolics of the High School, and a boon companion in the “high jinks” of the junior bar. The future novelist’s experience of life was singularly rich and varied. While he lived the life of imagination and scholarship in sympathy with a few choice friends, he was l)rought into intimate daily contact with many varieties of real life. At home he had to behave as became a member of a Puritanic, somewhat ascetic, well-ordered Scottish household, subduing his own inclinations towards a more graceful and comfortable scheme of living into outward conformity with his father’s strict rule. Through his mother’s family he obtained access to the literary society of Edinburgh, at that time electrified by the advent of Burns, full of vigour and ambition, rejoicing in the possession of not a few widely known men of letters, philosophers, historians, novelists, and critics, from racy and eccentric Monboddo to refined and scholarly Mackenzie. In that society also he may have found the materials for the manners and characters of St Honan’s Well. From any tendency to the pedantry of over-culture he was effectually saved by the rougher and manlier spirit of his professional comrades, who, though they respected belles lettres, would not tolerate anything in the shape of affectation or sentimentalism. The atmosphere of the Parliament House (the Westminster Hall of Edinburgh) had considerable influence on the tone of Scott’s novels. His peculiar humour as a story-teller and painter of character was first developed among the young men of his own standing at the bar. They were the first mature audience on which he experimented, and seem often to have been in his mind’s eye when he enlarged his public. From their mirthful companionship by the stove, where the briefless congregated to discuss knotty points in law and help one another to enjoy the humours of judges and litigants, “ Duns Scotus ” often stole away to pore over old books and manuscripts in the library beneath; but as long as he was with them he was first among his peers in the art of providing entertainment. It was to this market that Scott brought the harvest of the vacation rambles which it was his custom to make every autumn for seven years after his call to the bar and before his marriage. He scoured the country in search of ballads and other relics of antiquity; but he found also and treasured many traits of living manners, many a lively sketch and story with which to amuse the brothers of “the mountain” on his return. His staid father did not much like these escapades, and told him bitterly that he seemed fit for nothing but to be a “ gangrel scrape-gut.” But, as the companion of “ his Liddesdale raids” happily put it, “he was makin’ himsell a’ the time, but he didna ken maybe what he was about till years had passed : at first he thought o’ little, I daresay, but the queerness and the fun.” We may as well dispose at once of Scott’s professional career. His father intended him originally to follow his own business, and he was apprenticed in his sixteenth year; but he preferred the upper walk of the legal profession, and was admitted a member of the faculty of advocates in 1792. He seems to have read hard at law for four years at least, but almost from the first to have limited his ambition to obtaining some comfortable appointment such as would leave him a good deal of leisure for literary pursuits. In this he was not disappointed. In 1799 he obtained the office of sheriff-depute of Selkirkshire, with a salary of £300 and very light duties. In 1806 he obtained the reversion of the office of clerk of

session. It is sometimes supposed, from the immense amount of other work that Scott accomplished, that this office was a sinecure. But the duties, which are fully described by Lockhart, were really serious, and kept him hard at fatiguing work, his biographer estimates, for at least three or four hours daily during six months out of the twelve, while the court was in session. He discharged these duties faithfully for twenty-five years, during the height of his activity as an author. He did not enter on the emoluments of the office till 1812, but from that time he received from the clerkship and the sheriffdom combined an income of rnnntih of an inch. AVhen, The periodic error especially will be too small to be discovered, however, a grating of that length is attempted at the rate of 14,000 though the mountings and graduation and centering of the head lines to the inch, four days and nights are required and the result is seldom perfect, possibly on account of the wear of the machine or will introduce* it; it must therefore finally be corrected. Mounting of Screws.—The mounting must be devised most care- changes of temperature. Gratings, however, less than 3 inches (H. A. R.) fully, and is indeed more difficult to make without error than the long are easy to make. SCRIBE, Augustin Eugene (1791-1861), the most screw itself. The principle which should be adopted is that no workmanship is perfect; the design must make up for its imper- popular playwright of France, was born at Paris on 24th fections. Thus the screw can never be made to run true on its December 1791, and died there on 20th February 1861. bearings, and hence the device of resting one end of the carriage His father was a silk merchant and he was well educated, on the nut must be rejected. Also all rigid connexion between the nut and the carriage must be avoided, as the screw can never being destined for the bar. But, having a real gift for be adjusted parallel to the ways on which the carriage rests. For the theatre (a gift which unfortunately was not allied with many purposes, such as ruling optical gratings, the carriage must sufficient literary power to make his works last), he very move accurately forward in a straight line as far as the horizontal soon broke away from professional study and at the age plane is concerned, while a little curvature in the vertical plane produces very little effect. These conditions can be satisfied by of twenty produced, in collaboration, as is common in making the ways V-shaped and grinding with a grinder somewhat France, the first of a series of dramas which continued for shorter than the ways. By constant reversals and by lengthening fifty years. Les Dervis (1811) is usually cited as the first or shortening the stroke, they will finally become nearly perfect. play in which he took a hand, though, as for some time he The vertical curvature can be sufficiently tested by a short carriage carrying a delicate spirit level. Another and very efficient form did not sign his work, identification is somewhat difficult. of ways is V-shaped with a flat top and nearly vertical sides. The He achieved no distinct success till 1816, when Une Nuit carriage rests on the flat top and is held by springs against one of de Garde Nationale made him in a way famous. Thencethe nearly vertical sides. To determine with accuracy whether forward his fertility was unceasing and its results prothe ways are straight, fix a flat piece of glass on the carriage and rule a line on it by moving it under a diamond ; reverse and rule digious. There may be in existence a complete list of another line near the first, and measure the distance apart at the Scribe’s works, but we have never seen any that pretended centre and at the two ends by a micrometer. If the centre measure- to be such. He wrote every kind of drama—vaudevilles, ment is equal to the mean of the two end ones, the line is straight. 1 In a machine made by the present writer for ruling gratings the This is better than the method with a mirror mounted on the carriage and a telescope. The screw itself must rest in bearings, periodic error is entirely due to the graduation and centering of the and the end motion be prevented by a point bearing against its flat head. The uncorrected periodic error from this cause displaces the end, which is protected by hardened steel or a flat diamond.. Collar lines Annrth of an inch, which is sufficient to entirely ruin all gratings bearings introduce periodic errors. The secret of success is so to made without correcting it. XXL — 70

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S C R —S C R comedies, tragedies, opera-libretti. To one theatre alone children during the first dentition by inflammatory skin he is said to have furnished more than a hundred pieces. eruptions of obstinate character on the face and other But his life was entirely uneventful, and his election to parts; later on in youth there appear glandular swellings the Academy in 1834 is almost the only incident which either externally, as on the neck, or affecting the gland deserves chronicling. It ought to be said to Scribe’s structures of the chest or abdomen, while at the same credit that, although he was the least original of writers time mucous, membranes and bones may become implicated. and was more an editor of dramas than a dramatist, The distinctive features of the scrofulous inflammatory although he was for many years an object of the bitterest affections are their tendency to chronicity and to suppuraenvy to impecunious geniuses owing to his pecuniary tive, and degenerative changes, the affected parts either success, and although he never has pleased and never can healing slowly with resulting disfigurement, as on the neck, please any critic who applies purely literary tests, his or continuing to retain traces of the products of the character stands very high for literary probity and indeed diseased action, which may set up serious disturbance of generosity. He is said in some cases to have sent sums of the health at some future time. Further, the scrofulous money for “copyright in ideas” to men who not only had constitution always influences the duration and progress of not actually collaborated with him but who were unaware any disease from which the individual may suffer, as well that he had taken suggestions from their work. His as its results. Thus in pneumonia, to which the scrofulous industry was untiring and his knowledge both of the would seem to be specially liable, the products of the mechanism of the stage and of the tastes of the audience inflammation are not readily absorbed as in previously was wonderful. Nevertheless he hardly deserves a place healthy persons, but, remaining in the lung-tissues, are in literature, his style being vulgar, his characters common- apt to. undergo caseous degenerative changes, which may place, even his plots lacking power and grasp. He wrote issue in phthisis (see Pneumonia and Phthisis). The a few novels, but none of any mark. The best known of connexion of scrofula with tubercle is pointed out in the Scribe’s pieces after his first successful one are Une Ghame article Pathology (loc. cit.). (1842), Le Verre cVEau (1842), Adrienne Lecouvreur (1849), Scrofula may under favourable circumstances tend to and the libretti of many of the most famous operas of improvement as age advances, and it occasionally happens the middle of the century, especially those of Auber and that persons.who in early life showed unmistakable eviMeyerbeer. dences of this condition appear ultimately to outgrow it, SCRIBES. See Israel, vol. xiii. p. 419. and become in all respects healthy and vigorous. The SCRIVENER’S PALSY. See Cramp, vol. vi. p. 543. treatment is essentially similar to that described for SCROFULA or Struma (formerly known in England rickets or phthisis, and is partly preventive and partly as “king’s evil,” from the belief that the touch of the curative. It consists mainly in hygienic measures to prosovereign could effect a cure1), a constitutional morbid mote the health and nutrition of the young, and of suitable condition generally exhibiting itself in early life, and diet, tonics, &c., where evidences of the disease have characterized mainly by defective nutrition of the tissues declared themselves. See Rickets, Phthisis. and by a tendency to inflammatory affections of a low type SCRUB-BIRD, the name (for want of a better, since it with degenerative changes in their products. The subject is not very distinctive) conferred upon the members of an has been considered in most of its features under Patho- Australian genus, one of the most curious ornithological logy (vol. xviii. p. 405), and only a further brief reference types of the many furnished by that country. The first is here necessary. Scrofula may be either inherited or examples were procured by the late Mr Gilbert between acquired. Heredity is of all causes the most potent, and Perth and Augusta in West Australia, and were described naturally operates with greater certainty where both parents by Gould in the Zoological Society’s Proceedings for 1844 possess the taint. As in all hereditary diseases, however, (pp. 1, 2) as forming a new genus and species under the the liability may be scarcely perceptible for one or two name of Atrichia clamosa, the great peculiarity observed generations, but may then reappear. Other causes refer- by that naturalist being the absence of any bristles around able to parentage may readily produce this constitutional the gape, in which respect alone it seemed to differ from state in children, as weakness or ill health in one or both the already known genus Sphenura. In March 1866 Mr parents, and, as seems probable, marriages of consanguinity. Wilcox obtained on the banks of the Richmond river on But, apart altogether from hereditary or congenital influ- the eastern side of Australia some other examples, which ences, the scrofulous habit is frequently developed, especi- proved the existence of a second species, described by Mr ally in the young, by such unfavourable hygienic conditions Ramsay in the Proceedings for that year (pp. 438-440) as as result from overcrowded, cold, and dark dwellings, in- A. rufescens j but still no suspicion of the great divergence sufficient and improper food, exposure, and debauchery. of the genus from the ordinary Passerine type was raised, Even among the old in such circumstances the evidences and it was generally regarded as belonging to the Maluridse of scrofula may be seen to present themselves where before or Australian Warblers. However, the peculiar formation they had been absent. of the. sternum in Atrichia attracted the present writer’s There are two well-marked types of the scrofulous con- attention almost as soon as that of A. clamosa was exhibited stitution to be often observed, especially among the young. in the museum of the College of Surgeons, and at his reIn the one. the chief features are a fair complexion with quest Mr Ramsay a little later sent to the museum of the delicate thin skin, blue eyes, dilated pupils, long eyelashes, university of Cambridge examples in spirit of A. rufescens, soft muscles, and activity of the circulatory and nervous which shewed a common structure. One of the sternal system j while in the other the skin is dark, the features peculiarities was noticed by Mr Sclater (Ibis, 1874, p. 191, heavy, the figure stunted, and all the functions, physical note); and in the present work (Birds, iii. p. 741) the and mental, inactive. In many instances, however, it will Scrub- birds were declared to form a distinct Family, be found that both types are more or less mixed together Atrichiidee, standing, so far as was known, alone with the in one individual. The manifestations of scrofula generally Lyre-birds (see vol. xv. p. 115) as “abnormal Passeres.” appear in early life, and are often exhibited in young Much the same view was also taken the next year by Garrod, ] This superstition can be traced back to the time of Edward the who, in the Proceedings for 1876 (pp. 516, 518, pi. lii. Oonlessor in England, and to a much earlier period in France. Samuel figs. 4-7), further dwelt on the taxonomic importance of Johnson was touched by Queen Anne in 1712, and the same pre- the equally remarkable characters of the syringeal muscles rogative of royalty was exercised by Prince Charles Edward in 1745. exhibited alike by Menura and Atrichia, which he accord-

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himself conspicuous by a letter attacking Corneille s Cid, which he addressed to that body. He was. himself an industrious dramatist, L'Amour Tyrannique being the chief piece which (and that only partially) has escaped, oblivion. His other most famous work was the epic of Alaric (1654). He lent his name to his sister’s first romances, but did little beyond correcting the proofs. His death occurred at Paris on 14th May 1667. Scudery’s swashbuckler affectations (he terminates his introduction to the works of Theophile de Viaud by something like a challenge in form to any one who does not admit the supremacy of the deceased poet), the bombast of his style, and his various oddities have been rather exaggerated by literary gossip and tradition. Although probably not quite sane, he had some poetical power, a fervent love of literature, a high sense of honour and of friendship. His sister Madeleine (1607-1701), born also at Havre in 1607, was a writer of much more ability and of a much better regulated character. She was very plain and had no fortune, but her abilities were great and she was very well educated. Establishing herself at Paris with her brother, she was at once admitted to the Rambouillet coterie, afterwards established a salon of her own under the title of the Societe du Samedi, and for the last half of the 11 th century, under the pseudonym of “Sapho” or her own name, was acknowledged as the first blue-stocking of France and of the world. Her celebrated novels, Artamene ou le Grand Cyrus, Clclxc, Ibrahim ou VIllustrc Passa, Almahidc, and others are known by quotation to every one, and were the delight of all Europe, including persons of the wit and sense of Madame de Sevigne. But for at least a century West - Australian Scrub-bird {Atrichia damosa). and a half they have lain unread, and their immense length the size of a small Thrush—A. clamosa being the larger of has often been satirized even by persons well read in letters the two. This species is brown above, each feather with the term “ folio,” when in fact they were originally barred with a darker shade j the throat and belly are issued in batches of small octavos, sometimes (allowing for reddish white, and there is a large black patch on the two parts to each volume) running to a . score or so. breast; while the flanks are brown and the lower tail- Neither in conception nor in execution will they bear coverts rufous. A. rufescens has the white and black of criticism as wholes. With classical or Oriental personages the fore-parts replaced by brown, barred much as is the for nominal heroes and heroines, the whole language and upper plumage. Both species are said to inhabit the action are taken from the fashionable ideas of the time, thickest “scrub” or brushwood forest; but little has been and the personages can be identified either really or colourascertained as to their mode of life except that the males ably with Mademoiselle de Scudery’s contemporaries. The are noisy, imitative of the notes of other birds, and given interminable length of the stories is made out by endless to violent gesticulations. The nest and eggs seem never conversations and, as far as incidents go, chiefly by sucto have been found, and indeed no example of the female cessive abductions of the heroines, conceived and related of either species is known to have been procured, whence in the most decorous spirit, for Mademoiselle de Scudery that sex may be inferred to escape observation by its in- is nothing if not decorous. Nevertheless, although the conspicuous appearance and retiring habits. . .(a. n.) books can hardly now be read through, it is still possible SCUDERY is the name of a family which is said to to perceive their attraction for the wits, both male and have been of Italian origin and to have transferred itself to female, of a time which certainly did. not lack wit. In Provence, but which is only known by the singular brother that early day of the novel prolixity did not repel. and sister who represented it during the 17th century. “Sapho” had really studied mankind in her contempoGeorges de Scttdery (1601-1667), the elder of the pair, raries and knew how to analyse and describe their characters was born at Havre, whither his father had moved from with fidelity and point. She was a real mistress of conProvence, in 1601. He served in the army for some time, versation, a thing quite new to the age at least as far as and, though in the vein of gasconading which was almost literature was concerned, and proportionately welcome. peculiar to him he no doubt exaggerated his services, there She could moralize—a favourite employment of the time— seems little doubt that he was a stout soldier. But he con- with sense and propriety, and the purely literary merits ceived a fancy for literature before he was thirty, and during of the style which clothed the whole were considerable. the whole of the middle of the century he was one of the Madeleine survived her brother more than thirty years most characteristic figures of Paris. Despite his own merit, (scandal says that she was not sorry to be relieved from which was not inconsiderable, and his sister’s, which was his humours), and in her later days published numerous more, he was unlucky in his suits for preferment. Indeed volumes of conversations (to a great extent extracted fiom from some stories told by men not his friends he seems to her novels) and short moral writings. Dryden says that he have hurt his own chances by independence of spirit. He had heard of an intention on her part to translate the received, however, the governorship of the fortress of Xotre Canterbury Tales, and it is not impossible. She never Dame de la Garde near Marseilles in 1643, and in 1650 lost either her renown or her wits or her good sense, and was elected to the Academy. Long before he had made died at Paris on 2d June 1701. It is unfortunate and 1 Forbes shewed that Orthonyx (vol. xviii. p. 52) did not belong rather surprising that no one has recently attempted an anthology from her immense work. to the group as at one time supposed.

ingly placed together in a division of the Acromyodian Passeres, differing from all the rest and since recognized, as has been said (Ornithology, vol. xviii. pp. 40, 41), by Mr Sclater as a Sub-order Pseudoscines. A detailed anatomical description of Atrichia has, however, yet to be given, and a comparison of many other Australian types is needed1 before it can be certainly said to have no nearer ally than Menura. Both the known species of Scrub-bird are about

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SCULPTUEE THE present article is confined to tlie sculpture of the frequently repeated. The Vatican and Lateran museums Middle Ages and modern times; classical sculpture are rich m examples of this sort. One of the finest in the has been already treated of under Arch/eology (Class- former collection was taken from the crypt of the old ical), vol. ii. p. 343 sq., and in the articles on the several basilica of St Peter; it contained the body of a certain individual artists. Junius Bassus, and dates from the year 359.2 Many In the 4th century a.d., under the rule of Constantine’s other similar sarcophagi were made in the provinces of successors, the plastic arts in the Roman world reached Rome, especially Gaul; and fine specimens exist in the the lowest point of degradation to which they ever fell. museums of Arles, _ Marseilles, and Aix; those found in Coarse in workmanship, intensely feeble in design, and Britain are of very inferior workmanship. utterly without expression or life, the pagan sculpture of In the 5th century other plastic works similar in style that time is merely a dull and ignorant imitation of the still produced in Italy, especially reliefs in ivory work of previous centuries. The old faith was dead, and were (to a certain extent imitations of the later consular the art which had sprung diptychs), which were used to decorate episcopal thrones Early from it died with it. In or the bindings of MSS. of the Gospels. The so-called Chris- the same century a large ' ^ chair of St Peter, still preserved (though hidden from sight) tian. amount of sculpture was in liis gieat basilica, is the finest example of the former produced by Christian class; of less purely classical style, dating from about 550, workmen, which, though is the ivory throne of Bishop Maximianus in Ravenna it reached no very high cathedral (see fig. 2). Another very remarkable work of standard of merit, was at least far superior to the pagan work. Although it shows no increase of technical skill or knowledge of the human form, yet the mere fact that it was inspired and its subjects supplied by a real living faith was quite sufficient to give it a vigour and a dramatic force which raise it aesthetically far above the expiring efforts of paganism. Fig. 1 shows a very fine Christian relief of the 4th century, with a noble figure of an archangel holding an orb and a sceptre. It is a leaf from an ivory consular dipFig. 2.—Reliefs in ivory of the Baptist and the Four Evangelists in front of the episcopal throne of Maximianus in Ravenna cathedral. tych, inscribed at the top AEXOY HAPONTA KAI the 5th century is the series of small panel reliefs on the MA0^N THN AITIAN, doors of S. Sabina on the Aventine Hill at Rome. They “Receive these presents are scenes from Bible history carved and having learnt the ocin wood, and in them much of the casion ...” A number old classic style survives.3 of large marble sarcoIn the 6th century, under the By- \ [ Byzanphagi are the chief existtine zantine influence of Justinian, a new ing specimens of this early class of decorative sculpture was proFig. 1.—Relief in ivory of the 4th Christian sculpture. In duced, especially at Ravenna. Subcentury. (British Museum.) general design they are ject reliefs do not often occur, but close copies of pagan tombs, and are richly decorated large slabs of marble, forming screens, outside with reliefs. The subjects of these are usually altars, pulpits, and the like, were scenes from the Old and Hew Testaments. From the ornamented in a very skilful and oritormer those subjects were selected which were supposed ginal way with low reliefs of graceful to have some typical reference to the life of Christ • vine-plants, with peacocks and other the Meeting of Abraham and Melchisedec, the Sacrifice birds drinking out of chalices, all 0 1 aac Da ® ’ niel among the Lions, Jonah and the Whale, treated in a very able and highly Fig. 3.—Sixth-century are those which most frequently occur. Among the Hew decorative manner (see fig. 3 and capital from S. Vitale estament scenes no representations occur of Christ’s the upper band of fig. 2). Byzan- at Kaveuuasufferings; the subjects chosen illustrate His power and tium, however, in the main, became the birthplace and beneficence : the Sermon on the Mount, the Triumphal Jintry into Jerusalem, and many of His miracles are xlXT78™’ ^ YaL BaS' CV^'’ and Bunsen> Besch. d. Stadt exc tion to tllis * Va]"10us dates have been assigned to these interesting reliefs by Pilltf which ™ ®P occurs. is the scene of Christ beforee different Pilate, sometimes archaeologists, but the costumes of the figures are strong evidence that they are not later than the 5th century.

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seat of all the mediseval arts soon after the transference thither of the headquarters of the empire. The plastic arts of Byzantium were for a while dominated by the survival of the dull classic art of the extreme decadence, but soon fresh life and vigour of conception were gained by a people who were not without the germinating seeds of a new aesthetic development. The bronze statue of St Peter in his Roman basilica is an early work which shows some promise of what was to come in the far-off future; though classical in its main lines and stiff in treatment, it possesses a simple dignity and force which were far beyond the powers of any mere copyist of classic sculpture.1 Very early in the 5th or 6th century a school of decorative sculpture arose at Byzantium which produced work, such as carved foliage on capitals and bands of ornament, possessed of the very highest decorative power and executed with unrivalled spirit and vigour. The early Byzantine treatment of the acanthus or thistle, as seen in the capitals of S. Sophia at Constantinople, the Golden Gate at Jerusalem, and many other buildings in the East, has never since been surpassed in any purely decorative sculpture; and it is interesting to note how it grew out of the dull and lifeless ornamentation which covers the degraded Corinthian capital used so largely in Roman buildings of the time of Constantine and his sons. It was, however, especially in the production of Metal-work {q.v.) that the early Byzantines were so famous, and this notably in the manipulation of the precious metals, which were then used in the most lavish way to decorate and furnish the great churches of the empire. This extended use of gold and silver strongly influenced their sculpture, even when the material was marble or bronze, and caused an amount of delicate surface-ornament to be used which was sometimes injurious to the breadth and simplicity of their reliefs. For many centuries the art of Byzantium, at least in its higher forms, made little or no progress, mainly owing to the tyrannical influence of the church and its growing suspicion of anything like sensual beauty. A large party in the Eastern Church decided that all representations of Christ must be “without form or comeliness,” and that it was impious to carve or paint Him with any of the beauty and nobility of the pagan gods. Moreover, the artists of Byzantium were fettered by the strictest rules as to the proper way in which to portray each sacred figure: every saint had to be represented in a certain attitude, with one fixed cast of face and arrangement of drapery, and even in certain definitely prescribed colours. Ho deviation from these rules was permitted, and thus stereotyped patterns were created and followed in the most rigid and conventional manner. Hence in Byzantine art from the 6th to the 12th century a miniature painting in an illuminated MS. looks like a reduced copy of a colossal glass mosaic; and no design had much special relation to the material it was to be executed in : it was much the same whether it was intended to be a large relief sculptured in stone or a minute piece of silver-work for the back of a textus. Influence Till about the 12th century, and in some places much of Byzan-later, the art of Byzantium dominated that of the whole tine art. Q^j-igtian world in a very remarkable way. From Russia to Ireland and from Norway to Spain any given work of art in one of the countries of Europe might almost equally well have been designed in any other. Little or no local peculiarities can be detected, except of course in the methods of execution, and even these were wonderfully similar everywhere. The dogmatic unity of the Catholic Church and its great monastic system, with constant interchange of monkish craftsmen between one country and another, 1 There is no ground for the popular impression that this is an antique statue of Jupiter transformed into that of St Peter by the addition of the keys.

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were the chief causes of this widespread monotony of style. An additional reason was the unrivalled technical skill of the early Byzantines, which made their city widely resorted to by the artist-craftsmen of all Europe,—the great school for learning any branch of the arts. The extensive use of the precious metals for the chief works of plastic art in this early period is one of the reasons why so few examples still remain,—their great intrinsic value naturally causing their destruction. One of the most important existing examples, dating from the 8th century, is a series of colossal wall reliefs executed in hard stucco in the church of Cividale (Friuli) not far from Trieste. These represent rows of female saints bearing jewelled crosses, crowns, and wreaths, and closely resembling in costume, attitude, and arrangement the gift-bearing mosaic figures of Theodora and her ladies in S. Vitale at Ravenna. It is a striking instance of the almost petrified state of Byzantine art that so close a similarity should be possible between works executed at an interval of fully two hundred years. Some very interesting small plaques of ivory in the library of St Gall show a still later survival of early forms. The central relief is a figure of Christ in Majesty, and closely resembles those in the colossal apse mosaic of S. Apollinare in Classe and other churches of Ravenna; while the figures below the Christ are survivals of a still older time, dating back from the best eras of classic art. A river-god is represented as an old man holding an urn, from which a stream issues, and a reclining female figure with an infant and a cornucopia is the old Roman Tellus or Earth-goddess with her ancient attributes.2 It will be convenient to discuss the sculpture of the mediseval and modern periods under the heads of the chief countries of Europe. England.—During the Saxon period, when stone buildings were rare and even large cathedrals were built of wood, the plastic arts were mostly confined to the use of gold, silver, and gilt copper. The earliest existing speci- Churchmens of sculpture in stone are a number of tall churchyard yard crosses, mostly in the northern provinces and apparently C10SS the work of Scandinavian sculptors. One very remarkable example is a tall monolithic cross, cut in sandstone, in the churchyard of Gosforth in Cumberland. It is covered with rudely carved reliefs, small in scale, which are of special interest as showing a transitional state from the worship of Odin to that of Christ. Some of the old Norse symbols and myths sculptured on it occur modified and altered into a semi-Christian form. Though rich in decorative effect and with a graceful outline, this sculptured cross shows a very primitive state of artistic development, as do the other crosses of this class in Cornwall, Ireland, and Scotland, which are mainly ornamented with those ingeniously intricate patterns of interlacing knotwork designed so skilfully by both the early Norse and the Celtic races.3 They belong to a class of art which is not Christian in its origin, though it was afterwards largely used for Christian purposes, and so is thoroughly national in style, quite free from the usual widespread Byzantine influence. Of special interest from their early date—probably the 11th century —are two large stone reliefs now in Chichester cathedral, which are traditionally said to have come from the preNorman church at Selsey. They are thoroughly Byzantine in style, but evidently the work of some very ignorant sculptor; they represent two scenes in the Raising of 2

On early and mediaeval sculpture in ivory consult Gori, Thesaurus Veterum Diptychorum, Florence, 1759 ; Westwood, Diptychs of Consuls, London, 1862; Didron, Images ouvrantes du Louvre, Paris, 1871; Masked, Ivories in the South Kensington Museum, London, 1872 ; Wieseler, Diptychon Quirinianum zu Brescia, Gottingen, 1868 ; Wyatt and Oldfield, Sculpture in Ivory, London, 1856. 3 See O’Neill, Sculptured Crosses of Ireland, London, 1857.

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SCULPTURE [ENGLISH. Lazarus ; the figures are stiff, attenuated, and ugly, the with painting (fig. 5). Most rapid progress in all the pose very awkward, and the drapery of exaggerated arts, especially that of sculpture, was made in England Byzantine character, with long thin folds. To repre- in the second sent the eyes pieces of glass or coloured enamel were half of the 13 th inserted; the treatment of the hair in long ropelike and the begintwists suggests a metal rather than a stone design (see ning of the 14th fig. 4). century, largely under the patronage of Fl0. 5—Effigy in oak of Robert, duke of Nor41 enry 111., who an mandy, in Gloucester cathedral; once painted employed and d gilt. handsomely rewarded a large number of English artists, and also imported others from Italy and Spain, though these foreigners took only a secondary position among the painters and sculptors of England. The end of the 13th century was in fact the culminating period of English art, and at this time a very high degree of excellence was reached by purely national means, quite equalling and even surpassing the general average of art on the Continent, except perhaps in France. Even Niccola Pisano could not have surpassed the beauty and technical excellence of the two bronze effigies in Westminster Abbey modelled and cast by William Torell, a goldsmith and William citizen of London, shortly before the year 1300. These Torell are on the tombs of Henry III. and Queen Eleanor, and, though the tomb itself of the former is an Italian work of the Cosmati school, there is no trace of foreign influence in the figures. At this time portrait effigies had not come into general use, and both figures are treated in an ideal way.4 The crowned head of Henry III., with noble wellmodelled features and crisp wavy curls, resembles the conventional royal head on English coins of this and the following century, while the head of Eleanor is of remarkable, almost classic, beauty, and of great interest as Fig. 4.—Relief of Christ at the tomb of Lazarus, now in Chichester showing the ideal type of the 13th century (see fig. 6). cathedral; 11th century, Byzantine style. Norman During the Norman period sculpture of a very rude sort period. was much used, especially for the tympanum reliefs over the doors of churches. Christ in Majesty, the Harrowing of Hell, and St George and the Dragon occur very frequently. Reliefs of the zodiacal signs were a common decoration of the richly sculptured arches of the 12th century, and are frequently carved with much power. The later Norman sculptured ornaments are very rich and spirited, though the treatment of the human figure is still very weak.2 Effigies. The best-preserved examples of monumental sculpture of the 12th century are a number of effigies of knights- Fig. 6.—Head of the effigy of Queen Eleanor in Westminster Abbey ; templars in the round Temple church in London.3 They bronze gilt, by William Torell. are laboriously cut in hard Purbeck marble, and much reIn both cases the drapery is well conceived in broad sculpsemble bronze in their treatment; the faces are clumsy, turesque folds, graceful and yet simple in treatment. The and the whole figures stiff and heavy in modelling ■ but they are valuable examjiles of the military costume of the casting of these figures, which was effected by the cire time, the armour being purely chain-mail. Another effigy perdue process, is technically very perfect. The gold emin the same church cut in stone, once decorated with paint- ployed for the gilding was got from Lucca in the shape ing, is a much finer piece of sculpture of about a century of the current florins of that time, which were famed for later. The head, treated in an ideal way with wavy curls, their purity. Torell was highly paid for this, as well as has much simple beauty, showing a great artistic advance. for two other bronze statues of Queen Eleanor, probably Another of the most remarkable effigies of this period is of the same design. Much of the fine 13th-century sculpture was used toArchithat of Robert, duke of Normandy (d. 1134), in Gloucester ec ura cathedral, carved with much spirit in oak, and decorated decorate the facades of churches. The grandest example t t l is the west end of Wells cathedral, of about the middle of^^' One of these reliefs is imperfect and has been clumsily mended the century. It is covered with more than 600 figures in with a fragment of a third relief, now lost. the round or in relief, arranged in tiers, and of varying In Norway and Denmark during the 11th and 12th centuries carved ornament of the very highest merit was produced, especially sizes. The tympana of the doorways are filled with reliefs, the framework round the doors of the wooden churches ; these are and above them stand rows of colossal statues of kings and formed of large pine planks, sculptured in slight relief with dragons queens, bishops and knights, and saints both male and and interlacing foliage in grand sweeping curves,—perfect masterpieces 4 decorative art, full of the keenest inventive spirit and originality. The effigy of King John in Worcester cathedral of about 1216 is , 1843. Ri^ardson, Monumental Effigies of the Temple Church, an exception to this rule ; though rudely executed, the head appears TLondon, to be a portrait. 1

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female, all treated very skilfully with nobly arranged drapery, and graceful heads designed in a thoroughly architectonic way, with due regard to the main lines of the building they are meant to decorate. In this respect the early mediseval sculptor inherited one of the great merits of the Greeks of the best period : his figures or reliefs form an essential part of the design of the building to which they are affixed, and are treated in a subordinate manner to their architectural surroundings—very different from the sculpture on modern buildings, which usually looks as if it had been stuck up as an afterthought, and frequently by its violent and incongruous lines is rather an impertinent excrescence than an ornament.1 Peterborough, Lichfield, and Salisbury cathedrals have fine examples of the sculpture of the 13th century: in the chapter-house of the last the spandrels of the wall-arcade are filled with sixty reliefs of subjects from Bible history, all treated with much grace and refinement. To the end of the same century belong the celebrated reliefs of angels in the spandrels of the choir arches at Lincoln, carved in a large massive way with great strength of decorative effect. Other fine reliefs of angels, executed about 1260, exist in the transepts of Westminster Abbey; being high from the ground, they are broadly treated without any high finish in the details.2 TechIt may here be well to say a few words on the technical methods nical employed in the execution of medueval sculpture, which in the methods main were very similar in England, France, and Germany. When and bronze was used—in England as a rule only for the effigies of royal materials, persons or the richer nobles—the metal was cast by the delicate cire 'perdue process, and the whole surface of the figure was then thickly gilded. At Limoges in France a large number of sepulchral effigies were produced, especially between 1300 and 1400, and exerted to distant places. These were not cast, but were made of ammered (repouss6) plates of copper, nailed on a wooden core and richly decorated with champleve enamels in various bright colours. Westminster Abbey possesses a fine example, executed about 1300, in the effigy of William of Valence (d. 1296).3 The ground on which the figure lies, the shield, the border of the tunic, the pillow, and other parts are decorated with these enamels very minutely treated. The rest of the copper was gilt, and the helmet wa.s surrounded with a coronet set with jewels, which are now missing. One royal effigy of later date at Westminster, that of Henry V. (d. 1422), was formed of beaten silver fixed to an oak core, with the exception of the head, which appears to have been cast. The whole of the silver disappeared in the time of Henry VIII., and nothing now remains but the rough wooden core ; hence it is doubtful whether the silver was decorated with enamel or not; it was probably of English workmanship. In most cases stone was used for all sorts of sculpture, being decorated in a very minute and elaborate way with gold, silver, and colours applied over the whole surface. In order to give additional richness to this colouring the surface of the stone, often even in the case of external sculpture, was covered with a thin skin of gesso or fine plaster mixed with size ; on this, while still soft, and over the drapery and other accessories, very delicate and minute patterns were stamped with wooden dies (see Muiial Decoration, fig. 17), and upon this the gold and colours were applied; thus the gaudiness and monotony of flat smooth surfaces covered with gilding or bright colours were avoided.4 In addition to this the borders of drapery and other parts of stone statues, were frequently ornamented with crystals and false jewels, or, in a more laborious way, with holes and sinkings filled with polished metallic foil, on which very minute patterns were painted in transparent varnish colours ; the whole was then protected from the air by small pieces of transparent glass, carefully shaped to the.right size and fixed over the foil in the cavity cut in the stone. It is difficult 1 The sculpture on the new Paris opera-house is a striking instance of this ; and so, in a small way, are the statues in the new reredos of Westminster Abbey and Gloucester cathedral. 2 On the whole, Westminster possesses the most completely representative collection of English mediseval sculpture in an unbroken succession from the 13th to the 16th century. 3 Other effigies from Limoges were imported into England, but no other 4 example now exists in the country. In the modern attempts to reproduce the mediseval polychromy these delicate surface reliefs have been omitted; hence the painful results of such colouring as that in Notre Dame and the Sainte Chapelle in Paris and many other “restored” churches, especially in France and Germany.

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now to realize the extreme splendour of this gilt, painted, and jewelled sculpture, as no perfect example exists, though in many cases traces remain of all these processes, and show that they were once very widely applied.5 The architectural surroundings of the figures were treated in the same elaborate way. In the 14th century in England alabaster came into frequent use for monumental sculpture; it too was decorated with gold and colour, though in some cases the whole surface does not appear to have been so treated. In his wide use of coloured decoration, as in other respects, the mediseval sculptor came far nearer to the ancient Greek than do any modern artists. Even the use of inlay of coloured glass was common at Athens during the 5th century B.C.,—as, for example, in the plait-band of some of the marble bases of the Erechtheum,—and five or six centuries earlier at Tiryns and Mycense. Another material much used by mediseval sculptors was wood, though, from its6 perishable nature, comparatively few early examples survive; the best specimen is the figure of George de Cantelupe (d. 1273) in Abergavenny church. This was decorated with gesso reliefs, gilt and coloui’ed in the same way as the stone. The tomb of Prince John of Eltham (d. 1334) at Westminster is a very fine example of the early use of alabaster, both for the recumbent effigy and also for a number of small figures of mourners all round the arcading of the tomb. These little figures, well preserved on the side which is protected by the screen, are of very great beauty and are executed with the most delicate minuteness ; some of the heads are equal to the best contemporary work of the son and pupils of Niccola Pisano. The tomb once had a high stone canopy of open work—arches, canopies, and pinnacles,—a class of architectural sculpture of which many extremely rich examples exist, as, for instance, the tomb of Edward II. at Gloucester, the De Spencer tomb at Tewkesbury, and, of rather later style, the tomb of Lady Eleanor de Percy at Beverley. This last is remarkable for the great richness and beauty of its sculptured foliage, which is of the finest Decorated period and stands unrivalled by any Continental example. In England purely decorative carving in stone reached Fourits highest point of excellence about the middle of the teenth 14th century,—rather later, that is, than the best period century‘ of figure sculpture. Wood-carving (q.v.), on the other hand, reached its artistic climax a full century later under the influence of the fully developed Perpendicular style. The most important effigies of the 14th century are those Effigies, in gilt bronze of Edward III. (d. 1377) and of Bichard II. and his queen (made in 1395), all at Westminster. They are all portraits, but are decidedly inferior to the earlier work of William Torell. The effigies of Richard II. and Anne of Bohemia were the work of Nicolas Broker and Godfred Prest, goldsmith citizens of London. Another fine bronze effigy is at Canterbury on the tomb of the Black Prince (d. 1376); though well cast and with carefully modelled armour, it is treated in a somewhat dull and conventional way. The recumbent stone figure of Lady Arundel, with two angels at her head, in Chichester cathedral is remarkable for its calm peaceful pose and the beauty of the drapery. A very fine but more realistic work is the tomb figure of William of Wykeham (d. 1404) in the cathedral at Winchester. The cathedrals at Rochester, Lichfield, York, Lincoln, Exeter, and many other ecclesiastical buildings in England are rich in examples of 14thcentury sculpture, used occasionally with great profusion and richness of effect, but treated in strict subordination to the architectural background. The finest piece of bronze sculpture of the 15th century is the effigy of Richard Beauchamp (d. 1439) in his family chapel at Warwick,—a noble portrait figure, richly decorated with engraved ornaments. The modelling and casting were done by William Austen of London, and the gilding and engraving by a Netherlands goldsmith wdio 5 On the tomb of Aymer de Valence (d. 1326) at Westminster a good deal of the stamped gesso and coloured decoration is visible on close inspection. One of the cavities of the base retains a fragment of glass 6 covering the painted foil, still brilliant and jewel-like in effect. The South Kensington Museum possesses a magnificent colossal wood figure of an angel, not English, but Italian work of the 14th century. A large stone statue of about the same date, of French workmanship, in the same museum is a most valuable example of the use of stamped gesso and inlay of painted and glazed foil.

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SCULPTURE [ENGLISH. had settled in London, named Bartholomew Lambespring, figures of men-at-arms—is almost an exact copy of the assisted by several other skilful artists. tomb of Engelbert II. of Vianden-Nassau.2 The finest SixAt the beginning of the 16th century sculpture in Eng- bronze statues of this century are those of Charles Villiers, teenth jan(j was entering upon a period of rapid decadence, and duke of Buckingham (d. 1634), and his wife at the northury ‘ to some extent had lost its native individuality. The east of Henry VII.’s chapel. The effigy of the duke, in finest series of statues of this period are those of life-size rich armour of the time of Charles I., lies with folded high up on the walls of Henry YII.’s chapel at West- hands in the usual mediaeval pose. The face is fine and minster and others over the various minor altars. These well modelled and the casting very good. The allegorical ninety-five figures, which represent saints and doctors of figures at the foot are caricatures of the style of Michelthe church, vary very much in merit: some show German angelo, and are quite devoid of merit, but the kneeling influence, others that of Italy, while a third class are, as statues of the duke’s children are designed with grace and it were, “archaistic ” imitations of older English sculpture pathos. A large number of very handsome marble and (see fig. 7). In some cases the heads alabaster tombs were erected throughout England during and general pose are graceful, and the 17th century. The effigies are poor and coarse, but the drapery dignified, but in the the rich architectural ornaments are effective and often main they are coarse both in design of beautiful materials, alabaster being mixed with various and in workmanship compared with richly coloured marbles in a very skilful way. Nicholas the better plastic art of the 13th and Stone (d. 164 tries, but can hardly be said to possess a school of its own. ' The sculptors of America almost invariably study at one of the great European centres of plastic art, especially in Paris. Hiram Powers of Cincinnati, who produced one work of merit, a nude female figure, called the Greek Slave, exhibited in London in 1851, lived and worked in Florence. A number of living American sculptors now reside both there and in Rome.4 3 See Eug. Plon, Vie de Thorwaldsen, Paris, 1867. 4 On Italian and Spanish sculpture, see Vasari, Trattato della Sail-

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skilled scarpellino or “ chisel-man ” then sets to work and cuts away Technical Methods of the Sculptor. the marble till he has reached the bottoms of all the holes, beyond The production of bronze statues by the cire perdue, process is □ire perwhich he must not cut. The statue is thus roughly blocked out, described in the article Metal-work, vol. xvi. p. 72 ; this is now lue. and a more skilled scarpellino begins to work. Partly by eye and The scarbut little practised out of Paris. partly with the constant help of the pointing machine, which is pellino. For the execution of a marble statue the sculptor first models a Olay used to give any required measurements, the workman almost comnodel. preliminary sketch on a small scale in clay or wax. He then, in pletes the marble statue, leaving only the finishing touches to be the case of a life-sized or colossal statue, has a sort of iron skeleton done by the sculptor. _ _ t> v t. set up, with stout bars for the arms and legs, fixed in the pose of Among the ancient Greeks and Romans and in the mediaeval Polish on the future figure. This is placed on a stand with a revolving top, period it was the custom to give the nude parts of a marble statue marble, so that the sculptor can easily turn the whole model round and a considerable degree of polish, which really suggests the somewhat thus work with the light on any side of it. Over this iron skeleton surface of the human skin very much better than the dull well-tempered modelling-clay is laid and is modelled into shape glossy loaf-sugar-like surface which is left on the marble by modern by the help of wood and bone tools ; without the ironwork a soft sculptors. This high polish still remains in parts of the pedimental clay figure, if more than a few inches high, would collapse with figures from the Parthenon, where, at the back, they have been its own weight and squeeze the lower part out of shape. While specially protected from the weather. The Hermes of the Vatican the modelling is in progress it is necessary to keep the clay moist Belvidere is a remarkable instance of the preservation of this polish. and plastic, by squirting water on to it with a sort of garden syringe Michelangelo carried the practice further still, and gave certain capped with a finely perforated rose. When the sculptor is not at parts of some of his statues, such as the Moses, the highest possible work the whole figure is kept wrapped up in damp cloths. A polish in order to produce high lights just where he wanted them ; modern improvement is to mix the modelling-clay, not with water, the artistic legitimacy of this may perhaps be doubted, and in but with stearin and glycerin ; this, while keeping the clay soft weaker hands it might degenerate into mere trickery. It is, however, and plastic, has the great advantage of not being wet, and so the much to be desired that modern sculptors should to some extent sculptor avoids the chill and consequent risk of rheumatism which at least adopt the classical practice, and by a slight but uniform follow from a constant manipulation of wet clay. When the clay polish remove the disagreeable crystalline grain from all the nude Plaster model is finished it is cast in plaster. A “ piece-mould ” 1 is formed parts of the marble. by applying patches of wet plaster of Paris all over the clay statue cast. A rougher method of obtaining fixed points to measure from was in such a way that they can be removed piecemeal from the model, occasionally employed by Michelangelo and earlier sculptors. They and then be fitted together again, forming a complete hollow mould. immersed the model in a tank of water, the water being gradually The inside is then rinsed out with plaster and water mixed to the allowed to run out, and thus by its sinking level it gave a series of consistency of cream till a skin of plaster is formed all over the contour lines on any required number of planes. In some cases inner surface of the mould, and thus a hollow cast is made of the Michelangelo appears to have cut his statue out of the marble withwhole figure. The “piece-mould” is then taken to pieces and the out previously making a model—a most marvellous feat of skill. casting set free. If skilfully done by a good formatore or moulder In modelling bas-reliefs the modern sculptor usually applies the Relief the plaster cast is a perfect facsimile of the original _ clay, very clay to a slab of slate on which the design is sketched ; the slate sculpslightly disfigured by a series of lines showing the joints in the forms the background of the figures, and thus keeps the relief ture. piece-mould, the sections of which cannot be made to fit together absolutely true to one plane. This method is one of the causes of with absolute precision. Many sculptors have their clay model the dulness and want of spirit so conspicuous in most modern cast in plaster before the modelling is quite finished, as they prefer sculptured reliefs. In the best Greek examples there is no abto put the finishing touches on the plaster cast, —good plaster solutely fixed plane surface for the backgrounds. In one place, being a very easy and pleasant substance to work on. gain an effective shadow, the Greek sculptor would cut below Pointing The next stage is to copy the plaster model in marble.. The to the average surface ; in another he would leave the ground at a the model is set on a large block called a “scale stone,” while the higher plane, exactly as happened to suit each portion of his marble. marble for the future statue is set upon another similar block. design. Other differences from the modern mechanical rules can The plaster model is then covered with a series of marks, placed easily be seen by a careful examination of the Parthenon frieze and on all the most salient parts of the body, and the front of each other Greek reliefs. Though the word “bas-relief” is now often ‘ ‘ scale stone ” is covered with another seiies of points, exactly the applied to reliefs of all degrees of projection from the ground, it same on both stones. An ingenious instrument called a pointing should, of course, only be used for those in which the projection is machine, which has arms ending in metal points or “needles ” that slight; “basso,” “mezzo,” and “altorilievo” express three different move in ball-socket joints, is placed between the model and the degrees of salience. Very low relief is but little used by modern marble block. Two of its arms are then applied to the model, sculptors, mainly because it is much easier to obtain striking one touching a point on the scale stone while the other touches a effects with the help of more projection. Donatello and other 15thmark on the figure. The arms are fixed by screws in this position, century Italian artists showed the most wonderful skill in their and the machine is then revolved to the marble block, and set treatment of very low relief. One not altogether legitimate with its lower needle touching the corresponding point on the method of gaining effect was practised by some medneval sculptors: scale stone. The upper needle, which is arranged to slide back on the relief itself was kept very low, but was “stilted ” or projected its own axis, cannot reach the corresponding point on the statue from the ground, and then undercut all round the outline.. A because the marble block is in the way ; a hole is then drilled into 15th-century tabernacle for the host in the Brera at Milan is a the block at the place and in the direction indicated by the needle, very beautiful example of this method, which as a rule is not till the latter can slide forward so as to reach a point sunk in the pleasing in effect, since it looks rather as if the figures were cut marble block exactly corresponding to the point it touched on the out in cardboard and then stuck on. plaster mould. This process is repeated both on the model and on The practice of most modern sculptors is to do very little to the Sculpthe marble block till the latter is drilled with a number of holes, marble with their own hands; some, in fact, have never really tors’ asthe bottoms of which correspond in position to the number of learnt how to carve, and thus the finished statue is often very sistants. marks made on the surface of the model. A comparatively un- dull and lifeless in comparison with the clay model. Most of the tura, Florence, 1568, vol. i., and his Vite del Pittori, &€., ed. Milanesi, Florence, great sculptors of the Middle Ages left little or nothing to be done 1880 ; Rumohr, Italienische Forschungen, Leipsic, 1827-31; Dolime, Kunst und by an assistant; Michelangelo especially did the whole of the Kiinstler Italians, Leipsic. 1879 ; Perkins, Tuscan Sculptors, London (1865), carving with his own hands, and when beginning on a block of Italian Scidptors (1868), and Hand-book of Italian Sculpture (1883) ; Robinson, marble attacked it with such vigorous strokes of the hammer that Italian Sculpture, London, 1862; Gruner, Marmor - Bildwerke der Pisaner, large pieces of marble flew about in every direction. But skill as Leipsic, 1858; Ferreri, L’Arcodi S. Agostino, Pavia, 1832 ; Symonds, Renaissance in Italy, London, 1877, vol. iii.; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Hist, of Painting in a carver, though very desirable, is not absolutely necessary for a Italy, London, 1866, vol. i.; Selvatico, Arch, e Scultura in Venezia, Venice, 1847; sculptor. If he casts in bronze by the cire perdue process he may Ricci, Storia dell’ Arch, in Italia, Modena, 1857-60 ; Street (Arundel Society), produce the most perfect plastic works without touching anything Sepulchral Monuments of Italy, 1878 ; Gozzini, Monumenti Sepolcrali della Toscana, Florence, 1819 ; De Montault, La Sculpture Religieuse d Rome, Rome, harder than the modelling-wax. The sculptor in marble, however, 1870—a French edition (with improved text) of Tosi and Becchio, Monumenti be able to carve a hard substance if he is to be master of his Sacri di Roma, Rome, 1842; Cavallucci and Molinier, Les Della Robbia, Paris, must Unhappily some modern sculptors not only leave all mani1884; Cicognara, Monumenti di Venezia, Venice, 1838-40; Burges and Didron, art. Iconographie des Chapitaux du Palais Ducal a Venice, Paris, 1857 ; Richter, pulation of the marble to their workmen, but they also employ “Sculpture of S. Mark’s at Venice,” Macmillan’s Mag., June 1880; Temanza, men to do their modelling, the supposed sculptor supplying little Vite degli Scultori Veneziani, Venice, 1778 ; Diedo and Zanotto, Monumenti di or nothing but his name to the work. In some cases sculptors Venezia, Milan, 1839 ; Schulz, Denkmaler der Kunst in Unter-Italien, Dresden, 1860; Brinckmann, Die Sculptur von B. Cellini, Leipsic, 1867 ; Eng. Plon,. who are neither one nor the other, but who suffer under an excess Cellini, sa Vie, &c., Paris, 1882 ; Moses and Cicognara, Works of Canova, London, of popularity, hre induced to employ aid of this kind on account of 1824-28 ; Piroli, Fontana, and others, a series of engraved Plates of Canova’s their undertaking more work than any one man could possibly Works, s. 1. et a.; Giulliot, Les Artistes en Espagne, Paris, 1870 ; Carderera y Solano, Iconografia Espanola, Siglo XI.-XVII., Madrid, 1855-64 ; Monumentos accomplish,—a state of things which is necessarily very hostile to Arquitectonicos de Espana, published by the Spanish Government, 1859, and the interests of true art. As a rule, however, the sculptor’s scarstill in progress. pellino, though he may and often does attain the highest skill as 1 Moulds made in one or few pieces, from which the cast can only be extracted a carver and can copy almost anything with wonderful fidelity, by destroying the mould, are called “ spoil-moulds.” A large number of casts I seldom develops into an original artist. The popular admiration can be made from a “ piece-mould,” but only one from a “ spoil-mould.”

572 S C U —S 0 U for pieces of clever trickery in sculpture, such as the carving of the Literature.—On the general history of Christian sculpture, see Agincourt Pa open meshes of a fisherman’s net, or a chain with each link free 4 C ; gnar ™’ 1823 a i Du Soramerard, Les Arts an Moyen-lge, Paris and movable, would perhaps be diminished if it were known that LlT ^Sculpture, V ? t^r daUa Scultura, 1823-44 ; Westmacott, Handbook of 1864; Liibke,Prato, History of Sculpture, Eng. trans such work as this is invariably done, not by the sculptor, but by L 2dOI 18 2 usEdinburgh, n J?- l 7 ?Les Merveilles ^i ’ Pentehci (six Paris, lectures1869; on Arsenne sculpture),andLondon’ n o°9,. Viardot, de la Sculpture, Denis the scarpellino. Unhappily at the present day there is, especially in 18< Sc teu England, little appreciation of what is valuable in plastic art; there fP f, Paris,des 1858; Clarac,plastiques, Musee deParis, Sculpture, . Demmin, Encyclopedic Beaux-Arts 1872-75Paris! vol is probably no other civilized country where the state does so little to 1826-53 n CEu vre s ! '.i . dv Bronze du Moyen-Age, Paris, 1859 ; Fortnum, Bronzes l Museum, 1877; Finochietti, Scultura in Legno, Florence give practical support to the advancement of monumental and deco- in the South Kensington rative sculpture on a large scale—the most important branch of the 18i3 > Anon., Ornati del Coro di S. Pietro de’ Cassinesi a Perugia, Rome 1845’ bee also the lists of works given in the preceding pages, and those in the art—which it is hardly in the power of private persons to further. articles on individual sculptors and in that on Metal-work. (J. H. M.) SCURVY, or Scorbutus, a morbid condition of the easily be produced by very slight pressure upon the skin blood, manifesting itself by marked impairment of the or by injuries to it. In addition, there are bleedings from nutritive functions and by the occurrence of haemorrhagic mucous membranes, such as those of the nose, eyes, and extravasations in the tissues of the body, and depending alimentary or respiratory tracts, while effusions of bloodon the absence of certain essential ingredients in the food. stained fluid take place into the pleural, pericardial, or In former times this disease was extremely common peritoneal cavities. Painful, extensive, and destructive among sailors,. and gave rise to a frightful amount of ulcers are also apt to break out in the limbs. Peculiar mortality. It is now, however, of rare occurrence at sea, disorders of vision have been noticed, particularly nightits cause being well understood and its prevention readily blindness (nyctalopia), but they are not invariably present, secured by simple measures. Scurvy has also frequently nor specially characteristic of the disease. The further broken out among soldiers on campaign, in beleaguered progress of the malady is marked by profound exhaustion, cities, as well as among communities in times of scarcity, with a tendency to syncope, and with various complications, and in prisons, workhouses, and other public institutions. such as diarrhoea and pulmonary or kidney troubles, any In all such instances it has been found to depend closely or all of which may bring about a fatal result. On the upon the character and amount of the food. It has been other hand, even in desperate cases, recovery may be hopesupposed that a too limited diet, either in amount or fully anticipated when the appropriate remedy can be variety, might induce the disease; but an overwhelming obtained. The composition of the blood is materially weight of evidence goes to prove that the cause resides in altered in scurvy, particularly as regards its albumen and the inadequate supply or the entire want of fresh vegetable its. red corpuscles, which are diminished, while the fibrine matter. The manner in which this produces scurvy is not is increased. quite clear. Some high authorities have held that the No disease , is more amenable to treatment both as reinsufficient supply of potash salts, in which vegetables are gards prevention and cure than scurvy, the single remedy rich, is the procuring cause; but it has been found that the of fresh vegetables or some equivalent securing both these mere administration of these salts will neither prevent nor ends. Potatoes, cabbages, onions, carrots, turnips, &c., cure scurvy. Hence, while it is probable that this may and most fresh fruits, will be found of the greatest service be one of the factors concerned in the production of the for this purpose. Lime juice and lemon juice are redisease, the want of other vegetable constituents, especially cognized as equally efficacious, and even vinegar in the vegetable acids, is of still greater importance. Besides this absence of these will be of some assistance. The regulated essential defect, a diminution in the total amount of food, administration of lime juice in the British navy, which has the large use of salted meat or fish, and all causes of a been practised since 1795, has had the effect of virtually depressing kind, such as exposure, anxiety, bad hygiene, extinguishing scurvy in the service, while similar regula&c., will powerfully contribute to the development of the tions introduced by the British Board of Trade in 1865 disease. See Dietetics, vol. vii. pp. 207-208. have had a like beneficial result as regards the mercantile The. symptoms of scurvy come on gradually, and its marine. It is only when these regulations have not been onset is not marked by any special indications beyond a fully carried out, or when the supply of lime juice has certain failure of strength, most manifest on making effort. become exhausted, that scurvy among sailors has been Breathlessness and exhaustion are thus easily induced, noticed in recent times. Besides the administration of and there exists a corresponding mental depression. The lime or lemon juice and the use of fresh meat, milk, &c., countenance acquires a sallow or dusky hue; the eyes are which are valuable adjuvants, the local and constitutional sunken; while pains in the muscles of the body and limbs conditions require the attention of the physician. The are constantly present. The appetite and digestion may ulcers of the gums and limbs can be best treated by stimube unimpaired in the earlier stages and the tongue com- lating astringent applications; the hard swellings, which paratively clean, but the gums are tender and the breath are apt to continue long, may be alleviated by fomentaoffensive almost from the first. These preliminary symp- tions and frictions; while the anaemia and debility are best toms may continue for weeks, and in isolated cases may overcome by the continued administration of iron tonics, readily escape notice, but can scarcely fail to attract atten- aided by fresh air and other measures calculated to protion where they affect large numbers of men. In the further mote the general health. stages, of the disease all these phenomena are aggravated SCUTAGE or Escuage was one of the forms of knightin a high degree and the physical and mental prostration service (see Knighthood, Real Estate). It was pracsoon becomes extreme. The face looks haggard; the gums tically a composition for personal service. When levied are livid, spongy, ulcerating, and bleeding; the teeth are on a knight’s fee it was called scutage uncertain, as its loosened and drop out; and the breath is excessively fetid. amount depended upon the present needs of the crown. Extravasations of blood now take place in the skin and Scutage certain was a socage tenure, and consisted in the other textures. These may be small like the petechial payment of a sum fixed in amount and payable at regular spots of purpura (see Purpura), but are often of large times. Scutage appears to have been first imposed on the amount and cause swellings of the muscles in which they occasion of the Toulouse War in 1159. Magna Charta occur, having the appearance of extensive bruises and (§ 12) forbade the levy of scutage unless fier commune contending to become hard and brawny. These extravasa- silium regni. It appears to have fallen into disuse in the tions are most common in the muscles of the lower ex- reign of Edward II., and was finally done away with by tremities ; but they may be formed anywhere, and may the Act abolishing feudal tenures (12 Car. II. c. 24).

SCU — SCY SCUTARI (Turkish, Uskiidar), anciently Chrysopolis, a seaport town of Turkey in Asia, on the eastern shore of the Bosphorus, opposite Constantinople (see plan, vol. vi. p. 305), of which it is regarded as a suburb. Climbing the slopes of several hills in the form of an amphitheatre, its houses generally painted in red, distinguished by a number of mosques adorned with numerous minarets, possessing some fine bazaars and public baths, and merging farther inland into burying-grounds, gardens, and villas, Scutari presents a very picturesque appearance, especially when viewed from the bridge of the Golden Horn or approached from the Straits of Constantinople right in front of its most prominent point. The inhabitants are largely engaged in the manufacture of saddlery and silk, muslin, and cotton stuffs; the town also contains granaries and is prized as a fruit-market, more particularly for grapes, lemons, and figs. The population is estimated at 60,000 (entirely Mohammedan, with the exception of some Jews). The streets, especially the main street leading from the pier to the barracks, are in general much wider than those of Constantinople. The city includes eight mosques. Behind the landing-place is the Bujiik Jami (great mosque), surmounted by a cupola and a minaret and presenting terraces mammillated by small leaden domes. _ The centre of the square is adorned by a fountain of simple architecture. The mosque of Selim III., farther in the interior of the city, is likewise flanked by two minarets and surmounted by a cupola. The most elegant mosque, however, is the Yalide Jami or mosque of the dowager sultana, surmounted by two minarets, built in 1547 by the daughter of Solyman. Another prominent mosque, on the right of the main street and south of Bujiik Jami, is Jeni Jami (new mosque). Other noticeable buildings are the barracks built by Selim III., forming a handsome and vast quadrangle surmounted by a tower at each angle, and whose corridors, &c., are calculated to have an aggregate length of 4 miles; an old large red building now used as a military hospital, and during the Crimean War as a hospital for the English sick and wounded; a seraglio of the sultans; a convent of howling dervishes, a simple wooden structure of two stories fronting a small cemetery. Other business quarters of the town deserving mention are Jeni Mahalle (new quarter) and the Dohanjilar Mejdani (tobacco merchants’ square). The most characteristic feature, however, of Scutari is its immense cemetery, the largest and most beautiful of all the cemeteries in and around Constantinople, extending over more than 3 miles of undulating plain behind the town.1 In the centre of the ground rises the magnificent dome, supported by six marble pillars, which Sultan Mohammed erected in memory of his favourite horse. Close to the barracks, on the Bosphorus, the scene of Miss Nightingale’s labours, 8000 English dead are overshadowed by a large granite obelisk. Immediately behind the town is the mountain of Bulgurlu clad in evergreen savins and red beeches, one of the plateaus of which is a favourite holiday resort. Its summit commands a very extensive view. In the plain of Haidar Pasha close by, between the cemetery and Kadikoi (judge’s village, anciently Chalcedon), the English army lay encamped during the Crimean War. In front of Scutari, on a low1 The cemetery is intersected with numerous paved alleys, and the tombstones are inscribed with verses of the Koran gilded on a dark blue ground and bearing each simply the name of the deceased. The monuments of the men are distinguished each by a turban, those of the women each by a lotus leaf. The nature of the carved turban indicates the rank of the deceased and the fashion of the time to which it refers, so that the tombstones present the sculptured history of the Mohammedan head-dress from the date of the Turkish conquest. Each corpse is allowed a separate grave, never desecrated either by axe or spade. This cemetery lying in Asiatic ground is on that account the more desired as a burial-place by pious Mahommedans, and holds half the generations of Stamboul (probably some 3,000,000 persons).

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lying rock almost level with the water and about a cable’s length from the shore, rises a white tower 90 feet high, now used as a lighthouse, called “ Leander’s Tower,” and by the Turks Kiz-kulessi, or the “ Maiden’s Tower.” The first printing press in Turkey was set up at Scutari in 1723. Its ancient name Chrysopolis most probably has reference to the fact that there the Persian tribute was collected and reposited, as at a later date the Athenians levied there too a tenth on the ships passing from the Euxine. Its more modern name of Uskiidar, signifying a courier who conveys the royal orders from station to station, commemorates the fact that formerly Scutari was the post station for Asiatic couriers, as it is still the great rendezvous and point of departure of caravans arriving from and destined for Syria, Persia, and other parts of Asia, and the spot whence all travellers and pilgrims from Constantinople to the East begin their journeys. SCUTARI (Turkish, Scodra; Slavic, Skadar), the capital of North Albania, at the south end of the lake of the same name, with a population of 24,500 in 1880 (mostly Mohammedans). There is only one street with any pretensions to regularity. The straggling town is built on the low flat promontory formed by the Bojana, which takes off the waters of the lake to the Adriatic, and the river which flows into the lake after crossing the plain between Scutari and the mountains of Biskassi. In winter the town is often flooded by the Bojana. The mosques and minarets are insignificant; the handsomest of the churches is the Catholic church at the north-east end. In the background is an old Venetian fortress perched on a lofty rock. The town is favourably situated for commerce, being connected by the Bojana with the Adriatic, whence its boats carry the products which descend by the Drina to the mountaineers in exchange for their wool, grain, and dyeing and building woods. There are some manufactures of arms and of cotton stuffs. In 1884 330 ships of 123,923 tons entered the port and 325 ships of 123,713 tons cleared. Livy relates that Scodra was chosen as capital by the Illyrian king Gentius, who was here besieged in 168 b.c., and carried captive to Rome. In the 7th century Scutari fell into the hands of the Servians, from whom it was wrested by the Venetians, and finally, in 1479, the Turks acquired it by treaty. Early in 1885 a beginning was made with the construction of a highway from the roadstead of San Giovanni de’ Medici to Scutari. SCYLAX of Caryanda in Caria was employed by Darius I. to explore the course of the Indus. He started from Afghanistan and is said by Herodotus (iv. 44) to have reached the sea and then sailed to the Gulf of Suez (comp. Persia, vol. xviii. p. 569). Scylax wrote an account of his explorations, which is referred to by Aristotle and other ancient writers, but must have been lost pretty early, and probably also a history of the Carian hero Heraclides, who distinguished himself in the revolt against Darius.2 But Suidas, who mentions the second work, confounds the old Scylax with a much later author, who wrote a refutation of the history of Polybius, and is presumably identical with Scylax of Halicarnassus, a statesman and astrologer, the friend of Pansetius spoken of by Cicero (De Div., ii. 42). Neither of these, however, can be the author of the Perilous of the Mediterranean, which has come down to us under the name of Scylax of Caryanda in several MSS., of which the archetype is at Paris. This work is little more than a sailor’s handbook of places and distances all round the coast of the Mediterranean and its branches, and then along the outer Libyan coast as far as the Carthaginians traded; but various notices of towns and the states to which they belong enable us to fix the date with considerable precision. Niebuhr gave the date 352-348 b.c., others bring it down a year or two later, and C. Muller as late as 338-335, which is only possible if the writer’s information was sometimes rather stale. See the discussion in Muller’s edition (Geog. Gr. Min., vol. i., Paris, 1855), and against him Unger, in Philologus, 1874, p. 29 sq., who con2 See A. v. Gutschmidt, in Rhein. Mus., 1854, p. 141 sq.

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S C Y—S C Y

eludes for the year 347. The latest edition is that of Achilles, and the probable kinship of its inhabitants with Fabricius (Leipsic, 1878). a Thessalian people, whose hero Achilles also was, form SCYLLA and CHARYBDIS. In Homer (Od., xii. 73 the historical foundation of the legends. Scyros was left, sq.) Scylla is a dreadful sea-monster, daughter of Cratmis, along with Lemnos and Imbros, to the Athenians by the with six heads, twelve feet, and a voice like the yelp of a peace of Antalcidas (387 b.c.). It was taken by Philip, puppy. She dwelt in a sea-cave looking to the west, far and continued under Macedonian rule till 196, when the up the face of a huge cliff. Out of her cave she stuck her Romans restored it to Athens, in whose possession it reheads, fishing for marine creatures and snatching the sea- mained throughout the Roman period. It was sacked by men out of passing ships. Within a bowshot of this cliff an army of Goths, Heruli, and Peucini, in 269 a.d. The was another lower cliff with a great fig-tree growing on it. ancient city was situated on a lofty rocky peak, on the Under this second rock dwelt Charybdis, who thrice a day north-eastern coast, where the modern town of St George sucked in and thrice spouted out the sea water. Between now stands. A temple of Athena, the chief goddess of these rocks Ulysses sailed, and Scylla snatched six men out Scyros, was on the shore near the town. The island has of his ship. In later classical times Scylla and Charybdis a small stream, called in ancient times Cephissus. Strabo were localized in the Strait of Messina,—Scylla on the mentions as its sole products its excellent goats and a Italian, Charybdis on the Sicilian side. In Ovid (Metam., species of variegated marble—the latter in great favour xiv. 1-74) Scylla appears as a beautiful maiden beloved by at Rome. the sea-god Glaucus and changed by the jealous Circe into SCYTHE and SICKLE. Till the invention of the a sea-monster; afterwards she was transformed into a reaping machine, which came into practical use only about rock shunned by seamen. There are various other ver- the middle of the 19th century, scythes and sickles were sions of her story. According to a late legend (Servius the sole reaping implements. The scythe is worked with on Virgil, JEn., iii. 420), Charybdis was a voracious two hands with a swinging motion, while the sickle or woman who robbed Hercules of his cattle and was there- reaping hook is held in one hand and the reaper bends fore cast into the sea by Jupiter, where she retained her and cuts the crop with a shearing or hitting motion. Of old voracious nature. The well-known line the two the sickle is the more ancient, and indeed there “Incidis in Scyllam cupiens vitare Charybdim” is some reason to conclude that its use is coeval with the occurs in the Alexandreis of Philip Gualtier (a poet of the cultivation of grain crops. Among the remains of the 13th century), which was printed at Lyons in 1558. later. Stone period in Great Britain and on the European Another Scylla, confounded by Virgil (Ec., vi. 74 sq.) continent curved flint knives have occasionally been found with the sea-monster, was a daughter of Nisus, king of the form of which has led to the suggestion that they were Megara. When Megara was besieged by Minos, Scylla, used as sickles. Sickles of bronze occur quite commonly who was in love with him, cut off her father’s purple lock, among remains of the early inhabitants of Europe. Some on which his life depended. But Minos drowned the un- of these are deeply curved hooks, flat on the under-side, dutiful daughter (JEschylus, Choeph., 613 s?.; Apollodorus, and with a strengthening ridge or back on the upper iii. 15, 8). surface,, while others are small curved knives, in form like SCYMNUS of Chios, a Greek geographer of uncertain the ordinary hedge-bill. Among the ancient Egyptians date, known to us only by a few references in later writers, toothed or serrated sickles of both bronze and iron were but perhaps identical with the Scymnus Chius of a Delphic used. Ancient Roman drawings show that both the inscription of the beginning of the 2d century b.c.,1 was scythe and the sickle were known to that people, and commonly taken to be the author of an imperfect anony- Pliny makes the distinction plain.2 Although both implemous Paraphrasis in verse describing the northern coast of ments have lost much of their importance since the the Mediterranean, which in the first edition (Augsburg, general introduction of mowing and reaping machinery, 1600) was ascribed to Marcianus of Heraclea. Meineke they are still used very extensively, especially in those showed conclusively that this piece cannot be by Scymnus. countries where small agricultural holdings prevail. The It is dedicated to a King Nicomedes, probably Nicomedes principal modern forms are the toothed hook, the scythe III. of Bithynia, and so would date from the beginning of hook, the Hainault scythe, and the common scythe. The the 1st century b.c. See Muller, Geog. Gr. Min., vol. i., toothed hook, which was in general use till towards the where the poem is edited with sufficient prolegomena. middle of the 19th century, consists of a narrow-bladed SCYROS, a small rocky barren island in the Aegean curved hook, having on its cutting edge a series of fine Sea, off the coast of Thessaly, containing a town of the close-set serratures cut like file-teeth, with their edges same name. In 469 b.c. it was conquered by the Athe- inclined towards the heft or handle. Such sickles were nians under Cimon, and it was probably about this time formerly made of iron edged with steel; but in recent that the legends arose which connect it with the Attic hero times they came to be made of cast steel entirely. ToTheseus, who was said to have been treacherously slain wards the middle of the century the toothed hook was and. buried there. A mythic claim was thus formed to gradually supplanted by the scythe hook or smooth-edged justify the Athenian attack, and Cimon brought back the sickle, a somewhat heavier and broader-bladed implement, bones of Theseus to Athens in triumph. The inhabitants having an ordinary knife edge. Both these implements of Scyros before the Athenian conquest were Dolopes were intended for “shearing” handful by handful, the (Time., i. 98); but other accounts speak of Pelasgians or crop being held in the left hand and cut with the tool Carians as the earliest inhabitants. There was a sanctuary held in the right. A heavy smooth-edged sickle is used of Achilles on the island, and numerous traditions connect for “bagging” or “clouting,”—an operation in which the Scyros with that hero. He was concealed, disguised as a hook is struck against the straw, the left hand being used woman,, in the palace of Lycomedes, king of the island, to gather and carry along the cut swath. The Hainault when his mother wished to keep him back from the Trojan scythe is an implement intermediate between the scythe and War; he was discovered there by Odysseus, and gladly 2 accompanied him to Troy. An entirely different cycle of “Of the sickle there are two varieties, the Italian, which is the legends relate the conquest of Scyros by Achilles. The shorter and can be handled among brushwood, and the two-handed sickle, which makes quicker work of it when employed on their actual worship on the island of a hero or god named Gallic [the Gauls’] extensive domains ; for there they cut their grass only in the middle, and pass over the shorter blades. The Italian mowers 1 See Rhode, in Rhein. Mus., 1879, p. 153 sq. cut with the right hand only” (//. N., xviii. 67).

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and served as intermediaries in trade with the remoter peoples of Central Asia. The description of the fruit on which they subsisted (Herod., iv. 23) suits the Elxagnus hortensis, indigenous on the upper Zerafshan. Many notices of ancient writers about Scythia (e.g., as to the eight months winter and the rainy summer) suit only the lands on the first part of this trade road; moreover, the Greeks soon began to extend the name of Scythians to all the nations beyond in a northerly or north-easterly direction. But such inaccuracy is not common till the fall of the Scythian race, when their name became a favourite designation of more remote and less known nations. Our best and chief informants, Herodotus and Hippocrates, clearly distinguish the Scolots or true Scythians from all their neighbours, and on them alone this article is based. The boundaries of Scythia are, broadly speaking, those of the steppe, which had as wide a range in antiquity as at the present day, cultivable land having always been confined to the immediate neighbourhood of the rivers. But to the west the Scythians went beyond the steppe, and held Great Wallachia between the Aluta and the Danube (Atlas and Ister). Here their northern neighbours were the Agathyrsians of Transylvania, who were perhaps Aryans, though in manners they resembled the Thracians. The Dniester was Scythian as far up the stream as the Greeks knew it. On the Bug were found first the mixed Graeco-Scythian Callipidae and Alazones as far as Exampaeus (an eastern feeder of the Bug), then agricultural Scythians (’ApoTrjpes), who grew corn for export, and therefore were not confined to the steppe. This points to south-east Podolia as their dwelling-place. Beyond them on the upper Bug and above the Dniester were the Neuri, who passed for were-wolves, a superstition still current in Volhynia and about Kieff. On the left bank of the Dnieper the “forest-land” (eYA.ata) reached as far as the modern Bereslaff; then came the Scythians of the Dnieper (the Borysthenians), who tilled the soil (of course only close to the river), and extended inland to the Panticapes (Inguletz1?) 2 and up the stream to the district of Gerrhi (near Alexandrovsk). Herodotus does not know the falls of the Dnieper; beyond Gerrhi he places a desert which seems to occupy the rest of the steppe. Still farther north were the wandering Androphagi (Cannibals), presumably hunters and of Mordvinian race.3 The nomadic Scythians proper succeeded their agricultural brethren to the east as far as the Gerrhus (Konskaya), and their land was watered by the Hypacyris (Molotchnaya).4 The royal horde was east of the Gerrhus and extended into the Crimea as far as the fosse which cut off Chersonesus Trachea from the rest of the peninsula, and remains of which can still be traced east of Theodosia. The southern neighbours of the royal Scythians were the savage Taurian mountaineers. Along the coast of the Sea of Azoff the royal horde stretched eastward as far as Cremni (Taganrog); farther inland their eastern border was the Don. They extended inland for twenty marches, as far probably as the steppe itself, and here their neighbours were the Melanchlseni (Black-cloaks). The true Scythians led the usual life of nomads, moving 2 Herodotus (iv. 54) makes it an eastern instead of a western feeder of 3the Dnieper. The eastern Mordvinians (Ersians) still passed for cannibals in the4 time of the Arabian travellers. Herodotus (iv. 56) represents the Gerrhus as a branch of the Dnieper flowing into the Hypacyris, which is not impossible (Von Baer, Histor. Fr., p. 66). But Herodotus himself never travelled beyond Olbia, and what he there learned about the rivers was necessarily vague, except for the parts which the Eastern trade route from Olbia touched. He filled up this imperfect information on analogy, supposing that all these rivers came from lakes, as the Bug did, with which 1 In Herod., iv. 109, (pOeiporpay^ovcn is to be taken literally. Plan he knew a lake was connected called “mother” of that river (iv. 51, 52, 54, 55, 57). de Carpin relates the same thing of the Mongols.

tlie sickle, being worked with one hand, and the motion is entirely a swinging or bagging one. The implement consists of a short scythe blade mounted on a vertical handle, and in using it the reaper collects the grain with a crook, which holds the straw together till it receives the cutting stroke of the instrument. The Hainault scythe is extensively used in Belgium. The common hay scythe consists of a slightly curved broad blade varying in length from 28 to 46 inches, mounted on a bent, or sometimes straight, wooden sued or snathe, to which two handles are attached at such distances as enable the workman, with an easy stoop, to swing the scythe blade along the ground, the cutting edge being slightly elevated to keep it clear of the inequalities of the surface. The grain-reaping scythe is similar, but provided with a cradle or short gathering rake attached to the heel and following the direction of the blade for about 12 inches. The object of this attachment is to gather the stalks as they are cut and lay them in regular swaths against the line of still-standing corn. The reaping scythe, instead of a long sned, has frequently two helves, the right hand branching from the left or main helve and the two handles placed about 2 feet apart. The best scythe blades are made from rolled sheets of steel, riveted to a back frame of iron, which gives strength and rigidity to the blade. On the Continent it is still common to mould and hammer the whole blade out of a single piece of steel, but such scythes are difficult to keep keen of edge. There is a great demand for scythes in Russia, chiefly supplied from the German empire and Austria. The principal manufacturing centre of scythes and sickles in the United Kingdom is Sheffield. SCYTHIA, SCYTHIANS. When the Greeks began to settle the north coast of the Black Sea, about the middle of the 7th century b.c., they found the south Russian steppe in the hands of a nomadic race, whom they called Scythians. An exacter form of the name was Scoloti. The inhabitants of the steppe must always have been nomads; but the life of all nomads is so much alike that we cannot tell whether the Scythians are the race alluded to in II., xiii. 5 sq. The name is first found in Hesiod (Strabo, vii. p. 300) about 800 B.c., and about 689 (Herod., iv. 15) Aristeas of Proconnesus knew a good deal about them in connexion with the ancient trade route leading from their country to Central Asia. From the passage of the Tanais (Don) for fifteen marches north-east through the steppe the country belonged to the nomad Sarmatians, whose speech and way of life resembled those of the Scythians. Then came the wooded region of the Budini, who spread far inland and were probably a Finnish race of hunters with filthy habits.1 In this region lay Gelonus, the Greek emporium of the fur trade, round which lived the half-Grecian Geloni, probably on the Volga and hardly farther south than Simbirsk. Seven more marches in the same line ran through desert, and then in the country of the Thyssagetse the road turned south-east, and led first through the country of the lyrcae, whose way of hunting (Herod., iv. 22) indicates that they dwelt between the steppe and the forest, but belonged more to the former; the road perhaps crossed the river Ural near Orenburg, and ascending its tributary the Ilek crossed the Mugojar Mountains. Beyond this in the steppe as far as the Sir-Darya and Amu-Darya the traveller was again among Scythians, who were regarded as a branch of the European Scythians. Next came a long tract of rocky soil, till the bald-headed Argippaei were reached, a race esteemed holy and seemingly Mongolian, who dwelt on the slopes of impassable mountains, probably the Belur-tagh,

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SCYTHIA through the steppe from exhausted to fresh pasture- was beheaded whom the diviners, or a majority of them, grounds, their women in waggons roofed with felt and pronounced to be the culprit. When the king commanded drawn by oxen, the men on horseback, the droves of sheep, the death of a man all his male offspring perished with cattle, and horses following. They lived on boiled flesh, him (for fear of blood-revenge). He who gained a suit mare’s milk, and cheese; they never washed, but enjoyed before the king had the right to make a drinking-cup of a narcotic intoxication in combination with a vapour bath his adversary’s skull. Actions at law thus stood on the by shutting themselves up within curtains of felt and strew- same footing with war, for this is what one did after slaying hemp seed on heated stones. The women, in place of ing a foe. The Scythians fought always on horseback washing, daubed themselves with a paste containing dust of with bow and arrow, and the warrior drank the blood of fragrant woods and removed it on the second day. Like the first man he slew in battle, probably deeming that his many other barbarians, the Scythians, at least in Hippo- adversary’s prowess thus passed into him. No one shared crates’s time (ed. Littre, ii. 72), were not a specially hardy in booty who had not brought the king a foeman’s head; race; they had stout, fleshy, flabby bodies, the joints con- the scalp was then tanned and hung on the bridle. Capcealed by fat, their countenances somewhat ruddy. The tive slaves were blinded on the absurd pretext that this observation of Hippocrates that they all looked alike is one kept them from stealing the mare’s-milk butter they were that has often been made by travellers among lower races. employed to churn. They were liable to dysentery and rheumatism, which they The government was strictly despotic, as appears most treated by the actual cautery; impotence and sterility were plainly in the hideous customs at the burial of kings. The common, and, though the accounts vary, it is probable that corpse of an ordinary Scythian was carried about among the race was not very numerous (Herod., iv. 81). all the neighbours for forty days, and a funeral feast was Hippocrates’s description has led many writers to view given by every friend so visited. But the royal corpse the Scythians as Mongolian; but the life of the steppe was embalmed and passed in like manner from tribe to impresses a certain common stamp on all its nomad in- tribe, and the people of each tribe joined the procession habitants, and the features described are not sufficiently with their whole bodies disfigured by bloody wounds, till characteristic to justify the assumption of so distant a at length the royal tombs at Gerrhi were reached. Then Mongol migration. What remains of the Scythian lan- the king was buried along with one of his concubines, his guage, on the other hand, furnished Zeuss with clear cupbearer, cook, groom, chamberlain, and messenger, all proofs that they were Aryans and nearly akin to the of whom were slain. Horses, too, and golden utensils were settled Iranians. The most decisive evidence is found in buried under the vast barrow that was raised over the grave. Herodotus (iv. 117), viz., that Scythians and Sarmatians Many such tumuli (called in Tatar Jcurgan) have been found (^.v.) were of cognate speech; for the latter were certainly between the Dnieper and the sources of the Tokmak, a Aryans, as even the ancients observed, supposing them to tributary of the Molotchnaya. Then, on the first anniverbe a Median colony (Diod., ii. 43; Pliny, vi. 19). The sary, yet fifty horses and fifty free-born Scythian servants whole steppe lands from the Oxus and the Jaxartes to the of the king were slain, and the latter were pinned upright Hungarian pusztas seem to have been held at an early on the stuffed horses as watchmen over the dead. date by a chain of Aryan nomad races. The Scythians deemed themselves autochthonous; their The Scythian deities have also an Aryan complexion. patriarch was Targitaus, a son of the god of heaven by a The highest deity was Tahiti, goddess of the hearth; daughter of the river Dnieper. This legend, with the next came the heaven-god Papaeus, with his wife the site of the royal graves, points to the lower Dnieper as earth-goddess Apia; a sun-god, (Etosyrus; a goddess of the cradle of their kingdom. The further legend (Herod., fecundity, Arippasa, who is compared with the Queen of iv. 5) of the golden plough, yoke, battle-axe, and cup Heaven at Ascalon; and two gods to whom Herodotus (tokens of sovereignty over husbandmen and warriors) (iv. 59) gives the Greek names of Heracles and Ares. that fell from heaven, and burned when the two eldest These deities were common to all Scythians. The royal sons of Targitaus approached them, but allowed the horde had also a sea-god, Thamimasadas. In true youngest son to take them and become king, has been Iranian fashion the gods were adored without images, well compared by Duncker with the Iranian conception altars, or temples, save only that Ares had as his symbol of hvareno, the halo of majesty, which refused to be a sabre (Herod., iv. 62), which was set up on a huge altar grasped by the Turanian Franrage, but attached itself to piled up of faggots of brushwood. He received yearly pious kings like Thraetaona. The eldest brother, Lipoxais, sacrifices of sheep and oxen, as well as every hundredth wTas ancestor of the Auchatse; the second, Arpoxais, of captive. Ordinarily victims were strangled. Diviners were the Catiari and Traspians ; the youngest, Colaxais (whose common, and one species of them, who came only from name seems to be mutilated), was father of the royal certain families, the Enarians or Anarians, were held in tribe of Paralatse, and from him, too, the whole nation high honour. These supposed their race to have offended had the name of Scolots. Pliny (H.N., iv. 88) places the the goddess of heaven, who in revenge smote them with Auchatse on the upper Bug, so this seems to be the proper impotence; they assumed the dress and avocations of name of the agricultural Scythians; if so, the Catiari and women and spoke with a woman’s voice.1 Divination was Traspians will be the Borysthenian and nomad Scythians practised with willow withes as among the Old Germans; who dwelt between the husbandmen and the royal horde. the Enarians, however, used lime-tree bark. False pro- Colaxais divided his kingdom among his three sons, the phets were tied on a waggon with burning brushwood, and chief kingdom being that in which the golden relics were the frightened team was driven forth. Oaths were sealed kept; and these three sons correspond to the three kings by drinking of a mixture of wine with the blood of the of the ^ Scythians in the time of Darius’s invasion, viz., parties into which they had dipped their weapons. When Scopasis, whose realm bordered on the Sarmatians; Idanthe king was sick it was thought that some one had thyrsus, sovereign of the chief kingdom; and Taxacis,—the sworn falsely by the deities of his hearth,2 and the man last two being neighbours of the Budini and the Geloni. 1 Reineggs in 1776 observed the same symptoms, with the same According to the Scythians, Targitaus lived just a thousand consequence of relegation among the women, in certain Nogai Tatars years before the year 513 B.c.,—a legend which, taken with on the Kuban. the tradition of autochthonism, indicates a much earlier The plural (Herod., iv. 69) reminds us of the Fravashi of the king date for the immigration of the Scythians than we should m the Avesta. deduce from other narratives.

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Aristeas of Proconnesus (Herod., iv. 13) had heard of and the taking of Nineveh, which followed close on the a migration of the Scythians into their later settlement. overthrow of the Scythians; Justin, on the other hand, The one-eyed Arimaspians, who, as neighbours of the gives the Scythians eight years of sovereignty, which fits the first and the second gold-guarding griffins, may be sought near the gold-fields well with the interval between 3 of the Tibetan plateau, had attacked the Issedones (whom siege of Nineveh (619-609). A fourth account in Herodotus, which connects the later authors are probably right in placing in the region of Kashgar and Khotan), and the latter in turn fell on the OrjXeLa vdo-os of the Enarians with the plundering of the Scythians and drove them from their seats, whereupon temple of Astarte at Ascalon, is entirely apocryphal, and these occupied the lands held till then by the Cimmerians. must come from the Greek identification of this Astarte It is a probable conjecture that the branch of the royal with the Scythian Arippasa. Yet it seems to have been Scythians spoken of as dwelling north of the Oxus and chiefly this story that led Herodotus to take the Scythians Jaxartes was really a part of the nation that remained in of his Median source for Scolots. He is refuted by another their ancient home. Aristeas’s story has much internal account of Iranian origin : Ctesias (in Diod., ii. 34) tells of probability ; but it is impossible to hold that the Scythian a long war between the Medes and the Sacae, occasioned by migration immediately preceded the first appearance of the defection of Parthian subjects of Media to the latter the expelled Cimmerians in Asia Minor, in Aristeas’s own nation in the time of Astibaras (Cyaxares); so that the days (695 b.c.). The Scythians must have seized the Scythian conquerors actually came from the east, not steppe as far as the Dnieper centuries before, but the from the north. Herodotus’s Median source closed with older inhabitants, who were probably of one race with Cyaxares recovering his power; the story which follows the Thracians, remained their neighbours in the Crimea about the resistance of the slaves of the Scythians to their and the extreme west till the beginning of the 7th century. returning lords, who cowed them by using whips instead Concerning the complete expulsion of the Cimmerians of arms, must have come4 from the Pontic Greeks, and is and the Scythian invasion of Asia that followed, Herodotus certainly a local legend, which has nothing to do with (iv. 11 sq., i. 103-106, iv. 1, 3 sq.) gives an account, the wars in Asia, and indeed is connected by Callistratus taken from several sources, which is intelligible only when (Steph. Byz., s.v. Td^pat) with a war between Scythians we put aside the historian’s attempts to combine these. and Thracians. From the expedition of Darius upwards Herodotus A barbarian [i.e., Median) account was that the Scythian nomads of Asia, pressed by the Massagetse, crossed the names five generations of Scythian kings, Idanthyrsus, Araxes (by which Herodotus here and in other places Saulius, Gnurus, Lycus, Spargapeithes; the last may be5 means the Amu-Darya) and fell on Media. Taking these contemporary with the foundation of Olbia (646 b.c.). Scythians for Scolots and assuming, therefore, that the Under Idanthyrsus fell the invasion of Darius (513 B.c.). reference was to their first migration, Herodotus had. to The motive for this invasion cannot possibly have been place the expulsion of the Cimmerians between the crossing revenge for the Scythian invasion of Media. It is possible of the Araxes and the invasion of Media, and he had heard that a popular war against the chief nation of the nomads, from Greeks (of Pontus) that on the Dniester was the who are so hated by the Iranian peasants, seemed to grave of the Cimmerian kings, who had slain each other Darius a good way of stimulating common feeling among in single combat rather than share the migration of their his scattered subjects, and it is certain that he had quite people. This local tradition implies that the Cimmerians false ideas of the wealth of Scythia, due perhaps to export reached Asia Minor through Thrace, which, indeed, is the of grain from the Grecian cities of the Scythian coast. only possible route, except by sea; Herodotus, however, Herodotus’s account of the campaign is made up in a is led by his false presuppositions to conduct them east- puzzling way of several distinct narratives, retouched to wards from the Dniester by the Crimea (where many local smooth away contradictions. Here it must suffice to refer names preserved their memory), and so along the Black to the article Persia (vol. xviii. p. 570), and to add that the Sea coast, and then westwards from the Caucasus to geographical confusion in Herodotus and his exaggerated Asia Minor. The Scythians, he thinks, followed them, idea of the distance to which the Persians advanced seem but, losing the trail, went east from the Caucasus, and so to be due partly to a false combination between a Scythian reached Media. This he gives only as his own inference account of the campaign and certain notices about the from two things—(1) that the Cimmerians settled on the burning of Gelonus by enemies and about fortresses on peninsula of Sinope, from which their forays into Asia the river Oarus which had come to him from the inland Minor seem to have been conducted, and (2) that the trade route, and had nothing to do with Darius, partly to Scythians invaded Media. The Median source spoke a confusion between the desert reached by the Persians further of a great victory of the Scythians, after which and that which lay between the Budini and Thyssagetae. While the Persian rule in the newly conquered districts they overran all Asia, and held it for twenty-eight years (634-606), levying tribute and plundering at will, till at of Europe Avas shaken by the Ionic revolt, the Scythians length the Medes, under Cyaxares, destroyed most of made plundering expeditions in Thrace, and in 495 penethem after making them drunk at a banquet.) Here a trated into the Chersonesus, wdiose tyrant Miltiades fled, third, Egyptian, account comes in, viz., that King Psam- but was restored after their retreat by the Dolonci (Herod., metichus (d. 611) bought off certain northern invaders vi. 40). Darius had Abydus and the other cities of the who had advanced as far as Philistsea; there is no reason Propontis burned lest they should furnish a base for a proto doubt that these are the Scythians of the Median jected Scythian expedition against Asia (Strabo, xiii. p. 591); account. Still more important is the evidence of certain this agrees with the fact known from Herodotus (v. 117), 3 prophecies of Jeremiah (comp. iii. 6) in the reign of Josiah Eusebius’s date (634) for the Scythians in Palestine is deduced (628-609), describing the approach from the north of an all- from , 4 Herodotus. It is meant to explain the origin of the fosse (Herod., iv. 3), which destroying nation of riders and bowmen (Jer. iv. 6 sq., v. 2 15 sq., vi. 1 sq., 22 sq.). Herodotus’s twenty-eight years the slaves were said to have dug, and of a subject-race in the same (Pliny, II.N., iv. 80), the Sindians (Amm. Mar., xxii. 8, 41 are simply the period between the accession of Cyaxares district Yal.5 Flac., vi. 86), or rather perhaps the Satarchai. 1 That the wise Anacharsis {q.v.) was brother of King Saulius This story may be influenced by the myth about the feast of the (Caduidas of Diog. Laert., i. 101) seems to be a mere guess of HerodgacEea (Strabo, xi. p. 512). Ctesias has it that peace was made. 2 Scythian informant Tunes. The story of Anacharsis’s fate is. This is Hitzig’s discovery and must be sound. Before the fall of otus’s coloured by that of the later king Scyles. Nineveh the Chaldaeans could not be a source of danger. XXL — 73

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that Abydus had been retaken by Daurises a little before. In this connexion the Scythian embassy to King Cleomenes at Sparta (Herod., vi. 84) to arrange a combined attack on Asia becomes credible ; for, barbarians though they were, the Scythians had a political organization and many connexions with the lonians of the Pontic colonies, so that their envoys may well have reached Sparta at the same time with Aristagoras (499) and served as decoys for his fantastic schemes.1 Our accounts of the Scythians begin to fail after the time of King Scyles, who affected Grecian habits and was deposed and finally slain for sharing in Bacchic orgies (Herod., iv. 78-80); his death fell a little before Herodotus’s visit to Olbia (c. 456). We read in an unclear context (Diod., ii. 43) of a division of the Scythians into two great tribes, the Pali and the Napse, the former of whom crossed the Don from the east and destroyed the latter and also the Tanaites.2 These events seem to point to a change of dynasty in the royal horde. The Periplus ascribed to Scylax (346 B.c.) knows the Scythians as still occupying almost exactly the same limits as in Herodotus’s time; only in the east there is a small but significant change: the Sarmatians have already crossed the Don (§ 68). King Ateas still ruled Scythia in its old extent (Strabo, vii. 307), but all that we know of the events of his reign took place south of the Danube,— wars with the Triballi in Servia, with Byzantium, with the king of the Greek city of Istrus, and finally with his old ally Philip of Macedon. Philip defeated and slew Ateas near the Danube in 339 B.c. He was then over ninety years old.3 The Scythians appear once more in the region of the Dobrudja in 313, when they helped the citizens of Callatis against Lysimachus and were defeated by him (Diod,, xix. 73). All this points to a considerable advance of their frontier southwards, and in fact Pseudo-Scymnus (Ephorus) gives Dionysopolis (a little to the west of the modern Baltchik) as the place where the Crobyzian and the Scythian territories met in his time (334 B.c.).4 This apparent advance of the realm contrasts singularly with the distress to which Ateas was reduced by the king of the insignificant town of Istrus, an evidence that the Scythian power was really much decayed. Ateas indeed is sometimes painted as a rude barbarian lord of a poor but valiant and hardy race, and Ephorus, who mainly follows Herodotus about Scythia, yet speaks of the Scythians in contrast with the fierce Sarmatians as corresponding to Homer’s description of a just and poor people feeding on milk (Strabo, vii. 302). But Aristotle, on the contrary (Eth. Me., vii. 8), speaks of the effeminacy of the Scythian monarchs as notorious ; and indeed there can be little doubt that the Scythians crossed the Danube and settled in the Dobrudja under pressure of the Sarmatians behind them, and that the idyllic picture drawn by'Ephorus presupposes the fall of their political system. Diodorus (ii. 43) tells us that the Sarmatians exterminated the inhabitants of most part of Scythia, and this must have taken place in the later years of Ateas, between 346 and 339. At a later but uncertain date the great inferiority of the Scythians to the Sarmatians is illustrated by the story of Amage, the warlike consort of a debauched Sarmatian king, who with only 120 chosen horsemen delivered Chersonesus

in Tauris from the neighbouring Scythian king, slew him with all his followers, and gave the kingdom to his son (Polysen., viii. 56). It is, however, not quite certain whether these were a remnant of the old Scythians; and it is still more doubtful whether the powerful Scythian kingdom of Scilurus, who brought the Greek cities of the Crimea to the verge of ruin, but was destroyed by Mithradates Eupator (105), was really a kingdom of Scolots. The last certain trace of true Scythians occurs about 100 B.c. in the Olbian psephisma in honour of Protogenes.5 Here they appear as a small nation west of Olbia between the Thisamatse and Saudaratse, who are anxious to take refuge in Olbia from the (Scordiscian) Galatians. Sources. —Herodotus (iv. 1-82, 97-142) and Hippocrates (DeAere, &c., c. 17-22, in Littre’s ed., ii. 66-82) are alone trustworthy, because they carefully distinguish the Scythians from the other northern nations. Ephorus (in Strabo, vii. p. 302 sq., and Scymn., Perieg., 773-873), Diodorus (ii. 43 sq.), and Trogus (in Justin, ii. 1-3, 5, 1-11, and Jordan., Get., v.-vi., x.) do not do so, and must be used with great caution. Helps.-'—Ukert, Creogj. d. Gr. und Rorner, iii. 2 (complete collection of materials from original sources); Niebuhr, Kleine Schriften, vol. i. (1828); Zeuss, Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstdmme (1837)—an admirable discussion, which established the Aryan origin of the Scythians ; Boeckh, in C. Disc. Gr., ii. 81 sq. ; K. Neumann, Hellenen im STcythenlande (1855)—the best book, in spite of certain fundamental errors, such as the ideas that great part of the steppe was once wooded and that the Scythians were Mongols ; Miillenhoff, “Origin and Speech of the Pontic Scythians and Sarmatians,” in Monatsb. d. Perl. Ak. (1866). The best account of the trade route which in the 5th century b.c. passed through a great part of what is now Russian territory is by K. E. v. Baer, Historische Fragen, &c. (1873) ; comp, also Grote, Hist, of Greece, iii. 314 sq. (1850), and Duncker, ii. 430 sq. (5th ed.). There is a class of mere amateurs, especially in east Germany, who absurdly take the Scythians to have been Slavs. (a. v. G.) SEA. Any part of the ocean marked off from the general mass of water may be called a sea. In geography the name is loosely applied : for instance, the Arabian Sea is an open bay, Hudson’s Bay is an enclosed sea. Seas proper lie within the transitional area which divides the permanent continental masses from the permanent ocean basins, and their boundaries are consequently subject to geological change, and to alteration by subsidence and elevation occurring in historic times. Inland Seas are seas entirely surrounded by land (see Caspian Sea, Dead Sea, and, for general discussion, Lake). Enclosed Seas have communication with the ocean restricted to one opening, which may take the form of one, two, or more straits close to each other. The best known are the White Sea of the Arctic Ocean ; the Baltic, Zuyder Zee, Hudson’s Bay, Gulf of Mexico, and Mediterranean, with the Adriatic and Black Sea, of the Atlantic; the Bed Sea and Persian Gulf of the Indian Ocean j and the Yellow Sea and Sea of Okhotsk of the Pacific.6 They are all cut off from general oceanic circulation and very largely from tides, but the result is not stagnation. The Baltic and Black Sea are but slightly saline on account of the number of large rivers falling into them, and the fresh surface-water flows out as a regular current, liable indeed to be checked, and even reversed for a time, but in the main persistent; while the salt water flows in uniformly as an undercurrent. A state of equilibrium is arrived at, so that periodical fluctuations of salinity do not affect the average of a number of years. The water of the Mediterranean and Bed Sea is much salter than that of the ocean, which therefore 1 King Ariantas, whose primitive census is mentioned in Herodotus flows in as a surface-current, while the dense very salt {iv. 81), seems to have flourished at this time. Pliny, H.N., vi. 50; comp. vi. 22, where we must read “Asam- water escapes below. In the case of the Baltic and Black patas, Palos, ah his Tanaitas et Napaeos ” and, below, “ Satarchseos, Sea dilution by rivers, in that of the Mediterranean and Palasos.” Bed Sea concentration by evaporation maintains a circu3 For Ateas, see Frontin., Strateg., ii. 4, 20; Polysen., vii. 44, 1 ; 5 Aristocritus, in Clem. Ah, Strom., v. p. 239 ; Justin, ix. 2 ; Lucian, C. I. Gr., ii. No. 2058 ; comp. Zippel, Rom. Herrschaft in Illyrien, Macrob., 10; Aeschines, C. Ctesiph., 128, p. 71. p. 155. 6 Comp. Pliny, H.N., iv. 44, who calls the Scythians Aroteres. The prevalence of colour names for these seas is noteworthy.

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lation. Winds and differences of barometric pressure are, Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, North Sea, Norwegian as in inland seas, great factors in producing variable Sea, Pacific Ocean, Polar Regions, and Red Sea the currents. (See Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Mediterranean general geographical and physical characters of oceans and seas are described. In Meteorology some account is Sea, Red Sea, &c.) Partially Enclosed Seas may be (a) comparatively shallow given of the influence of the sea on climate, and chemical irregular channels through which strong tides sweep, or (b) problems connected with the ocean are discussed in Sea. ocean basins cut off by barriers barely rising to the surface, Water. SEA-CAT. See Sea-Wolf, infra. or remaining permanently submerged, in which case there SEA-DEVIL. See Fishing-Frog, vol. ix. p. 269. may be no break of continuity in the ocean surface to indiSEA-HORSE. Sea-horses {Hippocampina) are small cate the sea. Seas of the first description are related to shallow enclosed seas, but are much affected by tides and marine fishes which, together with pipe-fishes {Synocean currents; the principal are the Kara Sea of the Arctic gnathina), form the order of Lophobranchiate fishes, as Ocean, Baffin Bay and North Sea of the Atlantic, Behring already noticed in Ichthyology, vol. xii. p. 694. The Sea and Japan Sea of the Pacific. They are subject to gills of the members of this order are not arranged in considerable temperature changes owing to their proximity leaf-like series as in other fishes, but form a convex mass to land. Seas coming under the second category combine composed of small rounded lobes attached to the branchial the peculiarities of the open ocean and of deep inland seas. arches, as shown in the accompanying figure (fig. 1) of The Caribbean Sea of the Atlantic, the China Sea, Java the head of a sea-horse, in which the gill-cover has been Sea, and numerous small seas of the eastern archipelago pushed aside to show the interior of the gill-cavity. Seaof the Pacific are the best examples. Their chief peculiarity is that the temperature of the water instead of falling uniformly to the bottom becomes stationary at some intermediate position corresponding to the top of the barrier. They are usually very deep. (See North Sea, Norwegian Sea, and Pacific Ocean.) Other Seas.—Coral Sea, Arabian Sea, Sea of Bengal, are names, now dropping out of use, to designate parts of the ocean. “Sargasso Sea” is an expression devoid of geographical meaning (see Atlantic Ocean, vol. iii. p. 20). Fig. 1.—Gills of Hippocampus abdominal is. Firths and Estuaries.—A river entering the sea by a horses differ from pipe-fishes by having a prehensile and short estuary flows over the surface, freshening it to a coninvariably finless tail; it is long, slender, tapering, quadsiderable extent, and, if the force of its current is not too rangular in a transverse section, and, like the rest of the great, the rising tide slowly forces a wedge of sea water up between river and river bed, withdrawing it rapidly when body, encased in a dermal skeleton, which consists of horny ebb sets in. In a firth that is large compared with the segments, allowing of ventral, and in a less degree of lateral, river falling into it, judging from results recently obtained but not of dorsal, flexion. The typical sea-horse (Hippoin the Firth of Forth,1 a state of equilibrium is arrived campus) can coil up a great portion of its tail, and firmly at, the water increasing in salinity more and more gradu- attach itself by it to the stems of sea-weeds or other ally as it proceeds seawards, the disturbing influence of the similar objects. The body is compressed and more or tide becoming less and less, and the vertical distribution of less elevated, and the head terminates in a long tubiform salinity more and more uniform until the river water meets snout, at the end of which the small mouth is situated. the sea, diffused through a nearly homogeneous mass with The whole configuration of the fore part of the body, as a density little inferior to that of the ocean. Between the well as the peculiar manner in which the head is joined to extreme cases there are numerous gradations of estuary the neck-like part of the trunk, bears a striking resemblance to a horse’s head; hence the name by which these depending on the ratio of river to sea inlet. Deposits.—All seas within about 300 miles of continental fishes are generally known. Sea-horses are bad swimmers land, whatever may be their depth, are paved with terrige- and are unable to resist currents. With the aid of their nous debris, and all at a greater distance from shore are carpeted with true pelagic deposits (see Pacific Ocean). Marine Fauna and Flora.—The mixing of river with sea water produces a marked difference in the fauna and flora of seas. Where low salinity prevails diatoms abound, probably on account of the greater amount of silica dissolved in river water, and they form food for minute pelagic animals and larvae, which are in turn preyed upon by larger creatures. In some seas, such as the North Sea, there are many celebrated fishing beds on the shallow banks of which innumerable invertebrate animals live and form an inexhaustible food-supply for edible fishes. Naturalists have remarked that in temperate seas enormous shoals of relatively few species are met with, while in tropical seas species are very numerous and individuals comparatively few. Organisms, such as the corals, which secrete carbonate of lime appear to flourish more luxuriantly in warmer and salter seas than in those which are colder and fresher. The geological and dynamic aspects of seas are treated of single dorsal fin, which is placed about the middle of in Geology (vol. x. p. 284 sq.) and Geography (Physical) ; the fish’s body and can be put into a rapid undulatory and in Atlantic Ocean, Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Indian motion, they shift from time to time to some other object near them, remaining stationary among vegetation or coral 1 where they find the requisite amount of food and sufficient Mill, Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed., xiii. 29, 137, and 347.

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cover. Their coloration and the tubercles or spines on the head and body, sometimes with the addition of skinny flaps and filaments, closely resemble their surroundings, and constitute the means by which these defenceless creatures escape detection by their enemies. These protective structures are most developed in the Australian genus Phyllopteryx, one of the most singular types of littoral fishes. Sea-horses belong to the tropics and do not extend so far north as pipe-fishes. They are abundant at suitable localities, chiefly on the coral-banks of the Indo-Pacific Ocean. Some thirty species are known, of which the majority belong to the genus Hippocampus proper. Their size varies from 2 to 12 inches in length; but in China and Australia a genus {Solenognaihus) occurs the species of which attain to a length of nearly 2 feet; they, however, in form resemble pipe-fishes rather than sea-horses. The species which may be sometimes seen in aquaria in Great Britain is Hippocampus antiquorum, from the Mediterranean and the coasts of Portugal and France. The food of the sea-horses consists probably of very small invertebrates and the fry of other fishes. Like the other Lophobranchiates, they take great care of their progeny. The male Hippocampus carries the ova in a sac on the lower side of the tail, in which they are hatched; in the other genera no closed pouch is developed, and the ova are embedded in the soft and thickened integument of either the abdomen or the tail. SEAL. In the article Mammalia (vol. xv. p. 442) will be found a general account of the distinguishing characteristics of the animals constituting the sub-order Pinnipedia of the order Carnivora, and their divisions into families and genera. It only remains to give some further details respecting those members of the group to which the term “seal” is properly restricted (the sub-family Phocinx), especially those which inhabit the British coasts. Although seals swum and dive with the greatest ease, often remaining as much as a quarter of an hour or more below the surface, and are dependent for their sustenance entirely on living prey captured in the water, all the species frequently resort to sandy beaches, rocks, or icefloes, either to sleep or to bask in the sun, and especially for the purpose of bringing forth their young. The latter appears to be the universal habit, and, strange as it may seem, the young seals—of some species at least—take to the water at first very reluctantly, and have actually to be taught to swim by their parents. The number of young produced is usually one annually, though occasionally two. They are at first covered with a coat of very thick, soft, nearly white fur, and until it falls off they do not usually enter the wTater. This occurs in the Greenland and grey seal wdien from two to three weeks old, but in the common seal apparently much earlier. One of this species born in the London Zoological Gardens had shed its infantile woolly coat and was swimming and diving about in its pond within three hours after its birth. The movements of the true seals upon the ground or ice are very different from those of the Otarix or eared seals, which walk and run upon all four feet, the body being raised as in the case of ordinary quadrupeds. The hinder limbs (by which mainly they propel themselves though the water) are on land always perfectly passive, stretched backwards, with the soles of the feet applied to each other, and often raised to avoid contact with the ground. Sometimes the fore limbs are equally passive, being placed close to the sides of the body, and motion is then effected by a shuffling or wriggling action produced by the muscles of the trunk. When, however, there is any necessity for a more rapid mode of progression, the animals use the fore paws, either alternately or simultaneously, pressing the palmar surface on the ground and lifting and dragging the body forwards

in a succession of short jumps. In this way they manage to move so fast that a man has to step out beyond a walk to keep up with them; but such rapid action costs considerable effort, and they very soon become heated and exhausted. These various modes of progression appear to be common to all species as far as has been observed. Most kinds of seals are gregarious and congregate, especially at the breeding season, in immense herds. Such is the habit of the Greenland seal {Phoca groenlandicd), which resorts in the spring to the ice-floes of the North Sea, around Jan Mayen Island, where about 200,000 are killed annually by the crews of the Scotch, Dutch, and Norwegian sealing vessels. Others, like the common seal of the British islands {Phoca vitulina), though having a v

Ida. 1.—Common seal {Phoca vitulina). wide geographical range, are never met with in such large numbers or far away from land. This species is stationary all the year round, but some have a regular season of migration, moving south in winter and north in summer. They are usually harmless, timid, inoffensive animals, though, being polygamous, the old males often fight desperately with each other, their skins being frequently found covered with W'ounds and scars. They are greatly attached to their young, and remarkably docile and easily trained when in captivity; indeed, although there would seem little in the structure or habits of the seal to fit it by nature to be a companion of man, there is perhaps no wild animal which attaches itself so readily to the person who takes care of and feeds it. They appear to have much curiosity, and it is a very old and apparently well-attested observation that they are strongly attracted by musical sounds. Their sense of smell is very acute, and their voice varies from a harsh bark or grunt to a plaintive bleat. Seals feed chiefly on fish, of which they consume enormous quantities; some, however, subsist largely on crustaceans, especially species of Gammarus, which swarm in the northern seas, also on molluscs, echinoderms, and even occasionally sea-birds, which they seize when swimming or floating on the water. Although the true seals do not possess the beautiful under-fur (“seal-skin” of the furriers) which makes the skin of the sea-bears or Otarix so precious, their hides are still sufficiently valuable as articles of commerce, together with the oil yielded by their fat, to subject them to a devastating persecution, by wdiich their numbers are being continually diminished (see below, p. 581 sq.). • Two species of seals only are met with regularly on the British coasts, the common seal and the grey seal. The

SEAL common seal (Phoca vitulina) is a constant resident in all suitable localities round the Scottish, Irish, and English coasts, from which it has not been driven away by the molestations of man. Although, naturally, the most secluded and out-of-the-way spots are selected as their habitual dwelling-places, there are few localities where they

Fig. 2.—Skull of common seal, showing form of teeth. may not be occasionally met with. Within the writer’s knowledge, one was seen not many years ago lying on the shingly beach at so populous a place as Brighton, and another was lately caught in the river Welland, near Stamford, 30 miles from the sea. They frequent bays, inlets, and estuaries, and are often seen on sandbanks or mudflats left dry at low tide, and, unlike some of their congeners, are not found on the ice-floes of the open sea, nor, though gregarious, are very large numbers ever seen in one spot. The young are produced at the end of May or beginning of June. They feed chiefly on fish, and the destruction they occasion among salmon is well known to Scottish fishermen. The common seal is widely distributed, being found not only on the European and American coasts bordering the Atlantic Ocean but also in the North Pacific. It is from 4 to 5 feet in length, and variable in colour, though usually yellowish grey, with irregular spots of dark brown or black above and yellowish white beneath. The grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) is of considerably larger size, the males attaining when fully adult a length of 8 feet from nose to end of hind feet. The form of the skull and the simple characters of the molar teeth distinguish it generically from the common seal. It is of a yellowish grey colour, lighter beneath, and with dark grey spots or blotches, but, like most other seals, is liable to great variations of colour according to age. The grey seal appears to be restricted to the North Atlantic, having been rarely seen on the American coasts, but not farther south than Nova Scotia; it is chiefly met with on the coasts of Ireland, England, Scotland, Norway and Sweden, including the Baltic and Gulf of Bothnia, and Iceland, though it does not appear to range farther north. It is apparently not migratory, and its favourite breeding places are rocky islands, the young being born in the end of September or beginning of October. Other species of seals inhabiting the northern seas, of which stragglers have occasionally visited the British coasts, are the small ringed seal or “ floe-rat ” of the sealers {Phoca hispida), the Greenland or harp seal {Phoca groenlandica), the hooded or bladder-nosed seal {Cystophora cristata), and possibly the Bearded seal {Phoca barbata), though of the last there is no certain evidence. The general characters and geographical distribution of the remaining species of the group are indicated in the article Mammalia, vol. xv. p. 442. (w. h. f.) Seal Fisheries. From a commercial point of view seals may be divided into two groups, —hair seals and fur seals. The former are valued for the oil they yield and for their skins, which are converted into leather, and the latter for their skins alone. The fur seals are provided

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with a dense soft under-fur like velvet and a quantity of long loose exterior hair, which has to he removed in dressing the hides. Hair seals are either entirely without under-fur or possess it in too small a quantity to render the skins of much commercial value as furs. The two groups correspond to the two divisions of eared seals and earless seals described above (see also vol. xv. pp. 442-443).1 Hair Seals.—The principal hair seal fisheries are those of Newfoundland and Labrador (area about 200 miles), the Gulf of St Lawrence, Jan Mayen and the adjacent seas, Nova Zembla, the White Sea and Arctic Ocean, the Caspian, and the North and South Pacific. The first-named is by far the most important. To the immense icefields borne past these shores during the spring months great herds of seals resort for the purpose of bringing forth and suckling their young. These are usually produced in the last week of February and increase rapidly in size. When born they weigh about 5 lb; in four weeks the fat beneath the skin has increased to a depth of 3 to 4 inches, and with the adhering skin weighs from 40 to 50 lb. At this age the animals are in the best condition for being taken, as the oil then yielded is of the best quality. They remain on the ice attended by their dams for about six weeks, when they begin to take to the water, and it becomes much more difficult to capture them. When a floe containing young seals is reached, the hunters take to the ice armed with a pole or “gaff,” having a hook at one end and shod with iron at the other. A blow on the nose from this quickly despatches the animal; by means of the “ scalping-knife ” the skin with the fat adhering is then rapidly detached. The fat and skins are rolled into bundles and dragged to the ship. When the ship reaches port the skins are separated from the fat and salted for export to Great Britain, where they are converted into leather. Of late years furriers have succeeded in converting a few of the finer skins into ladies’ tippets. The fat was formerly thrown into huge vats, where its own weight and the heat of the sun extracted the oil, but in the improved modern process the fat is ground into minute pieces by machinery and then steamed ; the oil, after being exposed for a time in glasscovered tanks to the action of the sun’s rays, is barrelled for exportation. The greater part of it goes to England,_ where it is largely employed both as an illuminant and as a lubricant. It is also used for tanning purposes and in the manufacture of the finer kinds of soap. From 8000 to 10,000 men embark annually from Newfoundland on this pursuit. The steamers, which are rapidly superseding sailing vessels, are stoutly timbered, sheathed with iron and wood, and provided with iron-plated stems ; they carry from 150 to 300 men each, and make two, and sometimes when very successful even three, trips in the season. From 20 to 25 steamships in all are engaged in this industry, 6 of these being from Dundee, Scotland. The Dundee vessels arrive in Newfoundland in February and there ship their crews ; at the close of the sealing season they proceed to the northern whale fishery and return home in October. A “ close time ” for seals is now established by law. Sailing vessels cannot clear for this fishery before 1st March, nor can steamers before 10th March. After the young seals have taken to the water, the steamers in their second trips engage in the pursuit of the old breeding seals till the middle or end of May. These are taken either by shooting them or clubbing them when congregated in herds on the ice. This practice, which is most injurious to the fishery, has of late been partially abandoned, by an agreement among the owners of vessels not to continue operations beyond 30th April. The failures and disappointments of the voyage are numerous, many vessels returning to port with few seals or even with none. The prizes, however, are so enormous that there is no hesitation in embarking capital in the enterprise. It is no uncommon event for a steamer to return two or three weeks after leaving port laden to the gunwale with seals. As many as 42,000 have been brought in by a single steamer, the value at two and a half dollars per seal being $105,000 (£21,875). The men on board the steamers share one-third of the proceeds of the voyage among them; the remainder goes to the owners who equip and provision the vessels. In sailing vessels the men get one-half the proceeds. The number of seals taken annually rano-es from 350,000 to 500,000. In the three years 1877,1878, and 1881 the average take was 436,413, valued at £213,937. Between 1881 and 1886 the returns fell below this average^ owing to the heavy ice, which comparatively few vessels succeeded in penetrating. The large number of young seals which escaped during these years will improve the fishery in the future. In the seas around Newfoundland and Labrador there are four species of seals,—the bay seal, the harp, the hood, and the square flipper. The first of these frequents the mouths of rivers and harbours and is never found on the ice. The harp, so called from a curved line of dark spots on its back making a figure somewhat resembling an ancient harp, is by far the most numerous, and is par excellence the seal of commerce. The hoods, which owe their 1 Some naturalists have proposed the name Trichophocinee for the hair seals and Oulophocinse for the fur seals, in allusion to the different character of the skin in the two groups.

582 SEAL name to a bag or hood on the nose of the males, which they can The Jan Mayen fishery commenced in 1840. In that year 13 inflate at pleasure for protection, are much larger than the harps, British vessels and 650 men engaged in it, and 17,300 seals were but their oil is not of such good quality. But few square flippers taken. The Norwegians and other nationalities also took part in are taken; they are large seals from 12 to 16 feet in length, and it. Steamers were introduced in 1858. The following table shows are believed to be identical with the great Greenland seals. The the growth and decline of the fishery:— seals frequenting these seas are migratory. In May, attended by their young, they commence their northerly movements to the No. of No. of of Seals of Seals Greenland seas, where they spend two or three months, and in Year. British No. Year. British No. taken. Vessels. Men. September begin their southerly migration, moving along the coast Vessels. Men. taken. of Labrador, feeding in its fiords and bays. One division passes 1840 650 17,300 1875 1200 71,640 through the Straits of Belle Isle into the Gulf of St Lawrence, the 1845 1950 94,830 1880 840 41,468 other along the east coast of Newfoundland. By the close of the 1850 1600 74,058 1881 840 23,984 1856 2700 81,500 1882 year they, reach the Great Banks, their southern headquarters, 900 21,092 1861 2300 10,350 1883 1020 49,806 and early in February commence their northerly movement to meet 1865 1300 112,000 1884 1200 42,120 the ice on which their young are to be brought forth. 1870 1320 128,000 _ The Newfoundland fishery was of slight importance till the beginning of the 19th century. At first the seals were taken in nets; The Norwegian vessels are all steamers, sheathed with wood and the next method was shooting them from large boats, which left iron, the crews averaging forty-six men. They belong principally shore about the middle of April. Afterwards small schooners were to Tonsberg, but Tromsb also sends out a number of small vessels employed, and a rapid expansion of the fishery followed. Over 100 to hunt adult seals. The total annual product has reached of these small vessels used to leave the port of St John’s, and as $300,000. Over twenty Norwegian and Swedish steamers are many more the ports of Conception Bay. In 1795 the whole catch engaged in this fishery. Since about the year 1873 or 1874 the of seals was but 5000. In 1805 it reached 81,000; in 1815,126,000; Norwegians and Swedes have discovered a new fishing-ground for in 1822, 306,983. The largest catches on record were in 1830, when adult seals off the coast of Greenland between Iceland and Cape 558,942 seals were taken ; in 1831, 686,836 ; 1843, 651,370 ; and Farewell. It is carried on in the months of June and July. The in 1844, 685,530. The following table shows the number of seals seals taken are all of the hood kind. At one time the Jan Mayen taken in some recent years :— fishery averaged 200,000 seals annually among all the nationalities Years. No. of Seals. Years. No. of Seals. engaged. It does not now exceed 120,000 to 130,000. 1856 361,317 1881 447,903 The Danes, the Eskimo, and the half-breeds carry on a seal1861 375,282 1882 200,500 fishery^off the western coast of Greenland between Cape Farewell 1869 359,821 1883 300,350 1876 500,000 and 79° N. lat. The seals taken are chiefly the floe or spotted seal 1884 238,587 1880 223,793 and the square flipper. Rink, in his Greenland, estimates the Of late years an increasing number of steamers from St John’s annual number taken at 89,000, but at present it does not exceed have resorted to the Gulf of St Lawrence as well as small sailing 50,000, as the seals are becoming scarcer. The oil is made at the vessels from the southern ports of Newfoundland. A few residents Danish settlements on the coast, and the skins are dried, not of the Magdalen Islands also pursue the seals on the Gulf ice, and salted, and both are shipped to Denmark. the Canadians carry on a seal fishery along the shore by means of The fisheries of Nova Zembla, once productive, have declined in nets both in spring and autumn. The nets are made of strong value, and are now carried on by only five vessels, which reach the hempen cord, some of them very large and costing with the anchors island about the end of June. The fishermen commence wuth huntand gear as much as £1500 each. This fishery is carried on from ing the seal and the walrus and afterwards fish for the common Blanc Juberlis Bay to Cape Whittle. The number taken averages trout. Five kinds of seals are found here, the chief being the about 70,000 to 80,000. Phoca vitulina and the Phoca grcenlandica. The number taken Next in importance is the seal fishery carried on between Green- is small. land, Spitzbergen, and the island of Jan Mayen,—between 68° and The Russians carry on a seal-fishery on the eastern and western 74° N. lat. and 3° E. and 17° W. long. In most years, however, coasts of the White Sea, in the bays of the Dwina and the Mezen the seals are taken mainly in the vicinity of Jan Mayen. The and on the coast of Kanin. The species is the Phoca grcenlandica. fishery is carried on by the British, Norwegians, Swedes, Danes, These seals live in the high regions of the polar seas from May and Germans. The number taken by the British vessels about till September, and appear later in the gulfs and bays of the Arctic equals that taken by all the others together. The species taken are Ocean, where the young are born on the floating ice early in the same as on the Newfoundland coast, the harp or saddleback and February. Soon after the hunt commences and lasts till the end the hood or bladder-nose. The breeding season is about three weeks of March. On the eastern coast of the White Sea the chase is later than in the case of the Newfoundland seals, the young being pursued over a space of 230 miles. Two thousand hunters assemble brought forth between the 16th and the 22d of March. The method at Kedy, near Cape Yoronoff. High wooden towers are erected of capture is almost the same as that of the Newfoundland hunters. along the shore, whence observers watch the movements of the Steamers are now almost exclusively employed. The only British seals. Hunting sheds for the men are also erected. When a herd ports now engaged in the enterprise are Dundee and Peterhead. of seals is observed, the men go out on the ice, drawing small boats During the twelve years 1873 to 1885 the number of British vessels after them, and kill the young and old with clubs and guns. To taking part in it was from 14 to 21, the number of men varying approach the seals without being discovered, the hunters muffle from 900 to 1200, and the number of seals taken ranging from 35,000 themselves in long white shirts and advance slowly and noiselessly to 75,000. The total number of seals taken by these vessels during over the snow. They are often exposed to the greatest dangers, the ten years ending 1884 was 452,013. Formerly, from 1500 to owing to the sudden movements of the ice. In following up the 2700 men were employed, and the number of seals taken ranged chase in April they use sailing boats 22 feet long, with an ironfrom 50,000 to 125,000. The decline has been largely caused by plated bottom, which they draw up on the ice, where a vast enthe reckless and barbarous way in which the fishery has been con- campment is formed, and shooting-parties search for the seals. ducted, the practice of seal-hunters of all nations having been to On the western shore of the White Sea the seal-hunt is less proreach the seals soon after the young were born, and then to watch ductive than on the eastern. The hunters meet at Devyatoe, a for the mothers as they came to suckle them and shoot them with- few miles north of the river Ponoi. About 500 men engage in the out mercy, leaving the young to die in thousands of starvation on chase. The Russians take each year in the Arctic Ocean and the the ice. The consequence is that the herds are not now a twentieth White Sea from 2,500,000 to 3,000,000 lb of seal blubber. Allowpart of their former size. Newfoundland hunters, on the other ing an average of 40 lb per seal, this would imply the capture of hand, do not disturb the seals till they are grown and about to 65,000 to 75,000 seals. The skins are made into leather. leave their mothers, the old seals not being killed till a later date. The most extensive and valuable seal-fishery of the Russians is By an international treaty between England and Norway—the two in the Caspian Sea, where the seals (Phoca caspica) are plentiful. nations most interested—a “ close season ” has been established in They pass the summer in deep water, and in the autumn resort the Jan Mayen fishery. The Dundee and Peterhead steamers are to the eastern basin, where the ice forms earliest and breaks up chiefly manned by Shetlanders, who are taken on board at Lerwick. latest. Here the pairing takes place on the ice in December and The vessels make the ice from the 15th to the 20th March and January. The seals are also hunted at the mouths of the Yolga commence the chase in the destructive way already described. and the Ural, and in the southern part of the sea, on the islands They follow up the capture of the young seals in April, when of the Gulf of Apsheron. There are three methods of hunting the they are better worth taking. Then they proceed to separate the seals,—killing them with clubs (the commonest and most successful skins from the fat. The former are salted on board, and the fat is way), shooting them on the ice, and taking them in nets. From stowed in tanks. In May the pursuit of the old seals on the ice 130,000 to 140,000 are taken annually. commences and continues till the 16th, when it is time to proceed A few seals are taken off the coast of California and Washington to the whale fishery. The oil is not manufactured till the vessels Territory. In the South Pacific, off the coast of Chili, only a few reach home late in the autumn. As the blubber undergoes decay are now taken where formerly they were captured by the thousand. in the tanks, the oil is not so good in quality as that made in NewThe elephant seal or sea elephant (Macrorhinus leonina) was foundland from the fresh fat. formerly taken in great numbers at various places for the sake of

583 S E A —S E A its oil. This fishery is now almost a thing of the past; since pany of San Prancisco for twenty years, from 1st May 1870, under about 1875 it has been carried on solely from New London in Act of Congress approved 1st July 1870. The annual rental is Connecticut, the fleet numbering only four or five vessels. The $55,000 with a tax of $2-62 on each skin taken,—making the total rental $317,000 per annum. The Alaska Commercial Company yield in 1880 was 42,000 gallons of oil, worth $21,420. The average number of hair seals taken annually may be esti- have leased the Commander Islands from the Russian Government. About 30,000 fur seals are annually taken there. mated as follows :— Seals. The fishery at the mouth of the Straits of Juan de Fuca and its Newfoundland, including Labrador and the Gulf of St Lawrence 400,000 vicinity is carried on by Americans and Canadians. The seals Canadian net fishery, Gulf of St Lawrence 75,000 Jan Mayen and the adjacent seas 130,000 are captured in the waters, the largest number being secured at Western Greenland 50,000 and about Cape Flattery, to the extent of 15,000 annually. The Nova Zembla, White Sea, and Arctic Ocean 75,000 Lobos Islands, at the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, are under Caspian Sea 140,000 the protection of the Government of Uruguay, the number of seals North and South Pacific 5,000 annually taken being limited to about 12,000. Some of the numerTotal number of hair seals 875,000 ous islands about Cape Horn are the breeding-places of fur seals, as Value at $2'50 per seal $2,187,500 also the South Shetland Islands farther south. This Cape Horn Fur Seals.—The fur seals occupy two distinct areas. None are is visited by a fleet of seven to ten vessels belonging to New exist on the shores of the North Atlantic. South of the equator region and Stonington, Connecticut, and also by a few Chilian they extend from near the tropics to the region of antarctic ice. London other South American vessels. Only occasionally does a yessel By far the most important and valuable fur seal fisheries are those and the South Shetlands, though the quality of skins to be secured carried on at St 1Paul’s and St George’s Islands, belonging to the visit is very superior. The headquarters for the fleet between Pribyloff group, off the coast of Alaska, at the Commander Islands there is at Punta Arenas, or Sandy Point, in the Straits of in the Behring Sea, and that in the same sea 700 miles west of the seasons The American fleet in 1880 numbered nine vessels of Alaskan seal islets. The species found here is the northern fur Magellan. 1192 tons. The result of the fishery was 9275 skins, worth $90,431. seal {Callorhinus ursinus). The males attain mature size about Early in the 19th century the Falkland Islands abounded in fur the eighth year, when their length is from 7 to 8 feet, their girth seals, but they have been exterminated. The number now (1886) from 7 to 8 feet, and their weight, when in full flesh, from 500 to annually secured does not average more than 500 ; in some 700 lb. The females are full grown at four years old, when they years only 50 skinsthere are taken. measure 4 feet in length, in girth, and weigh from 80 to 100 lb. There are annually received London from the Cape of Good The yearlings weigh from 30 to 40 lb. The seals resort to these Hope about 10,000 sealskins attaken various islands in the islands late in spring chiefly for reproductive purposes, making Southern Indian Ocean and along the atsouth-west coast of Africa. their appearance from the southward. The number annually A few fur seals are taken in the Okhotsk Sea. visiting St Paul’s and St George’s is estimated at five millions. Nearly all the fur-seal skins find their way to London, where About the middle of April the males begin to arrive and take they are plucked, dressed, and dyed. A few, however, are prepared their places along the shore in “ the rookeries, ” as the breeding- in New York. At the seal islands they are salted and baled with grounds are called. The younger males are prevented from landing the fur inside, and in this manner shipped to London. The annual by the older, and are compelled either to stay in the water or to yield of the fur-seal fisheries of the world is about 185,000. go to the uplands. By the middle of June all the males have ^ Seals. Pribyloff Islands, Alaska 100,000 assembled, and then the females begin to appear. Each old male Commander Islands 30,000 seal collects from ten to fifteen or more females, whom he guards Straits of Juan de Fuca and vicinity 15,000 most jealously. The males fight furiously, “ so that night and day Lobos Islands, mouth of Bio de la Plata 12,000 the aggregated sound is like that of an approaching railway train.” Patagonia, including South Shetland Islands and Straits of 15,000 Magellan By the middle of July the family circle is complete. Soon after Falkland Islands - 500 landing the female gives birth to one pup, weighing about _6_lb, Cape of Good Hope, including south-west coast of Africa and 10,000 which she nurses at wide intervals without any affection. Pairing islands in Southern Indian Ocean 2,500 Islands belonging to Japan takes place soon afterwards. No food is taken by the breeding males while on the rocks,—a period of three to four months. Total 185,000 When the males leave after this long fast, they are reduced to half At an average of $7 per skin the annual value their former weight. In the end of October and middle of November would be $1,295,000 Value of hair seals annually 2,187,500 all leave the island, the young males going last and by themselves. The killing of the seals is carefully regulated. No females are Total value of hair and fur seals $3,482,500 killed, and only a certain number of young “ bachelor ” seals whose See Hatton and Harvey, Newfoundland, 1883; Returns of the_ Jan Mayen skins are of superior quality. These younger male seals are spread Seal Fisheries, by Captain Adams, 1885 ; United States Fish Commission.Reports out on the slopes above the rookeries to rest. A party of men for 1873-74 and 1874-75 ; J. A. Allen, Eared Seals ; Charles Bryant, Habits of the (M. H.) armed with clubs of hard wood quietly creep between them and NoTthcvn Fur Seal \ H. W. Elliott, Seal Islands of Alaslca. SEA LAWS, a title which came into use amongst the shore, and at a given signal start up with a shout and drive the seals inland. When they reach the killing-grounds near the writers on maritime law in the 16th century, and wTas villages, they select those that are two or three years old and seem applied by them to certain mediaeval collections of usages likely to yield the most valuable fur. These they despatch with a club. The skins are carefully salted for exportation. Besides of the sea which had been recognized as having the force the skin each seal yields about a gallon and a half of oil. But of customary law, either by the judgments of a maritime it is not used, as its rank odour renders refining very costly. The court or by the resolutions of a congress of merchants and value of the skins in the raw state varies from five to twenty-five shipmasters. To the former class belong the sea laws of dollars each; at times, when furs are specially fashionable, a higher price is obtained. The quality of the Alaska furs is superior, Oleron, which embody the usages of the mariners of the but those obtained in the South Shetland and antarctic regions are Atlantic; under the latter come the sea laws of Wisby, rated best. A cloak of the richest fur seal, a yard deep pr more, which reflect the customs of the mariners of the North will cost from £25 to £40. The roots of the loose exterior hairs Sea and of the Baltic. penetrate deeper into the skin than those of the fur or short hair, The earliest collection of such usages which was reand can readily be cut by paring on the fleshy side, without touching the roots of the fur ; the long hairs then drop off, leaving ceived in England is described in the Black Book of the the valuable fur below in a sheet like pure velvet. The number Admiralty as the “Laws of Oleron,” whilst the earliest of seals killed on the Pribyloff Islands is limited to 100,000 annu- known text is contained in the Liber Memorandorum of ally, and with the precautions taken they increase as fast as if left the corporation of the City of London, preserved in the to themselves, “for when the number of males is in excess, the continual fighting on the rookeries destroys many of both females archives of their Guildhall. These laws are in an early and young, which get trampled to death.” handwriting of the 14th century, and the title prefixed to Alaska was purchased from Russia by the United States in 186/. them is La Charte d’Oleroun des Juggementz de la Mier. The Pribyloff Islands were leased to the Alaska Commercial Com- How and in what manner these “Judgments of the Sea” 1 The sea-lion {Eumetopias stelleri) is a characteristic pinniped of came to be collected is not altogether certain. Cleirac, a the Pribyloff Islands and other parts of Alaska. It has very little learned advocate in the parliament of Bordeaux, in the commercial value ; but by the natives along the Behring Sea coast of introduction to his work on Les Us et Coustumes de la Mer, Alaska, Kamchatka, and the Kuriles it is highly prized. From the hide they make coverings for their boats ; the intestines are made first printed at Bordeaux in 1647, states that Eleanor, into garments ; the stomach walls are used as pouches for oil ; the duchess of Guienne (the consort of Louis VII. of France, flesh is dried and eaten ; and the whiskers are sold to the Chinese, but subsequently divorced from him and married to Henry who use them as pickers to their opium pipes, and in several cereII. of England), having observed during her visit to the monies in their joss houses.

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Holy Land, in company with Louis, that the collection of customs of the sea contained in The Book of the Consulate of the Sea (see vol. vi. p. 317) was held in high repute in the Levant, directed on her return that a record should be made of the judgments of the maritime court of the island of Oleron (at that time a peculiar court of the duchy of Guienne), in order that they might serve as law amongst the mariners of the Western Sea. He states further that Eichard I. of England, on his return from the Holy Land, brought back with him a roll of those judgments, which he published in England and ordained to be observed as law. It is probable that the general outline of Cleirac’s account is correct, as it accords with a memorandum on the famous roll of 12 Edw. III., “De Superioritate Maris Anglise,” which, having been for many years carefully preserved in the archives of the Tower of London, is now deposited in the Public Eecord Office. According to this memorandum, the king’s justiciaries were instructed to declare and uphold the laws and statutes made by the kings of England, in order to maintain peace and justice amongst the people of every nation passing through the sea of England: “ Quae quidem leges et statuta per dominum Eicardum, quondam regem Anglise, in reditu suo a Terra Sancta correcta fuerunt, interpretata, declarata, et in Insula Oleron publicata, et nominata in Gallica lingua La Leye Olyroun.” The earliest version of these Oleron sea laws, which, according to the memorandum above mentioned, were received in England in the latter part of the 12th century, comprised certain customs of the sea which were observed in the wine and the oil trade, as carried on between the ports of Guienne and those of Brittany, Normandy, England, and Flanders. No English translation seems to have been made before the Butter of the Sea, printed in London by Thomas Petyt in 1536, in which they are styled “the Lawes of ye Yle of Auleron and ye Judgementes of ye See.” French was, in fact, a tongue familiar to the English High Court of Admiralty down to the reign of Henry YI. A Flemish text, however, appears to have been made in the latter part of the 14th century, the Purple Book of Bruges, preserved in the archives of Bruges, in a handwriting somewhat later than that of the Liber Memorandorum. Prefixed to this Flemish version is the title, “ Dit es de Coppie van den Eollen van Oleron van den Yonnesse van der Zee.” Certain changes, however, have been made in the Purple Book of Bruges in the names of the ports mentioned in the original Gascon text. For instance, Sluys is in several places substituted for Bordeaux, just as in the Putter of the Sea London replaces Bordeaux. That these sea laws were administered in the Flemish maritime courts may be inferred from two facts. First, a Flemish translation of them was made for the use of the maritime tribunal of Damme, which was the chief Flemish entrepot of the wine trade in the 13th century. The text of this translation has been published by Adriaen Yerwer under the title of the Judgments of Damme. In the second place, there is preserved in the archives of the senate of Dantzic, where there was a maritime court of old, famous for the equity of its judgments, an early manuscript of the 15th century, which contains a Flemish reproduction of the Judgments of Oleron headed “Dit is Twater Becht in Ylaenderen.” So far there can be no doubt that the Judgments of Oleron Avere received as sea laws in Flanders as well as in England in the 14th century. Further inquiry enables us to trace them as they followed the course of the wine trade in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. Boxhorn, in his Chronyk van Zeelande, has published a Dutch version of them, which Van Leeuwen has reproduced in his Batavia Illustrata, under the title of the Laws of West-Capell in Zealand. Yerwer has also pub-

L A W S lished a Dutch text of them in his Nederlant's See-Pechten, accompanied by certain customs of Amsterdam, of Avhich other MSS. exist, in which those customs are described as usages of Stavoren, or as usages of Enkhuizen, both ports of active commerce in the 15th century. Of these customs of Amsterdam, or, as they were more generally styled, “Ordinances of Amsterdam,” further mention is made below. A new and enlarged collection of sea laws, purporting to be an extract of the ancient laws of Oleron, made its appearance in the latter part of the 15th century in Le Grant Roidier de la Mer, printed at Poitiers in France by Jan de Marnef, at the sign of the Pelican. The titlepage is without a date, but the dedication, which purports to be addressed by its author Pierre Garcie alias Ferrande to his godson, is dated from St Gilles on the last day of May 1483. It contains forty-seven articles, of which the first twenty-two are identical with articles of the “Judgments of the Sea,” in the Liber Memorandorum, the remaining articles being evidently of more recent origin. A black-letter edition of this work in French, without a date, is preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and to the last article this colophon is appended: “ Ces choses precedentes sont extraictes du tres utille et profittable Boolle Doloyron par le diet Pierre Garcie alias Ferrande.” An English translation is printed in the appendix to A View of the Admiral Jurisdiction, published in 1661 by Dr John Godolphin, in which the Iuavs are described as “an Extract of the Ancient Laws of Oleron rendered into English out of Garsias alias Ferrand.” Although this new text had the recommendation of an advocate who had filled the office of judge of the Admiralty Court during the Commonwealth and been appointed king’s advocategeneral by Charles II., it seems to have been superseded in a short time by Cleirac’s Us et Coustumes de la Mer, to which was appended the following clause of authentication: “ Tesmoin le Seel de lisle d’Oleron, estably aux contracts de la dite Isle, le jour du Mardy apres la Feste Sainct Andre 1’an mille deux cens soixant-six.” Cleirac does not inform us from what source or under what circumstances he procured his text, nor on what authority he has adopted in certain articles readings at variance with those of Garcie, wdiilst he retains the same number of articles, to wit, fortyseven. The clause of authentication cannot be accepted as a warranty above suspicion, as the identical clause of authentication with the same date is appended to the early Norman and Breton versions of the rolls,, which contain only twenty-six articles. Cleirac’s version, however, owing probably to the superior style in which it was edited, and to the importance of the other treatises on maritime matters which Cleirac had brought together for the first time in a single volume, seems to have obtained a preference in England over Garcie’s text, as it was received in the High Court of Admiralty during the judgeship of Sir Leoline Jenkyns, and an English translation of it was introduced into the English translation of the Black Book of the Admiralty made by John Bedford, the deputy registrar of the High Court, and dedicated to Sir Leoline Jenkyns. It seems to have been Bedford’s intention to print this translation under the title of “ Sea Laws ” ; but the manuscript passed into the hands of Sir Leoline Jenkyns, who gave it to the College of Advocates in 1685. The Black Book itself, which was missing for a long time from the Admiralty registry, has recently been discovered and has been replaced in the archives of the Admiralty Court. Of these two versions of the sea la\\Ts of Oleron the earlier obtained a wide-world reception, for it was translated into Castilian (Fuero de Layrori) by order of King Alphonso X., and a Gascon text of it is still preserved in the archives of Leghorn, apparently in a handwriting of the 15th cen-

SEA tury, entitled “ Asso es la copia deus Holies de Leron de jucgemens de mar.” The parent stock of the Wisby sea laws would appear to have been a code preserved in the chancery of Liibeck, drawn up in the Old Saxon tongue, and dated 1240. This code contains amongst many others certain articles on maritime law which are identical with articles in the Gothland sea laws, Gothland being the island of which Wisby was the chief port. This collection comprises sixtysix articles, and it is now placed beyond a doubt by recent researches, especially of Professor Schlyter of Lund, that these Gothland sea laws are a compilation derived from three distinct sources,—a Liibeck, an Oleron, and an Amsterdam source. A Saxon or Low German text of this collection was printed for the first time in 1505 at Copenhagen by Godfrey de Gemen, a native of Gouda in Holland, who is reputed to have set up the earliest printing-press in Copenhagen. This print has no title-page, and in this respect resembles the earliest known print of The Consulate of the Sea; but upon a blank leaf, which occupies the place of a frontispiece in one of two copies of Godfrey de Gemen’s text, both preserved in the royal library at Copenhagen, there has been inserted with a pen in alternate lines of black and red ink the title “ Dat hogheste Gotlansche Water-Recht gedrucket to Koppenhaven Anno Domini m.d.v.,” and there has also been inserted on the first page of the text the introductory title “Her beghynt dat hogheste Water-Recht” (here begins the supreme sea law). Professor Schlyter has discovered a MS. (No. 3123) in the royal library at Copenhagen, which is written on parchment in a hand of the 15th century, and from which it seems probable that Godfrey de Gemen mainly derived his text, as it comprises the same number of articles, containing the same matter arranged in the same order, with this minor difference, that, whilst both the MS. and the print have the simple title “ Water-Recht ” prefixed to the first article, the MS. has also a similar title prefixed to the fifteenth. Further, as this article together with those that follow it in the MS., appears to be in a handwriting different from that of the articles that precede, the fifteenth article may justly be considered as the first of a distinct series, more particularly as they are numbered in Roman characters, beginning with § 1, and such characters are continued with a single interruption down to the end of the MS. Although, however, the numeration of the articles of this second series is continuous and the handwriting of the MS. from the fifteenth to the sixty-sixth article is unchanged, the text of the series is not continuous, as the fortieth article commences with an introductory clause— “ This is the ordinance which the skippers and merchants have resolved amongst themselves as ship law.” There is no difficulty in recognizing the first division of this second series of sea laws as a Low German version of the Judgments of Oleron, transmitted most probably through a Flemish text. This hypothesis would account for the substitution in several articles of Sluys for Bordeaux. On the other hand, the introductory clause which ushers in the fortieth article is identical with the title that is generally prefixed to MSS. of the maritime Ordinances of Amsterdam, and the text of this and of the following articles down to the sixty-fifth inclusive is evidently of Dutch origin and more or less identical with Yerwer’s text of the usages of Amsterdam. M. Pardessus, in his valuable Collection de Lois Maritimes, published in Paris before Professor Schlyter made known the result of his researches, has justly remarked that the provisions of several articles of this last division of the sea laws are inconsistent with the theory that they originated at Wisby. It may be observed that the sixty-sixth article of the MS. is a Liibeck law identical with the first article of the first

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series, which is of Liibeck origin. No colophon is appended to this final article in the MS. Nevertheless, Godfrey de Gemen’s edition of 1505, which breaks off in the middle of the sixty-sixth article of the MS., has the following colophon :—“ Here end the Gothland sea laws, which the community of merchants and skippers have ordained and made at Wisby, that all men may regulate themselves by them. Printed at Copenhagen, a.d. m.d.v. ” The question naturally suggests itself, To what MS. was Godfrey de Gemen indebted for this colophon, or is the alternative more probable that he devised it I There is no known MS. of this collection of an earlier date to which an appeal can be made as an authority for this colophon; on the contrary, the only known MSS. of which the date is earlier than Godfrey de Gemen’s print, both of which are in the library of the university of Copenhagen, are without this colophon, and one of them, which purports to have been completed at Nykoping on the Eve of the Visitation of the Virgin in 1494, concludes with a colophon which precludes all idea that anything has been omitted by the scribe, viz., “ Here ends this book, and may God send us his grace, Amen.” We are disposed to think that Gemen himself devised this colophon. He was engaged in printing for the first time other collections of laws for the Danish Government, and, as Gothland was at that time a possession of Denmark, he may have thus distinguished the sea laws from another collection, namely, of land laws. Professor Schlyter, however, believes Gemen may have borrowed it from a MS. which is lost, or at all events is not known. There is some support to this view in the fact that in the archives of the guildhall of Liibeck there is preserved a MS. of 1533 which contains a Low German version of the same collection of sea laws, with a rubric prefixed to the first article announcing them to be “ the w7ater law or sea law, which is the oldest and highest law of Wisby,” and there are good reasons for supposing that the scribe of this MS. copied his text from a MS. other than the Copenhagen MS. The same observation will apply to a second MS. of a similar character preserved in the library of the gymnasium of Lfibeck, which purports to have been written in 1537. But as regards the Wisby sea laws little reliance can be placed on such rubrics or colophons as proofs of the facts recited in them, though they may be valuable as evidence of the reputed origin of the sea laws at the time when the scribe completed the MS. In illustration of this view it may be stated that in the same year in which the more recent of these two MSS. purports to have been completed—namely, 1537—there was printed at Lubeck an enlarged edition of the sea laws consisting of seventy-two articles, being a Low German translation of a Dutch text, in which six additional Dutch laws had been inserted which are not found in the Copenhagen MS., nor have a place in Gemen’s text, yet to this edition is prefixed the title, “ This is the highest and oldest sea law, which the community of merchants and shipmasters have ordained and made at Wisby, that all persons who would be secure may regulate themselves by it.” Further, it has an introductory clause to its thirty-seventh article—“ This is the ordinance which the community of skippers and merchants have resolved upon amongst themselves as ship law, which the men of Zealand, Holland, Flanders hold, and with the law of Wisby, which is the oldest ship law.” At the end of the seventysecond article there follows this colophon : “ Here ends the Gothland sea law, which the community of merchants and mariners have ordained and made at Wisby, that each may regulate himself by it. All honour be to God, mdxxxvii.” Each article of this edition has prefixed to it after its particular number the word “ belevinge” (judgment). It would thus appear that the Wisby sea laws XXL — 74

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have fared like the Oleron sea laws : they have gathered bulk with increasing years. The question remains to be answered, How did this collection of sea laws acquire the title of the “ Wisby sea laws” outside the Baltic 1 for under such title they were received in Scotland in the 16th century, as may be inferred from extracts from them cited in Sir James Balfour’s System of the more Ancient Laws of Scotland, which, although not printed till 1754, was completed before his death in 1583. The text of the Wisby sea laws generally current in England is an English translation of a French text which Cleirac published in 1641 in his Us et Coustumes de la Mer, and is an abbreviated, and in many respects mutilated, version of the original sea laws. This inquiry, however, would open a new chapter on the subject of the northern sea laws, and the civilizing influence which the merchants of Wisby exercised in the 13th century through their factories at Novgorod, linking thereby the trade of the Baltic to that of the Black Sea. See Pardessus, Collection de Lois Maritimes anterieures au X VIII. Sibde (6 vols., Paris, 1828-45); Schlyter, Wisby Stadslag och Sjordtt, being vol. viii. of the Corpus Juris Sueco-Cotorum Antiqui (Lund, 1853); and The Black Book of the Admiralty, ed. by Sir Travers Twiss (4 vols., London, 1871-76). (T. T.) SEALING WAX. In mediaeval times, when the principal use of sealing wax was for attaching the impression of seals to official documents, the composition used consisted of a mixture of Venice turpentine, beeswax, and colouring matter, usually vermilion. The preparation now employed contains no wax. Fine red stationery sealing wax is composed of about seven parts by weight of shellac, four of Venice turpentine, and three to four of vermilion. The resins are melted together in an earthenware pot over a moderate fire, and the colouring matter is added slowly with careful stirring. The mass when taken from the fire is poured into oiled tin moulds the form of the sticks required, and when hard the sticks are polished by passing them rapidly over a charcoal fire, or through a spirit flame, which melts the superficial film. For the brightest qualities of sealing wax bleached lac is employed, and a proportion of perfuming matter—storax or balsam of Peru— is added. In the commoner qualities considerable admixtures of chalk, carbonate of magnesia, baryta white, or other earthy matters are employed, and for the various colours appropriate mineral pigments. In inferior waxes ordinary resin takes the place of lac, and the dragon gum of Australia (from Xanthorrhoea hastilis) and other resins are similarly substituted. Such waxes, used for bottling, parcelling, and other coarser applications, run thin when heated, and are comparatively brittle, whereas fine wax should soften slowly and is tenacious and adhesive. SEALKOTE. See Sialkot. SEALS1 (Gr. o- 1 ship. Some knots, bends, and hitches are intended to afford C’ security as long as desired, and then to be easily disengaged. Other knots, splices, and seizings are of a more permanent character, generally continuing as long as the rope will last.

Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 1.—Overhand Knot. Fig. 3 ) t, .. Fig. 2.—Figure-of-Eight Knot. Fig. 4. ) Bowlllle on a Bight. Overhand Knot. Used at the end of ropes to prevent their unreeving and as the commencement of other knots. Fig. 1 represents an overhand knot hauled 128 fi 7 an lllustration of tlle same not hauled tight see Knot, vol. xiv. p. Figure-of-Eight Knot (flg. 2).—Used only to prevent ropes from unreevins : it forms a large knob. Reef Knot (see Ks or, loc. cit., figs. 8 and 9).—First form an overhand knot; then take the end a over the end 6 and through the bight.a This knot is so named from being used in tying the reef points of a sail, since it will not jam. If the end a were taken under the end b, a granny’s knot would be formed. Bowline Knot.—Lay the end of a rope a over the standing part 6 ; form with 6 a bight c over a; take a round behind 6 and down through the bight c. This is a very useful knot, forming a loop which will not slip. Running bowlines are formed by making a bowline round its own standing part above b. and convenient temporary running noose. See Knot, /It. /» isfithe era most 11 a n Hcommon 19

Fig. 5.—Two Half-Hitches. Fig. 7.—Cat’s-paw. Fig. 6.—Double Blackwall Hitch. Fig. 8.—Marling-Spike Hitch. Bowline on a Bight (figs. 3, 4).—The first part is made similar to the above with the double part of the rope ; then the bight a is pulled through sufficiently to allow it to be bent over past d and come up in the position shown in fig. 4. It makes a more comfortable sling for a man than a single bight. Half-Hitch.—Pass the end a round the standing part b and through the bight. 1 A person wishing to make sailor’s knots need not be deterred by the want of material, as nearly all that are here represented were made, for2 the purpose of sketching them, with the lashing of a packing case. For an explanation of this and other technical terms, see the glossary on p. 603 below.

591 SEAMANSHIP take the next strand b round the end of a; take the last strand c This hitch by itself round a large object would not hold and round a small one bight; round the end of b and through the bight made by a; haul the ends taut. would iam excessively. See Knot, l.c., fig. 13. 4 A double wall against the lay (not crowned) makes a good stopper. A whale Two Half-Hitches (fig. 5).-The half-hitch repeated; this is commonly used, is similar, but made with the lay. Fig. 21 of art. Knot, l.c., represents a and is capable of resisting to the full strength of the rope. A stop from a to knot single wall knot. , . ,, , „„„„ the standing part will prevent it jamming. Wall Crowned.—Form a single wall, and lay one of the ends, a, over Clove Hitch.—Pass the end a round a spar or rope and cross it over b, its theSingle knot; lay b over a, and c over b and through the bight of a; haul the standine uart; pass it round again and put the end a through the second bight. ends taut. See Knot, l.c., fig. 22. , ,, , , ,, This hitch is generally used at right angles to the object and is improved by Double Wall and Double Crown.—Form a single wall crowned; then let the adding a half-hitch with the end a round b. When pulled m a line witti the ends follow their own parts round until all the parts appear double ; put the spar it becomes simply two half-hitches. An illustration is given in Knot, ends down through the knot. A very excellent and generally used cableU Knot, l.c., fig. 23. ^ ^ ^ „ , , , ^ , DoubUBlaekwall Hitch (fig. 6).—Pass the end a twice round the hook and stopper. See Walker.—Unlay the end of a rope. Take the first strand round under the standing part b at the last cross. The ordinary BlackwaU hitch only theMatthew rope and through its own bight; the second strand the rope, through extends to the first cross at b, and is quickly formed by passing the hook ot the bight of the first, and through its own bight; theround third through all three a iigger through the bight of a rope so that the end may be jammed between bights. Haul all taut. An easily made and useful knot. Illustrations are it and the standing part, as from b to a. Used for setting up top-gallant rigging given in Knot, l.c., figs. 24 and 25. .... ., and similar light work when a slip is of little consequence. Inside Clinch (fig. 14).—The end is bent close round the standing till it Cat’s-vaw (fig 7).—Twist up two parts of a lanyard in opposite directions and forms a circle and a half, when it is securely seized at a, b, and c, thuspart making hook the tackle in the eyes i, i. A piece of wood should be placed between running eye; when taut round anything it jams the end. It is used for securinga the parts at g. A large lanyard should be clove-hitched round a large toggle hemp cables to anchors, the standing parts of topsail sheets, and for many and a strap passed round it below the toggle. ,, If the eye were formed outside the bight an outside, clinch Marling-Spike Hitch (fig. 8).—Lay the end a over c; fold the loop over on the other purposes. be made, depending entirely on the seizings, but more ready for slipping. standing part b ; then pass the marling-spike through, over both parts of the would Midshipman’s Hitch (fig. 15).—Take two round turns inside the bight, the bight and under the part b. Used for tightening each turn of a seizing. same half-hitch stop up thea end; half-hitch faVon as/vr.av,oiri tiandrepeated TTscd ;for hnokins tackleorforleta another temnorary purpose.be

Fig. 11.—Timber Hitch. Fisherman’s Bend (fig. 9).—Take two turns round a spar, then a half-hitch round the standing part and between the spar and the turns, lastly a halfhitch round the standing part. Studding-Sail Halyard Bend (fig. 10).—Similar to the above, except that the end is tucked under the first round turn ; this is more snug. A magnus hitch has two round turns and one on the other side of the standing part with the end through the bight. Timber Hitch (fig. 11).—Take the end a of a rope round a spar, then round the standing part b, then several times round its own part c, against the lay of the rope.

Fig. 14. Fig. 15. Fig. 12. Fig. 13. Fig. 14.—Inside Clinch. Fiq. 12.—Snaking. Fig. 15.—Midshipman’s Hitch. Fig. 13.—Garrick Bend. Snaking (fig. 12).—This consists of turns and crossings, the latter taken diagonally with a marling hitch each time. Used to keep wooldings and seizings in place. The same term is applied to lines between the backstays to keep a broken part from falling. Carrick Bend (fig. 13).—Lay the end of one hawser over its own part to form a bight as e', b; pass the end of another hawser up through that bight near b, going out over the first end at c, crossing under the first long part and over its end at d, then under both long parts, forming the loops, and above the first short part at b, terminating at the end e", in the opposite direction vertically and horizontally to the other end. The ends should be securely stopped to their respective standing parts, and also a stop put on the becket or extrenie end to prevent it catching a pipe or chock ; in that form this is the best quick means of uniting two large hawsers, since they cannot jam. When large hawsers have to work through small pipes, good security may be obtained either by passing ten or twelve taut racking turns with a suitable strand and securing each end to a standing part of the hawser, or by taking half as many round turns taut, crossing the ends between the hawsers over the seizing and reef-knotting the ends. This should be repeated in three places and the extreme ends well stopped. Connecting hawsers by bowline knots is very objectionable, as the bend is large and the knots jam. Sheet Bend.—Pass the end of one rope through the bight of another, round both parts of the other, and under its own standing part. Used for bending small sheets to the clews of sails, which present bights ready for the hitch. An ordinary net is composed of a series of sheet bends. See Knot, J.c., fig. 20. A weaver’s knot is made like a sheet bend. Single Wall Knot.—Unlay the end of a rope, and with the strand a form a

Fig. 18.—Slings. Fig. 16.—Turk’s Head. Fig. 17.—Spanish Windlass. Turk's Head (fig. 16).—With fine line (very dry) make a clove hitch round the rope; cross the bights twice, passing an end the reverse way (up or down) each time; then keeping the whole spread flat, let each end follow its own part round and round till it is too tight to receive any more. Used as an ornament variously on side-ropes and foot-ropes of jibbooms. It may also be made with three ends, two formed by the same piece of line secured through the rope and one single piece. Form with them a diamond knot; then each end crossed over its neighbour follows its own part as above. Spanish Windlass (fig. 17).—An iron bar and two marling-spikes are taken; two parts of a seizing are twisted like a cat’s-paw (fig. 7), passed round the bar, and hove round till sufficiently taut. In heaving shrouds together to form an eye two round turns are taken with a strand and the two ends hove upon. When a lever is placed between the parts of a long lashing or frapping and hove round, we have what is also called a Spanish windlass Slings (fig. 18).—This is simply the bight of a rope turned up over its own part; it is frequently made of chain, when a shackle (bow up) takes the place of the bight at s and another at y, connecting the two ends with the part which goes round the mast-head. Used to sling lower yards. For boat’s yards it should be a grummet with a thimble seized in at y. As the tendency of all yards is to cant forward with the weight of the sail, the part marked by an arrow should be the fore-side,—easily illustrated by a round ruler and a piece of twine.

Fig. 20. Fig. 21. Fig. 19. Fig. 21.—Turning in a Dead-Eye Fig. 19.—Sprit-Sail Sheet Knot. end up. Fig. 20.—Turning in a Dead-Eye Cutter Stay fashion. Svrit-Sail Sheet Knot (fig. 19).—This knot consists of a double wall and double crown made by the two ends, consequently with six strands,—with the ends turned down. Used formerly in the clews of sails, now as an excellent stopper, a lashing or shackle being placed at s, and a lanyard round the head at l. Turning in a Dead-Eye Cutter-Stay fashion (fig. 20).—A bend is made in the stay or shroud round its own part and hove together with a bar and strand ; two or three seizings diminishing in size (one round and one or two either round or flat) are hove on taut and snug, the end being at the side of the fellow nart The dead-eye is put in and the eye driven down with a commander Turning in a Dead-Eye end up (fig. 21).—The shroud is measured round the dead-eye and marked where a throat-seizing is hove on ; the dead-eye is then forced into its place, or it may be put in first. The end beyond a. is taken up taut and secured with a round seizing; higher still the end is soured by another seizing. As it is important that the lay should always be kept m the rope as much as possible, these eyes should be formed conformab y, either rmht-handed or left-handed. It is easily seen which way a rope would naturally kink by putting a little extra twist into it. A shroud whose dead-eye is turned in end up will bear a fairer strain, but is more dependent on the seizings ; the under turns of the throat are the first to break and the others the first to slip With the cutter-stay fashion the standing part of the shroud gives way under the nip of the eye. A rope will afford the greatest resistance to strain when secured round large thimbles with a straight end and a sufficient numbei of flat or racking seizings. To splice shrouds round dead-eyes is objectionable on account of opening the strands and admitting water, thus hastening decay. In small vessels, especially yachts, it is admissible on the score of neatness , m

592 SEAMANSHIP that case a round seizing is placed between the dead-eye and the splice. The rope, which, after being firmly secured, especially at what is to be the under dead-eyes should be in diameter 1J times the circumference of a hemp shroud part, are turned back over the first layer and seized down again, thus making and thrice that of wire; the lanyard should be half the nominal size of hemp shoulder; sometimes it is formed with ° and the same size as wire; thus, hemp-shroud 12 inches, wire 6 inches, dead- aparcelling only. In either case it is finished eye 18, lanyard 6 inches. by marling, followed by serving or grafting. Short Splice.—The most common description of splice is when a rope is The use is to prevent the Flemish eye in lengthened by another of the same size, or nearly so. Fig. 22 represents a splice the end of the stay from slipping up any of this kind : the strands farther. have been unlaid, married, Rolling Hitch (fig. 25).—Two round turns and passed through with are taken round a spar or large rope in the Fig. 25.—Bolling Hitch. the assistance of a marlingdirection in which it is to be hauled and spike, over one strand and one half-hitch on the other side of the hauling part. This is very useful, as it under the next, twice each can be put on and off quickly. way. The ends are then cut Round Seizing (fig. 26).—So named when the rope it secures does not cross off close. To render the r ^ IG oo 0r,„ ^ a t another and there are three sets of turns. The size of the seizing line is about splice neater the strands ^ ' Short Splice. one-sixth (nominal) that of the ropes to be shouid have been halved before turning them in a second time, the upper secured, varies according to the number half of each strand only being turned in ; then all are cut off smooth. Eve- of turns but be taken. An eye is spliced in' Unlay the strands and place them upon the same rope spread at the line to and the end rove through it, emsuch a distance as to give the size of the eye; enter the centre strand (unlaid) bracing both parts. If either part is to be • under- a strand of the rope (as above) and the other two in a similar manner on spread open, commence from that then respective sides of the first; taper each end and pass them through again. part; place tarred canvas farthest under the seizing; If neatness is desired, reduce the ends and pass them through once more ; cut pass the line round as many times off smooth and serve the part disturbed tightly with suitable hard line. Uses much slack) as it is intended to (with have , „ ,„.. too numerous to mention. Cut Splice.—Made in a similar manner to an eye- under-turns; and pass the end back through *la’ 'n!2&-—Kounct belzmgsplice, but of two pieces of rope, therefore with two splices. Used for mast- them all and through the eye. Secure the eye from rendering by the head pendants, jib-guys, breast backstays, and even odd shrouds, to keep the ends of its splice ; heave the turns on with a marling-spike (see fig.round 8), perhaps eps oithe rigging lower by one part. It is not so strong as two separate eyes. seven or nine; haul the end through taut; and commence again the riding Horse-Shoe Splice.—Made similar to the above, but one part much shorter than in the hollows of the first. If the end is not taken back through the eye the other, or another piece of rope is spliced across an eye, forming a horse- turns but pushed up between the last two turns (as is sometimes recommended), shoe with two long legs. Used for back-ropes on dolphin striker, backstays riders must be passed the opposite way in order to follow the direction (one on each side), and cutter’s runner pendants. Long Splice.—The strands the of the under-turns, which are always one more in number than the riders. must be unlaid about three times as much as for a short splice and married,— When riders are complete, the end is forced between the last lower turns care oeing taken to preserve the lay or shape of each. Unlay one of the strands and twothecross turns are taken, the end coming up where it went down, when an< ow U a wall knot made with the strands and the ends cut close ; or the end may f°y it, Pfirmly the va,cant space the other part, ^fitting into the ropewith tillthe onlycorresponding a few inchesstrand remain,of be taken onceisround shroud. Throat Seizing.—Two ropes or parts of ropes treat the other side in a similar manner. There will then appear two long are laid on each othertheparallel receive a seizing similar to that shown in strands m the centre and a long and a short one on each side. The splice is fig. 21,—that is, with upper andandriding, no cross turns. As the two parts practically divided into three distinct parts ; at each the strands are divided of rope are intended to turn up at right but to the direction in which they and the corresponding halves knotted (as shown on the top of fig. 24) and were secured, the seizing should be ofangles stouter and short, not exceedturned in twice. The half strand may, if desired, be still further reduced ing seven lower and six riding turns. The end isline better secured with a turn before the halves are turned in for the second time. This and all other splices round the standing part. Used for turning in dead-eyes variously. Flat should be well stretched and hammered into shape before the ends are cut off. Seizing.—Commenced similarly to the above, but it hasand neither riding nor The long splice alone is adapted to running ropes. cross turns. Shroud Knot (fig. 23).—Pass a stop at such distance from each end of the (fig. 27).—A running eye having been spliced round one part broken shroud as to afford sufficient length of strands, when it is unlaid, to ofRacking-Seizing the rope, the line is passed entirely round the other part, crossed back round form a single wall knot on each the first part, and so on for side after the parts have been ten to twenty turns accorde_ _ _ _ married; it will then appear as ing to the expected strain, represented in the figure, the every turn being hove as strands having been well tarred tight as possible, after and hove taut separately. The which round turns are part a provides the knot on the passed to fill the spaces at opposite side and the ends 5, b ; the back of each rope, by Fig. 23.—Shroud Knot. the part c provides the knot and the end a over both the ends d, d. After the knot has been well stretched the ends are tapered, taking parts into the hollow at 5, laid smoothly between the strands of the shroud, and firmly served over. This returning c, and going knot is used when shrouds or stays are broken. French Shroud Knot.—Marry over to d. atWhen it reaches Fig. 27. —Backing Seizing. the parts with a similar amount of end as before ; stop one set of strands taut e a turn may be taken up on the shroud (to keep the parts together); and turn the ends back on that rope only, the endround under it, and a half-hitch taken, which will form their own part, forming bights. Make a single wall knot with the other three a clove_hitch; knot therove end and cut it close. When the shrouds are wire strands round the said bights and shroud; haul the knot taut first and stretch is half the size of hemp) and the end turned up round a dead-eye of any the whole; then heave down the bights close: it will look like the ordinary (which wire-seizings are preferable. It appears very undesirable to have wire shroud knot. It is very liable to slip. If the ends by which the wall knot are kind, combined with plates or screws for setting it up, as in case of accident made after being hove were passed through the bights, it would make the rigging —such as that of the mast going over the side, a shot or collision breaking the knot stronger. The ends would be tapered and served. ironwork—the seamen are powerless. Flemish Eye (fig. 24).—Secure a spar or toggle twice the circumference of the Knot (figs. 28, 29).—The rope must be unlaid as far as the centre if rope intended to be rove through the eye; unlay the rope which is to form the theDiamond knot is required there, and the strands handled with great care to keep eye about three times its circumference, at the lay in them. Three bights are turned which part place a strong whipping. Point up as in fig. 28, and the end of a is taken the rope vertically under the eye, and bind over 6 and up the bight c. The end of 6 is it taut up by the core if it is four-stranded taken over c and up through a. The end rope, otherwise by a few yarns. While doing c is taken over a and through 6. When so, arrange six or twelve pieces of spun-yarn hauled taut and the strands are laid up at equal distances on the wood and exactly again it will appear as in fig. 29. Any halve the number of yarns that have been number of knots may be made on the same unlaid. If it is a small rope, select two or rope. They were used on man-ropes, the three yarns from each side near the centre ; foot-ropes on the jibboom, and similar cross them over the top at a; and half knot places, where it was necessary to give a them tightly. So continue till all are exgood hold for the hands or feet. Turk’s pended and drawn down tightly on the opheads are now generally used. Double Diaposite side to that from which they came, mond.—Made by the ends of a single diabeing thoroughly intermixed. Tie the pieces mond following their own part till the of spun-yarn which were placed under the knot is repeated. Used at the upper end eye tightly round various parts to keep the of a side rope as an ornamental stopper- Figs. 28, 29.—Diamond Knot. Fig. 24.—Flemish Eye. eye in shape when taken off the spar, till knot. they are replaced by turns of marline hove on as taut as possible, the Stropping-Blocks.—There are various modes of securing blocks to ropes ; the hitches forming a central line outside the eye. Heave on a good seizing of most is to splice an eye at the end of the rope a little longer than the spun-yarn close below the spar and another between six and twelve inches block simple pass a round Deiow the nrst; it may then be parcelled and served ; the eye is served over seizingand to keep in place; twice, and well tarred each time. As large ropes are composed of so many such is the caseitwith jibyams, a greater number must be knotted over the toggle each time ; a 4-inch pendants. As a general s ar rule, the parts of a strop W' ^ y hs, which would require 22 knottings of six each time; a 10-inch rope has 834 yarns, therefore, if ten are taken from each side every combined should possess ihail hithe ouyarns ^ twice number of hitches willmerely be required; sometimes only greater strength than the are that hitched, the others being passed over. The chief parts of the fall which act use of these eyes has been to form the collars of stays, the whole stay in each against it. The shell of . case having to be rove through it,—a very inconvenient device. It is almost an ordinary block should superseded for that purpose by a leg spliced in the stay and lashing eyes abaft be about three the the mast, for which it is commonly used at present. This eye is not always circumference oftimes the rope C£ G le sarae which is to reeve through • “i ™eye. Ropemaker’s hame, butEye,thewhich weight evidence is in names, favour isofformed callingbyit a i7i I lemish alsoofhas alternative as a 9-inch block for a taking out of a rope one strand longer by 6 inches or a foot than the required it, 3-inch rope; but small eye, then placing the ends of the two strands a similar distance below the dis- ropes require larger blocks turDance of the one strand, that is, at the size of the eye ; the single strand is in proportion, as a 4-inch leu back through the vacant space it left till it arrives at the neck of the eye, block for a 1-inch rope. with a similar length of spare end to the other two strands. They are all When the work to be done seized together, scraped, tapered, marled, and served. The principal merit is very important the is neatness. blocks are much , c,, FlG 3„„ ^ Mouse on a Stay.—Formed by turns of coarse spun-yam hove taut round the brace-blocks are larger; more ' ®‘ Giummet-Strop. stay, over parcelling at the requisite distance from the eye to form the collar ; than five times the nominal size of the brace. Leading-blocks and sheaves in assistance is given by a padding of short yams distributed equally round the racks are generally smaller than the blocks through which the ropes pass farther

593 SEAMANSHIP till the strain is brought on it. Wire rope cannot be so treated, and it is inaway which appears to be a mistake, as more power is lost by friction. A jurious to hemp rope that is large and stiff. clump-block should be double the nominal size of the rope. A single strop Knotting Yarns (fig. 33).—This operation becomes necessary when a commay be made by joining the ends of a rope of sufficient length to go round the paratively short piece of block and thimble by a common short splice, which rests on the crown of the junk is to be made into block (the opposite end to the thimble) and is stretched into place by a jigger ; spun-yarn, or large rope w =a ar \^V ’ P ticular the sum of the series l + 2r+3r2. . +(^-l)r«-2 Wr™ _i-nrn-l+ {n_l)rn _ drl-r' {l-rf ’ and we might in this way find the sum u0 + uxr... + unrn, 1+r + r2. , + rn~l = \——. where un is any rational and integral function of n. (iii.) But the harmonic series, 7. The expression for the sum u^ + Uy.. . + un of an inI+-i_ + _L_ , i definite number of terms will in many cases lead to the a a + b a + 25" ‘ a + (w-i)j’ sum of the infinite series u0 + ux...; but the theory of 1 ^oi say j1,+ 21 + 3 • • •+w1 j does , not admit of summation; infinite series requires to be considered separately. Often in dealing apparently with an infinite series uQ + u1+ ... there is no algebraical function of n which is equal to the we consider rather an indefinite than an infinite series, sum of the series. and are not in any wise really concerned with the sum of 4. If the general term be a given function un, and we the series or the question of its convergency: thus the can find vn a function of n such that vn+1 - vn = un, then equation we have u0 = vl- ux = v2- vx,u2 = v^~ v2,..un = vn+1-vn; ^1 + mx + —^ ~ 1-a;2 + . .) (l + wa + ^^W . and hence ^0 + zq + .. +un = — v0,—an expression for the required sum. This is in fact an application of = l + («+»>!+ Sv S1 < S2, S2 > S3,.. and Sn+i - Sn tends congeneral term un is given as a function of n. To fix the tinually to zero. Hence the sums >S'0, Sv S2, .. tend conideas the terms may be taken to be positive numerical tinually to a positive limit S in such wise that S0, S2, magnitudes, or say numbers continually diminishing to >S'4, . . . are each of them greater and Sv SA, S5, . . are zero; that is, un>un+i, and un is, moreover, such a function each of them less than S; and we thus have S as the sum of n that by taking n sufficiently large un can be made of the series. The series 1-^ + h — t+ •• will serve as z o 4 as small as we please. an example. The case just considered includes the apparForming the successive sums SQ = w0, S1 = u0 + u1, S2 = u{) + ul + u2, . . these sums $0, Sv S2... will be a series ently more general one where the series consists of alternate of continually increasing terms, and if they increase up groups of positive and negative terms respectively; the to a determinate finite limit S (that is, if there exists a terms of the same group may be united into a single term determinate numerical magnitude S such that by taking + vn, and the original series will have a sum only if the n sufficiently large we can make S - Sn as small as we resulting series v0 - v1 + v2... has a sum, that is, if the please) S is said to be the sum of the infinite series. To positive partial sums v0, vv v2,. . decrease down to zero. The terms at the beginning of a series may be irregular show that we can actually have an infinite series with a as regards their signs ; but, when this is so, all the terms in given sum S, take u0 any number less than S, then S -u0 •is positive, and taking ^ any numerical magnitude less question (assumed to be finite in number) may be united than S - u0, then S ~u{)-ux is positive. And going on into a single term, which is of course finite, and instead of continually in this manner we obtain a series + ux the original series only the remaining terms of the series + u2+ . . . such that for any value of n however large need be considered. Every infinite series whatever is thus S— .. —un\s positive; and if as n increases this substantially included under the two forms,—terms all posidifference diminishes to zero, we have u() + ul + u2+ . .. , tive and terms alternately positive and negative. 11. In brief, the sum (if any) of the infinite series —an infinite series having S for its sum. Thus, if A =2, + u1 + u2+ .. is the finite limit (if any) of the succesand we take «0( ± (1 - e) ) as e diminishes to zero ; 1 - ^ ^ ^ + . . is convergent and has a calcul- but unless the series be convergent for the value z = ± 1 it cannot for this value have a sum, nor consequently a able sum, but it can be shown without difficulty that sum = ( ± 1). For instance, let the series be z + — + — , its square, viz., the series + W3 is divergent. which for values of z between the limits ± 1 (both 21. The case where the terms of a series are imaginary limits excluded) = — log(l - z). For z = + 1 the series is comes under that where they are real. Suppose the general divergent and has no sum; but for z = 1 - e as e dimiterm is pn + qf, then the series will have a sum, or will 2 be convergent, if and only if the series having for its general nishes to zero we have — log e and (1 — e) + ^(1 — e) ..., term pn and the series having for its general term qn be each positive and increasing without limit; for z = - 1 each convergent; then the sum = sum of first series + i . is convergent, and we have at into sum of second series. The notion of absolute conver- the series £+o XXL — 86

S E R- -S E R “ A serjeant of the law, wary and wise, 1 ihe limit log 2 = 1-1 + !---... As a second example, That often had y-been at the parvis.” consider the series 1 +z + z‘2. ., -wliicli for values of 2 be- Serjeants (except king’s serjeants) were created by writ of summons under the great seal, and wore a special and distween the limits ±1 (both limits excluded) — For tinctive dress, the chief feature of which was the coif, a z= +1, the series is divergent and has no sum; but for white lawn or silk skull-cap, now represented by a round piece of black silk at the top of the wig. They enjoyed ^ = 1 - e as e diminishes to zero we have - and 1 + (1 - e) a social precedence after knights bachelors and before + (1 - e)2 . . , each positive and increasing without limit; companions of the Bath and other orders. In this they for 2 = -1 the series is divergent and has no sum; differed from queen’s counsel, who have simply professional as distinguished from social rank. Socially the serjeant the equation ^ ^ ^ = 1 - (1 - e) + (1 - e)2 .. . is true for any had precedence, professionally the queen’s counsel, unless positive value of e however small, but not for the value indeed, as was often the case, a patent of precedence was granted to the former. Till past the middle of the 19th e = 0. century, a limited number of the serjeants were called The following memoirs and works may be consulted :—Cauchy, “king’s (queen’s) serjeants.” They were appointed by Cours d’Analyse de Vlicolc Polytechnique—part i., Analyse Algibrique, 8vo, Paris, 1821; Abel, “ Untersuchungen iiber die patent and summoned to parliament. Until 1814 the two Reihe 1 + yls + a;2 . . ,” in Crelle’s Journ. de Math., vol. i. senior king’s serjeants had precedence of even the attorneygeneral and solicitor-general. It was the custom for (1826) pp. 211-239, and (Euvres (French trans.), vol. i.; De Morgan, serjeants on their appointment to give gold rings with Treatise on the Differential and Integral Calculus, 8vo, London, mottoes to their colleagues. Down to 1845 the order en1842 ; Id., “On Divergent Series and various Points of Analysis connected with them” (1844), in Camb. Phil. Trans., vol. viii. joyed a very valuable monopoly of practice. The serjeants (1849), and other memoirs in Camb. Phil. Trans. ; Bertrand, had the right of exclusive audience as leading counsel in “ Regies sur la Convergence des Series,” in Liouv. Journ. de Math., the Court of Common Pleas. In 1834 a royal mandate vol. vii. (1842) pp. 35-54; Cayley, “On the Inverse Elliptic of William IY. attempted to abolish this privilege, but in Functions,” Camb. Math. Journ., vol. iv. (1845) pp. 257-277, and “ Memoire sur les Fonctions doublement periodiques,” in Liouv. 1840 the judicial committee of the privy council declared Journ. de Math., vol. x. (1845) pp. 385-420 (as to the boundary the mandate informal and invalid. The monopoly was for a doubly infinite series); Riemann, “Ueber die Darstellbarkeit finally abolished in 1845 by Act of Parliament (9 and 10 einer Function durch eine trigonometrische Reihe,” in Gbtt. Abh., Viet. c. 54). For at least 600 years the judges of the vol. xiii. (1854), and WerJce, Leipsic, 1876, pp. 213-253 (contains an account of preceding researches by Euler, D’Alembert, Fourier, superior courts of common law were always serjeants. If Lejeune-Dirichlet, &c.); Catalan, Traite EUmentaire des Series, a judge was appointed who was not a serjeant at the time 8vo, Paris, 1860 ; Boole, Treatise on the Calculus of Finite Differ- of his appointment, he was formally created one immediences, 2d ed. by Moulton, 8vo, London, 1872. (A. C.) ately before his elevation to the bench. By the Judicature SEEINGAPATAM, formerly the capital of Mysore, Act, 1873, sect. 8, no person appointed a judge of the High India, is situated on an island of the same name in the Court of Justice or the Court of Appeal is required to take KAveri (Cauvery) river in 12° 25' 33" N. lat. and 76° 43' or have taken the degree of serjeant-at-law. The serjeants 8' E. long. It is chiefly noted for its fortress, which had their own inn of court down to a very recent date. figured so prominently in Indian history at the close of the Serjeants’ Inn was formerly in two divisions, one in Fleet 18th century. This formidable stronghold of Tipu Sultan Street and one in Chancery Lane. In 1758 the members thrice sustained a siege from the British, but it was finally of the former joined the latter. In 1877 the latter was stormed in 1799 ; and after its capture the island was dissolved, the inn sold to one of the members, and the ceded to the British. The island of Seringapatam is about proceeds divided among the existing serjeants. The extinc3 miles in length from east to west and 1 in breadth, tion of the order is now only a question of time, no serjeant and yields valuable crops of rice and sugar-cane. The having been created since 1868. It is, however, still withfort occupies the western side of the island, immediately in the discretion of the crown to create fresh serjeants if overhanging the river. Seringapatam is said to have been ever it should be deemed advisable to do so. In Ireland founded in 1454 by a descendant of one of the local the order still exists. The three serjeants at the Irish bar officers appointed by Eanninuja, the Yishnuite apostle, have precedence next after the law officers of the crown. See Serviens ad Legem, by Mr Serjeant Manning; The Order of who named it the city of Sri Ranga or Vishnu. At the Coif, by Mr. Serjeant Pulling. eastern or lower end of the island is the Lai Bagh or “ red the SERJEANTY, a form of tenure. See Real Estate. garden,” containing the mausoleum built by Tipu Sultan SERPENT, a musical instrument. See Ophicleide, for his father Hyder Ali, in which Tipu himself also lies. vol. xvii. p. 778. In 1881 the population of the town of Seringapatam was SERPENTINE, a compact crypto-crystalline or fibrous 11,734 (males 5579, females 6155). substance, occurring in rock-masses which comSERJEANT-AT-LAW is the name given to one who mineral monly present dark green colours, variously mottled and holds an ancient and honourable rank at the English or fancifully compared to the markings on certain serpents, Irish bar. The word is a corruption of serviens ad legem, whence the name “serpentine.” For a like reason it is someas distinguished from apprenticius ad legem, or utter times called “ ophite,” while Italian sculptors have termed barrister, who probably originally obtained his knowledge it “ranocchia,” in allusion to its resemblance to the skin of a of law by serving a kind of apprenticeship to a serjeant. frog. In consequence of its variegated tints, the stone is When the order of serjeants was instituted is unknown, frequently cut and polished for ornamental purposes, and but it certainly dates from a very remote period. The is hence popularly called a marble. From true marble, authority of serjeant counters or counters {i.e., pleaders, however, it differs in chemical composition, being essenthose who frame counts in pleading) is treated in the tially a hydrated silicate of magnesium, usually associated Mirror of Justices, and they are named in 3 Edw. I. c. 29. with certain metallic oxides (such as those of iron, nickel, They may possibly have been the representatives of the and chromium) which confer upon the stone its characterconteurs mentioned in the great customary of Normandy. istic tints. In some localities serpentine is found in The position of the serjeant had become assured when 1 Chaucer wrote. One of the characters in the Canterbury The parvis was the porch of old St Paul’s, where each serjeant Tales is had his particular pillar at which he held interviews with his clients. 682

S E R- -S E R masses which are evidently intrusive among other rocks, while elsewhere it occurs interbedded, usually in lenticular masses, associated with gneiss and crystalline schists. It is noteworthy that the serpentine is frequently crushed and brecciated, exhibiting polished slip-faces which are sometimes striated. The surface of an exposed mass of serpentine is generally barren, whence bosses of the rock are known in the Alps as “monts morts.” The origin of serpentine has been a subject of much dispute. It was pointed out by Sandberger and Tschermak that the alteration of olivine may give rise to this product, and pseudomorphs of serpentine after chrysolite are well known to mineralogists. Professor Bonney and many other geologists regard serpentine as being generally an altered eruptive rock, due to the hydration of peridotites, such as Iherzolite; probably it may also result from the decomposition of olivine-gabbro and other rocks rich in magnesian silicates. Augite and hornblende may become altered to serpentine. On the contrary, Dr Sterry Hunt and certain other chemical geologists believe that serpentine has generally been formed as an aqueous sediment, probably precipitated by the reaction of sulphate or chloride of magnesium upon the silicate of lime or alkaline silicates derived from the disintegration of crystalline rocks and found in solution in many natural waters. Serpentine is a rock of rather limited occurrence. Its principal localities in England are Cornwall, especially in the Lizard district, where it occupies a considerable area. The famous scenery of Kynance Cove owes much of its beauty to the vivid colours and brilliant surface of the serpentine. The rock is worked into vases, columns, mantelpieces, &c., and of late years has been used to a limited extent for the decoration of shop-fronts in London. The beauty of the Lizard rock is heightened by the white veins of steatite which traverse it, and in some cases by disseminated crystals of bastite, which glisten with metallic lustre. Much of the Lizard serpentine is of rich red and brown colour. Green serpentine is found near Holyhead in Anglesea. A singularly beautiful variety of mottled red and green tints, with veins of steatite, occurs near Portsoy in Banffshire, Scotland. It is also found with chrome iron ore in the Shetland Islands. The green serpentine of Galway occurs in intimate association with crystalline limestone, forming the rock known as “ophicalcite” or “serpentinous marble.” Such an association is by no means uncommon; but, though the beauty of the serpentine may thus be enhanced, its durability seems to be impaired. On exposure to the weather the carbonate of calcium decomposes more readily than the silicate of magnesium, and hence the stone soon presents a rough eroded surface. The Galway rock comes into the market under the name of “Irish green” or “Connemara marble.” Ophicalcites also occur in Ayrshire, Scotland, and in various parts of the Scottish Highlands; and the green pebbles found in Iona belong to this type of rock. On the Continent serpentines are largely worked at Zoblitz and at Waldheim in Saxony. The famous rock of Zoblitz, mentioned by Agricola, is known to have been wrought for between three and four centuries, and is still extensively explored by open quarries and by subterranean galleries. The rock usually presents various shades M green and brown, red being very rare; but its most interesting feature is the frequent presence of pyrope, or Bohemian garnet, which occurs scattered through the rock in dark red grains, that decompose on weathering to a green chloritic product. Very little of the Zoblitz serpentine comes to England, but it is common throughout Germany, and a good deal is sent to Russia and even to the United States. It has been used in the construction of the mausoleum of Prince Albert at Erogmore, and for Abraham Lincoln’s monument at Springfield, Illinois. The best known

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of the Italian serpentines is the “ verde Prato,” which has been quarried for centuries at Monteferrato, near Prato in Tuscany. According to Capacci this serpentine is probably of Eocene age. It has been largely used as a decorative stone in ecclesiastical architecture in Prato, Pistoia, and Florence. A good deal of serpentine is found near Genoa and Levanto. The “ verde di Pegli ” is obtained from Pegli, not far from Genoa, while the “ verde di Genova ” is a brecciated serpentinous limestone from Pietra Lavezzara. Serpentine also occurs at various other points of the Apennines, in Elba, and in Corsica. The term “ ophiolite ” has been vaguely used to include not only serpentines but many of the rocks associated with the Italian serpentines. In like manner the term “gabbro,” derived from a locality near Leghorn, was at one time used as a general name for serpentine and its associates, though now usually restricted to a rock composed essentially of plagioclase and diallage. It is notable that this true gabbro is often found in company with serpentine. Serpentine is found in numerous localities in the Alps and in France. An elegant variety is quarried at Epinal in the Yosges, and a beautiful ophicalcite is worked at St Veran and Maurins, in the department of Hautes-Alpes. The serpentine of the Ronda Mountains in Spain has been described by Mr J. Macpherson. In North America serpentine is so extensively distributed that only a few localities can be mentioned. It is found at Syracuse in New York; on Manhattan and Staten Islands; at Hoboken in New Jersey; at Newport, Rhode Island; at Newburyport, Massachusetts; at Westchester, Chester county, and at Texas, Lancaster county, in Pennsylvania. It also occurs between Clear Lake and New Idrea in California. A fine ophicalcite has been obtained from near Milford and New Haven in Connecticut, and a beautiful variety has been worked at Port Henry, Essex county, New York (Dana). The Canadian eozoon occurs in a serpentinous limestone. See Geology, vol. x. pp. 228, 232; Marble, vol. xv. p. 528 ; and Mineralogy, vol. xvi. p. 414. The literature of the Italian and Saxon serpentines is rather voluminous. Of recent English writings on serpentine reference may be made to Bonney, in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., London, xxxiii. p. 884, xxxiv. p. 769, xxxvii. p. 40, xxxix. p. 21, and in Geol. Mag., [2] vi. p. 362, [3] i. p. 406 ; and to Collins, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xl. p. 458, and Geol. Mag., [3] ii. p. 298. Sterry Hunt has written an elaborate paper in Froc. Roy. Soc. Canada, 1883, sect. iv. pp. 165-215. See also Teall, British Petrography, 1886, and Becker, in Amer. Journ. of Science, May 1886. (F. W. R*.) SERPENTS. See Snakes. SERPUKHOFF, a district town of Russia, in the government of Moscow, 61 miles south of the city of Moscow, with which it is connected by rail. Built on high cliffs on both banks of the river Nara, 3 miles above its junction with the Oka, Serpukhoff has of late become an important manufacturing and commercial town. The aggregate production of its manufactories (cotton and woollen stuffs, paper, leather), which employ about 4000 hands, in 1880 was valued at about £300,000. The surrounding district has several large cotton and woollen factories, with a yearly output worth about £1,000,000. Petty trades are also much developed in the neighbourhood,—textile fabrics, furniture, and earthenware and porcelain being produced by the peasantry. The manufactured goods of Serpukhoff are sent—mostly by rail—to the fairs of NijniNovgorod and the Ukraine, while large amounts of grain, hemp, and timber, brought from the east on the Oka, are discharged at Serpukhoff and sent on to Moscow and St Petersburg. The goods traffic by rail and river showed in 1880 an aggregate of 5,400,000 cwts. (exclusive of timber floated down the Oka). Notwithstanding its recent prosperity and the sums bequeathed to the municipality by wealthy merchants, Serpukhoff improves but slowly. The cathedral (1380) was rebuilt in the 18th century; of

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the old fortress, situated on a promontory formed by a bend enthusiasm of rude tribes, and we can well understand of the Kara, a few heaps of stones are the only remains. how the famous white fawn, which was his constant comThe population in 1884 was 22,420. panion, may have promoted his popularity. For six years Serpukhoff is one of the oldest towns of the principality of he may be said to have really ruled Spain. In 77 he was Moscow; it is mentioned in the will of Ivan Daislovich (1328), joined by Perpenna, one of the officers of Lepidus, from at which time it was a nearly independent principality under the Rome, with a following of Roman nobles, and in the same protectorate of Moscow. Its fortress, protecting Moscow on the south, was often attacked by the Tatars ; Toktamish plundered it year the great Pompey, then quite a young man and merely in 1382, and the Lithuanian prince Svidrigaito in 1410. In 1556 a knight, was sent by the senate to take the command in the town was strongly fortified, so that fifteen years later it was able Spain and with Metellus to crush Sertorius. The war was to resist the Mongol invasion. Its commercial importance dates waged with varying success, but on the whole Sertorius from the 18th century. proved himself more than a match for his adversaries SEKTORIUS, Quintus. The life and career of the utterly defeating their united forces on one occasion near Roman Sertorius, a man of remarkable genius both as a Saguntum. . Pompey wrote to Rome for reinforcements, general and as a statesman, may be said to be comprised without which, he said, he and Metellus would be driven between the years 105 and 72 b.c., a period of civil war out of Spain. Rome’s position was very critical, the more and revolution in the Roman world, when every man of so as Sertorius was in league with the pirates in the Mediany mark had to be an adherent either of Sulla or of terranean^ was negotiating with the formidable Mithradates, Marius. Sertorius, who came from a little Sabine village and was in communication with the insurgent slaves in under the Apennines and was a self-made man, attached Italy. But owing to jealousies among the Roman officers himself to the party of the latter, and served under him who served under him and the Spaniards of higher rank in 102 b.c. at the great battle of Aquae Sextke (Aix), in he could not maintain his position, and his influence over which the Teutones were decisively defeated. Three years the native tribes slipped away from him, though he won vicbefore he had witnessed the rout of a Roman army by the tories to the last. In 72 he was assassinated at a banquet, Cimbri on the Rhone. In 97 he was serving in Spain and Perpenna, it seems, being the chief instigator of the deed! thus had a good opportunity of making himself acquainted What we know of Sertorius is mainly drawn from Plutarch’s with the country with which his fame is chiefly associated. Lives, from Appian, and from the fragments of Sallust. There is In 91 he was quaestor in Cisalpine Gaul, and on his return a good life of him by G. Long in Smith’s Class. DicU SERVANT. See Master and Servant. to Rome he met with such a hearty welcome that he would SERVETUS, Michael, or Miguel Serveto (1511-1553), have been elected to the tribuneship but for the decided 1 opposition of Sulla. He now declared himself for Marius physician and polemic, was born in 1511 at Tudela in and the democratic party, though of Marius himself as a Navarre (according to his Vienne deposition), his father man he had the worst opinion. He must have been a con- being Hernando Villanueva, a notary of good family in senting party to those hideous massacres of Marius and Aragon. His surname is given by himself as Serveto in Cinna in 87, though he seems to have done what he could his earliest works, “ per Michaelem Serueto, alias Reues.” writing to mitigate their horrors by putting a stop to the outrages Later he Latinized it into Servetus, and even when 2 perpetrated by the scum of Marius’s soldiery. On Sulla’s in French (1553) he signs “Michel Seruetus.” It is not return from the East and the war with Mithradates in 83, certain that he was related to his contemporary Andres Sertorius left Rome for Spain, where he represented the Serveto of Aninon, the Bologna jurist; but it is probable Marian or democratic party, but, it would appear, without that he was of the same family as the Spanish ecclesiastic receiving any definite commission or appointment. Here Marco Antonio Serveto de Reves (d. 1598), born at Villahe passed the remainder of his life, with the exception nueva de Sigena in the diocese of Huesca (Latassa, Biblioof some cruises in the Mediterranean in conjunction with teca Nueva, 1798, i. 609). Servetus, who at Geneva makes Cilician pirates, and of a campaign in Mauretania, in which “ Villeneufve ” his birthplace, fixes it in the adjoining diohe defeated one of Sulla’s generals and captured Tingis cese of Lerida, in which there are three villages named (Tangier). This success recommended him to the Spaniards, Vilanova. Having apparently had his early training at the more particularly to the Lusitanian tribes in the west, whom university of Saragossa, he was sent by his father to study Roman generals and governors of Sulla’s party had plun- law at Toulouse, where he first became acquainted with the dered and oppressed. Brave and kindly and gifted with Bible (1528). From 1525 he had found a patron in Juan a rough telling eloquence, Sertorius was just the man to de Quintana (d. 1534), a Franciscan promoted in 1530 to impress Spaniards favourably, and the native militia, which be confessor to Charles V. In the train of Quintana he he organized, spoke of him as the “new Hannibal.” Many witnessed at Bologna the coronation of Charles in February Roman refugees and deserters joined him, and with these 1530, visited Augsburg, and perhaps saw Luther at Coburg. and his Spanish volunteers he completely defeated one of The spectacle of the adoration of the pope at Bologna had Sulla’s generals and drove Metellus, who had been specially strongly impressed his mind in an anti-papal direction. sent against him from Rome, out of Lusitania, or Further He left Quintana, and, after visiting Lyons and Geneva, Spain as the Romans called it. Sertorius owed much of repaired to GEcolampadius at Basel, whence he pushed on his success to his statesmanlike ability, and it seems that to Bucer and Capito at Strasburg. A crude, but very he aspired to be in Spain what the great Agricola after- original and earnest, theological essay, De Trinitatis Erroriwards was in Britain. His object was to build up a stable bus, printed at Hagenau in 1531, attracted considerable government in the country with the consent and co-opera- attention; Melanchthon writes “ Servetum multum lego.” tion of the people, whom he wished to civilize after the It was followed in 1532 by a revised presentation of its Latin model. He established a senate of 300 members, argument. We next find Servetus at Lyons, in 1535, as drawn from Roman emigrants, with probably a sprinkling an editor of scientific works for the printing firm of Trechsel, of the best Spaniards. For the children of the chief native under the name of Michel de Villeneufve or Michael Villafamilies he provided a school at Osca (Huesca), where they novanus, which he used without interruption till the year 1 received a Roman education and even adopted the dress This date rests upon his own testimony as to his age (both at of Roman youths. Strict and severe as he was with his Vienne and Geneva) and that of Calvin. An isolated passage of his Geneva testimony may be adduced in support of 1509. soldiers, he was particularly considerate to the people 2 The form “ Servet ” first appears in a letter of (Ecolampadius to the generally and made their burdens as light as possible. It senate of Basel (1531), and is never used by himself. “Servede” is seems clear that he had a peculiar gift for evoking the an imaginary form.

S E Pt V E T U S of his death. Here he found a friend in Dr Symphorien Champier (Campegius) (1472-1539), whose profession he resolved to follow. Accordingly he went (1536) to Paris, where he studied medicine under Johann Gunther, Jacques Dubois, and Jean Fernel. It was in 1536, when Calvin was on a hurried and final visit to France, that he first met Servetus at Paris, and, as he himself says, proposed to set him right in theological matters.1 As assistant to Gunther, Servetus succeeded the famous anatomist Vesalius ; Gunther, who pays the highest tribute to his general culture, describes him as specially skilled in dissection and “ vix ulli secundus ” in knowledge of Galen. He graduated in arts and asserts that he also graduated in medicine, published a set of lectures on syrups (the most popular of his works), lectured on geometry and astrology, and defended by counsel a suit brought against him (March 1538) by the medical faculty on the ground of his astrological lectures. In June 1538 we find him at the university of Louvain (where he was inscribed on the roll of students as Michael Villanova on 14th December 1537), studying theology and Hebrew, explaining to his father (then resident at San Gil) his removal from Paris, early in September 1537, as a consequence of the death (8th August) of his master (el senor mi maestro), and proposing to return to Paris as soon as peace wras proclaimed. After this he practised medicine for a short time at Avignon, and for a longer period at Charlieu (where he contemplated marriage, but was deterred by a physical impediment). In September 1540 he entered himself for further study in the medical school at Montpellier. In 1541 he resumed editorial work for the Lyons booksellers, to whose neighbourhood he had returned. Among the attendants upon his Paris lectures had been a distinguished ecclesiastic, Pierre Paulmier, since 1528 archbishop of Vienne. Paulmier invited Servetus to Vienne as his confidential physician. He acted in this capacity for twelve years (1541-53), and made money. Outwardly he conformed to Roman Catholic worship ; in private he pursued his theological speculations. It is probable that in 1541 he had been rebaptized. He opened a correspondence with Calvin, and late in 1545, or very early in 1546, he forwarded to Calvin the manuscript of a revised and enlarged edition of his theological tracts, and expressed a wish to visit him at Geneva. Calvin replied on 23d February 1546, in a letter which is lost, but in which, he says, he expressed himself “plus durement que ma coustume ne porte.” On the same day he wrote to Guillaume Farel, “ si venerit, modo valeat mea autoritas, vivum exire nunquam patiar,” and to Pierre Viret in the same terms. Servetus had fair warning that if he went to Geneva it was at his peril. In his letter to Abel Pouppin (in or about 1547), after stating that he had failed to recover his manuscript from Calvin, he says, “ mihi ob earn rem moriendum esse certo scio.” The volume of theological tracts, again recast, was declined by a Basel publisher in April 1552, but an edition of 1000 copies was secretly printed at Vienne. It was finished on 3d January 1553; the bulk of the impression was privately consigned to Lyons and Frankfort, for the Easter market. But on 26 th February a letter, enclosing a sheet of the printed book, and revealing the secret of its authorship, was written from Geneva by Guillaume H. C. de Trye, formerly echevin of Lyons, to his cousin Antoine Arneys in that city. This letter bears no sign of dictation by Calvin; the history of De Trye shows that it may have been instigated in part by personal ill-feeling towards the Lyons booksellers. But Calvin furnished (reluctantly, according to De Trye) the samples of Servetus's handwriting enclosed in a subsequent letter, for the express purpose of securing his conviction. 1 Beza incorrectly makes Servetus the challenger and the date 1534.

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The inquisitor-general at Lyons, Matthieu Cry, set to work on 12th March; Servetus was interrogated on 16th March and arrested on 4th April. Under examination his defence was that, in correspondence with Calvin, he had assumed the character of Servetus for purposes of discussion. At 4 a.m. on 7th April he escaped from his prison, evidently by connivance. He took the road for Spain, but turned back in fear of arrest. How he spent the next four months is not known; Calvin believed he was wandering in Italy; the idea that he lay concealed in Geneva was first started by Spon. On Saturday 12th August he rode into Louyset, a village on the French side of Geneva. Next morning he walked into Geneva, and ordered a boat, to take him towards Zurich on his way for Naples. He was recognized that day at church and immediately arrested. The process against him lasted from 14th August to 26th October, when sentence “estre brusle tout vyfz ” was passed, and carried out next day at Champel (27th October 1553). Calvin would have had him beheaded. Meanwhile the civil tribunal at Vienne had ordered (17th June) that he be fined and burned alive; the sentence of the ecclesiastical tribunal at Vienne was delayed till 23d December. Jacques Charmier, a priest in Servetus’s confidence, was condemned to three years’ imprisonment at Vienne. The life of Servetus is full of puzzles ; his writings give the impression not only of quick genius but also of transparent sincerity; they throw, however, little light on the mysterious parts of his story. Don Pedro Gonzalez de Velasco (see his Miguel Servet, 1880) has placed a statue of Servetus in the porch of the Instituto Antropologico at Madrid. The opinions of Servetus, marked by strong individuality, are not easily described in the terms of any current system. His anabaptism, with his denial of the tripersonality of the Godhead and of the eternity of the Son, made his views abhorrent to Catholics and Protestants alike; while his intense Biblicism, his passionate devotion to the person of Christ, and the essentially Christocentric character of his view of the universe give him an almost unique place in the history of religious thought. He is sometimes classed with the Arians ; but he endorses in his own way the homoousian formula, and speaks contemptuously of Arius as “Christ! glorias incapacissimus. ” He has had many critics, some apologists (e.g., Postel and Lincurius), and few followers. The fifteen condemnatory clauses, introducing the sentence of Servetus at Geneva, set forth in detail that he had been found guilty of heresies, expressed in blasphemous language, against the true foundation of the Christian religion. It is curious that one instance of his injurious language is his employment of the term “ trinitaires ” to denote “ ceux qui croyent en la Trinite.” No law, current in Geneva, has ever been adduced as enacting the capital sentence. Claude Rigot, the procureur-general, examined Servetus with a view to show that his legal education must have familiarized him with the provisions of the code of Justinian to this effect; but in 1535 all the old laws on the subject of religion had been set aside at Geneva ; the only civil penalty for religion, retained by the edicts of 1543, was banishment. The Swiss churches, while agreeing to condemn Servetus, give no hint of capital punishment in their letters of advice. The extinct law seems to have been arbitrarily revived for the occasion. A valuable controversy followed, on the question of executing heretics, in which Beza (for), Mino Celsi (against), and several caustic anonymous writers took part. The works of Servetus are not so rare as is often supposed, but the most common are his earliest, in which he approaches nearer to the position afterwards taken by F. Socinus than he does in his more matured publications. The following is an enumeration of them in the order of their appearance. (1) De Trinitatis Erroribus Libri Septem, 1531,16mo. (2) Dialogorum de Trinitate Libri Duo, 1532, 16mo; four chapters are added on justification and kindred topics. These two books have been twice reprinted and manuscript copies are common ; a Dutch version, by Reynier Telle, was published in 1620. (3) Claudii Ptolomsei Alexandrini Geographic^ Enarrationis Libri Octo: ex Bilibaldi Pirckheymeri translatione, sed ad Grseca ct prisca exemplaria a Michaele Villanovano jam primum recogniti. Adjecta insuper ab eodem scholia, &c., Lyons, (Melchior & Caspar Trechsel), 1535, fob ; 2d ed., Lyons (Hugo a Porta), 1541, i.e., 1542; printed by Caspar Trechsel at Vienne, fob ; on this work Tollin founds his high estimate of Servetus as a comparative geographer; the passage incriminated on his trial as attacking the authority of Moses is an extract from Lorenz Friese,

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(4) Brevissima Apologia pro Symphoriano Cartipcgio in Leonardum Fuchsium, 1536, 12mo ; no extant copy is known ; Tollin lias reprinted an extract from it. (5) Syruporum Universa Ratio, kc., Paris, 1537, 16mo; there were four subsequent editions, the last being Venice, 1548 (six lectures on digestion, the composition and use of syrups being treated in the fifth lecture). (6) In quondam Modicum Apologetica Disceptatio pro Astrologia, Paris, 1538, 16mo ; reprinted, Berlin, 1880 ; the medicus is Jean Tagault, who had interrupted the lectures of Servetus on astronomy, under which he included meteorology. (7) Biblia Sacra ex Santis Pagnini Tralatione . . . recognita, et scholiis illustrata, kc., Lyons (Hugo a Porta), 1542, fob, remarkable for its theory of prophecy, explained in the preface and illustrated in the notes. (8) D’Artigny says that Servetus “fit les argumens” to a Spanish version of the Summa of Aquinas ; but nothing is known of this or of the “ divers traites de grammaire ” which he translated from Latin into Spanish. (9) Christianismi Restitutio, kc., 1553, 8vo (perfect copies in Vienna and Paris, an imperfect copy in Edinburgh), partly reprinted, London, 1723; 4to (copies in London and Paris), reprinted 1790 ; 8vo, by Rau at Nuremberg for De Murr, from the Vienna copy ; manuscript copies are rare ; the Paris library has a manuscript copy of an earlier recension of several books, including the oftenquoted description of the pulmonary circulation. This work is often called anonymous, but the initials M. S. V. are given at the end and the full name at p. 199 ; the volume is not a single treatise but an assemblage of theological tracts written in a nervous and epigrammatic style and with great command of very various learning ; the Apologia addressed to Melanchthon, with which it concludes, is in the writer’s best manner. Two treatises, Desiderius {ante 1542) and De Tribus Impostoribus (1598), have been erroneously assigned to Servetus. Of his few remaining letters most will be found in Mosheim. The literature relating to Servetus is very large, but the following are some of the most important pieces. Calvin’s Defensio Orthodoxee Fidei, &c., 1554, 4to (also in French, Declaration pour maintenir, &c., 16mo, same date), is the source of many prevalent misconceptions respecting the opinions of Servetus and his attitude on his trial. De la Roche’s Historical Account, the first Republican party was organized in 1855-56, he went into kindTfeff —^ name d ab Ve 18 Sti11 treated b m ° y collecting it 1 it natural y for it was to him only an anti-slavery Whig in Wh Se contents are party, and his pre-eminent ability made him at once ite either dadv a 1, i °er 1. ntcrvaIs Ifc removed by carts therefore forms no 1 ° ;p . 1 recognized leader In the Republican convention of 1860 part of t f he was the leading candidate for the nomination for sCent teit^rt1rd SeWa86 Whi0h the °tte president, and it was only by a sudden union of all the I™ “ “S*?14™1 P“»4 of Ch,^ elements, of opposition to him that the nomination was viBwthrmortvZSr* c the mnQf p e, and fiom a hygienic point of view of excreuiia y given to Abraham Lincoln, whose name was then Ser US e ement f Sewa e excrete dPPr ° ’r ° S ' Even healthy PO hardly known outside of Illinois. It has been an almost f uducedS an f’.lf k.ept for a short time after they sewage' invariable rule that American presidents have found their ol. pro > are clearly seen nowofthan fy> they were then. In spite of more them all the estimate the va ue of his work must be very high, if we consider the chances m favour of foreign intervention at some time during a four years war, and his unbroken success in inculcating on other Governments the propriety and wisdom of neutrality Much of this success was due to circumstances which he did not create, to his ability to rely solidly on the cordial friendship of the “plain people” (to use Lincolns common phrase) of Great Britain and France, and particularly to the change of policy induced by the emancipation proclamations of 1862-63; but much is stm left to, the credit of the secretary, whose zeal, acuteness, and efficiency brought the ship safely through the intricacies of international relations while the crew were putting out the fire in her hold. In the process of reconstruction which immediately followed the war

C SUI e) h pipeS; ifc ma be by mfxW mixture with finally, it may be bv •Kdry ’earthl or ashes;°r or, J defeated d Sewe o?I?l rrr f by Sofravita tion, This after last the addition of a relatively large volume water. mode of the ItTs^hepLn'nnow usuaP ^afcea^'carriage system of.sewerage. carr Watery it d°pted in towns iagefhcient ^water supply, and is probably thewhich mode have whicha system b

lar e °f fny S community. h“ ch carry the diluted excreta serve also to The takesewers slopwater, and may or may not be used to remove the surface water, due to rainfall. The water-carriage system has the disadvantage that much of the agricultural value of sewage is lost, by its dilution, while the volume of foul matter to be disposed of is greatly increased. But it has been found that, even when the excrement of a community is kept out of the sewers, and subjected to distinct treatment, the contents of the sewers are still so foul that mir discharge into streams is scarcely less objectionable tfian when the water-carriage system is adopted; and W1 h President ? Johnson and out shared his defeat The Whig element had been burned of urther, it appears difficult if not impossible to realize the the Republican party by the war; a new party had grown agricultural value of excrement by any process of separate p, not limited by ante helium notions, and it rapidly treatment that is not offensive or dangerous or inapplicame to look upon Seward, its once trusted leader, not only cable to towns. When, in the water-carriage system, the same sewers Combined as a traitor but as the main intellectual force which carry tout sewage and surface-water due to rainfall the supported Johrisons clumsy attempts at treason. At separate the end of his second term as secretary of state in 1869 sewerage is said to be “combined”; the “separate” system, on the other hand, is that in which a distinct set he retired to his home at Auburn, broken by loss of health, by ioss of political standing, and by the death of his wife of sewers is provided to carry off rainfall. Each plan has carriage? and daughter. He spent the next two years in foreign its advantages. In the separate system the foul-water sewers need be large enough to take only the normal flow • travel, and died at Auburn, October 10, 1872. Of Seward’s Life and Works, in 5 vols., edited bv Geonre F they may thus, be made self-cleansing much more readily than if their size were sufficient to carry the immensely a^ecretary^of^state.1116 ^ea^S with his care the use of— of water in the basin is much greater than in the SySte pan closets, where the pipes St prviStpid " Fig. 15.—Bramah Water-Closet. height is limited bythe overflow which occurs round the lin nf tBa T,ov, T however it hoEl houses, of this kind the valve is placed at the side, Jnd,’ when^closeTlies tight. During the last five years proved, by e3taminati011 of ye -1', ^ anothor ‘U16 of ™lve closet (JenninS the that it is no uncommon case for a house to be so completely without effective connexion with the sewer that all its own closet. a sanitary point of view; but a much cheaper and certainlv w ns st nnr1 under the 1; td Ln out closet, by Doulton, appears in fig. 6.) These are now nrnde the “smoke tel” P“a gr at Vanety od wh?te t g° combine forms,cheapness sometimesandofsimplic a singlewTth piece ofa white stoneware. They aystem of coTrl? rnti°n sh0,lld be ma and twin’s worm being probably the most familiar instance. In parasitic or iZdo/Man abundantly nourished forms parthenogenesis very frequently Nature and Determination of Sex.—It is not here proappears, the extreme case being presented by Cecidomyia, a fly posed to enter upon the task of historical review and which exhibits rapid parthenogenetic reproduction in the larval state. The dimorphism of many beetles, in which the male criticism of the various theories of sex—which were estifiequently acquires the most extraordinary specializations of mated at so many as five hundred at the beginning of the external form, has received especial attention from Darwin, whose last century, or even to attempt any sketch of the present Dcsceni o/ Mm includes the fullest details. Here it is enough to very conflicting state of opinion on the subject.1 mention that Reichenau has recently pointed out the coexistence though our theories of sex may be still vague enough, ot the larger size and relative inactivity of the male with the presence of these functionless outgrowths. The beautiful sexual the greatest step to the solution has been made in the dimorphism so common among the Lepidoptera need not be more general abandonment by scientific men of the doubtless ment loned still popular explanation—in terms of a “natural tend. of Hymenoptera present; while the very remarkable differentiation (bees, ants, sawflies, &c.) maysexual also be assumed to be sufficiently familiar. See Insects, Ants Bees ency for the production of an excess of males or the like In several orders {Diptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera) cases of dimor- It is now held that “ quality and quantity of food, elevation phism occur among the females themselves, or even among the of abode conditions of temperature, relative age of parents, males ; as many as three forms of females have been described in their mode of life, habits, rank, &c., are all factors which certain butterflies. The Molluscan series opens with the normally dioecious Lamelli- have to be considered.” The idea that the problem of the branchs, of which some genera (most species of Ostrea, Pecten &c ) nature of sex is capable of being approached by empirical are, however hermaphrodite. The Pteropods, Pulmonates,’ and observation of the numbers of different sexes produced Opisthobranchs are hermaphrodite ; the Prosobranchs, Heteropods under known sets of conditions, and the obvious practical and Cephalopods unisexual. Though slight differences have been corollary of this, viz., that the proportion of the sexes must described even in Lamelhbranch shells (Unio), and though the internal anatomy of the essential and accessory organs is of very therefore be capable of being experimentally modified and high complexity, the extraordinary phenomena associated with regulated, are conceptions which have steadily been acquirhectocotylization among the Cephalopod are the only marked ing prominence, especially of late. In short, if we can outward manifestations of that sexual dimorphism which reaches its find how sex is determined, we shall have gone far to climax in. the Argonaut. (See Mollusca, Cuttle-fish.) The umcates are usually hermaphrodite; Amphioxus, however is investigate sex itself. One of the most crude attempts has been that of unisexual (see Tunicata). ’ ’ Among Pishes hermaphroditism is extremely rare (Serranus). Canestrim, who ascribes the determination of sex to the ihe males are sometimes characterized by the modification of the number of sperms entering the ovum, but this view has pelvic limbs as claspers &c., and are at the reproductive period been already demolished by Fol and Pfliiger. The time of often readily distinguishable from the females by their brighter colour or other cutaneous changes, such as ruffling of the ikin. fertilization has also and apparently with greater weight Male and female rays are readily also distinguishable by their teeth been insisted upon ; thus Thury, followed by Diising, holds and dermal defences. The hooked jaw of the male salmon gives that the sex of the offspring depends on the period of ferhim a characteristic physiognomy during the breeding season. The tilization : an ovum fertilized soon after liberation produces carp undergoes a sort of epidermic eruption at the same period ; male and female eels, too, are said often to become distinguishable a female, while the fertilization of an older ovum produces a 11 C 0 0 d sha e male. This view has been carried a step farther by Hensen, MM . the l“' a^Siluroids. . P - Stridulating apparatus Among may be present, notably in (See Ichthyology.) Amphi- who suggests that the same should probably hold true of bians the bright dorsal crest of the male newt is perhaps the most striking of sex distinctions, but many male frogs and toads have the spermatozoa, and thus the fertilization of a young ovum vocal air sacs, epidermal callosities, and some (Cultripes, Pelobates) by a fresh sperm would have a double likelihood of resulting in a female. There are some observations which possess a gland under the fore-limb. (See Amphibia. ) Among the Ophidians the males are smaller, and have longer and support this: thus Thury and other cattle-breeders have more slender tails 5 the sexes, too, differ sometimes in colour and claimed to determine the sex of cattle on this principle, markings. Male Chelonians, too, have sometimes longer tails and and Girou long ago alleged that female flowers, fertilized claws and may even give voice. The submaxillary musk-gland of the crocodile is especially active in the breeding season : the as soon as they are able to receive pollen, produced a lizards have remarkable throat-pouches and crests, which may be distinct excess of female offspring. weight has also been laid on the relative age of chamele10 °r eVen COITesPon(l t° cranial outgrowths, as in the theGreat parents. Thus Hofacker, so long ago as 1828, and But it is among Birds and Mammals that the observer of sexual characters finds abundant and remarkable differences extending to Sadler a couple of years later, independently published a the minutest details, and showing how the higher evolution of body of statistics (each of about 2000 births) in favour of parental care which the inevitably prolonged embryonic life in- the generalization (since known as Hofacker’s and Sadler’s voives and the wider range of sexual selection have co-operated in modifying the whole organism. As might be expected, the lower law) that when the male parent is the elder the offspring preponderatingly male : while, if the parents be of the mammals show least of this ; but as we ascend the adult males are ecome differentiated from the females by the acquirement of same age, or a fortiori if the male parent be younger, 1 secondary sexual characters which are mainly either offensive and As for reproduction in general, so for sex, the most convenient ci en lv a ,tne ® ® ids for battle with each other, or which assist in gaining 1 starting-point is the work of Hensen (“Die Zeugung,” in Hermann s admiration of the females ; and these may coexist or coincide in Hdb. d. Physiologic), while other dissertations are to be found in the very various degrees. Thus scent-glands are of common occurrence leading manuals of zoology and botany, especially, however, in special 10m the Insectivora (perhaps even from Ornithorhynchus) upwards, papers too numerous to mention. See also Reproduction, and for .eater beauty of markings or more vivid colours are acquired,— fuller bibliographical details see Geddes, the Theory of Growth m many Anthropidae (baboons, &c.) the latter being of peculiarly Reproduction, Sex, and Heredity,” Proc. “On Roy. Soc. Edin., 1886. XXL — 91

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female offspring appear in increasing majority. This view has been confirmed by Goehlert, Boulanger, Legoyt, and others; some breeders of horses, cattle, and pigeons have also accepted it. Other breeders, however, deny it altogether ; moreover, the recent statistics of Stieda and of Berner (taken independently from Alsace-Lorraine and Scandinavia) seem to stand in irreconcilable contradiction. At any rate at present we do not seem justified in ascribing greater importance to the relative age of parents than as a secondary factor, which may probably take its place among those causes influencing nourishment discussed below. That good nourishment appears to produce a distinct preponderance of females is perhaps the single result which can at present be regarded as clearly proven and generally accepted. Yet it would be too much to say that unanimity is even here complete; thus, among plants, the experiments of Girou (1823), Haberlandt (1869), and others gave no certain result; those of Heyer (1883) have led him to dispute the validity of the generalization altogether, while Haberlandt (1877) brought evidence for regarding the excess of females as largely due to the greater mortality of the males. The investigations of agricultural observers, especially Meehan (1878), which are essentially corroborated by Busing (1883), however, leave little doubt that abundant moisture and nourishment tend to produce females. Some of Meehan’s points are extremely instructive. Thus old branches of Conifers overgrown and shaded by younger ones produce only male inflorescences, a fact which may be taken in connexion with Sadebeck’s observation that some fern prothallia, under unfavourable conditions, can still form antheridia but not archegonia. The formation of female flowers on male heads of maize is ascribed by Knop to better nutrition consequent on abundant moisture, The only seriously contradictory observations are thus those of Heyer, and it is therefore reassuring when a detailed scrutiny of his paper shows his ill-conducted experiments (which land him in the conclusion that the organism is not modifiable by its environment at all) to be largely capable of a reversed interpretation. The agency of temperature is also of considerable importance. Thus Meehan finds that the male plants of hazel grow more actively in heat than the female, and Ascherson states that Stratiotes aloides bears only female flowers north of 52° lat., and from 50° southwards only male ones. Other instances might be given. Passing to the animal kingdom we find the case of insects peculiarly clear ; thus Mrs Treat showed that if caterpillars were starved before entering the chrysalis state the resultant butterflies or moths were males, while others of the same brood highly nourished came out females. Gentry too has shown for moths that innutritious or diseased food produced males; hence perhaps a partial explanation of the excess of male insects in autumn, although temperature is probably more important. The recent experiments of Yung on tadpoles are also very conclusive. Thus he raised the percentage of females in one brood from 56 in those unfed to 78 in those fed with beef, and in another supply from 61 to 81 per cent, by feeding with fish; while, when the especially nutritious flesh of frogs was supplied, the percentage rose from 54 to 92. Among mammals the difficulties of proof are greater, but evidence is by no means wanting. Thus an important experiment was long ago made by Girou, who divided a flock of 300 ewes into equal parts, of which the one half were extremely well fed and served by two young rams, while the other was served by two mature rams and poorly fed. The proportion of ewe lambs in the two cases was respectively 60 and 40 per cent. Busing also states that it is usually the heavier ewes which bring forth ewe lambs.

Nor does sex in the human species appear to be independent of differences of nutrition. After a cholera epidemic or a war more boys are said to be born, and Busing also points out that in females with small placenta and little menstruation more boys are found, and even affirms that the number of male children varies with the rise in prices. In towns and in prosperous families there are also more females, while males are more numerous in the country and among the poor. The influence of temperature is also marked : more males are born during the colder months, a fact noted also by Schlechter for horses. The best known and probably still most influential theory is that systematized by Girou and known as that of “ comparative vigour.” This makes sex of offspring depend on that of the more vigorous parent. But to this view there are serious difficulties : thus consumptive mothers produce a great excess of daughters, not sons as might be expected from the superior health of the father. Still less weight can be attached to that form of the hypothesis which would make sex follow “genital superiority” or “ relative ardency ” alone. Any new theory has thus to reconcile the arguments in favour of each of the preceding views, and meet the difficulties which beset all. As Starkweather puts it, it must at once account for such facts as “ the preponderance of male births in Europe, of females among mulattos and other hybrid races, as also among polygamous animals, and for the equality among other animals. More especially it must suggest some principle of self-adjustment by which not only is the balance of the sexes nearly preserved on the whole, but by which also in cases of special disturbance the balance tends to readjust itself.” Starkweather proceeds to attempt this, and his argument may be briefly summarized. While few maintain any essential equality of the sexes, and still fewer any superiority of the female, the weight of authority has been from the earliest times in favour of the doctrine of male superiority. From the earliest ages philosophers have contended that woman is but an undeveloped man ; Barwin’s theory of sexual selection presupposes a superiority in the male line and entailed on that sex; for Spencer the development of woman is early arrested by procreative functions : in short, Barwin’s man is as it were an evolved woman, and Spencer’s woman an arrested man. On such grounds we have a number of theories of sex. Hough thinks males are born when the system is at its best, more females when occupied in growth, reparation, or disease. So, too, Tiedman and others regard every embryo as originally female and remaining female if errested, while Yelpau conversely regards embryos as all naturally male, but frequently degenerating to the female state. Starkweather points out some of the difficulties to the view of female inferiority, and lays it down as the foundation of his work that “neither sex is physically the superior, but both are essentially equal in a physiological sense.” But, while this is true of the average, there are many grades of individual differences and deficiencies in detail, involving a greater or less degree of superiority in one or other of every pair. Starkweather’s theory then is “ that sex is determined by the superior parent, also that the superior parent produces the opposite sex.” The arguments adduced in favour of this view, however, are scarcely worthy of it, since, save a chapter of pseudo-physiological discussion of vital forces and polarities, of superiority,—nervous, electrical, &c.,— they rest mainly on the vague and shifting grounds of physiognomy and temperament. And when superiority is analysed into its factors,—cerebral development and activity, temperament, state of health, of nutrition, &c.,—soon we find under the appearance of simplicity a law has been obtained not by discovering any real unity under the many

SEX 723 apparently different factors, but by simply lumping them under a common name. Nor is a rationale given of the Theory of Reproduction and Sex.—If we now at tern nf aflirmed reversal of sex, which Schlechter and other S POint fr0m Which authorities moreover wholly deny. Despite these and — allr' f1 ble conceptions of sex,other faults and failures the work is interesting and often w see a rm ,a8 s a reallv . Irl ^ f ^ l 'for the construction of suggestive, and that not only on account of its theoretic the or , r™dent that such positmn but its sanguine proposals for the practical control a theorv m,Th concerned witL bl!! reSS /d n0t mereIyspecialist 0 re rod cti n but ^tne ° T f, P “ » “d development, The work of Busing (1883), while less speculative, is of etailS nd lke t0 the mT f satis^ great importance m respect to the causes which regulate So^ike Ji general morphologist and bo phvsiothe proportions of the sexes ; since, instead of falling back S 0 iaVe bef re US that conce tion of the mainXeV^tb ^i ° P of with Darwin on the unexplained operation of natural uP-un , 1 bought on each of these subiects selection, he seeks to note the circumstances in which a b ,ined undwthe b d - ^r*— majority of one sex is profitable, and to show that i^B :zr The close coincidence between these two independent organisms have really the power to produce in such circumstances a majority of one sex,—in short, that disturbances developments ,s especially to be noted. From the vaZ in the proportion of the sexes bring about their own 1 a eara lce of babits mid compensation, and further supports these views by calcula- tempTmmentaZh-'b™ “s'6 npPP the ' descr SrvTthe’n Zn “Z iptive though natural history of the past, the two streams of progress tion and statistical evidence. He separates the causes determining sex into those affecting (rr\ Thus brilliant and syntheticP“»ol exposition of theBuff oldest view, while ; 0n° furnisheda one parent and (6) both alike. Starting with a mLority 0T0S WmZand sex, he emphasizes the importance of delayed fertilizatioi/accentmg it as a fact that females late fertilized bear most males (this the handstf Ti1" generalf aspect recei^d new precision at K Linnaeus,—to some extent the other also at the corresponding in man to a scarcity of males among the lower animals). He notes that the firstborn child is most frequently hySlol S1Cal ^ ^ ?is parallel ^^temporaries. Thestudy anatomical advance of Cuvier to the detailed of the a mak, especially among older persons, and thus explains how aftei a war, when there is a want of males, most male children are functions of the organs, while the great step made by born. He ascribes importance to the amount of sexual intercourse Bichat lay m piercing below the conception of the organ Thus, suppose a minority of females : their fertilization tends to its function as ultimate, and in seeking to internet occur more frequently, and thus (if the general statement be and correct) they should produce a majority of their own sex • or r0 k by reference to the component tissues. The cellsimilarly with males. This is supported by reference to cattle- theory of Schwann and his successors analysed these tissues breeding, and it is interpreted physiologically to involve that a step farther while the latest and deepest analysis refers young spermatozoa produce a majority of males.7 Suppose a great all structure ultimately to the substance called protoplasm majority of males: the chances of early fertilization o? the females are of course great, but eggs fertilized early tend to produce and similarly claims to express all function in terms of females. Or suppose conversely a great minority of males - the the construction and destruction, synthesis and analysis, chances of early fertilization are small, but old eggs tend to anabolism and katabolism of this. See Physiology, Pbotoproduce males, and either excess will thus become compensated plasm, Morphology. Or again the more decided the minority of one sex the more Now, since every morphological and physiological fact or frequent the sexual activity of its individuals, the younger their theory is in one or other of these few categories it is lem nts all nrp ^ ® ® >Busing fi consequently theasmore individuals that sex evident that we have here the required criterion of theories are produced. next takes up indirect causes of equivalent to a minority of individuals—(a) deficient nutrition • just as fre of reproduction and sex. The question, What is sex? what quent copulation overstrains the genital organs the same result meant by male or female ? admits of a regular series may arise from the deficient nutrition of the system ; hence an ill- is fed cow yields a female to a well-fed bull and vice versa • (6) relative of answers. The first and earliest is in terms of general age ; the nearer either parent is to the period of greatest renrodUc aspect, temperament, and habit, and, though crude empincal, and superficial, it lacks neither unity nor usefulness tlV C P a Clty 6 SS 16 of tha sex As fa c t ff }- ng’ Jb0th?illks ’ is ahebirth probable P entS first disci t At this plane are not only most popular conceptions but nutf^n iff \ f *sses variations in nutrition, although means of subsistence may decrease there is at fiist no decrease m the number of progeny. But it is necessarv to many theories like that of Starkweather, which may be mentioned as the most recent. The anatomist contents e epr0d C t i 0n f the Species from its so^hatTn^f so that m defective t- nutrition, f - + - ° though an animal maymultiplication, not reproduce himself with the recognition of specific organs of sex, or at 1 less, it will permanently multiply much less. He agrees with most with a similarly empirical account of their functions • the re roduct ive SnSih-of , .is mostof sensitive changes while the embryologist and histologist will not rest conof nutrition gives Pcases showing the effect abundantfonutrition on reproductive activity, notes the influence of climate, function tented without seeking to refer these organs to the tissues of which they are composed and the layer from which they withparasfteT ^gamSTf °f ^activity, like birds and insects,’ spring, and even reaches and describes the ultimate cellular pp females f ^tritive of the sexesmore are than also contrasted , since have torelations give to the embryo the male, they are much more dependent on food for vigour of elements essential to sex,—the ovum and spermatozoon. A parallel physiological interpretation of these is next required, their siz^tc 'FurtT'^7, and he?ce tlle frequent contrast of and at this point appear such hypotheses as these of Weistheir p wliH ' hmtkermore, multiplication to mann and others. . eir conditions of nutrition ;animals if foodsuit be their abundant there is an fe males and Thus the bewildering superabundance of widely difin number of individuals ; if food,a however be too innumbS f of, the species ’ therefore further increase ferent theories at the present juncture becomes intelligible are pr < duced and the numbe1, of tefdJto diminish H 31100 tbe ? the species enough; and, each once classified according to its stage increase pl ifr en V" . + colmcxion above mentioned between of progress, a detailed criticism would be easy. But this (eSP laUy female S) in ros ei a d good harvest af d rbhe rlS1 -g P P % » after a is not enough : the demand for an explanation at once Prices SimfnXf i 1 Portion of boys during a rise of the m re f od the more^Sl ly^°rS ammalS ° ° tbe more females> “d rational and ultimate, to comprehend and underlie all the ecies nml l P ^i lf P1 rease mcreases; the less food the more males, preceding ones, is only the more urgent. Where shall we A ain lants on morefenlale flapid ^and “ more- seed § with >P good soil produce seek for it ? On the one hand the morphological aspect of WerS bad il l flowers Profit to the species; on such an explanation must interpret the forms of sex cells tend! f Preponderate, mostly perish, and the species to df disappear. The extreme case of optimum nutrition tends to produce normal parthenogenesis (“thelytokie ”), yielding only in terms of those of cells in general, and in terms of the structural properties of protoplasm itself; while its more *, “ales, different m cause and operation from the parthenogenesis esulting from the absence of males (“arrenotokie”).1 difficult yet more satisfying physiological aspect must the mysterious difference of male and female in See Diising, Jena Zeitschr., 1885; Starkweather, Law of Sex, 1883. express terms of the life processes of that protoplasm,—in terms,

S E X- -S E X that is to say, of anabolism and katabolism. Were these rations” is but a rhythm between a relatively anabolic and katabolic a parthenogenetic ovum is an incompletely differsteps made a new synthesis would be reached, and from preponderance; entiated ovum which retains a measure of katabolic (male) products, this point it should even next be possible to retrace the and thus does not need fertilization; while hermaphroditism is due progress of the science, and interpret the forms and the to the local preponderances of anabolism or katabolism in one set functions of tissues and organs, nay, even of the facts of of reproductive cells or in one period of their life. The reversion unisexual forms to hermaphrodite ones, or of these to asexual aspect, habit, and temperament, so furnishing the deductive of ones, which we have seen in such constant association with high rationale of each hitherto merely empirical order of ob- nutrition and low expenditure,2 is no longer inexplicable. The served fact and connecting theory. female sex being thus preponderatingly anabolic, the importance of nutrition in determining it is explained: menstruation is seen While this conception does not admit of development within good 1 be the means of getting rid of the anabolic surplus in absence the present limits, a brief abstract of such an interpretation of to reproduction and of sex in terms of anabolism and katabolism may of its foetal consumption, while the higher temperature and greater activities of the male sex express its katabolic diathesis. The be of interest to the reader. The theory of reproduction, in phenomena of sex, then, are no isolated ones, but express the general principle at least, is simple enough. A continued surplus outcome of the whole activities of the organism—the literal of anabolism involves growth, and the setting in of reproduction highest (P. GE.) when growth stops implies a relative katabolism. This in short blossoming of the individual life. is merely a more precise restatement of the familiar antithesis SEXTANT, an instrument for measuring angles on the between nutrition and reproduction. At first this disintegration and reintegration entirely exhaust the organism and conclude its celestial sphere. The name (indicating that the instruindividual existence, but as we ascend the process becomes a more ment is furnished with a graduated arc equal to a sixth and more localized one. The origin of this localization of the part of a circle) is now only used to designate an instrureproductive function may best be understood if we figure to ment employing reflexion to measure an angle; but ourselves a fragment of the genealogical tree of the evolutionist in greater detail, and bear in mind that this is made up of a con- originally it was introduced by Tycho Brahe, who continuous alternate series of sex-cell and organism, the organism, too, structed several sextants with two sights, one on a fixed, becoming less and less distinguished from its parent cell until the the other on a movable radius, which the observer pointed two practically coincide in the Protozoa, which should be defined not to the two objects of which the angular distance was to so much as ‘ ‘ organisms devoid of sexual reproduction ” but rather measured. as undifferentiated reproductive cells (protosperms or protova, as be In the article Navigation the instruments are described they might in fact be called), which have not built up round themselves a body. We should note, too, how the continuous immortal which were in use before the invention of the reflecting stream of Protozoan life (see Protozoa) is continued by that of sextant. Their imperfections were so evident that the ordinary reproductive cells among the higher animals, for the mor- idea of employing reflexion to remove them occurred tality of these does not affect this continuity any more than the independently to several minds. Hooke contrived two fall of leaves does the continued life of the tree. The interpretation of sex is thus less difficult than might at first sight appear. reflecting instruments. The first is described in his PostPor anabolism and katabolism cannot and do not absolutely bal- humous Works (p. 503); it had only one mirror, which ance, as all the facts of rest and motion, nutrition and reproduc- reflected the light from one object into a telescope which tion, variation and disease, in short of life and death, clearly show. is pointed directly at the other. Hooke’s second plan During life neither process can completely stop, but their algebraic sum keeps varying within the widest limits. Let us note the result, employed two single reflexions, whereby an eye placed at starting from the undifferentiated amoeboid cell. A surplus of ana- the side of a quadrant could at the same time see the bolism over katabolism involves not only a growth in size but a images formed in two telescopes, the axes of which were reduction in kinetic and a gain in potential energy, i.e., a diminu- radii of the quadrant and which were pointed at the two tion of movement. Irregularities thus tend to disappear; surface tension too may aid ; and the cell acquires a spheroidal form. The objects to be measured. This plan is described in Hooke’s large and quiescent ovum is thus intelligible enough. Again starting Animadversions to the Machina Coelestis of Hevelius, pubfrom the amoeboid cell, if katabolism be in increasing preponderance lished in 1674, while the first one seems to have been the increasing liberation of kinetic energy thus implied must find communicated to the Royal Society in 1666. Newton its outward expression in increased activity of movement and in diminished size; the more active cell becomes modified in form had also his attention turned to this subject, but nothing by passage through its fluid environment, and the flagellate form was known about his ideas till 1742, when a description of the spermatozoon is thus natural enough. It is noteworthy, too, in his own handwriting of an instrument devised by him that these physiologically normal results of the rhythm of cellular was found among Halley’s papers and printed in the life, the resting, amoeboid, and ciliate forms, are precisely those which we empirically reach on morphological grounds alone (see Philosophical Transactions (No. 465). It consists of a Morphology, vol. xvi. p. 841). sector of brass, the arc of which, though only equal to Given, then, the conception of the cellular life rhythm as capable one-eighth part of a circle, is divided into 90°. A teleof thus passing into a distinctly anabolic or katabolic habit or scope is fixed along a radius of the sector, the object glass diathesis, the explanation of the phenomena of reproduction becomes only a special field within a more general view of structure and being close to the centre and having outside it a plane function, nay even of variation, normal and pathological. Thus mirror inclined 45° to the axis of the telescope, and the generality, use, and nature of the process of fertilization become intercepting half the light which would otherwise fall on readily intelligible. The profound chemical difference surmised by the object glass. One object is seen through the teleso many authors becomes intelligible as the outcome of anabolism and katabolism respectively, and the union of their products as scope, while a movable radius, carrying a second mirror restoring the normal balance and rhythm of the renewed cellular life. close to the first, is turned round the centre until the Without discussing the details of this, farther than to note how second object by double reflexion is seen in the telescope it resumes the speculations of Eolph and others as to the origin to coincide with the first. of fertilization from mutual digestion, of the reproductive from the But long before this plan of Newton’s saw the light nutritive function, we may note how they illustrate on this view that origin of fertilization from conjugation which is the central problem the sextant in its present form had been invented and had of the ontogeny and phylogeny of sex. The formation of polar come into practical use. On May 13, 1731, John Hadley vesicles seems thus an extrusion of katabolic (or male) elements, gave an account of an “octant,” employing double reand conversely its analogues in spermatogenesis (see Eeprodttc3 tion). Passing over such tempting applications as that to the flexion, and a fortnight later he exhibited the instrument. 2 Thus Marshall Ward has lately drawn attention to the association explanation of segmentation and even subsequent developmental changes, it must suffice to note that the constant insistance of of parasitism with the disappearance of sexual reproduction in Fungi embryologists upon the physiological importance of the embryonic Jour. Micr. Sci., xxiv.). 3 layers bears essentially upon their respective predominance of ana- {Quart. described two different constructions : in one the telescope bolism and katabolism. The passage from ordinary growth to that was Hadley fixed along a radius as in Newton’s form, in the other it was discontinuous growth which we term asexual reproduction, and from placed in the way afterwards universally adopted; an octant of the this again to sexuality or the frequent reverse progress, is capable of rational interpretation in like manner: the “ alternation of gene- first construction was made as early as the summer of 1730, according to a statement made to the Royal Society by Hadley’s brother George 1 on Feb. 7, 1734. See paper by Geddes already nientioned at p. 721, footnote. 724

S E X —s E Y 725 On the 20th May Halley stated to the society that Newton had invented an instrument founded on the same ! m CD ery sI ™ punciple, and had communicated an account of it to the glass,” also perpendicular to’Hip J a”ota" ber ”'mirror ..Y the horizon and pa, aIleI society in 1699 but on search being made in the minutes to CB. Fisa small telescope y " ' it was only found that Newton had showed a new instru fixed across CB, parallel to \ \ ment “ for observing the moon and stars for the longitude the plane CAB and pointed to the mirror E. Darkglasses at sea, being the old instrument mended of some faults ” can be placed outside E and but nothing whatever was found in the minutes concerning between E and C when ob\ the principle of the construction. Halley had evidently serving the sun. As only the lower half of E issilvered, only a very dim recollection of Newton's plan, and at a the observer can see the horimeeting of the Royal Society on December 16 1731 he zon in the telescope through ^ declared himself satisfied that Hadley’s idea Was quite the unsilvered half, while different from Newton’s. The new instrument was already the light from the sun or a star S may be reflected from in August 1732 tried on board the “Chatham” yacht by the index glass ” C to the order of the Admiralty, and was found satisfactory but silvered half of E and thence otherwise it does not seem to have superseded the older through F to the observer’s instruments for at least twenty years. As constructed eye. If CD has been moved so as to make the image of a by rSoy . instrument could only measure angles ud star or of the limb of the t0 Ca tain sun coincide with that of the Lbutto muse17b7 P Campbell navy,it one ot f^ the first it assiduously, proposedofto the enlarge so horizon, it is easy to see that as to measure angles up to 120°, in which form it is now the angle SCH (the altitude of the star or solar limb) is generally employed. equal to twice the angle Quite independently of Hadley and Newton the sextant BCD. The limb AB is alSextant. was invented by Thomas Godfrey, a poor glazier in Philadelphia. In May 1732 Mr James Logan of that city wrote to Halley that Godfrey had about eighteen months previously showed him a common sea quadrant “to reflecte^imag^s of^very distant^o^jec^are^ ^ ^^ 7 which he had fitted two pieces of looking-glass in such a the methods nf distant object are coincide. err01 For 11 d seen toth6 see xTii* ;. ST “ ““ ' manner as brought two stars at almost any distance to coincide.” The letter gave a full description of the instru- bouse*!6 "tIDD laiK an artificial ■ ofl’ mercury protected horizon hasthe to . , by . ■ a J-fus ment; the principle was the same as that of Hadley’s first wind roof isof generally plate-glassa basin with perfectly paFallel facesfrom “om^ octant which had the telescope along a radius. At the a g a S lat (with the w n^ 11Sed surface level blackened) on three screws l° by er a circular The meeting of the Royal Society on January 31, 1734 two which can lbe ?levelled C< e 1S affidavits sworn before the mayor of Philadelphia were fmm th p .tho image of the celestial object reflected read, proving that Godfrey’s quadrant was made about whh th!t fl16?"] honzon, and this image is made to coincide 6Ct 0n th6 ovember 1730, that on the 28th November it was BCD Sbh d m S bidex-glass. this case the the endof angle will be double the \ altitude of the star. In Towards brought by G. Stewart, mate, on board a sloop, the on hirnl1 | 1C begmnmg of this century the sextant was much used n Truman, John Cox, master, bound for Jamaica, and skilful cP-iridobserver l determining but,superior though toin what the hands of a it can givelatitudes, results far one might that in August 1731 it was used by the same persons on 1 a I a l mst meat mall staud stand),f if it hhas on shore ™ been held quite in superseded the hand (or byattached the portable to a f. v°yag° t0 Newfoundland. There can thus be no doubt small that Godfrey invented the instrument independently • but the dollte wh ’ ile at sea i/continues to hi the statement of several modern writers that a brother of pensaSe ^ ° The principle of the sextant has been applied to the construcGodfrey, a captain in the West India trade, sold the Cir les n w quadrant at Jamaica to a Captain or Lieutenant Hadley wifb fjf-Ctlnat§ ea ? > ° hich the index arm is a diameter Tb^ci i constructed ’ + °h end eliminate the error eccentricity. ot the British navy, who brought it to London to his The circles by to Pistor and Martins of ofBerlin have a brother, an instrument maker in the Strand, has been riSm inStead f the ° horizon glass and are extremely conproved to be devoid of all foundation. Not only is this ven?ent SLXTUS EMPIRICUS. See Scepticism. totally at variance with all the particulars given in the SEYCHELLES, an archipelago of the Indian Ocean, affidavits, but between 1719 and 1743 there was no officer in the British navy of the name of Hadley, and John consisting of eighty islands—several of them mere islets Hadley cannot possibly have been in the West Indies at situated between 3° 38' and 5° 45' S. lat. and 52° 55' and that time, _ as he was present at many meetings of the 53 50' E. long., about 1400 miles south-east of Aden and Hoyal Society between November 1730 and May 1731 • 1000 miles east of Zanzibar. They are the only small besides, neither Hadley nor his brothers were professional tropical oceanic islands of granitic structure, and rise steeply out of the sea, culminating in the island of Mahe instrument makers. A detailed discussion of this question at an elevation of 2998 feet above the sea-level. The r0t •y^ ;,;1lgaud is found in the Nautical Magazine, vol. most northerly island is Bird, | by | mile; the most n. No. 21. southerly, Plate; the most easterly, Fregates; the most Ve s an idea of the westerly, Silhouette. Mahe, the largest island of the sexla n fanrg A , construction of the sector of GO , heV i lgAB A o [ramfiwork of brass in the shape of a group, 3 by 11 miles, is very nearly central, 60 miles south hn lb Ws of i ,n 1 1 baling a graduated arc of silver (some' ao } ! goidl mhud in the brass. It is held in the hand by a of Bird, and having to the north and north-east of it La of ain handle at the back, either vertically to measure the altitude Digne, Felicity Praslin, and Curieuse. Only a few— or 11 a V da-6?’anCe If wblch the P18]ane passing through two objects the Mahe, Praslin, La Digne, Denis, and Bird—are inhabited. t0 rmS n n ° berrfound. CD is a radius movable The total area is about 50,120 acres, of which Mahe alone 1 Silve ed puiLc-Hiass is nxeu. -i to . the plane ; x—~ neZnlSmriP "^ °r_?wj.f onvcieu is fixed peipendicular of “J the sextant and^ in Plate-glass the line CD. At comprises 34, / 49. The beaches of glistening calcareous is a vernier read through a small lens, also a clamp and a tangent sand are begirt by coral reefs which form a wall round the islands. . The valleys and easier slopes are overlaid with a JIa ICy Was a countr +i 1 tact /0!,’\that ?he was the first ytogentleman independentofmeans, and very fertile soil, and vegetation is most luxuriant. Though me bring theofconstruction reflecting e escopes to any perfection has made many authors of astronomical the climate is tropical, the heat is tempered and rendered ooics believe that he was a professional instrument maker. His uniform by the sea breezes, and probably this accounts for orother George, who assisted him in his pursuits, was a barrister epidemic diseases and endemic fever being of uncommon

726

S E Y- -S H A

occurrence. There nre numerous "brooks und torrentSj making their way to the sea between blocks of granite. The isfands are green and fresh at all times, particularly during the wet season from November to May. The total rainfall for 1881 was 113-50 inches. The extreme range of the thermometer in 1881 and 1882 was only 22° (minimum 71°, maximum 93°). The heat is seldom sultry and oppressive. The Seychelles lie too far to the north to receive the hurricanes which occasionally sweep over Bourbon and Mauritius, and even thunderstorms are rare. The population at the census of 1881 was 14,081 (7179 males and 6902 females)—500 white (mostly French creoles), 11,500 black, and 2000 coolies. Since 1881 the population has considerably increased in consequence of a tide of immigration from Mauritius. Men and women of exceptionally great age are frequently met with, and the death-rate for 1880 amounted to only 13-1 per 1000.. The prevailing language is a French patois, but English is taught in the schools. These islands were discovered at the beginning of the 16th century, but never occupied, by the Portuguese. In 1742 the French took possession of them, calling them at first lies des Labourdonnais, but afterwards the Seychelles, from Count Herault de Seychelles, an officer of the East Indian fleet. The first settlement was made in 1768 at Mahe, now Port Victoria. In 1794 the English wrested them from the French along with .Mauritius, and they are now ruled by a board of six civil commissioners, as a dependency under the governor of Mauritius. In 1834 slavery was abolished, and since then the plantations have been, in a declining state. In 1884 there were in the islands 20 primary schools aided by Government grants and attended by 1620 children. There are 16 churches belonging to the Roman Catholics (the dominant faith) and 11 to the Church of England. The main product is the cocoa-nut, but tobacco, coffee, rice, maize, sweet potatoes, and manioc are raised for home consumption, while cotton, pepper, cinnamon, and other spices grow wild. Many of the trees display simultaneously blossoms and unripe and ripe fruit. The so-called sea or Maidive double cocoa-nut, “coco de mer,” the fruit of the palm-tree Lodoic.ea Sechellarum, is peculiar to certain of these islands. It was long known only from sea-borne specimens cast up on the Maidive and other coasts, was thought to grow on a submarine palm, and, being esteemed a sovereign antidote to poisons (Lusiad, x. 136), commanded exorbitant prices in the East. This palm will grow to a height of 100 feet, and shows fern-like leaves of enormous size. Sensitive plants from America spread like lawns over the soil and quake at every step taken over them. The cocoa-nut palm flourishes in the gardens, overtopping the houses and most other trees, lining the shore, climbing high up the mountains, and in many places forming extensive forests. There are no native mammals, and domestic animals are scarce. The birds comprise gannets, terns in great numbers, and white egrets. Tortoises are common,—among them the gigantic turtle and black turtle, whose flesh is exported. The sea abounds in fish, many of them distinguished by splendid colours, and yields the inhabitants not only a large part ol their animal lood but also material for building their houses,—a species of massive coral, Porites gaimardi, being hewn into square building blocks which at a distance glisten like white marble. . , The principal harbour is Port Victoria, situated on Mahe island. The total value of imports here in 1884, including Rs.27,097 specie, was Rs. 428,605, and of the exports, including Rs.21,582 specie, Rs. 392,175. The chief imports were coffee and cotton manufactures ; the chief exports, cocoa-nut, cocoa-nut oil, and sperm oil. The fiscal receipts for 1884 amounted to Rs.130,047. The cultivation of cocoa is progressing favourably, but the same cannot be said of the vanilla and clove plantations, which suffer from want of regular labour, attributable to the widespread share system, which the negroes prefer to regular work. The leaf disease affecting coffee has done great injury, and cocoa-nut plantations have suffered from the ravages of an insect, but no effort seems to have yet been made by weeding the plantations to stamp out the disease. Of the 34,749 acres of land making up Mahe, 12,000 acres are laid out in cocoa-nut, 500 in vanilla, coffee, and cloves, and 1500 are in forest; of the uncultivated land 8000 acres are well suited for vanilla, cocoa, and coffee plantations. SEYMOUR, Edwakd. See Somerset, Duke of. SEYNE, La, a town of France, in the department of Yar, 5 miles south-west of Toulon, with a population of 9788 in 1881. It owes its importance mainly to its shipbuilding, the Soci6te des Forges et Chan tiers de la Mediterranee having here one of the finest building yards in

Europe, in which more than 2000 workmen are employed ; contracts are executed for private shipowners, for the great Messageries Maritimes Company, and for various Governments. The port, which has communication by steamer and omnibus with that of Toulon, is 6 acres in extent, and admits vessels of the largest tonnage. SFAX, a city of Tunis, second in importance only to the capital, is situated 116 miles south of Mahadia, on the coast of the Gulf of Gabes (Syrtis Minor) opposite the Kerkenah Islands. It consists of three distinct portions : —the new European quarter to the south, with roads, piers, and other improvements carried out by the municipality; the Arab town in the middle with its towerflanked walls entered by only two gates; and to the north the French camp. Round the town for 5 or 6 miles to the north and west stretch orchards and gardens and country houses, where most of the Sfax families have their summer quarters. Dates, almonds, grapes, figs, peaches, apricots, olives, and in rainy years melons and cucumbers, grow there in great abundance without irrigation. Two enormous cisterns maintained by public charitable trusts supply the town with water in dry seasons. Sfax was formerly the terminus of a caravan route to Central Africa, but its inland trade now extends only to Gafsa. The export trade (esparto grass, oil, almonds, pistachio nuts, sponges, wool, &c.) has attained considerable dimensions. Fifty-one English vessels (34,757 tons) visited the port in 1884. The anchorage is 2 miles from the shore, and there is a rise and fall of 5 feet at spring tides (a rare phenomenon in the Mediterranean). In 1881 the population was said to be about 15,000 (including 1200 Arabs, 1500 Tunisian Jews, 1000 Maltese, &c., 500 Europeans); in 1886 it is stated at 32,000 (1200 Maltese, 1000 Europeans). Sfax (the Arabic Asfakis or Safakus, sometimes called the City of Cucumbers) occupies the site of the ancient Tctphrura. In the Middle Ages it was famous for its vast export of olive oil. The Sicilians took Sfax under Roger the Norman in the 12th century, and the Spaniards occupied it for a brief period in the 16th century. The bombardment of the town in 1881 was one of the principal events of the French conquest of Tunis ; it was pillaged by the soldiers on July 16th and the inhabitants had afterwards to pay a war indemnity of £250,000. SFORZA, House of. See Milan, vol. xvi. p. 293, and Italy, vol. xiii. p. 479. SHAD is the name given to certain migratory species of Herrings (Clupea), which are distinguished from the herrings proper by the total absence of teeth in the jaws. Two species occur in Europe, much resembling each other, .—one commonly called Allis Shad (Clupea alosa), and the other known as Twaite Shad (ClupeaJinta). Both are, like the majority of herrings, greenish on the back and bright silvery on the sides, but they are distinguished from the other European species of Clupea by the presence of a large blackish blotch behind the gill-opening, which is succeeded by a series of several other similar spots along the middle of the side of the body. So closely allied are these two fishes that their distinctness can be proved only by an examination of the gill-apparatus, the allis shad having from sixty to eighty very fine and long gill-rakers along the concave edge of the first branchial arch, whilst the twaite shad possesses from twenty-one to twenty-seven stout and stiff gill-rakers only. In their habits and geographical distribution also the two shads are very similar. They inhabit the coasts of temperate Europe, the twaite shad being more numerous in the Mediterranean. While they are in salt water they live singly or in very small companies, but during May (the twaite shad some weeks later) they congregate, and in great numbers ascend large rivers, such as the Severn (and formerly the Thames), the Seine, the Rhine, the Nile, &c., in order to deposit their

S H A —S H A 727 spawn,—sometimes traversing hundreds of miles until Og from a treason-tavern rolling home, their progress is arrested by some natural obstruction. A Hound as a globe, and liquored every chink ° few weeks after they may be observed dropping down the Goodly and great he sails behind his link. river, lean and thoroughly exhausted, numbers floating be StrictIy fair when llG dead on the surface, so that only a small proportion seem enemies “X addresses his pr0 het of to regain the sea.. Although millions of ova must be de- makes Flecknoe fL b ^ extol him pat because P “he tautology,” and never deviates posited by them in the upper reaches of a river the fry bUt had fairl earned does not seem to have been actually observed’in fresh ment^the^t y his chastisewater, so that it seems probable that the young fish travel survived tfiM fi0Qf9WhlC^ ay ltS substantial truth. He i u till 1692, and on Dryden’s resignation of the to the sea long before they have attained to any size. laureateship m 1688 was promoted to the office a sign of On rivers in which these fishes make their periodical h e the Yhig Sideofa‘ their - iSrTO n d™ appearance they have become the object of a regular and part of ?the explanation anxiety in the next fishery, and their value increases in proportion to the generation to secure literary talent. distance from the sea at which they are caught Thus 1 1 1 11 8 w orks w *' ' '!'? ’ 1 as published in 1720, they are much esteemed on the middle Rhine, where they in "d CvolsPlei2moF 18 dlamatlc work « er ess Q s me—The Sullen Lovers, are generally known as “Maifisch”; those caught on their 1668 • The Pm,A She 1672^ £ ^. 7f >J ^ 5 The Humorist, 1671 ; The return journey are worthless and uneatable. The allis Miser 1676 ; The VfZZ I675 ’ TL shad is caught at a size from 15 to 24 inches, and is con- Widow 1679 - ™!’ w ’ Tln°n 0f Athens> 1678 J A True sidered to be better flavoured than the twaite shad, which Tkj, S; Kr; generally remains within smaller dimensions. lm -’ ™ Cl0S y allied s ec es TWiTa™* i! surpassing . P the i > European occur on the Atlantic coasts of Forth Amenca, all species in importance SHAF t, SHAF iTES. See Sunnites as food-fishes and economic value, viz., the American Shad SHAFTESBURY, Anthony Asheey Cooper First sapidissima) the Gaspereau or Ale-wife ( tIl0U h roun cedeY? wL Y^JT^ « § ded upon preadministration of finance, and this opposition seems to ? ml 0p to tIle ravest S suspicion as an have brought about a reconciliation with Clarendon In attemntTf 7 f ^ f“8 and WaS velleme tl an arc-rv Hnlif Jrf ’ u y attacked 1668, however,, he supported a bill to appoint commis- by y 8 0f Commons which met on February sioners to examine the accounts of the Dutch War though 4 i673 TiY Y .3 6 established S J J ."' ™ ““celled, and the principle was ha 1SS1,1 lg of wnts V10US ye ar he ha 0pp0sed In ' tested with the House t accordance with hiffo his former action on alln questions ^ of religious tolera- itself It w ‘ Y lr bu^ mlTs t ebb d de?f Parhament that Shaftes tion he strongly opposed the shameful Five Mile Act of aSs7u!ll a“ ? ? lenda est Carthago” speech .Ibbo In 1667 he eagerly supported the bill for prohibitUrg the Second n me ground the necessity of!ddestroying soDutch formidable g7Yuml of ofTh War, ing the importation of Irish cattle on the ground that it offc would lead to a great fall of rents in England. Ashley a commercial rival to England, excused the Stop of the was himself a arge landowner, and moreover was opposed di,:at6d ^ to Ormonde who would have greatly benefited by the im- Declaration Tf’lndtoeime^ K’h "A ™ portation. In all other questions of this kind he shows 1 1 ‘bet T d ^? ^ be,in e-eSXugh0 d b t0 mduce himself far in advance of the economic fallacies of the day heMAis • if * to remain For affixing the great seal to thisCharles declaration he was firm threatened His action led to an altercation with Ossory, the son of with impeachment by the Commons. The Test Ac was Ormonde in which Ossory used language for which he was compelled to apologize. On the death of Southampton, now brought forward, and Shaftesbury, who appears to have heard how he had been duped in 1670, waK suY Was pIa d on the , ?® commission of the treasury, d a1 Wllliam P pUes. f ^ appears toCoventry being his in principal coh of Oltto d'”twthe 0bj'tCt Probably of thereby getting rid He have taken no part the attempt re ar upho dt of Protestantism Pmtee7Wrbegan 1° be S ded the Yhief pnoider m the mmistrv heasranidlv to impeach Clarendon on a general charge of treason favour with Charles, and on Sunday, Sepiembe^O 1673 ihe new administration was headed by Buckingham, in was dismissed from the chancellorship. Among the reasons comprehension principles shared to the full. ^ Aa most able paper written by Ashley him to for this dismissal is probably the undoubted fact that he the king in support of these principles, on the ground opposed reckless grants to the king’s mistresses. He has een accused of much vanity and ostentation in his office especially of their advantage to trade, has been preserved but his reputation for ability and integrity as a judge was He except h ei. f toleration Roman Catholics and high even with his enemies. “age was Monan hy men attentlon ' Hls to all trade Charles soon regretted the loss of Shaftesbury, and wasr\ close and; constant; he was a member of thequestions council deavoured, as did also Louis, to induce him to return ot trade and plantations appointed in 1670, and was its president from 1672 to 1676. The difficult^ of the suc- but in vain. He. preferred now to become the great cession also occupied him, and he co-operated thus early popular leader against all the measures of the court and in the design of legitimizing Monmouth as a rival to James may be regarded as the intellectual chief of the opposition. In the intrigues which led to the infamous treaty of At the meeting of parliament on January 8, 1674 he carried a motion for a proclamation banishing Catholics which cL t n° ?at treat^ COntained a cIa^e by to a distance of ten miles from London. During the and with hT r ^°Und t0, declare himself a Catholic, whole session he organized and . directed the opposition in ed e of this Ash Protect ^n0W ley> ato « ablind staunch rotestant could noti beS trusted. In order him their attacks on the king’s ministers. On May 19 he and the other Protestant members of the Cabal a sham was dismissed the privy council and ordered to leave treaty was arranged in which this clause did not appear London He hereupon retired to Wimborn^from'whenle and it was not until a considerable while afterwards that he urged upon his parliamentary followers the necessity he found out that he had been duped. Under this of securing a new parliament. He was in the House of Lords, however, in 1675, when Danby brought forward misunderstanding he signed the shanf Dover treaty on his famous Non-resisting Test Bill, and headed the opposi1 13 troat tion which was carried on for seventeen days, distinguishkent from 110 i. - Yk n Ted’ e and-V.Ashle however, was carefully tot /! y didbynotsigning hesitatea ing himself, says Burnet, more in this session than ever 0 help “rT Charles to, T hoodwink parliament similar treaty on February 2, 1673, which was then faid he had done, before. The bill was finally shelved, a probefore them as the only one in existence. This is one of rogation having taken place in consequence of a quarrel ie proved dishonourable actions of his life. His approval between the two Houses, supposed to have been purposely got up by Shaftesbury, in which he vigorously supported att ei t f the Lords t0 alfcer a the^o money bill fed to the right of the Lords to hear appeal cases, even where the loss off ?P the °supply to Charles and to the consequent the defendant was a member of the Lower House. Parliak g S 3u rt of the ment was prorogued for fifteen months until February 15, Acf ascrih d ^ ;,” F PP° LordSs hls desira with Ob l ed generalIJ to ingratiate himself 1677,. and it was determined by the opposition to attack d0 dUe in parfc t0 the fact that its existence on the ground that a prorogation for more ^ 5°TLord ?f> his son W had married Roos’s sister. It is, too necessary to notice that, so far from advising the “Stop of the than a year, was illegal. In this matter the opposition Exchequer,, he actively opposed this bad measure; the were clearly in the wrong, and by attacking the parliament discredited themselves. The immediate result was that the king f r his opp extant" ^h ^ ^t«); are extant Ihe responsibility rests with° Clifford alone. In Shaftesbury, Buckingham, Wharton, and Salisbury were sent to the Tower. In June Shaftesbury applied for a ieas ure of tlie Cabal DlUJ ? ministry, Charles’s 1 eclaration of Indulgence, he cordially concurred. He writ of habeas corpus, but could get no release until was now rewarded by being made Earl of Shaftesbury and February 26, 1678, after his letter and three petitions to the king. Being brought before the bar of the House of Haron Cooper of Pawlett by a patent dated April 23, 1672. Lords he at length made a complete submission as to his tt is stated too that he was offered, but refused, the lord conduct in declaring parliament dissolved by the prorogatreasurer-ship On November 17, 1672, however, he tion, and in violating the Lords’ privileges by bringing a >ecame lord chancellor, Bridgman having been compelled habeas corpus in the King’s Bench. o resign the seat. As chancellor he issued writs for the The breaking out of the Popish Terror in 1678 marks XXL — 92

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the worst part of Shaftesbury’s career. That so clearheaded a man could have really credited the extravagant lies of Oates and the other perjurers is beyond belief ; and the manner in which by incessant agitation he excited the most baseless alarms, and encouraged the wildest excesses of fanatic cruelty, for nothing but party advantage, is utterly without excuse. On November 2 he opened the great attack by proposing an address declaring the necessity for the king’s dismissing James from his council. Under his advice the opposition now made an alliance with Louis whereby the French king promised to help them to ruin Danby on condition that they would compel Charles, by stopping the supplies, to make peace with France, doing thus a grave injury to Protestantism abroad for the sake of a temporary party advantage at home. Upon the refusal in November of the Lords to concur in the address of the Commons requesting the removal of the queen from court, he joined in a protest against the refusal, and was foremost in all the violent acts of the session. He urged on the bill by which Catholics were prohibited from sitting in either House of Parliament, and was bitter in his expressions of disappointment when the Commons passed a proviso excepting James, against whom the bill was especially aimed, from its operation. A new parliament met on March 6, 1679. Shaftesbury had meanwhile ineffectually warned the king that unless he followed his advice there would be no peace with the people. On March 25 he made a striking speech upon the state of the nation, especially upon the dangers to Protestantism and the misgovernment of Scotland and Ireland. He was, too, suspected of doing all in his power to bring about a revolt in Scotland. By the advice of Temple, Charles now tried the experiment of forming a new privy council in which the chief members of the opposition were included, and Shaftesbury was made president, with a salary of £4000, being also a member of the committee for foreign affairs. He did not, however, in any way change either his opinions or his action. He vigorously opposed the compelling of Protestant Nonconformists to take the< oath required of Ptoman Catholics. That indeed, as Ranke says, which makes him memorable in English history is that he opposed the establishment of an Anglican and Royalist organization with decisive success. The question of the succession was now again prominent, and Shaftesbury, in opposition to Halifax, committed the error, which really brought about his fall, of putting forward Monmouth as his nominee, thus alienating a large number of his supporters ; he encouraged, too, the belief that this was agreeable to the king. He pressed on the Exclusion Bill with all his power, and, when that and the inquiry into the payments for secret service and the trial of the five peers, for which too he had been eager, were brought to an end by a sudden prorogation, he is reported to have declared aloud that he would have the heads of those who were the king’s advisers to this course. Before the prorogation, however, he saw the invaluable Act of Habeas Corpus, which he had carried through parliament, receive the royal assent. In pursuance of his patronage of Monmouth, Shaftesbury now secured for him the command of the army sent to suppress the insurrection in Scotland, which he is supposed to have fomented. In October 1679, the circumstances which led Charles to desire to conciliate the opposition having ceased, Shaftesbury was dismissed from his presidency and from the privy council; when applied to by Sunderland to return to office he made as conditions the divorce of the queen and the exclusion of James. With nine other peers he presented a petition to the king in November, praying for the meeting of parliament, of which Charles took no notice. In April, upon the king’s declaration that he was resolved to send

for James from Scotland, Shaftesbury strongly advised the popular leaders at once to leave the council, and they followed his advice. In March we find him unscrupulously eager in the prosecution of the alleged Irish Catholic plot. Upon the king’s illness in May he held frequent meetings of Monmouth’s friends at his house to consider how best to act for the security of the Protestant religion. On June 26, accompanied by fourteen others, he presented to the grand jury of Westminster an indictment of the duke of York as a Popish recusant. In the middle of September he was seriously ill. On November 15 the Exclusion Bill, having passed the Commons, was brought up to the Lords, and an historic debate took place, in which Halifax and Shaftesbury were the leaders on opposite sides. The bill was thrown out, and Shaftesbury signed the protest against its rejection. The next day he urged upon the House the divorce of the queen. On December 7, to his lasting dishonour, he voted for the condemnation of Lord Stafford. On the 23d he again spoke vehemently for exclusion, and his speech was immediately printed. All opposition was, however, checked by the dissolution on January 18. A new parliament was called to meet at Oxford, to avoid the influences of the city of London, where Shaftesbury had taken the greatest pains to make himself popular. Shaftesbury, with fifteen other peers, at once petitioned the king that it might as usual be held in the capital. He prepared, too, instructions to be handed by constituencies to their members upon election, in which exclusion, disbanding, the limitation of the prerogative in proroguing and dissolving parliament, and security against Popery and arbitrary power were insisted on. At this parliament, which lasted but a few days, he again made a personal appeal to Charles, which was curtly rejected, to permit the legitimizing of Monmouth. The king’s advisers now urged him to arrest Shaftesbury; he was seized on July 2, 1681, and committed to the Tower, the judges refusing his petition to be tried or admitted to bail. This refusal was twice repeated in September and October, the court hoping to obtain evidence sufficient to ensure his ruin. In October he wrote offering to retire to Carolina if he were released. On November 24 he was indicted for high treason at the Old Bailey, the chief ground being a paper of association for the defence of the Protestant religion, which, though among his papers, was not in his handwriting; but the grand jury ignored the bill. He was released on bail on December 1. In 1682, however, Charles secured the appointment of Tory sheriffs for London; and, as the juries were chosen by the sheriffs, Shaftesbury felt that he was no longer safe from the vengeance of the court. Failing health and the disappointment of his political plans led him now into violent courses. He appears to have entered into consultation of a treasonable kind with Monmouth and others; he himself had, he declared, ten thousand brisk boys in London ready to rise at his bidding. For some weeks he was concealed in the city and in Wapping; but, finding the schemes for a rising hang fire, he determined to flee. He went to Harwich, disguised as a Presbyterian minister, and after a week’s delay, during which he was in imminent risk of discovery, if indeed, as is very probable, his escape was not winked at by the Government, he sailed to Holland on November 28, 1682, and reached Amsterdam in the beginning of December. Here he was welcomed with the jest, referring to his famous speech against the Dutch, “ nondum deleta Carthago.” He was made a citizen of Amsterdam, but died there of gout in the stomach on January 21, 1683. His body was sent in February to Poole, in Dorset, and was buried at Wimborne St Giles. Few politicians have been the mark of such unsparing abuse as Shaftesbury. Dryden, while compelled to honour him as an

SHAFTESBURY 731 upright judge, overwhelmed his memory with scathing, if venal satire; and Bryden’s satire has been accepted as truth by later conceived so ardent a passion. He had no intention, historians Macau ay in especial has exerted all his art, though however, of becoming a recluse, or of permanently holding m flagrant contradiction of probability and fact, to deepen still Accor further the shade which rests upon his reputation. Mr Christie f f f7m rbliC Kfeia T he became or the borough of Poole, dingly, and was returneda on the other hand, m possession of later sources of information candidate a y -M, 1695. He soon distinguished himself by a and with more honest purpose, has done much to rehabilitate him’ OccasionaUy however, he appears to hold a brief for the defend' speech which excited great attention at the time, in and though his picture is comparatively a true one, should be read support of the Bill for Regulating Trials in Cases of with caution Finallyinhis monograph in the series of “English reason one provision of which was what seems to us the D - Tradladdition professes the scales equally. obviously reasonable one that a person indicted for treason He makes an interesting to to ourhold conception of Shaftesbury s place in English politics, by insisting on his position as the or misprision of treason should be allowed the assistance first great party leader in the modern sense, and as the founder ot counsel In connexion with this speech a story is told of modern parliamentary oratory. In other respects his book is derived _ almost entirely from Christie. Much of Shaftesburv’s of Shaftesbury which is also told, though with less career, increasingly so as it came near its close, is incapable of verisimilitude, of Halifax, that, being overcome by defence ; but it has escaped his critics that his life up to the Re- shyness and . unable to continue his speech, he simply storation, apparently full of inconsistencies, was evidently guided said before sitting down: “If I, sir, who rise only to by one leading principle the determination to uphold the supremacy of parliament, a principle which, however obscured by self-interest spea my opinion on the bill now depending, am so appears also to have underlain his whole political career. He was’ confounded that I am unable to express the least of what I too, ever the friend of religious freedom and of an enlightened proposed to say, what must the condition of that man be policy in all trade questions. And, above all, it should not be who is pleading for his life without any assistance and forgotten, in justice to Shaftesbury’s memory, that “during his unaer apprehensions of being deprived of it?” “The long political career, in an age of general corruption, he was ever incorrupt and never grasped either money or land. In the davs sudden turn of thought,” says his son, the fourth earl, pleased the House extremely, and, it is generally of the Commonwealth he never obtained or sought grants of forfeited estates. In the days of the restored monarchy he never believed carried a greater weight than any of the arguprofited by the king s favour for aught beyond the legal emoluwhich were, offered in favour of the bill.” But ments of office, and in office or out of office spurned all and many ments though, a Whig, alike by descent, by education, and by offers of bribes from the French king.” (0 A ) conviction, Ashley could by no means be depended on to SHAFTESBURY, Anthony Ashley Cooper, Third Earl of (1671-1713), was born at Exeter House in London give a.party vote; he was always ready to support any February 26, 1670-71. He was grandson of the first and propositions, from whatever quarter they came, that son of the second earl His mother was Lady Dorothy appeared, to him to promote the liberty of the subject Manners, daughter of John, earl of Rutland. According and the independence of parliament. Unfortunately, his to a curious story, told by the third earl himself, the health was so treacherous that, on the dissolution of July 1698, he was obliged to retire from parliamentary life. marriage between his father and mother was negotiated He suffered much from asthma, a complaint which was by John Locke, who was a trusted friend of the first earl. The second Lord Shaftesbury appears to have been a poor aggravated by the London smoke. Lord Ashley now retired into Holland, where he became creature, both physically and mentally,—“ born a shapeless lump, like anarchy,” according to what is doubtless the acquainted with Le Clerc, Bayle, Benjamin Furly, the English Quaker merchant, at whose house Locke had exaggerated metaphor of Dryden. At the early age of resided during his stay at Rotterdam, and probably three his son was made over to the formal guardianship Limborch and the rest of the literary circle of which o his grandfather. Locke, who in his capacity of Locke had a cherished and honoured member nine medical attendant to the Ashley household had already ot ten yearsbeen before. To Lord Ashley this society was assisted in bringing the boy into the world, though not probably far more congenial than his surroundings in his instructor, was entrusted with the superintendence of his education. This was conducted according to the England. Unrestrained conversation on the topics which most interested, him—philosophy, politics, morals, religion principles enunciated in Locke’s Thoughts concerning at this time to be had in Holland with less danger Education, and the method of teaching Latin and Greek andwas in greater abundance than in any other country in conversationally was pursued with such success by his the world. To the period of this sojourn in Holland must instructress, Mrs Elizabeth Birch, that at the age of eleven, probably be referred the surreptitious impression or it is said, young Ashley could read both languages with of an imperfect edition of the Inquiry concernease. In November 1683, some months after the death publication Virtue, from a rough draught, sketched when he was of the first earl, his father entered him at Winchester as ing only twenty years of age. This liberty was taken, during a warden’s boarder. Being a shy, retiring boy, and being his absence, by Toland. moreover constantly taunted with the opinions and fate of After an absence of over a twelvemonth, Ashley his grandfather, he appears to have been rendered miserable returned to England, and soon succeeded his father as earl by the rough manners of his schoolfellows, and to have of Shaftesbury. He took an active part, on the Whig left Winchester in 1686 for a course of foreign travel. side, in the general election of 1700-1, and again, with By this change he was brought into direct contact with more success, in that of the autumn of 1701. It is said those, artistic and classical associations which afterwards that William III. showed his appreciation of Shaftesbury’s exercised so marked an influence on his character and services on this latter occasion by offering him a secretaryopinions. On his travels he did not, we are told by the ship of state, which, however, his declining health fourth earl, “ greatly seek the conversation of other English compelled him to decline. Had the king’s life continued, young gentlemen on their travels, ” but rather that of their Shaftesbury’s influence at court would probably have tutors, with whom he could converse on congenial topics. been considerable. After the first few weeks of Anne’s In 1689, the year after the Revolution, Lord Ashley reign, Shaftesbury, who had been deprived of the vicereturned to England, and for nearly five years from this admiralty of Dorset, returned to his retired mode of time, he appears to have led a quiet, uneventful, and life, but his letters to Furly show that he still retained a studious life. There can be no doubt that the greater keen interest in politics. In August 1703 he again settled part of his attention was directed to the perusal of those in Holland, in the air of which he seems, like Locke, to have classical authors, and to the attempt to realize the true had great faith. At Rotterdam he lived, he says in a letter spirit of that classical antiquity, for which he had to his steward Wheelock, at the rate of less than £200 a

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year, and yet had much “ to dispose of and spend beyond convenient living.” He returned to England, much improved in health, in August 1704. But, though he had received immediate benefit from his stay abroad, symptoms of consumption were constantly alarming him, and he gradually became a confirmed invalid. His occupations were now almost exclusively literary, and from this time forward he was probably engaged in writing, completing, or revising the treatises which were afterwards included in the Characteristics. He still continued, however, to take a warm interest in politics, both home and foreign, and especially in the war against France, of which he was an enthusiastic supporter. Shaftesbury was nearly forty before he married, and even then he appears to have taken this step at the urgent instigation of his friends, mainly to supply a successor to the title. The object of his choice (or rather of his second choice, for an earlier project of marriage had shortly before fallen through) was a Miss Jane Ewer, the daughter of a gentleman in Hertfordshire. The marriage took place in the autumn of 1709, and on February 9, 1710, was born at his house at Reigate, in Surrey, his only child and heir, the fourth earl, to whose manuscript accounts we are in great part indebted for the details of his father’s life. The match appears to have been a happy one, though Shaftesbury neither had nor pretended to have much sentiment on the subject of married life. With the exception of a Preface to the Sermons of Dr Whichcote, one of the Cambridge Platonists or latitudinarians, published in 1698, Shaftesbury appears to have printed nothing himself till the year 1708. About this time the French prophets, as they were called, attracted much attention by the extravagances and follies of which they were guilty. Various remedies of the repressive kind were proposed, but Shaftesbury maintained that their fanaticism was best encountered by l' raillery ” and “ goodhumour.” In support of this view he wrote a letter to Lord Somers, dated September 1707 which was published anonymously in the following year, and provoked several replies. In May 1709 he returned to the subject, and printed another letter, entitled Sensus Communis^ an Essay on the Freedom of Wit and Humour. In the same year he also published The Moralists, a Philosophical Rhapsody, and in the following year Soliloquy, or Advice to an Author. None of these pieces seem to have been printed either with his name or his initials. In 1711 appeared the Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times, in three volumes, also without any name or initials on the title-page, and without even the name of a printer. These three handsome volumes contain in addition to the four treatises already mentioned, Miscellaneous Reflections, now first printed, and the Inquiry concerning Virtue or Merit, described as “formerly printed from an imperfect copy, now corrected and published intire,” and as “ printed first in the year 1699.” The declining state of Shaftesbury’s health rendered it necessary for him to seek a warmer climate, and in July 1711 he set out for Italy. He settled at Naples in November, and lived there considerably over a year. His principal occupation at this time must have consisted in preparing for the press a second edition of the Characteristics, which appeared in 1713, soon after his death. The copy, most carefully corrected in his own handwriting, is still preserved in the British Museum. He was also engaged, during his stay at Naples, in writing the little treatise (afterwards included in the Characteristics) entitled A Notion of the Historical Draught or Tablature of the Judgment of Hercules, and the letter concerning Design. A little before his death he had also formed a ccheme of writing a Discourse on the Arts of Painting,

Sculpture, Etching, &c., but when he died he had made but little progress with it. “ Medals, and pictures, and antiquities,” he writes to Furly, “ are our chief entertainments here.” His conversation was with men of art and science, “the virtuosi of this place.” The events preceding the peace of Utrecht, which he regarded as preparing the way for a base desertion of our allies, greatly troubled the last months of Shaftesbury’s life. He did not, however, live to see the actual conclusion of the treaty (March 31, 1713), as he died the month before, February 4, 1712, O.S. At the time of his death he had not yet completed his forty-second year. His body was brought back by sea to England and buried at St Giles’s, the family seat in Dorsetshire. Though he died so long ago, and was one of the earliest of the English moralists, his descendant, the celebrated philanthropist, who died so recently as 1885, was only his great-grandson. Shaftesbury’s amiability of character seems to have been one of his principal characteristics. All accounts concur in representing him as full of sweetness and kindliness towards others, though he may sometimes himself have been the victim of melancholy and despondency. Like Locke he had a peculiar pleasure in bringing forward young men. Amongst these may be especially mentioned Michael Ainsworth, a native of Wimborne St Giles, the young man who was the recipient of the Letters addressed to a student at the university, and who was maintained by him at University College, Oxford. The keen interest which Shaftesbury took in his studies, and the desire that he should be specially fitted for the profession which he had selected, that of a clergyman of the Church of England, are marked features of the letters. Other proteges were Crell, a young Pole, the two young Furlys, and Harry Wilkinson, a boy who was sent into Furly’s office at Rotterdam, and to whom several of the letters still extant in the Record Office are addressed. In the popular mind, Shaftesbury is generally regarded as a writer hostile to religion. But, however short his orthodoxy might fall if tried by the standards of any particular church, his temperament was pre-eminently a religious one. This fact is shown conspicuously in his letters, where he had no reason for making any secret of his opinions. The belief in a God, all-wise, all-just, and all-merciful, governing the world providentially for the best, pervades all his works, his correspondence, and his life. Nor had he any wish to undermine established beliefs, except where he conceived that they conflicted with a truer religion and a purer morality. To the public ordinances of the church he scrupulously conformed. But, unfortunately, there were many things both in the teaching and the practice of the ecclesiastics of that day which were calculated to repel men of sober judgment and high principle. These evil tendencies in the popular presentation of Christianity undoubtedly begot in Shaftesbury’s mind a certain amount of repugnance and contempt to some of the doctrines of Christianity itself; and, cultivating, almost of set purpose, his sense of the ridiculous, he was too apt to assume towards such doctrines and their teachers a tone of raillery and banter, which sometimes even approaches grimace. But, whatever might be Shaftesbury’s speculative opinions or his mode of expressing them, all witnesses concur in bearing testimony to the elevation and purity of his life and aims. Molesworth, who had no special reason for flattering him, speaks of him as “possessing right reason in a more eminent degree than the rest of mankind,” and of his character as “ the highest that the perfection of human nature is capable of.” Even Warburton, in his dedication of the Divine Legation to the freethinkers, is compelled to “own that this lord had many

SHAFTESBUKY 733 excellent qualities both as a man and a writer. He was temperate, chaste, honest, and a lover of his country’’ As an earnest student, an ardent lover of liberty an en sat alii Xwbeil1 thusiast m the cause of virtue, and a man of unblemished SeSiF^ t llfe a?d Vinntlrin g beneficence,His Shaftesbury probably hadare no if therebe anvnr, F0ntrar^’ any ret°le natura consequently the creature himself ^ temper, and he was born and the circumstances under which he was ill.” H Hence t folwF ii' / r ’ "4 s°me measurel corrupt and beneV lenCe lf n0t the S le> is at rought up. In many respects he reminds us of the impe- least the principal moral vh-tue ° ’ ° rial philosopher Marcus Aurelius, whose works we know a constant proportion to^each ^tlfStem’ of which are in the slight^^^d^armngenmnt °w(mida^nar0 th^unitv^of^d^ that C nS1StS in a certain r portion between its mrts m °i P °the beauty of a virtuous Award- ceitai[1 -hm'mony of colouring, so between the various affections or^nTefr8 ^ if certain ProPortion of the various snrimXnf ’ m a certain harmonious blending

r orstei in _ 1830, and again in an enlarged form in 1S47 • +n CVS vlCVSn tt letters, written respectively to Stringer Lord OxforO 847 1 VL '? Godolphin, which appeared, for S first time ^ °1 virtuous state of society This nn.l * tbe Seneral condition of a an a a letter t0 Le m- f in Notes and Queries, Clerc, in Feb his recdlectfonTof I1118 ana-logy between art and morality Locke, first published 8 1851 TIip or as it mLAvA Letters to a Young Man at the University [Michael Ainsworth! issssgssg .1‘s STrSKTet ‘“d 782- .B8SideS ac trit" 8 r0 gl1 it\’ “ it is plain, took great pains in the elaboration S - of”his Shaftesbury,

dra

p^entiHlhe thouglrt^alway^clear. ^^iL^onihe^ther^n^^ie 1 Zn?"t4 "'^dl ThiXie^f rigbS dpl9i tS ?H^h F~“" eludes a certain amount of judgment or reflexion that is to say a rational element. Shaftesbury’s doctrine on this’ head mat h teS lil „rposes V “lesgentleman lAb rten too much as Ch a fine am! h" la pm haps, briefly be summed up as follows. Each man has from toenteei. r He 11 6 f sense lc ^?i W which ° ^ heWremploys °ng’ a “asmoral ” cr ™4a” “i,oTadtio “ consdence ! ® ” .(al h expressions synonymous! vhoii Sr rrxxrxx x ' y»sSa; out, as it admits of constant education and improvement the : psrSHa? m S VlX” i* grat bially becomes rnore’ 1promilieut. Its decisions are generally described no if +i,,-„ immediate, and, beyond the® occXndXXta tiresome digressions, they still impress the modern reader “ analyse itaniX‘ It wasi0Ml reserved for Hume to discriminate SJy e?t XT' li“l8 ”properly »» "tempf is maXo 1 1? nl aS a moralist th nla ^ ^n ?at Shaftesbury has a claim to place m the history of literature and philosophy Like most ofa 1686 tW ele en ts and ffebnTFf ° “ . > or disapprobation to point out^hat, while the elmg of moral1 approbation is instantaneous n0 1 JUdginent WlllC re h P cedes it isand often the result of an 1Ateli r i process ofr considerable intellectual length perplexity. SSSSSSSS-E It may be sufficient to supplement this brief survey of Shafteswhic societ sti alamed HenceT h* \ 7 ll continued to be seriously uiy s system by a still briefer summary of the answers so far as they can be collected from his works, which he would have given to the principal questions of ethics as they are now usually pro f

b

0f

ourt0 theS? ^estion® are’ as ^ aPPears toPthe conceivA his StlSf presentVriteiF that that^ moraltoIdeas—the of virtue nd vice light and wrong—are be found distinctions in the very make and or a Schoolman ” but as a “man of taste. ” It was nrobablv nnrl m accordance with this conception that he refrained from usinh ?f ; that theolVv actions act T • denominatedmorality independent of being good orisjust, not by the the language about the “laws of nature ” which had hither f theology, 0f G d(aS ha( 8 1 11 16 P rred to hutCv!^ ° ].recently been maintained by Locke 1, f mZmyZ “mStoom'Se ”' -' ",! ?S ™6, fiual .1.ty existing in themselves ; that the ultimate test6 of of af0right action is its tendency to promote rather Ln as Sedli^bi reasrim6nV ” general welfare ; that we have a peculiar organ, the moral sense analogous to taste in art, by which we discriminate between characters and actions as good or bad ; that the higher natures among mankind are impelled to right action, and deterred from wiong action, partly by the moral sense, partly by the love and reverence of a just and good God, while the lower natures are mainly influenced by the opinions of others, or by the hope of reward and the fear of punishment; that appetite7 and reason Wh le Whoever is in versed in thS momf 1 1 /Varch to ° - “ the least both concur m the determination of action ; lastly, that the so adjusted wl ? so nicely | ^re inward fabric question whether the will does or does not possess any freedom of adjusted, and Z the whole built, will thatfind the the barely extending choice, irrespectively of character and motives, is one (at least so a e , n 1 li le f ISsaable to bung misery.” b t hr ?irrecoverable “ ,?°ruin “b and “the’continuances t„™o"g! e may ather !F +f ^mtoShaftesbury’s reticence) which it does not np concern the moralist solve. 11 11 11 6 Cannot be ade rJ e Se resemblance of in the ^ste^oTi 6 ^ -^^ ’man There arequately studied qi f} i!° amounting sometimes Hutcheson’s speculations to those on of system WU r i and bodily, which- have an evident Partsresnect in that to identity, will be apparent system^ both m mental to Shaftesbury, reference to the account of that philosopher (vol. xii. pp. 409-11) i 0, tS lJe r com ev .r,®° L e"„ i,plete ! t a “• . Neither ’"™ otter can arimalX A Next to Hobbes, the moralist with whose views Shaftesbury’s stand ^ system of parts as ™ to all within, be allowed m most direct antagonism is Locke, who not only maintained 6 m anner m plete as t0 a11 without hi redTlhaving - a further ?° , relation abroad to 5the be system must beofconthat moral distmctions depend solely on the arbitrary will of God sideredas Ids but that the sanctions by which they are mainly enforced are the GYe fi ?dto : the world » tins system and of histhiskind thethe animal this (our earth); againto to biggersystem; world ,e U Ur reW;i 1 an tbe fear fl?I ffF!i! future punishment. It is Fthe rod,F andF with the °ftransgression a fire ready“By to

734

S H A - -S H A

punish it. ” Shaftesbury’s was in reality, though perhaps not in appearance, a more truly religious philosophy. For with him the incentives to well-doing and the deterrents from evil-doing are to be sought not solely, or even mainly, in the opinion of mankind, or in the rewards and punishments of the magistrate, or in the hopes and terrors of a future world, but in the answer of a good conscience approving virtue and disapproving vice, and in the love of a God, who, by His infinite wisdom and His allembracing beneficence, is worthy of the love and admiration of His creatures. The main object of the Moralists is to propound a system of natural theology, and to vindicate, so far as natural religion is concerned, the ways of God to man. The articles of Shaftesbury’s religious creed were few and simple, but these he entertained with a conviction amounting to enthusiasm. They may briefly be summed up as a belief in one God whose most characteristic attribute is universal benevolence, in the moral government of the universe, and in a future state of man making up for the imperfections and repairing the inequalities of the present life. Shaftesbury is emphatically an optimist, but there is a passage in the Moralists (pt. ii. sect. 4) which would lead us to suppose that he regarded matter as an indifferent principle, co-existent and co-eternal with God, limiting His operations, and the cause of the evil and imperfection which, notwithstanding the benevolence of the Creator, is still to be found in His work. If this view of his optimism be correct, Shaftesbury, as Mill says of Leibnitz, must he regarded as maintaining, not that this is the best of all imaginable but only of all possible worlds. This brief notice of Shaftesbury’s scheme of natural religion would be conspicuously imperfect unless it were added that it is popularized in Pope’s Essay on Man, several lines of which, especially of the first epistle, are simply statements from the Moralists done into verse. Whether, however, these were taken immediately by Pope from Shaftesbury, or whether they came to him through the papers which Bolingbroke had prepared for his use, we have no means of determining. Shaftesbury’s philosophical activity was confined to ethics, aesthetics, and religion. For metaphysics, properly so called, and even psychology, except so far as it afforded a basis for ethics, he evidently had no taste. Logic he probably despised as merely an instrument of pedants,—a judgment for which, in his day, and especially at the universities, there was only too much ground. The influence of Shaftesbury’s writings was very considerable both at home and abroad. His ethical system was reproduced, though in a more precise and philosophical form, by Hutcheson, and from him descended, with certain variations, to Hume and Adam Smith. Nor was it without its effect even on the speculations of Butler. Of the so-called deists Shaftesbury was probably the most important, as he was certainly the most plausible and the most respectable. No sooner had the Characteristics appeared than they were welcomed, in terms of warm commendation, by Le Clerc and Leibnitz. In 1745 Diderot adapted or reproduced the Inquiry concerning Virtue in what was afterwards known as his Essai sur le Merite et la Vertu. In 1769 a French translation of the whole of Shaftesbury’s works, including the Letters, was published at Geneva. Translations of separate treatises into German began to be made in 1738, and in 1776-1779 there appeared a complete German translation of the Characteristics. Hermann Hettner says that not only Leibnitz, Yoltaire, and Diderot, but Lessing, Mendelssohn, Wieland, and Herder, drew the most stimulating nutriment from Shaftesbury. “ His charms,” he adds, “ are ever fresh. A new-born Hellenism, or divine cultus of beauty presented itself before his inspired soul.” Herder is especially eulogistic. In the Adrastea he pronounces the Moralists to be a composition in form well-nigh worthy of Grecian antiquity, and in its contents almost superior to it. The interest felt by German literary men in Shaftesbury has been recently revived by the publication of two excellent monographs, one dealing with him mainly from the theological side by Dr Gideon Spicker (Freiburg in Baden, 1872), the other dealing with him mainly from the philosophical side by Dr Georg von Gizycki (Leipsic, 1876). In the foregoing article the writer has made free use of his monograph on Shaftesbury and Hutcheson in the series of “English philosophers” (1882), published by Sampson Low & Co. In that work he was able largely to supplement the printed materials for the Life by extracts from the Shaftesbury papers now deposited in the Record Office. Tliese include, besides many letters and memoranda, two lives of him, composed by his son, the fourth earl, one of which is evidently the original, though it is by no means always closely followed, of the Life contributed by Dr Birch to the General Dictionary. For a description and criticism of Shaftesbury's philosophy reference may also be made to Mackintosh’s Progress of Ethical Philosophy, Whewell’s History of Moral Philosophy in England, Jouffroy’s Introduction to Ethics (Channing’s translation), Leslie Stephen’s English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, Martineau’s Types of Ethical Theory, and the article Ethics in the present work (vol. viii. pp. 599, 600). For his relation to the religious and theological controversies of his day, see, in addition to some of the above works, Leland’s View of the Principal Deistical Writers, Lechler’s Geschichte des Englische.n Deismus, Hunt’s Religious Thought in England, Abbey and Overton’s English Church in the Eighteenth Century, and A. S. Farrar’s Bampton Lectures. (T. F.) SHAFTESBURY, Anthony Ashley Cooper, Seventh Earl op (1801-1885), was the son of Cropley, sixth earl,

and Anne, daughter of the third duke of Marlborough, and was born 28th April 1801. He was educated at Harrow and Christ Church, Oxford, where he obtained a first class in classics in 1822, and graduated M.A. in 1832. In 1841 he received from his university the degree of D.C.L. He entered parliament as member for the pocket borough of Woodstock in 1826; in 1830 he was returned for Dorchester; from 1831 till February 1846 he represented the county of Dorset; and he was member for Bath from 1847 till (having previously borne the courtesy title Lord Ashley) he succeeded his father as earl in 1851. Although giving a general support to the Conservatives, his parliamentary conduct was greatly modified by his intense interest in the improvement of the social condition of the working classes, his efforts in behalf of whom have made his name a household word. He opposed the Reform Bill of 1832, but was a supporter of Catholic emancipation, and his objection to the continuance of resistance to the abolition of the Corn Laws led him to resign his seat for Dorset in 1846. In parliament his name, more than any other, is associated with the factory legislation (see Factory Acts, vol. viii. p. 845). He was a lord of the admiralty under Sir Robert Peel (1834-35), but on being invited to join Peel’s administration in 1841 refused, having been unable to obtain Peel’s support for the Ten Hours’ Bill. Chiefly by his persistent efforts a Ten Hours’ Bill was carried in 1847, but its operation was impeded by legal difficulties, which were only removed by successive Acts, instigated chiefly by him, until legislation reached a final stage in the Factory Act of 1874. The part which he took in the legislation bearing on coal mines was equally prominent. It is worthy of notice that his efforts in behalf of the practical welfare of the working classes were guided by his own personal knowledge of their circumstances and wants. Thus in 1846 he took advantage of his leisure after the resignation of his seat for Dorset to explore the slums of the metropolis, and by the information he obtained not only gave a new impulse to the movement for the establishment of ragged schools, but was able to make it more widely beneficial. For over forty years he was president of the Ragged School Union. He was also one of the principal founders of reformatory and refuge unions, young men’s Christian associations, and working men’s institutes. He took an active interest in foreign missions, and was president of several of the most important philanthropic and religious societies of London. He died 1st October 1885. By his marriage to Lady Emily, daughter of the fifth Earl Cowper, he left a large family, and was succeeded by his eldest son Anthony, who committed suicide shortly afterwards. SHAGREEN. See Leather, vol. xiv. p. 390, and Shark. SHAhAbAD, a British district in the Patna division of the lieutenant-governorship of Bengal, India, between 24° 3F and 25° 43' N. lat. and between 83° 23' and 84° 55' E. long., with an area of 4365 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the district of Ghazipur in the North-Western Provinces and by Saran, on the E. by Patna and Gayd districts, on the S. by Lohardaga, and on the W. by Mirzapur, Benares, and Ghazipur districts of the North-Western Provinces. About three-fourths of the whole area lying to the north is an alluvial flat, wholly under cultivation, and fairly planted with mangoes, bamboos, and other trees; while the southern portion of the district is occupied by the Kaimur Hills, a branch of the great Yindhyan range, and is a densely wooded tract. The chief risers are the Ganges and the Son, which unite in the north-eastern corner of Shdh4b4d. A series of canals on the Son are reported to have secured for the district immunity from future famine. In the southern portion

H A —S H A 735 of the district large game abounds, including the tiser bear, leopard, and several varieties of deer; and among several kinds of pulses. Exports are chiefly sugar grain of all kinds, pulses, indigo, cotton, and timber, a^d the fmports are other animals met with are the wild boar, hyama, jackal, mainly European goods, metals, and salt. The grossP?evenue and fox. The nylghau is seen on the Kaimur HillsJ The 1883-84 amounted to £186,162, of which climate is very sultry and the rains heavy. The East Indian t,if ,n- the district in£118 638 - The 01^ of any Railway traverses the north of the district for 60 miles mportanceTnfe? EF P ’ S UperV1S10n are““MaWes tll0se of sa ar rum and of indL l°P ^n ' g and d and the aggregate length of roads is about 1000 miles. treatv?n 180 ^ • ^hjahanpur was ceded to the English by S he f 1857 peca of ™ rebelL T6 ° ™ the scene P 1 Tlle F tn^ were shot x ?- down, , Europeans were attacked church • three but the remainder, aidedwhen by ain hundred 95?250efeTales lOU a popula£on °f 1’964’909 (males faithful sepoys, escaped. The force under Lord Clyde put a stop medans’ 146,732, 146 7?2 it’ Pi ^ J^dus274. numbered Moham-a medans and Christians Four 1,817,881, towns contain population exceeding 10,000, viz., Arrah 42 008 1858 S,1 rtly ' ° 17,429, Baxar 16,498?and'Jagdispur'127568 The aLSstoSv 1 6 headquarters of the district are at Arrah. The chief staple of SHAHJAhInpUB, municipal town and administraShahabad is rice, which produces three crops during the year . live headquarters of the above district, lies in 27° 53' 41" wheat, barley, maize cereals, and various other plants aA also E l0ng left bank of the grown. The principal manufactures of the district are sunar Geoha. ann ^9a° large f7, 3°? °n the It is place,' with-’some stately old mosques pape!, saltpetre blankets coarse cotton cloth, and brass utenils! Deoha' ts trade is chiefly carried on by means of permanent markets in and a castle now in ruins. The city was founded in the town and at fairs. The principal exports are rice? wheat Jahdn whose nam barley, pulses, grain, oats, linseed, carraway seed, paper, and spices • by Hawdb Bahddur Khdn, a Pathan. > It has a considerable ® it bears, imports consist of cleaned rice, betel-nut, tobacco, sSgar? molasSeS’ export trade in cereals, pulses, and sugar. In 1881 the sad pepper, cotton, iron, brass, zinc, copper, lead, tin, and betdpopulation was 74,830 (36,840 males, and 37,990 females). di ri Ct in 1883 84 £253 2 f ,n , - amounted to tie lan ielded £171 26 r>’ P16 southernmost district of the Rawal nf the p, district was ceded f y to the British > 3- byThe pait of Shahsouthern Alum Pmdi division in the lieutenant-governorship of the emperor of Delhi m l765, and the northern part by Azuf-ud’- Punjab, India, between 31° 32'and 32° 42' IST. lat. and Dowlah, vizier of Oudh, ten years later. ^ ^etween 71 37 and 73° 24' E. long., with an area of SHAH JAHAN, Mogul emperor from 1627 to 1658 4691 square miles. The district is bounded on the H. bv See India, vol. xii. p. 795. the Jhelurn district, on the E. by Gujrkt and the Chenab, on the S by Jhang, and on the W. and N.W. by Dera the eastern -d most district ofof the the Rohilkhand division in the lieutenant-governorship Ismail Khan and Bannu. On both sides of the Jhelum Northwestern Provinces of British India, lying between stretch wide upland plains, utterly barren or covered only with brushwood; a considerable portion of this area, howK at aud sir