Encyclopaedia Britannica [2, 14 ed.]

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THE ENCYCLOPADIA BRITANNICA

FOURTEENTH

EDITION

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ENCYCLOPÆDIA

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SECOND

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1768

EDITION

EDITION EDITION

FOURTH

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1788

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EDITION

1823

EDITION

NINTH TENTH

EDITION EDITION

ELEVENTH TWELFTH

EDITION EDITION

THIRTEENTH

FOURTEENTH

EDITION

EDITION

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1929.1932

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BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH EDITION

ANEW SURVEY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE VOLUME 2

ANNUAL REGISTER TO

BALTIC

SEA

Agee:

Vie :

THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD. LONDON

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, INC. NEW YORK

COPYRIGHT IN ALL COUNTRIES TO

THE

BERNE

SUBSCRIBING CONVENTION

BY THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA

BRITANNICA

COMPANY,

LTD.

COPYRIGHT

IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 1929, 1930, 1932 BY THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA

BRITANNICA,

INC.

Note. Pages 44-45 and 740-741 were missing from the original digital version of this volume. Replacements were inserted from the 1929 edition.

INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS IN VOLUME WITH THE ARTICLES WRITTEN BY THEM. A. C. T.

A. C. THAYSEN, Pu.D. Member of the Staff of the Bacteriological Laboratory, Royal Naval Cordite Factory,

II

pBacteriology in Industry.

Holton Heath, Wareham, Dorset.

A. Dew.

ARTHUR DEWING, B.S.

A. D. I.

A. D. Imus, M.A., D.Sc.

l

;

jArt (in pari).

Editorial Staff, New York, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Chief Entomologist, Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire; |Aphides; formerly Forest Zoologist to the Government of India and Professor of Biology, {Apterygota. University of Allahabad. Author of A General Textbook of Entomology; etc.

A. D. Mrtcuett, D.Sc., F.LC. bs . Assistant Editor to the Journal of the Chemical Society; Assistant Examiner in pAssociation (Chemistry). Chemistry, University of London and Institute of Chemistry.

A. E. M.

ARTHUR E. Morean, D.Sc. President Antioch College, Yellow Springs, O.

Author of The Mastery of the Arts

>Antioch College.

of Life; The Human Goal of Education; Antioch Notes.

A. E. P.

A. E. PopHam. Assistant Keeper, Department of Prints and Drawings, British Museum.

of The Drawings of the Early Flemish School, 1926. of The Vasari Society.

A. FI.

Author

A. Hu.

A. H. S.

A. J. B. W.

q

7

ALEXANDER FLEMING, M.B., B.Sc., F.R.C.S.

Te aa

ALFRED FRANCIS PRIBRAM, Pu.D.

l

Lecturer in Bacteriology, St. Mary’s Hospital Medical School, London.

A. F. P.

Aquatint

Honorary Secretary and Editor

and Asepsis (in

part).

;

;

f Austria-Hungary Gn part). Professor of Modern History in the University of Vienna. ARTHUR Hunter, LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.F.A. } e Vice President, New York Life Insurance Company, New York. Annuity (in part). REv. ARCHIBALD Henry Sayce, D.Lirt., LL.D., D.D. - ) Assur-Bani-Pal: Fellow of Queen’s College, Oxford. Professor of Assyriology, Oxford University, Babylonia anid F ria (i 1891-1919. Author of The Hittites; Early History of the Hebrews; Egyptian and Babylonian Religion; The Archaeology of Cuneiform Inscriptions; etc., etc.

ALAN Joun Bayard Wace, M.A.

Deputy Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Late Director of the British school of Archaeology, Athens. Norton Lecturer, American Archaeological Institute, 1923-4. Author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum; Prehistoric Thessaly.

y: part).

y

Athens (in

ue

part) part).

A. J. L.

ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX.

A. L.

Late Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Bahia. ANDREW LANG. } Journalist, poet, critic and historian. Author of Myth, Literature and Religion; The pApparitions. Book of Dreams and Ghosts; etc. -

A. Le.

ANDRE LEVINSON. Lecturer on Art at the Louvre and the Sorbonne, Paris.

A. L. K.

A. L. KROEBER, Pu.D. Professor of "Anthropology in the University of California. Clan; Anthropology.

-A. Lov.

A. LOVEDAY. Austria: Economic and IndusEconomic and Financial Section, League of Nations, Geneva. trial History. AGNES MARY CLERKE. | Late Hon. Member Royal Astronomical Society. Author of A Popular History of pAstronomy (in part).

A. M. C.

ne

Desert of;

? Bakst, Leon. Author of Zuni Kin and

ema ec.

F

Astronomy during the roth Century; The System of the Stars; Problems in Astrophysics.

A. Me.

A. N. J. W.

A. P-K. A. P. W.

ANTOINE MEILLET. Membre de l'Institut, Professeur au Collège de France, Paris. A. NEVILLE Tr ae ea i a -

iArmenian Language. a

ar

Professor o inese and Oriental Philosophy in Hosei University, Tokyo. Member of Council of the Asiatic Society of Japan. Sometime Davis Chinese Scholar, Uni- pee versity of Oxford. Editorial Staff, r4th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Author of part). * The Oceanic Theory of the Origin of the Japanese Language and People; etc.

A. PERRY-KEENE, F.C.W.A., M.I.P.E. Cost Controller of the Austin Motor Company, Limited, Longbridge, Birmingham. CoLONEL ARCHIBALD PERCIVAL WAVELL, C.M.G., M.C.

Late The Black Watch. General Staff Officer, War Office, London. British Military Attaché on the Caucasus Front, Nov. 1916—June 1917. General Staff Officer and Brigadier General, General Staff, with Egyptian Expeditionary Force, 1917—20.

$

7. C3 and Assyria (in

fAustin Motor Company. Army (in part)

.

INITIALS

AND

OF CONTRIBUTORS

NAMES

A. S.

A. SAFRASTIAN.

A. S. E.

Str ARTHUR STANLEY Epprneton, D.Sc., F.R.S.

Plumian Professor of Astronomy, Cambridge University.

tory, Cambridge.

Fellow of Trinity College.

|

History;

eae

Asia Minor: History (in part).

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Bitlis, Kurdistan.

,

Director of the Observa-

Senior Wrangler, 1904, and Smith’s |Astronomy (in part);

President of the Royal Astronomical Society, London, 1921-3. | Astrophysics. Prizeman, 1907. of Editor of the Astronomy Section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Author È Stellar Movements and the Structure of the Universe.

A.T.

Bainville, Jacques.

ALBERT THIBAUDET.

Professor of French Literature at the University of Geneva.

y tmy

A. T. P.

A. T. PoFFENBERGER, Pu.D., Sc.D.

Applied Psychology.

A. v. L. C.

Asia:

A. W. G. W.

ALBERT VON LE Coa. Late Director of the Ethnological Museum in Berlin. A. W. G. WILSON.

A. Wo.

ABRAHAM WorrT, M.A., D.LiırtrT.

Professor of Psychology, Columbia University, New York. Author of Psychology in Advertising; Applied Psychology, Its Principles and M ethods.

Asbestos.

Mineral Resources Division, Department of Mines, Ottawa, Canada.

Professor of Logic and Scientific Method

in the University of London;

ee ‘IA ~

Apprehension; A Priori and A Posteriori; Association of Ideas;

sometime

Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge; Fellow of University College, London. Editor of the Philosophy and Psychology Section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Author of The Oldest Biography of Spinoza.

A. W. R.

Srr ALEXANDER Woop Renton, G.C.M.G., K.C., M.A., LL.B.

B. H. L. H.

Caprain B. H. Lippert Hart, F.R.Hist.S. — Military Historian and Critic; Military Correspondent to the Daily Telegraph. Editor

B. Re.

Miss BERTHA RemBaucz, A.M., LL.B.

C. A. M.

CARLILE AYLMER MACARTNEY.

Associationism or Associationist Psychology; Attention. ~~

Puisne Justice Supreme Court, and Procureur and Advocate-General, Mauritius, Arbitration (in part). 1901-5; Ceylon, 1905-15; Chief Justice, 1914; etc., etc. Author of Law and Practise ——_ of Lunacy; editor of Encyclopaedia of English Law, etc.

; pAspern-Essling, Battle of.

of the Military Section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

C. E. C.

Archaeology.

Lawyer.

a (in part);

Bail (in part).

Author of Political Status of Woman in Untied States.

|Aquileia ; Asen;

l Austria-Hungary: Consu Austria, 1921-6, for Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. H.B.M. Acting Viceand Passport Control Officer 1922-5. Author of The Social Revolution in A ustria.) Avars. MAJOR-GENERAL SIR CHARLES EDWARD CALLWELL, K.C.B. Director of Military Operations at the War Office, London, 1914-6. Author of pBalkan Wars.

History; i

Small Wars; The Dardanelles; etc.

C. E. C. F.

C. E. C. FISCHER.. Assistant Botanist on Indian Botany, Kew Herbarium, formerly Conservator of pAsia (in part).

C. E. Cl.

CHARLES E. CLARK, LL.B., M.A. Dean of the Law School, Yale University.

Forests, Madras Presidency.

United States.

rAppeal:

Author of Code Pleadings; Co-author

Probate Law and Practice in Connecticut.

C. El.

SIr CHARLES Norton EpccumsE Error, G.C.M.G., P.C., C.B., M.A., D.Litt. Principal of the University of Hong-Kong, 1912; H.M. High Commissioner, Siberia, 1918-9; British Ambassador to Japan, 1919-26. Author of A Finnish Grammar; Turkey in Europe; Hinduism and Buddhism; etc.

C. E. P. Brooxs, D.Sc. (Lonn.), F.R.A.I. Honorary Secretary, Royal Meteorological Society.

C. E. T.

C. E. Trey, B.Sc. (Adelaide), B.Sc. (Sydney), Pa.D. (Cambridge), F.G.S. Lecturer in Petrology, University of Cambridge.

eee

CHARLES Francis ATEINSON,

C. Ff.

e

C. G. S.

CHARLES GABRIEL SELIGMAN, M.D., F.R.C.P.,-F.R.S.

C. H. To.

CHarres H. TownseEnp, Sc.D.

C. J.L.

Scholar of

Anorthoclase;

Augite ;

Australia:

C. F. A.

ajor, late East Surrey Regiment. The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.

History.

gas sa }Asia (in part).

C. E. P. B.

C. J.G.

Asia:

ae

.

Queen's College, Oxford. z -

: Author of a A

Geology.

Éa ,

1h); Succession, War of

ın part), Joan Po O.B.E., B.Lirt., F.S.A. urator of the Tower Armouries since 1913; Curator and Secretary of the Imperial | 4; War Museum since 1917; Adviser to the Admiralty on Heraldry and Design Gee Arms and Armour. 1918. Author of Armour and Weapons; The Armourer and Hts Craft.

Director, New York Aquarium. Fishing Expert, Russo-American Arbitration, The Hague. Author of The Public Aquarium—Iis Construction and Management. C. J. Gapp, M.A.

Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. Sır CHARLES James Lyart, K.C.S.I., C.LE., LL.D. (Epin.),

Late Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office, and Fellow of King’s

College, London.

Secretary to Government of India in Home Department. 188

Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-8. Ancient Arabic Poetry; etc.

Applied:

Anihroasl

of London. Foroe T Pinnobey, Fondai aao of Se oo f Th | Anthropological Institute. Aut the Royal merly President of eager eo pnp pe of British New Guinea.

Author et Teanslanons of

f

oS ogy, } Azande, The.

Applied;

-Aquarium: } i Unites o ales; A

: Babylonian Law.

Arabic Lit

a

i

INITIALS C. J. Sh.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Rev. CHARLES JOHN SHEBBEARE, M.A. Rector of Stanhope, Co. Durham. Chaplain to H.M. the King. Member of the Archbishop’s Doctrinal Commission. Wilde Lecturer in Comparative Religion in the

University of Oxford (1924-7). Lecturer in Pastoral Theology in the University of Cambridge (1926). Author of Religion in an Age of Doubt.

CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D-Ès-L.

C. Pf. C.P

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Études sur le Règne de Robert le Pieux.

O.

vil

i Atheism.

Author of Antrustion; Austrasia.

CHARLES P. Orrvrer, M.A., PH.D. Director of Flower Observatory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Founder

pAurora Polaris.

of American Meteor Society. Author of Meteors.

C. Pr.

Cart Pray, B.L., M.A. Head of Department of History and the Social Sciences, Michigan State Normal

: ; ; >Argentina: History (in part).

College, Ypsilanti, Mich.

C. Si.

CHARLES SINGER, M.D., D.Lrrt., F.R.C.P. Lecturer in the History of Medicine, University College, University of London.

-Bacon, Francis.

Author of Greek Biology and Greek Medicine.

C. V. B. M. C. Wa.

C. V. B. MARQUAND. | Asia: Flora (in part). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, SIR CHARLES WALDSTEIN, M.A., D.Lirt., Pu.D. Late Slade Professor of Fine Art, Cambridge; Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge. | 4, os (in part)

C. W. D.

Director of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1883-9. Director of the American Archaeological School at Athens, 1889-93. C. W. Dannatt, D.I.C., A.R.S.M. Lecturer in Assaying, Royal School of Mines, Imperial College of Science and Technology, London.

C. W. W.

Sır CuarLEs Wirrram Wirson, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S.

Late British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Commission.

£

i pAssaying.

i

nee

i

Director-General |Asia Minor: History (in

of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-94. Director-General of Military Education, 1895-8. Author of From Korti to Khartum; Life of Lord Clive; etc.

Cyrit Lopowric Burt, M.A., D.Sc. Psychologist to the London County Council.

A

part).

, Author of The Distribution of Educa- pBackward Children.

tional Abilities; Mental and Scholastic Tests; The Young Delinquent.

DaAvID EUGENE Sm1tH, Px.D. Professor Emeritus of Mathematics,

Teachers College, Columbia University,

York. Editor for Mathematics, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica, History of Mathematics; Progress of Arithmetic in Twenty-five Years.

D. E. Sh.

DoroTHEA E. SHarp, Pu.D.(Oxon).

D. F. T.

Donatp F. Tovey, Mus.Doc. Reid Professor of Music in Edinburgh University.

D. G. H.

Davip GEorcE Hocarrs, M.A., C.M.G., D.Litt.

af Arithmetic.

Author of

Bacon, Roger. iAria;

Bach, J. S. (in part).

Late keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford; Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford; | a ota Minor: History (in Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1889 and i f 1903; Ephesus, 1904-5; Assiut, 1906-7. Director, British School at Athens, 1897part). 1900; Director Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.

Davip Hannay.

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona.

ott

Author of Short History of Royal Navy,

as

>Bainbridge, William.

1217-1688; Life of Don Emilio Castelar. Guild, S Society T Tempera P Painters;; Ex-P Ex-Principal,lH OeArt WiWorkers’ srkers’ Guild,

Hampstea

arden d Gard

Suburb School of Arts and Crafts; Royal College of Art, South Kensington. of Miniatures; Tradition and Modern Schools, etc.

:

Author

D. L, O’L.

Tue Rev. Dz Lacy Evans O’Leary, M.A., D.D.

D. R-M.

Arabic Thought and Its Place in History; Arabia Before Muhammad; etc. T D. Ranpatt-MacIver, M.A., D.Sc., F.S.A. Curator of Egyptian De artment, University of Pennsylvania, Formerly Worcester LAPP

Lecturer in Bristol University.

Reader in Egyptology,

D. S-S. D. Y. T.

a

Author of Apostolic Constitutions; Syriac Church;

pArabia;

Üniversity of Oxford. Author of Mediaeval Rhodesia; etc.

Archaeology. : ; Apulian Geometric

PUEY

Davip SetH-SmiTH, F.Z.S., M.B.O.U. Curator of Animals and Birds, Zoological Society, London. Davip YANcEY Tuomas, M.A., Px.D.

i Aviary.

Professor of History and Political Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Ark.

Author of One Hundred Years of the Monroe Doctrine; Arkansas in War and Reconstruction, 1861-1874.

Arkansas. ——

E. A.

CAPTAIN EDWARD ALTHAM, C.B., R.N.

E. B.

ERNEST BARKER, M.A., D.Litt., LL.D. Formerly Principal of King’s College, London.

i

,

ey

Secretary and Chief Executive Officer, Royal United Service Institution since 1927. Senior Naval Officer, Archangel River Expeditions, 1918~9. Secretary and Editor Argentina: Defence, Navy. of the Journal of the Royal United Service Institution. Editor for Naval Affairs, -——_/ ee, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

bridge, and Fellow of Peterhouse.

E. Ben.

:

Art Teaching (in part).

E. BENVENISTE.

: = Professor of Political Science, Cam-

Author of Greek Political Theory; The Crusades.

Professor of Comparative Philology, École des Hautes Études, Paris.

Aristotle; Aulic Council; pBaldwin L; | Baldwin IL.,

Baldwin MI.

Asianic Languages. Vernet

INITIALS

vill

OF CONTRIBUTORS

NAMES

AND

Ardashir;

Artabanus;

Ed. M.

Epuarp Mever, D.Lrrt.

E. E. L.

E. E. Lone, C.B.E.

E. F. L.

Epwarp F. Law, A.R.S.M.

E. G. B.

EDWARD GRANVILLE Browne, M.A., M.R.C.S., M.R.A.S

E. G. Bo.

E. G. BOULENGER.

E. I. J.

E. Isserson James, O.B.E., M.A.

E. J. B.

sea

E. L. F.

Ernest L. FRANKLIN, J. P. Partner in the banking firm of Samuel Montagu, London.

Author of Geschichte des Artaxerxes; Astyages; Bactria.

Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Alterihums; etc.

ae

Baga

irda

Foreign Office, as Officer-in-Charge Eastern Section, News Department, Special Correspondent, 1924-5.

À

Fricti

`

?

Anti-Friction Metals

Chemists. Messrs. Riley, Harbord and Law, Consulting Metallurgists and

College, \paniism., Late Sir Thomas Adams, Professor of Arabic and Fellow of Pembroke Episode of the Cambridge. Author of A Traveller's Narrative Written to Illustrate the Béb; The New History of Mirzé Ali Muhammed the Báb.

Author of Reptiles and Bairachians; Queer -Aquarium (in part).

Fish; The Aquarium Book; etc.

,

,

member Sometime British Consul Officer, Allied Supreme Economic Council; later Geneva. of Secretariat of League of Nations and International Labour Office, Editorial Staff, London, 14th Edition, Encyclopædia Britannica.

Joun FgSeabee D.D.

5

:

N

,

Director Zoological Society’s Aquarium.

5

E

tnd

Sdi

University, since London King’s College, Exegesis, Testament New rofessor of 1928. Author of A Theological Introduction to the Thirty-nine Articles; The Christian Idea of Sin and Original Sin; etc.

Author of the article

Aytoun, William E. 3 ” 66 sacs Athanasius “The Great.

, Arbitrage (în part).

Exchanges, Foreign, in the Twelfth Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

E. M. T.

Srp Epwarp Maunpve Tuompson, G.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D., F.B.A.

Director and Principal Librarian of the British Museum, 1888-1909. Joint Editor of Publications of Palaeographical Society. Author of An Introduction to Greek and Latin Palaeography; Shakespeare's Handwriting.

E. N. da C. A. EDWARD NEVILLE DA COSTA ANDRADE, D.Sc., Pa.D., F.Inst.P. Quain Professor of Physics in the University of London. Author of The Structure of the Atom; The Mechanism of Nature, etc. Encyclopedia Britannica.

E. Rh.

ERNEST RHYS.

E. Ro.

EDWARD ROBERTSON, M.A.

E. V. L.

EDWARD VERRALL LUCAS.

E. V. S.

E. V. SHEPARD,

Author.

Autographs

i

Arrhenius, Svante

Editor, Physics Section, 14th Edition, | August.

}Author.

Editor of Everyman's Library.

lBáaibek

Professor of Semitic Languages, University College of North Wales.

Writer and Chairman of Methuen and Company, Publishers, London. an edition of the Works and Letters of Charles and Mary Lamb.

Editor of Austen, Jane,

:

S.B.

:

F. A.G.

President Shepard’s Studio, Inc., New York. Card Editor of several publications, |AuctionPitch. Ernest Wiırrrtam MacBRIDE, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. Professor of Zoology, Imperial College of Science, South Kensington, London. For- Balanoglossus. merly Strathcona Professor of Zoology at McGill University, Montreal. Author of A Text Book of Zoology; etc. } F. A. Goutp, M.A.

F. A. M. W.

CAPTAIN F. A. M. WEBSTER.

F. B. A.

F. B. ALLEN.

F. C. B.

Fraxncrs Crawrorb BurKITT, D.D, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

E. W. MacB.

;

Senior Assistant in the Metrology Teddington, Middlesex.

Department,

National

Physical

Laboratory,

Athletics, Women in; Athletic Sports (in part).

Joint Editor of The Blue Magazine, London, and writer on Athletics.

. Ash Handling.

Allen-Sherman-Hoff Company, Philadelphia.

Fellow of the British Academy.

Norrisian

Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge.

F. C. C. F. De.

Balance.

FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals. F. DEBENHAM, O.B.E. Lecturer on Geography and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.

F. E. F.

FeLrrx EvcEN Frirrscs, D.Sc., Pa.D. Professor of Botany in the University of London.

F. E. Wh.

F. Epson WHITE.

Apocalypse.

; : . Armenian Literature (in part). Antarctic Regi }

a a

Author of An Iniroduction to the Bacillariales. Study of Plants; An Introduction to the Structure and Reproduction of Plants; ete.

F. F.

President of Armour and Company, Chicago. } Armour and Company. FERDINAND Focu, O.M., Granp Cross LEGION OF HONOUR. Late Marshal of France. Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Armies in France, World -Army—WMorale in War.

F. G. P.

FREDERICK GYMER Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.S.A.

War, 1918. Author of Les Principles de la Guerre. Professor of Anatomy, University of London; Lecturer on Anatomy at St. Thomas’s

Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. President, Anatomical Arteries. Society of Great Britain and Ireland; Vice-President, Royal Anthropological Institute. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.

INITIALS FREDK. HORNER.

Consulting Engineer.

NAMES

AND

1X

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Contributor to The Times Engineering Supplement, London; Axle.

Engineering; Machinery.

FreD H. COLVIN. Editor, American Machinist, New York.

. . Automatic Machines,

Author of American Machinists’ Handbook;

Aircraft Handbook; Machine Shop Operations; The Working of Steel.

F. J. Hu.

F. J. HUDDLESTON.

F. J. McC.

Fraxcis J. McConneEttz, Px.D., D.D., LL.D. Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, Pittsburgh, Pa.

F. P.

FRANK PODMORE, M.A.

F. R. C.

FRANK RICHARDSON CANA, F.R.G.S.

}

Late Librarian, War Offce, London.

Balaclava.

i pAsbury, Francis.

Author of Diviner

Immanence; Religious Certainty; Christtan Focus; The Increase of Faith.

iAutomatic Writing.

Author of Studies in Psychical Research; Modern Spiritualism; etc. Editorial Staff of the Encyclopedia Britannica, Times, London, since 1916.

1903-11 and 1914-5; staff of The CAshanti:

Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Unton;

History.

°

The Great War in Europe; The Peace Settlement.

F. R. W. H.

F. R. W. Hunt, M.A.

G.A.R. C.

G. A. R. CALLENDER, M.A., F.S.A.

G. B. E.

roti

Professor, Artillery College, Woolwich.

}Ballistics.

Armada, The (in part);

Secretary to the Society for Nautical Research. Professor at the Royal Naval College, pAustrian Succession (in Greenwich. part). ; i ; GEORGE B. ErrrorTrT, C.E., L.B.

President, Atlantic Coast Line Railroad Company and Atlantic Land and Improve-Atlanti Coast Line Railroad

ompany.

ment Company, New York.

G. Co.

G. E. B. G. G. A.

G. CoNTENEAU, D-Ès-L., M.D.

ee

Chats’ de Missions Archeologiques en Syrie; Conservateur adjoint au Musée du Asia Minor: Archaeology. ouvre. GEORGE EARLE BUCKLE, M.A. Balfour, Arthur James (in Editor of Letters of Queen Victoria; Author of The Life of Disraeli. part).

MAJOR-GENERAL Sir GEORGE G. Aston, K.C.B.

Lecturer on Naval History, University College, University of London. Professor of Fortification at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich.

G. G. S. G. H. G.

Land and Air Strategy; The Navy of To-day.

Formerly

,

(Australia:

Author of Sea, | Austria:

Editor of The Study of War.

GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A., LL.D. Professor of English Literature at Queen’s University, Belfast. G. H. GUTTERIDGE, M.A.(CANTAB).

Professor of History at Berkeley, California, U. S. A. Author of The Colonial Policy of William III in America and The West Indies (Choate Memorial Prize Essay);

; \ Ballad (in part). Bahamas:

Life of David Hartley, the American Patriot.

G. McL. Wo.

Histor

°

Y-

i

GreorcE McLane Woon.

Editor, United States Geological Survey, Washington.

Potomac Telephone Company.

Defence; Defence.

Secretary Chesapeake and

Author of Texts for United States Geological Survey.

G. R. D.

G. R. DRIVER.

G. R. de B.

GAVIN RYLANDS DE BEER, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., F.R.G.S.

Professor of Comparative Semitic Philology, University of Oxford.

Corresponding Member of Zoological Society. Fellow of Waltham College, Jenkinson Lecturer in Embryology and Senior Demonstrator in Zoology, University of Oxford.

Geology.

>Argentina:

: }Assyrian Language.

wise a

,

Axial Gradients.

G. R. RUDOLF.

Average Adjuster. Past Chairman of the Association of Average Adjusters. Joint- Average. editor of Loundes’ Law of General Average. ` GRANT SHOWERMAN, Pu.D. Professor of Latin in the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin. Author of Attis. The Great Mother of the Gods.

G. Sc.

G. ScHOTT. Oceanographer, German Naval Observatory, Hamburg. graphy, University of Hamburg.

Hon. Professor of Oceano-

G.T. M.

GILBERT T. Morcan, O.B.E., F.R.S.

G. W. Gi.

GEORGE WATERS GILBERTSON, MAJOR, INDIAN Army SERVICE Corrs (Retired).

G. W.T.

REV. GRIFFITHS WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D.

Director, Chemical Research Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, London. Formerly Mason Professor of Chemistry, University of Birmingham, Professor in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry, Royal College of Science for Ireland, Professor of Applied Chemistry, Technical College, Finsbury. Author of Organic Compounds of Arsenic and Antimony. Editor of the Chemistry Section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Author of The Balochi Language; English-Balochi Colloquial Dictionary. '

Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N. S. W.

Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.

H. A. H.

H. A. R.G.

HOWARD ARCHIBALD HUBBARD, A.B., PH.D.

| Atlantic Ocean.

Antimony; Antipyrine; Aqua Regia; Arsenic; Atomic Number; Azo Compounds.

:

}Balochi Language. Arabia:

:

Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old

aa

haa

History (in part);

s

dama a

Be

ee

(in pari),

arizona Professor of History and Head of the Department of History and Political Science, \ University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. H. A. R. GIBB. Arabic Literature (in part). Lecturer in Arabic (Classical) School of Oriental Studies, University of London.

H.C. H. D. N. H. E. A.

OF CONTRIBUTORS

NAMES

AND

INITIALS

X

:

Hucu CHISHOLM, M.A.

i

Balfour, Arthur James (in

l

Editor of the 11th and 12th editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica. : H. DARNLEY NAYLOR, M.A.

i

part). i straha: Histöry:

A.B. E. Acnew, HuenChairman of the Department

merce, Accounts and Finance.

H. F. P.

Henry FRANCIS PELHAM.

H. H.

HEBER Hart, K.C., LL.D.

H. J. E. P.

H.

H. J. F.

HERBERT JOHN FLEvRE, D.Sc.

H. J. R.

H. J. Rose, M.A.

TORY

Austr

Emeritus Professor of Classics in the University of Adelaide, South Australia.

Advertising; Association ; A

of Marketing, New York University Schools of Com-

:

Author of Co-operative Advertising by Competitors.) Audit Bureau of Circulation.

Late Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford and Presi-Augustus. dent of Trinity College. Author of Outlines of Roman History.

arene and Auctioneers (in

Recorder of Ipswich since 1915, Bencher of the Middle Temple.

J. E. PEAKE,

part).

M.A., F.S.A.

Ie President of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland.

Archaeology (i part).

Professor of Geography and Anthropology, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. Hon. Secretary, Geographical Association and Hon. Editor of Geography. Author of Human Geography in Western Europe; etc. Editor of the Geographical Section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

. Asia: Geography.

Professor of Greek, University of St. Andrews, Fife. Fellow and Lecturer of Exeter College, Oxford, 1907-11. Associate Professor of Classics, McGill University,

1911-5.

Professor of Latin, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth,

.

}

:

1919-27.

-Anthology (im part).

Author of The Roman Questions of Plutarch; Primitive Culture in Greece; Primitive Culture in Italy; A Handbook of Greek Mythology and several articles in Hastings’ Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics and various periodicals.

H. J. S.

H. L. Mo.

H. M. T.

Howarp JAMES SAVAGE, A.M., Pa.D.

: : Athletic Sports: United S

Staff Member, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, New York. In charge of Carnegie Foundation College athletic enquiries. Author of Games and Sports in British Schools and Universities. H. L. Morrow. Assistant Editor, John O’London's Weekly.

taies.

:

.

Australian Literature.

Horace M. Towner, LL.B.

iArecibo.

H. R. H.

Harry Recinatp Horranp Hatt, M.A., D.Litt., F.B.A., F.S.A.

?

H. S. P.

Miss H. S. PEARSON. Senior Assistant, Department of Zoology, University College, London.

Artiodactyla.

Governor of Porto Rico.

Keeper of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities in the British Museum.

;

Archaeology (in pari).

H. St. J. B. P. Harry Sr. JoHN BRIDGER PuItBy, C.I.E., F.R.G.S., I.C.S. (retired). Explorer in Arabia. Author of The Heart of Arabia; Arabian Mandates; The Truth -Arabia (in part). about Arabia.

H. T. B.

H. W.C,

I. F. D. M. J. A. A. J.A. R.M. J. Bar.

Henry T. Bartey, A.D., Hon.Litt.D.

Painter and Illustrator. Director, the Cleveland School of Art and the John Hun- Jan Teaching: tington Polytechnic Institute. Author of Art Education; Photography and Fine Ari; The Magic Realm of the Aris; Symbolism for Artists (with Ethel Pool).

HARVEY WILEY CorBETT, F.R.I.B.A., F.A.LA. Lecturer in Architecture, Columbia University.

Past

President,

I. F. D. Morrow, Pu.D.

J. A. ArkwrRicHT, M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S.

fpadon: m pari)

-

) Bacteria

Bacteriologist at the Lister Institute, London.

ee

f

eae

on. Fellow, Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Worcester College, Oxford. Secretary to Oxford University Extension Delegacy, 1895-1920. Author of The Re-Making of Modern Europe; Economics and Ethics. Joserm Barcrorr, C.B.E., M.A.(CantTas.), B.Sc.(Lonpon), M.D., F.R.S. Professor of Physiology, Cambridge

University. Author of The Respiratory Function of the Blood; etc. Physiology Section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

J. C. G. L.

J. D.B.

Editor of the

JouN BAGNELL Bory, D.Lirt., LL.D., D.C.L.

Late Regius Professor of Modern History in the University of Cambridge. of Gibbon’s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1896-1900).

OR

ee Oe

Pe

a

M.B., eE

Editor

James Davo Bourcutsr, M.A., F.R.G.S.

and

Disease

(i

part)

. Baldwin, Stanley. Anoxaemia

-Baldwin I.

Ta D.Sc., F.R.S.

rofessor of Bacteriology an ief Bacteriologist, Lister Institute, University of London; formerly in charge of Bacteriological Department, King George Hospital, London. Consulting Bacteriologist in Mesopotamia, 1917. Joint author of The Carrier Problem in Infectious Diseases. Late Correspondent of The Times, London, in South-Eastern Europe.

J.F. C.F..

Architecture.

l

Formerly Senior Moderator, Trinity College, Dublin.

Fellow and Lecturer, King’s College, Cambridge.

J. B. B.

Architectural

League of N.Y.; Member, Fine Arts Commission, State of New York. Member of the Firm of Helmle & Corbett, New York. Architect of Bush Terminal Office Building (New York); Bush House (London). Editor for Architecture Section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

SIR JORN eae

United States.

. oe part).

Athens oa

and

. Disease

° (in

(in part); pore

COLONEL JOHN FREDERICK CHARLES FULLER, C.B.E., D.S nataoa Aaai to the gas of at ape General Staff, ae Generai sar Laomog Siege of; cer, Lank Corps, 1917-8. Formerly Chief Instructor, Staff College, Camberley. ; Author of The Reformation of War; Sir John Moore's System of Train: ate, ao J SEA PAROL

(in part).

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

J. G. D.

J. G. Buttocks, M.A. Civilian Lecturer, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Capt. J. G. DOLLMAN.

J. G. S.

JomN GARIBALDI SARGENT, A.M., LL.D.

J. H.

Joan Hitton.

J. Ha.

Miss J. Hatrorn, O.B.E.

J. G. B.

xI

OF CONTRIBUTORS

War of, Austrian Succession, (în part). Antelope. }

Natural History Museum, South Kensington.

Attorney-General:

United

States.

Attorney-General of the United States Department of Justice, Washington.

`

see

}

j Associations, Industrial.

Director of Statistics, Ministry of Labour, London. Hon. Secretary, National League for Health, Maternity and Child Welfare, National

Baby Farming.

Association for the Prevention of Infant Mortality and Association of Infant Welfare

and Maternity Centres.

J.H. A.H.

Joun Henry Artuur Hart, M.A,

Asmoneus.

Formerly Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

genet!

J. H. H.

J. H. Hurrton, D.Sc., C.LE.

J. H. Mo.

J. H. Morcar, KC. Professor of Constitutional Law in the University of London; Reader in Constitu-

Director of Ethnology, Assam.

Deputy Commissioner, Naga Hills.

Author of The

Angami Nagas; The Sema Nagas; etc.

Asia: Anthropology, Faxther SomesAsta.

Attorney-General (in part).

tional Law to the Inns of Court. Brigadier General, late Deputy Adjutant-General. Editor of Law Section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica,

J. Ho.

Joser HOFFMAN. Professor at the School of Industrial Arts at Vienna. Werkstätte.

Art Director of the Wiener pArt Teaching (in pari).

Architect of many public and private buildings.

Apennines (in part);

J. I. P.

J. I. Pratt, M.Sc., F.G.S.

J. J. R.

J. J. Runner, Pu.D. Professor of Geology, State University of Iowa.

J. L. My.

J. L. Mvres, O.B.E., M.A., D.Sc. Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford.

Atlas Mountains.

Lecturer in Geology, University of Wales, Aberystwyth.

BadLands. |

J. N. K.

Miss J. L. Weston, D.Litt. Author of Arthurian Romances. CAPTAIN J. N. KENNEDY.

J. P. E.

ESMEIN. ADHÉMAR JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL : San :

J.L. W.

Argos (in part).

General Secre-

tary, British Association for the Advancement of Science.

, }Arthurian Legend. i i

}Artillery (im part).

War Office, London.

, Appanage; as Late Professor of Law in the University of Paris; Officer of the Legion of Honours

Membre de l'Institut. Author of Cours élémentaire d'histoire du droit français.

J. P. Ea.

Joun P. Earnest, A.M., LL.M.

J. Re.

Joser REDLICH.

J. R. Mor. J. R. P.

J. S.

d

. T. F.

J. V. B.

J. Wi.

Professor of Law, George Washington University, Washington, Member of the American Bar Association.

Lecturer in Public Law and Administration in the University of Vienna. Joun R. MORRON. President, Atlas Portland Cement Company, New York. James Rrppick PartincTon, M.B.E., D.Sc. Professor of Chemistry, East London College, University of London. A Textbook of Inorganic Chemistry for University Students.

Austria-Hungary (in part).

Atlas Portland Cement Company. Author of Atmosphere.

President of the Executive, London, Midland and Scottish Railway. Member of the British Royal Commission on Income Tax, 1919; of the Committee of Taxation and National Debt, 924. British Representative on the Reparations Commission's Committee on German Currency and Finance, 1924, and of the Committee of Experts, Paris, 1929. Author of Wealth and Income of the Chief Powers; etc.

Joun THomson Farts, A.B., D.D.

Balance of Trade (in part).

.

.

PhitebAstington National CemeEditor of the publications of the Presbyterian Board of Christian Education, tery. delphia. Author of Seeing Canada; When America Was Young.

James Vernon BARTLET, M.A., D.D. Professor Emeritus of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. AMES Wrrramson, M.I.C.E. J

Member of the firm of Sir Alexander Gibb and Partners, London.

Koyrro Tomita. Keeper of Japanese Art, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Japanese Art.

L. B. B.

Lroner Barney BuppEN, M.A., ARI.B.A

L. D. S.

Arson (in part).

SIr Josram Cuartes Stamp, G.B.E., F.B.A., D.Sc.

K.T.

L. C. M.

Attorney at Law;

aiia

Bailiff and Bailie (in pari).

Lecturer on Chinese and

Associate Professor of Architecture, University of Liverpool.

Apostle e P !

A queducts.

Art:

Far Eastern Methods.

}Architectural Education.

Armstrong (Sir W. G.), Whit: Sır Leo CurozzA Money, F.R.S.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. \ worth and Co., Ltd.; Author of Things that Matter; The Nation's Wealth. Baldwins, Ltd. M.I.T.P. F.G.S., A.K.C., D.Sc., B.A., Stamp, Duptry LAURENCE Arakan. Reader in Economic Geography in the University of London. Author of An Introduction to Stratigraphy.

L. E. B.

Rev. L. Errrorrt Binns, D.D,

Vicar of Gedney, Lincs.

; part). }Balaam (in

Xil L. F. S.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

L. F. SALZMAN, M.A., F.S.A. | Hon. Editor, Sussex Archaeological Society. Author of Mediaeval English Industries;

, , pAucassin and Nicolette.

L. H. Duprey BUXTON, M.A.

Asia: Anthropology, Central,

English Life in the Middle Ages.

L. H. D. B.

Lecturer

Asia.

L. J. M.

īst aoo

in Physical Anthropology,

University of Oxford.

Author of Peoples of

North and East;

Asia Minor: Lieutenant, pera

Department, Washington, Washington, D. D. C. C. Started Started flying flying in Corps,Corps, War War Depart i

Air

-o4

Army in 1917; won second place in the Pulitzer Trophy Race, 1922; broke world’s speed record, March 1923; the first non-stop flight, United States to Hawaii, 1927.|

L. J. S.

LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., ScD., F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.S.

L. P.

Lovise Poun,

,

A.M., Pa.D.

i

LAWRENCE R. DicxsEr, M.Com., F.C.A.

Balance Sheets (in part).

L. S. RicHarpson, B.S.

Assistant Chief, Press Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Wash-

Apple (in part).

ington.

L. W.

Lucien Worr.

President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. essays on historical and political subjects.

L.W. G.

REV. LAURENCE WILLIAM GRENSTED, B.D.

i

Reader in Ancient History in the University of London.

Association, 1911-4.

M.

C.

W.

Secretary of the Classical

Variste(in part); -Aristeides;

Athens (in part).

Mires C. Burkitt, M.A., F.S.A. Lecturer for the Board of Archaeological and Anthropological Studies, Cambridge University.

ecturer.

}Archaeology:

Author of Prehistory.

Aton C: NORE, o

Auction

Bridge.

Stone A ge.

oaii

EE

T

Specializes in

E

>Anti-Semitism., }Atonement.

Max Cary, D.Lrrr.

M. C. B.

,

Author of many books and

Fellow and Chaplain of University College, Oxford.

M. C.

.

Ballad (in part).

Head of Sellars, Dicksee & Co.; Sir Ernest Cassel Professor of Accountancy and Business Organisation in the University of London, 1919-26. Dean of the Faculty of Economics in the University of London, 1925-6.

L. S. R.

n

;

a Racing RHES

Keeper of Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. | Apatite; Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. {Apophyllite. Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine. Professor of English Literature, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.

L. R. D.

s agn

a 1”

Author of Knights of the Air.

Ethnology.

Prominent as a member of committees that

f

‘

;

have drafted bridge laws. Author of Auction Bridge Complete; Contract Bridge; Bridge (Auction Bridge (in part).

Pointers and Tests.

M. E. P.

Editor of Auction Bridge Magazine.

MARLEN EDWIN PEw.

Associated Press.

Editor of The Editor and Publisher, New York.

M. F.

Martın Frack, C.B.E., M.A., M.B.

Aviation, Medical Aspects of.

Director of Medical Research, Royal Air Force.

M. H. C.

u w

MONTAGUE HUGHES CRACKANTHORPE, M.A., K.C., D.C.L. Late President of the Eugenics Education Society. Formerly Member of the General | Arbitration, International (in Council of the Bar and Council of Legal Education. College, Cambridge.

Honorary Fellow, St. John’s

part).

M.I. N.

Marron I. NEwsicrn, D.Sc. Editor of The Scottish Geographical Magazine. Author of A Geographical Study of the ‘Balkan Peninsula (in part).

M. J. De G.

KIATE

Peace Terms; Mediterranean Lands; etc. ate

N DE sah Protessor of Arabic at

i Leyden; Membre de l'Institut.

Editor of the Encyclo-

paedia of Islam (Vols. I-III). Author of Fragmenta historicorum Arabicorum; Diwan of Moslim, ibn al-Wālid; Bibliotheca geographorum Arabicorum.

M. Je.

—

ee

a

s

Arabic Literature (in part).

A.M.

rofessor of Geography, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Michigan. Contributin oo Geographical Review. Author of Man in Europe; Peopling the Areeni ampa.

saa. gre Argentina: History.

Marcus NæsBusrR Top, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford University. Lecturer in Epigraphy. Joint }Archidamus. Author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. Nrs HENRIK Borr. Head of the Institute for Theoretical Physics at Copenhagen. Physics, 1922.

Nartsan Isaacs, A.M., P.D., LL.D., S.J.D. Professor of Business Law, Harvard University. Problems; Course in Business Law.

N. W.T.

Nobel Prizeman fo baton.

Author of The Law in Business

Arbitration:

U nited States.

NORTHCOTE WuiITBRIDGE THomas, M.A. Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Société d’Anthropologie de Paris. Marriage in Australia.

Corresponding member of the ; Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and Automatism.

SYDNEY OLIVIER, 1st BARON OLIviER OF RAMSDEN, P.C., K.C.M.G., C.B. B.A., LL.D. Secretary for India, 1924. Late Governor of Jamaica.

Author of White Capital ss

Coloured Labour; The Anatomy of African Misery; The Empire Builder.

ahamas (in part).

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

OSCAR GOTTFRIED MAYER, A.B. President and General Manager of Oscar Mayer Company

(Packers), Chicago.

X11

>Bacon (in part).

Member of the Board of Directors of the Chicago Public Library.

O. G. S. CRAWFORD, F.S.A. Archaeology Officer of the British Ordnance Survey. Author of Man and His Past. }Archaeology: Air Survey. O. H. T. RISHBETH, B.A.(ApELAIDE), M.A.(Oxon.), F.R.G.S. Australia: Geomorphology, Professor and Head of the Department of Geography, University College, Southamp- ¢ Geography, Fauna and ton.

Flora, Economics.

PETER GORDON Brown, M.A.(EDIN.) Fellow of the Institute of Actuaries; Assistant Actuary, Government Actuary Annuity (in part). Department, London.

Paut G. Konopy. Art Critic of the Observer and The Daily Mail, London.

Author of Velasquez, His

rArt (tn part).

Life and Work; The Brothers Van ‘Eyck; Raphael; Fra Filippo Lippi; etc.

Percy H. SUMNER.

Technical Officer, Air Ministry. Captain, late Staff Officer, R.A.F. Author of Stream-

>Balloons in War.

line Kite Balloons; etc.

P. Hu.

Prevost HuBBARD.

P. La.

Purre Laxe, M.A., F.G.S. i Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University.

P. W. Z.

Chemical Engineer, The Asphalt Association, New York. Author of Dust Pre- pAsphalt. ventives and Road Binders; Laboratory Manual of Bituminous Materials.

Formerly of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian Asia: Geology. Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser’s Comparative Geology. P. W. ZIMMERMAN, M.S., Pa.D. Aiboretim: Scientific Research at the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Yonkers, Arboreal Mg N.Y. Author of Vegetative Plant Propagation. oriculture (in part).

JOHN WILLIAM STRUTT, 3RD BARON RAYLEIGH.

Professor of Natural Philosophy at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, 1887-

1905. Nobel Prizeman, 1904, and President of the Royal Society, 1905-8. Late Chan-

cellor of Cambridge University. scientific memoirs. Ra.

RoBERT JOHN STRUTT, 4TH BARON RayreicH, M.A., Hon.D.Sc.(Dusxin), F.R.S.

R. A. Sm.

REGINALD ALEXANDER SMITH.

R. B. K.

pArgon (in part).

Author of The Theory of Sound and numerous

Emeritus Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, South Kensington; Rumford Medallist of the Royal Society. Author of numerous scientific papers.

} Archaeology: Iron Age.

Keeper of British and Mediaeval Antiquities, British Museum.

, R. B. KesTER, A.M., Pa.D.

Professor of Accounting, School of Business, Columbia

Argon (in pari).

University, New St | a

Sheets (in pari)

In charge of Research and Publications, National Association of Cost Accountants Author of Accounting Theory and Practice; co-author of Fundamentals of Accounting

R. C. B.

R. C. J.

R. C. Brooxs, Pu.D. Professor of Political Science, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Penn. Author of Corruption in American Politics and Life; Political Parties and Electoral Problems. Sır RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, O.M., LL.D., D.C.L.

f >Baker, Newton Diehl.

Classical Scholar. Public Orator, Cambridge University, 1869-75, and Professor of Greek, 1889-1905. Author of Translations into Greek and Latin; The Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeus; Homer, an Introduction to the Iliad and Odyssey; etc., etc.

Aristophanes.

aasia

R. D. H.

R. Dawson HALL.

R. E.R.

R. Exrtrs Roserts, B.A. Author of A Roman Pilgrimage; Henrik Ibsen; The Other End; Life as Material;

}Anthracite (tn part).

Engineering Editor, Coal Age, New York.

-Autobiography.

Reading for Pleasure.

R.F. A. R.G.

R. Gi.

R. H. Ch.

}

ROBERT FRANZ ARNOLD, PH.D.

Professor of German Literature in the University of Vienna. RICHARD GARNETT, C.B., LL.D.

R. I. P.

l

Librarian and Author. Late Superintendent of the Reading Room, British Museum, London, and Keeper of the Printed Books. Co-editor with Edmund Gosse o Anthology (in part). English Literature. Author of A Chaplet from the Greek Anthology; Emerson; Multon; Essays in Librarianship and Bibliophily; etc., etc. l Sır ROBERT GIFFEN, K.C.B., F.R.S. Assistant-Editor with Walter Bagehot, of the Economist. Controller-general (1892-7) Bagehot, Walter; to the British Board of Trade. Author of Essays on Finance; The Progress of the Balance of Trade (in part). Working Classes; The Growth of Capital; etc., etc.

THE VEN. ROBERT ae

Formerly Fellow of

CARE Merton

-r P

College,

Oxford.

ET Archdeacon of

and Editor of Book of Enoch; Apocalypse of Baruch, etc. R. H. R.

:

Austrian Literature.

F.B.A. Westminster.

Rede Author

Apocalyptic Literature (in part);

gr

d

.

Sır Henry Rew, K.C.B.

Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 1898, Assistant Secretary, 1906-18. President, Royal Statistical Society, 1920-2; Secretary to the Ministry of Food, 1916-7; Chairman, Inter-Departmental Committee on Unemployment Insurance in Agriculture, 1925-6; Author of A Primer of Agricultural Economics.

REGINALD INNES Pocock, F.L.S., F.R.A.I., F.R.S. Natural History Editor of The Field and Temporary Assistant in the Zodlogical Department of the British, Museum since 1923.

|

;

es Literature (in

Bacon (in part).

Arachnida.

INITIALS

XIV R. M.

NAMES

AND

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Ropert Murr, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.(Epin.), F.R.S. Professor of Pathology, University of Glasgow. Author of Manual of Bacteriology;

ee

.

and

etc.

,

ae

Rev. RoBpeRtT MacxintosH, M.A., D.D.

(i d Disease Disease (in

of Apologetics. Professor at Lancashire Independent College and Lecturer in the University Manchester. Author of Essays Towards a New Theology; First Primer of Apologetics.

ROBERT NisBET BAIN. Assistant

Librarian,

British

Museum,

1883-1909.

a

Author of Scandinavia:

Political History of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden; The First Romanovs, 1613-1725. Slavonic Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from 1613 to 1725.

Bo Head EA ofaE the thsDept restot of Department

Garang. Uaiversiey ofShanda, Meraben oldie'Stot

the ScotMember of Shefheld. University of Geography, tish National Antarctic Expedition, 1902-4, and of the Scottish Arctic Expeditions, 1909, 1914. and 1919. Author of Spitsbergen.

te

R. N. W.

RALPH NICHOLSON WORNUM.

R. P.

RENE PouPARDIN, D-és-L.

R. P. E.

RosBERrT P. ELMER, M.D.

R. R.

Sır RICHARD A. STUDDERT REDMAYNE, K.C.B., M.Sc., M.Inst.C.E.

Keeper of the National Gallery, 1854-77.

i

The |Apraksin, Thedor

Author of The Epochs of Painting; etc.

Secretary of the École des Chartes; Honorary Librarian at the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris.

Matvyeevich.

. : . Arctic Regions (i part).

}Arabesque. Arles.

Archery.

Author of Archery.

Member, Past President, Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. Hon. Member, Surveyors’ Institute; Fellow, Royal Statistical Society. H.M. Chief Inspector of Mines, 1908-20. Author of The British Coal Industry.

| Anthracite (in pari).

ROBERT RANULPH Marett, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.I. Rector of Exeter College, Oxford; University Reader in Social Anthropology. Editor| Anthropology of Anthropology and the Classics.

Author of Anthropology.

R. Rob.

RoBERT Rosinson,

R. T.G.

R. T. Guntner,

R. U. L.

Raywonp U, Lica.

R. van O.

Major R. vAN OVERSTRAETEN, D.S.O.

R.

RAYMOND WILLIAM POSTGATE.

W.

P.

S. S. A. C.

F.R.S., D.Sc.

M.A., Hon.LL.D.,

|Anthocyanins.

:

;

F.R.G.S., F.L.S.

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Magdalen College, Oxford. Associate of the Britishparmisor Armillary Sphere; “S40%#D¢School at Rome. Curator of the Lewis Evans Collection of Scientific Instruments.)

}Argentina (in part).

Statistician, Harris Forbes and Company, New York.

|

Member of the Order of Leopold and of the Legion of Honour. Aide-de-Camp to Antwerp, Siege of. His Majesty the King of the Belgians. Graduate of the Belgian Staff College.

Editorial Staff, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Author of The Bolshevik Theory; Revolution from 1789 to 1906; The Builders’ History; ed. Pervigilium Venerts.

> Bakunin, Mikhail.

SAMUEL MONTAGU, ist BARON SWAYTHLING. ; . Founder, Firm of Samuel Montagu and Company, Bankers, London. } Arbitrage (in pari). STANLEY ARTHUR Coox, Lirt.D. University Lecturer in Hebrew and Aramaic; Fellow and Lecturer in Hebrew and Syr- pBaal (in part). iac, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.

S. G. P.

:

Professor of Organic Chemistry, London University.

Author of Religion of Anctent Palestine.

S. G. Parne, D.Sc. Assistant Professor of Bacteriology, Imperial College of Science and Technology,

Bacteriology.

London.

S. H. M.

SYDNEY HERBERT MELLONE, M.A., D.Sc. Lecturer, Manchester College, Oxford.

Examiner in Philosophy, Universities of St.

Andrews (1899-1902), London (1902-6), Edinburgh (1907-10), in Psychology, Edin- pAnthropomorphism.

burgh (1913-6). Lecturer in the University of Manchester, 1911-21. New Testament and Modern Life; etc.

S. L.

Author of The

STEPHEN HERBERT Lancpon, M.A., B.D., Pu.D. Professor of Assyriology, Oxford, since 1919. Curator in the University Museum, Babylonian Section, Philadelphia, 1916-8. Director of the Weld-Blundell and Field

Museum Expedition to Mesopotamia since 1922.

S. Le.

STUART Lewis, A.M., Pu.D., D.C.L., M.F.S. Professor of Law, New Jersey Law School.

Religion.

Assessore. Author of Party Principles and Practical

Politics; An Outline of American Federal Government.

S. M. V.

Assur: ? Babylonian and Assyrian

SAMUEL M. VAUCLAIN.

President, Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia, Pa.

E

Dared Siats TL U

AEE

Associate Justice. .

;

iBaldwin Locomotive Works.

S. P. B.

S. P. BOTTOMLEY.

}Autoplate.

S. Sm.

SYDNEY SMITH,

Babylonia and Assyria: t Arkae. = Armenian Liter j

S. T.

, Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities, British Museum. SARKIS TOPALIAN.

Lecturer in Armenian and Turkish, School of Oriental Studies, London.

S. T.H. W.

T. A.

Captain S. T. H. Witton, R.N. (retired). Late Assistant Director of Naval O ee Admiralty, London, E dere ee F.S.A., F.B.A.

i part).

seer

: . }Australia: Defence (in part).

ormerly Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Author of The R 2 ; Campagna in Classical Times; Turner's Visions of Rome; revised and completed for Apennines (in part). press a Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (by the late Prof. J. B. Plattner).

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

XV

T. A. L.

Rev. THOMAS ALEXANDER Lacey, M.A., D.D.,

T. A. S.

T. A. STEPHENSON, D.Sc. Senior Assistant in the Department of Zoology, University College, London. Sir THomas Barctay, LL.B., PH.D. Vice President, International Law Association. T. D. KENDRICK, M.A.

} Anthozoa. ee International (in part). :

T. E. W.

THomMas EARLE WELBY. Author and journalist.

gs Anthology: Modern.

T. F. H.

Tarsort F. Ha{mıin, B.A., B.ARCH.

Arcade;

T. B. T. D. K.

Canon of Worcester.

F.S.A

Author of The Anglo-Catholic Faith; etc.

}Augustine, Saint.

The Department of British and Mediaeval Antiquities, British Museum.

\Balearic Islands (in part).

A

Instructor in the History of Architecture, Columbia University, N.Y. Chairman, City Plan Committee, Merchants’ Association, New York. Author of The Enjoyment of Architecture; The American Spirit in Architecture.

Arch:

’ ie TA

THEODOR NÖLDEKE.

T. H. R.

THEODORE Henry Rosinson, M.A., D.D.

T. L. H.

Sır THOMAS LitrLe Hears, K.C.B. ` Formerly Assistant Secretary to the Treasury.

T. P. Ma.

Tomas P. Martin, A.M., Pu.D.

T. W.A.

Srr THomas WaLKER ARNOLD, C.I.E., M.A., Lirr.D., F.B.A. Late Professor of Arabic, University of London. Formerly Professor of Philosophy, Government College, Lahore. THEODORE WriLttam Ricwarps, Pu.D., LL.D., Caem,D., M.D. Late Professor of Chemistry and Director of the Walcott Gibbs Memorial Labora-

German Semitic Scholar.

Be

at

ai

Th. N.

ti

Professor of Oriental Languages at Strasbourg, 1872-1906, ¢Arabic Literature (in pari).

lArk

Professor of Semitic Languages, University College, Cardiff.

Fellow of Trinity College, Cam-

bridge. Author of A History of Greek Mathematics.

ie

.

of Congress, Washington.

Formerly Associate Professor of History, Boston

r

oe

‘

of Perga;

.

chimedes.

:

pAustin, Stephen Fuller.

niversity.

T. W. R. T. W. R. D.

tory, Harvard University. Nobel Prize for Chemistry, 1914. T. W. Rays Davms, M.A., Pa.D., LL.D., F.B.A. Late Professor of Comparative Religion in the University of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College, London, and President of the Pali Text Society. Secretary and Librarian of Royal Asiatic Society, 1885—1902. Author of Buddhism; etc.

V. H. B.

VERNON

ee

oe

Ser

V. S.

VILHJALMUR SteFANSSON, A.M., LL.D.

i

i

itai

aie

P

rofessor of Plant Physiology and Pathology, Imperial College of Science an Technology, London. Editor of the Botany Section, r4th Edition, Encyclopædia Bri-

; pArabic Language. Atomic Weights.

pAsoka.

. Apple (in part).

tannica.

W. A. P.

: Arctic Explorer. Commander of the Canadian Arctic Expedition under the auspices of the American Museum of Natural History and the Geological Survey of Canada, pArctic Regions (in part). 1908-12; and of several other expeditions to Arctic regions. Author of My Life with the Eskimo; The Friendly Arctic; The Northward Course of Empire; ete. Pan re WYNDHAM A. BEWES. Barrister-at-Law. Assistant Honorary Secretary of the International Law Associa- pBailiff and Bailie (1 part? tion and Grotius Society. lArnaud. Henri Rev. Wittiam Aucustus Brevoort CooitmwcE, M.A., F.R.G.S., Hon.Px.D. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-9, etc. 2 S i WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.

W. A. R.

Wirtram A. Re, LL.M.

W. A. B. W. A. B.C.

W. B.

Lecky Professor of Modern Cambridge Modern History.

History, University of Dublin.

Contributor to The

Aragua;

Foreign Trade Adviser, Pan-American Union. Lecturer on International Commerce at the School of Diplomacy, American University, Washington. Author of Ports and Harbours of South America; Seeing South America; etc. WirHELm Bousset, D.THEOL. Formerly

Professor of New Testament

Balance of Power.

Asuncion: ? Bahi

sore

Exegesis in the University of Göttingen. Antichrist.

W. B.P.

Author of Das Wesen der Religion; The Antichrist Legend. i WILLIAM BELMONT PARKER, A.B. Author of Life of Edward Rowland Sill; Life and Public Services of Justin S. Morrill; Chilians of Today; Argentines of Today.

Atahuallpa.

W. B. St.

W. B. Storey, Pu.B., LL.D.

oe

W.B.T.

Sır W. Beacu Tuomas, K.B.E. Formerly War Correspondent, Daily Mail. Author of The English Year; From a Hert- Arable.

W. B. Wo.

W. Brrxsecx Woop, M.A.

President, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, Chicago.

fordshire Cottage; A Traveller in News,

Sometime Classical Scholar of Worcester College, Oxford. Late Assistant-Master at Brighton College. Author of History of the Civil War in the United States.

W.C. B.T. W. Cr.

Topeka and Santa

Fe Railway.

,

AR

i

. } W. C. B. TUNSTALL, M.A. The Armada (in part). Civilian Lecturer, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. j l WALTER CRANE. English Artist; Art Director of Reading College (1896); Principal of the Royal Arts and Crafts (in part). College of Arts (1898).

INITIALS

xvi

AND

OF CONTRIBUTORS

NAMES

W. de B. H.

W. DALLIMORE. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. W. DALTON. Author of Bridge Abridged, or Practical Bridge. WILLIAM DE Bracy HERBERT.

. } Arboriculture (im part). ieee Bridge (in pari); Baccarat. Arrest (in part);

W. E. Cx.

WARREN E. Cox.

{ Arts and Crafts (in part).

W. H. Be.

Wirm

W. D. W. Da.

Bail (in part).

Barrister-at-Law; Recorder of Newcastle under Lyme.

:

Art Editor, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Henry BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LıTT.(CANTAB.).

part) part).

Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London. Late Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge, and Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Extlic Prophets; etc. Sır WrrLram HENRY HADOW, ee? ane AOE a o scare

Balaam (in

wW. H. L. W.

Witiram Henry Lowe Watson, D.S.O., D.C.M. Principal, Ministry of Labour; Author of A Boy's Book of Prose; Tales from English

a ae ; Apprenticeship (in part).

W. J. B.

Sir WILLIAM JOHN Berry, K.C.B.

W. K. L.C.

Rev. WILLIAM KEMP LOWTHER CLARKE, D.D. Editorial Secretary of Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.

W. H. H.

College o Royal Council, ember of effield. Vice-Chancellor, University o Music. Editor, Oxford History of Music. Author of Studies in Modern Music; Sonata Form; Album of Songs; A Croatian Composer; etc., etc.

siii Bach, Karl Phillip Emanuel.

History; etc.

Armour Plates.

Director of Naval Construction, Admiralty.

Author

of -Apollos.

St. Basil the Great; etc.

W. K. McC.

Wittram Kipston McCuure, C.B.E. Attached British Embassy, Rome, as Press Officer; formerly Correspondent of The Times (London) in Rome. War Correspondent of The Times on the Italian Front 1915-7.

W. L. H. D.

W. O. E. O.

Asiago, Battle of.

Author of Italy's Part in the War; Italy in North Africa; etc.

Wvrwnrrip LAURENCE Henry Duckwortu, M.A., M.D., Sc.D.

Fellow of Jesus College, Reader in Human Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Wittram M. Marston, A.B., LL.B., Px.D. Lecturer in Psychology, Columbia University and New York University. Author of Emotions of Normal People; Psychology.

Anthropometry. pAntipathy.

|

Rev. W. O. E. OEsTERLEY, M.A., D.D.

Professor, Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, King’s College, London University.|.

part);

other works,

part).

Author of The Books of the Apocrypha: their Origin, Contents and Teaching and many({Apocryphal

W. P. P.

Literature

(in

Literature

(in

W. P. PYCRAFT.

Assistant-Keeper in charge of Osteological Collections, Museum of Natural History, South Kensington. Author of A History of Birds; Story of Bird Life; The Courtship of Animals; Camouflage in Nature; etc.

W. Rob.

W. ROBERTS.

W.R. R.

WirriraM R. ReppeEn, A.M., M.D.

Archaeopteryx.

Art Sales.

E

l

W. R. S.

;Antidotes. National Medical Offices, American National Red Cross, Washington. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. , Scottish Philologist, Physicist, Archaeologist, Biblical Critic; Editor of the 9th Baal (in pari). Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

W. S. B.

AIR VICE-MARSHAL SIR WILLIAM SEFTON BRANCKER, K.C.B.

British Representative on

Aviation, Civil (in part). '

W. Sc.

W. S. L.

PATER WILHELM ScumipT, D.TH., $.V.D. Professor of History of Culture and Speech of Primitive Peoples, Vienna University. W. S. Lewis.

W. S. L-B.

WALTER SYDNEY LAZARUS-BARLOW, B.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.

. napana Languages; Austria (in part); Austria, Lower. Antiseptics and Asepsis

Director of Civil Aviation at the Air Ministry, London. the International Commission of Air Navigation.

Professor of Geography, University College, Exeter.

Member of Cancer Committee, Ministry of Health; Late Professor of Experimental

Pathology, Middlesex Hospital Medical School, London University.

Se

part);

(jn

Author of Arteries, Diseases of;

A Manual of General Pathology; Elements of Pathological Anatomy and Histology for |Atrophy;

W.T. C.

Students. Editor of Medical Section, 14th Edition, Encyclopædia Britannica. W. T. Catman, D.Sc., F.R.S. .

Auscultation.

Keeper of the Department of Zoology in the British Museum (Natural History).

W. V. B.

WILLIAM VALENTINE BALL, O.B.E., M.A.(CANTAB.). Barrister-at-Law; Master of the Supreme Court, King’s Bench Division.

Author

of The Law of Libel as Affecting Newspapers and Journalists; Bankruptcy; etc.

WwW. W

WILLISTON WALKER, Pu.D., D.D.

W. Wal.

—

}Appeal (in part).

Formerly Professor of Church History, Yale. Author of History of the Congregational Bacon, Leonard. Churches in the United States; The Reformation; John Calvin. ae TE 2

ellow and Librarian (1871) of Merton College, Oxford. Late Whyte’s Professor of Moral Philosophy. Author of The Logic of Hegel; Kant; Life of Arhar Schopenhauer; Hegel's Philosophy of Mind; etc.

W. Wr.

}Arthropoda.

WADE WRIGHT, B.Sc., M.D. Assistant Medical Director in charge of Industrial Hygiene, Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, New York. Numerous contributions to journals and text-books.

Initial used for anonymous contributors.

, > ° Arabian Philosophy (in part),

>Artificial Respiration.

THE

ENCYCLOPA DIA BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH

VOLUME

EDITION

2

ANNUAL REGISTER TO BALTIC SEA NUAL REGISTER, the title of an annual periodical begun with a volume giv-

ing “a view of the history, politicks and literature of the years 1758,” by R. Dodsley, with Edmund Burke as editor. Burke had £100 a year for his services, but never acknowledged his relation to the Annual Register, and the extent of his contribu-

tions remains uncertain; he is thought to have continued in charge till about 1788, and to have inspired his successors (Dr. Walker King, afterwards bishop of Rochester, and Dr. Richard Laurence, afterwards archbishop of Cashel) till his death. The Annual Register was published by Dodsley’s firm till 1790, when the copyright of already issued volumes was bought by Rivington and the stock by Otridge and others. From the 1863 volume a continuous narrative took the place of the mere

abridgment of parliamentary debates.

It is now (1928) issued

under the editorship of Dr. M. Epstein. ANNUALS, in botany, the name applied to plants which complete their life-cycle in one year, in contradistinction to biennials (g.v.), which require two years and perennials (g.v.), which live for an indefinite number of years.

ANNUITY,

in the simplest sense of the word, denotes a

payment made yearly. The term is also applied to any series of periodical payments which fulfil the essential condition that they are made at regular fixed intervals. Thus an annuity may be payable yearly, half-yearly, quarterly, monthly, or even more frequently. It is, however, the total sum payable in the year, sometimes called the annual rent, which is adopted for the purpose of describing the magnitude of the annuity. Hence a person in receipt of a quarterly payment of £25 is said to possess an annuity of £100 payable by quarterly instalments. In technical terminology an annuity is said to be payable during a given status, this being a word equally appropriate when the annuity is payable for a definite term of years and when the duration is dependent upon some contingency. The most general definition of an annuity is therefore a series of payments made at regular intervals during the continuance of a given status. The word annuity is sometimes used io denote an individual payment of a series, particularly in such phrases as “the first year’s annuity.” This usage, which has come into prominence in connection with the settlement of obligations contracted during the World War, is inaccurate and should be avoided.

There are two main classes of annuities :—anmnuitves-certain, in which the payments are to continue during a fixed term of years, and life annuities, in which the duration of the payments is contingent upon the survivance of a given life or combination of lives. If the word annuity is used alone, unaccompanied by another word or qualifying phrase a life annuity generally is meant. Within these two main classes there are various types of annuities to which special technical designations have been allotted. Unless otherwise stated, the first payment of an annuity is assumed to be made at the end of the first year in the case of a yearly annuity and at the end of the first interval in the case of an annuity payable by instalments. This form of annuity is called an immediate annuity. An annuity of which the first payment is made at the beginning of the first interval is called an annuitydue; if the annuity is not to be entered upon until the lapse of a certain number of years it is called a deferred annuity; if the payments are to continue for ever, it is called a perpetuity. A continuous annuity is one which is assumed to be paid momently by infinitely small instalments. It would be impossible in actual experience to discover a series of payments precisely conforming to these conditions, but it is obvious that the value of such a series would not differ appreciably from that of a series of payments made daily or even weekly. The conception of continuous payments has permitted the application of the processes of the differential and integral calculus to the computation of annuity values. It has, therefore, been of great practical utility in facilitating the calculations of bodies, e.g., industrial insurance companies, whose revenue and expenditure consist largely of numerous small daily or weekly payments. The person to whom an annuity is payable is called the annuitant, and the life involved is called the nominee. A person who purchases an annuity on his own life is himself at once both annuitant and nominee.

Annuities-certain.—In an annuity-certain the status is a definite term of years, and thus the value of a given series of payments is dependent only upon the operation of interest. The sum of the amounts of the successive payments accumulated to the end of the period during which the annuity is payable is technically called the amount of the annuity, and the sum, of the present values of the successive payments is similarly termed the present value of the annuity. The value of an annuity may be regarded as a loan or investment of money whereby the lender or investor becomes entitled

2

ANNUITY

to receive a series of uniform payments consisting partly of interest and partly of repayment of capital. Such a transaction may be considered from two points of view. In the first instance the successive instalments of principal may be at once applied to diminish the amount outstanding at the end of each interval, which will thus be gradually reduced until with the fnal payment of the annuity the total capital invested is repaid. As the principal is repaid the interest diminishes and, since the combined annual payment is uniform in amount, the liquidation of the debt proceeds at an accelerating pace. Alternatively a uniform portion of each annuity payment may be regarded each year as interest on the original capital and the balance must be set aside and invested, together with all accumulations of interest on it, from time to time at the assumed rate in order that the proceeds may be available to replace the capital at the end of the period when the annuity expires. Such a sum, periodically applied to the redemption of capital, is called a sinking fund. If the sinking fund were invested at a rate lower than that assumed, its accumulations at the end of the period would not be sufficient to replace the invested capital. The periodical payments of the annuity are therefore sometimes calculated on the basis that the investor will obtain a specified rate of interest on his capital but will be able to replace the capital only by investing the instalments of sinking fund at a lower rate. The latter rate is technically known as the reproductive rate, and the rate realized as the remunerative rate. In periods of high income tax the distinction is of importance. The investor must be careful in arranging the transaction to secure that the reproductive rate is the net rate on which he can rely after deduction of tax. Life Annuities.—A life annuity is a series of payments made during a status, dependent upon the survivance of one or more nominees. Its value is governed by the combining of an interest and a mortality factor in each successive payment. If it could be shewn that the rate of mortality at successive ages followed a law which could be represented by means of a mathematical formula, the computation of the value of a life annuity could be effected by the direct application of mathematical processes. Attempts have been made by De Moivre, Gompertz, Makeham, and others to discover such a “law of mortality,” but no simple formula has been found capable of representing rates of mortality with sufficient accuracy. Recourse must, therefore, be had to a table of rates derived from the experience of the particular class of lives to which the nominee belongs. The simplest form of life annuity, denoted az, is that in which a unit is payable at the end of each year so long as the nominee aged x survives. The value of a unit certainly payable at the end of n years is denoted o», and the probability of its being received

n years, the annuity-certain is an annuity of n payments of r each, whilst the life annuity consists of a series of payments, 1p at the end of the first year, 2p, at the end of the second year . etc. to the end of life, also amounting in the aggregate to n. In each case the total amount payable is on the average the same, but in the case of the life annuity the payments are spread over a longer period of time and consequently are more affected by discount and have a smaller present value. It will be apparent as regards a life annuity that the lighter the mortality the greater will be the number of payments to be made and the greater the value of the annuity; similarly the lower the rate of interest the greater will be the discounted value of each payment, with the result that again the value of the annuity is increased. The value of an annuity payable by instalments throughout the year is greater than that of a yearly annuity owing to the chance of one or more extra payments being received in the course of the year in which the life fails, and to the increased discounted value of the sums paid earlier than at the end of each year. By the Apportionment Act of 1870 all life annuities are complete or apportionable, i.e., a proportionate part of the payment for the period between the last payment and the date of death is to be paid on that event occurring, unless a special stipulation to the contrary is inserted in the deed creating the annuity. The value of such an annuity therefore exceeds the value of the ordinary or curtate annuity, as it is technically called, by, on the average, the value of one-half of an instalment due at the moment of death. ‘ There are numerous varieties of annuities involving more than one life. An annuity to continue so long as all of the nominees survive is called a joint life annuity; one to continue so long as any one survives is called a Jasi-survivor annuity; one to commence on the failure of a specified life or status and to continue during the existence of another life or status is called a reversionary or survivorship annuity. There are also compound survivorship annuities payable in certain contingencies such as

the failure of specified lives in an assigned order. Annuities on successive lives are sometimes required, e.g., in the valuation of advowsons. In the valuation of pension funds and other problems an actuary has to employ annuities involving, in combination with interest and mortality, other elements such as withdrawal, retirement, remarriage, etc. The discussion of these special forms of annuity would introduce technicalities which are

beyond the scope of the present article. The earliest known reference to any estimate of the value of a

life annuity arose out of the provisions of the Falcidian Law of the Roman empire; but the tables of values were the result of conjecture rather than of statistical investigation, and the element ben by a person now aged # isp, Where ,p, = a Jeon being of interest was not taken into consideration. Dr. Edmund Halley, in a paper read before the Royal Society the number of survivors at age x+n according to the mortality table out of the l, persons of present age x. a, is therefore the of London in 1693, was the first tọ give an approximately accurate mortality table, and to shew how it should be applied to deduce v Oly : Plogo sum of the series Mari + ... etc. The computation the values of annuities. ly z The results of Halley’s researches do not appear to have of even a single value of this simple form of annuity clearly received general recognition, for conjectural annuity values were demands a considerable amount of arithmetical work. If, however, the numerator and denominator of each of the terms of in general use until the publication of Dr. Price’s Northampton Table in 1785. The basis and methods of construction of this and gett 41 ad 42 4. the series be multiplied by vs, az= V2], etc. other tables are described elsewhere. (See Lire Tastes.) Early ye i eee in-the roth century actuarial science began to be developed, and the product v}, may be represented by the symbol D, and improved methods of preparing and applying mortality tables D, atDzt D; kaua etc Ete 2 Nzz By the have since been devised. In the present connection reference in this notation a, = need be made only to those investigations which relate exclusively z 2 device of preparing columns of D and N, technically known as to annuitant lives. commutation columns, not only the derivation of the value of Investigations of Annuitants’ Mortality Experience.— an annuity at one age, but also the construction of a complete By the Life Annuity Act of 1808 the British Government through table of annuity values is abbreviated and facilitated. the National Debt Commissioners were empowered to grant life It is a popular misconception that the value of a life annuity annuities. The duration of the lives of nominees of both sexes is obtained by ascertaining the expectation of life of the nominee was assumed to be correctly measured by the Northampton Table and calculating the value of an annuity-certain for the resulting of mortality. This table, apart from the fact that it was practerm of years. This method is wrong in principle and can easily tically the only one available, had been found to yield substantial be shewn mathematically to yield too large a value. This result profits in the case of the Equitable and other companies which may, however, be explained thus:—If the expectation of life be had adopted it for life assurance business, but this fact, so far

ANNUITY from suggesting its unsuitability for granting annuities, only confirmed its reputation. John Finlaison, subsequently appointed actuary to the National Debt Commissioners, appears to have

been the first to realize that the country was sustaining considerable loss by the use of the table for the grant of annuities and must inevitably incur further loss unless the mortality basis were altered. As a result of his representations the issue of annuities was suspended in 1828. In 1829 a new scheme was introduced. The mortality tables adopted were those constructed by Finlaison from an observation up to the end of 1822 of the duration of the lives of Tontine and National Debt Office annuitants. This was the first investigation of the mortality of Government annuitants.

Two main

facts emerged from this investigation, and have been confirmed by subsequent experience—(a) that annuitants as a class are remarkable for their longevity and (b) that the vitality of females is appreciably superior to that of males, so that separate mortality tables must be prepared for each sex. The second investigation of the mortality of Government annuitants was carried out by A. G. Finlaison and published in 1860. The variations between the old and the new tables were found to be so insignificant that the Treasury did not consider it necessary to alter the charges made for annuities. The next investigation was made by A. J. Finlaison and published in 1883. The data consisted of the records relating to the annuities granted by the National Debt Commissioners from 1808 to 1875. This investigation is notable because of the fact that it was the first in which the effect of “selection” was taken into consideration in deducing the rate of mortality amongst annuitants. It may be assumed that an annuity will not be purchased on the life of a person known to be suffering from a disease likely to impair his vitality. This discrimination exercised by the purchaser must clearly influence the rate of mortality for several years after the date of purchase, in much the same way as the medical examination does in the case of assured lives, and allowance should be made for this fact in settling the selling price of annuities. A. J. Finlaison found that the effects of selection were discernible for four years following the date of purchase, and recommended that revised tables based on the resulting select rates of mortality should be adopted. With the approval of Thomas Bond Sprague, then president of the Institute of Actuaries, whom the Treasury had consulted before sanctioning rates based on what was then a novel theory, the new tables were introduced in 1884, in substitution for those which had been in force since 1820.

In 18093 the Institute of Actuaries and the Faculty of Actuaries resolved to undertake the compilation of a new collective mortality experience of assured lives, and separately of annuity nominees, in the United Kingdom during the period 1863-93. Fortythree companies contributed to the experience of annuitants, and 9,700 contracts in respect of male lives and 24,300 in respect of female lives were brought under review, the whole constituting a more detailed and authoritative investigation of annuitants’ mortality than any that had previously been attempted. The tables, officially designated O2" and O27 for males and females respectively, were published in 1902. In the construction of these tables the duration of selection was taken to be five years. The fourth investigation of the experience of National Debt Office annuitants carried on the observations from 1875 to 1904, and was published in 1912. The methods adopted in the construction of the tables and the results of the investigation were very similar to those of the British Offices, 07” and O2/ tables. The vitality of both sexes was shown to have increased, the difference between the new and the previous tables being most marked in the case of females.

Shortly after the War investigations of the recent mortality experience, both of life office and Government annuitants, were undertaken. In each case the observations related to the years 1900-20, and the mortality of each of the three constituent periods 1900~-7, 1907-14 and 1914-20 was also separately examined. The two investigations proceeded almost simultaneously, that of the life offices, however, being begun and completed

3

several months in advance of the other. The life office annuitants investigation was again carried out under the auspices of the Institute and Faculty. The numbers of contracts examined were 19,946 of males, and 51,892 of females. The first section of the report of Messrs. Elderton and Oakley, the actuaries in charge of the investigation, was published in 1923. This proved to be a document of first-class importance in the history of actuarial science. The authors discussed the question of selection in all its aspects and suggested, both on theoretical and on practical grounds, that its effects could be ignored after the first year following purchase. Even more notable was their recommendation that annuity values should be based not on the rates of mortality derived directly from the observed experience, but on these rates modified to allow for progressive future improvement in vitality. The principle of allowing for progressive decrease in the death-rate had been previously applied in special circumstances, such as the commutation of the life interests of incumbents under the Welsh Church act of 1914, but this was the first instance of its application to a general investigation the results of which were destined to be a recognized standard for many years. These recommendations were adopted by the Institute and Faculty, and the volume of tables which were officially designated a(m) and a(f) was published in 1925 and gave only “projected” rates of mortality and annuity values derived from them. These rates of mortality are naturally lighter than those recorded in any of the previous investigations and the values of annuities are correspondingly increased. The examination of the mortality experience’ of Government life annuitants was carried out by Sir Alfred W. Watson, K.C.B., the Government actuary, and Mr. H. Weatherill, actuary to the National Debt Commissioners, whose report was published in 1924. On that occasion the scope of the investigation was extended to include not only the annuities granted directly by the National Debt Commissioners, but also those issued through the agency of Trustee Savings Banks and the Post Office Savings

Bank. The number of contracts brought under observation was

23,230 in respect of males and 57,551 in respect of females. The mortality experienced during the period was found to be appreciably lighter in the case of both sexes than that of the 1875-1904 investigation, the decline being again more significant amongst women than amongst men. It was ascertained also that the mortality experience of the Savings Bank annuitants was lower than that of the lives concerned in the National Debt Office annuities. The difference is presumably due to the fact that annuities purchased under wills in circumstances in which there is no element of self selection are proportionately more numerous among transactions with the National Debt Office than with the Savings Banks. In an appendix to the report several questions of theoretical and practical importance were discussed at length. It was concluded that the effects of selection were traceable for at least five years, but as a measure of practical convenience it was decided to employ a select rate of mortality in respect of only the first year after the date of purchase, and to provide for the selection thus excluded by a subsequent adjustment of the annuity values, Progressive improvement in vitality was found to be exhibited not only in the experience of annuitant lives but also in that of other special classes of lives and of the population generally. To provide for its persistence in the future the actuaries, as a result of extensive experiments, recommended that appropriate selling prices for annuities granted in the immediate future would be the values of select annuities derived directly from the 1900-20 experience increased by 3% in the case of male lives and by 4% in the case of female lives. Government Life Annuity Business—Government life annuities were first granted in 1808. The scheme was revised in 1329 by the Act ro Geo. iv., c. 24. The object of the scheme is the acceleration of the reduction of the National Debt (9.v.), by the substitution of terminable for perpetual annuities.

Annuity Values.—The following table gives specimen annui-

ty values according to successive investigations. The differences in the principles and methods adopted in the construction of the

several tables are briefly indicated in the headings of the columns.

ANNUITY SPECIMEN ANNUITY VALUES (az) AT 4% INTEREST Govern-

Northampton

ment annuitants

Govern-

British

Govern-

ment

ment

annui-

offices annui-

annui-

tants

tants

tants

to 1822.

British offices annuitants

. | Ig00-20.

1863-93.

a[z]

(Selecaz

tion

(Selection

ignored.)| ignored.)

selection and allowance for future

(Selection for 4

years.)

improvement.)

tion for one year, and allowance for future

improvement.)

14°036 12'521 10:937 9'317 7:686 6:080 4'709

collected by Rufus W. Weeks in 1896. Fully three-quarters of the data consisted of annuities issued on the lives of natives of Great Britain, France, Germany and other European countries. In 1920 the writer of this section prepared an experience based on the material of 20 of the principal American companies under annuities issued in the United States. He called it the American Annuitants Table of Mortality and it is now used freely as the basis of premiums by American companies. The rates of mortality appearing at the time this article was written have been confirmed in general by a recent investigation made by the Actuarial Society of America, but not yet published. The rates of mortality of the most recent British experience a(m) and a(f), compared with the American Annuitants Table are now given for quinquennial ages commencing with age so, the average age at which annuities are issued in this country being 63. In the latter the effect of selection for five years has been omitted; z.e., they are “ultimate” tables of mortality. The British table is ultimate after one year.

FEMALES

13-669 12:328 10-818 9°204 7°520 6-048

I2:620 II'IQO 9°573

4°735

4'840

13'855

IN THE UNITED STATES While annuities have been issued by life insurance companies for many years in the United States, it is only recently that there has been a considerable demand for them. In the year 1900 the considerations received for annuities by companies operating in New York State amounted to $6,600,000, while in the year 1927 they amounted to over $34,000,000. Life annuities are not issued by the U.S. Government as they are by the British Government. Until the publication of the McClintock table of mortality, the basis for the determination of premiums for annuities was a British table. In 1899, Emory McClintock, then actuary of the Mutual Life Insurance Company of New York, published an experience on the annuities issued by the principal American com-

panies throughout the world, the material for which had been

American annuitants table

American annuitants table

“OI3I5 -O1817 "02566

“01056 "01428 "01984 "02809 "04031 "05827 "08458 “12251 -17646 "25084

03673 "05305

7:882 6:272

Life Office Annuity Business.—Almost all the offices transacting life assurance business in the United Kingdom grant annuities on lives, but in only a few cases does the annuity business attain any great magnitude or represent a significant proportion of the total financial liabilities of the office. The continuous improvement in vitality which has contributed so largely to the success of life assurance undertakings has operated in the opposite direction in the grant of annuities, and it is probable that this class of business so far from being a source of profit may not infrequently have resulted in actual loss. The charges made by offices for the grant of annuities have generally been revised in conformity with the 1900-20 tables, and are consequently less favourable to purchasers than was formerly the case. The amount of business transacted has steadily Increased. From 1906 to 1914 the average annual amount received by offices established within the United Kingdom for the purchase of immediate annuities did not greatly exceed £2,000,000. During the war period it fell, the minimum of £920,000 being reached in 1916. In rọrọ the consideration money again exceeded £2,000,ooo, and after a decline to £1,500,000 in 1921 it increased to £3,000,000 in 1923, and remained at about that figure in each of the two following years. It is noteworthy that a considerable share of the annuity business transacted within the United Kingdom has been obtained by Dominion and Foreign companies. From 1910 to 1922 the average amount received annually by these offices was more than £400,000, in 1923 it approached £650,000, and has subsequently exceeded £1,000,000 a year. (P. G. B.)

Females

Males

-076908 “11165 “16112 = 23004.

32306

-45679 "34979 It must not be inferred from the above table that the rate of mortality among annuitants is lower in Great Britain than in America. As has been already stated, vitality has shown a tendency to increase with calendar year. The American Annuitants Table represents the mortality actually experienced up to 1918, whereas the British table is a forecast of the mortality which would be experienced by persons who purchased annuities in 1925. An example of the annuity rates granted by several prominent American companies which have a uniform scale is now given, together with the average rates of the six British companies doing the largest annuity business in 1926. The annuities are payable half-yearly in both cases, without proportion to date of death. Annuity Granted for 1,000 Purchase Money Age last

birthday

—

Males

Females

British American British American companies | companies | companies | companies

50

70°25

71°08

64:00

55

78°50

79°40

70°00

6o

65 70

75

89:50

90°40

104°37

105 +08

156-00

T51°72

125°37

124°84

78°17

89-96

107°29

132°42

66°20

73°00

81°94

93°74

10954

130°88

In addition to the ordinary annuities which are payable throughout life and which cease at death, the American companies are issuing annuities providing for a return of the consideration, less the annuity payments made, if there be any balance at the death of the annuitant. This may be paid either in one sum or in the form of an annuity for the same amount as to the annuitant, until

the balance is exhausted. Other attractive forms of annuity are issued, known as deferred annuities or income bonds. These are payable at a specified age and in event of death may provide for a return of the premiums, either with or without interest. To this has been added a provision that in the event of the annuitant becoming totally and presumably permanently disabled before the age at which the annuity commences, an equal amount will be paid during such disability prior to the annuity age. The most liberal of the companies provide that three months of total and continuous disability shall entitle the annuitant to the dis-

ANNULAR—ANNUNZIO

5

‘annuity. A variation of this form provides that the holder mediately above the neck or trachelium. The word “annulus” is lect to take the annuity before the specified age for a smaller itself used technically in geometry, astronomy, etc., and the adit. If, for example, the annuity were payable at age 65, but jective “annular” corresponds. An annular space is that between nuitant decided that he or she would prefer to have it com- an inner and outer ring. The annular finger is the ring finger. Cerat age 55, it would be so payable in accordance with a tain nebulae having the form of a ring are also called “annular” nserted in the policy. (see NEBULA). For annular eclipse see ECLIPSE. as been frequently stated by laymen that annuitants are ANNUNCIATION, the announcement made by the angel ong lived, which is true, and that to live long one should Gabriel to the Virgin Mary of the incarnation of Christ (Luke 1 annuity, which is erroneous. The mortality is lower among i. 26-38). The Feast of the Annunciation in the Christian Church ants than among holders of life insurance policies on account is celebrated on March 25. The first authentic allusions to it psychology which enters into the transactions. A man buy- (apart from the Gelasian and Gregorian sacramentaries, in both annuity hopes to live long enough to receive in payments of which it is mentioned) are in acts of the council of Toledo he company more than the single premium paid by him and (656) and of the Trullan council (692). (See further, Lapy Davy.) refore would not purchase the annuity if, in his own judgANNUNZIO, GABRIELE D’, prince of Monte Nevoso he were a poor risk. On the other hand, the applicant for a (1863), Italian novelist, poet and soldier, of Dalmatian surance policy knows that his beneficiaries would have a extraction, was born at Pescara (Abruzzi) in 1863. While still return for the premiums if he died in the early rather than at school he published Primo Vere (1879) a volume of verse ter years of the policy. The lower mortality among an- which was highly praised by Giuseppe Chiarini. The young poet ts is largely the result of “self selection” through the dis- then went to Rome, where he was received as one of their own ation exercised by the purchaser. The effect of this “self by the Cronaca Bizantina group. Here he published Canto Nuovo on” against the companies might be partly offset by paying (1882), Terra Vergine (1883), L’Intermezzo di Rime (1884), Il wus commissions to agents in order to stimulate active Libro delle Vergini (1884), and the greater part of the short ssing for annuities, but this is not done. The mortality stories that were afterwards collected under the general title of ‘ annuitants is not entirely reflected by the mortality in the San Pantaleone (1886). The style and contents of the Intery of which they are natives. An exact comparison cannot mezzo di Rime began to startle his critics; some who had greeted de at the present time, but until a few years ago the mor- him as an enfant prodige—Chiarini amongst others—rejected him experienced in American companies was lowest under annu- as a perverter of public morals, whilst others hailed him as one ‘sued in the United States, next in Great Britain and last in bringing a current of fresh air and the impulse of a new vitality e, dealing only with the three countries in which most of into Italian literature. Isiness was then obtained. This difference in mortality is Meanwhile Gabriele d’Annunzio joined the staff of the Tribuna. due to the attractiveness of annuities compared with in- For this paper, under the pseudonym of “Duca Minimo,” he did ents—the more renumerative the latter the greater the some of his most brilliant work. To this period of greater ‘election’’ against the company—and partly due to the con- maturity and deeper culture belongs J] Libro d’Isotta (1886), a s in the various countries, such as that of leaving annuities love poem, in which for the first time he drew inspiration adapted vants and to persons who are not able to look after their to modern sentiments and passions from the rich colours of the ial interests. Renaissance. D’Annunzio’s first novel J} Piacere (1889), Eng. trans., The : of the inviting points of an annuity from the standpoint s investor is that under a regulation of the U.S. Internal Child of Pleasure (1898), was followed in 1892 by L’Innocente

ue Department, no income tax is payable on the yearly until the payments so received by the annuitant are equal single premium paid for the annuity. This ruling is evi' based on the fact that the annuitant cannot receive any until such condition is fulfilled. ' (A. Hv.) OGRAPHY.—The standard text-books are, on annuities-certain, st (Institute of Actuaries Text Book, Part I.) by R. Todhunter, heory of Finance by George King, and on life annuities, Life wencies (Institute of Actuaries Text Book Part II.) by George and the more recent Life Contingencies by E. F. Spurgeon. are numerous papers of historical, theoretical, and practical it in the volumes of the Journal of the Institute of Actuaries, was first published in 1850 as the Assurance Magazine, but

(Eng. trans., The Intruder, 1899), and by Giovanni Episcopo. These three novels created a profound impression. His next work, Il Trionfo della Morte (1894), Eng. trans., The Triumph of Death (1896), was followed by Le Vergini delle Rocce (1896) and Jl Fuoco (1900), which in its descriptions of Venice is perhaps the most ardent glorification of a city existing in any language. D’Annunzio’s poetic work of this period, in most respects

his finest, is represented by JI Poema Paradisiaco (1893), the Odi Navali (1893), a superb attempt at civic poetry, and Laudi (1900).

During these years he began to write for the stage. ZZ Sogno di un mattino di primavera (1897) .is a lyric fantasia in one act; mtinued under the present name since 1866. The Transactions Citta Morta (1898), written for Sarah Bernhardt, has its scene Faculty of Actuaries also contain several important papers. laid in Mycenae, and is inspired by Greek tragedy. In 1898 he results of the life offices annuitants investigations are contained volumes British Offices Annuity Tables 1893, Mortality and wrote his Sogno d’un tramonto d’autunno and La Gioconda, ary Tables, and Mortality of Annuitants 1900-20. which provided Eleonora Duse with one of the most poignant of earlier reports on the mortality experience of Government her rôles; in 1899 La Gloria, a contemporary political tragedy ants were published as House of Commons papers, 122 of 1829, ' 7860, 8 of 1864, and 298 of r912, but the recent Report on the with many audacious personal and political allusions; and then Francesca da Rimint (1902), a magnificent reconstruction of lity Experience of Government Life Annuitants, 1900~1920, ‘ed as a Stationery Office publication in 1924. mediaeval atmosphere and emotion. All of these, splendid as istics relating to the annuity business of life offices in the United they are in texture and in the gorgeous imagery of the verse, miss om are given in the Assurance Companies Returns published great tragedy, perhaps because of the poet’s excessive prelly by the Board of Trade, and an account of the moneys reand paid in respect of British Government annuities is published occupation with sensation, with colour and sound and movement. La Figlia di Jorio, a powerful peasant tragedy of his own wild lly in House of Commons Papers. Transaction of the Faculty of Actuaries and the Transactions home in the Abruzzi, rooted in the primitive fears, passions and Actuarial Society of America also contain important papers. superstitions of his countrymen, was published at Milan in 1904. (P. G. B.) The years 1908-21 were of great importance in d’Annunzio’s INULAR, ANNULATE, ringed. “Annulate” is used in career, not only in the field of literature, but also in that of war y and zoology in connexion with certain plants, worms, etc. and politics. In 1908 he produced La Nave, a vivid presentation ANNELIDA). The word “annulated” is also used in heraldry of the early history of Venice, setting forth his aspiration. for rchitecture. An annulated cross is one with the points ending Italy’s destiny as a great sea power and as the mistress of the “annulet” (an heraldic ring, supposed to be taken from a coat Adriatic—a curious forecast of his future political action. The il), while the annulet in architecture is a small fillet round a following year, Fedra, a classical drama, appeared; and in rorr, in, which encircles the lower part of the Doric capital im- Le martyre de St. Sébastien, a dramatic mystery play in French

6

ANOA-—ANOINTING

verse with musical interludes by Debussy, was first performed in Paris. Though a remarkable tour de force and appreciated as such by French critics, this play was hardly one of his greatest achievements. Other plays of this period were La Pisanella ou la mort parfumée (1914), written in French, and Parisina (1914), with music by Massenet. D’Annunzio did not, however, abandon the field of fiction, and in rọrọ he published Forse che si, forse che no, a powerful, but somewhat long-winded novel, in which aviation played a considerable part. La Leda senza cigno (1913), consisting partly of essays and partly of fiction, originally appeared in the Corriere della Sera, and was afterwards issued in three volumes with a cenza in 1916. His purely poetic output was limited to the Canzoni della gesta d’Oliremara (1912), which dealt with the Libyan War and contained some admirable verse, as well as violent invectives against the Powers which were, in his opinion, hampering Italy in her Mediterranean policy. On the outbreak of the World War d’Annunzio was living in France, having had to leave Italy on account of financial diffculties; but the moment the conflict began he became convinced of the necessity for Italy’s intervention, in order to attain complete unity and to establish her sovereignty in the Adriatic. In the spring of 1915 he returned to Italy, and his addresses to the Italian people, full of eloquent and inspiring patriotism, were afterwards published in a volume Per la pit grande Italia (1915). From the moment Italy declared war d’Annunzio’s career became one of the most romantic of modern times; for the man who had hitherto been regarded merely as a sensuous aesthete and a decadent, and whose claim to distinction had been his exquisite sense of beauty and his mastery of the language, now proved himself to be a man of action and a politician who for many months defied powerful governments. He volunteered for active service. He served successively in the cavalry, the infantry and

the navy; finally he joined the air service in the hope of achieving immortality even at the cost of his life. His exploits mm the air were of the most fantastic nature. In one of his flights he lost an eye, in another was wounded in the wrist, and on several occasions his aeroplane was riddled with bullets. In Aug. 1918 he led a flight over Vienna, dropping propaganda pamphlets over the city. During the first period of the World War he published ten war poems, some of them of great beauty. After the Armistice the attitude of the Allied Powers, and especially that of President Wilson towards Italy, aroused d’Annunzio’s bitter indignation, and his letters and articles in this connection, collected in the volume Contro uno è contro tutti (1919), Occupy a place in the literature of invective. The extreme violence of his language helped to embitter the relations between Italy and President Wilson. During the Nitti régime d’Annunzio personified the patriotic reaction against the Government’s policy. The Fiume dispute symbolized in his mind the conflict between Italy’s aspirations and the counter claims of her neighbours. When, as a result of the commission of enquiry into the anti-French riots at Fiume, it was decided considerably to reduce the Italian garrison and to police the town with Maltese or U. S. gendarmes, a movement was planned by Major Reina of the Granatieri brigade to re-occupy the town with regular troops and volunteers. D’Annunzio accepted the leadership of the expedition, and on the night of Sept. 11-12 he marched from Ronchi at the head of detachments of grenadiers and other troops triumphantly and re-entered Fiume. For 15 months he defied the Italian Government, and, indeed, the whole of Europe with success. He assumed the style of ruler or commandant of Fiume and made of the town a new state. His “reign” was characterized by a picturesque mysticism, with Italian patriotism as the first article of his creed; and enthusiasts flocked to his standard. But his language and action became more exaggerated. When the Rapallo Treaty was concluded in 1920 he refused to recognize it, as he disapproved of its provisions regarding Fiume and Dalmatia. The Government was finally obliged to resort to force in order to carry out the Rapallo Treaty, and d’Annunzio, after vowing to hold Fiume to the bitter end, finally submitted in Jan. 1921, and left the city. He then went to live

at Gardone on the lake of Garda.

In 1921 he published Notturno, an analysis of his sensations during the blindness which resulted from an aeroplane accident; and in 1924 the first volume of Le faville del Maglio appeared. While at Gardone he was seriously injured in the head byafall. He was from the first a strong supporter of the Fascist movement, and helped to organize the Fascist seamen’s federation. In the spring of 1925 the premier, Mussolini, spent three days with him at Gardone, a visit which aroused a good deal of curiosity. In 1924 the King conferred on him the title of prince of Monte Nevoso, in recognition of his successful efforts to secure Italy’s new eastern frontier, of which that mountain is the highest point. In 1927 the Italian Government undertook the publication of a special edition of his collected works. For bibliography of d’Annunzio’s earlier works see R. Forcella, d Annunzio 1863-83, a Bibliography (1926). Appreciation of his literary work is to be found in a lecture by Prof. C. H. Herford, printed in 1920. Several of his plays, including The Child of Pleasure (1898), La Città Morta (1900), La Gioconda (1901) and Francesca da Rimini Sette have been translated by A. Symons. For the Fiume adventure

see

FIUME.

ANOA, the small wild buffalo of Celebes island, Anoa de-

pressicornis, which is the most diminutive of all wild cattle. It is nearly allied to the larger Asiatic buffaloes. The horns are peculiar for their upright direction and comparative straightness, although they have the same triangular section as in other buf-

faloes. White spots are sometimes present below the eyes, and there may be white markings on the legs and back. the animal resembles the Indian buffalo.

In habits

ANODE, the metallic conductor or electrode through which an electric current enters an electrolyte (g.v.). The direction of the current is considered that in which a positive charge would move, and is the opposite of the direction of travel of a stream of electrons, which are negative charges, in a rarefied gas. (See ELECTROLYSIS; and ELECTRICITY, CONDUCTION oF GASES.) ANODYNE, anything which relieves pain. The term is commonly applied to medicines which lessen the sensibility of the brain or nervous system, such as morphia, etc.

ANOINTING, or greasing with oil, fat or melted butter, a process employed ritually in all religions and among all races, civilized or savage, partly as a mode of ridding persons and things of dangerous influences and diseases, and partly as a means of introducing into things and persons a sacramental or divine influence, a holy emanation, spirit or power. The Australian natives believed that the virtues of one killed could be transferred to survivors who rubbed themselves with his caul-fat. The Arabs of East Africa anoint themselves with lion’s fat in order to gain

courage and inspire the animals with awe. From immemorial antiquity, among the Jews as among other

races, kings were anointed or greased, doubtless with the fat of the victims which, like the blood, was too holy to be eaten by the common votaries. Butter made from the milk of the cow, the most sacred of animals, is used in the Hindu religion. In the Christian religion, especially where animal sacrifices, together with the cult of totem or holy animals, have been given up, it is usual to hallow the oil used in ritual anointings with special prayers and exorcisms; oil from the lamps lit before the altar has a peculiar virtue of its own, perhaps because it can be burned to give light, and disappears to heaven in doing so. In any case oil has ever been regarded as the aptest symbol and vehicle of the holy and illuminating spirit. The holy oil, chrism or ptpov, as the Orthodox call it, was prepared and consecrated on Maundy Thursday. In various churches the dead are anointed with holy oil, to guard them against the vampires or ghouls which ever threaten to take possession of dead bodies and live in them. In the Armenian church, as formerly in many Greek churches, a cross is not holy until the Spirit has been formally led into it by means of prayer and anointing with holy oil. A new church is anointed at its four comers, and also the altar round which it is built; similarly tombs, church gongs, and all other instruments and utensils dedicated to cultural uses. In churches of the Greek rite a little of the old

year’s chrism js left in the jar to communicate its sanctity to that of the new,

7

ANOK A—ANOXAEMIA ANOKA, a city of Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river

and Federal highway 10, 27m. N.W. of St. Paul; the county seat of Anoka county. It is served by the Great Northern and the Minneapolis, Anoka and Cuyuna Range (electric) railways. The population was 4,287 in 1920, and was 4,851 in 1930 by the Federal census. Anoka is the trade centre of a farming region and the seat of the State hospital for the insane. Its manufactures include shotgun ammunition, sashes and doors, cheese, dried milk, flour,

farm implements and fibre furniture. The city was founded about 1844 and incorporated in 1878. ANOMALY, in astronomy, is a technical term used in describing the position of a planet in its orbit. The true anomaly is the angle between the radii drawn from the sun to the planet and to the perihelion point—or the angle turned through by the line joining sun and planet since the planet was last in perihelion. The mean anomaly is the angle which this line would have turned through in the time if the turning had been at a uniform rate corresponding to the period of revolution of the planet. The eccentric anomaly is the same as the eccentric angle defined in

have any if the author’s name were known. The commonest of those pseudonyms which are in effect anonyms in English has

been “A Lady,” about 1,000 works, “By A Lady” being on record.

Anonymity and pseudonymity were astonishingly common in English literature between 1688 and 1800—Defoe, Chatterton, Macpherson, and earlier Dryden, being cases in point. Among modern English writers who have at least once resorted, or have been required by serial publications to resort, to these devices are Beddoes, Robert Bridges, Bulwer-Lytton, Samuel Butler, Hardy and Meredith. See W. Cushing, Anonyms National Literature (1908).

(1890); W. P. Courtney, Secrets of our (T. E. W.

ANOPHELES, a genus of mosquitoes (g.v.), including the species that transmit malaria, yellow fever and other diseases. (See DIPTERA; ENTOMOLOGY, MEDICAL.)

ANORTHITE,

the calcium end member of the plagioclase

ANONACEAE, the custard-apple family, an important group

(g.v.) group of felspars (from the Gr. åv, privative and ópbłós, upright, in allusion to its oblique crystals). Anorthite crystallizes in the triclinic system, and has the chemical composition CaAlSi.O, Perfectly pure anorthite is unknown in nature, but is readily synthesized. The name is usually reserved for those solid solutions ranging in composition from pure anorthite to a mixture containing 10% of the albite molecule. Such anorthite occurs in some gabbros and basalts, and also in contact metamorphosed limestones.

brown or tawny yellow, not showy; the stamens numerous; and the fruit an aggregation of berries (syncarp) in which the seeds are embedded or dry or capsular. Many species are grown for their

to include triclinic potash-soda felspars having cleavage angles

elementary conics.

of dicotyledonous plants allied to the magnolias (g.v.). They are chiefly tropical shrubs and trees and comprise about 80 genera and 820 species. The leaves are simple, entire and alternate; the flowers are regular, usually with 3 sepals and 6 petals, the latter

edible fruits, for perfume, and for ornament. A few extend into temperate regions, as the North American pawpaw (Asimina iriloba), found northward to New York and Michigan. Many valuable fruits belong to the genus Anona; among these are the cherimoya (A. Cherimola), of the American tropics, now cultivated in the southern United States; the custard-apple or bullock’sheart (A. reticulata), of tropical America; the sugar-apple, sweetsop or ate (A. squamosa), cultivated throughout the Tropics; the soursop or guanábana (A. muricata); widely grown in tropical lands; the ilama (A. diversifolia) of Mexico and Guatemala; the alligator-apple, or cork-wood (A. glabra), of tropical America; and the posh-té (A. scleroderma), of Guatemala and Mexico. The biribá (Rollinsia deliciosa) and related species are highly esteemed

fruits from Brazil to Central America.

A tree (Porcela Saf-

fordiana), recently discovered in Bolivia, bears immense fruits sometimes attaining 40 lb. weight. The ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata), native to the East Indies, is the source of the famous perfume of Malaysia and the Philippines. The exceedingly fra-

grant climbing ylang-ylang (Artabotrys odoratissima), native to India, China and the Philippines, is sparingly planted in southern Florida. (See CHERIMOYA; CUSTARD-APPLE; SWEET-SOP.)

ANORTHOCLASE, the name given by Rosenbusch in 1885

varying but slightly from go° (87°-89° 30”). The form development is variable, like that of orthoclase (g.v.), but the best known crystals have a characteristic habit in which only the forms (1ro), (1i0) and (Zor) are developed, giving rise to lozenge or rhomb-shaped individuals. Anorthoclase is probably to be regarded as a solid solution of the molecules NaAISi,Os and KAISi,O, with small amounts of CaAlSi,Os, in which the sodium

compound tion limits Like the albite and

predominates. Most crystals fall within the composiOr,Abs and Or;Abg (Or=orthoclase Ab=albite). plagioclases, anorthoclase is twinned on the Carlsbad, pericline laws, but in the case of the multiple twins

the lamellae are characteristically very narrow. Optically anorthoclase is distinguished by its moderate optic axial angle (2V=43° —53°), and is separated from all plagioclases but albite by its low refractive indices, and from albite by its optically negative character. The mineral is confined to alkaline igneous rocks; in the larvikites and foyaitic rocks of Norway and Madagascar, and as a prominent constituent of the rhomb-porphyry lavas of Nor-

way, of the alkaline lavas of the island of Pantelleria (south of Sicily), in the Kenyte lavas of Mt. Kenya (British East Africa) and Mt. Erebus (Antarctica). (C. E. T.) ANOSMIA is lack of the sense of smell. This deficiency may

ANONYMOUS, usually abbreviated to Anon., a term to in- be due to nasal obstruction or to disease of the nerves concerned

dicate unnamed authorship of any composition. The earliest pub-

lished researches into the subject of anonymous literature were those of Fredericus Geisler (Leipzig, 1669). The first comprehen-

sive work was that of Vincent Placcius (1642-69), developed by

Matthias Dreyer into the Theatrum anonymorum et pseudonymorum (1708). An immense advance was made by the French bibliographer Antoine-Alexandre Barbier in his Dictionnaire (1806-08), of which a new edition with over 23,000 entries, was issued in 1822-27, and which in 1872-79 was made a continuation of the valuable Superchéries littéraires of Quérard. Nothing of value, except casual contributions to Notes and Queries, was done in England till in 1856 Samuel Halkett, keeper of the Advocates’ library, Edinburgh, began the labours continued by

in smelling. It is sometimes a manifestation of hysteria. In the first category, the common cold in the head is the most usual cause. Other frequent causes are adenoids, deviated septum and inflammation of the nasal passages. Of nervous diseases causing anosmia brain tumours are the most frequent. Any nasal obstruction or brain lesion must be on both sides of the cortex in order completely to obliterate the sense of smell.

ANOXAEMIA is a general term comprising those conditions of the body under which the tissues are starved of oxygen. There are three main types: (1) The anoxic type, in which the blood going to the tissues carries oxygen at too low a pressure and consequently the haemoglobin is only partially charged with oxygen.

(2) The anaemic type in which though the haemoglobin is fully charged there is too little of it, and hence the capacity of the tional literatures other than English and French are the Deutsches blood to carry oxygen is too low. (3) The ischaemic type in which anonymenlexicon begun by M. Holzmann and H. Bohatta, of the blood is or may be normal but in which the quantity of blood Vienna in 1902 and Gaetano Melzi’s Dizionario di opere anonime running through the organ is too small. There are some other conditions, less common, which may or e pseudonime di scrittori italiani (1848-59). Religious tolerance, political liberty and social change have may not be regarded as forms of anoxaemia. Such, for instance, affected the motives of anonymity, but it remains common, partly is cyanide poisoning.. (See Toxicotocy.) In this the supply of because it is hoped in certain cases that anonymity will excite a oxygen is adequate but the mechanism in the tissues for acquiring

John Laing (1882-88). The most ambitious dictionaries of na-

profitable curiosity or lend weight to dogmatism which would not

and using it is faulty.

8

ANOXAEMIA

(1) Anoxic Anoxaemia.—Apart from cases of disease the conditions under which anoxic anoxaemia is most frequently met with are in high aeroplane ascents and on high mountains. Between the two there is this distinction—the aviator reaches the rare air suddenly; the mountaineer gradually. Moreover, the aviator reaches it without effort to himself, the mountaineer usually as the result of considerable muscular effort. For these reasons the symptoms from which the two classes suffer are different. The airman loses his faculties if he goes too high. The loss may amount merely to a loss of judgment, or a loss in manipulative power, or it may extend to complete loss of consciousness. Because the brain symptoms are the first and the most baffling, the British air force direct not that an aviator should commence breathing oxygen when he reaches an altitude at which he judges himself to need it (by that time his judgment may be impaired) but if he is going to a high altitude he is directed to breathe

Oxygen is transported from the lungs to the brain by the blood. The haemoglobin or red pigment has the power of forming a loose compound with oxygen. Of each roogram. of haemoglobin which leave the lung, the number of grammes which transport oxygen depends upon the pressure of oxygen in the air cells of the lung, which in turn depends upon the pressure of oxygen in in the air. As this latter at any altitude is 21% of the local at-

oxygen from the start. (See AVIATION.) The mountaineer suffers from a somewhat different train of symptoms which comprise the condition known as “mountain sickness,” or in the Andes “Seroche.” In the case of a person travelling by train up to the mining districts about Cerro de Pasco, or up Pike’s Peak in Colorado (both 14,000-15,000ft.), the symptoms usually appear some hours after arrival not improbably during the night. They are generally a selection from the following: (1) symptoms of the brain—headache, lassitude, fatigue, sleeplessness, visual and auditory impairment; depression; (2) cardiac symptoms—pain in the chest, palpitation, sinus arrhythmia; (3) circulatory symptoms—cold hands and feet, blueness, throbbing; (4) respiratory symptoms—shortness of breath, periodic breathing, sighing; (5) gastro-intestinal symptoms—nausea, vomiting, anorexia. After a residence of two to three days these symptoms usually pass off in their acute form, but no

90

80

PERCENTAGE

70

60

50

40

30

20

OF HAEMOGLOBIN WHICH IS PRESENT AS OXYHAEMOGLOBIN

amount of acclimatization makes the human frame at 14,oooft. as efficient as at the sea level. Exercise induces undue breathlessness and quickening of the heart; mental fatigue follows upon severe intellectual work; and the lack of oxygen makes for depression and irritability. The severest work performed at high altitudes falls far short of what could be done at sea-level. The hurtful results of ascent to high altitudes whether on the mountain or in aircraft are governed by the condition of the blood. The processes of oxidation on which life and health depend take place within the tissues of the actual organs concerned —the heart, the brain, the muscles, the glands, etc. Of these undoubtedly the most vulnerable is the brain. It not only carries MILLIMETRES INCHES

OF

MERCURY

25 MERCURY

17

21.23

25

27

29

3l 35

FIG. 2.—CHART SHOWING THE EFFECT TWO FORMS OF ACCLIMATIZATION

OF

THE

COMBINATION

OF

THE

A. pyres effect if deeper respiration is not made with inoreasing altiude B. Probable maximal degree to which blood can be charged with oxygen on deeper respiration, as altitude rises C. Greater adaptability to atmospheric conditions of people born and living in high altitudes

mospheric pressure, it follows that the higher the subject ascends the lower will be the oxygen pressure in the air cells of his lung. At ordinary pressures there is a margin, the air pressure being more than enough to saturate his haemoglobin sufficiently. Fig. 2, A, shows the percentage of the total haemoglobin leaving the lung, which would be charged with oxygen at different altitudes if the subject made no alteration in the rate and depth of his respiration.

During the ascent of mountains a certain amount of acclimatization takes place almost from the start, the subject tends to breathe more deeply and to pass more air through the lungs in a given time; this process raises the quantity of oxygen in the air cells (alveoli) of the lung to a higher percentage than it would otherwise attain; the mountaineer at a given height, therefore, has more oxygen in his lungs that the aviator. Curve B fig. 2 shows the probable maximal degree to which the blood can be-

come charged with oxygen as the result of the increase of lung

fs

6

7

&

300 MILLIMETRES BY COURTESY

OF THE

FIG. 1.~-CHART f ALTITUDES

CONTROLLER

SHOWING

OF

H.M.

MEAN

2

23

26

27

29

3i

500 OF MERCURY STATIONERY

OFFICE

ATMOSPHERIC

PRESSURE

AT

DIFFERENT

The ordinate and abscissa are given both in the metric system and in feet and inches. Ordinate is altitude. Abscissa is atmospheric pressure

out the processes of thought, but governs the condition of the rest ‘of the body, ¢.g., the rate of the pulse, the depth of respiration and so forth. Therefore the study ofthe conditions which produce trouble at high altitudes resolves itself into a study of the adequacy of the oxygen supply of the brain. a

ventilation occurring at the altitudes indicated. These figures are the results of measurement, made by expeditions to the Andes (Cerro de Pasco) and the Alps (Monte Rosa) and Everest. Somewhere in between curves A and B would be the oxygen in the blood of the airman according to his individual idiosyncrasy. The airman reaches a high altitude in a time measured in minutes. Experiments carried out by Schneider and his associates on 7,000 aviators for the American Government show that there is little or no increase in the amount of air passed through the lungs until oxygen pressures are reached which correspond to 4,000 feet. At higher altitudes different persons respond in different degrees. In more than 50% of all men examined the first respiratory response occurred at from 580 to 520mm. pressure and In 25% the change took place at an even lower percentage, while a few gave no evidence of an increase up to the time of uncon-

9

ANOXAEMIA sciousness. Most physiologists believe that increased pulmonary ventilation is almost the only form of acclimatization of which persons exposed to high altitudes for short times only are capable. Dr. J. S. Haldane and his school regard the lungs as having in addition a special power of secreting oxygen into the blood. The mountaineer can claim a much higher degree of acclimatization than the aviator, several factors becoming modified in his favour: (1) His pulmonary ventilation increases as already stated.

(2) The number of red corpuscles in each cubic millimetre of his blood increases almost in proportion to the altitude. The following figures are given by Maj. Hingston I.M.S. (1924 Everest Expedition) for the natives of the Pamir plateau: Altitudes in thousands of feet 7 Corpuscles in millions per cubic mm. of blood. . . .45

8 60

I2 68

15-6

182

78

83

The increase in the number of corpuscles is associated with a corresponding increase in the quantity of haemoglobin. At first probably the increase is wrought by some sort of emergency mechanism, such as the abstraction of some water from the blood, the contraction of the spleen and so forth. Shortly there is evidence of increased blood formation, a type of immature cell known as the reticulated corpuscle being formed in the blood. The whole quantity of haemoglobin in the body is increased as was found by the Pike’s Peak expedition of 1911. (3) Less well attested is the character of the change in the nature of the corpuscles described by the 1921-22 expedition to Cerro de Pasco. They found that the haemoglobin in the red corpuscle acquired an increased chemical affinity for oxygen such as would occur if the interior of the corpuscle became more alkaline. The effect of this alteration superimposed on the increased ventilation is shown in fig. 2 curve C. Fig. 2 therefore represents the effects of the combined effect of the two forms of acclimatization which affect the limiting maximal quantity of oxygen which the blood in the arteries can acquire as compared with what the same blood could unite with at the sea level. This limit is perhaps not quite reached, but it is most nearly attained when the subject is at rest. The more active the exercise the greater is the discrepancy between the oxygen actually in the arterial blood, and the limiting value as shown in the figure. The handicap of exercise looms very large at the highest altitudes to which man climbs, as in Everest, for exercise is the only way of securing warmth. In the aeroplane heat is obtained by electrical appliances. (2) Anaemic Anoxaemia.—Entailing too small a quantity of functional haemoglobin in each cubic millimetre of blood. The most obvious form is anaemia in which the actual quantity is too

small (see ANAEMIA). Three important forms exist in which the

haemoglobin present is temporarily put out of action. Of these the two most important are carbon monoxide (or coal gas) poisoning and methaemoglobin poisoning. Coal gas contains percentages of carbon monoxide which range from about 7% to about 20% in Great Britain. In the United States the percentage is often greater owing to the large admixture of water gas which is legally possible. Carbon monoxide has the advantage of giving a clear hot flame and therefore is an efficient constituent whether the object of this gas is to heat mantles, to cook or to provide power. Owing to the great precautions taken by the gas companies and the general intelligence of the public accidental cases of coal-gas poisoning are singularly rare. Very small quantities of carbon monoxide are, however, capable of producing fatal results if breathed for a long enough time. Fig. 3, based on the observations of Haldane shows the percentage of carbon monoxide in the air which if breathed indefinitely is capable of saturating the blood to any given degree. The effect on different persons varies greatly but speaking in very rough terms a saturation of 30-40% means a headache afterwards, 50-60% means unconsciousness and 75% is probably fatal. Carbon monoxide in the blood is gradually eliminated when air free from it is breathed and eliminated at a much greater rate if pure oxygen is inhaled. Best of all is a mixture of oxygen and carbon dioxide. The latter causes panting which tends to wash out the poison from the blood.

Carbon monoxide is met with in many other places besides coal gas. It is a frequent source of danger in mines galleries, both of coal and of other mines. To discover the presence of the gas, advantage is taken of the fact that small warm-blood creatures, such as mice, rats and canaries succumb to it much more rapidly than man. If these, therefore, be taken into a suspect atmosphere they will drop while as yet man has time to escape. Indeed, it is the time factor which saves man from being asphyxiated in small concentrations of carbon monoxide. In order to lose consciousness over half of all the haemoglobin in his body must be united with

Z a

O

al

0

O =

gI

xOQ a

x

q

O

ra

0

O

£ =

wu

Q &i a.

oi

O2

03

04

05

PERCENTAGE OF CARBON

06

07

MONOXIDE

0:8 09 IN AIR

FIG. 3.—CHART SHOWING EFFECTS OF CARBON MONOXIDE SATURATION

Curve shows the percentage of carbon monoxide in the air which, if breathed indefinitely, is capable of saturating the blood to any given degree. The effect on different persons varies, but it may be sald generally, that a saturation of

30-40% means headache; 50-60% means unconsciousness; and 75% ably fatal

iş prob-

carbon monoxide—that can be accomplished in a concentration of less than 01% of the gas in the atmosphere but it requires the absorption of an absolute volume, about 5o00c.c. of CO, which would require perhaps roo minutes. The incompletely combusted gas which comes from the exhaust of internal combustion engines has been a cause of numerous fatalities. A 20 h.p. automobile engine is estimated as being capable of emitting a cubic foot (28 litres) of carbon monoxide per minute. “This is sufficient to render the atmosphere of a single car garage

deadly within five minutes if the engine is run while the garage doors are closed.” (Y. Henderson.) Methaemoglobin poisoning is another condition in which a part of the haemoglobin is thrown out of action. The simplest form is such as‘is produced by the inhalation of aniline volatile nitrites, nitrobenzene, etc., causing a conversion of oxyhaemoglobin into methaemoglobin (which has no respiratory value) within the blood, with injury to the corpuscles. The conversion is only temporary if the impure air ceases to be inhaled and if the poisoning is not too severe. Some other drugs such as chlorates and bromates in addition to producing methaemoglobin in the blood, cause an actual destruction of corpuscles—a much graver condition.

(3) Ischaemic Anoxaemia.—This may be general or local. If general it may result from very different causes: (1) In cases of heart disease the heart may be unable to pump the blood round the body at the required rate; or again back-pressure may prevent the blood circulating as it should. (2) After severe bleeding there may not be enough blood left in the body adequately to supply its needs. Under such circumstances the body makes the effort to maintain the blood supply to the brain, and for that purpose other organs are in a measure denied their share. The body is not, however, without resources from which to draw in case of severe

ANQUETIL

IO

f

ANSELM

haemorrhage. One store of blood is in the spleen. This organ is ordinarily distended, but when the organism makes a call for an extra supply of blood the spleen contracts and expels considerable quantities into the circulation. (3) Following on severe abdominal wounds, or surgical operations which have entailed considerable exposure of the internal organs, a condition known as surgical

his Législation orientale. His Recherches historiques et géographiques sur l'Inde appeared in 1786, and formed part of Thieffenthaler’s Geography of India. The Revolution seems to have greatly affected him. During that period he abandoned society, and lived in voluntary poverty on a few pence a day. He died in Paris on Jan. 17 1805. i

shock may supervene.

See the Biographie universelle; Sir William Jones, Works (vol. x., 1807) ; and the Miscellanies of the Philobiblon Society (vol. iii., 1856~ 57). For a list of his scattered writings see Quérard, La France littéraire. See also his Oupanishads (1804).

This condition appears

to be due to a

decrease in the quantity of blood plasma so great that the blood no longer properly fills the vessels. The blood pressure therefore falls and the organs are starved of blood. Light was shed on the cause of surgical shock during the World War by the researches of Dale, Richards and Laidlaw, which indicate that it is due to poisoning by a particular material shed into the body by damaged tissue. The material is called “histamine” or 6-iminazolylethylamine. This poison, among other things, makes the walls of the blood capillaries much more permeable to fluid. The plasma of the blood therefore oozes out through them. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—J. B.S. Haldane, Respiration (New Haven, 1922) ; J. Barcroft, Presidential Address, Sect. I., Cardiff Meeting of the British Association (1920); Lessons from High Altitudes (Cambridge, 1925) ; C. Lovatt Evans, Recent Advances in Physiology (1926) ; Publications of the Medical Research Council, Great Britain, on “Surgical Shock” and the “Medical Problems of Flying”; Manual of the Medical Research Laboratory of the War Dept. (Air Service) (Washington,

1918).

ANQUETIL, LOUIS PIERRE

(J. Bar.) (1723-1808), French his-

torian, was born in Paris Feb. 21 1723, and died Sept. 6 1808. He became director of the seminary at Reims, where he wrote his

Histoire civile et politique de Reims (3 vol., 1756—57), perhaps his best work. He was then director of the college of Senlis, where he composed his Esprit de la Ligue ou histoire politique des

troubles de la Fronde pendant le XVIe et le XVIIe siècles (1767). During the Reign of Terror he was imprisoned at St. Lazare; there he began his Précis de l'histoire universelle, afterwards published in nine volumes. The Histoire de France (14 vol., 1805), written in collaboration with de Mézeray and P. F. Velly, has little value, but is, nevertheless, better known than his more serious work. It is said to have been undertaken at the instance of Napoleon.

ANQUETIL-DUPERRON,

CINTHE

ABRAHAM

HYA-

(1731-1805), French orientalist, brother of Louis

Pierre Anquetil, the historian, was born in Paris. He was educated for the priesthood in Paris and Utrecht, but his taste for Hebrew, Arabic, Persian and other languages of the East, developed into a passion, and he discontinued his theological course to devote himself entirely to them. With the idea of reaching India to search for the works of Zoroaster he enlisted as a private soldier, on Nov. 2 1754, in the Indian expedition which was about to start from the port of L’Orient. His friends procured his discharge, and he was granted a free passage, a seat at the captain’s table, and a salary, the amount of which was to be fixed by the governor of the French settlement in India. After a passage of six months, Anquetil landed, on Aug. 10 1755, at Pondicherry. Here he remained a short time to master modern Persian, and then hastened to Chandernagore to acquire Sanskrit. War began between France and England, Chandernagore was taken, and Anquetil-Duperron returned to Pondicherry by land. He found one of his brothers at Pondicherry, and embarked with him for Surat; but, with the idea of exploring the country, he landed at Mahé and proceeded on foot. At Surat he succeeded, by perseverance and address in his intercourse with the native priests, in acquiring a sufficient knowledge of the Zend and Pehlevi languages to translate the liturgy called the Vendidad Sade and some other works. Thence he proposed going to Benares, to study the language, antiquities, and sacred laws of the Hindus: but the capture of Pondicherry obliged him to quit India. Returning to Europe in an English vessel, he spent some time in London and Oxford, and then set out for France. He arrived in Paris on March 14 1762, in possession of 180 oriental manuscripts. In 1763 he began to arrange for the publication of the materials he had collected during his eastern travels. In 1771 he published his Zend-Avesta, containing collections from the sacred writings of the fire-worshippers, a life of Zoroaster, and fragments of works ascribed to him. In 1778 he published at Amsterdam

ANSA, in astronomy, one of the apparent ends of the rings of Saturn as seen in perspective from the earth; so-called because, in the earlier telescopes, they looked like handles projecting from the planet. In anatomy the word is applied to nervous structures which resemble loops. In archaeology it is used for the engraved and ornamented handle of a vase, which has often survived when the vase itself, being less durable, has disappeared.

ANSBACH,

a town in Bavaria, Germany, originally Onolz-

bach, 27m. S.W. of Nürnberg by rail. Pop. (1925) 21,923. The palace of the margraves is celebrated for its fine gardens. In 1791 the last margrave sold his principality to Prussia and in 1806 it was transferred to Bavaria. In Gumbertus Kirche are the graves of members of the local rsth century order of the Swan. Kaspar Hauser died here. Cardboard, buttons, brushes, combs, mats, carts and motors are made.

ANSDELL, RICHARD

(1815-1885), English painter, was

born in Liverpool. He was a popular painter of genre, chiefly animal and sporting pictures. His “Stag at Bay” (1846), “The

Combat” (1847), and “Battle of the Standard” (1848), represent his best work.

ANSELM

(1033?—1109), who has been called the greatest

thinker that ever adorned the throne of Canterbury, was born at Aosta in Piedmont. At an early age he crossed the Alps, and finally settled in the famous abbey of Bec where in 1056 he was

elected prior, and in 1078, abbot. Under his rule Bec became the first seat of learning in Europe, a result due not more to his intellectual powers than to the great moral influence of his noble character and kindly discipline. It was during these quiet years at Bec that Anselm wrote the dialogues on Truth and Freewill, and the two celebrated treatises, the Monologion and Proslogion. Anselm several times visited England, where his convent had great estates, and had so won the love of the people that they expected him to succeed Lanfranc in the see of Canterbury. But when Lanfranc died (May 28 1089) William Rufus seized the possessions and revenues of the see, and made no new appointment. In 1093, William fell ill and thinking his death near at hand, in a fit of remorse forced Anselm to accept the vacant see. After his consecration, Anselm demanded of the king, as the conditions of his retaining office, that he should give up all the possessions of the see, accept his spiritual counsel, and acknowledge Urban IT. as pope in opposition to the anti-pope, Clement. The last involved him in a serious difficulty. It was a rule of the church that the consecration of metropolitans could not be completed without their receiving the pallium from the hands of the pope. Anselm, accordingly, insisted that he must proceed to Rome to receive the pall. But William would not acknowledge Urban, and maintained his right to prevent any pope being acknowledged by an English subject without his permission. A council of churchmen and nobles, held to settle the matter, advised Anselm to submit to the king, but Anselm remained firm. The matter was postponed, and William meanwhile privately sent messengers to Rome, who acknowledged Urban and prevailed on him to send a legate to the king bearing the archiepiscopal pall. A partial reconciliation was then effected, and the matter compromised. The pall was not given by the king, but was laid on the altar at Canterbury, whence Anselm took it. Little more than a year after, fresh trouble arose with the king, and in October 1097 Anselm set out for Rome to consult the pope. William immediately seized on the revenues of the see, and retained them to his death. Anselm was received with high honour by Urban, and at a great council held at Bari, he was put forward to defend the doctrine of the procession of the

ANSELM—ANSELME

II

Holy Ghost against the representatives of the Greek Church. insult to infinite honour is in itself infinite, the satisfaction must But Urban would not embroil himself with the king of England, be infinite, ż.e., it must outweigh all that is not God. Such a and Anselm withdrew from Rome to the village of Schiavi, where penalty can only be paid by God Himself, and, as a penalty for he finished his treatise on the atonement, Cur Deus Homo, and man, must be paid under the form of man. Satisfaction is only possible through the God-man. Now this God-man, as sinless, is then retired to Lyons. In r100 William was killed, and Henry, his successor, at once exempt from the punishment of sin; His passion is therefore recalled Anselm. But Henry demanded that he should again re- voluntary, not given as due. The merit of it is therefore infinite; ceive from him in person investiture in his office of archbishop. God's justice is thus appeased, and His mercy may extend to Now, the papal rule in the matter was plain; all homage and lay man. Anselm’s speculations did not receive, in the middle ages, the investiture were strictly prohibited. The long dispute that followed continued until 1107, when the king resigned his formal respect and attention justly their due. This was probably due to rights. The remaining two years of Anselm’s life were spent in their unsystematic character, for they are generally tracts or the duties of his archbishopric. He died on April 21 1109. He dialogues on detached questions, not elaborate treatises like the great works of Albert, Aquinas and Erigena. They have, howwas canonized in 1494 by Alexander VI. Anselm’s works, which contrast with the elaborate syntheses ever, a freshness and philosophical vigour, which more than of some of his successors, exhibit that recognition of the rela- make up for their want of system, and which raise them far tion of reason to revealed truth, and that attempt to elaborate a above the level of most scholastic writings. BustiocrapHy.—tThe best edition of St. Anselm’s complete works is rational system of faith, which form the special characteristics of of Gerberon (1675), reprinted 1721 and incorporated in Migne’s scholastic thought. But in Anselm, as in all Scholastics writing that Patrologia Latina, v. 158-9. Migne’s reprint contains many errors. previous to the introduction of the works of Aristotle and the The Cur Deus Homo, the Monologion, the Proslogion, the Liber pro Arabians into the West, there is no sharp distinction between Insipiente and the Liber Apologeticus have been translated into Eng. natural and revealed theology. For him, the starting-point of by S. N. Deane (Chicago, 1903). main sources for the history of St. Anselm and his times are all theological speculation must be faith, Credo ut intelligam. theThe Vita Anselmi and Historia Novorum by Eadmer, Anselm’s chaplain. “He who does not believe will not experience, and he who has These were edited by M. Rule in the Rolls Series (1884). Also Dean not experienced will not understand.” And once confirmed in Church, St. Anselm, and M. Rule, Life and Times of St. Anselm (1883). The best expositions of Anselm’s philosophy are to be found in faith it is our duty to demonstrate by reason the truth of that Domet de Vorges, S. Anselme (1901) ; A. Daniels, Quellenbeitrage und which we believe. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Gottesbeweise (1909) ; J. Fischer, The groundwork of Anselm’s theory of knowledge is contained Die Erkeninisslehre Anselms v. Canterbury (1911); F. Baemker, Die in the tract De Veritate, in which, from the consideration of Lehre Anselms v. Canterbury tiber den Willen (1912); C. C. J. Webb, truth as in knowledge, in willing, and in things, he rises to the Studies in the History of Natural Theology (1915) ; M. Grabmann, Die Grundgedanken d. hl. A. über Seele u. Gott (1916); C. Folliatre, La afirmation of an absolute truth, in which all other truth partici- Philos. de S. Anselme (1920); C. Boyer, La Vérité dans S. Anselme pates. This absolute truth is God Himself, who is therefore the a Überweg, Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie, Teil ultimate ground or principle both of things and of thought. The u. (1928). notion of God comes thus into the foreground of the system. ANSELM, of Laon (died 1117), French theologian, was born The demonstration of God’s real existence is the’ substance of of very humble parents at Laon before the middle of the rrth the Monologion and Proslogion. In the first of these, the proof century. He is said to have studied under St. Anselm at Bec. rests on the ordinary grounds of realism, and the Platonic notion About 1076 he taught with great success at Paris, where, as the that the use of a common predicate to cover a number of in- associate of William of Champeaux, he upheld the realistic side stances can only be justified if that predicate refers to an identi- of the scholastic controversy. Later he removed to Laon, where cal nature which is exhibited in all the instances. Things, Anselm his school for theology and exegetics became famous. His greatsays, are called good in a variety of ways and degrees; this est work, an interlinear gloss on the Scriptures, was one of the implies some absolute standard, some good in itself, in which all great authorities of the middle ages. Other commentaries apparrelative goods participate. Similarly with such predicates as ently by him have been ascribed to various writers, principally great, just, they involve a certain greatness and justice. The to the great Anselm. A list of them, with notice of Anselm’s life, very existence of things is impossible without some one Being, by is contained in the Histoire littéraire de la France, x. 170-80. See for his collected works Migne’s Patrologia Latina, tome 162; whom they are. This absolute Being, this goodness, justice, greatsome unpublished Sententiae were edited by G. Lefèvre (1894). ness, is God. ANSELME (Father Anselme of the Virgin Mary) (1625-94), In the Proslogion, as the author himself tells us, the aim is to prove God’s existence by a single argument. This argument is French genealogist, was born in Paris in 1625, and died on Jan. the celebrated ontological proof. God is that Being than whom 17 1694 at the Couvent des Petits Pères, Paris. As a layman his none greater can be conceived. Now, if that than which nothing name was Pierre Guibours. He entered the order of the baregreater can be conceived existed only in the intellect, it would footed Augustinians in 1644. Honoré Caille, seigneur du Fourny not be the absolutely greatest, for we could add to it existence (1630-1713), persuaded him to publish his Histoire généalogique in reality. It follows, then, that the Being than whom nothing de la maison royale de France, et des grands officiers de la cougreater can be conceived, i.e., God, necessarily has real existence. ronne (1674, 2 vol.); after Father Anselme’s death, Honoré Caille This reasoning, in which Anselm partially anticipated the Car- collected his papers, and brought out a new edition of this highly tesian philosophers, has rarely seemed satisfactory. It was important work in 1712. The task was taken up and continued by two other friars of opposed at the time by the monk Gaunilo, in his Liber pro Insipiente, on the ground that we cannot pass from idea to the Couvent des Petits Péres, Father Ange de Sainte-Rosalie reality. The same criticism is made by Aquinas, and in sub- (Francois Raffard, 1655-1726), and Father Simplicien (Paul stance by Kant. Anselm replied to the objections of Gaunilo in Lucas, 1683-1759), who published the first and second volumes his Liber Apologeticus. Finally, in his greatest work, Cur Deus of the third edition in 1726. This edition consists of nine volHomo, he undertakes to make plain, even to infidels, the rational umes folio; it is a genealogical and chronological history of the necessity of the atonement. The theory rests on three positions: royal house of France, of the peers, of the great officers of the that satisfaction is necessary on account of God’s honour and crown and of the king’s household, and of the ancient barons of justice; that such satisfaction can be given only by the peculiar the kingdom. The notes were generally compiled from original personality of the God-man; that such satisfaction is really given documents, references to which are usually given, so that they by the voluntary death of this infinitely valuable person. The remain useful to the present day. The work of Father Anselme, demonstration is, in brief, this: All the actions of men are due who spent his whole life in the study of genealogy, his collaboto the furtherance of God’s glory; if, then, there be sin, że., if rators and successors, is even more important for the history of God’s honour be wounded, man of himself can give no satisfac- France than is Dugdale’s Baronage of England for the history of tion. But the justice of God demands satisfaction; and as an England.

I2

ANSON—ANT

ANSON, GEORGE ANSON, Baron (1697-1762), British chairman of quarter sessions for the county (1894), vice-chanadmiral, was born April 23 1697. His mother was the sister-in- cellor of the university (1898-99), and chancellor of the diocese law of Lord Chancellor Macclesfield. George Anson entered the of Oxford (1899). In that year he was returned, without oppoNavy in Feb. 1712, and received rapid promotion. He com- sition, as M.P. for the university in the Liberal Unionist intermanded the squadron which was sent to attack the Spanish pos- ests, and consequently resigned the vice-chancellorship. sessions in South America in 1740. Anson’s squadron sailed later In Parliament he preserved an active interest in education, than had been intended, and was very ill-fitted. It consisted of being a member of the newly created consultative committee of six ships, which were reduced by successive disasters to his the board of education in 1900, and in 1902 he became parliaflagship the “Centurion.” The lateness of the season forced him mentary secretary. He took an active part in the foundation of to round Cape Horn in very stormy weather, and the navigating a school of law at Oxford, and his volumes on The Principles of instruments of the time did not allow of exact observation. the English Law of Contract (1884), and on the Law and Custom By the time Anson reached the island of Juan Fernandez in of the Constitution in two parts, “The Parliament” and “The June 1741, his six ships had been reduced to three, while the Crown” (1886-92, pt. i. vol. ii.) are standard works. strength of his crews had fallen from g6r to 335. In the absence ANSONIA, a city of New Haven county, Conn., U.S.A., at the of any effective Spanish force on the coast he was able to harass foot of the Berkshire hills, on the Naugatuck river, immediately the enemy, and to capture the town of Paita Nov. 13-15 1741. north of Derby, and about 10 m. N.W. of New Haven. It is He was compelled at last to collect all the surviving personnel served by the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad. The of the squadron in the “Centurion.” He rested at the island of land area is about 5-4 sq. miles. The population in 1920 was Tinian, and then made his way to Macao in Nov. 1742. After 17,643, in 1930, 19,898 by the Federal census. The city has extenconsiderable difficulties with the Chinese, he sailed again with his sive manufactures, including heavy machinery, electric supplies, one remaining vessel to cruise for one of the rich galleons which brass and copper products, eyelets and eyelet machinery and conducted the trade between Mexico and the Philippines, and novelties, valued in 1927 at $40,161,052. Ansonia, Derby and captured an immensely rich prize, the ‘Nuestra Señora de Shelton form one of the important industrial communities of the Covadonga,” which was met off Cape Espiritu Santo June 20 State. Ansonia was settled in 1840, and named in honour of the 1743. Anson took his prize back to Macao, sold her cargo to the merchant and philanthropist, Anson Green Phelps (1781-1853). Chinese, keeping the specie, and sailed for England, which he Originally it was part of the township of Derby. It was charreached by the Cape of Good Hope on June 15 1744. tered as a borough in 1864 and as a city in 1893. To the world at large Anson is known as the commander of ANSTEY, CHRISTOPHER (1724-1805), English poet, the voyage round the world, in which success was won by in- was born at Brinkley, Cambridgeshire, on Oet. 31, 1724. He was domitable perseverance, unshaken firmness, and infinite re- educated at Eton and King’s College, Cambridge, where he dissource. But he was also the severe and capable administrator tinguished himself for his Latin verses and became a fellow of his who during years of hard work at the Admiralty did more than college (1745). Anstey belonged to the school of satirical and soany other to raise the Navy from the state of corruption and cial verse founded by Swift and Gray. The New Bath Guide or

indiscipline into which it had fallen during the first half of the 18th century. As subordinate under the duke, or Lord Sandwich, and as first lord himself, Anson was at the Admiralty with one short break from 1745 till his death in 1762. The naval administration was thoroughly overhauled. The dockyards were brought into far better order, and though corruption was not banished, it was much reduced. The Navy board was compelled to render accounts. A system of regulating promotion to flag rank, which has been in the main followed ever since, was introduced. The Navy Discipline act was revised in 1749, and remained unaltered till 1865. Courts martial were put on a sound footing; inspections of the fleet and the dockyards were established, and the corps of marines was created in 1755. The progressive improvement which raised the Navy to the high state of efficiency it attained in later years dates from Anson’s presence at the Admiralty. In 1747 he, without ceasing to be a member of the board, commanded the Channel fleet which on May 3 scattered a large French convoy bound to the East, and West Indies, in an action off Cape Finisterre. In society Anson seems to have been cold and taciturn. The sneers of Horace Walpole, and the savage attack of Smollett in The Adventures of an Atom, are animated by personal or political spite. His title of Baron Anson of Soberton was given him in 1747, but became extinct on his death. There is a fine portrait of the admiral by Reynolds. He died June 6 1762. See a life of Lord Anson, inaccurate in some details but valuable and interesting, published by Sir John Barrow in 1839. The standard account of his voyage round the world is that by his chaplain Richard Walter (1748), often reprinted. A share in the work has been claimed on dubious grounds for Benjamin Robins, the mathematician. Another and much inferior account was published in 1745 by Pascoe Thomas, the schoolmaster of the “Centurion.”

ANSON, SIR WILLIAM REYNELL, Barr. (18431914), English jurist, was born in Walberton, Sussex, son of the

second baronet. Educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford

he became in 1874 Vinerian reader in English law at Oxford, a post which he held until he became in 1881 warden of All Souls College. He identified himself both with local and university interests, becoming an alderman of the city of Oxford (1892),

Memoirs of the B...r...d (Blunderhead) Family ..., a series of rhymied letters published in 1766, had immediate success, and was enthusiastically praised for its original kind of humour by Walpole and Gray. The Election Ball, in Poetical Letters from Mr. Inkle at Bath to his Wife at Gloucester (1776) sustained the

reputation won by the Guide. Anstey died on Aug. 3, 1805. His Poetical Works were collected in 1808 (2 vols.) by the author’s son John (d. 1819), himself author of The Pleader’s Guide (1796), in the same vein as the New Bath Guide.

ANSTRUTHER

shire, Scotland.

(locally pronounced Anster), seaport, Fife-

It comprises

the royal burghs of Anstruther

Easter (pop. in 1931, 682), Anstruther Wester (593), and part of Kilrenny (2,357), and lies 9m. S.S.E. of St. Andrews, having a station on the L.N.E.R. The town’s chief industries include coast and deep-sea fisheries, manufactures of shipping and gear, shipbuilding, the making of cod-liver oil and fish-curing. The two Anstruthers are divided by a small stream called Dreel Burn. James Melville (1556-1614), a nephew of the more celebrated reformer, Andrew Melville, who was minister at’ Kilrenny, has given in his Diary a graphic account of the arrival at Anstruther of a weather-bound ship of the Armada, and the tradition of intermixture of Spanish and Fifeshire blood still survives. Little more than a mile to the west lies the royal and police burgh of Pittenweem (Gaelic for “the hollow of the cave”), a quaint old fishing town (pop. 1,751) with remains of a priory. About two miles still farther westward is the fishing town of St. Monans or Abercromby (pop. 1,916), with a fine Gothic church, picturesquely placed on the rocky shore.

ANSWER: see PRACTICE; PROCEDURE. ANT. In the zoological sense ants are a very natural group

of insects which forms the superfamily Formicoidea of the order HYMENOPTERA (g.v.). They are easily recognized by the elbowed antennae, the conspicuous “waist” formed by a constriction of the abdomen where it unites with the thorax, and generally by the absence of wings. Ants live in societies which inhabit nests of varied kinds: each society consists of numerous wingless, sterile, worker individuals together with males and egg-laying females. The fertile males and females are commonly winged and they eventually leave the nest, often in great swarms: mating takes

ANTACIDS—ANTARAH

IBN SHADDAD

I3

porch or part of a porch in the temples of ancient Greece. They

WORKER

are masonry developments from early wooden structural posts, used, as in the Heraeum at Olympia, to reinforce the brick walls. The term is also used in modern work to describe any pilaster whose detail resembles that of a true anta. Columns set between antae are termed “‘in antis.” (See GREEK ARCHITECTURE.)

ANTAEUS, in Greek mythology, a giant of Libya, the son of

Poseidon and Ge. He compelled all strangers who were passing through the country to wrestle with him, and as, if thrown, he derived fresh strength whenever he touched his mother earth, he proved invincible. Heracles, in combat with him, discovered the source of his strength, and lifting him up from the earth, crushed him to death. His tomb was shown at Tingis (Tangier).

HEAD OF LARVA MORE HIGHLY MAGNIFIED

ANTALCIDAS FEMALE

(4n-tal-ké-dis), Spartan soldier and diplo-

matist. In 393 (or 392) B.c. he was sent to Tiribazus, satrap of Sardis, to undermine the friendly relations then existing between Athens and Persia by offering to recognize Persian claims to the whole of Asia Minor. The Athenians sent a counter-embassy under Conon. Tiribazus, who was favourable to Sparta, threw Conon into prison, but Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon) disapproved and re-

called his satrap. In 388 p.c. Antalcidas, then commander of the Spartan fleet, accompanied Tiribazus to the Persian court and

LARVA -17

FEMALE AFTER Loss OF WINGS

AFTER

said to have starved himself to death. (See Sparta.)

MORLATT

METAMORPHOSES AND CASTES OF THE ANT (TETRAMORIUM CESPITUM) place in the open, and the fertilized females (queens) cast their wings and proceed to found new colonies. Ants exhibit a great variety of food preference: many are carnivorous, others feed upon nectar and honey-dew, some gather in seeds, etc., and some live on fungi which they cultivate. (See SocraL INSECTS.)

ANTACIDS,

medicines which cure acidity by decomposing

or neutralizing, and therefore eliminating, an excess of free acid. Those most generally used are salts, e.g., sodium bicarbonate.

ANTAE

(singular, anta), in architecture, the slightly pro-

jecting pilaster strips at the extremity of walls which flank a

yee

ANTANANARIVO,

the capital of Madagascar, situated

about gom. from the eastern coast of the island, in 18° 55’ S., 47° 30’ E. It is 135m. W.S.W. of Tamatave, the principal seaport of the island, with which it is connected by railway. The town, picturesquely built on a basaltic ridge which rises to 690ft. above the fertile rice plain of the Ikopa to the west (4,06oft. above sealevel), owes its importance to its defensive site and to its rich environs. For long only the principal village of the Hova chiefs, Antananarivo advanced in importance as those chiefs made themselves sovereigns of the greater part of Madagascar, until it be-

came a town of some 80,000 inhabitants. Until 1869 all buildings within the city proper were of wood or rush, but it possesses several timber palaces which crown the summit of the central portion of the ridge; and the largest palace, r2oft. high, with its lofty roof and towers, is the most conspicuous object from every point of view. Since the introduction of brick and stone, and especially since the French conquest (1895), handsome public buildings, including the French residency, the royal palaces, the Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, schools and comfortable houses of brick or stone have been erected alongside indigenous huts of

(ol prea

a

secured the assistance of Persia against Athens. The success of his naval operations in the neighbourhood of the Hellespont was such that Athens was glad to accept terms of peace (the “Peace of Antalcidas”), by which (1) the whole of Asia Minor, with the islands of Clazomenae and Cyprus, was recognized as subject to Persia, (2) all other Greek cities—so far as they were not under Persian rule—were to be independent, except Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros, which were to belong, as formerly, to the Athenians. The terms were announced to the Greek envoys at Sardis in the winter 387—386, and were finally accepted by Sparta in 386 B.c. Antalcidas continued in favour with Artaxerxes until the annihilation of Spartan supremacy at Leuctra diminished his influence. A final mission to Persia, probably in 367 B.c., was a failure, and Antalcidas, deeply chagrined and fearful of the consequences, is

et : es

straw or wood. Excellent avenues have been made and flights of steps constructed up the steeper hill-slopes. Antananarivo also possesses a library, an experimental garden and an observatory. Water is obtained from springs at the foot of the hill and from the river Ikopa, which skirts the capital to the south and west.

GYPTIAN

-| The population, including that of the suburbs, is 90,000 (1921). Two forts on hills, east and south-west, guard the city.

ANTARAH IBN SHADDAD, Arabian poet and warrior

PROPYLAEA, ATHENS

MODERN WAR MEMORIAL SOUTHAM

N, N. Y.

Goodwillie & Moran, Architects

BY PERMISSION FROM SIR BANISTER FLETCHER, “HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE ON THE COMPARATIVE METHOD,” EIGHTH ED. (1928), BATSFORD; BUHLMANN, “CLASSIC AND RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE” (NEFF & HELBURN)

of the 6th century, was famous both for his poetry and his adventurous life. His chief poem is contained in the Mo‘allakdt. His father, Shaddad, was a soldier, and his mother, Zabuba, a negro slave. He took part in the great war between the related tribes of Abs and Dhubyan, which began over a contest of horses and was named after them the war of Dahis and Ghabra. He died in a fight against the tribe of Tai.

14

ANTARCTIC—ANTARCTIC

His poems, which are chiefly concerned with fighting or with his love for Abla, were edited by Muhammad-al-’Inani (1911) ; they are also included in W. Ahlwardt’s The Diwans of the six ancient Arabic Poets (1870). As regards their genuineness, cf. W. Ahlwardt’s Bemerkungen über die Aechtheit der alten arabischen Gedichte (Greifswald, 1872) so seg. The Romance of ‘Antar (Sirat ‘Antar ibn Shaddad), a work which was long handed down by oral tradition only, has grown to immense proportions and has been published in 32 volumes at Cairo, 1307 A.H. (A.D. 1889), and in ro volumes at Beiriit, 1871. It was partly translated by Terrick Hamilton under the title ‘Antar, a Bedoueen Romance (4 vol., 1820), and there is a French translation by L. Marcel Devic (2nd ed., 1878). For an account of the poet and his works see H. Thorbeckes, Antarah ein vorislamischer Dichter (Leipzig, 1867), and cf. the Book of Songs (see ABULFARAJ), vol. vii., p. 148-153.

ANTARCTIC,

the epithet applied to the region, including

both the ocean and the lands, round the South Pole (Gr. àrri, opposite, and &pxros, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major). The Antarctic circle is drawn at 66° 30’ S., but polar conditions of climate, etc., extend considerably north of the area thus enclosed. (See ANTARCTIC REGIONS.)

ANTARCTIC REGIONS.

The remoteness of the antarctic

regions from the centres of civilization delayed their exploration until comparatively modern times. The existence of zones of climate similar to those in the northern hemisphere had been predicted by the Greek philosophers, but it was not until Prince Henry the Navigator began in 1418 to encourage the penetration of the torrid zone in the effort to reach India by circumnavigating Africa that the exploration of the southern hemisphere began. Successive explorations set a southern limit to the great known continents without approaching the true antarctic regions. The rounding of Africa by Bartholomew Diaz, in 1487; of South America by Magellan, in 1520, and of Tierra del Fuego by Schouten and Lemaire in 1615 established the main objects of the day by finding routes to the east, and there was, therefore, no inducement to further search towards the south. Nevertheless, the geographers of the time sketched in imagination a vast southern continent just beyond these known routes, and the history of further exploration is largely that of the diminution of this great south land by minor discoveries, until Captain Cook’s voyage led the world to the opposite extreme of doubting whether there was any south land at all.

REGIONS

crossed for the first time in history and the two ships reached 67° 15’ S. in 39° 35’ E., where their course was stopped by ice. There Cook turned northward to look for South France, of the discovery of which he had received news at Cape Town, but from the rough determination of his longitude by Kerguelen, Cook reached the assigned latitude 10° too far east and did not see it. He turned south again and was stopped by ice in 61° 52’ S. and 95° E. and continued eastward nearly on the parallel of 60° S. to 147° E., where on March 16 the approaching winter drove him northward for rest to New Zealand and the tropical islands of the Pacific. In Nov. 1773 Cook left New Zealand, having parted company with the “Adventure,” and reached 60° S. in 177° W., whence he sailed eastward keeping as far south as the floating ice allowed. The Antarctic Circle was crossed on Dec. 20 and Cook remained south of it for three days, being compelled after reaching 67° 31’ S. to stand north again in 135° W. A long detour to 47° 50’ S. served to show that there was no land connection between New Zealand and Tierra del Fuego, and turning south again Cook crossed the Antarctic Circle for the third time in 109° 30’ W., and four days later his progress

was blocked by ice in 71° 10’ S., 106° 54” W. This point, reached on Jan. 30, 1774, was the farthest south attained in the 18th century. In Nov. 1774 Cook started from New Zealand and crossed the South Pacific without sighting land between 53° and 57° S. to Tierra del Fuego; passing Cape Horn on Dec. 29 he discovered the Isle of Georgia and Sandwich Land, the only iceclad Jand he had seen, and crossed the South Atlantic to the

Cape of Good Hope between 55° and 60° S., thereby exploding the myth of a habitable southern continent. Cook’s most southerly discovery of land lay on the temperate side of the 6oth parallel, and he convinced himself that if land lay farther south it was practically inaccessible and of no economic value. Soon after Cook’s return sealers set out on voyages to South Georgia both from England and America. In Feb. 1819, William Smith of the brig’ “Williams,” rounding the Horn with a wide sweep to the south, saw land in 62° 40’ S. Repeating the voyage in October he saw the land distinctly, and named it New South Shetland. The ‘Williams’? was chartered by the British naval commander on the Pacific station, and in 1820 Edward Bransfield, master, R.N., surveyed the group and went as far as 64° 30° among the islands. Meanwhile American sealers from HISTORICAL Stonington, Conn., had begun operations on the newly discovered The search for this great south land or third world was a land, and one of these, N. B. Palmer, discovered the mountainous leading motive of explorers in the 16th and the early part of the archipelago still farther south which bears his name. In 1821-22 17th centuries, and no illusion ever died a harder death. Voyagers George Powell, apparently a British sealer, discovered and surround the Horn frequently met with contrary winds and were veyed the South Orkney islands which, though typical antarctic driven southward into snowy skies and ice-encumbered seas; but lands, lie outside the Antarctic Circle. Bellingshausen.—A voyage only second in importance to that so far as can be ascertained none of them before 1770 reached the Antarctic Circle, or knew it, if they did. It may safely be of Cook was planned in Russia and sent out by the emperor, said that all the navigators who fell in with the southern ice up Alexander I., under the command of Fabian von Bellingshausen in to 1750 did so by being driven off their course and not of set the “Vostok,” with Lieutenant Lazareff in the “Mirni” in compurpose. An exception is the determined effort on the part of pany, both vessels being about soo tons. The object of the the French naval officer, Pierre Bouvet, to discover the south expedition was to supplement that of Cook by circumnavigating land, which resulted in the discovery of Bouvet island in 54° the antarctic area, taking care to keep as far south as possible in ro’ S., and in the navigation of 48° of longitude of ice-cumbered those longitudes where Cook had made his northward detours. sea in 55° S. in 1739. In 1771 Yves Joseph Kerguelen sailed from Bellingshausen entered on his exploring work by sighting South France with instructions to proceed south from Mauritius in Georgia at the end of Dec. 1819, discovered the Traverse islands, search of “a very large continent.” He lighted upon a land in 50° sighted the Sandwich group and met a solid ice-pack in 60° S., S. which he called South France, and believed to be the central to get round which he made a wide detour, sailing east to the mass of the southern continent. He was sent out again to com- south of Cook’s tract, and getting south of the 6oth parallel in plete the exploration of the new land, and found it to be only an 8° W. On Jan. 26 he crossed the Antarctic Circle in 3° W. and inhospitable island which he renamed in disgust the Isle of Deso- by Feb. 1 had reached 69° 25’ in 1° 11” W., a latitude which has lation; posterity has recognized his courageous efforts by nam- -never been surpassed on that meridian. Being stopped by ice, ing it Kerguelen Land. Bellingshausen turned northward and then continued to the east James Cook.—Sailing in 1772, under the orders of the British well to the south of Cook’s track, getting south again as the ice Admiralty, with the “Resolution,” a vessel of 462 tons, under permitted and reaching 69° 6’ S. in 18° E. On this occasion he his own command, and the “Adventure,” of 336 tons, under was able to sail for 3° of longitude within the circle before being Captain, Tobias Furneaux, Cook first searched in vain for Bouvet forced north of it by a succession of heavy gales, He still kept island, then sailed for 20° of longitude to the westward in lat. eastward south of 65° S. and crossed the circle once more in 58° S., and then 30° eastward for the most part south of 60° S., 41° E., where the number of birds seen suggested the proximity a higher southern latitude than had ever been voluntarily entered of land, and, in fact, Enderby Land was not very far off, though before by any vessel, On Jan. 17, 1773, the Antarctic Circle was out of sight. A storm of unexampled violence drove the ships

ANTARCTIC northward, but they still held to the east south of 60° S. as far as 87° E., having followed the edge of the ice through those meridians south of Kerguelen Land where Cook had made a great detour to the north. Bellingshausen now made for Sydney, and there heard of the discovery of the South Shetlands; leaving early in November, he reached the 6oth parallel a month later in long. 143° W., and sailing eastward kept south of that parallel

REGIONS

I5

five vessels in Aug. 1838, and his instructions, dated in that month, required him amongst other things (1) to follow Weddell’s route as far as possible; (2) to visit the most southerly point reached by Cook in the antarctic; and (3) to make an “attempt to penetrate within the antarctic region, south of Van Diemen’s Land, and as far west as long. 45° E., or to Enderby Land.” In spite of great difficulties Wilkes fulfilled his programme. In

through 145° of longitude during 65 days, never out of sight of the ice, keeping close along the pack edge through the great gap left by Cook south of New Zealand. He managed to cross the circle three times more, in 164° 30’ W., in 120° W. and in 92° 1o’ W., where he reached 69° 52’ S., the culminating point of the voyage. On Jan. 22, 1821, the day after reaching his highest latitude, Bellingshausen sighted the first land ever seen within

following Weddell’s route Wilkes, better than d’Urville in the previous of 96 tons, under Lieutenant Walker thus nearly reaching Cook’s position

in March 1839, fared no year, but the “Flying Fish,” reached 70° S. in 105° W., of 1774. The third item of

of one of the Enderby brigs, sailed to the eastward from the South Sandwich islands and found himself forced to coast along the impenetrable ice-pack, until be crossed the Antarctic Circle

navigation in the ice, Captain J. Clark Ross, R.N., was in command of the “Erebus” and of the expedition; Commander F. R. M. Crozier of the “Terror.” A young surgeon, J. D, Hooker, joined the royal navy in order to go on the expedition, and he lived to take a keen interest in every subsequent antarctic expedition down to that of Captain Scott in rọra. Ross had intended to make straight for the meridian of the magnetic pole, but, finding that d’Urville and Wilkes had already entered on those seas, he determined to try to make a high latitude farther east, and leaving Hobart Town on Nov. 12, 1840, he crossed the Antarctic Circle on Jan, 1, 1841, and entered the pack ice on the 5th in 174° E.,

the antarctic programme was made the subject of the most

strenuous endeavour. Wilkes sailed from Sydney in the “Vincennes” on Dec. 26, 1839, accompanied by the “Peacock,” the the Antarctic Circle, the little island named after Peter I. A “Porpoise” and the “Flying Fish.” They went south to the week later another and larger land, named after Alexander I., west of the Balleny islands, which they did not see, and cruised was seen at a distance of 40m. and sketches made of its bold out- westward along the ice-barrier or as near it as the ice-pack line in which the black rock stood out in contrast to the snow. allowed towards Enderby Land nearly on the Antarctic Circle. Bellingshausen then made for the South Shetlands, where he The weather was bad with fogs, snowstorms and frequent gales, and although land was reported (by each of the vessels) at met the American sealers, and thence returned to Russia. Weddell, Biscoe and Balleny.—During the next few years, several points along the route, it was rarely seen distinctly. several determined attempts were made to penetrate farther to There can be no doubt that Wilkes saw land along the line where the south, Most of these had as their first object the discovery Adélie Land, Kemp Land and Enderby Land are known to exist, of areas suitable for whaling or sealing, and must be intimately even if the positions he assigns are not quite accurate. It seems connected with the name of the famous firm of Enderby of Lon- no more than due to a gallant officer, who did his best in most don, which was always ready to encourage their whaling and difficult circumstances, to leave the name of Wilkes Land on the sealing masters to take every opportunity that offered for ex- map of the region he explored. Ross.—Unlike the other two expeditions, that equipped by the ploration, In 1823 James Weddell, a retired master, R.N., in command of the “Jane,” a brig of 160 tons, with the cutter British Government in 1839 was intended solely for antarctic ex“Beaufoy,” of 65 tons, sailed into the sea which now bears his ploration and primarily for magnetic surveys in the south polar name and on Feb. 20 he reached the highest latitude yet attained, seas. There were two ships, the “Erebus,” of 370 tons, and the 74° 15’ S. in 34° 17’ W. In 1830 John Biscoe, R.N., in command “Terror,” of 340, stoutly built craft specially strengthened for

in 1° E. He remained south of the circle for over four weeks,

and was rewarded by the discovery of land in 49° 18’ E., which he saw, but was unable to reach. This land is now known as Enderby Land. Biscoe recruited his crews in Tasmania and New Zealand, and again sailed for the south, crossing the whole of the southern Pacific in a high latitude in Feb. 1832, and discovering the islands and main land south of South America, since known as the Biscoe islands and Graham Land. In 1833 another of the Enderby captains, named Kemp, reported the discovery of land about ro° E. of Enderby Land, while in 1839 John Balleny, sailing south from New Zealand, crossed the Antarctic Circle in 178° E., and discovered the Balleny islands, one of which rises to a height of 12,000 feet. Dumont d’Urville——About 1835 the importance of obtaining magnetic observations in the far south, and the scientific interest of the study of the south polar regions led to plans being put forward for expeditions in the United States, France and Great Britain. The French were first in the field; an expedition, equipped in the frigates “Astrolabe” and “Zelée” under Jules Dumont d’Urville for ethnological research in the Pacific islands, was instructed to make an attempt to surpass Weddell’s latitude in the South Atlantic ocean, and this d’Urville tried to do with conspicuous ill-success; he never reached the Antarctic Circle. Two years later, after fulfilling the main purpose of his expedition in the Pacific, d’Urville resolved for the glory of France to attempt to reach the’ magnetic pole. He left Hobart Town on Jan. 1, 1840, and on the 2oth he crossed the 66th parallel in 140° E. and discovered land 3,000 or 4,oooft, high, which he

named Adélie Land. Ten days later in 64° 30’ §. d’Urville cruised westward along a high ice-barrier, which he believed to be connected with land, from longitude 131° E. and he named it the Clarie coast. A few days later he left the Antarctic regions for the Pacific, Wilkes.—As early as 1836 the United States Congress had authorized an American exploring expedition in the programme of which antarctic exploration had a leading place. Lieutenant Charles Wilkes was appointed to command the expedition of

which they penetrated in five days and reached open water, Sailing towards the magnetic pole they found a chain of great moun-

tains rising from a coast which ran due south from a prominent cape (Cape Adare) in 71° S. The continent was taken formal possession of for Queen Victoria by landing on Possession island, the mainland being inaccessible, and the ships continued southward in sight of the coast of Victoria Land, where the loftiest mountain was named Mt. Melbourne after the prime minister, until the twin volcanoes, named Erebus and Terror, were sighted in 78° S. on Jan, 28. From Cape Crozier, at the base of the mountains, a line of lofty cliffs of ice ran eastwards, the great icebarrier, unlike any object in nature ever seen before, rising perpendicularly from the water to the height of 200 or 3ooft. and continuing unbroken for 250 miles. Along the barrier the highest latitude of 78° 4’ S. was attained, and the farthest point to the east was 167° W., whence Ross turned to look for a winter harbour in Victoria Land, being desirous to winter near the south

magnetic pole. As he could not reach the land on account of ice extending out from it for 15 or 16m,, after sighting the Balleny islands at a great distance, on March 2 the ships returned to Hobart. For striking discoveries this was the most remarkable antarctic voyage ever made. In Nov. 1841 the “Erebus” and “Terror” returned to antarctic waters, steering south-east from New Zealand and entering the ice-pack in about 60° S. and 146° W., the idea being to approach the great barrier from the eastward. After much severe weather the barrier was sighted on Feb. 22, 1842, and the ships reached 78° ro’ S. in 161° 27’ W., the highest latitude attained for 60

years. To the eastward the barrier surface rose to a mountainous

16

ANTARCTIC

REGIONS

height, but although Ross believed it to be land, he would only | party, including the captain and Borchgrevink,

treat it officially as “‘an appearance of land,” leaving the confirmation of its discovery as King Edward Land to the next century. No more work was done in this quarter; the “Erebus” and “Terror” turned the edge of the pack to the northward and on getting into clear water sailed eastward to Cape Horn. After wintering in the Falkland islands, Ross made his third and last attack on the southern ice, and for six weeks he cruised amongst the pack off Joinville island and Louis Philippe Land trying in vain to reach the Antarctic Circle. Failing in this attempt he turned to follow Weddell’s route and skirted the pack eastward in 65° S., crossing Weddell’s track on Feb. 14, 1843, more than a degree farther south than d’Urville in his attempt four years before, but on the edge of an equally impenetrable pack. Coasting it eastward to 12° W. the “Erebus” and “Terror” at last rounded the pack and found the way open to the south, crossing the circle on March 1. Four days later the pack was met with again and the ships were forced into it for 27m. to lat. 71° 30’ S. in 14° 51’ W., 19° east of Weddell’s farthest south.

“Challenger.”—-No further attempt at south polar explora-

landed on the mainland near Cape Adare, the first people to set foot on the Antarctic continent. Gerlache: “Belgica.”—Efforts had been made from time to time by Prof. Georg von Neumayer in Germany and by Sir John Murray and others in Great Britain, to induce learned societies to inaugurate a new era of scientific antarctic research under Government or at least under national auspices. In 1895 Sir Clements Markham, as president of the Royal Geographical Society and of the International Geographical Congress, also took the matter up, and interest in the antarctic regions began to be aroused in every civilized country. Captain Adrien de Gerlache organized and led a Belgian expedition, for which he raised the funds with diffculty. Their ship was named the “Belgica,” and amongst the members of the expedition were Roald Amundsen and Dr. F. A. Cook. The “Belgica” crossed to the west of Graham Land and made surveys of the archipelago there. It finally penetrated the pack as far south as 71° 30’, where it had the misfortune of being frozen in. For more than a year the ship drifted with the ice, and although scientific work of great importance was carried out, the members suffered severely from depression and one member died. Though it made few discoveries of land, its scientific collections were of unique value, and it was one of the first antarctic expeditions to have its results published in a suitable form. Borchgrevink.—The first expedition to spend a winter on the antarctic continent was that of Borchgrevink, which left England in 1898, and landed a party at Cape Adare, the northeast point of Victoria Land. The choice of headquarters was an unlucky one, as no sledge journeys to the south were possible, but the land party made observations and collections of considerable value during their stay, though they had the misfortune to lose their biologist. Before returning, Borchgrevink sailed south to the Ross barrier and discovered that the edge of the ice was

tion was made for nearly 30 years, except a short cruise by Tapsell in the “Brisk,” one of Enderby’s ships which in Feb. 1850, after passing the Balleny islands, proceeded eastward to 143° E. at a higher latitude than Wilkes without sighting land. The first steamer to cross the Antarctic Circle was H.M.S. “Challenger,” on Feb. 16, 1874; she penetrated only to 66° 4o’ S., in 78° 30’ E., south of Kerguelen Land; but she continued her course to Australia for some distance in a high latitude, passing within rsm. of the position assigned to Wilkes’s Termination Land without seeing any sign of land. Her dredgings and soundings yielded evidence as to the nature of the unknown region farther south. Sir John Murray believed that the soundings showed a general shoaling of the ocean towards the antarctic ice, indicating the approach to a continent. By collecting and analysing all samples of deep-sea deposits which had been secured from the far considerably farther south than it had been when visited by south, he discovered a remarkable symmetry in the arrangement Ross in 1842. Discovery.—In the autumn of rgoz three well-equipped exof the deposits. The globigerina ooze, or in deeper waters the red clay, carpeting the northern part of the southern oceans, peditions left Europe for antarctic exploration. The British merges on the southward into a great ring of diatom ooze, which national antarctic expedition was organized by a joint committee gives place in turn, towards the ice, to a terrigenous blue mud. of the Royal Society and the Royal Geographical Society, and The fine rock particles of which the blue mud is composed equipped under the superintendence of Sir Clements Markham. are such as do not occur on oceanic islands, and the discovery of For this expedition a new departure was taken, in that a ship, large blocks of sandstone dropped by icebergs proved the existence named “Discovery,” was specially built for the work. She was of sedimentary rocks within the Antarctic Circle. of 7oo tons register, and was made entirely non-magnetic amidLarsen.—A Norwegian sealer, the “Jason,’ Captain Larsen, ships. The expedition sailed under the command of Commander visited those seas in 1892; the captain landed and collected fossils R. F. Scott, R.N., and included in the expedition were Licutenant at several points north of 65° S. In 1893-94 the “Jason,” accom- Shackleton, R.N.R., and Dr. E. A. Wilson. It was decided that panied by two other Norwegian vessels, the “Hertha” and the the ship should remain south for one winter in the ice, for which “Castor,” returned to the antarctic and entered the ice-laden purpose Scott, after cruising along and surveying the edge of the waters in November at the very beginning of summer. Captain Ross barrier, selected McMurdo sound at the south-west corner Larsen in the “Jason” made his way as far south as 68° rọ in of Ross sea, as his headquarters. Before laying up for the winter, 60° W. on the eastern side of Graham Land, but several miles he cruised to the eastward of the farthest point reached by Ross, from the coast, which was bordered by a high ice-barrier. The and discovered land of a continental character, which he named “Hertha,” Captain Evensen, reached the South Shetlands on King Edward Land. Nov. 1, 1893, and worked her way southward along the west side The winter quarters proved to be suitable, but it was some time of Palmer Land and past the Biscoe islands reaching the Antarctic before the party were able to develop a technique for their sledgCircle on Nov. 9 without meeting ice. This was the first time ing journeys and commence a series of explorations from their the Antarctic Circle had been crossed since the “Challenger” did base. The expedition initiated a new phase of exploration in the So 20 years before. Captain Evensen sighted Alexander Land, antarctic in working from a settled base. Symptoms of scurvy and without experlencing any trouble from ice-floes he reached appeared during the winter, but with early spring a series of his farthest south, 69° 10’ S. in 76° 12’ W. (Mitteilungen der sledging journeys were commenced. The miain journey was that Geographischen Gesellschaft, Hamburg, 1895, pp. 245-304.) of Captain Scott, with Shackleton and Wilson, who travelled with In 1894 the well-known Norwegian whaler, Svend Foyn, sent dogs over the surface of the barrier towards the south, in which out one of his vessels, the “Antarctic,” Captain Christensen, to journey, after many vicissitudes, caused chiefly by the failure and try his luck off the coast of Victoria Land. The “Antarctic” death of the dogs, they reached, on Dec. 30, their farthest south sailed from Melbourne in September, having on board Carstens in 82° 17’ S. During the return march Shackleton broke down Egeberg Borchgrevink, a young Norwegian resident in Australia. and had to be invalided home in the relief ship which visited the The “Antarctic” entered the pack in 62° 45’ S., 171° 30 E., on “Discovery” in the summer. Meanwhile, Armitage had pioneered Dec. 8, 1894. The Balleny islands were sighted on Dec. 14, and a route to the plateau to the west of the headquarters. By the Cape Adare on Victoria Land two days later. On Jan. 22, 1895, end of the summer it was obvious that the “Discovery” would the farthest point was reached’ at Coulman island in 74° S.; the not be able to get clear of the ice, and it was determined to spend a sea was then easily navigable to the south. On Jan. 23 a small second winter in the south.

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ANTARCTIC 3. Mount

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REGIONS

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ANTARCTIC The second year’s work was chiefly remarkable for a great journey led by Scott, in which without dogs he reached a point

300m. west of the ship having penetrated over 250m. inland and finding it to be a high plateau averaging 8,oooft. above sea level. The ship was reached again on Dec. 25, and on Jan. 5 the “Morning” arrived accompanied by a larger vessel, the “Terra Nova,” sent out by the Admiralty with orders to Captain Scott to

abandon the “Discovery” and return at once.

Fortunately, al-

though all the stores and collections had been transferred to the relief ships, the “Discovery” broke out of the ice on Feb. 16, 1904, and Captain Scott had the satisfaction of bringing her home in

perfect order. The relief ships had provided so little coal that a most promising voyage to the westward of the Balleny islands had to be abandoned in 155° E.; but it showed that the land charted by Wilkes east of that meridian did not exist in the latitude assigned.

Drygalski: “Gauss.”—Simultaneously with the “Discovery”

expedition and in full co-operation with it as regards simultaneous meteorological and magnetic observations, the German Government equipped an expedition in the “Gauss” which was specially built for the occasion. The expedition was under the charge of Prof. Erich von Drygalski. A supplementary expedition set up a station for simultaneous observation on Kerguelen Land. The “Gauss” crossed the parallel of 60° S. in 92° E. early in Feb. 1902 and got within 60m. of the charted position of Wilkes’s Termination Land, where a depth of 1,730 fathoms was found with no sign of land. The pack made it necessary to turn south-westward and land was seen to the eastward on Feb. 1902 on the Antarctic Circle in the direction of Termination Land. Soon afterwards the “Gauss” was beset and spent the winter in the ice. Land of considerable extent was seen to the south and was named Kaiser Wilhelm II. Land; the most conspicuous feature on it was a hill of bare black rock with an elevation of about 1,o0oft., which was called the Gaussberg, and was situated in 67° S., 90° E. This was the only bare land seen, and its neighbourhood was thoroughly investigated by sledge parties, but no distant journey was undertaken. Nordenskjéld and Bruce.—Two private expeditions organized by men of science were in the antarctic region simultaneously

REGIONS

17

Shackleton.—After his return invalided from the “Discovery,” Lieutenant Shackleton planned a fresh expedition, and started in the small whaler “Nimrod” from Lyttelton, New Zealand, on Jan. 1, 1908, being towed by a steamer to the Antarctic Circle, in order to save coal. The expedition established itself at Cape Royd on Ross island, some 20m. north of Scott’s winter quarters of 1904, a hut being built and the ship returning to New Zealand for the winter. A new departure in antarctic sledging was initiated by the use of Manchurian ponies. Before the winter set in a party under Prof. T. W. E. David reached the summit of the active volcano, Mt. Erebus. In the succeeding summer the same leader made a very notable sledge journey to the south magnetic pole, situated in lat. 72° 25 S., 155° 16’ E. at an altitude of over 7,000 feet. The greatest achievement of this remarkable expedition was the journey made by Shackleton himself with three companions who reached the latitude of 88° 23’ S., discovering a route on to the plateau by way of the gigantic Beardmore glacier, and pioneering the way to the Pole itself. This must rank as the greatest sledge journey ever made without the help of supporting parties. The party narrowly escaped disaster from causes somewhat similar to those which destroyed the Scott party four years later, but it reached the ship just in time and the whole expedition returned without losing a man. Scott.—Captain R. F. Scott left England in 1910 with a new expedition, promoted by his own exertions, in the “Terra Nova,” manned by a carefully selected crew and a large scientific staff. The main objects of the expedition were a journey to the South Pole and a very comprehensive programme of scientific investigation of the Ross sea area. The main party established itself on the west side of Ross island between Scott’s former winter quarters and Cape Royd. A subsidiary party of six men, led by Lieutenant Campbell, were sent to the east in the ship to establish a base in King Edward Land. Steaming along the face of the barrier, carrying out a survey the party entered a deep bay and were

amazed to find the “Fram” of north-polar fame, with a Norwegian party under Captain Roald Amundsen. This expedition, intended for the north-polar regions, had changed its plans and decided to attempt to reach the South Pole instead. Secrecy was deemed necessary and the “Fram” made an extraordinary voywith the British and German national expeditions, and the syn- age from Madeira to Ross sea without calling at any port, landed chronous meteorological and magnetic observations added to the the party and returned for the winter to Buenos Aires. Amundsen relied entirely on his dogs and after some very sucvalue of the scientific results of all the parties. Dr. Otto Nordenskjéld, nephew of the discoverer of the north-east passage, cessful depot-laying journeys he set out on Oct. 20, 1911, for the led a Swedish party in the “Antarctic,” with Captain C. A. Lar- Pole, accompanied by four companions on ski with 52 dogs. They sen in command of the ship, and reached the South Shetlands in found a new route up to the polar plateau by way of the Axel Jan. 1902. The “Antarctic” succeeded in penetrating the pack in Heiberg glacier in 85° S. and reached the Pole on Dec. 14. The the Weddell sea almost to the circle in 50° W., where d’Urville return journey took but 38 days and they arrived at their winter and Ross had failed to get so far south. A second winter was quarters with 12 dogs and ample food supply in hand. No atspent at the base on Snow Hill island, and, the ship having been tempt was made at any serious scientific work by the expedition, lost in the ice on her way to take them off, the party was rescued but it performed the journey at by far the fastest rate of any by a brilliant dash of the Argentine gunboat “Uruguay,” under sledge party yet in the antarctic, the dogs doing all the transport Captain Irizar, before the relief ship sent from Sweden arrived. work. Meanwhile Scott had sent his subsidiary party to Cape Adare Meanwhile Dr. W. S. Bruce equipped a Scottish expedition in the “Scotia,” with Captain Thomas Robertson in command of the where they wintered in the hut of Borchgrevink’s expedition of ship, and a large scientific staff. The “Scotia” made valuable 1899-1900. They were compelled to make a hazardous land jouroceanographical investigations in the Weddell sea in 1903 and ney of 300m. back to Cape Evans along the coast of Victoria very returning again the next summer she sighted the land now known Land, wintering on the way with improvised equipment. A as Coats Land. In addition to her very thorough exploration of the eastern side of the Weddell sea her oceanographical work throughout the southern ocean was of very great value in the l solution of a number of disputed points. Charcot.—In Jan. 1904 Dr. Jean B. Charcot, a man of science and an accomplished yachtsman, left the Fuegian archipelago for the antarctic in the “Français,” in command of a French exploring expedition equipped at his own instance. He cruised along the western side of Graham Land to 67° S. A mishap to this ship

remarkable winter journey to Cape Crozier was carried out by

Dr. E. A. Wilson, Lieutenant Bowers and Cherry-Garrard in conditions of unprecedented severity, and unique specimens of the eggs of the emperor penguin were secured. The Pole party started from Cape Evans on Oct. 24, 1911, in three divisions using rev spectively motor-sledges, ponies and dogs. The motors broke down before the journey was well begun, the last of the ponies was shot before reaching 83° 30’ S., here also the dog-teams were sent back to the base, and on Dec. ro Scott with 11 others began ascent of the Beardmore glacier, following Shackleton’s in the again returned he but point this from caused him to return route of 1909, with three man-hauled sledges. On Dec. 21 four 1908 in the “Pourquoi Pas” wintering in 1909 on Petermann Island, 65° S. In the next summer he pushed further south and men with one sledge were sent back from 85° 7’ S., and on the west and established the continuity of Graham Land with Alex- 31st the last supporting party of three under Lieutenant E. R. ander Land and its general trend to the westward to more than C. R. Evans returned from 86° 56’ S. and reached the base after narrowly escaping death from scurvy. half the distance from Graham Land to King Edward Land.

18

ANTARCTIC

The Polar party—Scott, Wilson, Bowers, Captain Oates and Petty-Officer Edgar Evans—with one sledge and equipment originally designed for four men, reached the Pole on Jan. 18, 1912, where they found a tent left by Amundsen. All were tired out by their 69 days’ march and bitterly disappointed to find that they had been forestalled. The weather on the return journey was worse than it had ever been known before, and disasters followed one another. Edgar Evans broke down on the Beardmore glacier and after delaying the march died on Feb. 17. Oates, at the end of his strength, and resolved not to be a burden, sacrificed himself on March 17 in 79° 50’ S., by walking out into the blizzard. The supply of fuel oil at the last depot had been deficient and 20m. remained, to reach the next. The three survivors struggled on heroically for rom., raised their tent for the last time and, being bound to their camp by a blizzard which lasted for nine days, nothing remained but to await death with quiet fortitude. Lieutenant Evans, the second in command, had been invalided home on the “Terra Nova,” and the search parties sent out to meet Scott had been unfortunate, so that it was not until after another winter that Dr. Atkinson, then in command at the base, found the tent with the frozen bodies on Nov. 12, 1912. Douglas Mawson.—Dr. Douglas Mawson organized the Australian antarctic expedition which set out in the “Aurora” in

REGIONS Georgia on Jan. 4, 1922, but Frank Wild, second in command, carried on the voyage as far as the lateness of the season permitted. He reached 69° 17’ S. in 17° E., in spite of great diffculties, and got important soundings in a little-known area. The royal research ship “Discovery” was commissioned in 1925 by the Colonial Office with funds supplied by the Falkland islands Government to study the life history of whales with a view of regulating and perpetuating the industry in sub-antarctic waters and returned in 1927. (See WHALES AND WHALING.) Later Exploration.—Results of exploration since the begin-

ning of the century have been the attainment of the South Pole,

the discovery of the general configuration of the antarctic continent and the perfecting of methods of polar travel and residence. During the summer of 1928 two aeroplane expeditions to the Antarctic were planned. Commander Byrd proposed to form a base on the Ross barrier due south of New Zealand and to explore by aeroplane to the south and east, seeking to discover the course of the great mountain ranges which border the Ross sea and to reach the South Pole. Sir Hubert Wilkins planned to start from the same base and to fly eastward about 3,000 miles over entirely unknown parts of the ice-sheet of Antarctica to Graham land due south of Cape Horn. Sir Hubert Wilkins arrived at his base on Deception island, Nov. 7, and made a successful flight Dec. 1911. The main base was established in Adélie Land and a a fortnight later. Commander Byrd later established a base in wireless mast erected. Here Mawson with 17 companions built the region about 165° W., which he named Little America, and a hut on the shore of Commonwealth bay (67° S., 142° 4’ E.) made successful explorations. On Nov. 28, 1929, Byrd set out while the ship under the command of Captain J. K. Davis pro- in the tri-motored plane “Floyd Bennett” for the South Pole ceeded 1,500m. to the westward where Queen Mary Land was dis- with Bernt Balchen, Captain A. C. McKinley and Harold June, covered and Frank Wild landed with a party of seven men and successfully reached the pole and returned to his base on Nov. 20, a hut to form the western base in 66° S., 94° E. His climatic ob- using the sun compass and completing the flight in slightly under servations are quoted below in the section on climate. Sledge 19 hours. f NATURE OF ANTARCTIC REGIONS parties started from the main base in Nov. 1912, diverging to explore inland towards the magnetic pole and eastward and westThe antarctic regions may be generally defined as that portion ward near the coast. The sledge parties made their way for 300m. of the globe which lies within the 6oth parallel of south latitude, or more from the base. All got back without disaster except the and for purposes of reference it is now customary to divide it leader, whose two companions, B. B. S. Ninnis and X. Mertz, into four quadrants of 90° which, reckoning eastwards from the perished, leaving him with scant stores room. from Common- meridian of Greenwich, are named the Enderby, Victoria, Ross wealth bay. He reached the hut on Feb. 10, 1913, by an effort of and Weddell quadrants. A less precise division into sectors realmost superhuman endurance and found that the “Aurora” had ferred to the contiguous continents is perhaps more useful to the just sailed to relieve Wild, leaving a volunteer rescue party with general reader; and the African; Australian and American secwhom he awaited the return of the ship in Dec. 1913. Sir Douglas tors denote the portion of the regions to the south of those conMawson was knighted in 1914. He revisited the Antarctic, redis- tinents respectively. Contrast Between Northern and Southern Regions,— covering Kemp Land (reported in 1833) in December 1929, and making further discoveries in the Enderby Land region. . Considering the 6oth parallel as a boundary we are at once Shackleton.—Sir Ernest Shackleton planned the Imperial impressed with a marked contrast between the amenitics of the Trans-Antarctic expedition in 1914, intending to cross the antarc- northern and southern polar regions. Within the area poleward tic continent from the Weddell sea to the Ross sea by way of the of 60° north latitude live more than 1,000,000 human inhabiSouth Pole. On board the “Endurance” he entered the ice-pack tants and countless land animals. Some of the largest and most in the Weddell sea early in Dec. 1914 and worked his way in valuable timber forests are north of 60°, and not a few indusadverse climatic conditions southward between 15° and 20° tries connected with lumber, mining and fishing flourish. In the west. He discovered the Caird coast between Coats Land and similar area in the southern hemisphere, there is not a single Luitpold Land on Jan. 11, 1915, but he found no landing-place. permanent human inhabitant, nor a single land animal larger than The ship, beset in the ice on Jan. 18, drifted northward. She an insect. There are no trees and very few plants of any kind was crushed in a terrific ice pressure and abandoned on Oct. 27, in at all. The sole industry which can be said to exist in the antarc69° 5’S., and the 28 men camped on the ice-floe, which continued tic regions is that of whaling, which is now carried on during a to move northward until April 9, 1916, when the floe broke up in few months in each year in the American and Australian sectors. 62° S., 54° W. after a drift of 457 days. The party took to their These contrasts naturally depend largely upon temperature. The three small boats and landed six days later after extraordinary explorations of the 20th century have shown us that the south hardships on Elephant island where they camped on a narrow polar region, again in complete contrast to the north, is largely beach below vertical ice cliffs. Shackleton with five men suc- occupied by a continent of more than 5,000,000 sq.m. in extent, ceeded in reaching South Georgia, 750m. distant, in a 22ft. boat that is to say, equivalent in size to Australia and Europe without and after three unsuccessful attempts to return to Elephant Russia. The South Pole is placed centrally in this continent, island through the ice-floes he succeeded with the Chilean trawler which, though far from being symmetrical, may for general pur“Yelcho” in rescuing all his men on Aug. 30, 1916. The expedition poses be considered as bounded by the 7oth parallel. had a section in Ross sea for the purpose of laying depots for Characteristics of Antarctica.—The most noticeable feature the transcontinental party. This party, under Captain Macin- about the continent is its unique isolation. It is possible to tosh, executed their task but the ship “Aurora” was carried off in traverse all the other continents without crossing more than about the pack ice in which she drifted for 315 days before getting 60m. of shallow sea, but to reach the antarctic continent one free. The leader and two others perished. must voyage over at least 6oom. of practically oceanic depths and Sir Ernest Shackleton’s last expedition sailed on the “Quest,” a that across the roughest seas exposed to the fiercest winds in the small and defective vessel, in Sept. 1921 to explore the Enderby world. Between 55° and 65° S. lat. there is no land to interfere

quadrant of the antarctic (0° to 90° E.), The leader died at South

with the west to east circulation of sea and air, and that zone

ANTARCTIC is therefore the home of the permanent west winds, the westerly drift and the wandering albatross, all of which encircle the antarctic continent ceaselessly. There are, in short, none of the interchanges of warm and cold air and water between temperate and polar regions which in the northern hemisphere lead to such curious anomalies as an almost ice free Spitsbergen in 79° N. and an almost ice-bound Labrador coast 20° farther south. In this fact we have an explanation of the contrasts in climate, and consequently in habitability, between the opposite polar regions, and the remainder of the explanation is forthcoming when we consider the relief of this vast deserted continent. The South Pole itself is situated on a plateau nearly 10,000ft. in height, and there is every reason to suspect that the greater part of the continent is continuous plateau. Allowing for the incomplete nature of the data we can with some fairness compute the average height of the continent as of the order of 6,000 feet, which is just twice as high as Asia, the next in order of magnitude. When we add to this conception of a high and isolated continent the fact that, of its 5,000,000 sq.m. probably less than 100 sq.m. is free from a permanent covering of ice we can well understand that here there is no attraction for man or beast or plant. The continent is thus in the grip of an ice age, more rigorous than that which has left its marks upon Europe and North America, and naturally the study of such a region resolves itself largely into a study of its manifold ice forms. Of these the least known and the most impressive is the icecap, whose lateral dimensions are those of the continent itself and which supplies the myriad glaciers which everywhere fringe the coast, sometimes in ice-worn valleys, but more often as a continuous glacier-front running down into the sea for hundreds of

REGIONS

19

be anything up to 7ft. through. This will begin to break up and float northward from the beginning of December onwards, but the innermost bays may not lose their ice until late in February, or occasionally not at all for two years in succession. The belt of drifting pack ice which rings the continent is made up of the ice from this summer break-up. The Continent.—The continent, thus hidden or protected, is formed for the most part of old rocks amongst which the most prominent are of Permo-Carboniferous age and bear coal, which is found in the Australian sector up to within 300m. of the Pole. In this sector the rocks have been above sea level since Palaeozoic times, except where the Ross sea area has broken and sunk below it, giving rise to a series of volcanic centres, of which the largest, the Ross island group, still has an active volcano, Mt. Erebus, 13,000ft. high. Palaeozoic rocks have not been discovered so far in this region, although a graptolite fossil, probably of Ordovician age, shows that they occur in the South Orkneys.

Mesozoic rocks have been found in various parts of the archipelago, a very rich Jurassic fossil flora of ferns, conifers and cycads having been studied by Nordenskjöld, some of the genera found being represented also in the rocks of South America, South Africa, India and Australia. Cretaceous ammonites have also been found, and Tertiary fossils, both of land and of marine forms, bring the geological record down probably to Miocene times, the fauna including five genera of extinct penguins. Raised beaches show an emergence of the land in Quaternary times, and there is evidence of a recent glacial period when the inland ice on Graham Land was 1,oooft. higher than it is now. The most prominent features of the scenery are due to eruptive rocks, which have been identified as belonging to the eruptive system of the Andes, sugmiles along the coasts. The thickness of the inland ice is proba- gesting a geologically recent connection between South America bly not so great as its extent would suggest. No direct measure- and the antarctic lands. Volcanic activity is not yet extinct in ments have been made, but from an examination of the outlet the region. As regards Kaiser Wilhelm II. Land, the Gaussberg glaciers it appears unlikely that the sheet is ever more than is a volcanic cone mainly composed of leucite-basalt, but its slopes 2,000ft. thick except in basins, and in general is much thinner, a are strewn with erratics presumably transported from the south conclusion which is confirmed by the fact that many hundreds and these include gneiss, mica-schist and quartzite, apparently of miles inland from the coast the ice sheet appears to follow close- Archaean. Much more is known as to the geology of Victoria Land, which ly the form of the underlying ground. The Barrier—The general features of the antarctic ice-cap has been visited by four well-equipped expeditions. From Cape are reproduced on a smaller scale in Greenland, but the floating North (71° S.) to 86° S. a grand mountain range runs south ice sheets which are to some extent derivatives of the ice-cap curving to south-eastward, where it vanishes into the unknown are met with nowhere else in the world. When Ross in 1841 in lat. 86° S.; it is built up of gneiss and granite, and of horifirst penetrated the pack ice into the ice-free Ross sea he sailed zontal beds of sandstone and limestone capped with eruptive rock, due south until he was brought up in about 77° S. by an ice wall the peaks rising to heights of 8,000, 10,000 and even 15,000ft., the from so to 200ft. high, barring his way to the south. He sailed total length of the range so far as known being at least 1,100 miles. along the greater part of its 4oom. seaward face. The Ross bar- This range rises abruptly from the sea, or from the ice of the rier, as it is now called, is the greatest of these floating ice sheets, Great Barrier, and forms aslightly higher edge to the vast snow but is typical of many others to be met with in the antarctic. It plateau. About 78° S. the archipelago of volcanic islands, of is roughly the size of France and consists of a sheet of ice varying which Ross island, with the active Mt. Erebus is the largest, from 500 to 1,500ft. in thickness, the outer end being open to rise from the sea in front of the range, and at the northern the ocean and the inner end held fast to the continent by the gla- extremity the volcanic peaks of the Balleny islands match them ciers which act as feeders and by being aground close to the actual in height. The composition of the volcanic rocks is similar to coast. Its surface is smooth, and it forms the easiest approach that of the volcanic rocks of the southern part of New Zealand. to the Pole itself, since it reaches to within 300m. of that spot. The The oldest rocks of Victoria Land are apparently banded gneiss tabular icebergs so typical of the southern hemisphere, with their and gneissic granite, which may be taken as Archaean. Older flat tops and stratified appearance, are obviously derived from Palaeozoic rocks are represented by greenish-grey slates from the this and similar barriers, and their immense size, up to 30m. in sides of the Beardmore glacier and by radiolarian cherts; but the length of side, is only natural considering the size of the parent most widespread of the sedimentary rocks occurring in vast masses. Each summer, when the break up of the winter sea ice beds in the mountain faces is that which Ferrar named the Beacon has allowed the full force of the ocean swell to reach the face of sandstones, which are of Permo-Carboniferous age. The coastthe barriers, large fragments are broken off, or “calved,” and line appears to be of the Atlantic, not the Pacific type, and may these float away to the northward until they reach warmer and owe its position and trend to a great fault, or series of faults, in the line of which the range of volcanoes, Mt. Melbourne, Mt. stormier waters where they disintegrate. Sea Ice.—The sea ice itself is comparatively temporary. It Erebus and Mt. Discovery, stands. Boulders of gneiss, quartzite begins to form in sheltered bays as early as the end of January and sandstone have been dredged at so many points between the and by the beginning of March any ship is liable to be frozen Balleny islands and the Weddell sea that there can be no doubt in unless its harbour is a windy one. There are large variations of the existence of similar continentai land along the whole of from year to year in the area of sea solidly frozen over, since that side, at least within the Antarctic Circle. Climate.—A vast mass of meteorological observations has now strong winds, and such are very frequent, will prevent sea ice from forming, or will blow out any which is not of considerable been accumulated so that for the parts of the continent most thickness, but in sheltered bays the ice will continue to increase visited, that is to say, the South American and the Australian in thickness until October or November, by which time it will sectors, it is possible to summarize the climate with some degree

20

ANTARES—ANT-EATER

of certainty. The mean temperature appears to be about 5°F. lower in the southern latitudes than in.the corresponding northern ones, and the phenomenon of rain is practically unknown within the Antarctic Circle. The lowest temperature yet recorded is that of —77°F., but since this was experienced within a few miles of the sea it is probable that the inland plateau temperatures in the winter are considerably lower. Later expeditions have confirmed the indications of earlier ones that the pressure of the atmosphere increases from the polar circle to the Pole itself, though it is clear that this is due in some part to the form of the continent itself. It has also been made clear by the work of Dr. G. C. Simpson that the weather experienced on the outskirts of the continent is the result of the passage of pressure waves and the turbulent motion due to them. Such pressure distribution, together with the shape of the land, produces the most prominent feature of the antarctic climate, excessively strong winds, which when accompanied by snow or thick drift are known as blizzards. The most windy spots appear to be on the coast near the circle itself. Phenomenal records of wind velocity were recorded at Mawson’s headquarters in Adélie Land, where not only was the mean annual velocity the surprising figure of 5om. an hour, but on occasions there were prolonged winds of considerably over room. per hour. The winds experienced in Graham Land and in the Ross were less extraordinary but still excessive. The frequency and strength of these winds has the effect of preventing the formation close to the coast of permanent ice, which is continually being blown off shore, and besides being responsible for the perilous drifts of the “Endurance,” “Aurora” and other ships, they cause the dense belt of pack ice which circumscribes the continent in the spring and early summer. There are no reliable figures for the amount of precipitation in the form of snow, but it appears probable that even in favoured parts the net precipitation on a surface at sea level is little more than a foot of snow per annum. A small calcu-

lation shows further that the net addition of snow to the ice-cap must be very much less than that. Flota and Fauna.—Recent expeditions have discovered that, despite the low temperature of the summer, in which no month has a mean temperature appreciably above the freezing point, there are on the exposed antarctic land patches of ground with a sparse growth of cryptogamic vegetation consisting of mosses, lichens, fungi and fresh-water algae. No flowering plants occur within the Antarctic Circle or in the immediately adjacent lands. The marine fauna is very rich and abundant. All the expeditions obtained many new species, and the resemblance which occurs between many of the forms and those which inhabit the arctic seas has given rise to the hypothesis that certain species have been able to pass from one frigid zone to the other. Bird life on sea and land is fairly abundant, the most common forms being the skua gull, snow petrels and the various species of penguins. The penguins are specially adapted for an aquatic life, and depend for their food entirely on marine animals. The largest species, the emperor penguin, inhabits the most southerly coast known on the edge of the Great Barrier, and there it breeds at mid-winter, very interesting specializations of structure and habit making this apparently impossible feat practicable. The social organization and habits of the various species of penguins have been carefully studied, and show that these birds have arrived at a stage of what might almost be called civilization worthy of the most intelligent beings native to their continent. The only mammalian life in the antarctic is marine, in the form of various species of whales (but not the “right whale”), and a few species of seals which live through the winter by keeping open blow-holes in the sea ice. There is no trace of any land animal except a few species of minute wingless insects of a degenerate type.

Products of the Continent.—Since there are no land animals

more or less immune from human exploitation. There remain the whales which in large numbers frequent antarctic seas to feed on the minute animals there to be found which in their turn ultimately depend for their food upon diatoms, the typical marine plants of the region, microscopic in size but so countless in number as to colour the sea ice. The rorqual, the humpback and the huge blue whale are now all hunted in these seas by modern methods and the annual value of the products obtained exceeds £3,000,000 sterling. (See WHALES AND WHALING.) Until the rise of the whaling industry the antarctic can be said to have had no political significance, but since the beginning of the century the territorial waters of the continent, if not the land itself, have acquired a value and, as will be seen from the map, two sectors are now portions of the British empire and are known as the Ross dependency, administered by New Zealand, and the Falkland islands dependency, administered by the Falkland islands. BIBLioGRAPHY.—H. R. Mill, The Siege of the South Pole, a history of Antarctic exploration with complete bibliography (London, 1905); K. Fricker, Antarkiis (Berlin, 1898); trans. as The Antarctic Regions

(London,

1900); A. Rainaud,

Le Continent

austral

(Paris,

1893,

historical); E. S. Balch, Antarctica (New York, 1902, historical); James Cook, A Voyage Towards the South Pole and Round the World (3 vols., London, 1777) ; H. Gravelius, F. von Bellingshausens Forschungsfahrien im stidlichen Eismeer 1819-1821 (Leipzig, 1902); James Weddell, A Voyage Towards the South Pole (London, 1825); J. S.C. Dumont D’Urville, Voyage au Pôle Sud et dans l'Océanie (29 vols., Paris, 1841-45) ; Charles Wilkes, Narrative of the Exploring Expedition during 1838-1842 (6 vols., Philadelphia, 1845) ; J. C. Ross, A Voyage of Discovery and Research in the Southern and Antarctic Regions (2 vols., London, 1847); W. G. Burn-Murdoch, From Edinburgh to the Antarctic, an account of the voyage of the “Balaena,” 1892—93 (London, 1894); H. J. Bull, The Cruise of the “Antarctic” to the South Polar Regions, the voyage to Victoria Land in 1894-95 (London, 1896); F. A. Cook, Through the First Antarctic Night; The Collections of the “Southern Cross” (British Museum, London, 1900) ; A. de Gerlache, Quinze mois dans l'Antarctique (Paris, 1902); Georges Lecointe, Au Pays des Manchots (“Belgica,” Brussels, 1904); Resultats du voyage du S.Y. “Belgica,” Rapports scientifiques (many

vols., Brussels, v.d.); C. E. Borchgrevink, First on the Antarctic Continent (London, 1901); L. Bernacchi, To the South Polar Regions, the expzdition of the “Southern Cross” (London, x901); Report on the Collections of the “Southern Cross” (British Museum, London, 1902); G. Murray (editor), The Antarctic Manual (London, 1901); R. F. Scott, The Voyage of the “Discovery” (2 vols., London, 1905); A. B. Armitage, Two Years in the Antarctic (London, 1905) ; National Antarctic Expedition 1901-1904 (scientific results published by the Royal Society, London, several vols., v.d.); G. von Neumayer, Auf zum Südpol (Berlin, r901); E. von Drygalski, Zum Kontinent des elsigen Südens, scientific results of “Gauss” expedition (Berlin, 1904); Otto Nordenskjöld and J. G. Andersson, Antarctica (London, 1903); R. N. R. Brown, R. C. Mossman and J. H. H. Pirie, The Voyage of the “Scotia” (London, 1906); Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of the “Scotia” (several vols., Edinburgh, v.d.); J. B. Charcot, Le Français au Pôle Sud (Paris, 1906); E. H. Shackleton, The Heart of the Antarctic (2 vols., London, 1909); British Antarctic Expedition 1907-1909, Reports on the Scientific Investigations (several vols., London, v.d.); Scott’s Last Expedition (1913); Sir D. Mawson, The Home of the Blizzard (1915); C. R. Markham, The Lands of Silence (1921); Sir E. H. Shackleton, South (1922), British Antarctic (“Terra Nova”) Expedition, scientific reports (many

vols. London);

F. Hurley, Argonauts

of the South

(1925); Dr.

Rudmose Brown, Polar Regions (1927); Nordenskjöld and Mecking, The Geography of the Polar Regions (1928). (F. Dez.)

ANTARES, a Scorpii (a Scorpionis), the brightest star in the Constellation Scorpio (g.v.), is of a reddish hue and appears at the heart of the Scorpion. It is a giant star of low density, having a diameter of 360,000,000 miles, according to measurements taken on Mt. Wilson.

ANTE, the name of a stake in certain card games. (See FAN-

TAN; POKER.)

ANT-EATER, a term applied to several mammals that live

mainly upon ants. For the Cape ant-eater, see AARD-VARK; for scaly ant-eater, see Pancorin; for banded ant-eater, see MAR-

SUPIALIA,

and

for spiny

ant-eater

see

MONOTREMATA

and

or flowering plants the resources of the region are limited to the

ECHIDNA.

tunately

the largest representative of the tropical American family Myrmecophagidae (see also EDENTATA). It measures 4 ft. in length,

products of the sea. Of these the most striking are the various species of penguins, which inhabit all zones of the region. For-

for the preservation of such harmless and delightful

birds their blubber-coated skins do ‘not possess a marketable value. The seals also, not being of the fur-bearing kind, are

The great ant-eater or ant-bear

(Myrmecophaga jubata) is

exclusive of the long bushy tail, which is usually carried bent over the back, and reaches a height of 2 ft. at the shoulder.

ANTE-CHAPEL—ANTELOPE It inhabits the swampy savannas and humid forests of S. and Central America, but is nowhere common. Characteristic features are the long, tapering snout and the strong curved claws on the fore feet. With the latter it not only defends itself effectively but also tears holes in the dwellings of ants and termites, capturing the inhabitants by means of its long, sticky tongue. The female produces a single young at a birth. The tamandua anteaters, typified by Tamandua on

Ja

HO

HO

© isoRhamnetin

xanthins and anthocyanins, but we have still much to learn about this matter, and agreement has not yet been reached in regard to the point of attachment of the sugar residues in cyanin chloride and in pelargonin chloride. It is generally recognized that the diglucosides in both series contain disaccharide units. That is, the attachment involves only one hydroxyl group of the anthocyanidin. One anthocyanin has been artificially prepared, namely, callistephin from the aster, and in this substance the sugar is beyond question in position 3.

Cl paar,

JOS

OH

OH

chloride

Kaem pferol

gor

HO

oa

Pelar gonidin

By

Cl ponte,

-0- CHO;

OH

100 OH a “COOH

stricted than that of anthoxanthins. In favour of the hypothesis may be counted the circumstance that, so far as we know at present, the groups such as —OCH,; and sugar groups that are attached to the fundamental nuclei occupy corresponding positions in the anthoxanthins and anthocyanins. We may compare, for example, the formulae of peonidin chloride, the anthocyanidin from the peony and isorhamnetin from yellow wallflowers. Both have been synthesized.

The sugar is frequently attached to position 3 in both antho-

OH

aks

anthocyanin production in passing from one garden variety to another are echoed by changes in the anthoxanthins. Furthermore the range of anthocyanidins is so much more re-

Peonidin chloride

OH?oy

Luteolin hydrochloride

ANTHOXANTHINS

AND

ANTHOCYANINS

28

"Ie OH OH

___OH

ay J

M yricetin

Evidently if we were able to remove the oxygen in position 4 in presence of HCl it would be possible to convert the flavonols into the anthocyanidins as shown in the equation C.;sF,.0,--H Cl+-H, = Cis HauOsC1-+H,0

and thus the close relationship of the individuals in the two

groups would be established. Actually the transformation. is most difficult to effect, and although numerous workers claim to have been successful, the experimental control has not always isfactory. The authentic example is furnished by the Willstätter and Mallison, who converted quercetin into chloride by means of magnesium in methyl-alcoholic

been satwork of cyanidin aqueous

hydrochloric acid solution. The yield was very poor, since most of the quercetin underwent a different transformation. Nature may have at command a more effective method of reduction, anthocyanins being produced in the plant by deoxygenation (reduction) of the anthoxanthins, considered to be the primary products. But against this hypothesis, it seems equally probable that the anthocyanins and anthoxanthins represent end-products obtained by divergent processes from a common parent. It is the exception rather than the rule to find the most closely related anthocyanins and anthoxanthins occurring together in a plant. Thus Delphinium consolida gives kaempferol and a delphinidin

Callistephin chloride

HO

Some characteristic properties of the anthocyanins are the following: Chemical Reactions.—Amyl Alcohol—Dilute Hydrochloric Acid Distribution Ratio-——The anthocyanidins, the monogluco-

sidic anthocyanins, and the diglucosidic anthocyanins

can be

roughly distinguished by their behaviour in presence of a mixture of amyl alcohol and very dilute hydrochloric acid. The anthocyanidins pass completely to the amyl alcohol layer; the diglucosidic anthocyanins remain largely in the aqueous layer, unless one of the sugar groups is rhamnose, when the behaviour tends

to be monoglucosidic; the monoglucosides distribute themselves more evenly between the two layers. Ferric Chloride Reaction—Anthocyanins or anthocyanidins with free OH groups in positions 3” and 4’ (e.g., cyanidin, delphinidin) give an intense blue colouration in alcoholic solution on the addition of ferric chloride. The colour becomes violet on the addition of water. The fact that all the anthocyanins derived from cyanidin exhibit this reaction proves that the sugar is not attached to positions 3’ and 4’ in any of them.

Colour Bases and Pseudo-bases.—In most cases the addition of sodium acetate to an aqueous solution of an anthocyanin (idin) produces a violet or purple precipitate of a colour-base. Again,’the addition of water to an alcoholic solution of cyanidin chloride causes the slow separation of the colour base in a form exhibiting a characteristic green reflex. Addition of acid reproduces the cyanidin salt. These colour-bases have been more closely investigated in other related series and have a quinonoid nature. They absorb water, giving colourless compounds also convertible by acids to the anthocyanin salts, and these so-called pseudo-bases are often formed on the great dilution of the aqueous or alcoholic solutions of the anthocyanin salts. Decolorization of the solutions of natural pigments and subsequent reappearance

of the colour was a puzzling phenomenon encountered by some derivative, and there is no evidence that the facile changes in of the earlier workers in the group.

ANTHOLOGY no

Jye V°
o

OH

Ho’

n

OH

Y° is

OH

HO Cyanidin colour-base (Deep violet)

Cyanidin pseudo-base (Colourless)

It remains to be added that anthocyanins and anthoxanthins have a close relation to certain colourless plant constituents, and among these catechin occupies an important position. Freudenberg has shown that both quercetin and cyanidin on treatment with hydrogen and a catalyst yield one of the naturally occurring catechins. ,

cl 2i oH oH Hor N n< > on mof N Ny n oH CHO ae : Jon HO HÒ CH, dl-Epicatechin

In the course of his experiments on catechin, Freudenberg has had occasion to observe the wandering of the right-hand benzene ring from position 2 to position 3. It is therefore interesting to notice that genistein, an anthoxanthin of dyers broom, has been definitely proved to have the annexed constitution.

HO

HO

y

O

IRG S O

CHO

Genistein

/ a< > OCHs

) Carajurin

Finally, it may be remarked that carajurin, a crystalline constituent of “carajura,” is related to the anthocyanin group. Carajura, a bright red pigment, is prepared by the Indians of the Rio Meta and Orinoco for use as a flesh paint, since it is a very effective colour. BIBLIOGRAPEY.—A. G. Perkin and A. E. Everest, The Natural Organic Colouring Matters [chiefly chemical]; M. W. Onslow, The Anthocyanin Pigments of Plants [chiefly biochemical and botanical]. (R. Ros.)

ANTHOLOGY, a term literally denoting a garland or collection of flowers (Gr. dvOodroyla, Lat. florilegium), hence a collection of short pieces or extracts, especially in verse, and in particular: The Greek Anthology.—The art of occasional poetry had been cultivated in Greece from an early period, especially for short inscriptions (epigrammata) of all kinds. These must necessarily be brief, and Greek taste prescribed that they should also be well expressed and pointed. The term epigram was soon extended to any piece by which these conditions were fulfilled, and the favourite metre for such compositions was the elegiac couplet. The transition from the monumental to the purely literary epigram was favoured by the conditions of the Alexandrian era (see ALEXANDRIAN ScHOOL). About 60 B.c. the sophist and poet, Meleager of Gadara, made an important collection, drawing on various earlier ones. This he entitled The Garland, and in an introductory poem each poet is compared to some flower. The arrangement of his collection was alphabetical, according to the initial letter of each epigram. _ In the age of the emperor Tiberius (or Trajan, according to others) the work of Meleager was continued by another epigrammatist, Philippus of Thessalonica, who first employed the term anthologia. His collection, which included the compositions of thirteen writers subsequent to Meleager, was also arranged alphabetically, and contained an introductory poem. Somewhat later, under Hadrian, another supplement was formed by the sophist Diogenianus of Heracleia (2nd century A.D.), and Straton of Sardis compiled or composed his Mosa Maiô), Musa Puer-

a9

ilis. No further collection is recorded until the time of Justinian, when epigrammatic writing experienced a great revival at the hands of Agathias of Myrina, the historian, Paulus Silentiarius, and other classicizers. Agathias then drew up a new anthology, entitled The Circle; it was the first to be divided into books and arranged with reference to the subjects of the pieces. These, and other collections made during the middle ages, are now lost. The partial incorporation of them into a single body, classified according to the contents in 15 books, was the work of a certain Constantinus Cephalas, (before 917). He appears merely to have made excerpts from the existing anthologies, with the addition of selections from Lucillius, Palladas, and other epigrammatists, whose compositions had been published separately. His arrangement, to which further reference will be made, is founded on a principle of classification, and nearly corresponds to that adopted by Agathias. This collection more or less corresponds to the contents of a ms. formerly the property of the Elector Palatine, now partly at Heidelberg, partly at Paris. It is often called the Palatine Anthology. The last anthology is the Planudean, named after its editor, Maximus Planudes (1320), who not merely grievously mutilated the anthology of Cephalas by omissions, but disfigured it by interpolating verses of his own. We are, however, indebted to him for the preservation of the epigrams on works of art, which seem to have been accidentally omitted from the Palatine ms. The Planudean anthology (in seven books) was first published at Florence, by Janus Lascaris, in 1494. It long continued to be the only accessible collection, for although the Palatine ms. was discovered and copied by Saumaise (Salmasius) in 1606, it was not published until 1776, in Brunck’s Analecta Veterum Poetarum Graecorum. Brunck’s edition was superseded by that of Friedrich Jacobs (r794~1814, 13 vols.), the text of which was reprinted in a more convenient form in 1813-17. The best edition for general purposes is still that of Diibner and Cougy (Didot, 1864-92; 3 vols.), which contains the Palatine Anthology, the epigrams of the Planudean anthology not comprised in the former, an appendix of pieces derived from other sources, notes, and Latin versions. The best edition of the Planudean anthology is the splendid one by van Bosch and van Lennep (1793-1822). There is also an incomplete text by Stadtmiiller in the Teubner series.

Arrangement.—The Palatine ms., the archetype of the present text, was transcribed by different persons at different times, and the actual arrangement of the collection does not correspond with that signalized in the index. It is as follows: Book 1. Christian epigrams; 2. Christodorus’s description of certain statues; 3. Inscriptions in the temple at Cyzicus; 4. The prefaces of Meleager, Philippus, and Agathias to their respective collections; 5. Amatory epigrams; 6. Votive inscriptions; 7. Epitaphs; 8. The epigrams of Gregory Nazianzen; 9. Rhetorical and illustrative epigrams; ro. Ethical pieces; 11. Humorous and convivial; 12. Strato’s Musa Puerilis; 13. Metrical curiosities; 14. Puzzles, enigmas, oracles; 15. Miscellanies. The epigrams on works of art, as already stated, are missing from the Codex Palatinus, and must be sought in an appendix of epigrams only occurring in the Planudean anthology. Style and Value——One of the principal claims of the anthology to attention is derived from its continuity, its existence as a living and growing body of poetry throughout all the vicissitudes of Greek civilization. Four stages may be indicated:— 1. The Hellenic proper, of which Simonides of Ceos (c. 556-469 .B.c.), the real or supposed author of most of the sepulchral inscriptions on those who fell in the Persian wars, is the characteristic representative. This is characterized by simple but impressive phraseology, suited to a real inscription. 2. The Alexandrian era, when epitaphs and votive inscriptions were composed on subjects often imaginary. Point, wit, and ingenuity—in short, the qualities we call epigrammatic—often joined to genuine emotion, mark these compositions. The great exponents are Callimachus, Leonidas of Tarentum, a contemporary of Pyrrhus, and, later, Antipater of Sidon, about 140 B.c. 3. The later Hellenistic, or Roman period, of which Meleager himself is an excellent representative. A less severe taste in style, occasional grossness in subject, and a lavish, often very happy, use of epithet mark him and his imitators. At a later period of the empire another genre, hitherto comparatively in abeyance, was developed, the

530

ANTHON—ANTHONY

Verse (1900). Charles Lamb’s anthology of scenes from old English drama is a masterpiece approached only by A. H. Bullen’s selections of Elizabethan lyrics (1887-89). English prose has never been anthologized with great success, but the works, edited closing this epoch. 4. The fourth or Byzantine style of epigram- by Craik, Saintsbury, Galton, and Quiller-Couch’s Oxford Book of matic composition was cultivated by the beaux-esprits of the English Prose may be mentioned. Noteworthy American anthologies include:The Columbian Muse court of Justinian. To a great extent this is merely imitative, but the circumstances of the period operated so as to produce (1794); Edmund Clarence Stedman, An American Anthology, a species of originality. The writers, moreover, were men of 1787-1899 (Boston, 1900); Walter Cochrane Bronson, American genuine poetical feeling, ingenious in invention, and capable of Poems, 1625-1892 (Chicago, 1916); Harriet Monroe and Alice expressing emotion with energy and liveliness; the colouring of Corbin Henderson, The New Poetry: An Anthology (1917); Louis Untermeyer, Modern American Verse (1919); James Weltheir pieces is sometimes highly dramatic. While it contains a certain amount of dull, puerile, or indecent den Johnson (ed.), The Book of American Negro Poetry (1922); trash, mostly late, the value of the Greek Anthology is high on Marguerite Ogden Wilkinson, Contemporary Poetry (1923); Bliss the whole, both as literature and for the light it throws on Greek Carman (ed.), The Oxford Book of American Verse (1927); and life, thought, and feeling during some 1900 years. Its influence John Gordon Dorrance, Contemporary Poets (Philadelphia, 1927). Of foreign anthologies may be noted: For French, E. Crepet, on modern European literatures is enormous. Translations, Imitations, etc.—The best versions of the Poètes français (4 vols., 1861), and G. Walch, Anthologie des poètes contemporains (5 wols., 1906, etc.); for German, the works Anthology ever made are the Latin renderings of select epigrams français edited by Bartsch, Goedeke and Tiltmann (1867-83), H. Fiedler; by Hugo Grotius. They are most easily accessible in the Didot for Italian, the works by Carducci and Mamiani; for Spanish, the satirical. Lucillius, who flourished under Nero, and Lucian (per-

haps Lucian of Samosata) have left us a number of witty lampoons and pasquinades on persons real or imaginary. Palladas, an Alexandrian grammarian of the 4th century, may be taken as

edition and in Dr. Wellesley’s Anthologia Polyglotta (1849). anthologies of Menéndez y Pelayo. Oriental anthologies are very (T. E. W.) The best literal and complete English translation is that in the numerous but mostly uncritical. ANTHON, CHARLES (1797-1867), American classical Loeb series (W. R. Paton); a few pieces, however, are rendered into Latin, for obvious reasons. OF selections with prose or verse scholar, was born in New York city Nov. 19 1797. After graduattranslations may be mentioned J. W. Mackail, Select Epigrams ing with honours at Columbia college in 1815, he began the study from the Greek Anthology, 1890, revised 1906; Graham R. of law, and in 1819 was admitted to the bar, but never practised. Tomson (Mrs. Marriott Watson), Selections from the Greek In 1820 he was appointed assistant professor of Greek and Latin Anthology (1889); W. H. D. Rouse, Echo of Greek Song (1809); in his old college and later full professor, becoming also headL. C. Perry, From the Garden of Hellas (New York, 1891); W. R. master of the grammar school attached to the college, which post Paton, Love Epigrams (1898); H. Macnaughten, Little Master- he held until near the end of his life. He died at New York July pieces from the Anthology (1924); Humbert Wolfe, Others 29 1867. He produced for use in colleges and schools annotated Abide (1927). For critical discussion besides the histories of editions of many classical works, which delighted the students by Greek literature, we may mention J. A. Symonds, Studies of the the assistance they afforded and various classical handbooks. Greek Poets (3rd ed., 1893). ANTHONY, SAINT (c. A.D. 250-350), the first Christian The Latin Anthology.—A modern collection of fugitive Latin monk, was born in middle Egypt. At the age of 20 he began to verse, from the age of Ennius to about AD. 1000. Nothing practise an ascetic life, and after 15 years of this life, he withdrew corresponding to the Greek Anthology is known to have existed for solitude to a mountain by the Nile, called Pispir, now Der el among the Romans. The first general collection was Scaliger’s Memum, opposite Arsinoé in the Fayum. In the early years of Catalecta veterum Poetarum (1573), succeeded by the more the 4th century, he emerged from his retreat to organize the moample one of Pithoeus, Epigrammata et Poemata e Codicibus et nastic life of the monks who imitated him. After a time, he again Lapidibus collecta (1590). Numerous additions, principally from withdrew to the mountain by the Red sea, where now stands the inscriptions, continued to be made, and in 1759—73 Burmann monastery that bears his name (Der Mar Antonios). Shortly digested the whole into his Anthologia veterum Latinorum Epi- before his death, he ventured to Alexandria to preach against grammatum et Poematum. This, occasionally reprinted, was the Arianism. standard edition until 1869, when Alexander Riese commenced a Anthony is noted for his combats with the hosts of evil. new and more critical recension. The first volume (in two parts) Athanasius tells us that he was first tempted by thoughts of appeared in 1869-70; the second volume, Carmina Epigraph- family joys and duties, and of the difficulty of his chosen life, ica (in two parts), in 1895-97, edited by Biicheler. An An- but the devil finding argument of no avail, and hoping to arouse thologiae Latinae Supplementa, in the same series, followed. A in him the pride of success, appeared as a cringing black boy adnew edition (Riese-Biicheler-Lommatzsch: Teubner 1894-1926) mitting that he had been defeated by the saint. At other times has now replaced it. (R. G.; H. J. R.) he appeared under the guise of a monk bringing him bread during Modern Anthologies.—The representative modern anthol- his fasts, or under the form of wild beasts, women or soldiers, ogy is, in intention at least, a critical selection designed to give sometimes beating the saint and leaving him as dead. the reader the very best in the verse or prose of a particular Anthony is also recognized as the father of Christian monachism. literature; the earlier, however, are mostly miscellanies with less The monastic rule which bears his name was not written by him, critical ambition, like the numerous English compilations of the but was compiled from writings and discourses attributed to 16th and early ryth centuries. Among the most notable of these him in the Life and the Apophthegmata Patrum. The rule is still last are: Tottel’s Miscellany (1557), rich in Wyatt and Surrey;. observed by a number of Coptic Syrian and Armenian monks. The Paradise of Dainty Devices (1576); The Phoenix Nest (See Monasticism.) BIBLiocRAPHY.—The Greek Vita is among the works of St. Athana(1593), containing a dozen till then unpublished pieces by Lodge; the popular il-selected England’s Parnassus (1600); England’s sius; for the almost contemporary Latin trans. see Rosweyd’s Vitae Patrum (Migne, Patrol Lat. lxxiii.) ; English trans. in the Athanasius Helicon (1602), representing Sidney, Spenser, Greene among volume of the “Nicene and Post-Nicene Library.” Accounts of St. others; Davison’s Poetical Rhapsody (1602). Percy’s Reliques of Anthony are given by Card. Newman, Church of the Fathers (HisAncient English Poetry (2765) had an immense influence on the torical Sketches) and Alban Butler, Lives of the Saints (Jan. 17). poets of the next generation, and Allan Ramsay’s Tea-table Mis- Discussions of the historical and critical questions will be found in E. C. Butler, Lausiac History of Palladius (1898, 1904), part i, pp. cellany (1724-40) gave Burns models. Later selections of verse 197, 215-228; part ii., pp. 9-12; and Contzen, Die Regel des hl. An-

include Southey’s Select Works of the British Poets (1831); Campbell’s Specimens of the British Poets (1841); F. T. Pal-

tonius (Melten, 1896).

grave’s Golden Treasury (1861), a classic; Locker-Lampson’s Lyra Elegantiarum (1867, revised 1891); T. H. Ward’s English

can reformer, was born at Adams (Mass.), on Feb. 15, 1820. After being a school-teacher for 15 years she organized in 1852 the first woman’s state temperance society in America, and in 1856 became the agent for New York state of the American

Poets (1883), with introductions by Arnold, Swinburne, Pater and othe: eminent critics; Quiller-Couch’s Oxford Book of English

ANTHONY, SUSAN BROWNELL

(1820-1906), Ameri-

ANTHONY

OF PADUA—ANTHOZOA

Anti-slavery Society. After 1854 she devoted herself almost exclusively to the agitation for woman’s rights. From 1868 to 1870 she was the proprietor of a weekly paper, The Revolution, published in New York, edited by Mrs. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and having for its motto, “The true republic—men, their rights and nothing more; women, their rights and nothing less.” She was vice-president-at-large of the National Woman Suffrage Association from the date of its organization in 1869 until 1892, when she became president. For casting a vote in the presidential election of 1872, as, she asserted, the 14th Amendment to the Federal Constitution entitled her to do, she was arrested and fined $100, but she never paid the fine. In collaboration with Mrs. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Mrs. Matilda Joslyn Gage, and Mrs. Ida Husted Harper, she published The History of Woman Suffrage (4 vols., New York, 1884-87). She died at Rochester (N.Y.), on March 13, 1906. See Mrs. Ida Husted Harper’s Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony (Indianapolis, 1898-1908).

ANTHONY

OF PADUA,

ST. (1195-1231), Franciscan

In his rsth Franciscans Montpellier throughout Italy. He was the leader of the rigorous party in the Franciscan order against the mitigations introduced by Elias, general of the order. His death took place at the convent of Ara Coeli, near Padua, June 13 1231. He was canonized by Gregory IX. in the following year, and his festival is kept on June 13. He is regarded as the patron saint of Padua and of Portugal.

monk and saint, was born at Lisbon Aug. 15 1195. year he entered the Augustinian order, and joined the in 1220. He taught theology at Bologna, Toulouse, and Padua, and won a great reputation as preacher

Breviocrapry.—The most trustworthy modern works are by A. Lepitre, St. Antoine de Padoue (Paris, 1902, in Les Saints series: good bibliography; Eng. trans. by Edith Guest, London, 1902), and by Léopold de Chérancé, St. Antoine de Padoue (Paris, 1895; Eng. trans., London, 1896). His works, consisting of sermons and a mystical commentary on the Bible, were published in an appendix to those of St. Francis, in the Annales Minorum of Luke Wadding (Antwerp, 1623), and are also reproduced by Horoy, Medii aevi bibliotheca patristica (1880, vi. pp. 555 et seq.); see art. “Antonius von Padua” in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie.

ANTHOZOA

2I

by two discs of tissue. The upper disc or peristome is encircled by a corona of hollow tentacles, and is perforated in the centre by a more or less slit-shaped mouth. Leading inwards from the mouth is a flattened tube, the żkroat, which opens directly into the main cavity of the body (coelenteron). The latter cavity is partially subdivided into alcoves by a series of radially arranged membranous partitions, the mesenteries, some or all of which are inserted along the upper part of their inner edge into the outer wall of the throat. The mesenteries bear along their free edge a marginal thickening of epithelium known as the mesenterial filament, and also carry reproductive organs and muscles. The number and arrangement of the mesenteries as well as the structure of throat, mesenteries, and filaments, varies from one group of Anthozoa to another. The symmetry of the Anthozoan body presents to the casual observer a radial appearance, in common with that exhibited by the Coelenterata in general. Underlying this radial symmetry, there becomes revealed on closer inspection a fundamental bilateral symmetry, which is so definite that it is actually possible to divide a polyp into two perfectly equivalent halves along one plane of cleavage only. Much discussion has been aroused by this fact since there is no obvious reason why such a symmetry should exist at all, The probable explanation of the matter is that the Anthozoa were not always the sedentary radially arranged creatures which they are to-day. There may have been a phase in their history when they were small creeping animals with definite head and tail ends, upper and lower sides, and general bilateral symmetry. When such animals adopted a sedentary life and assumed a radial symmetry in correlation therewith, the former bilateral condition wduld remain as a vestige of the former state of affairs. The bilateral arrangement of parts is very prominent during the early development of a polyp. An important fact in the development of many Anthozoa is that the wall of the cylindrical body appears to become marked out after the early stages are passed, into vertical strips of which some are zones in which active differentiation of new parts takes

(i.e., “flower-animals”), a group of animals

belonging to the phylum Coelenterata (q.v.). Many of them form a strong skeleton known as “coral” (g.v.). The term “coral” is applicable to the hard parts of any Coelenterate which secretes a firm skeletal support, but most of these forms are Anthozoa, and amongst them the term “true coral” is applied to the group Madreporaria only. The flower-like shape and brilliant colouring of the soft parts of many of these creatures has attracted attention for hundreds of years, and the discovery.that they are indeed animals instead of being plants, minerals, or intermediate organizations, did not gain acceptance for some time after it was first made, in connection with the precious red coral of commerce, by J. A. de Peyssonel in 1727. Not all the Anthozoa produçe a skeleton. A hard support is quite lacking in the Sea Anemones, and among the other kinds of Anthozoa although it is present more often than not it does not necessarily form a mass sufficiently compact to retain its shape after the death of the soft parts. An Anthozoan may consist of a single polyp (this term is defined in the article COELENTERATA), as it does in the case of a Sea Anemone: but more frequently a colony is formed, containing a number of polyps permanently united together; and it is the skeletons built up by certain of these colonies which constitute the most characteristic “coral.” The Anthozoa as a class are distinguished from the other groups

of the Coelenterata not only by the structure of the individual polyps, but also by the fact that none of them at any time during their life-history assumes the form of medusae (“jellyfish,” see COELENTERATA). The Anthozoan individual or colony therefore corresponds to the polyp-generation of any Coelenterate which exhibits both polyp and medusa alternately during its lifecycle. The Anthozoan polyps themselves, though often small, tend to be more muscular and substantial than those of other Coelenterates. They are characterized by the possession of a body which is in principle a cylinder, closed in above and below

FIG. 1.—ARRANGEMENT OF THE MESENTERIES AND OF THE ZONES OF GROWTH IN VARIOUS ANTHOZOA Each dlagram represents a transverse section of a polyp. the

body-wall,

as small bays.

the central

oval

the throat,

with

The outer circle Is

siphonoglyphs

Indicated

The radiating lines are the mesenteries, the black thickening

of each being its retractor. The vertical line In the centre on each figure in the Illustration represents the axis of symmetry, and growth-zones on the body-wall are indicated by thick black lines. A. An Alcyonarian; B. An

ordinary Sea Anemone; C. An Endocoelactid; D. A Cerianthid; E. An Antipatharian;

F. A Zoanthid

place, others being zones in which, after a stated amount of structure has been formed, no new parts are added (fig. 1). In various groups of Anthozoa the arrangement of the mesenteries in the adult polyp depends on the relationship which the zones of active growth in the body-wall bear to those in which only a certain amount of differentiation of parts will take place. In other cases no new growth takes place after the early stages, and here a simpler plan of structure consequently prevails. The axis of symmetry sometimes possesses a distinct signifi-

cance with regard to the regeneration of parts of an adult polyp

ANTHOZOA

32

which have been separated from the whole. In the Sea Anemones | muscle down one side, the fibres in the strip being supported by this axis coincides with a non-growing zone, and if in a suitable ridges or lamellae of mesogloea and running in a longitudinal anemone a fragment of reasonable size be cut away from the direction. The whole strip of muscle is known as a retractor, edge of the animal’s base, in such a way that the lower ends of By their contraction these muscles pull the upper parts of the the two “directive” mesenteries which flank the axis lie in its polyp downwards and inwards during the act of retraction. Each centre, the piece will in many cases regenerate an animal with mesentery also possesses a filament; but the filaments of all the two heads instead of one. A similar piece containing no direc- mesenteries are not alike. Those which belong to the two mesentives will regenerate an ordinary one-headed adult. teries farthest away from the siphonoglyph are very long. Each The living Anthozoa fall into six principal series, the Alcyonaria, has a groove along its free edge, lined by cells with long cilia; it Actiniaria, Madreporaria, Zoanthinaria, Ceriantharia, and Anti- is Y-shaped in a transverse section. The function of these filapatharia. These sub-classes are distinct from one another. Space ments is circulatory. The filaments of the other six mesenteries forbids consideration of the three last groups mentioned, which are shorter and consist of an epithelial cord containing many contain relatively few and aberrant representatives. The three glandular cells; these filaments are digestive organs. The six large groups will now be described. last-mentioned mesenteries also contain concentrations of sex-

cells (gonads).

I, ALCYONARIA

The eggs of Alcyonaria usually develop into free-swimming

The Alcyonaria contrast sharply with the two other main groups (Actiniaria and Madreporaria). Alcyonarians almost invariably construct colonies. Their polyps are usually small and

planulae (see COELENTERATA) which in due course settle down, either upon a hard support or in sand or mud, become transformed into polyps and by budding begin to construct a colony. The process of budding has this peculiarity, however, that no bud is produced direct from a polyp itself; the polyps give off hollow

root-like structures, lined by endoderm (see COELENTERATA) and known as solenia, and from these the new buds arise. The Alcyonaria offer almost the only examples to be found among the Anthozoa of that phenomenon known as polymorph-

ism, Which is discussed in the articles COELENTERATA and HyDROZOA. In certain Alcyonarian colonies there are two kinds of polyps; the ordinary ones such as those already described, and another kind known as siphonozooids. These latter are polyps whose parts are more or less reduced, with the exception of the siphonoglyph, which is large and strongly ciliated. These indi-

A re mre FIG.

A. Enlarged mouth,

2.—THE

view and,

STRUCTURE

OF AN

of single polyp showlIng below, the throat and

ALCYONARIAN

POLYP

8 pinnate tentacles surrounding mesenterial filaments (seen by

transparency) B. Transverse section of polyp showing the throat in centre and bodywall outside, each composed of three layers. The 8 mesenterles are also visible, the thickenings on these being the retractors. of the throat Is the sIphonoglyph C. and D. Spicules, greatly magnified

viduals act as creators of water-currents which circulate through the system of solenial canals penetrating the colony. In cases where a single original polyp becomes transformed into the axis of a colony this constitutes a further differentiation of individuals. The Alcyonaria are divided into three orders, and since the structure and mode of formation of the colonies, in which rests the main interest of the group, is different in the three cases, it will be convenient from this point onwards to consider them separately,

Order 1. Alcyonacea.—The numerous Alcyonaria which be-

long to this class possess this in common;

that although the

At the lower end

are extremely uniform in general structure throughout the group; in this they are unlike the polyps of either of the other large series of forms. Diversity among the Alcyonaria therefore affects not so much the individual as the colony; and the colonies constructed vary most extensively in form, structure, and mode of development. A skeleton sufficiently resistant to retain its shape after the death of the colony is often developed; in other cases either part or the whole of the colony relies for support upon large numbers of minute calcareous bodies, which abound in its tissues, and which are known as spicules. Thus the Alcyonaria include a number of creatures which produce “coral.” They are a group of corals which in the main inhabit the shore and the coastal waters down to 550 fathoms. Speaking generally the great depths of the sea as well as considerations of temperature and salinity limit their occurrence, Their centre of distribution is the Indo-Pacific littoral and they form an important element in coral-reefs, A typical Alcyonarian polyp (fig. 2) is simpler in structure, as well as being less variable from one genus to another than that of most other Anthozoa. It possesses eight, and only eight, tentacles, and these are feathered by the presence of a paired series of lateral branches on each; że., they are pinnate. Down one angle of the flattened throat runs a groove lined by strongly ciliated epithelium. This is the siphono glyph, and it creates a downward current of water into the coelenteron of the polyp. There are eight mesenteries, which alternate in position with the eight tentacles. These mesenteries possess each a special strip of

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FIG. 3.—DIAGRAM OF A COLONY OF HICKSONIA OR TUBIPORA

The polyps are represented as If seen in longitudinal section but their mesenterles are omitted. The internal cavities of the polyps are continuous with

the system of fine canals (shown as a network of black lines) whioh penetrate the common

flesh of the cotony

colonies which they form are extremely various, there is never an axial skeleton forming a central support. A conception of the

colony-forming activities of the polyps can be gained only by the study of a series of actual colonies. Figs. 3-5 will serve to illustrate the following remarks. In the simplest colonies the polyps are attached to a foreign surface and connected with one another simply by a few creeping rootlets (solenia) arising from their bases. Such a condition exists in Cornularia, Somewhat more elaborate are colonies such as those of certain species of Clavularia in which the meshes of

< Z H a O N O C aspects of culture arc oJten 'ltudwd apart berause of the !-.pedal method:, involved, they form one whole for the anthropulogbt, who contra!tl:, them in their entirety w1th the ralc-faclor a..; rcpn·�ntmg another kmd of mheritancr, not born \uth u�, but :tlqmrccJ by tradtlion Cul t ure 1"' indeed �o mt"ti m e \ dl''>Lrth('d a"> a "�ci al heredity'', but it is fau to dt•,rnht· l ul tur e a., olD mht · n to.� nte , smce Wt! ..peak of in her ­ Jtmg the il((JUI..,ihono; of our forlll',lf!t DO k•,.., t han u£ mht•n ting tht•u featun·� Culture 1' cummun1tahle m h·lhgcnc t' I nt e lligence bemg mmd viewt·c.l 111 u .. c.hrt•lh\c .md purpoo.,I\' e up.u.lly, the mcanmg� that we tummunicatr t'S!tentJ.dly relate to purpoM'!!I tbJ.t

we WI"th to 'han• Cumrnunicaiion •� a two�sidt·d proft'""'• t ak i ng m brmg JU"it a!, Now thL• utlh·r annn.tl::t baH· nu tultun• wo rthy of the namt", lx-t.tu::tc thl·Ir poWL'r"' of mtclhgrnt mft•rrour�r are "'light, and m p..trhtul.J. r arc l onlim•cllo th o't t.' .tii\'l' and prt:!:ll'nt toJ(l'lht·r Man, munu. .tllUn

however, throu Rh hir., rultu re

1 .tn dl'fy tmw .mrl o.,p.lll", tJktng lOUo>l'i w1th the dcJd ami gatht·rmg m Wl.,.lom from the emh of the e.trth Languaae.-ArtitulJit- spt•t•th,l'•, Jx.•rh.tp�. lht• Vt·ry rout ot tul­ tun• It i!t a wundt·rful f.t lt th.tt thl'rc 1"1 no pcoplt• n ow t.'Xl::ttmg ur known to huotorv that i"' wtthuut .1 lanKU.ttcc !o>Uth a' 1� not only mtrlhgible to theln,.•l,e•. hut hkewi..., mtclhgi ble to •ny other m.1n who t:okc> the tr o ub le to m.,tcr it T ht be ca use •II help to create it does it seem not to be made at all, but rather to

grow of it .cl f . The most anc1ent and predous of th� rights of man is the right to talk, a right carrying w1th it the corresponding duty of orras1onally IIslemng to what others say. Unfortunately,

since tricks of talk are catching. from mere accent up to vocabu­ lary and gr•mmar, every petty grou p reJOICes in its own dialect; whLr • dore the 1urse of Babel rt-'h upon rnankmd unto this day Value of Common Tong ue�There b no u>c in langu•ge e xc ept to rrndcr intt'lhgrnn· mor e commumrable

Unless a people

wished Lo conceal its thought,, It would be Ill-advi!.ed to exchange

a world-wide tongue for a lot not, however, he sup­ I>osed thJt all matcri•l culture subserves the cconom1c •ide of hfe m p.Irticul•r The •rts rl'IIgJon Till' m h.•ti o u ty ot the pnmitive rchgion «.Jn he burnmrd up hy &aymg th.at 1t J"J lmper­ f t·d ly rnorJ.h.lt'cl It dot''i nut �t·e ""' f.tr a ...uhanH·ll n •l igio n into the morJl sigm fu:anrc of it'i .. ymhulot 1ims onr nught ...1y, \'t•ry roughly, that tht• lo\\'t•r rl'l1�1uns emu t i\.e tlw til\ nw n.tt urt• .1:-; pm\cr; tht� m it ltllr rrh�.p()n� a� ju�tl U' , and tht• hight•r r••hgioni . 1 .. lo\'t" If truth, hl·aut) .md goodtw-.s mt•t'i an y where, Jt i., .. urt"ly m lme Comprehensivene.. of Primitive Religion.-O n thr uth1•r h.md, ptimili\l' n·li�mn , though dt\ • uul of inotight into 1t' own tll'l.'Jil'r me.uun�. b.ts a ccrt.un atl\.mt.tl(e OVl'r n h • gi on a� an el�4 mt·n t in modt•rn U\oili1..1hon, in th..tt, if It·�� coht•rcnt , It is more t nmprt·ht'll.,J\'t� All tht • \'.lim·-. of lift•, uhlit.1n.m ;md huma ne , frum food to �r ul pture .md p.unting, from tht� :.-tmly of pl .ml' and ht• a "'t " to tht· 'ittuly of tht.• hl'�tvt'11'i, a rt• pum:ITlly Vlt'Wt•tl hy th'· �.o,n-.tgc a'i n•hgiou., intrn·�l..,. A ftt· r nil, he hvt·" i n "'ud1 :1 httlc world th.tt he b.ts in borne w.ty a bt·ttl'r th.mc.c of �t· t ·ing tht! ,,mou.., in.,tltutwn.., of sm it· ty in tht•Jr t•n tlrt• l ) .1� �� WJ.Y of htc th.m ,·an a modern m.m whu. to gt•t a gnp un ln� mor.tl uni\t'r"l', side, simply by willing to take hfe scr1ou�l y

Imlt"rd, w1th the �IVJ�eo, cu�tom i& a

It 1"' rJ.rc th.1t any c xplan.1tio n of it� dt•t n t· •s

b

forth -

ronung; or, !-�UpJ)()�e one to bt• givt·n, it h.1� a ll tht.> d})(Jt'Jr.mu• of an aftrrthou�ht or c"u''' Afto·r .111. the prm uplr , "Art tir..t and ju�llfy aftt·rw.ad,," pt'T\'.Hit•.;; .111 our actmn'i far more than w� arc awarf' Imitation.-Tht• P"')-rhnlogJr.tl hnnd of soridy 1o;;, and alwJyo;; ha'i been, inut,tllon , hut in n t.1t 1 0n ts a process th.tt bt•comcs mort· intclhgent .to:; 1t de vt•lo Jh

Tht.· outw.ud Mgn by whi th mmd tom-

munu.ltl'"" w1th mimi mu-.;t ht• mtt•Jpn·tt·d. and m .m hrtomt·� .L ht·tt,·r thought-reatkr as a IJrgt·r �lore of �uggt"':!tions i� .tu·umul..tlt'tl, partly by m c..tn� of l.mgu.tgt•, p.trtly through ma tt•rJ.tl rulturr a"i 1t incmpor.ltt·� mt'.llllllg .uul purt)O"'E' 111 wood anti �tunc At lirst, ho\H 'H 'r , m.m h.t., In n -l y mo ..tly on umt.Jtmg the bm hly mmcmt•nt"' ol ha:.- group-ft·llu\\ .. , .mtl �uth apTJmlll\� mt:'lhocl of tommunit.atwn i:.- morl' �u' lt'"'""rut in J,rUJIJg,alin.g cnwt1on.., th.tn ide.ls "Pull, pull tugt"tht'r'' 1"' the hunltn uf tht• primtti\"C rhoru .. , .md, .tftt"r ,til, th.tt h mur� th.m hal f the h.tttlc of hft• The.· mnr.ll t•lt·mt•nt lll\'nht·tl m all nwr .1 l �ultutt· ton"'l"''' prt·d ..t·ly m .1 "'l'll""'

muott take "'o muth more mto cun .. ult·r.tlwn Thu", ctonnnn"' J.nd rl'l ud on hrmg al1ke a 'tpt•ct ., of tmt• ptun'"'"' uf rulturt·, that I..,, M•lf­ ' • e c..m hl· no g.1p bt.•t\\l'l'n tht·m m tlll' gnucl m.m s tuluv..ttlon, thtI • "' 1f ht• ht• "'Uihclt'nt l y t•nhghtt·n••tl tnn .. unu ..nt"' Need of Moral Education.-The v.t.. h·r org.mi�.:ationo; of to­ cl.1y .ut• apt to n·tluu• the imll\ulu.tl tu a t.ng 111 tlw !'�Ullal mt•thJ­

Mun'O\'t•r, of t om mun l'llmt dtrl'd t •d tow.ml!-1 .t t ommon t•nd · l ol turnnum�ty ha .. ht•t•n thruughout humJn hi !!olnry tht· �l'nlnntn more unpmt.mt, lJL'lJU�l' mnn• wuldy �h.tn•d, th.m thr mtl'llcttuJ.l apprehc:n,Jon of tht• n.tlure uf thr end E\'t•ry uowU mu ..t h.tvt' a lt•Jtk·r, :mel it h fur the ll'.u k•r in parhcul.tr to h..tvc the t•nd in Mght, whl'ft'rt"' the n"'t c..m alfunl to .lttl·ml thn·lly to mJ.kmg tht•

ni..,m; ami. thL• rontrul of mtdhJ..!:t'IU'l' lwmg torr«.•,pondmgly rl'd mt·c l, the inl'vitJ.hle tml mu ..t l)(� tull.tJN', un h · �s mm.tl eclut.J­ tum hy tlccpcmng .mel wulc.·mng the Sl'lhe uf .;mnmnn purpo -.c tJU t..ome to tht• n "'l nt• 1\f.my of the funtl auw ntal in ..titu!Ion' uf muckrn l l \ lh!.alwn, 111.1rn.tgt•, f o r in .. t.mu•, :mtl rl'hgJOn it.,t)" f, work none tuo wdl, J.JUJ the rt'.t:.-on j., lht..• (hltit ulty of kl' t ·pi ng thc·rn lrut• tu tht� untr.tl JIUflKN" uf gt •lling morl' .mtl evrr more nut o£ hfe, not onl y n� to be bvt·d undt·r ...upt·rn.tlurJ.IunulJtmn,, hut a� Jhrd um1t·r n.ttur.ll lomhlltlll"' h t·rc ami now. For the

work go with a. .. wmg The prmut i ve lc.·.ulc.·r of &o deo ty .11 lf'.l"'t know., hcftcr who.1t he is ahout th.m ht� ,1\t•r,tg•• fnlluwer, thou�h ht"' ulra" t..ornc to hnn m.unly .t':!> dn·.nn-bkt· o;;hJpro.. that hJ.tilt· h1� mentJ.l gr.1:.-p lwr.m"'c tht· nw.m� uf fi�mg and dctmmg thun .trr

.mthropologJ..l, uult•t•c.l, \',ho�e hu.,mt"' ' "' iot hut to oh..,t •r ve tlw u.mr""' of tu .. tury, thtl· c J .. no �.tymg why mur.tl l'\nlution hhoultl be dt·..ir.Jhlt• 11·· !'lilllply t1fJh• .. th.tt it u· .. ult� trum IJymg to �ur­

wantmg Inarticulate Intelligcncc.-Slowly tim.'" I.mgu.tgc g. in thr · of rcprt• ..('lltlllA' thought.. all olr.tll'ly, .mf} 111 lht• nll'.tntune powtr the primJh\·� m..tn of ull'a� ho.1s to f.tUJ,,uk 'm p.t nto m i n lt> , hclpec..l out .1� 1t is with rvrry kmd of m. Jtt• rJ.l l actompamnwnt, p. tint or fc.·athcr, nM::-.k or tm.l�l', hull-ro.ut•r or drum, tiMt m.1y \L�"'I!!ol the

drJ.m.ltu..ttion of hi!-> mt·.tmng Jn judging the Uegn•c of mtt•lllgt•ncc at work in e.trly �odt·ty, one mu�t b� l::trcful to get pJ. ..t tht• lcttt•r to the �pint-111 other words, lo makr sure th.tt ont' c..m tr.m .. I.ttc the "'.Lvage symhol into tht' "'l'Jlr..,(' 1t IS mt•.tnt to ht•,lr In the1r com rdc-mmdcd WJ.y, primitive folk get to umlcr.. t.md l',lth oth r r vt·ry well �o long·'"' • remam m �tc.tu.tl cont.ut Then ddliculty �� to t'\.l t·ml the thty

hm1ts of etfectne org.tnJzalmn beyond the r..tng•• of vuhe and eye, that is, !!patially !ilipraking, bt·yoml thr rJthu., of thl• L..tmp or, .11 mo•t, b eyond that of a tnb.1l bnundary that can be reatht'd in .1

few d.1ys' w.1lk The Savage Pre·eminently Religious.-rnmitive m•n b prt'-t'mmc-ntly rehgiou ' 111 hih way of hfe He puts the un-.t·rn hefore the �een as h1h ohjrct of strictly practical a t t rntion One might , in fact, say that the huntr r judge& &uc.u · 'i · s to he more a matter of luck than &kill , Jnd th e refore ronn·ntrates on gl'ltmg the lutk This, howrwr. would be to take rather a su perhual view of the ca•e. It would go nearer to the root of the matttr · if one exprt'bhl'd it r.tlher thu� · th.1t in huntin(l', f.Uth bl"ern':! tu count far more than •k•ll or anythi ng else. What pre ci!.ely •uch

fa1th should be in, fo r 1ts efi'k a c y to he grea te �t , i& a problem that Considered anthropologirally,

man is ;till engaged in workmg out

+5

that is, from the human end, r elig ious !:nth is man'; f.1ith in bun­ �elf He belie\·e, in powers th.tt he r.m ..,umt•ho\v e \okt" from

\i\t.> in pruport1un a"i otU1h lrytng l)l'lomt·.., Intdh�tn · t, t h.tt IS, t h no -.t·� 1h w.ty in the light of a. runotuouot purp o..,t· \\"hole htt·r.t·

turt . dl•Jl v.1th the v..tnou� a"iprtls of mur,tl odturc t.tkt•n jo,Cp.l­

r.ttl'ly

Ht·n•, in ..tt•Jd of runnmg thwugh the h1:.-lury of m�titullon� c.h.1ph•r hy c.h:tph•r, it mu .. t �uUilc to m .. J:.-t t h .1t the J nthropologi ..t, sc ckm g to \'Jew tht • th'\ot'lupanc·nt of hmn.m hft.• a� · ow to lmng the l o ve of food .md the love uf .1 whole, bJ.s �omth

1 ·

t;od in to one.• morJ.l �lht•mt• ln•lct·d, cvcrythmg th.tt man ha� done or �u lft · n ·cl i� rclev.mt to hh whjt•ct, Wllh th1� importJ.nt qu.thfJcatmn, that ht.• ..tudu·o.; tht• "how," n ot th• "why,'' of .m t• vnluti nnary prmc�o;, v.hcn·hy hfe appt·.Ir':!> to ht• f{r.mtt·tl in fulll''"t mea�urc to tho�e for whom It bJ� t om e to h.t\'e mo�;o,l mcamng.

THE COMPETITION BETWEEN ETHNIC TYPES The fat.tor .. m t he hum.m !!l tr uggl e for c\i�tem·e having hc.'l'n ...tated, 3 fin.1l tJ.sk must be to note br1cfly the: ma nn er of tht•Jr Joint workmg

\\'hJ.tcvt•r the future m..ty have in �turc, man hJ.!t

not hitherto faet•d hi& environmc·nt as a singl e c..ommunity, united .1hke ra ci.d ly and cult orally &o f.tr "' interhrredmg and mutu.ol

un dc r. tand mg can brmg 1t al,mt. If th is wtr • e po"ihl the \\tsdom of the age might dl•"\-isc, though whether with �uc..te .. ., It is impos .,1 hlc to "'JY !\IJn'& .ltlUJ.l history reveals as yt•t no a pproa ch to suth a ron!'lumm.ttJon.

Note: This page from 1929 edition.

4.6

ANTHROPOLOGY

Relative Importance of Race in Early Times.—In the early race-making period, indeed, organization and culture in general presumably counted for less, and we may imagine that a succession of good seasons would send out swarm after swarm of semi-bestial folk hardly differing in their habits any more than so many different flocks of sheep, until inbreeding in conjunction with a fresh habitat produced a new strain in the stock. Neanderthal man, for instance, is held in the light of the latest research to have experienced two glaciations in Europe, together with a long intervening period when it may have been warmer than it is at present. Also, if we may connect with him the Talgai specimen from Australia and the Rhodesian specimen from Africa, he spread from some unknown centre—possibly indicated most nearly by the Galilee specimen—over a large part of the globe. There is no reason to suppose that culture rather than race was yet the decisive factor in the struggle for existence, so little do his cultural habits seem to vary at whatever time or place we take them. Thus he had fire, no doubt, to protect him against an oncoming glaciation; but we may guess that the natural fur on his back grew a good deal shaggier.

Value of Culture in Early Times.—yYet possibly one is apt to underrate the value of culture, even in its first known beginnings. After all, the Talgai man must have used a boat and thereby improved his chance of life, since once in Australia he was pretty safe among the blameless marsupials. Or aguin, the pygmy is physically not much of a man, but, as we find him now, is usually given to ingenious devices, using the bow, poisoning his arrows and so on. His present distribution in Africa and at the foundered south-eastern corner of Asia—not to speak of his possible relationship to the Grimaldi specimens from Mentone— suggests a very early origin for a racial type which from the first must have had to contend with a physical handicap, and thus may well have had to rely on its culture as soon as ever a stouter breed of human beings crossed its path. Not to multiply examples, as the primitive peoples, prehistoric or modern, rise in the scale of historic importance and of the power to last, their selfidentity seems more and more to consist in a highly individualized culture, while their race, on the contrary, is ever more mixed and harder to differentiate from that of their less successful neighbours. Decreasing Importance of Habitat.—Habitat, too, comes to

count for less. The racial cradle-land or cradle-lands of man— and there may well have been several, seeing that what might be almost called a warm fauna and a cold fauna can be recognized among existing human stocks—must be thought of as some area of intenser struggle and hence of intenser activity which, as it were, set its mark once for all on the kind of man produced there, in respect to his heredity. If he went forth to conquer, the chances were that, reaching some less stimulating environment, he would degenerate. A cultural cradle-ground, on the other hand, would be a fallacious notion. True, culture is sometimes diffused from the same centre, wave after wave, because a people has developed a high and lasting individuality, out of all comparison with that of its neighbours; and the latter consequently live on its charity, nay, may be so utterly pauperized as to lose such initiative as they previously possessed. History provides abundant instances of a contrary process by which the borrower of culture trades on the capital thus acquired to outmatch in the end the fortune of the willing or unwilling lender. Culturally it is always possible for one nation to beat another at its own game. The condition of success in such a case is not so much natural talent— which represents the racial element—as taking pains to learn intelligently, that is, not by rote but by making the thing taught one’s own. Modern Japan has shown how a radical change in culture can by intelligent self-adaptation be effected within a single generation. The case is all the more instructive because the ethnic type remains as individual as before, or perhaps more truly might be said to have become enriched in quality, while almost certainly increasing its survival-value. Culture Must Be Supported by Race.—Not to labour the point further, the prepotency of the cultural factor is so wellmarked a feature of the later phases of human evolution that

[APPLIED

it might even be doubted whether the modern tendency is not to exalt it unduly at the expense of the race-factor. Culture depends on education, and educability is at least partly a matter of hereditary ability. If the average individual is to survive by participating in some ethnic type of superior survival-value, he cannot afford to extend such participation to the born fool; or at least

he can prevent him from being born. Such matters lie somewhat outside the province of the anthropologist, who as a man of science and a historian merely unfolds and interprets the record of the past. Pure and Applied Anthropology.—With an applied anthropology, as it is sometimes termed, the present article is not concerned. The study of human development can, indeed, help the statesman in many ways. Nay, even if anthropology be taken in the all too narrow sense of the study of primitive man, there is much that the administrator and the missionary can learn from it that will be of practical help to them in their work. Anthropology as a pure science aims at the same goal as all the rest of the pure sciences, namely, the enlargement of the mind through knowledge. Have we the courage to seek to know ourselves as

truly we have been and now are—whatever else we may aspire to become? If so, then anthropology may go forward. BrstiocraPHy.—1. History. See A. C. Haddon and A. H. Quiggin, The History of Anthropology

(1910); E. E. Sikes, The Anthropology

of the Greeks (1914).

2. GENERAL. See R. R. Marett, Anthropology (1923); A. L. Kroeber, Anthropology (1922); A. A. Goldenweiser, Early Civilisation (1923). 3. PuysicaL AntHRopoLocy. See A. C. Haddon, The Races of Man (1924); R. L. Dixon, The Racial History of Mankind (1923); H. Wilder, The Human Pedigree (1926); A. M. Carr-Saunders, The Population Problem (1922) ; G. Elliot Smith, The Evolution of Man (1924) ; A. Keith, The Antiquity of Man (1925). See also articles ANTIIROPOMETRY; Man, EVOLUTION or; RacES oF MANKIND. si 4. SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY., See R. H. Lowrie, Primitive Society (1921) ; W. H. R. Rivers, Social Organisation (1924) and Kinship and Social Organisation (1914) ; B. Malinowski, Sex and.Repression (1927) and Crime and Custom in Savage Society (1926); E. S. Hartland, Primitive Paternity (1910) ; E. Westermarck, History of Human Mar-

riage (1925-26); L. T. Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution (1906); J.G.

Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy (1910); R. R. Marett, The Making of Man (1927); E. Briffault, Tke Mothers (1927). See also articles: Acr Grapes; Cousin MARRIAGE; DUAL ỌRGANIZATION; KINSHIP; MarriaGE; Marriace Crasses; Potyanpry; Porycyny; RetarionSHIP SYSTEMS; TOTEMISM, etc. 5. GENERAL ErmNoLocyY. See Max Schmidt, The Primitive Races of Mankind (Eng. trans. London, 1926). See also article Erirnoocy, and the bibliographies to the general articles dealing with the ethnology of EUROPE, ASIA, INDIA, AFRICA, OCEANIA, and, AMERICA, under those headings. For separate tribes in each arca see Index.

6. ReLIGION. See R. H. Lowrie, Primitive Religion (1923); J. G. Frazer, Folklore in the Old Testament (1918) ; essay by B. Malinowski in Science, Religion and Reality, edited by J. Needham (London,

1925); W. Robertson Smith, Religion of the Early Semites (1883) edited by Stanley A. Cook (1927) ; E. Durkheim, Les Formes Elémentaires de la Vie Réligieuse (1911); R. R. Marett, The Threshold of Religion (1914). See also, articles: Ancestor WorsHIP; ANIMATISM; Animism; Macic; Mana; Mytus; Mrrempsyciosis; Prayer; RirUAL; SACRIFICE; SERPENT CULTS; SPELL; Tree CuLTs; Tagu. See further, articles on Greek, Roman and Babylonian religions, and special ethnological articles. 7. TecHNoLocy. See British Museum Handbook to the Ethnographical Collections (2nd ed., 1925). See also, article MATERIAL CULTURE, and the series dealing with AGRICULTURE; ANGLING; BASKET; ANIMALS, DOMESTICATION OF; HuUnTING; EcONoMICS, PRIMITIVE; EXCHANGE; Currency; Giırr; LABour; Trane, etc. 8. MISCELLANEOUS. See J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough, 3rd ed.

(1910-15); A. M. Hocart, Kingship (1927); E. B. Tylor, Primitive

Culture (London, 1903); H. S. Maine, Ancient Law (London, 1903),

Early Law and Custom (London, 1883) ; W. H. R. Rivers, Ethnology and Psychology (1926), Medicine, Magic and Religion (1926); F. Boas, The Mind of Primitive Man (1911); L. Levy Brühl, Les Fonctrons mentales dans les Sociétés Inférieures (1910). See also articles: APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY ; CULTURE CONTACT; ForkLore; Heap HuntING; HUMAN GEOGRAPHY; LAW, PRIMITIVE; Lycantairopy; MucraTIONS; MeEpicinr, History or: Ancient Medicine; Socrar oy

ANTHROPOLOGY, APPLIED.

(R. R. M.

In Great Britain, public

recognition of the advantages to be gained by the practical application of anthropological knowledge had scarcely begun before the World War, and naturally suffered a severe setback from which it only slowly recovered. There were administrators who recognized the native point of view, and were even prepared to study

ANTHROPOLOGY

CULTURAL]

the sociology of their charges and, în a few cases, recorded the results of their observations; yet nowhere was there any general official recognition that the acquisition of such knowledge should be part of an administrative officer’s duties, and adequacy in native affairs is even now not generally regarded as necessary for promotion. Nevertheless a healthy spirit is abroad even if performance at times lags behind the demands of both theory and common sense. Applied Anthropology has two main aspects: (1) Cultural (or in the broader sense psychological). (2) Physical, embracing especially the great problems of racial characters both physical and mental, miscegenation, immunity and so forth.

CULTURAL Practical Considerations.—While every people presents its special problem, all these are but different aspects of the greater problem of adaptation, which must be worked out afresh in many instances if the widest range of physical and cultural types are to be given their best chance of survival and development within the conditions besetting them. From the practical standpoint it must be realized that there is no possible future for the few scattered remains of the hunting peoples that still exist; nor in certain instances is the white man responsible for their disappear-

ance, for at the time of the European colonization of the tropics superior “native” cultures were, in a number of instances, destroying these humbler groups as effectively, if more slowly, than ourselves. With regard to the agricultural peoples but recently in the Stone Age, it is yet too early to speak with confidence, for although the natives of the smaller islands of the Pacific have been blotted out or exist only as degenerate remnants it is permissible to hope that under considered efforts those of the larger islands (such as New Guinea) may not only survive but even enjoy a measure of happiness. | Methods.—As to method, there is little to guide us in the past, for though culture contact is no new thing in history, the economic needs of to-day present conditions differing from those of the past, and entirely new. Moral ideas have also changed, and ‘it is no longer possible to enslave or exterminate all peoples unable or unready to adopt or adapt to a higher civilization. Yet in spite of these apparently favourable factors there has been nothing before comparable with the persistence and energy with which the higher race is imposing itself on the backward peoples. For practical purposes, then, we can only be guided by the knowledge gained during comparatively few years, backed by the experience of our more successful administrators, the whole tempered by a quality of prevision and a capacity to “think Black,” which experience has not shown to be unduly common. Use of Existing Knowledge.—What then are the means by which the store of knowledge we already possess may be used, and how far is a practical rather than theoretic interest in native peoples likely to introduce new methods of acquiring knowledge, or eliminate methods known to be of scientific value? Nothing suggests that the practical or applied outlook makes, or should make, any change in the method of the field worker. For if it be urged that attention to any particular theory is likely to distract the observer from a fair all-round study of facts, the reply is obvious that theory can only stimulate the field worker to fresh observations, which should neither limit his area of outlook nor discourage him from seeking the fullest knowledge of the folk he is investigating in their present and past environment. The more complete the apparatus of the observer, whether government official, missionary or professional anthropologist, the more likely is he to form a complete picture of a people in which due weight is given to the activities both mental and physical of its members, enabling the administrator to foresee their behaviour as individuals, as members of a family, or of a larger social group. Unity and Complexity of Social Life in the Lower Cultures.—Ethnic and historical connections naturally are important, but stress must be laid from the practical point of view on the in1The outlook as it presents itself to the three generations living in a Maori village is vividly presented by G. H. Lane-Fox Pitt-Rivers in

The Clash of Culture (1927), chap. xii.

47

teraction of existing ideas and customs. It is impossible to understand the ideas regulating inheritance and bride price—two most important matters with which the administrator is concerned— without at the same time inquiring into the religion, sociology and economics of his people. Unforeseen and undesired ends have resulted from arbitrary interference with native custom. It cannot be too strongly urged that the native has a point of view of his own, and before sweeping away seemingly objectionable customs, the white man with knowledge of anthropology should seek to preserve the driving force which runs through native life, while changing those features which are anti-social according to civilized ideas even though they instigate much praiseworthy social activity. One of the best examples that can be cited is offered by head-hunting, a widespread habit which white civilization cannot tolerate. Yet its suppression was regarded by W. H. R. Rivers as one of the main factors in the depopulation of Melanesia. This example demonstrates the interlocking of departmental activities, as a white man might be tempted to call them, in native life, and it furnishes the very type of practice which no white administration can permit. The impasse seems absolute, yet in Sarawak, where almost the same necessity for head-hunting exists, the difficulty has been overcome by sympathetic officials who have themselves taken charge of some of the old skull trophies of the people, and thereafter when the demand for the ceremonial use of a skull arose one of the old skulls was lent to the community, the whole transaction being put on a business footing by the careful recording of skulls “in” and “out.” Again, in an inland district of Papua, where no man could hope to marry unless he had taken a skull, the offcer in charge was able to persuade the tribe that the killing of a wild boar offered at least as good a test of pluck and skill, and so was able to substitute the taking of a boar’s head for that of a man (often a woman or child). Importance of Ceremonial—No one doubts the close relationship between social organization, ceremony, morals, economics and even ethics among ourselves; everyone recognizes the psychological value of display, ceremonial and sport; yet in the administration of the backward races this common knowledge is too frequently ignored. What government at home would presume to stop royal processions, the Oxford and Cambridge boat-race or public football matches? Yet the corresponding expressions reproduced by natives in dances, initiation ceremonies and public feasts are frequently suppressed by the influence either of the administrator or the missionary, long before it is determined whether they are harmful or not. Active teaching is needed, now as much as ever, that the interests of people cannot be cut off with impunity, and the substitution of harmless for anti-social features in savage ritual and institutions is sound social psychotherapy. Positive Interference.—Frequently new regulations are introduced that undermine the native social structure of which administrators have remained entirely in ignorance. As to the difficult subject of missionary work as it affects the simpler pagan societies, it seems obvious that instruction in the social side of anthropology equal at least to that given to Colonial Civil Servants should be provided for missionaries by teachers who have themselves had field experience. Though short courses of lectures are now given at various missionary training schools in Great Britain, it does not appear that any central body has yet organized a co-ordinated scheme of instruction. Official authority, far-reaching though it may be, is simple compared to the complexity of influence exerted on native peoples by missions, for, in the intimate affairs of life some missionaries exercise such strong and constant pressure that members of their flock, and even individuals outside it, are deterred from following habits and customs which are in no sense forbidden by the civil administration. Moreover, the pressure exerted by many missions is so great that appeals to the civil authority are relatively rare, however much the native may feel aggrieved. Naturally missionary effort is largely directed to the “reform” of the sexual life of the native, i.e. not to any great extent against perversions or abnormalities— for these are too rare to bulk largely in the life of most primitive

peoples—but

especially against polygyny

(polygamy),

which,

48

ANTHROPOLOGY

[CULTURAL

whether it be advantageous or disadvantageous in a biological herited the gift and perfected their craft by means of hard trainsense, is regarded as essentially evil and attacked in every pos- ing. Though legislation may be useful, magic cannot be disposed sible manner. Even though the Church feels bound to maintain of by law, for every death except perhaps of the very old is atthis attitude it may be doubted whether it is wise or beneficial tributed to magic, and it is only when a man has some apprecifor the Government to exert its influence against polygamy among ation of the natural causes of death and the benefits of medicine relatively untouched natives. For instance in Papua (British New that he relies less upon magic. Missionaries have long been aware Guinea) no one having more than one wife may be appointed that their best weapon is the hospital; administrators should start “village policeman.” Obviously this excludes the majority of clinics shortly after administrative posts, as in the case of the headmen, individuals whose authority is most easily exerted and splendidly fitted hospital ship, with its medical officer and orderlies, most readily obeyed, from holding the very office in which they placed by the Sudan Government in 1922 for service on the White could be of most use alike to the Government and to their own Nile and its tributaries. Yet, however perfect administration, people. Many missionaries have recognized the incompatibility magic cannot die a sudden death; and this has its advantages, for of Christian monogamy with the social structure of some well magic has its social as well as its anti-social side. organized pagan societies. But, while it is necessary to recognize White magic will persist, and in Melanesia, for instance, its the complications and difficulties introduced by missionary effort, benefits are seen in connection with the Kula. In the Trobriand not all missions are equally rigid, while it would be difficult to Islands the specialists in magic are experts in the various overrate the scientific and administrative value of the work of crafts, in gardening and canoe building, etc., and it is under their such men as the Rev. H. A. Junod, whose Life of a South African auspices that the good traditions of gardening and building are Tribe is an outstanding example of the sympathetic and under- maintained. Though no canoe could sail unless the appropriate standing attitude. magic had been performed at each stage of its construction good Priest-kings and Magic.—In other instances trouble has been magic would never be used to counteract the effects of bad macaused by ignorance of the fact that a chief may belong to that terial or bad workmanship. Thus, the continual magical observexalted class of beings called by Frazer “Divine Kings,” or if not ances guarantee a careful selection and tests of material, and are actually of this order, be at least of semi-divine nature, and re- an incentive to good work. A successful trading expedition is the sponsible for rain and generally for the prosperity of the land. result of good magic, and just as magic is the most important reguHere it may be wise to recognize frankly the hierarchical superior- lator of the Kula, so is it of prime importance in garden work. The ity of the priest-king, and to appoint under him an administrative islanders, like most natives, are notoriously unthrifty, and it is government chief; indeed, besides the priest-king there are often doubtful if any native would cultivate sufficiently for his needs if one or more men recognized by the tribe as executive officers in left to individual responsibility. For man does not live by bread everyday affairs. Nor can the administrator ignore magic and alone, and a garden which will make a fine display and be much sorcery, and it is useless for him to affirm that the British Gov- talked of appeals to the mass of the population more than the ernment cannot countenance a belief in sorcery; magic may be knowledge of a supply against famine. a fiction, but the belief in it is a potent reality in all the ruder culPractical Suggestions.—In order to save the backward races tures, and is not extinct in higher cultures. Cases of death from extinction and enable them to adapt to new circumstances alleged to be caused by magic or by poison—the two often being two courses seem advisable: (a) that all government servants, synonymous—are continually brought before administrators, yet and others—especially missionaries—coming into direct contact rarely is evidence produced against the magician which on the with natives should take as part of their preparatory studies a white man’s laws of evidence can lead to conviction. In parts course in anthropology; (8) that every government should appoint ° of Melanesia it is doubtful whether there is any authentic evidence trained anthropologists, in order to make detailed investigations for the use of poisons by a sorcerer; yet folk undoubtedly die as and to act, when needed, as advisers to the administration. Each the result of his machinations; they die from no other ostensible of these plans has its definite sphere of usefulness, and calls for cause, and their death is ascribed to magic. The sorcerer is not further consideration. convicted, but if the people take the law into their own hands and Training.—Apart from a degree in anthropology, which as kill him the Government steps in and punishes the slayers, who matters stand at present it is idle to expect more than a small according to their peers have performed a public duty. It is small minority to possess, the preparatory course in anthropology may wonder then that many natives believe that the Government en- be of two kinds: a six to twelve months’ course at one of the unicourages sorcery; indeed, the relative immunity of the sorcerer versities—usually three academic terms—in which, besides the from all vengeance in certain instances may actually produce this social anthropology which is of prime importance from the adresult. ministrative standpoint, a certain amount of technology and Another factor which greatly adds to the difficulty of dealing physical anthropology will also be taught. Such a course, if due reasonably and justly with sorcery and witchcraft is that generally stress be laid upon practical difficulties and details, is no doubt speaking the darker races are far more suggestible than ourselves; excellent in those few instances in which a man has already a unfortunately, space is lacking to elaborate this statement or to strong, almost a “natural” interest in anthropology; but this plan set out a tithe of the evidence on which it is based. yields disappointing results when applied as hitherto to men who As a general system of treatment, probably an ordinance of have had no foreign experience. the kind in force in Papua is useful, in which it is stated that The British Colonial Office has a syllabus for the preliminary though there is really no such thing as sorcery yet the practice is training in native modes of thought of the men selected as African so harmful that it is treated as criminal. At any rate, the ad- civil servants, in law, accounts, tropical products, hygiene, engiministrator is not the only person in a dilemma; witness the neering, and sanitation, ethnology and the principles of African plaint of one Tata Ko, a well-known sorcerer, to Capt. Barton, languages. In the past this scheme has produced good results then Governor of Papua: “If a man falls sick his family come to and experience shows that a certain small number of men will me and ask me to make him well. If I don’t do something for him be sufficiently interested to study the tribes they live among they say, “Tata Ko, the sorcerer, desires to kill our brother,’ and and to record their habits and customs, or at least to keep in they are angry and will perhaps try to kill me. If I do give them touch with their teachers. something they insist on paying me well for it; should I refuse A further development is for the Colonial Government to pay to take their presents they would not understand it and they the expenses (fees and sustenance allowance) of men with adwould think I was trying to kill their friend, but when I do take ministrative experience who are keen enough to spend two to four Mee they give me, you arrest me on a charge of sorcery black- months’ leave working intensively at anthropology at one of the mail. universities. Experience has already shown that this scheme is Magicians not Charlatans.—In most instances magicians are likely to prove of the utmost value both administratively and not charlatans; though they may impose upon the credulity of scientifically, one feature of special importance being that such their clients they do believe in their own power; they have in- students have a knowledge of at least some native language, and

Prats I

ANTHROPOLOGY

BY COURTESY

OF

(f, 2)

LUNDBORG

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“RACIAL

CHARACTERISTICS

SPECIMENS

OF THE

SWEDISH

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WELL

1 and 2. Profile and full face of a soldier from Sodermanband, Sweden, a Nordic type. 3. A Javanese woman of Malayan stock. 4. A Tonga woman of the Polynesian race, from the Friendly Islands. 5. A man of the Salish tribe of North American Indians. 6. A man of the Polynesian race, New

(3-11)

DR.

DEFINED

Hebrides. 7. A 9. A man from Australia, with original of the

GRIFFITH

TAYLOR

AND

THE

CLARENDON

PRESS,

OXFORD

RACIAL TYPES man of the Malay race. 8. A Maori, native of New Zealand. Sumatra, in the Malay Archipelago. 10. An aboriginal of copper skin and wavy hair. 11. A Sakai woman, an abMalay Peninsula

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ANTHROPOLOGY

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,

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RACIAL TYPES OF ASIA, AFRICA AND AUSTRALIA 1l. A negrito of Tasmania. Pure blooded Tasmanians are totally extinct. 2. A Semang negrito, an aboriginal of the Malay peninsula. 3. A Melanesian negro of the Fiji Islands. 4. (a and b). A Japanese of the Altai type. 5. (a and b). Australian aboriginal. 6. (a and b). Polynesian man from the

Gilbert (Kingsmill) Islands. 7. (a and b). Bushman boy, from the deserts of

South Africa. 8. (a and b). Two views of a native of Tierra del Fuego, South America. 9. Pygmy or negrito man and woman from the Ituri river, in Central Africa. 10. A Pariyan woman (Australoid) from Mysore, India. 11. A Melanesian negro from Buku, Solomon Islands. 12. A Melanesian negro from New Ireland

PHYSICAL]

ANTHROPOLOGY

49

so are in a position to apply the technical knowledge they have broad result that an outburst of vigour and capacity is found to gained directly on their return to Africa. follow the mixture of peoples belonging to the same great racial In France, the Institut d’Ethnologie and the Facultés et Etab- groups. From the political standpoint this form of miscegenation lissements Publics d'Enseignement Supérieur of the University of has become of increased significance since the opening of the 2oth Paris provide instruction in the various branches of ethnography century, but its importance from the standpoint of applied anand linguistics, having special regard to the French colonies. Instruction is given in the languages of the native populations of the French possessions, Arabic, Berber, the Sudanese languages, Malagasy, as well as the more important languages of the Far East, Siamese, Annamese and Cambodian. The social, family and re-

ligious organization of Islam and the social habits and religious beliefs of the natives of the French colonies are described and compared by a band of experts of European reputation. In Holland there is a special faculty embracing ethnology, custom and law of the East Indies, Netherland law, Colonial economics, etc., in the Universities of Leyden and of Utrecht. Every candidate for the Colonial Civil Service must pass a preliminary and a doctoral (doctorandus) examination, after which he may become a full “Doctor” on presenting a thesis. In Austria, instruction in languages and, to a lesser degree, in ethnology, is given to missionaries at the Missionary college of St. Gabriel, near Vienna. Professional Anthropologists.—The appointment of professional anthropologists stands on a different footing. No arguments need be employed in favour of their administrative and scientific value. The ordinary official has neither the leisure nor the training, even if he has the desire, to make intensive investigations, and as time goes on and means of communication improve, and his journeys take place increasingly by car, he will have less and less opportunity of meeting his people unofficially and studying them at first hand. A further difficulty that stands in the way of the administrative official is that the native knows that his attitude to many customs such as human sacrifice, cannibalism and black magic must be hostile, and however sympathetic he may be he is still regarded as the man in authority. The anthropologist stays at native villages remote from government headquarters, and, once he has been able to gain the confidence of the people and let them know that his only object is to learn, one of the chief obstacles to obtaining reliable information will be removed. Anthropology as a profession presents a vicious circle. There are few men ready to become government anthropologists, though the machinery for training them exists at our universities. Men are not trained because there are no prospects; and then, when opportunities offer, there are insufficient candidates available. Should it be possible to anticipate a regular demand the men would soon be forthcoming. Encouragement to anthropological research has been given by the Sudan Government; the Gold Coast and Nigeria have appointed as anthropologists officers who had qualified by taking courses in anthropology. There is a trained government anthropologist in Papua, and chairs in Anthropology have been founded in the Union of South Africa and at Sydney, where special training is provided for administrative officers in Papua. Such action shows the trend of enlightened opinion, but the.advantages that anthropological knowledge offers are appreciated only in minute proportion in comparison with needs and opportunities. All governments have their experts in geology, botany, agriculture and zoology in its many branches; it is a strange paradox that so often man alone should be unstudied.

thropology is in our present state of knowledge relatively limited. Widely Divergent Unions.—In considering the interbreeding of widely divergent races it must be realized that the above proverb is intended to apply to moral values, and that the children of such unions are almost invariably relegated to the inferior race (in practice, the mother’s) for their upbringing, and so are socially and morally at a grave disadvantage, except where a sufficient number of mixed marriages occur, when a hybrid community, with its own social habits and values, is established, allowing a fair estimate to be formed of the physical and mental qualities of its members. The only all-round study of such a community is that of Prof. Eugen Fischer of the Reheboth community of south-west Africa (Die Reheboth Bastards und das Bastardierungsproblem berm Menschen [Jena, 1913]). This consists of the descendants, some 150 in number, through five or more generations, of the hybrid offspring of a group of trek Boers and Hottentot women, and includes the ‘offspring of a number of unions with members of the parent races. The genealogies are not always easy to follow, but the Reheboth Bastaards show extreme variability, and are divided into “European,” “Hottentot” and “Intermediate” groups. They are a strong, healthy and fruitful people, taller than either parent race, z.¢., they show a common indication of hybrid vigour. Physically there is no predominance of heritage from either race, but the inheritance of facial characters and colour is described as alternate, and in spite of the three groups there is no special tendency for the inheritance of groups of characters the unit elements of which are combined in either parent race. Psychologically the most important observation is that the Hottentot mentality predominates; there is neither European energy nor steadfastness of will. Further, though several subjects show a fairly high degree

of intelligence, the Bastaards live entirely in the present; they are typically Augenblickmenschen, while this character is not compensated by any special power of imagination or proficiency in the arts and crafts, in which they are distinctly weak. Other Groups.—As instances of other hybrid groups, with their own. adequate social organization, certain Arab tribes of the Sudan carrying much black blood, the mixed European-Chinese population of the Straits Settlements, and the negro-Amerind hybrid population of Guiana may be added. Owing to lack of precise knowledge of the building up of these groups little of importance can be said on the physical side, for terms having no precise connotation are used; e.g., it is obvious that there is a vast difference genetically and socially between the tall dolichocephalic Dinka and the short mesaticephals of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, though both would be classed as “negro” by Arabs and Europeans; while with regard to the Arab stocks there can be no certainty whether any particular strain carries Armenoid blood. The members of these tribes appear to have adapted themselves admirably to their mode of life, which is predominantly Arab, socially, economically and religiously, and the majority of individuals appear to present an intermediate type with regard to two of the most easily observed characters, namely skin colour and breadth of nose, though striking individual variations occur, e.g., a “black” skin may be associated with a face and nose almost typically Caucasian. Further, PHYSICAL darkness of skin tends to be predominant, and there are certain It may be useful to recall the old saying, “God made the white families in which this tendency is so marked that it would perhaps man, God made the black man, but the devil made the mulatto,” be fair to speak of these as exhibiting dominance in the true Menif only to consider how far this proverb embodies a truth, and, if it delian sense. Mentally and morally these tribes are Arab, not does, how the facts are to be faced in practice. There are broadly negro; thus socially and morally the inferior stock may be said two types of racial combination. In the first, the races coming to have been improved by the mixture. How far the Arab has together are so far apart as to make hybridization a real break- suffered must remain an open question, and whether the improveing down of the inherent characters of each, while in the second ment may not be in part due to the direct influence of Islam. The the fewer differences present offer only a moderate variability as a reconquests of the Sudan demonstrated the truth of an observabasis for recombination and selection which may be desirable. tion made years before in Arabia by Robertson Smith, namely that This latter type, socially constituting the “melting pot,” is per- not the pure Arab but the mixed Arab-negro population exhibits haps best represented in history, and can best be appreciated the quality of religious fanaticism. anthropologically, hy a study of the Völkerwanderungen, with the In both the other two examples quoted, whatever the physical

[NUMERICAL DATA

ANTHROPOMETRY

O

differences between the races concerned, they stand on equal or more nearly equal level. The mental and physical alertness of the mixed Chinese-White population of Singapore is striking, and they form a definite social class furnishing many highly efficient civil servants and clerks. Generally, Mongolian traits of feature predominate and it appears that the Mongolian eye, at least in the F.I. generation, is dominant, as it is in Malay-Melanesian matings observed in New Guinea. It may indeed be found that Mongolian-White matings give particularly interesting, and perhaps desirable, combinations. In one Japanese-White marriage the children (all female) exhibited a high degree of hybrid vigour, considerable artistic ability, and in type approximated to Polynesian; unfortunately, they passed out of observation before maturity, and it can be stated as a matter of experience that five other children, the result of two Japanese-White matings, did not reproduce this type. With regard to the negro-Amerind mixture of Guiana, there seems no doubt that a definite type has been produced which has largely taken to a special mode of life as boatmen on the rivers, for which it is well fitted, and that this hybrid population exhibits much of the physical efficiency of the negro without his laziness and excitability. For books on the subject see the Bibliography to the article ANTHROPOLOGY and the works quoted in the text, The Clash of Culture (Pitt-Rivers) being specially NaS C. G. S,

ANTHROPOMETRY.

Anthropological science aims at the

establishment of man’s position in nature, the discovery of the extent of human variation, the ordination of the fundamental facts concerning the growth of the individual, and the bearing on human evolution of the evidence drawn from comparisons of the existing human types with one another, or of each in turn with their prehistoric precursors. Such enterprises entail both the collection and the apportionment of evidence. And when comparisons have to be made, the advantages of numerical modes of expression over those which are purely descriptive are manifest. NUMERICAL DATA IN SCIENTIFIC STUDIES

The measuring rod and the balance, instruments of precision,

exemplify the means of collecting quantitative data, the foundations of much of the superstructure of modern science. But in the domain of biology the very texture of living matter seems opposed to exact measurement. To this obstacle there must be added that which is set up by the unceasing metabolic mutability of protoplasm. Some there are who plead for the freedom of biological research from adverse criticism should rigid numerical methods be discarded in its prosecution. Anthropometry constitutes one of the testing-grounds of those methods. The history of anthropometry is retraceable far backwards in time. From the very dawn of graphic representation in the historic period, it has claimed the notice of artists. These, though they may not have collected data with scientific precision, or on a definitely systematic basis, can claim credit for attempts to interpret the various details they observed. But the scientific treatment of data representative of measurements based on a predetermined scheme, and collected systematically and consistently, is a matter of comparatively recent development. Anthropometry is still far from maturity. The measurements, the instruments of research, the methods of interpretation, all alike are subject to periodical revision, with a view to the correction of errors. The numerical data of anthropometry are evidently susceptible to investigation statistically, although their range of distribution (in other words, their diversity) is notoriously great, as may be remarked in the variations of stature and weight among the individual members of an adult population. Quetelet.—But the whole subject of anthropometrical research is influenced, if not actually governed, by the consideration that in spite of apparent irregularity the variations exhibit a distribution conforming to a rule termed the Law of Frequency of Error. This law “was excogitated for the use of astronomers and others who are concerned with extreme accuracy of measurement, and without the slightest idea, until the time of Quetelet (1833), that it might be applicable to human measures.” The achievement

has proved to include not merely anthropometric records but bio-

logical data of many kinds. Quetelet himself stated :— “Should the type be absent, and should men differ not by reason of accidental causes but because there were no laws really applicable to them, one could measure them, as, for instance, in respect of stature, but without finding that the various individual measurements presented any particular characteristic, or any definite numerical relations. “If, on the contrary, all human beings have been cast in the same mould, whence they have emerged with purely accidental

FROM

“KNOWLEDGE,”

FIG.

BY

COURTESY

1.—AVERAGE

OF

PROF.

BODILY

ARTHUR

THOMSON

PROPORTIONS

OF

ADULT

MALES

From left to right: A. Labrador Eskimo; B. Anglo-Saxon; C. African Negro; D, Australian Aborigine., The reduction tọ the same standard height brings out contrasts in other dimensions, especially in respect to shoulder breadth

differences, then the groups will not be formed as above in disorderly fashion, but their numerical values obeying the theory of probabilities will be subject to pre-established laws so completely that the numbers representative of the several groups could be predicted in advance. For this particular instance, then, there exists a characteristic feature by means of which one realizes that the individuals are referable to the same type, and that their differences are assignable to fortuitous causes only. “Another consequence of this theory is that the larger the number of observations the more completely do the effects of the fortuitous causes cancel each other, thus permitting of the predominance of the general type which they tended to mask previ-

ously. Thus in the human species, and having regard to individuals only, all varieties of stature are met with, at least within certain limits. Those nearest the average figure are the most numerous;

those which are furthest removed from the average are the least frequent: and the several groups succeed each other in numerical

sequence according to a law capable of formulation in advance. (In data found to be ordinated nearly in accord with this law, the aggregation near the median is so great that a comparatively small number of individuals will provide a sample serving to give reliable information. Beyond this number, increase in the total number does not give much greater reliability to the result.) “Now this law holds good for mankind, not merely in regard to stature in its entirety, but in respect of its several components: the same applies to records of weight, to those of physical strength, and, in short, to any character that is measurable and reducible to numerical expression. .. . “This discovery of the applicability of the law of accidental causes to human phenomena, no matter from what point of view humanity is regarded, is now a fact firmly established in science. I consider its correctness proved by the large number of instances available...

.”

ý

Quetelet illustrated regularity in gradation by reference to th distribution of stature in adult males, selecting for this purpose

data provided by no fewer than 10,000 individuals. When these are ordinated according to the gradual increase of their stature, the arrangement is found to be capable of graphic representation by a curve. The curve assigned by Quetelet (and shown on p. 17 of his memoir) corresponds to that known as the curve

of frequency of error (an alternative name is “normal probability curve”). It is symmetrical and unlimited in either direction.

NUMERICAL

DATA]

ANTHROPOMETRY

As to the course of growth in stature from infancy to maturity Quetelet states that from the age of five years to about 15 years, the annual increments of growth are regular. This conclusion seems generally to have been accepted, and even now the sequence of records taken at intervals of a year does not serve to modify it. But the true progress of growth to maturity is not revealed unless the records are repeated more frequently. The lapse of so long as 12 months actually masks the important alternatives of periods of greater activity with others of relative relaxation. Quetelet himself was aware of variability in the rate of growth, and he agrees that in the development of a particular individual there present themselves almost invariably periods of arrest as well as those in which growth is more or less rapid. But Quetelet deprecated laying stress upon such varying rates of progress, and herein he failed to realize the full meaning of his data. The real significance of these alternations is that the regularity with which they succeed each other constitutes a characteristic feature of growth-changes. The realization of this detail will probably prove to have a very practical economic application.

Galton’s Work.—The work of Francis Galton extends and expands that of his precursor. Galton was interested from the first in the problems of heredity. Both researchers soon realized the need for collecting reliable and suitable data on a large scale, and both turned their attention to the phenomena of human growth from infancy to maturity, and, discontented with physical measurements only, both brought physiological and intellectual manifestations within the domain of measurement. Galton’s outlook on the variability exhibited by the individuals of a human society is well expressed in his Herbert Spencer lecture where he likens such variability to Proteus in the old fable, in that it can be “seized, securely bound and utilized.” As comment on the accuracy of the application of the law of frequency to the particular example of human stature he observed that “the statistical variations of stature are extremely regular, so much so that their general conformity with the results of calculations based on the abstract law of frequency of error is an accepted fact by anthropologists.” (British Association for the Advancement of Science. Report 1885. Presidential Address Section H. p. 1209.) Nevertheless not all human measurements give such close approximation to theory as those of stature do. The theory seemed, in fact, to be limited in its range, and Galton propounded a means of bringing some of the aberrant instances within the scope of the latter. He subjected all parts of his data and methods to a keen scrutiny. His most important and more particularly personal contributions can be summed up in the words “regression” and “correlation.” Regression is a feature of populations and has

reference to the fact that, on the whole, the (adult) offspring must be more mediocre than their parents. Galton illustrated regression by reference to the stature of the (adult) offspring compared with that of the parents, and succeeded in measuring the ount of regression. At first he was concerned to compare the stature of a generation of parents with that of the succeeding offspring. Subsequently he extended the scope of the investigation, and published the results of studies in which the offspring were compared (inter se). Galton discovered that the amount of regression was remarkably constant in certain instances. Taking stature as the test and comparing the “mid-flial” deviation from the average with the “mid-parental” deviation, he found that the former was on the average two-thirds of the latter. And two-thirds consequently represents the ratio of “filial regression.” Three important points emerge here. In the first place, the ratio, measuring the deviation of offspring as compared with that of parent, might be used as a test of evolution, or at least of progress. For if it were repeated in successive generations, and found to vary, the inference of progress would be quite reasonable. In the second place, this discovery marks a stage in the construction of a theory of ancestral contributions in heredity, and the evidence of the stature was considered to indicate the similarity of the successive contributions to a series in which the terms were $..., 4...,;4,..., each ancestor making a contribution how-

oI

ever small. This is one of the aspects of anthropology in which the work of Galton stands confronted with that of Mendel, since in the light of Mendelian research certain ancestors may contribute nothing at all. (There is, in fact, on p. 135 of Natural Inheritance, a remarkable instance of inheritance, which is possibly an example of the operation of Mendelian laws.) The third point arises in connection with the extension of the comparisons in which evidence of regression might be manifest. At first the term was used to denote the relative degree of abnormality of parent and offspring. But in the guise of correlation the term acquired a much wider significance and the extensions constitute what is perhaps the most conspicuous landmark in Galton’s life-work. In the words of Karl Pearson ‘“‘Galton created the subject of Correlation,” and again, “Galton, starting from the organic relationship between parent and offspring . . . passed to the idea of a coefficient measuring the correlation of all pairs of organs, and thence to the organic relationship of all sorts of factors.” The importance of the achievement is unquestioned, even though there be reservation of opinion as to the precise formulae to be employed. And the practical side of the study of correlation in human measures may be illustrated as follows. There is very general agreement as to the influence of such factors as (r) Heredity and (2) Environment on the final constitution of the individual. As to the relative magnitude of the parts played by these factors, no opinion is possible until shares are assigned in just, z.e., in real proportion. But again, no division of responsibility can be satisfactory until expressions of number and quantity are available for use. And the index of correlation (even if its probable error has to be appended) sums up in itself the process of attempted measurement. Finally the progress of evolution itself may ultimately prove capable of expression in terms of a particular coefficient of correlation. Karl Pearson.—The pages of Biometrika edited by Prof. Karl Pearson, constitute a massive literary memorial of Galton. In an early study (1897), before the appearance of Biometrika, Prof. Pearson investigated the variability of the two sexes in respect of their skulls, demonstrated the application of scientific methods of measuring the degree of variability manifested in different

series of skulls, and brought under consideration skulls of both sexes from all parts of the world, and of prehistoric antiquity as well as of modern date. He assumed that variations constitute

the raw material of the process of evolution.

He found that

although he was unable to point to a measure of variation really significant of progressive evolution, nevertheless the coefficient of variation employed in his research indicated little or no excess of variability in either sex over the other. His data point to a greater variability of the races of modern times, so that their structural details are still providing opportunities for further modifications should the process of evolution lay them under contribution. The contributions to Biometrika include the refinement of measures of variability and of degrees of correlation, and tests applicable to curves representing the distribution of measured characters, such as provide a means of gauging the signifi-

cance of two or more peaks of frequency on a given curve. Where the curve in question represents the distribution of some particular character (such as stature) in a population, the tendency to infer the co-existence of as many distinct “elements” in the population as there are distinct peaks on the curve, is strong and reasonable, but justifiable only if confirmed by an appropriate test. The admixture of elements, whether “racial,” or other is not the only possible explanation of the occurrence. The alter-

natives include the possibilities (a) that the total number of records available is inadequate, (b) that individuals of the two sexes are mingled in the same group, and (c) that individuals of different ages are aggregated therein. These evidently demand close scrutiny. With the progress of statistical research the instruments will be improved or even replaced, and the existing methods will be regarded as no longer adequate. Already the very premises of Prof. Pearson, regarding the extent to which statistical methods are strictly applicable to the elucidation of biological data, have been called in question.

ANTHROPOMETRY

52 APPLICATIONS

OF ANTHROPOMETRY

One of the earliest statistical accounts of the physique of children employed in factories appeared in 1833, containing observations made at Manchester and Stockport. Records are given of the stature and weight of 1,492 boys and girls. Out of that number 1,062 were engaged in factories, although some of the children were only nine years old. The factory hands exhibit inferiority both of height and weight, but the inferiority is not marked until the 16th year in respect of height and the 14th in respect of weight. Nearly 75 years later a similar contrast was established when “neglected” boys were compared with those of the whole community employed as “controls.” The contrast is much more definite at 13 to 14 years of agethan at five to six years; but it does not apply quite equally to both sexes, for though the girls exhibit the contrast in more marked-degree than the boys at the earlier stage, they are not as sharply contrasted at the later age. Child-life in Scotland.—An exhaustive investigation into the child-life of urban and rural districts, carried out under the general supervision of the Scottish committee for child-life investigation and the particular direction of Prof. Noel Paton, and published in 1926, contains a wealth of statistical data. Anthropometric observations lead to the conclusion that “up to between the first and second years the child of the agricultural labourer is on the average apparently growing more quickly than the urban child. After this, there is a striking parallelism” (p. 101). Again (p. 104), “while there is apparently some delay in the rate of growth of the average town child between birth and 18 months, after that date the growth proceeds as rapidly in the town as in the country child.” Chart IX. where “urban” boys (Glasgow) are compared with “rural” boys (Forfarshire, Island of Lewis, Ayrshire), shows that the stature of the urban boys is consistently lower than that of rural boys in the period under observation (5 to 15 years).

ADULTS OF 21 To 25 YEARS

GIRLS OF 13 YEARS

NEW BORN

INFANTS

Boys OF

WOMEN

15 YEARS

|

=

FROM

FIG.

“DER

MENSCH

2.—THE

MATURITY.

ZEITEN,”

BY COURTESY

OF JOSEF

PROPORTIONS

ALLER

OF PARTS

IN BOTH

THE

STATURE

IN

EACH

CASE

HABBEL

BEING

SEXES

FROM

BIRTH

REPRESENTED

AS

TO 100

[APPLICATIONS

by Greenwood’s comparison of “neglected” boys of 13 to 14 years of age with the general stock at that age. In the Scottish investi-

gations the “urban” girls exhibit the same sort of contrast with

the “rural” girls as do the two groups of boys; but in the girls the divergence appears rather earlier. In respect of weight, the indication of a corresponding contrast is not altogether lacking, but is much less distinct than in regard to stature. Where the “deviation” occurs, an indication exists of a temporary arrest of

growth-activity.

Such a temporary arrest implies a periodic al-

ternation of an active with a resting phase; and that such periodicity actually obtains, seems to have been fairly proved. Munich Children.—Observations of large numbers of the school children at Munich were repeated over a series of years with somewhat fluctuating results. It appeared that the measures actually recorded (of stature and of weight respectively) manifested

first (as in 1921) a reduction when compared with the data for years previous to 1914. Then, in 1924, the children who in that year attained the age of eight exceeded in stature those who reached that age a year previously by as much as 3-2mm. (2-64%) for boys, and 2-8 (2-34%) for girls. The respective weights showed a corresponding contrast. Prof. Rudolf Martin noted the improvement in physique thus revealed in the year 1924, and attributed this amelioration to improvements in the conditions of life at Munich. Anthropometry thus provided the data, and a correct interpretation is particularly important in view of the political bearing of the results announced in this investigation. In a second research made by Prof. Martin, the children of “school age” at Munich were again the subjects of investigation, and on this occasion were compared with those of corresponding age at Chicago. For each of the ages represented by the years 6, 7,8... 13, the Bavarian children (Munich) fell short of the

American children in respect of stature and of weight. Likewise, in each of the eight years in question save the first, the American children showed an extension of variation beyond the uppermost limit of the Munich children. Physical Types and Disease.—The relation of disease to the physical conformation of the patient has been investigated by many authorities, among whom Dr. Shrubsall, in 1904, published evidence that different types make different contributions to the sum of inmates of a general hospital. The association of disease with physical type was shown to be more definite in respect of complexion (the blonde and brunette types respectively) than of a more definitely measurable character such as stature. Nevertheless, there is an association of blondness or brunette-ness with correspondingly contrasted varieties of stature, so that the relation of disease to stature is not negligible. Dr. Shrubsall laid stress on indications that the conditions of life in respect of hygiene exercise a sort of selection of particular types to the disadvantage of one and the advantage of another. He added that “‘to determine whether these phenomena are peculiar to London, or even true, for I have only been able to make some 50,000 observations, an anthropometric survey of the whole country is imperative, and its results would doubtless serve as a basis for any measures of public hygiene which might serve to restore the balance of power, should it be found wanting.” That survey has still to be made. Evidently the extension of such investigations would introduce anthropometric methods into the preparation of data eventually illustrating the significance of the death-rate in various regions. As regards expectation of life, the influences of profession and occupation are acknowledged already; nevertheless the reminder (p. 196) that morbidity is much greater than mortality is very apposite here. Davenport has employed anthropometric data to distinguish

The figures show the Increase in some parts accompanied by relative decrease in others. It is of interest to notice that the lower limbs attain their greatest relative length before the maximum stature Is reached and earller in the female (13 yrs.) than in the male (15 yrs.)

various types of conformation, which he terms “build.” He devised an index based upon the factors of (a) weight and (b)

Instead of parallel lines of development it shows a divergence indicative of a temporary arrest of growth in the “urban” boys from 10 to 12 years of age. This arrest interrupts the parallelism which would otherwise exist, and though the years of incidence do not tally exactly, this interruption recalls the contrast disclosed

proceeded to study the association of the various types of “build”

stature conjointly, and he found that this index could be used to denote the characteristic “build” of a particular individual. He

with diseases, and the observations relate to juvenile as well as adult subjects. The results confirm a popular impression. They exhibit prevalence of respiratory diseases in the class of individuals

described as “slender” (with an index of “build” averaging 28).

4

APPLICATIONS]

ANTHROPOMETRY

Vascular troubles afflict more usually the very “fleshy” individuals, whose mean or average index of build works out at 48. The data collected by Davenport and his colleagues indicate that “fleshy” individuals prove more prolific than those of “slender” build. Moreover, the character or quality of fleshiness seems slightly to dominate that of slenderness in inheritance. A more circumscribed type of enquiry involving the use of anthropometric data in the investigation of disease is exemplified in a report by Dr. Berry and Mr. Porteus, who investigated the dimensions of the head in mentally defective children, and in order to secure the means of comparison, carried out a most extensive survey of normal individuals, including school children, university students, and aged persons, to the number of over 6,000. The research was conducted in Australia, and as an interesting, but entirely accessory “control”, about 60 aborigines were also measured. In reporting on the data, the authors admit that they can only consider the marked deviations from the normal as possessing diagnostic value, so effective are the sources of error. With

this reservation (and their claims are not invalidated by the statement made by Prof. Karl Pearson in Biometrika, vol. v. p. 105, as to the low degree of correlation between head-measurements and intelligence), they claim that the volume of the brain, calculated from the dimensions of the head as actually measured, differs significantly in the mentally defective from what it is in the normal groups of corresponding age used for purposes of control. Not only so, but besides these mentally defective children, the deaf and dumb children subjected to investigation, as well as the reformatory inmates and the aboriginal natives, all fail to present evidence of brains of the volume shown by the controls to be appropriate to comparable individuals of normal intelligence. The data illustrate these conclusions. The volume of the brain expressed in cubic centimetres, was estimated, and average values for several groups of boys or youths provided a sequence that may be represented as follows: Mentally defective boys at 13 years . Deaf and dumb boys at 13 years Normal public school boys at 13 years Reformatory youths at 20 years Normal youths at 20 years

Cu. CM. . 1,292 . 1,307 . 1,352 1,344 . 1,483

A detail brought out rather strikingly in the preparation of the normal data for use is the definite transient phase of arrest which appears at least twice in the progress of brain-growth to its full amount. These periods of arrest affect the brain in boys and girls alike, and in the same years, namely from rr to 12 and again from 13 to 14. In the girl a third resting stage is indicated more definite than either of those which precede it, and distinctive of the years from 16 to 18. Subsequently the female brain completes its growth to the extent of 2% of the whole amount. The calculation of the volume of the brain involved the use of a formula which had been worked by Dr. Lee under the supervision of Prof. Karl Pearson. Dietary Investigations——A memoir was published by Dr. Corry Mann in 1926 on the acquisition of “a numerical value for a basic diet, of poor quality, but adequate physiological value, in terms of nutrition, and to assess, similarly, the value of certain items of food when these are supplied as additional rations to such a basic diet.” Anthropometric data (of stature and weight) were employed, for frequent records were made of weight and height. Boys of school age, with a low rate of sickness, living in an institution near London, were the subjects of the investigation. Sixty-

one boys who received only the basic diet gained an average of 3-85 lb. per boy and grew an average of 1-84in. per boy during 12 months. Forty-one boys who received in addition to the basic diet a ration of fresh cow’s milk, pasteurized and homogenized, one pint, 388 calories daily, gained an average of 6-98 lb. per boy and grew an average of 2-63in. per boy during 12 months. The relative values of several diets, as measured by gains of height and weight, are exhibited graphically in figs. 3 and 4 of the reports. Besides illustrating the predominant effects of milk, these figures bring out a curious point in regard to the effects of (a) watercress and (b) casein when added to the basic diet. The effect on

53

weight is very definite and indeed considerable when water-cress

is introduced, but the effect on stature is negligible.

(The actual

numerical data would by themselves suggest that water-cress is deterrent to the attainment of the stature that would take place in its absence. But this conclusion should not be drawn without close scrutiny of the figures. The influence of a “random sampling” may be accountable, and the more probable conclusion is that the effect of water-cress is negligible in respect of stature.) Casein in these experiments seems to produce no significant effect on either weight or stature, despite the very marked addition it

provided to the amount of protein in the diet (almost doubling it) and to the number of calories (increased from 61 to 91). The duration of the experiment, the number of individuals under observation, the number and minuteness of the analyses confer an exceptional importance upon Dr. Corry Mann’s work. It affords guidance as to the fundamental requisites for such enquiries, including the necessity for exhaustive analyses of the diets employed. Racial Characters.—In some of the preceding instances the element of “race” or “type” may evidently need consideration as a possible factor in determining differences detected by anthropometry in the survey of a population. Anthropometric methods must therefore be applied to the study of the several divisions of mankind, and the wider aspects of the subject include the prehistoric as well as the existing members of the Hominidae. Moreover, the scrutiny must be extended from mankind to the monkeys,

and to any other animals

whose

general anatomical

structure proclaims them nearly akin to these. In a survey of what may be termed “Racial Anthropometry” the living subject and the absolute dimensions of the body evidently claim the first place; but from the first also regard must be had to the skeleton. The bones alone are available as the vehicle of information concerning prehistoric man; and the same is true of more than one recent type of humanity, e.g., the Tasmanians, the Mori-ori and the Caribs, who have become extinct within the last few centuries, or even within the memory of persons still living. Anthropometric observations of living persons include measurements of weight and of linear dimensions. The latter may be rectilinear, as in the case of stature, or curvilinear, and two subvarieties, viz., arcs and circumferences, are to be distinguished as coming within the latter description. Linear measurements of diameters or circumferences provide the means of calculating volume or capacity, and finally angular measurements constitute a separate category which has representatives in nearly every scheme and schedule. Range of Stature and Weight (Extreme Instances) Stature.

Males.

Norwegian Lapps Nilotic Sara tribe

Bush natives

Iroquois Indians

Females.

mm.

in.

1,523 1,O17

59°7 71°02

no record | no record

The highest average weight recorded in Dr. Martin’s list for females is that of south Russian Jewesses, and amounts to 63-5 kgm. (140 Ib.). The erratic character of such data is shown by the fact that these women provide a greater average number than do the male south Russian Jews. This paradox is probably due to the greater obesity of the females. Among all human types individual variations are considerable, amounting among the Bush natives of South Africa to a range of from 30kgm. to sgkgm. in males and 30kgm. to 45kgm. in females.

ANTHROPOMETRY

54

Such examples exhibit an extraordinary range of diversity. Their study raises a fundamental question as to its significance, and that question still lacks a final answer. As to the local diversity of human stature, no doubt exists, and it is easy to proclaim the racial distinction of the Scandinavian from the Laplander, even though their territories lie adjacent the one to the other. Vet the gap can be bridged, and the intermediate examples are so numerous and so diverse as to establish a complete gradation between the extremes. But the question remains, is mankind a single stock with an almost infinite number of sub-varieties, or are a limited number of fundamentally distinct types now linked together? The bonds of linkage would be such factors as admixture of types (with intermediate characters in the offspring of such matings), local conditions affecting growth favourably or the reverse, and other factors as yet imperfectly known. Kollmann postulated the original coexistence of certain distinct “types.” But there is no demonstrative proof on either side. Against such “original diversity” the supporters of an “original unity” of human ancestry can still proffer their arguments, reopening the old problem of polygeny versus monogeny. This is so closely connected with the mode and precise path of human evolution from the immediately pre-human stages that its temporary loss of vogue as a subject of debate is bound to be succeeded by a renewal of interest. (See MonoceNISTS.) Although stature is naturally related to body-weight, the correlation of the two characters is not complete; the taller of two individuals need not necessarily be the heavier. Thus among the south Russian Jews, the women weigh on the average more than the men, though the men are notably taller (1,651mm. as against 1,536mm.). And again, the geographical distribution of those human beings who are at once among the tallest and heaviest of their kind is capricious. They preponderate in areas so widely separated as Scotland, Montenegro, Rajputana, Sumatra, the Marquesas islands and Patagonia, with African groups in the Bahr-el-Gazel and Zululand. The last-mentioned come, curiously enough, into close relation with a remnant of the pygmy Bush natives of South Africa. Again the tall men of Galloway are set off by the diminutive weavers of Spitalfields, the interval separating them being almost equal to that of the extremes provided by the whole range of humanity. But the range of pygmies is almost equally extensive and as certainly interrupted and discontinuous. To the pygmies of the Kalahari desert in South Africa there succeed those of the Congo State; but other representatives of pygmy size are found in Lapland, the Andaman islands, the Malay peninsula, the Philippine islands and New Guinea. Latitude and longitude alike seem devoid of relation to such apparently fortuitous dispersals. (See Pycmy, and the appropriate sections in the articles on the places named.) Zulus (men) . Bush natives (men) Galloway (men) . Spitalfields (men) .

Average stature 172 (approx.) 155 (approx.) 179 (approx.) 155 (approx.)

Average weight ? 89 lb. 173 lb. 100 Íb.

But even if it be admitted that the measure of stature is not a sure indicator of body-weight, yet the taller individuals seem on an average to possess heavier brains. Prehistoric Man.—In the present connection, the stature and bulk of the prehistoric representatives of humanity claim attention. The evidence comes necessarily from the skeleton, and consequently estimates of body-weight are very liable to error in determination. Nor are estimates of stature derived from the bones by any means free from this drawback. Where skeletons

[APPLICATIONS

Calculation is the only method available when the remains are fragmentary. Imperfections in the limb-bones will necessarily be detrimental to an estimate of stature based on their dimensions, and certain corrections have to be made, e.g., according to the sex

of the skeleton. Should the estimate have to be made from the femoral length, it seems an easy proceeding, in view of the state. ment at one time current that the femoral length is 25% of the

stature; but this rule needs amendment if the length of the femur is markedly above or below the average. Correction will be needed if the bone is part of the skeleton of a negro and not of European

AUDITORY MEATUS

Ag

LSA

\

1p

ASC \ IN sa

d

ACROMION

STA

l|

A

NSA |

CHIN

MEEI N AN

Eg |a

/ FS

A LAA

Sh LAN TTme

Pa u an tL

H

AT BIRTH

TCT

6% YEARS

eed

a

me m

15% YEARS

ee

19 YEARS

TIBIAL

MALLEOLUS BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

CAMBRIDGE

PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY

FIG. 3.—DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF INCREASE IN CENTIMETRES, FROM BIRTH TO MANHOOD, 19 YEARS

IN

The rate of growth Is greatest in the first 6! approximately doubled

the stature is

years, when

STATURE,

origin; and until evidence is adduced to the contrary, the need for correction must be assumed if the skeleton is of prehistoric antiquity and not modern. In the case of prehistoric Europeans, the amount of the addition or subtraction may, however, be assumed to be very moderate. Thus by the employment of suitable formulae, a fairly close estimate of stature can be made upon

data provided by single bones. To judge by such skeletons as have been recorded so far, the stature of prehistoric man was by no means uniform, and in general it presents little difference from that of the modern inhabitants of the same areas. Examples of the extremes of variation present themselves in the skeleton from Cro-Magnon, for despite the advanced age assigned to this individual, he is supposed to have measured 1,820mm. in height (Boule), while at the other end of the scale the skeleton from Chancelade of comparable antiquity denotes a stature of 1,550mm. only (Boule). Comparison with the range of averages quoted above for modern men is not justifiable, and yet the diversity of stature in prehistoric times is rendered sufficiently evident. Both these examples (Cro-Magnon and Chancelade) represent mankind in the so-called Palaeolithic pe-

riod, and from the same period there are forthcoming other indi-

have been found intact and extended “at length,” direct measure-

viduals so characterized as to fall between the two just mentioned in respect of stature. These data can be tabulated as follows :—

ments have been sometimes practicable as the specimen lay exposed to observation, and before it was disturbed in any other way. Such a measurement will differ notably from the stature of the individual in life: yet it will evidently furnish a useful control of estimates based upon the measurements of separate bones and the employment of formulae devised for the purpose of reconstructing stature from such measurements.

I. Les Eyzies. Old man of Cro-Magnon (Upper Palaeolithic) Boule’s estimate of stature, 1,820mm. Manouvrier’s estimate of the same, 1,736mm. 2. Man of the Neanderthal (Middle Palaeolithic) Pearson’s estimate of stature, 1,629mm.

APPLICATIONS] 3.

ANTHROPOMETRY

Man of Chancelade

(Contemporary with Cro-Magnon) Rahon’s estimate of stature, 1,592mm. Testut’s estimate of stature, 1,5 50mm. In dimensions, at least, the man of the Palaeolithic period does not support the view that in prehistoric times primitive brutality was associated with gigantic bulk. Even beyond the confines of Europe, the prehistoric Rhodesian man with a stature of 1,830mm., tall though he may have been, does not notably exceed individuals among the existing inhabitants of the region. In China, again, the precursors of the modern inhabitants of Fengtien and Honan in the Aeneolithic period show no very outstanding difference in point of stature from the existing inhabitants, Body Ratios.—The stature of mankind is related to the bodyweight sufficiently closely to serve as a means of estimating the latter; and in view of the possibility of forming an estimate of the brain-weight from the dimensions of the skull, it appears that if there be available from a skeleton the skull and one of the thighbones these remnants suffice for making these two estimates. (The

thigh-bone can be used in estimating first the stature, and subsequently the body-weight of the individual.) The ratio of brainweight to body-weight has been termed the index of cephalization. Its value is approximate to =; in normal healthy adult men. This may be taken as a distinctive human character with which to compare the ratio exhibited by an adult male gorilla, viz., 545. Estimates based on the dimensions of the appropriate parts of prehistoric human skeletons present no startling contrasts with such as modern humanity provides. An exceptionally interesting index is that derived from the skull-cap and the femur of the Javanese fossil Pithecanthropus erectus, for the value assigned to

the index is in this instance +s, and it assigns to the fossil form

a place intermediate between mankind and the higher apes. Thus the values of the ratio of brain-weight to body-weight are:—(r1) Normal adult man, 45; (2) Pithecanthropus erectus (Java), 5;

(3) Hylobates, small anthropoid ape, 5;

55

obeyed by all or in every detail, and freedom from slavery to an artificial system resulted in the production of contrasted forms. Some of these are still in existence, so that contrasts can be drawn between such examples as the Running Fighter (Louvre) and the Antinous. The anthropometric method of investigation recognizes no authority in the shape of a modulus or canon. The latter is the outcome of an assumption that remains unproved. In this respect, it invites comparison with the theoretical “archetype,”

a concept in morphological anatomy which enjoyed a transient vogue in the 18th and part of the 19th centuries. Standards Required.—But while recognition of a pre-determined form of representation is refused, this does not imply rejection of all forms of representation. Anthropology willingly recognizes a standard of proportion which is the outcome of actual observations, and represents the mean of measurements made on many individuals with unvarying precision. Such a standard is indispensable when human beings are being compared with each other, or even when the human form is brought into account with

those of the higher apes; and in certain instances the standard may usefully take the rigid form of what mechanics colloquially term a “jig.” Thus Dr. Percy Stocks (Annual Report of the Chief Medical Officer of the Board of Education, 1926, p. 105), reporting on “Goitre in the English School-child,” recommends the employment of a “standard gauge” for thyroid-breadth. By its use, the number and proportionate frequency may be learned of those children possessed of a thyroid gland exceeding the standard breadth of 42mm. Schematic Representation.—In the accompanying figures (x and 2) there will be observed indications of the respective lengths and widths of particular parts of the body. The stature of all is reduced to a common measure so that contrasts in the relative VERTEX

(4) Gorilla, large CHIN

anthropoid ape, si5. The numerical value of the human ratio testifies to the abundant provision of brain-material in mankind as compared even with closely allied mammals, But the ratio or index presents such a wide range of value in various animals as to require comment. Thus, for instance, the human figure sy, though well in advance of that for the gorilla, does not actually head the list. In this respect man falls behind many birds. At the other end of the scale come gigantic animals such as the hippopotamus, the whale and certain fishes. Some correction is thus seen to be necessary, and among the more obvious factors that of absolute size is evidently important. The birds most favourably placed (index about 33) are small, e.g., small finches. For a whale there has been cal-

culated an index represented by zw (Wilder).

PRE-STERNAL NOTCH ACROMION

ELBOW (CAPITELLUM) TROCHANTER (UPPER EDGE) Pupis (UPPER EDGE)

ISCHIUM (LOWER EDGE)

The same in-

fluence is manifestly active during the lifetime of the human individual, for as an infant he owns at birth the “superhuman” ratio of 4. Allowance for absolute dimensions must needs be

RADIJUS (LOWER END)

KNEE-CAP (LOWER EpGE)

made before any inference regarding cerebral endowment can be drawn from the figures; and in the above instances the human being, the Javanese Pithecanthropus and the gorilla are in this respect comparable, while the small anthropoid ape represents the general standard for such apes handicapped as generously as possible, by reason of the relatively diminutive size of this particular

species. Even so, it fails to attain the human standard. The “Canon” Error.—A fundamental error underlies many “systems of proportion,” namely the assumption that a particular part of the body bears precise numerical relations to all the rest. Such an assumption is almost universal in artistic schemes, and is, in fact, implicit in the selection of many units or moduli, such as the finger, the foot, the cubit, the head or the vertebral column. That this matter should be disposed of once and for all is the more important since a definite “canon” is still commended as the basis of the comparison of one human type with another, an

application wholly to be condemned.

According to Duval, the

works of the ancient sculptors present precisely the same variations as are met with in nature, In fact the rule was by no means

MIDDLE FINGER

TIBIAL MALLEOLUS

FIG.

4.-—-SCHEMATIC

OUTLINE

OF

ANTHROPOID

APE

(GORILLA)

The stature being taken as 100, the other parts are represented proportionately and show contrasts with the corresponding parts of the human figure outlined in preceding illustrations

proportion of parts may be facilitated.

For the construction of

such diagrams, particular measurements, of which a list is appended, were made on a number of individuals. And from the collected data, certain averages or mean values have been derived. Comparisons and contrasts need consideration in respect of the male and female (fig. 2); next in turn the immature stages call for consideration (fig. 3); and finally there are added schematic outlines of an anthropoid ape (fig. 4) depicted in the same way as the foregoing figures. The contrast between the newly born infant and the adult in respect of the proportionate weight of the

ANTHROPOMETRY

56

brain has been the subject of comment in an earlier paragraph. Here the contrast affects the proportionate length of the limbs. The difference in respect of the relative lengths of the upper and the lower limb is a matter of common knowledge and is in the present instance capable of expression in a numerical manner. Observations on a large anthropoid ape (gorilla) have been used in the preparation of the schematic figure with which to compare the adult human form.

But in this matter, again, contrasts are much

more impressive than similarities. These contrasts include (a) the relation of the length of the torso to the stature as a whole, (b) that of the span of the outstretched arms to the stature, (c) that

of the upper limb to the lower limb, and (d) that of the forearm to the upper arm. The differences are very strongly marked, and the other anthropoid apes would serve to illustrate them almost as well as the gorilla; in certain particulars they would provide an even more decided contrast. Thus the apes present a very considerable diversity and are themselves the subjects of a gradation in characters, the line of which in some details is directed towards and continuous with that of human types.

[APPLICATIONS

the thigh, 12; the leg, 6; and the foot (instep), 1. To realize the peculiar and distinctive nature of such a combination, the increments for the other half-years must be considered, and the whole

series as set out in the memoir may be given as follows :— Age.

.

.

Meas. thigh .

eg. a Foot (instep) . . Minm. circum. of leg .

Age. . Meas. thigh . eg.

.

;

Foot (instep) . . Minm. circum. of leg .

I3}-I4.

IJ-I4i

IJ$-I5.

I5-I5}.

9

4

8

12

2 3 6

9 o 2

o 3 6

153-16. 2

6-163. 3

69-17. 3

4.

IO

3

2 5

o 2

2 3

t 2

17-773, o I

o o

Proportional Growth.—The essential feature (viz., the alteration of the activity in thigh and leg respectively) is sufficiently

evident. But at one epoch, viz., that from 15 to 154 years, the two segments for once combine forces and though the leg contributes relatively little, still a certain combination does exist, and the result is the very marked augmentation of stature just noted. But the tabulation reveals more than this. The contribution of the arch of the foot is at this critical epoch at a very low level, though in other periods it is of appreciable amount. Thus in the

Growth.—Anthropometry is also the mainstay of many important investigations involving the study of the growing individual, particularly the details of the normal process, since these provide the “control”? necessarily employed and indispensable in researches upon the factors influencing development such as those mentioned above. Among the various paths of research there lower limb alone contributions are made by at least three distinct must be recognized that followed by artists such as Diirer, whose “elements” and usually in a sequence involving alternate phases of work on the proportions of the human figure includes reference activity and restfulness. Moreover, the alternatives are themselves to infants and adolescents. Records have been kept by certain par- alternate with those of the neighbouring segment of the limb. Another point is that while a given segment, for instance the ents of the dimensions (whether of stature or weight) of their own children, e.g., the data collected in the 17th and 18th cen- leg, is making a small or even negligible increase in length, such turies by M. Guéneau de Montbeillard, and the illustrious Comte inactivity does not affect the growth of this part in its entirety, de Buffon, who inaugurated the method which, after a long inter- Evidently the limb may be increasing in some other direction at val, received a wider recognition and application. Quetelet, com- this period. Reference to the tabulated data relating to the growth bining the measurements quoted by Buffon with those made by of the circumference of the leg will leave no doubt on this point, himself, points out the sudden acceleration of growth manifest for the active periods of growth in length alternate with compaat the 15th year in boys, and the corresponding acceleration in rable phases of activity in respect of the thickness of the limb. girls a year or two below that age. Without attempting to detect There is a suggestion of a similar relation in the records of length evidence of any other marked change during the period covered and circumference measured on the forearm. And the conclusion by the record, Quetelet repeats that the rate of progress is, in fact, thus formed regarding the limb as a whole applies not improbably subject to variation. He adds that physical development, like that to the bones which form its framework. A final result of the observation is the indication that at the age of the moral side of human nature, advances in a series of bounds. But despite his recognition of occasional acceleration, he seems of 154 years (in the type of youths measured) the thigh has nearto have preferred to lay stress on a more general phenomenon, viz., ly completed iis growth in length. Here the observation of Carus the apparently constant retardation of velocity from an early (1854), confirmed by Humphry in 1858, relating to the proporperiod onwards. It was reserved for Dr. Godin to make further tionate length of the lower limb as a whole at the 15th year, is discoveries of the rule of periodic variation. He observed during a recalled appropriately to mind. The changing rate of growth, and the alternate activity in adperiod of five years a large number of adolescents (from 13 to 18 years of age). He measured 100 of these youths at intervals of jacent parts of the body detected by Dr. Godin, constitute a six months during that period, and he claims that great importance periodicity requiring comment from another point of view. Thesum attaches to the facts (a) that the same subjects were kept under total of such phenomena has been compared to those presented by observation throughout the years in question, and (b) that the certain chemical reactions, and having regard to the admitted vameasurements were repeated frequently. Of the abundant harvest riation in the rate of progress of some reactions, and to the chemiof data gathered by Dr. Godin, the figures relating to the average cal analogies, if not the identity, of the metabolic processes at the increments of stature of his subjects at 14, 15, 16 and 17 years of base of animal growth, the comparison does not seem inappropriage respectively will serve to illustrate one of the most important ate. In one particular comparison there are brought together (x1) The rate of growth of the individual, and (2) The rate of change outcomes of the research. The data may thus be set out:— in a Chemical reaction of the kind in which that velocity attains its Average age : Average stature: Godin. s n Quetelet p » Carlier.

I4 46 48 5I

I5 57 46 62

16 46 44 5I

17 35 4I 12

maximum when just halfway towards its completion. To bring the progress of zoological development into line with this, the rate of change should be shown to be most active when’ the animal under consideration has just attained one half of the bulk it will The sudden augmentation of the increment at the rsth year is eventually assume. Dr. Robertson has published observations on the point on which stress is laid. Quetelet’s figures fail to exhibit such a comparison since 1911. In 1924 attention was redirected to this local increase, perhaps owing to the selection deliberately his work by Dr. Cruickshank and Mr. Miller in their report to the . .

. .

. .

, .

.

made by Quetelet of his subjects. However, in respect of rhythmic variation in the rate of growth, Dr. Godin's figures, supported by those of Carlier and others, represent the actual sequence of events more faithfully than do Quetelet’s, and the details are wonderfully illuminating. In the six months between 15 and 154 years, the lower limb contributes to the augmented growth in a characteristic and distinctive fashion. Thus out of a total increment of 56, the lower limb provides 19 in the following proportion:—

Medical Research Council (Special Report Series No. 86) on the

estimation of foetal age. The investigations are relevant to the last-mentioned subject, since if the periodicity of growth were fully known, estimates of foetal age based upon the data of weight

and body-length could be made more .closely approximate to the

real value by the employment of more suitable corrections than

are at present available. Consequently the subject has practical bearings in addition to its theoretical interest.

Dr. Robertson

APPLICATIONS]

ANTHROPOMETRY

found some evidence in support of the view identifying the phenomena of growth with those of the particular kind of chemical action referred to above; yet the agreement does not appear to amount to identity, for reference is made to several phases of activity in the progress of human development, alternations which do not necessarily appear in the chemical reaction. The whole of this side of the subject requires fuller investigation. Roberts’ Work.—Roberts drew attention to the stress laid by

Quetelet upon the distinction of the “average” man from the “mean,” z.€., the most frequent observation or event,of the series. But he dissented from Quetelet’s deliberate opinion that so small a number as 30 individuals suffice for the establishment of an anthropological type, for he disputed the premise of that conclusion, namely the belief that the human type is so uniform that a small sample will represent the whole mass of humanity. Roberts proclaimed the necessity for renewing enquiry into variations, and for studying their frequency, their several degrees, and their possible causes. He pointed out the fact overlooked by Quetelet and first observed by Bowditch (in 1877) that at the ages of 13 and 14 years, the young girls in Great Britain and in the United States exceed in both their height and weight the boys of the corresponding ages; and he remarked upon the contrast between urban and rural populations recorded by Quetelet for Belgium, inasmuch as the greater stature assigned by Quetelet to the town-dwellers is the exact opposite of the conditions obtaining in Great Britain. He insisted upon the importance of collecting large numbers of observations for the establishment on a wide basis of the relative height and weight of individuals for each year of age. He called attention to the remarkable range of variety in respect of such a dimension as height when a large number of observations are available for comparison. More recent researches distinguish two particular periods of growth-activity in respect of stature, namely from 5 to 7 years, and from 13 to 16 years respectively. With these two periods alternate others when circumferential growth is predominant. Hammond has published figures which indicate a comparable alternation in the parts of other animals. The comparison of the growth-curves of Japanese and New Britain children and adolescents with those of European children shows the earlier age at which the female (in the non-European races) first surpasses the male in stature, the corresponding recovery by the male being made at the 13th year by Japanese, while in New Britain that event is actually delayed to the commencement of the 17th year, i.e., beyond its arrival in Europeans.

Heredity and Head Form.—Another group of investigations relates to facts of heredity, including illustrations provided by the proportions of the head. The well-known contrast between heads of rounded form (brachy-cephalic) and long heads (dolichocephalic) is usually expressed numerically by the percentage proportion of the width in terms of the length. This “cephalic index” gives a convenient means of comparing heads of contrasted proportions, and in regard to its indications, its values in excess of 80 denote heads of definitely rounded form, while the long heads own values below 75. The rule or order of inheritance in respect of the parental characters has not been very extensively investigated as yet. It has been suggested that suitable posing of the infant in a cot may be a potent factor in determining the final proportions (round head if the child lies habitually on its back, and long head if it lies on the side). Without accepting this pronouncement, the possibility that such influences are by no means entirely negligible should be kept in mind. Direct evidence as to the comparison of parent with offspring in respect of head proportions distinguishes the researches of Puccioni, who shows that the contrast between the two parents is repeated, though with slightly diminished emphasis, in the children, the evidence of blending being very slight. Puccioni’s family yields numerical values of the index as follows: Parents: Children:

father

78-z

mother

86-7

elder 82-3 (ro years) younger 76-6 (74 years)

These figures are of interest from several points of view. For instance, both children are boys and the mother would seem to

57

have transmitted characteristic head proportions to one but not to the other. The latter does not merely differ from his mother herein, but has accentuated the distinguishing head form of his father. In this connection, notice should be taken of the youth (74 years) of this individual and of the consequent possibility that maturity may effect changes, among which further accentuation of longheadedness is very probable. Again, it appears that although in regard to the maternal index the offspring provide some evidence of regression, nevertheless even such evidence appears only when the mean value of the children’s indices is recorded without reference to the increased long-headedness of the younger child, which constitutes the most striking feature of the record. Nor does any support emerge for the “melting-pot” theory of F. Boas (1911),

in which environmental factors hold a prominent place, since in the present instance the environment was unchanged. As to the Mendelian aspect of the inheritance of the form of the head, discussed by Frets (1925), on the basis of an investigation of over 3,000 persons, it was found that the cephalic index (expressive of the form of the head) is hereditary, though modifying factors affect this general tendency. Frets lays stress on the difference between large and small heads in respect of this tendency. For instance, where heads are large, that of brachy-cephalic proportions is dominant over that of dolicho-cephalic proportions; but among small heads that of dolicho-cephalic proportions is the dominant. In submitting two alternative schemes to account for the actual sequences disclosed by the records collected by him, Frets remarks that the dominance of brachy-cephaly is stronger in the female parent, whereas that of dolicho-cephaly is stronger in the male.

Work in the British Isles—Very remarkable extensions of

Roberts’ work have been made by the committees appointed by the British Association for the Advancement of Science (187583), by the London School Board (1904), and by the London County Council (1909). These extensions comprise the collection of measurements representing the height and weight of school children. Roberts’ tables record measurements representative of the physique of individuals at each year of age from the sth to the 23rd in succession, and thereafter discontinuous data carry them HEIGHT

|NUMBER OF

TYPICAL OR

DWARFS FROM ROBERTS,

“MANUAL

OF

ANTHROPOMETRY”

FIG. 5.—COMPARATIVE HEIGHTS OF BOYS OF 11-12 YEARS OF AGE

This distribution of heights is based on the stature of 430 boys.

binding the ends of the horizontal

lines together resembles

The curve the binomial

curve, but the two halves are not quite symmetrical

on to the soth year. The collection of information relating to the years subsequent to the “school age” necessitates recourse from schools to universities, the public services and institutions, or to factories. First among the university sources, Cambridge commenced contributions in 1833, when the average stature of 80 students is recorded as 1,768mm., and the corresponding weight as about ro stone (after making necessary corrections). About half a century later, the collection of data was revived at the instance of Galton, and on the basis of about 2,000 observations, it appeared that the average stature was approximately 1,75omm. The collection of statistical data made at Cambridge during the middle period mentioned above, was undertaken by a committee

58

ANTHROPOMETRY

[SCHEDULES

of the Philosophical Society of that university at a time when an Interest increases progressively in the actual history of the recruit anthropometric laboratory was opened at South Kensington under during his engagement. The employment of particular measures the supervision of Galton himself. The information collected at or combinations of measures expressive of the general condition Cambridge included observations of a physiological kind such as of each individual is intimated by the most frequent references to those relating to eyesight and muscular and respiratory energy. “indices” of fitness, such as Pignet’s. And even though it be necesAmong the measurements were comprised those of the three prin- sary to admit the shortcomings of some of the coefficients pro. cipal dimensions of the head, and in 1888 the late Dr. Venn drew posed, the very fact that they owe their origin to an attempt to upon these in the preparation of a very striking comparison. Com- increase the significance of the recorded data should be taken into bining the measurements in question so as to furnish a single account and set against those weaknesses. But not all coefficients numeral expressive of the size of the head, he enquired into the are open to such adverse criticism, and alternative methods of size thus presented by various groups of students distinguished employing the data may yield valuable results. Thus the methods not only by differences of age but by their proficiency in examina- devised by Prof. Dreyer for assessing physical fitness seem to be tions. Over 1,000 individuals were available for the purposes of proving their value, and receive confirmation of their reliability the enquiry, and the striking feature of the comparison may be as the area of their employment extends. Gaol Population.—The inmates of prisons provide another stated as follows. The scholars, grouped with men distinguished in examination tests, revealed at the commencement of their resi- source of information regarding physical development, and from dence heads with dimensions distinctly greater than those of their this Quetelet drew some of the statistics used by him in 1835. At associates. The latter nevertheless acquired during residence a a later date, Bertillon advised and used anthropometric methods remarkable compensation for this initial handicap; for while the for the identification of habitual offenders and, indeed, of any perheads of all increased in size during the period in question, the son under arrest. Such methods together with the descriptive recsmaller heads grew so much more vigorously than those of the ords of the complexion, hair colour and eye colour are accessory to first group that the original margin of superiority was reduced by the practice of dactyloscopy or study of fingerprints. at least one half. : PRACTICE AND SCHEDULES Valuable work of a corresponding nature is being carried on by Dr. A. H. Mumford, Medical Officer of Manchester Grammar The instruments of anthropometry include measuring-rods of school. different sizes. Of these the smaller are commonly fitted with Work in Ametica.—In the University of Pennsylvania, the arms, and are called calipers. A flexible measure (for circumferdirector of the department of physical education sets an example ential measurements) and a weighing-machine complete the outof systematic thoroughness. In the preparation of records, the fit for the greater number of the records usually made. But speneeds of the individual are kept in mind, in view of the contin- cial instruments are required for certain measurements of the head, gency that he may seek or need advice regarding the state of his as also for the estimation of muscular power, and again for the health, or the selection of a particular form of athletic recreation. measurement of “lung-capacity.” Descriptions of the various But while the student may receive benefits, he also incurs liability instruments, with illustrations and directions as to their use, appear under that system; and the status accorded to it by the authorities in various manuals among which may be cited the Report of the is summed up in the director’s remark that “It is quite possible British Association Committee for 1908, or again, Martin’s for a student to have his degree withheld because he has not ful- Anthropometrie (1925) or Richtlinien fiir Korpermessungen by filled his requirements in physical education.” the same author (1924). Measurements of Recruits and Prisoners of War.—In the The list of measurements of admitted utility has increased concombatant services of States, recruiting necessarily involves the siderably since the schedule included the primary measures of statpractice of anthropometry, if only for the purpose of securing ure and weight. The latter still retain their value and, in fact, uniformity, or of determining graduation or rejection. Conscrip- constitute the sole basis of many schemes still in progress, but the

tion makes available a large amount of material in the form of

additions are numerous. The British Association Committee of 1875 dealt with four measurements properly so-called, viz., height, weight, girth of chest and span of arms; but to these data observations on the colour of hair and eyes, visual acuity, heating capacity and strength of arm were added. In 1888 Dr. Venn reported obserindividuals; and by reason of the prolongation of the war, the vations on Cambridge students, with data from a list comprising scrutiny affected an ever-increasing range of years. The Report to stature and weight, together ‘with three head-measurements, and the Ministry of National Service, vol. i. (1920) surveys the results others relating to visual acuity, breathing capacity and strength up to 1919. The “Grades”. into which the subjects were divided of arm. In 1902 a committee appointed by the British Association are well known, as is also the revelation of a large proportion of (in succession to that of 1875) to advise on anthropometric invesindividuals of poor physique in certain districts. The actual obser- tigation in the British Isles, opened enquiries which led in 1908 to vations include measurements of height, weight and chest-circum- the publication of a report approving of 80 specified measureference; and while the results show the need for remedial action, ments. This report includes sections on physiological and psychoit does not appear that the state of affairs indicates a recent or logical measurements as well as the methods of recording photorapid deterioration (Shrubsall, 1924). Considerations based on graphic data. A recent critic (1924) describes the report as crude, the anthropometry of Cambridge undergraduates played an im- and in certain respects it is evidently capable of improvement. portant part in determining the principles actually employed in During the period of its preparation, efforts were made to secure graduating the individuals according to their physique. some degree of international consistency in regard to these matA remarkable side-issue of the war was the anthropometric ex- ters, and two reports, published in succession, the first in 1906 and amination of prisoners. An example had been set already by the second in 1912, exhibit the extent to which agreement had then Japan, where Prof. Koganei published in 1903 the results of his progressed. These reports are not in entire agreement with the anthropometric study of Chinese soldiers, taken prisoner in the British Association’s report of 1908, though the amount of diverwar against that country. In Great Britain Prof. Parsons reported gence is not great. The international agreement itself might be on some of the captured Germans, while in Austria a large and again revised with advantage to all concerned. systematic investigation was made of Russian prisoners, who repThe last few years have seen the birth and growth of an entirely resented a considerable number of ethnic types. Since the cessa- novel extension of anthropometry, viz., to a matter previously tion of hostilities in 1918, the extensive anthropometry of which physiological in nature, termed comparative serology. As the name they were the occasion has likewise come to an end in some counsuggests, the object of comparative study is the blood-serum. tries. On the Continent conscription persists, and in Switzerland Moreover, the practical application involves the pitting of one the survey of recruits has proceeded without interruption. Judgserum against another, and the outcome of the encounter coning by recent reports, the survey is becoming less mechanical. fers distinct “grades” on the competitors. Tests carried on in large youths called up for service studied in various countries, vast extension of recruiting caused the anthropometric

year by year. Such material has been but the World War naturally led to a and conscription. In Great Britain it study of an enormous number of

ANTHROPOMORPHISM—ANTICATHODE numbers in various localities (mostly in Central Europe) point to variations in frequency of the possessors of different grades of blood-serum, and the confirmation of these results will be very welcome. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Quetelet, thropometry

Pearson,

The

(1878);

Chances

Anthropometrie

Galton,

Natural

of Death

(1870);

Inheritance

(1897),

Roberts,

An-

(1889);

Karl

Biometrika—passim

(to

date); Godin, Recherches sur la croissance des diverses parties du corps (1903); Greenwood, Health and Physique of School-Children (1907); Martin, Lehrbuch der Anthropologie (1914); M. Boule,

Les hommes fossiles (1923) ; Davenport, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication No. 329; No. 35 of the Dept. of Genetics; Bodybuild and its Inheritance (1923); H. H. Wilder, Pedigree of the Human Race (1925); Frets, The Cephalic Index and its Heredity (1925) ; Shrubsall, British Association for the Advancement of Science —Presidential Address to Section H. (1924) ; H. H. Wilder, Laboratory Manual of Anthropometry (1921); A. Hrdlička, Anthropometry (1920); Martin, Anthropometrie, from the Handbuch der Sozialen Hygiene und Gesundheitsfürsorge (1925); Sir G. Newman, Annual Report of the Chief Medical Oficer of the Board of Education (England and Wales) for 1926 (1927); G. Keynes, Blood Transfusion (1922); A. A. Mumford, Healthy Growth (1927). (W. L. H. D.)

ANTHROPOMORPHISM, the attribution of human form, or the character or qualities of humanity, to objects believed to be above humanity in the scale of being, and in particular to God or the gods. The word is also used in a wider sense to signify the attribution of human qualities to anything impersonal or nonrational or below humanity in the scale of being, as when reference is made to the “vision” of molluscs, or the “reasoning powers” of lower animals, or, generally, when the actions of animals are interpreted after the analogies of human nature. Anthropomorphism may be a form of poetic metaphor, as in many passages in the Hebrew Scriptures; thus, Pusey, commenting on the saying “Thou didst walk through the sea with Thine horses” (Habb. iii. 15), observes that “such anthropomorphisms have a truth which men’s favourite abstractions have not” (Minor Prophets, 433). We are here concerned with the development of anthropomorphism as a factor in the interpretation of religion, and with special reference to the doctrine of Deity. We may distinguish three stages: (i) Physical anthropomorphism: the belief that Deity has human form. This is found in all levels of religious development, from that of the Fuegians to that of the ancient Greeks.! (ii) Mental and moral anthropomorphism: here the belief in a Deity of limited bodily form, or any kind of material nature, is abandoned, and stress is laid on qualities of thought, feeling, and will, in monotheistic religion believed to be possessed by Deity without their human limitations: “the Wrath of God,” “the Wisdom of God,” “the Love of God.” (iii) Spiritual anthropomorphism: the belief that our experience of the highest developments of human nature and their ideal possibilities, adequately interpreted, provides an insight into the nature of Deity: “God is the Truth in all that is true, the Beauty in all that is beautiful, the Goodness in all that is good.”

It thus appears that to abandon every kind of anthropomorphism is to abandon theism for agnosticism. This was seen clearly and stated by Herbert Spencer: “It seems strange that men should suppose that the highest worship lies in assimilating the object of their worship to themselves, . . . It is true that from the time when the rudest savages imagined the causes of all things to be creatures of flesh and blood like themselves, down to our own time, the degree of assumed likeness has been diminishing. But though a bodily form and substance, similar to that of man, has long ceased among cultivated races to be a literally conceived attribute of the Ultimate Cause,—though the grosser human desires have also been rejected as unfit elements of the conception,—though there is some hesitation in ascribing even the higher human feelings, save in greatly idealized shapes,—yet it is still thought not only proper, but imperative, to ascribe the most abstract qualities of our nature. To think of the Creative Power as in all respects

anthropomorphous is now considered impious by men who yet In the Christian Church, simple minds have believed in the corporeal nature of God. Gibbon and other writers quote from John Cassian the tale of the poor monk who, being convinced of his error, exclaimed “You have taken away my God! I have none left now whom I can worship!”

59

hold themselves bound to think of the Creative power as in some respects anthropomorphous; and who do not see that the one proceeding is but an evanescent form of the other” (First Principles, pt. i.). Theistic philosophy has dealt with this argument by contending that when we regard our ideals of truth, beauty, goodness, as affording interpretative insight into the nature of the Creative Power, this is not an evanescent form of the anthropomorphism of savages, but an anthropomorphism which is capable of growing in depth and critical power with the growth of human nature. In religion, it is maintained, our intelligence is confronted by an Object which is immeasurably above it in its own line, and there-

fore not inconceivable and unthinkable but the realization of our highest ideal of spiritual excellence. Anthropomorphism may be studied as a factor in the history of religions; and again as leading to the fundamental problem of the philosophy of theism. The student can only be referred to works on these subjects; but the following will serve as introductions to the subject on its philosophical side: Mellone, The Price of Progress (1924), especially ch. vii., on “Symbolism”; PringlePattison, Man’s Place in the Cosmos (and ed. 1902), pp. 62, 206, 287 ff.; and The Idea of God (1920), ch. viii,; Streeter, Reality (1926), ch. iv., v.; Martineau, Essays and Addresses, vol. iv., “Science, Nescience, and Faith”; and on the negative side; Spencer, First Principles, later editions, pt. i.; Bertrand Russell, Philosophical Essays, ch. ii., “The Free Man’s Worship” (cf. same writer, “The Essence of Religion,” Hibbert Journal (1912-13), vol. xi., p. 46, and A. S. Pringle-Pattison, “The Free Man’s Wor-

ship,” ibid, (1913—14), vol. xii., p. 47.

(S. H. M.)

ANTI or CAMPA, a tribe of Arawakan stock, inhabiting the forests of the upper Ucayali basin, on the east of the Andes, south Peru. They gave their name to the eastern province of Antisuyu, and were ferocious cannibals. They are of fine physique and wear a robe with holes for the head and arms. Their long hair hangs down over the shoulders, and round their necks a toucan beak or a bunch of feathers is worn as an ornament.

ANTI-AIRCRAFT, the term applied to the several means

of, and personnel for, action against aircraft in war, commonly abbreviated to A.A. Thus A-A. Gun, rst A-A. Brigade, Royal Artillery. See ARTILLERY, Anti-aircraft Artillery.

ANTIBES, winter resort, southern France, department of the Alpes-Maritimes (formerly in that of Var, but transferred after Alpes-Maritimes was formed in 1860 out of the county of Nice).

Pop. (1926) 12,962. Antipolis, named from its position “facing the city” (of Nice), is said to have been founded about 340 B.C.

FROM “LA COTE D'AZUR,” BY COURTESY OF THE P. L. M. RY. t THE RAMPARTS OF ANCIENT ANTIBES WHERE FESTIVALS WERE HELD IN ROMAN DAYS. THE TOWN IS NOW A CENTRE FOR SPORT OF ALL KINDS AND CAP D’ANTIBES IS A WINTER RESORT

by colonists from Marseille and remained important in Roman times. It was the seat of a bishopric from the sth century to 1244, when the see was transferred to Grasse. It is on the east side of the Garoupe peninsula on the Gulf of Nice. The town was formerly fortified, but all the ramparts (save the Ft. Carré) have been demolished, and a new town has arisen on their site. There is a large lighthouse on the cape. Dried fruits, salt fish and oil are exported. There is an aeroplane service to Ajaccio.

ANTICATHODE,

the target inserted in an’ X-ray tube

on which the high-speed are directed.

electrons, or cathode

rays

(g.v.),

In tubes with a separate anode the anticathode is

60

ANTICHRIST

generally connected electrically, and outside the tube, to the anode (g.v.). In a Coolidge tube the anticathode acts also as the anode. On the impact of a sufficiently swift electron (q.v.), it gives forth an X-radiation characteristic of the material of which it is composed. (See RONnTGEN Rays: Applications; and Atomic NUMBER.)

ANTICHRIST.

The earliest mention of the name Anti-

christ, which was probably first coined in Christian eschatological literature is in the Epistles of St. John (I. ii., 18, 22, iv. 3; IT. 7), and it has since come into universal use. The conception, paraphrased in this word, of a mighty ruler who will appear at the end of time, and whose essence will be enmity to God (Dan. xi. 36; cf. II. Thess. ii. 4; 6 dvrixeiuevos), is older, and traceable to Jewish eschatology. Its origin is to be sought in the first place in the prophecy of Daniel, written at the beginning of the Maccabean period. The historical figure who served as a model for the “Antichrist” was Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, the persecutor of the Jews, and he has impressed indelible traits upon the conception. Since then ever-recurring characteristics of this figure (cf. especially Dan. xi. 40, etc.) are, that he would appear as a mighty ruler at the head of gigantic armies, that he would destroy three rulers (the three horns, Dan. vii. 8, 24), persecute the saints (vii., 25), rule for three and a half years (vii. 25, etc.) and subject the temple of God to a horrible devastation (@é6Avypua THS Epnuw@oews). When the end of the world foretold by Daniel did not take place, but the book of Daniel retained its validity as a sacred scripture which foretold future things, the personality of the tyrant who was God’s enemy disengaged itself from that of Antiochus IV., and became merely a figure of prophecy, which was applied now to one and now to another historical phenomenon.

Thus for the author of the Psalms of Solomon (c. 60 B.c.),

Pompey, who destroyed the independent rule of the Maccabees

and stormed Jerusalem, was the Adversary of God (cf. ii. 26,

etc.); so too, the tyrant whom the Ascension of Moses (c. A.D. 30) expects at the end of all things, possesses besides the traits of Antiochus IV., those of Herod the Great. A further influence on the development of the eschatological imagination of the Jews was exercised by such a figure as that of the emperor Caligula (A.D. 37-41) who is known to have given the order, never carried out, to erect his statue in the temple of Jerusalem. In the little Jewish Apocalypse, the existence of which is assumed by many scholars, which in Mark xiii. and Matt. xxiv. is combined with the words of Christ to form the great eschatological discourse, the prophecy of the “abomination of desolation” (Mk. xiii. 14ff) may have originated in this episode of Jewish history. Later Jewish and Christian writers of apocalypses saw in Nero the tyrant of the end of time. The author of the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch (or his source), cap. 36-40, speaks in quite general terms of the last ruler of the end of time. In 4 Ezra v. 6 also is found the allusion: regnabit quem non sperant. The roots of this eschatological fancy are to be sought perhaps still deeper in a purely mythological and speculative expectation of a battle at the end of days between God and the devil, which has no reference whatever to historical occurrences. This idea has its original source in the apocalypses of Iran, for these are based upon the conflict between Ahura-Mazda (Auramazda, Ormazd) and Angrd-Mainyush (Ahriman) and its consummation at the end of the world. This Iranian dualism is proved to have penetrated into the late Jewish eschatology from the beginning of the rst century before Christ, and did so probably still earlier. Thus the opposition between God and the devil already plays a part in the Jewish groundwork of the Testaments o f the Patriarchs, which was perhaps composed at the end of the period of the Maccabees. In this the name of the devil appears besides the usual form (caravas, 514B80d0s) especially as Belial (Beliar, probably, from Ps. xviii. 4, where the rivers of Belial are spoken of, originally a god of the underworld), a name which also plays

a part in the Antichrist tradition. In the Ascension of Moses, we already hear, at the beginning of the description of the latter time (x., i); “And then will God’s rule be made manifest over all his creatures, then will the devil have an end” (cf. Mt. xii. 28; Lk. xi. 20; Joh. xii. 31, xiv. 30, xvi. 11). This conception of

the strife of God with the devil was further interwoven, before its introduction into the Antichrist myth, with another idea of dif.

ferent origin, namely, the myth derived from the Babylonian religion, of the battle of the supreme God

(Marduk)

with the

dragon of chaos (Tiamat), originally a myth of the origin of things, which, later perhaps, was changed into an eschatological

one, again under Iranian influence. Thus it comes that the devil,

the opponent of God, appears in the end often also in the form of a terrible dragon-monster; this appears most clearly in Rey.

xii. Now it is possible that the whole conception of Antichrist

has its final roots in this already complicated myth, that the form of the mighty adversary of God is but the equivalent in human

form of the devil or of the dragon of chaos.

In any case, how-

ever, this myth has exercised a formative influence on the conception of Antichrist. For only thus can we explain how his figure acquires numerous superhuman and ghostly traits, which cannot be explained by any particular historical phenomenon on which it may have been based. Thus the figure of Antiochus IV, has already become superhuman, when in Dan. viii. ro, it is said

that the little horn “waxed great, even to the host of heaven;

and cast down some of the host and of the stars to the ground.” Similarly Pompey, in the second psalm of Solomon, is obviously represented as the dragon of chaos, and his figure exalted into myth. Without this assumption of a continual infusion of mythological conceptions, we cannot understand the figure of Antichrist. Finally, it must be mentioned that Antichrist receives, as least in the later sources, the name originally proper to the devil himself. From the Jews, Christianity took over the idea. It is present quite unaltered in certain passages, specifically traceable to Juda-

ism, e.g. (Rev. xi.). “The Beast that ascendeth out of the bot-

tomless pit” and surrounded by a mighty host of nations slays the “two witnesses” in Jerusalem, is the entirely superhuman

Jewish conception of Antichrist.

Even if the beast (ch. xiii.)

which rises from the sea at the summons of the devil, be inter. preted as the Roman empire, and, especially, as any particular Roman ruler, yet the original form of the malevolent tyrant of the latter time is completely preserved. A fundamental change of the whole idea from the specifically Christian point of view, then, is signified by the conclusion of ch. ii. of the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians. There can, of course, be no doubt as to the identity of the “man of sin, the son of perdition” here described with the dominating figure of

Jewish eschatology (cf. ii. 3, etc., 6 &vOpwaros ris dvoulas ie., Beliar [?] 6 dvruxeiwevos—the allusion that follows to Dan. äi. 36). But Antichrist here appears as a tempter who works by signs and wonders (ii. 9) and seeks to obtain divine honours; it is further signified that this “man of sin” will obtain credence, more especially among the Jews, because they have not accepted the truth. The conception, moreover, has become almost more superhuman than ever (cf. ii. 4, “showing himself that he is God”). The destruction of the Adversary is drawn from Isaiah

xi. 4, where it is said of the Messiah: “with the breath of His lips shall He slay the wicked.”

The idea that Antichrist was to

establish himself in the temple of Jerusalem (ii. 4) is very enig-

matical, and has not yet been explained. The “abomination of desolation” has naturally had its influence upon it; possibly also the experience of the time of Caligula (see above). Remarkable also is the allusion to a power which still retards the revelation of Antichrist (II. Thess. ii. 6, etc., 76 KATEXOY, 6 karéxwv), an allusion which, in the tradition of the Fathers of the Church, came to be universally, and probably correctly, referred to the Roman empire. In this then consists the significant turn given by St. Paul in the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians to the whole conception, namely, in the substitution for the tyrant of the lat-

ter time who should persecute the Jewish people of a pseudoMessianic figure, who, establishing himself in the temple of God, should find credence and a following precisely among the Jews.

And while the originally Jewish idea led straight to the conception, set forth in Revelation, of the Roman empire or its ruler as Antichrist, here on the contrary, it is probably the Roman empire that is the power which still retards the reign of Antichrist.

ANTICHRIST With this, the expectation of such an event at last separates itself from any connection with historical fact, and becomes purely ideal. In this process of transformation of the idea, which has become of importance for the history of the world, is revealed probably the genius of Paul, or at any rate, that of the young Christianity which was breaking its ties with Judaism and estab-

lishing This for the at once

itself in the world of the Roman empire. version of the figure of Antichrist, who may now really first time be described by this name, appears to have been widely accepted in Christendom. The idea that the Jews

would believe in Antichrist, as punishment for not having believed in the true Christ, seems to be expressed by the author of the fourth gospel (v. 43). The conception of Antichrist as a perverter

of men, leads naturally to his connection with false doctrine (I. John ii. 18, 22; iv. 3; II. John 7). The Teaching of the Apostles (xvi. 4) describes his form in the same way as II. Thessalonians (kal tore hawhcerar 6 KoopoTNavys ws vids beod kal moet onueta Kal répara). In the late Christian Sibylline fragment (ili. 63, etc.) also, “Beliar” appears above all as a worker of wonders, this figure having possibly been influenced by that of Simon Magus. Finally the author of the Apocalypse of St. John also has made use of the new conception of Antichrist as a, wonder-worker and seducer, and has set his figure beside that of the “first” Beast which was for him the actual embodiment of Antichrist (xiii. 11, etc.). Since this second Beast could not appear along with the frst as a power demanding worship and directly playing the part of Antichrist, he made out of him the false prophet (xvi. 13, xix. 20, xx. 10) who seduces the inhabitants of the earth to worship the first Beast, and probably interpreted this figure as applying to the Roman provincial priesthood. (See APOCALYPSE.) In proportion as the figure of Nero again ceased to dominate the imagination of the faithful, the wholly unhistorical, unpolitical and anti-Jewish conception of Antichrist, which based itself more especially on II. Thess. ii., gained the upper hand, having usually become associated with the description of the universal conflagration of the world which had also originated in the Iranian eschatology. On the strength of exegetical combinations, and with the assistance of various traditions, it was developed even in its details, which it thenceforth maintained practically unchanged. In this form it is in great part present in the eschatological portions of the Adv. Haereses of Irenaeus, and in the de Antichristo and commentary on Daniel of Hippolytus. In times of political excitement, during the following centuries, men appealed again and again to the prophecy of Antichrist. Then the foreground scenery of the prophecies was shifted; special prophecies, having reference to contemporary events, are pushed to the front, but in the background remains standing, with scarcely a change, the prophecy of Antichrist that is bound up with no particular time. Thus at the beginning of the Testamentum Domini, edited by Rahmani, there is an apocalypse, possibly of the time of Decius, though it has been worked over (Harnack, ibid. ii., 514 etc.). In the 3rd century, the period of Aurelianus and Gallienus with its wild warfare of Romans and Persians, and of Roman pretenders one with another, seems especially to have aroused the spirit of prophecy. To this period belongs the Jewish apocalypse of Elijah (ed. Buttenwieser) of which the Antichrist is possibly Odaenathus of Palmyra, while Sżbyll. xiii., a Christian writing of this period, glorifies this very prince. It is possible that at this time also the Sibylline fragment (iii. 63 etc.) and the Christian recension of the two first Sibylline books were written. To this time possibly belongs also a recension of the Coptic apocalypse of Elijah, edited by Steindorff (Texte und Untersuchungen N.F. ii. 3). To the 4th century belongs, according to Kamper (Die deutsche Kaiseridee, 1896, p. 18) and Sackur (Texte und For-

schungen, 1898, p. 114 etc.), the first nucleus of the “Tiburtine” Sibyl, very celebrated in the middle ages, with its prophecy of the return of Constans, and its dream, which later on exercised so much influence, that after ruling over the whole world he would go to Jerusalem and lay down his crown upon Golgotha. To the 4th century also perhaps belongs a series of apocalyptic pieces and homilies which have been handed down under the name of

6I

Ephraem. At the beginning of the Mohammedan period, then, we meet with the most influential and the most curious of these prophetic books, the Pseudo-Methodius, which prophesied of the emperor who would awake from his sleep and conquer Islam. From the Pseudo-Methodius are derived innumerable Byzantine prophecies (cf. especially Vassiliev Anecdota Graeco-Byzantina) which follow the fortunes of the Byzantine emperors and their governments. A prophecy in verse, adorned with pictures, which is ascribed to Leo VI. the Philosopher (Migne, Patr. Graeca, cvii. p. 1,121, etc.) tells of the downfall of the house of the Comneni, and

sings of the emperor of the future who would one day awake from death and go forth from the cave in which he had lain. Thus the prophecy of the sleeping emperor of the future is very closely connected with the Antichrist tradition. There is extant a Daniel prophecy which, in the time of the Latin empire, foretells the restoration of the Greek rule. In the East, too, Antichrist prophecies were extraordinarily flourishing during the period of the rise of Islam and of the Crusaders. To these belong the apocalypses in Arabic, Ethiopian and perhaps also in Syrian, preserved in the so-called Liber Clementis discipuli S. Petiri (Petri apostoli apocalypsis per Clementem), the late Syrian apocalypse of Ezra (Bousset, Antichrist, 45, etc.) the Coptic (14th) vision of Daniel (in the appendix to Woide’s edition of the Codex Alexandrinus ; Oxford 1799) the Ethiopian Wisdom of the Sibyl, which is closely related to the Tiburtine Sibyl (see Basset, Apocryphes éthiopiennes, X.); in the last mentioned of these sources long series of Islamic rulers are foretold before the final time of Antichrist. Jewish apocalypse also awakes to fresh developments in the Mohammedan period, and shows a close relationship with the Christian Antichrist literature. One of the most interesting apocalypses is the Jewish History of Daniel, handed down in Persian. . This whole type of prophecy reached the West above all through the Pseudo-Methodius, which was soon translated into Latin. Especially influential, too, in this respect, was the letter which

the monk Adso in 954 wrote to Queen Gerberga, De ortu et tempore Antichristi. The old Tiburtine Sibylla went through edition after edition, in each case being altered so as to apply to the government of the monarch who happened to be ruling at the time. Then in the West the period arrived in which eschatology and above all the expectation of the coming of Antichrist, exercised a great influence on the world’s history. This period, as is well known, was inaugurated, at the end of the r2th century by the apocalyptic writings of the abbot Joachim of Floris. Soon the word Antichrist re-echoed from all sides in the embittered controversies of the West. The pope bestowed this title upon the emperor, the emperor upon the pope, the Guelphs on the Ghibellines and the Ghibellines on the Guelphs. In the contests between the rival powers and courts of the period, the prophecy of Antichrist played a political part. It gave motives to art, to lyrical, epic and dramatic poetry. Among the visionary Franciscans, enthusiastic adherents of Joachim’s prophecies, arose above all the conviction that the pope was Antichrist, or at least his precursor. From the Franciscans, influenced by Abbot Joachim, the lines of connection are clearly traceable with Milič of Kremsier (Libellus de Antichristo) and Matthias of Janow. For Wycliffe and his adherent John Purvey (probably the author of the Commentarius in Apocalypsin ante centum annos editus, edited in 1528 by Luther), as on the other hand for Hus, the conviction that the: papacy is essentially Antichrist is absolute. Finally, if Luther advanced in his contest with the papacy with greater and greater energy, he did so because he was borne on by the conviction that the pope in Rome was Antichrist. And if in the Augustana the expression of this conviction was suppressed for political reasons, in the Articles of Schmalkalden, drawn up by him, Luther propounded it in the most uncompromising fashion. This sentence was for him an articulus stantis et cadentis ecclesiae. To write the history of the idea of Antichrist in the latter middle ages,

would be almost to write that of the middle ages.

(W. B.)

See Bousset, Antichrist, etc., 1895 (Eng. trans. A. H. Keane 1896) ; Bousset, Die Religion des Judentums, etc. (3 Auf. herausg. H. Gressmann 1926), p. 254 ff; H. Preuss, Die Vorstellungen vom Antichrist im spat. Mittelalter, etc. (1906) ; Hastings Encyc, Rel. Eth. s.v.; Encyc. Biblica s.v. Commentaries to 1 & 2 John, 2 Thess., etc,

ANTICLIMAX—ANTIDOTES

62 ANTICLIMAX

(i.¢., the opposite to “climax”), in rhetoric,

an abrupt declension (either deliberate or unintended) on the part of a speaker or writer from the dignity of idea which he appeared to be aiming at; as in the following well-known distich:— The great Dalhousie, he, the god of war, Lieutenant-colonel to the earl of Mar.

An anticlimax can be intentionally employed only for a jocular or satiric purpose. It frequently partakes of the nature of antithesis, as:— Die and endow a college or a cat.

It is often difficult to “bathos”; but the former whole speech may never climax of greater or less

distinguish between “anticlimax” and is more decidedly a relative term. A rise above the level of bathos; but a elevation is the necessary antecedent

of an anticlimax.

ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, a body formed at Man-

chester in 1838 to oppose the Corn Laws. It was led by Cobden, Bright and Villiers, formed branches throughout the country, and became a very powerful political force. It was dissolved upon the attainment of its object in the repeals of 1846-49. (See Corn Laws.) :

ANTICOSTI, island province of Quebec, Canada, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 49° to 50° N., 61° 40’ to 64° 30° W., length 135m., breadth 30m. Pop. 250, chiefly lighthouse-keepers. The coast is dangerous, and the harbours, Ellis bay and Fox bay, are poor. Its main wealth consists of timber. Anticosti was sighted by Jacques Cartier in 1534, and named Assomption. In 1763 it was ceded by France to Britain, and in 1774 became part of Canada. Wild animals, especially bears, are numerous, but fish and game had been almost exterminated when, in 1896, Anticosti and the shore fisheries were leased to M. Menier, the French chocolate manufacturer, who converted the island into a game preserve. In 1926 the Anticosti Corporation of pulp and paper manufacturers bought the island from Senator Menier, who has retained his residence and sporting rights. See Logan, Geological Survey of Canada, Report of Progress from

its Commencement to 1863 (Montreal, 1863-65); E. Billings, Geological Survey of Canada: Catalogue of the Silurian Fossils of Anticosta (Montreal, 1866) ; J. Schmitt, Anticosti (Paris, 1904).

ANTICYCLONE,

half a pint of water} or lime-water, plaster, magnesia or chalk.

For alkali poisons, antidotes are vinegar, dilute acetic acid or lemon juice.

For an unidentified poison, the general rule is to

give eggs, salad oil (except in phosphorus poisoning), flour and water or lime-water (except for alkaline poisons), preceded by large draughts of water or milk, and to induce vomiting by placing the finger in the throat or by an emetic. Kitchen soap and water may be used several times repeated. The antidote is only one part of the treatment which may include first an emetic and js often followed by stimulants such as strong black coffee. ANTIDOTES

FOR SPECIAL

POISONINGS

Lead: Epsom salts in large doses, 2 tablespoonfuls to a glass of water, bland liquors, castor-oil, milk or eggs. Phosphorus: magnesia in water, potassium permanganate 1 to 1,000 solution in water, copper sulphate (bluestone in water), repeated V. gr. doses to cause vomiting, turpentine, a half tea.

spoonful in a glass of milk or water. Do not give oils or fats, Prussic acid: peroxide of hydrogen internally, lime-water, kitchen soap or soda.

Plant Potsoning: Plant poisons in general do not require an

antidote, being treated by induced vomiting, stimulants and brisk purge, like castor-oil. Hydrochloric (muriatie), nitric (agua fortis), oxalic, acetic,

sulphuric (vitriol) acids: weak alkaline drinks at once, ammonia

(8 teaspoonfuls in half a pint of water), baking soda, magnesia, chalk, lime, whitewash from walls, plaster, given in water, soap

and water or tooth-powder. (No emetic.) Carbolic acid (creosote, guaiacol, creosol): soluble sulphates, such as magnesium sulphate, sodium sulphate (Epsom and Glauber’s salts), dilute alcohol, raw eggs, flour and water, milk, castor-

or sweet oil. (No emetic.)

Alkahs; dilute acids, vinegar one glass to quart of water, dilute acetic acid, 2-3 per cent, lemon juice, soothing fluid, oils, melted

fat, milk, cream. (No emetic.) Silver preparations (silver nitrate, lunar caustic): large drinks

of salt water, soap, draughts of milk, baking soda.

Mercury (corrosive sublimate or bichloride of mercury, blue ointment, oxide of mercury, black wash, yellow wash, cinnabar vermilion): raw eggs or milk repeated after meals, soap, castor-

a name first proposed by F. Galton for oil, four and water. Emesis absolutely necessary after antidote has

an atmospheric system opposite to a cyclone (g.v.). In an anticyclone the barometric pressure is high, seldom less than 1,015 m.bars, or 30 inches, and there is a steady decrease from the centre; in a well-marked anticyclone the isobars are usually circular or oval curves. Certain parts of the earth, notably large parts of the latitude belts about 30° N. and 30° S., also continental areas in winter in mid latitudes, are characterized by high pressures and are termed anticyclonic regions. At the surface the air tends to flow outwards in all directions from the central area

been down for 5-10 minutes.

Mercury becomes free in intestines,

Arsenic (Fowlers solution, Paris green, Scheele’s green, Schweinfurt green, arsenical dyes in papers and candies) : precipitate form from magnesium (three tablespoons in a glass of water), iron sulphate (two fluid ounces in a glass of water), then mix, or ferric chloride precipitated by sodium bicarbonate; the rust scraped from iron stirred up in water and given, magnesia, follow with castor-oil. Copper (blue vitriol or bluestone, verdigris): milk, eggs, soap, and is deflected on account of the earth’s rotation (see FERREL’S flour and water. Law) so as to give a spiral movement, in the direction of the Antimony (Tartar emetic, wine of antimony): same as for hands of a watch-face, upwards in the northern hemisphere and mercury. Strong coffee or tea, teaspoonful of tannic acid in half in the opposite direction in the southern hemisphere. Anticyclones glass of water followed by eggs or milk. are usually regions of calms or light winds with little or no rainIodine: starch and water. fall; these conditions are best seen in the desert regions of the Formaldehyde: bland drinks, milk and oils. globe; in temperate zones there is more variety of weather, ¢.g., in Opium: no antidote (emetics and stimulants used), Artificial ‘Britain they are usually accompanied by dull, cheerless, foggy respiration if breathing stops. Keep victim moving; repeated weather in winter and by bright, hot weather in summer. doses of caffeine,

ANTICYRA, the ancient name of three cities of Greece. (1)

(Mod. Aspraspitia), in Phocis, on the bay of Anticyra, in the Corinthian gulf; some remains are still visible. It was a town of considerable importance, famous for its black hellebore, a herb regarded as a cure for insanity. (2) In Thessaly, on the right bank of the river Spercheios, near its mouth. (3) In Locris, on the north side of the entrance to the Corinthian gulf, near Naupactus.

ANTIDOTES, remedies for counteracting poisons, The fol-

lowing antidotes for special poisons are sometimes given in case of emergency usually following and followed by an emetic, and

whenever possible under the supervision of a physician. In general, antidotes for acid poisons are: ammonia (a teaspoonful to

Chloral (chloralamide, chloralose, chloral camphor): no antidotes (treatment similar to opium treatment). Veronal, trional, sulphonal, ammonal: no antidote (stimulants). Ptomaine (poison from decayed meats, fish, vegetables, contaminated canned foods): (after emetic) castor-oil, Epsom salts or other rapidly acting cathartic, enema of warm soap-suds with a teaspoon of turpentine to the pint or two teaspoons of glycerine. Aconite: no antidote (induced vomiting and stimulant).

Belladonna: no antidote (induced vomiting and stimulant). Strychnia (nux vomica): no antidote (emetic and quiet). In

extreme poisoning inject solution magnesium sulphate into spinal canal, Person in semi-sitting position during and after injection. (W. R. R.)

ANTIENT

CONCERTS—ANTIETAM

n“ eN MN »

Confederates

BATTLE

advance & retreat

ANTIETAM I7 Sept. 1862 DISPOSITION

OF

THE

B Antietam Ir ks Yee Los RIVAL

oO

Federals

OF THE

ARMIES

AND

POINTS

OF

ASSAULT

FOR

THE

BATTLE

OF

mE ANTIETAM,

Scale

FOUGHT

of

ON

bei

“~X?

Miles

SEPT.

F

4

16-17,

1862

This battle was one of the most severe in the American Civil War, the Federals losing 12,000 killed and wounded, the Confederates slightly less. The Federal fortes were greatly superior, but McClellan’s refusal to throw in his reserves destroyed his chances of victory. Lee, on the other

hand, bringing every man and gun Into action, was able to withstand the piecemeal attacks launched against him at five different points at five

different hours.

On the morning following the battle Lee prepared to renew

the struggle but McClellan

unmolested

allowed

him to recross

the Potomac

ANTIENT CONCERTS, the name of a famous series of whilst Burnside with the IX. Corps was “at least to create a di-

London concerts, started in 1776 and continued without a break till 1848. The founders of the concerts were a body of aristocratic amateurs, who were supported by all the best musicians and cultivated music-lovers of the period. The programmes were devoted to the finest music, orchestral and vocal, of the day, or more strictly speaking of the past, for it was one of the rules that no music less than 20 years old was admissible. From

the keen interest taken in them by George III. the concerts acquired tradition Consort was the

the secondary title of “the king’s concerts” and this of court patronage was maintained when the Prince “directed” one of them in 1847 at which Mendelssohn soloist.

ANTIETAM, THE BATTLE OF THE.

The Antietam

flowing south into the Potomac above Harper’s Ferry gives its name to the battle fought (Sept. 17, 1862) between the Federals under McClellan and the Confederates under R. E. Lee. After his incursion into Maryland Lee with three divisions had retreated from South Mountain behind the Antietam (Sept. 15), where ‘he awaited the arrival of six divisions under Jackson from Harper’s Ferry, which had capitulated at 8 a.m. that day. Jackson rejoined with three next morning. That afternoon McClellan, who following slowly in pursuit had only reached the Antietam late on the rsth, sent the I. Corps (Hooker) across by the bridge highest up the stream. About dusk Hooker came into collision with Hood’s two brigades on the Confederate left. The XII. Corps (Mansfield) crossed at 11:30 P.M., and encamped a mile in Hooker’s rear. McClellan’s plan was to make his main attack upon the Confederate left with the I., XII. and II. (Sumner) Corps, supported if necessary by the VI. Corps (Franklin),

version with the hope of something more by assailing the enemy's right.” When one or both of these movements were “fully successful,” he intended to launch his reserve—V. Corps (Porter)— against Lee’s centre.

Lee’s position was fairly strong, extending over three miles from “the Burnside bridge” over the Antietam to a bend in the Potomac. In the West Woods outcropping ledges of limestone provided excellent cover. But the line of retreat to the Boteler Ford below Shepherdstown, where alone the Potomac could be crossed, ran parallel to the right flank, itself somewhat “in the air.” On the extreme left Stuarts cavalry occupied a ridge overlooking the Potomac; Jackson with two divisions held the turnpike and the woods on either side, with Hood’s brigades in reserve; D. H. Hills division continued the line southwards, and Longstreets seven brigades stretched from Sharpsburg to “the Burnside bridge.” Two cavalry regiments guarded the bridge below. Jackson’s third division (Walker) was at first held in reserve behind the right flank. Hooker’s attack began at 5:30 A.M. on the rth and was over two hours later. His corps was already retiring, when Mansfield’s Corps advanced. Its attack ended about 9 a.m. One division had established itself in the West Woods; Walker’s division had reinforced Jackson. A little later Sumner with Sedgwick’s division charged through the West Woods, but was taken in flank by

McLaws’s division, which with Anderson's had only that morning arrived from Harper’s Ferry, and by Walker’s, and was driven back with a loss of over 2,000 men. By 10:30 A.M. the fighting on Jackson’s front was over and the Confederates had regained possession of the West Woods.

64

ANTIFEBRIN—ANTI-FRICTION

Further south French and Richardson of Sumner’s Corps attacked D. H. Hill, who was reinforced by Anderson. Here the fighting lasted from 10 a.m. to r P.M. Richardson on the left drove back Anderson and gained a position from which he enfiladed “the Bloody Lane,” a sunken road which Hil] was holding against French. HilJ’s division broke, and if McClellan had allowed Franklin to advance across the turnpike, Lee’s line might have been cut in two. Burnside only received the order to advance some hours after Hooker’s battle began. After a prolonged struggle the IX. Corps carried the bridge about I P.M., Two hours later it advanced against Sharpsburg, which was defended by one division only. It was rolling up the Confederate line and had reached the outskirts of Sharpsburg, when about 4 P.M. A. P. Hills division, after a forced march from Harper’s Ferry, came up from the Potomac and striking its left flank drove it back to the bridge. With the defeat of the IX. Corps the battle of the Antietam ended. McClellan had fully 70,000 men on the field, but he kept one-third of his army out of the battle. The V. Corps remained in reserve all day; only one of Franklin’s brigades was seriously engaged. Federal casualties numbered over 12,000. Lee lost between a fifth and a quarter of his army, less than 40,000 strong. Despite his losses Lee offered battle next day, but McClellan, though reinforced by two more divisions, allowed Lee to recross the Potomac that night without interruption. The historian Ropes has written, “Of General Lee’s management of the battle there is nothing but praise to be said.” He might have added, it has been suggested “of McClellan’s management there is nothing but censure.” The Northern commander made no adequate reconnaissance to find out the Confederate position or where the creek could be forded. The attack, instead of being simultaneous along the whole front, was made piecemeal;

there were, in fact, five separate attacks at different hours. This is the more remarkable as one of the maps preserved in the official records shows that McClellan was in signal communication with his corps commanders’ headquarters. Had the Federal

METALS

people of the several States.

The “party” (though it was never

regularly organized as such) was composed of “statesrights,” par. ticularist, individualist and radical democratic elements; that is, of those persons who thought that a stronger government threat.

ened the sovereignty and prestige of the States, or the special interests, individual or commercial, of localities, or the liberties of individuals, or who fancied they saw in the government pro-

posed a new centralized, disguised “monarchic” power that would

only replace the cast-off despotism of Great Britain. In every State the opposition to the Constitution was strong, and in two—

North Carolina and Rhode Island—it prevented ratification until the definite establishment of the new government practically

forced their adhesion. The individualist was the strongest element of opposition; the necessity, or at least the desirability, of a bill of rights was almost universally felt. Instead of accepting the Constitution upon the condition of amendments—in which way they might very likely have secured large concessions—the Anti-Federalists stood for unconditional rejection, and public opinion, which went against them, proved that for all its shortcomings the Constitution was regarded as preferable to the articles of confederation. After the inauguration of the new govemment, the composition of the Anti-Federalist Party changed. The Federalist (g.v.) Party gradually showed “broad-construction,” nationalist tendencies; the Anti-Federalist Party became a “strictconstruction” party and advocated popular rights against the alleged aristocratic, centralizing tendencies of its opponent, and gradually was transformed into the Democratic-Republican party, mustered and led by Thomas Jefferson, who, however, had ap-

proved the ratification of the Constitution and was not, therefore, an Anti-Federalist in the original sense of that term.

See O. G. Libby, Geographical Distribution of the Vote... on the Federal Constitution, 1787-1788 (University of Wisconsin Bulletin, 1894); S. B. Harding, Contest over the Ratification of the Federal Constitution in... Massachusetts (Harvard University Studies, 1896); and authorities on political and constitutional history in the article UNITED STATES.

ANTI-FREEZE, a substance which is dissolved in the water

used in cooling systems of automobiles or similar machines to lower its freezing point. For use in automobile radiators, the anti-freeze material should not contain anything which is an electrolyte, since this would corrode the metal. The material used should be of low molecular weight so that a given weight will have a greater effect on the freezing point. It should not be volatile nor should it increase the viscosity of the liquid too

much, A great many organic compounds have been used as anti-freeze

substances. Glucose, honey, molasses and sugar have found some use. Glycerine and alcohol have found the most general application until recently. Ethylene glycol has become available in commercial quantities and is being widely adopted.

ANTI-FRICTION

METALS.

Ina theoretically perfect

bearing the load should be carried on a film of oil between the axle and bearing, and the nature of the bearing metal should therefore be immaterial. In actual practice, however, such perfection is PL LR Sens PETI LET TEA not attained and it becomes necessary to select a metal which will MM A ; minimize as far as possible the inevitable mechanical errors of BY COURTESY OF THE REVIEW OF REVIEWS, (NEW YORK) adjustment and alignment. The properties which a good bearing THE BRIDGE AT THE ANTIETAM CREEK, MEMORABLE IN THE HISTORY OF THE CIVIL WAR, FROM A PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN SOON AFTER THE BATTLE metal should possess are, first, a low coefficient of friction and, In the confilet of Sept. 16-17, 1862, Gen. MoClellan’s artillery controlled secondly, sufficient plasticity to allow the axle to bed down comthe bridge and so enabled the disordered Union lines to recover In time to bined with sufficient compressive strength to carry the total load. check the assaults of the Confederates In early days lead was commonly used as a bearing metal, but it reserves been led across Antietam creek by the bridge and fords was too soft, and it was soon discovered that the alloys of lead and near its mouth, Lee’s sole line of retreat via Boteler ford might tin with additions of other metals were far superior. have been cut and his Army intercepted. (W. B. Wo.) One of the earliest of these was introduced by Isaac Babbitt and See F. W. Palfrey, The Antietam and Fredericksburg (1882) : contained approximately 83% of tin, 11% of antimony and 6% E. P. Alexander, Tke American Civil War (1908) ; G. F. R. Henderson, stonewall Jackson vol. ii. (1902); J. C. Ropes, Story of the Civil of copper. So successful was this alloy that it soon became the standard for all bearing metals and was named, after its inventor, War, vol. ii. (1894-1913). “Babbitt metal.” Numerous imitations were then. introduced unANTIFEBRIN, a name commonly employed for acetanilide der the same name so that it became necessary to distinguish (q.v.), an organic compound present in various headache powders. genuine Babbitt metal from other compositions and at the present _ANTI-FEDERALISTS, the name given in the political time the expression is so loosely used that in the United States history of the United States to those who, after the formation of it comprises practically all the white bearing metals of any comthe Federal Constitution of 1787, opposed its ratification by the position. In fact the expression “Babbitt metal” is synonymous

ANTIGO—ANTIGONUS with the British expression “anti-friction metal,” and the American Standard Specifications are drawn up for “White Bearing Metal Alloys, known commercially as Babbitt Metal.” Although anti-friction metals had been successfully employed for many years, it was not until Charpy published the results of his classical research in 1898 that the real nature of the alloys was properly understood. Charpy demonstrated that they possessed one essential feature, namely, a conglomerate structure consisting of particles of hard material embedded in a soft matrix. Such structures can be obtained by the addition of other metals which combine to produce hard compounds with the softer metal to which they are added. Five Groups of Bearing Metals.—The bearing metals commonly in use may be divided into five groups, viz. :-— (1.) Tin base alloys consisting essentially of tin and containing compounds of tin and antimony and tin and copper.

(2.) Lead base alloys consisting of lead and containing a compound of tin and antimony. (3.) Copper base alloys or bronzes containing compounds of copper and tin, and sometimes of copper and phosphorus. (4.) Copper base alloys similar to the foregoing but containing considerable quantities of lead. (5.) Zinc base and miscellaneous alloys. In the alloys of Group (1), of which a typical composition may be taken as 87% tin, 74% antimony and 3% copper, the antimony combines with a part of the tin to form hard, well defined cubes corresponding to the formula Sn Sb, while the copper combines with a further portion of the tin to form the compound Sn Cu; which separates in characteristic needle-shaped crystals. The alloys of Group (2) are, of course, cheaper than those of Group (x) and, although they have not the same compressive strength, they are quite suitable for many purposes, especially where loads are not great and speeds high. In these alloys the hard constituent is the compound Sn Sb, which is embedded in lead. For the best results the antimony should be between 10

and 18% and the tin not less than 10%, except for very light service. The alloys of Group (3), although possessing the same characteristic structure as those already described, differ in some respects. In this case the hard compound is formed between copper and tin and corresponds to the formula Sn Cus, while in the case of phosphor bronze there is an additional hard compound, phosphide of copper, CusP, which separates with the Sn Cuz. But these compounds are embedded, not in copper, but in a solid solution of tin in copper which is harder than copper and very much harder and stronger than the soft metals, tin and lead, of the two previous groups. Owing to the great strength of these alloys they are adapted for all purposes where very heavy loads at comparatively slow speeds have to be dealt with. The percentage of tin should not be less than 9 and for ordinary purposes not more than 15, while, if phosphorus is added, this should be from 4 to 1 per cent.

The alloys of Group (4) are similar to those of Group (3), except that they contain an amount of lead up to 30 per cent. This lead does not alloy with the copper but remains free in the form of globules scattered throughout the metal. This free lead does not greatly reduce the compressive strength of the alloy, but appears to act as a lubricant and improves the antifrictional properties, In Group (5) may be included all the miscellaneous alloys which have been employed for special purposes. Perhaps the most important of these are the zinc base alloys which are used for hard work and occasionally under water. It is impossible to deal with all the alloys which have been suggested as bearing metals, but mention must be made of a recent development in the use of lead alloys containing barium either alone or with calcium. These alloys were introduced during the World War, when economy in the use of tin was essential, and they are said to possess properties very similar to those of the tin base alloys although sufficient experience has hardly been gained yet to enable a decided view to be expressed. They contain from 2 to

GONATAS

65

4%% of barium and the remainder lead, or if calcium is added, 1% of calcium replaces 2% of barium. (See BALL BEARINGS.)

(E. F. L.)

ANTIGO, a city of Wisconsin, U.S.A., about r60 m. N.W. of Milwaukee, the county seat of Langlade county. It is served by the Chicago and North Western railway. The population was 8,610 in 1930. Antigo is a supply-base for the summer resorts of north-eastern Wisconsin, and a shipping-point for large quantities of goldenseal and ginseng, seed grains, potatoes and dairy products. It has a large cheese factory, machine shops and wood-working plants. There are 103 lakes in the county, and over 700 m. of trout streams. Antigo was settled in 1880, and was chartered as a city in 1885. Its name is said to be part of an Indian word, neequee-antigosebt, meaning “evergreen.”

ANTIGONE: see OEprpus.

ANTIGONUS

CYCLOPS

or

MONOPHTHALMOS

(382-301 B.c.) so called from his having lost an eye—Macedonian king, son of Philip, was one of the generals of Alexander the Great. He was made governor of Greater Phrygia in 333, and in the division of the provinces after Alexander’s death (323) Pamphylia and Lycia were added to his command. He incurred the enmity of Perdiccas, the regent, by refusing to assist Eumenes (g.v.) to obtain possession of the provinces allotted to him. In danger of his life he escaped to Greece where he obtained the favour of Antipater (g.v.), regent of Macedonia (321); and when, soon after, on the death of Perdiccas a new division took place, he was entrusted with the command of the war against Eumenes, who had joined Perdiccas against the coalition of Antipater, Antigonus, and the other generals. Eumenes was completely defeated, and a new army that was marching to his relief was routed by Antigonus. Polyperchon succeeding Antipater (d. 319) in the regency, to the exclusion of Cassander, his son, Antigonus resolved to set himself up as lord of all Asia, and, in conjunction with Cassander and Ptolemy of Egypt, refused to recognize Polyperchon. He entered into negotiations with Eumenes, but Eumenes remained faithful to the royal house and formed a coalition with the satraps of the eastern provinces. He was at last, through treachery, delivered up to Antigonus in Persia and put to death (316). Antigonus again claimed authority over the whole of Asia, seized the treasures at Susa, and entered Babylonia, of which Seleucus was governor. Seleucus fled to Ptolemy and entered into a league with him (315), together with Lysimachus and Cassander. After the war had been carried on with varying success from 315 to 311, peace was concluded, by which the government of Asia Minor and Syria was

provisionally secured to Antigonus.

This agreement was soon

violated on the pretext that garrisons had been placed in some of the free Greek cities by Antigonus, and Ptolemy and Cassander renewed hostilities against him. Demetrius Poliorcetes, the son of Antigonus, wrested part of Greece from Cassander in 306 and

defeated Ptolemy in a naval engagement off Salamis, in Cyprus. On this victory Antigonus assumed the title of king and bestowed a similar title on his son, a declaration that he claimed to be the heir of Alexander. Antigonus now prepared a large army and a formidable fleet, the command of which he gave to Demetrius, and hastened to attack Ptolemy in his own dominions. His invasion of Egypt, however, proved a failure and he had to retire. Demetrius then attempted the reduction of Rhodes, which had refused to assist Antigonus against Egypt; but, meeting with obstinate resistance, he had to make a treaty upon the best terms that he could

(304).

In 302, although Demetrius was again winning success

after success in Greece, Antigonus was obliged to recall him to meet the confederacy that had been formed between Cassander, Seleucus, and Lysimachus. A decisive battle was fought at Ipsus, in which Antigonus fell, in the 81st year of his age. Diodorus Siculus xviii., xx. 46-86; Plutarch, Demetrius, Eumenes; Nepos, Eumenes; Justin xv. 1-4. See MACEDONIAN EMPIRE; and Köhler, “Das Reich des Antigonos,” in the Sitzungsberichte d. Berl. Akad. 1898, p. 835; Cambridge Ancient History, vol. vi. ch. xv., and the bibliography there given.

ANTIGONUS

GONATAS

king, was the son of Demetrius

(ce. 319-239 B.c.), Macedonian Poliorcetes, and grandson

of

Antigonus Cyclops (q.v.). On the death of his father (283), he

66

ANTIGONUS

OF CARYSTUS—ANTILOCHUS

assumed the title of king of Macedonia, but did not obtain possession of the throne till 276, after it had been successively in the hands of Pyrrhus, Lysimachus, Seleucus, and Ptolemy Ceraunus. Antigonus repelled the invasion of the Gauls, and continued in undisputed possession of Macedonia till 274, when Pyrrhus returned from Italy, and (in 273) made himself master of nearly all the country. On the advance of Pyrrhus into Peloponnesus, he recovered his dominions. He was again (between 263 and 255) driven out of his kingdom by Alexander, the son of Pyrrhus, and again recovered it. The latter part of his reign was comparatively peaceful, and he gained the affection of his subjects by his honesty and his cultivation of the arts. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Plutarch, Demetrius, Pyrrhus, Aratus; Justin xxiv., I; XXV. I—3; Polybius ii. 43—45, iX. 29, 34. See Thirlwall, History of Greece, vol. viii. (1847) ; Holm, Grieck. Gesch. vol. iv. (1894); Niese, Gesch. d. griech. u. maked. Staaten, vol. i. and ii. (1893, 1899) ; Beloch, Griech. Gesch. vol. iti. (1904); W. W. Tarn, Antigonos Gonatas (1913) ; R. Schubert, Quellen zur Geschichte der Diadochenszeit (Leipzig, 1914); E. Pozzi, Le Battaglie diìi Cos e di Andro (Reale Accademia delle Scienze, Turin, 1913). See also the Cambridge Ancient History (with bibliography).

ANTIGONUS OF CARYSTUS (in Euboea), Greek writer, flourished in the 3rd century B.C. at the court of Attalus I. (241—

settlers took possession, and in 1663 a further settlement was made

under the direction

of Lord

island was granted by Charles IZ.

Willoughby,

to whom

the

It was raided by the French

in 1666, but was soon after, reconquered by the British and for. mally restored to them by the Treaty of Breda.

ANTIGUA GUATEMALA,

the ancient capital of Guate-

mala, Central America, and now the centre of the growing of the finest grades of coffee of that country.

Antigua was partially

destroyed by an earthquake in 1773, and the capital was thereafter

removed

to the present sXe of Guatemala

city, 27m.

E.N.E.

Antigua has 40,000 inhabitants and is far from a ruin, although what were some of the most imposing churches and monasteries

of America stand in imposing ruins there. The ancient palace of the captain general is still intact, and many substantial houses have been built from the lower storey of palaces wrecked in the earthquake. Antigua is reached by automobile from Guatemala city over a broad highway usually in good condition. Antigua is situated in a flat, confined valley at the foot of the Volcan del Agua (“Volcano of Water”) and is one of the most beautiful sites in Central America.

ANTILEGOMENA. (évrideyéueva, contradicted, disputed),

an epithet used by the early Christian writers to denote those books of the New Testament which, although sometimes publicly read in the churches, were not for a considerable time admitted to be genuine, or received into the canon of Scripture; and applied later to those New Testament books having but a doubtful place in the Canon (see Brste, New Testament, 1, Canon).

197) of Pergamum. His chief work was the Lives of Philosophers, drawn from his personal knowledge, of which considerable fragments are found in Athenaeus and Diogenes Laertius. His Collection of Wonderful Tales, chiefly extracted from the Oavuácia 'Akovo uara attributed to Aristotle and the Oavuåsa of CallimaANTILIA or ANTILLA or Island of the Seven Cities chus is still preserved. (Portuguese Isla das Sete Cidades), a legendary island in the AtText in Keller, Rerum Naturalium Scriptores Graeci Minores, i. lantic ocean. The oldest etymology (1455) connects it with Plato’s (1877); see Köpke, De Antigono Carystio (1862); WilamowitzMollendorff, “A. von Karystos,” in Philologische Untersuchungen, iv. (1881).

ANTIGUA, an island in the British West Indies, forming,

with Barbuda and Redonda, one of the five presidencies in the colony of the Leeward Islands. It lies som. E. of St. Kitts, in 17° 6 N. and 61° 45’ W., and is 54m. in circumference, with an area of 108 square miles. There is no central range of mountains as in most other West Indian islands, but among the hills in the south-west an elevation of 1,328ft. is attained. Absence of rivers, paucity of springs, and almost complete deforestation make Antigua subject to frequent droughts, and although the average rainfall is 45-6in., the variations from year to year are great. The high rocky coast is much indented with excellent harbours, that of St. John being safe and commodious, but inferior to English Harbour, formerly a naval depot. The soil, especially in the interior, is very fertile. Sugar and molasses are the only important exports. Sweet potatoes, yams, maize and guinea corn are grown for local consumption. Antigua is the residence of the governor of the Leeward Islands, and the meeting place of the general legislative council. The Presidency has a local legislative council of 16 nominated members, half official and half unofficial. Until 1898, when the Crown Colony system was adopted, the council was partly elected, partly nominated. Elementary education is compulsory. Some agricultural training is provided by the Government, and the Cambridge local examinations and those of the University of London are held annually. Antigua is the see of a bishop of the Church of England, the members of which predominate, but Moravians and Wesleyans are numerous. There is a small volunteer defence force. The island has direct steam communication with Great Britain, the United States and Canada, and is served by the submarine cable. St. John (population about 8,000), the capital, situated in the north-west, is built on an eminence overlooking one of the most beautiful harbours in the West Indies. The trade (imports £253,291, exports £266,368) is, since the institution of Imperial Preference, principally with England and Canada. The

dependent islands of Barbuda and Redonda (g.v.) have an area

of 62 square miles. Population of Antigua (1925) 29,470. Antigua was discovered in 1493 by Columbus, who is said to have named it after a church in Seville, Santa Maria la Antigua. It remained uninhabited until 1632, when a body of English

Atlantis (g.v.), others with Latin anterior (i.e., the island that is reached “before” Cipango), or with the Jezirat al Tennyn, “Dragon’s Isle,” of Arab geographers. Antilia is marked in an anonymous map, dated 1424, in the grand-ducal library at Weimar; in the maps of the Genoese B. Beccario (1435), and of the Venetian Andrea Bianco (1436), and again in 1455 and 1476. In most of these it is accompanied by smaller insulae de novo repertae, “newly

discovered islands,” Royllo, St. Atanagio and Tanmar.

The Flor-

entine Paul Toscanelli, in letters to Columbus and the Portuguese

court (1474), takes Antilia as the principal landmark for measuring the distance between Lisbon and the Island of Cipango or Zipangu (Japan). On the globe made at Nuremberg in 1492 (see Map: History) the geographer Martin Behaim relates that in 734—probably a misprint for 714—after the Moors bad conquered Spain and Portugal, the island of Antilia or “Septe Cidade” was colonized by Christian refugees under the archbishop of Oporto and six bishops, and that a Spanish vessel sighted the island in 1414. In older Portuguese tradition each leader founded and ruled a city, free from the disorders of less Utopian states. Later Portuguese tradition localized Antilia in the largest of the Azores, St. Michael’s. This legend may commemorate some imperfectly recorded discovery or may embody the idea of a western elysium like the Isles of the Blest, or Fortunate Islands.

ANTILLES, a term of obscure origin, now employed, espe-

cially by foreign writers, as synonymous with “West India Islands.” It dates traditionally from a period anterior to thè discovery of the New World by European navigators, being the name assigned to semi-mythical lands indicated in mediaeval charts sometimes as an archipelago, sometimes as a continent of varying size, uncertainly located in mid-ocean between the Canaries and India. It came to be identified with the lands discovered

by Columbus. When these were found to consist of a vast archipelago, Antilia assumed its present plural form Antilles, which was applied to this whole group. A distinction is made between the Greater Antilles (Cuba,

Jamaica, Haiti-San Domingo and Porto Rico) and the Lesser Antilles, comprising the rest of the islands.

ANTILOCHUS,

in Greek legend, son of Nestor, king of

Pylos. One of the suitors of Helen, he accompanied his father to

the Trojan War, and distinguished himself as acting commander

of the Pylians. He was an intimate friend of Achilles, to whom he was commissioned to announce the death of Patroclus. When his

ANTIMACASSAR—ANTIMONY father was attacked by Memnon, he saved his life at the sacrifice of his own (Pindar, Pyth., vi. 28), thus fulfilling the oracle which had bidden him “beware of an Ethiopian.” According to other accounts, he was slain by Hector (Hyginus, Fab., 113), or by

Paris in the temple of the Thymbraean Apollo together with Achilles (Dares Phrygius 34).

ANTIMACASSAR, aprotective covering thrown over the

back of a chair or the head or cushions of a sofa, named from Macassar, a hair-oil in general use in the roth century. The original antimacassars were made of stiff, white crochet-work, but later soft coloured materials, embroidered in wools or silks, were used. In the 20th century the use of antimacassars which, in better class homes, at least, had died out, was revived in the form of strips of elaborately patterned lace.

ANTIMACHUS,

of Colophon or Claros, Greek poet and

grammarian, flourished about 400 B.c. His chief works were: a lengthy epic Thebais, an account of the expedition of the Seven against Thebes and the war of the Epigoni; and an elegiac poem Lydé, so called from the poet’s mistress. These poems, though not popular, were praised by Plato. (Cic., Brut., 191; Plutarch,

Consol. ad Apoll. 9; Athenaeus xiii. 597.) He was the founder of

“learned” epic poetry, and the forerunner of the Alexandrian school, whose canon allotted him the next place to Homer. He also prepared a critical recension of the Homeric poems (mentioned 12 times in the Venetian Scholia).

See Fragments, ed. Stoll (1845) ; Bergk, Poetae Lyrici Graeci (1882) ; Kinkel, Fragmenta epicorum Graecorum (1877).

ANTI-MASONIC

PARTY, an American political organi-

zation which had its rise after the mysterious disappearance, in 1826, of William Morgan (c. 1776-c. 1826), a freemason of Batavia (N.Y.) who bad become dissatisfied with his Order and had planned to publish its secrets. When his purpose became known to the freemasons, Morgan was subjected to frequent annoyances, and finally in Sept. 1826, he was seized and surreptitiously conveyed to Ft. Niagara, whence he disappeared. Though his ultimate fate was never known, it was generally believed at the time that he had been murdered. The event created great excitement, and led many to believe that freemasonry and good citizenship were incompatible. Opposition to freemasonry was taken up by the churches as a sort of religious crusade, and it also became a local political issue in western New York, where early in 1827 the citizens In many mass meetings resolved to support no freemason for public office. In New York at this time the National Republicans, or “Adams men,” were a very feeble organization, and shrewd political leaders at once determined to utilize the strong anti-masonic feeling in creating a new and vigorous party to oppose the rising Jacksonian Democracy. In this effort they were aided by the fact that Jackson was a high freemason and frequently spoke in praise of the Order. In the elections of 1828 the new anti-masonic party proved unexpectedly strong, and after this year it practically superseded the National Republican Party in New York. In 1829 the hand of its leaders was shown, when, in addition to its . antagonism to the freemasons it became a champion of internal improvements and of the protective tariff. From New York the movement spread into other middle States and into New England. A national organization was planned as early as 1827, and in 1831 the party at a national convention in Baltimore nominated as its candidate for the Presidency William Wirt of Maryland. In the election of the following year it secured the seven electoral votes

of the State of Vermont. This was the high tide of its prosperity, for by 1836 most of its members had united with the Whigs. The growth of the anti-masonic movement was due to the political and social conditions of the time rather than to the Morgan episode, which was merely the torch that ignited the train. Under the name of “anti-masons” able leaders united those who were discontented with existing political conditions. The fact that William Wirt, their choice for the Presidency in 1831, was not only a freemason, but even defended the Order in a speech

before the convention that nominated him, indicates that simple opposition to freemasonry soon became a minor factor in holding together the various elements of which the party was composed,

67

See J. D. Hammond, History of Political Parties in the State of New York (Albany, 1842); the Autobiography of Thurlow Weed (Boston, 1884); A. G. Mackey and W. R. Singleton, The History of Freemasonry, vol. vi. (1898); and Charles McCarthy, The Antimasonic Party: A Study of Political Anti-Masonry in the United States, 1827-1840, in the Report of the American Historical Association for 1902 (1903).

ANTIMONY in its naturally occurring sulphide (stibnite), has been known from very early times, more especially in Eastern countries, reference to it being made in the Old Testament. Basil Valentine alludes to stibnite in his Triumphal Car of Antimony (c. 1600), and at a later date describes the preparation of the metal. Native mineral antimony occurs occasionally, and as such was first recognized in 1748. It is usually found in lamellar or granular masses, with a tin-white colour and metallic lustre, in limestone or in mineral veins often in association with ores of silver. Distinct crystals are rarely met with; these are rhombohedral and

isomorphous with arsenic and bismuth. Hardness 3-34, specific gravity 6-65—7-72. Sala in Sweden, Allemont in Dauphiné, and Sarawak in Borneo may be mentioned as some of the localities for this mineral. Antimony, however, occurs chiefly as the sulphide, stibnite; to a much smaller extent it ọccurs in combination

with other metallic sulphides in the minerals wolfsbergite, boulangerite, bournonite, pyrargyrite, etc. For the preparation of metallic

antimony the crude stibnite being readily fusible (m.p. 540°C) is first liquated, to free it from earthy and siliceous matter, and is then roasted in order to convert it into oxide. After oxidation, the product is reduced by heating with coal, care being taken to prevent any loss through volatilization by covering the mass with a

layer of some protective substance such as potash, soda or glauber salt, which also aids in refining. For rich ores the method of roasting the sulphide with scrap-iron is sometimes employed; carbon, salt and sodium sulphate being used to slag the iron. The crude antimony is fused with stibnite to remove iron and then with a flux of potash and antimony sulphide (potassium thioantimonite) to remove sulphur in the form of thioantimoniate. By these operations pure antimony is obtained. Antimony has an atomic weight of 121-77 (Symbol Sb, atomic number 51, isotopes 121-123) and is included in the same natural family of elements as nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic and bismuth. Antimony combines readily with many other metals to form alloys, some of which find extensive application in the arts. Typemetal (g.v.) is an alloy of lead with antimony and tin, to which occasionally a small quantity of copper or zinc is added. An alloy of tin and antimony forms the basis of Britannia-metal (g.v.), small quantities of copper, lead, zinc or bismuth being added. For the linings of brasses, various white metals are used, these being alloys of copper, antimony and tin, and occasionally lead. Antimony is a silvery white, crystalline, brittle metal, and has a high lustre. Its specific gravity varies from 6-7 to 6-86; it melts at 630-5°C (Heycock and Neville), and boils at about 1,500°C. Its specific heat is 0o-0523 (H. Kopp). The vapour density of antimony at 1,572°C is 10-74, and at 1,640°C 9-78 (V. Meyer), so that the antimony molecule is less complex than the molecules of the elements phosphorus and arsenic. An amorphous modification of antimony can be prepared by heating the metal in a stream of nitrogen, when it condenses in the cool part of the apparatus as a grey powder of specific gravity 6-22, melting at

614°C and containing 98-99% of antimony (F. Hérard, 1888). Another form of the metal, known as explosive antimony, was discovered by G. Gore (1858), on electrolysing a solution of anti-

mony trichloride in hydrochloric acid, using a positive pole of antimony and a negative pole of copper or platinum wire. It has a specific gravity of 5-78 and always contains some unaltered antimony trichloride (from 6 to 20%, G.. Gore). It is very unstable, a scratch causing it instantaneously to pass into the stable form with explosive violence and the development of much heat (see ALLOTROPY). Pure antimony is quite permanent in air at ordinary temperatures, but when heated in air or oxygen it burns, forming the trioxide. It decomposes steam at a red heat, and burns in chlorine.

Dilute hydrochloric acid is without action on it, but on warming a

68

ANTIMONY

with the concentrated acid, antimony trichloride is formed; it dissolves in warm concentrated sulphuric acid, the normal sulphate Sbe(SOu)3 being formed. Nitric acid oxidizes antimony, the oxide obtained depending on the temperature and concentration of the acid. It combines directly with sulphur and phosphorus, and is readily oxidized when heated with metallic oxides (such as litharge, mercuric oxide, manganese dioxide, etc.). Detection and Estimation.—Antimony and its salts may be readily detected by the orange precipitate of antimony sulphide which is produced when sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through their acid solutions, and also by the Marsh test (see ARSENIC), in which the black stain of antimony produced is not soluble in bleaching powder solution. Antimony compounds when heated on charcoal with sodium carbonate in the reducing flame give brittle beads of metallic antimony, and a white incrustation of the oxide. The antimonious compounds are decomposed on addition of water, with formation of insoluble basic salts, soluble in solutions of tartaric acid. Antimony may be estimated quantitatively by conversion into the sulphide; the precipitate obtained is dried at 100° C and heated in a current of carbon dioxide, or it may be converted into the tetroxide by nitric acid. It may also be determined volumetrically by titrating an antimonious salt, in the presence of an excess of sodium bicarbonate as a buffer, with a standard solution of iodine. Inorganic Compounds.—Antimoniuretted hydrogen or stibine, SbH,, may be prepared by the action of hydrochloric acid on an alloy of antimony and zinc, by the action of nascent hydrogen on antimony compounds or by dropping water on to aluminium antimonide. As prepared by the first two methods it contains a relatively large amount of hydrogen, from which it can be freed by passing through a tube immersed in liquid air, when. it condenses to a white solid. It is a poisonous colourless gas, with a characteristic offensive smell. In its general behaviour it resembles arsine, burning with a violet flame and being decomposed by heat into its constituent elements. With silver nitrate solution it gives a black precipitate of silver antimonide, SbAg,; it is decomposed by the halogen elements and also by sulphuretted hydrogen.

Oxides and Acids.—There are three known oxides of antimony, the trioxide Sb,O, which is capable of combining with both acids and bases to form salts, the tetroxide Sb.O, and the acidic pentoxide Sb,O,;. Antimony trioxide occurs as the minerals valentinite and senarmontite, and can be artificially prepared by burning antimony in air, by decomposing antimony trichloride with an aqueous solution of sodium carbonate, or by the action of dilute nitric acid on the metal. It is a white powder, almost insoluble in water, and when volatilized condenses in two crystalline forms, either octahedral or prismatic. It is insoluble in sulphuric and nitric acids, but is readily soluble in hydrochloric and tartaric acids and in solutions of the caustic alkalis. Antimony tetroxide, formed by strongly heating in air either the trioxide or pentoxide or by oxidizing the metal with nitric acid and afterwards igniting to redness, is a non-volatile white powder, insoluble in water and almost so in acids—concentrated hydrochloric acid dissolving a small quantity. It is decomposed by a hot solution of potassium bitartrate. Antimony pentoxide, a pale yellow powder, is obtained by repeatedly evaporating antimony with nitric acid and heating the resulting antimonic acid to a temperature not above 275° C. On being heated strongly it gives up oxygen and forms the tetroxide. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves slowly in hydrochloric acid. It possesses a feebly acidic character, giving metantimoniates when heated with alkaline carbonates. Orthoantimonic acid, H;SbO,, obtained by the decomposition of its potassium salt with nitric acid (A. Geuther), or by the addition of water to the pentachloride, is a white powder almost

of the types M.H.Sb.0, and M,.Sb.0,;. Metantimonic acid, HSbO,, obtained by heating orthoantimonic

acid to 175° C, is a white

powder almost insoluble in water, but slowly hydrated into the ortho-acid. Halogen Compounds.—Compounds of antimony with all the halogen elements are known, one atom of the metal combining with three or five atoms of the halogen, except in the case of

bromine, where only the tribromide is known. The majority of these halide compounds are decomposed by water, with the formation of basic salts. Antimony trichloride (“Butter of Antimony”), SbCl;, is obtained by burning the metal in chlorine, by distilling antimony with excess of mercuric chloride, or by fractional distillation of antimony tetroxide or trisulphide in hydrochloric acid. It is a colourless deliquescent solid of specific gravity 3-06;

it melts at 73-2° C to a colourless oil; and boils at 223°.

It is

soluble in alcohol, and also in a small quantity of water; but with an excess of water it gives a precipitate of various oxychlo-

rides, known as powder of algaroth (g.v.). The trichloride is used in the preparation of tartar emetic, as a bronzing solution for gun barrels and as a caustic in medicine.

Antimony

pentachloride,

SbCl, prepared by heating the trichloride in a current of chlorine, is a nearly colourless fuming liquid of unpleasant smell, which can be solidified to a mass of crystals melting at —6° C. It dissociates into the trichloride and chlorine when heated. Antimony trifluoride, SbF;, is obtained by dissolving the trioxide in aqueous hydrofluoric acid or by distilling antimony with mercuric fluoride. The double compound SbF, (NH,z)2SO, known as “antimony salts” is used in dyeing. The pentafluoride SbF; results when metantimonic

acid is dissolved in hydrofluoric

acid and it forms an

amorphous gummy mass, which is decomposed by heat. Tartar emetic, potassium antimony] tartrate, C,HiO.(SbO)K4H.0, made from the trioxide and cream of tartar, is used medicinally and as a mordant in dyeing although for the latter purpose it is partly superseded by the double oxalate or lactate. On precipitating antimony trichloride or tartar emetic in acid solution with sulphuretted hydrogen, an orange-red precipitate of the hydrated trisulphide is obtained, which turns black on being heated to 200° C. The trisulphide heated in a current of hydrogen is reduced to the metallic state; it burns in air forming the tetroxide, and is soluble in concentrated hydrochloric acid, in solutions of the caustic alkalis, and in alkaline sulphides. By the union of antimony trisulphide with basic sulphides, livers of antimony are obtained. These thioantimonites are usually prepared by fusing their components together, and are dark powders which are less soluble in water the more antimony they contain. They in the vulcanizing of rubber and in the preparation of The so-called golden sulphide consists mainly of Sb.S, together with sulphur by acidifying solutions of alkali

monates.

are used matches. obtained thioanti-

It is doubtful whether antimony pentasulphide, Sb.S,,

prepared by precipitating a solution of the pentachloride with

sulphuretted hydrogen, by decomposing “Schlippe’s salt” (g.v.) with an acid, or by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into water containing antimonic acid, is a chemical entity or merely a mixture of tri- and tetra-sulphide with sulphur. It forms a fine dark orange powder insoluble in water, but readily soluble in aqueous solutions of the caustic alkalis and alkaline carbonates. This so-called pentasulphide is employed in the vulcanization of rubber. Organic Compounds.—Many

antimony are known.

organic compounds

containing

By distilling an alloy of antimony and

sodium with methyl iodide, mixed with sand, trimethylstibine, Sb(CH,)s, is obtained; this combines with excess of methyl lodide to form tetramethylstibonium iodide, Sb(CH3)4I, which

on treatment with moist silver oxide gives the corresponding tetramethylstibonium hydroxide, Sb(CH;),OH, a strong base obtained in deliquescent crystals, of alkaline reaction, and absorbing carbon dioxide readily. The Grignard (g.v.) reaction has facilitated the production of organo-antimonials (H. Hibbert,

insoluble in water and nitric acid, and when heated is first converted into metantimonic acid, HSbO,, and then into the pentoxide Sb.Os. Pyroantimonic acid, H.Sb,O, (the metantimonic 1906). Methyl magnesium iodide and antimony trichloride acid of E. Frémy), is obtained by decomposing antimony penyield trimethylstibine which combines with bromine, forming tachloride with hot water, and drying the precipitate so obtained trimethylstibine dibromide. On heating, this dibromide loses at too” C. It is a white poweler which is more soluble in water methyl bromide and gives rise to dimethylstibine bromide and acids than orthoantimonic: acid, It forms two series of salts, (CH;)2SbBr, This product absorbs bromine forming a tribromide

ANTINOMIANISM

69

which undergoes demethylation on gentle heating so that it yields methylstibine dibromide. By this progressive demethylation de-

less marked and inflammation of the lungs is more commonly seen. If the patient is not already vomiting freely the treatment rivatives of primary and secondary stibines have been obtained is to use the stomach-pump, or give sulphate of zinc (gr. 10-30) (G. T. Morgan and G. R. Davies, 1926). Corresponding anti- by the mouth or apomorphine (gr. s4—;4,) subcutaneously. Fremony compounds containing the ethyl group are known, as is quent doses of a teaspoonful of tannin dissolved in water should also a triphenylstibine, Sb(CsHs)3, which is prepared from anti- be administered, together with strong tea and coffee and mucimony trichloride, sodium and monochlorbenzene. See G. T. laginous fluids. Stimulants may be given subcutaneously, and the Morgan, Organic Compounds of Arsenic and Antimony (1918). patient should be placed in bed between warm blankets with hotwater bottles. Chronic poisoning by antimony is very rare, but ANTIMONY IN MEDICINE resembles in essentials chronic poisoning by arsenic. For medicSo far back as Basil Valentine and Paracelsus, antimonial prep- inal uses of antimony see W. H. Martindale and W. W. Westarations were in great vogue as medicinal agents, and came to cott, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, rọth ed. vol. i. 1928. be so much abused that a prohibition was placed upon their emPRODUCTION AND EXPLOITATION OF ANTIMONY ployment by the Paris parliament in 1566. Metallic antimony was utilized to make goblets in which wine was allowed to stand In pre-war days the world’s consumption of antimony, which so as to acquire emetic properties, and “everlasting” pills of the was comparatively small, was met by the production of a few metal, supposed to act by contact merely, or by slight solution, countries, principally Austria Hungary, Asia Minor, Borneo, were administered and recovered for future use after they had France and, since 1900, China. After 1919 the Austro-Hungarian fulfilled their purpose. Antimony compounds act as irritants both ore-producing area became incorporated in Czechoslovakia, Durexternally and internally. Tartar emetic acts directly on the wall ing the war, belligerent governments became large buyers of of the stomach, producing vomiting, and continues this effect by antimony for ammunition purposes, principally for the manuits action on the medulla. It is a powerful cardiac depressant, facture of shrapnel, shells and bullets, which require about 12% diminishing both the force and frequency of the heart’s beat. antimony in the antimonial lead, and also to serve as retarding It depresses respiration, and in large doses lowers temperature. agents in priming caps. In peace time the chief use of antimony It depresses the nervous system, especially the spinal cord. It is is In making antimonial lead for storage batteries and for coverexcreted by all the secretions and excretions of the body. Thus ings of telephone cables and in the production of its industrially as it passes out by the bronchial mucous membrane it increases important alloys (v. supra). Antimony oxide finds extensive use the amount of secretion and so acts as an expectorant. On the in enamels and pigments; the sulphide is employed in indiaskin its action is that of a diaphoretic, and being also excreted by rubber manufacture. the bile it acts slightly as a cholagogue. The medicinal uses of Production of Antimony (in metric tons) the older forms of antimony compounds may be summed up in 1924 1925 1926 the words diaphoretic, febrifuge, parasiticidal and emetic. AntiAlgeria . 236 880 840 Asia Minor 400 400 400 mony trioxide or potassium antimonyl tartrate are employed for Bolivia : 75I 1,850 1,568 the first two purposes, whereas the synonym, tartar emetic, for China ae ad . 13,168 19,040 28,848 the latter salt indicates that antimony compounds are of value in Czechoslovakia . 348 400 422

certain cases of poisoning.

—

It has long been known that antimony has medicinal properties similar to those of arsenic, and modern scientific developments in therapeutic chemistry have tended to produce antimonial substitutes of the phenylarsonic acid and arsenobenzol types in order to obtain remedies of greater utility. The antimony analogue of arsenobenzol has been made, but clinical experience has proved it to be of little value. Compounds of the nature of urea-stibamine (urea and p-aminophenylstibinic acid) have been used in kalaazar. Other analogous aromatic stibinates also employed intrave-' nously are sodium metachloro-para-acetylaminophenyl-stibinate (I.), a drug of low toxicity and high parasitotropic value, and stibamine glucoside (II.) which, under the name of neostam, is a very efficacious remedy used extensively against kala-azar, especially in Assam.

s (I.)|

NH-CO-CHs;

NZ Cl

O:Sb(OH)-ONa Interesting results emetic and the allied and the affection of a compound is given on

NH-C,; Hu O;

(IL) O:Sb(OH)-ONa

have attended the modern use of tartar sodium antimony! tartrate in bilharziasis, similar type known as schistosomiasis. The the recommendation of J. B. Christopherson (1919) intravenously in these affections. The important point is that these drugs kill the ova in addition to the worm. These two compounds have been used successfully in various forms of Leishmania infection, such as kala-azar, oriental sore and American Leishmaniasis, together with many other tropical affections. These diseases have also been treated with promising results by injections of a glycerin solution of antimony trioxide. Toxicology.—In acute poisoning by antimony the symptoms are almost identical with those of arsenical poisoning, which is much commoner (see ARSENIC). The post-mortem appearances are also very similar, but the gastro-intestinal irritation is much

France Mexico

873 775

795 1,399

gro 1,200

The foregoing table shows the output from the principal antimony-producing countries. The total production of antimony in the three years was 17,526 tons in 1924, 25,743 tons in 1925 and 34,514 tons in 1926. During this period China was the largest producer and America the greatest consumer. BrpriocrapHy.—G. A. Roush and A. Butts, The Mineral Industry, its Statistics, Technology and Trade, vol. xxxiv. (1926) ; G. T. Morgan, Organic Compounds of Arsenic and Antimony (1918); W.G. Christiansen, Organic Derivatives of Antimony (1925). (G. T. M.)

ANTINOMIANISM, an interpretation of the antithesis between law and gospel, recurrent from the earliest times (Gr.dvri against vouwos, law). Christians being released, in important particulars, from conformity to the Old Testament, polity as a whole, a real difficulty attended the settlement of the limits and the immediate authority of the remainder, known vaguely as the moral law. Indications are not wanting that St. Paul’s doctrine of justification by faith was, in his own day, mistaken or perverted in the interests of immoral licence. Gnostic sects approached the question in two ways. Marcionites, named by Clement of Alexandria Antitactae (revolters against the Demiurge) held the Old Testament economy to be tainted throughout by its source; but they are not accused of licentiousness. Manichaeans, again, holding their spiritual being to be unaffected by the action of matter, regarded carnal sins as being, at worst, forms of bodily disease. Kindred to this latter view was the position of sundry sects of fanatics during the Reformation period, who denied that regenerate persons sinned, even when committing acts in themselves gross

and evil (see ANABAPTISTS). During the Commonwealth period Antinomianism was found in England among the high Calvinists who maintained that an elect person, being predestined to salvation, is absolved from the moral law and is not called upon to repent. In less extreme forms, Antinomianism is a feature of those forms of Christianity which

lay stress on justification by faith (see Fletcher’s Checks to Antinomianism, 1771).

ANTINOMY—ANTIOCH

7O ANTINOMY,

literally the mutual incompatibility, real or

apparent, of two laws. The term acquired a special significance in the philosophy of Kant, who used it to describe the contradictory results of applying to the universe of pure thought the categories or criteria proper to the universe of sensible perception (phenomena). These antinomies are four—two mathematical, two dynamical—connected with (1) the limitation of the universe in respect of space and time, (2) the theory that the whole consists of indivisible atoms (whereas, in fact, none such exist), (3) the problem of freedom in relation to universal causality, (4) the existence of a universal being—about each of which pure reason contradicts the empirical, as thesis and antithesis. Kant claimed to solve these contradictions by saying that in no case is the contradiction real, however seriously it has been intended by the opposing partisans, or must appear to the mind without critical enlightenment. It is wrong, therefore, to impute to Kant, as is often done, the view that human reason is, on ultimate subjects, at war with itself, in the sense of being impelled by equally strong arguments towards alternatives contradictory of each other. The difficulty arises from a confusion between the spheres of phenomena and noumena. In fact no rational cosmology is possible. BisriocraPHY.—W. Windelband, History of Philosophy (Eng. trans. 1893); John Watson, Selections from Kant (trans. 1897) pp. 155 fol. ;

F. Paulsen, I. Kant (Eng. trans, 1902); pp. 216 fol,; H. Sidgwick,

Philos. of Kant, lectures x. and xi. (1905).

ANTINOUS, a beautiful youth of Claudiopolis in Bithynia was the favourite of the emperor Hadrian, whom he accompanied on his journeys. He committed suicide by drowning himself in the Nile (A.D. 130). After his death Hadrian caused the most extravagant respect to be paid to his memory. He was raised to the rank of the gods; temples were built for his worship in Bithynia, Mantinea in Arcadia and Athens; festivals celebrated in his honour, and oracles delivered in his name. The city of Antinodpolis was

founded on the ruins of Besa, where he died (Dio Cassius lix. 11;

Spartianus, Hadrian). A number of statues, busts, gems, and coins represented Antinoiis as the ideal type of youthful beauty, often with the attributes of some special god. A colossal bust is in the Vatican; a bust in the Louvre, a bas relief from the Villa Albani, a statue in the Capitoline museum, another in Berlin, another in the Lateran, and many more exist. rr

See Levezow, Uber den Antinous (1808) ; Ebers, Der Kaiser (1881); Antinous, A Romance of Ancient Rome, from the German of A. Hausrath, by M, Safford (1882); Dietrich, Antinoos (1884); Laban, Der Gemiitsausdruck des Antinoos (1891); F. Gregorovius, The Emges Hadrian (trans. M. E. Robinson, 1898), Bk. IT. chap. xvi.;

. W. Henderson, Life and Principate of Hadrian (1923), VIIL § 3. ‘ANTIOCH (Mod. Antékiyah), the name of many ancient

cities, the most famous of which was ’Avridxea 7 èr Adorn

(Pliny, Antiochia Epidaphnes) situated on the left bank of the

Orontes about 2om. from the sea in a fertile plain which separates

the Lebanon ranges from the spurs of the Taurus. The physical

disposition of the surrounding country which forced the main streams of north- and south-bound traffic into one channel in the Orontes valley, thereby determined that a city hereabouts would be in a favourable position to sift the trade of Asia Minor and the Upper Euphrates, of Egypt and Palestine. History.—Antigonus was the first to recognize the strategic importance of the neighbourhood. He began to build a city, Antigonia, a few miles farther north on the Kara-su (307 B.c.). On his defeat and death at Ipsus at the hands of his rival Seleucus Nicator (301), the latter after selecting a site with military advantages under Mons Silpius founded Antioch and made use of Antigonia as quarry for his building. To the original city laid out in imitation of the plan of Alexandria with two great colonnaded streets intersecting in the centre, other walled quarters were added on the east side by Antiochus I., on the north on an island by

Seleucus II. and Antiochus III. Finally Antiochus IV. (Epiph-

anes) added a fourth quarter, thus giving rise to the name Tetrapolis. Happy in its situation Antioch flourished exceedingly, developed into a mighty centre of trade and by the 4th century A.D. had a population of nearly a quarter of a million. To the west _ about 4m. off was Daphne (mod. Beit el-M a’), a delightful pleasure resort of shady groves and running waters in the midst of

a

which rose a great temple to the Pythian Apollo founded by

Seleucus I. The precincts of Daphne were endowed with the

right of asylum and it became the haunt of society’s outcasts

(Tacitus, Ann, 360). Its beauty and lax morals (Daphnici Mores)

passed into a proverb in the western world and Antioch shared the fame and the infamy.

Under Antiochus I. (280-261 B.c.) Antioch became the capital

of the western section of the Seleucid empire and soon after the residence also of the Seleucid emperors. It enjoyed a great reputation for letters and the arts (Cicero, pro Arch. 3) but there seems to have been little real intellectual life. The Antiochenes were turbulent, fickle and notoriously dissolute. They rose against Alexander Balas in 147 B.C. and Demetrius II. in 129. In 83 B.c. they turned against the weak Seleucids and opened the gates to Tigranes of Armenia. They tried to depose Antiochus XIII. (65 B.C.) and petitioned Rome successfully against his restoration. With Syria it passed to Rome (64 B.c.) but remained a civitas libera. Antioch was magnificent as its epithet “Golden” implies, but earthquakes to which the district has been peculiarly lable played havoc with its magnificence from time to time. The first recorded occurred in 148 B.c., doing immense damage, and as recently as 1872 a violent shock destroyed a large part of the old

walls.

Although the Romans expressed freely their contempt for the Antiochenes, their emperors favoured the city as a worthy capital for their eastern empire. Caesar visited it in 47 B.c. and confirmed its freedom. Octavian, Tiberius, Trajan, Antoninus Pius and Hadrian adorned and equipped il with temple, theatre, colonnade, circus, bath, aqueduct, all the architectural features and embellishments of a Roman metropolis. Diocletian built a vast palace on

the island and Constantine a fine church. At Antioch Germanicus died (A.D. 19) and his body was buried in the forum. Titus set up the Cherubim taken from the Jerusalem Temple, over one of its gates. Commodus had Olympic games celebrated here. In ap. 266 the town was suddenly raided by the Persians who slew many in the theatre. In 387 it lost its metropolitan status owing to the revolt against a new tax levied by Theodosius. Zeno restored many of its public buildings and renamed it Theopolis only to see it ruined by an earthquake soon afterwards (526). And Chosroes completed the destruction (538). Rise of Christianity.—Antioch was an early home of Christianity and its Church became in a special sense the mother of

the Gentile churches. After the fall of Jerusalem it became the real metropolis of Christianity. It was the scene of the early evangelizing work of Paul and Barnabas and the home church whence they set forth on their missionary journeys and to which they returned to report results. Peter visited Antioch (Gal. ii. x 1) and, basing its claim on a tradition that he remained there for a time as head of its Church, Antioch was accorded by the Council of Nicaea the place of honour after Alexandria and Rome. It was at Antioch that the term “Christian” was first given to converts to the new faith (Acts xi. 26), as some maintain, in derision. So well was Christianity received there that by the end of the 4th century, its adherents were reckoned by Chrysostom at about

100,000. In 5o years (A.D. 252—300) as many as ten assemblies

of the Church were held in Antioch. The favour shown by Julian to Jewish and pagan rites provoked the populace and the closing

of its great church of Constantine led to the burning down of the temple of Apollo at Daphne. Antiochene lampoons against Julian

were countered by him in his satiric apologia, still extant, called

Misopogon (c. av. 362). The church was reopened by his successor, Valens, but shared the fate of the city when the Sassanid Chosroes I. destroyed it (538) and carried off part of the inhabitants to New Antioch in Assyria. The hermit Simeon Stylites lived

on his pillar in the district (4om. E.) at the beginning of the sth

century and his body was brought to Antioch for burial. The Arabs took the city in 638 when they overran Syria, but Damascus made a greater appeal to them as a capital city, and as Damascus advanced Antioch declined. It passed into the possession of the Crusaders in 1098 after a bitter siege of nine months the end of which was hastened by an earthquake and betrayal. Assigned to Bohemund, prince of Tarentum, it remained the capital of 4

ANTIOCH

COLLEGE—ANTIOCH

Latin principality for nearly two centuries. In 1517 it passed into

Turkish hands. It fell before the onslaught of the troops of Mohammed ‘Ali of Egypt on their march towards Constantinople (1840), but was restored to Turkish possession soon after. In October 1918 it was occupied by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force under Lord Allenby, and in 1920 by France under the League of Nations mandate. Dogma.—Several

heresies had their origin in Antioch.

One

of its bishops, Paul (of Samosata) advocated (c. 260) a form of Monarchianism maintaining that Christ was a mere man but so endowed as to rise gradually to divine dignity. Arius was here a pupil of Lucian the presbyter, text-critic and martyr (d. 311) and Nestorius was a monk of Antioch. Antioch in time gave its name to a school of Christian thought the chief representatives of which were the bishops Diodorus (Tarsus, d. 394), John Chrysostom (Constantinople, d. 407), Theodore (Mopsuestia, d. 429) and Theodore (Cyrrhus, d. 457). It was anti-mystic in trend. It stressed the human element, making it rather than the divine the starting point of its enquiry, focussed attention on the historical Christ, and advocated direct and immediate interpretation of Scripture. It saw in the Incarnation the accomplishment of man’s destiny rather than a means to deliver him from the consequences of sin. Synods.—More than 30 synods were held at Antioch in ancient times, the first three of which (264-269) discussed the errors of Paul of Samosata and condemned him, but only with the eclipse of his patroness Zenobia of Palmyra (272) could the decree of expulsion be made effective. The most celebrated synod was that of 341 at which about roo bishops were present. It passed 25 canons and promulgated three creeds in an endeavour to displace the Nicene. Power was vested mainly in the metropolitan (archbishop) and in synods to be held twice a year (5th Canon of Nicaea). The relations between dioceses were regulated; bishops were enjoined to exercise strict guardianship over Church property and were forbidden to name their successors. These canons, formed an elementary ecclesiastical law for both east and west, and likewise formed part of the Codex Canonum used by the Council of Chalcedon (451). They were twenty-five in number and their authenticity, previously much disputed, was substantially proved by Hefele. One of the most interesting of their provisions was that which in increasing the powers of the metropolitan deprived the country bishops (chorefiscopi) of direct recourse to the emperor. The synod is commonly called im encaeniis (èv èykawiois) or in dedicatione, its occasion being the dedication of the Basilica. Modern.—Pop. estimated at 30,000 (4,000 Christians) with language mainly Turkish; now a town in the état Syria and the sanjag of Alexandretta in French mandated territory. The position it once occupied as the chief city of north Syria has passed to Aleppo. The valley of the Orontes is growing in wealth and productiveness with the draining of the central lake. The cultures include tobacco, maize and cotton. There is a large olive grove and the mulberry tree is cultivated for the silk industry. There are several soap factories where the oils of the ghdr (bay) and the olive are mixed to produce a perfumed and highly esteemed soap. Other manufactures are shoes and knives, and exports include hides and liquorice. If the project of a railway from Aleppo via Antioch to Alexandretta materialized it would. rapidly recover some of its óld importance. The Americans have a mission school and there is a British vice-consul. BretiocrapHy.—C. O. Müller, Antiquitates Antiochenae (1839); Ritter, Erdkunde viii. (1855) ; A. Freund, Beiträge zur Antiochenischen . . . Stadtchronik (1882); Guy le Strange, Palestine under the Moslems (1890); R. Förster, Jahrbuch d. Berlin Archaeol. Instituts, xii. (1897) ; E. S. Bouchier, A Short History of Antioch, 300 B.C.—A.D. 1268 (1921). Also authorities for Syria. For Dogma, see H. Kibn, Die

Bedeutung

d. Antioch. Schule auf d. exeget. Gebiete

(1866);

A.

Harnack, Antiochenische Schule in Prot. Realencyklopädie (1896) and also his History of Dogma (1896-99) ; Bethune-Baker, Introd. to Early History of Christian Doctrine (1903); J. H. Srawley, “Antiochene Theology” in Encyc. of Religion and Ethics. For Synods, see Mansi, Concilia, ii. 1307 ff. for the canons translated by Hefele,

Councils, ii. 67 ff. and by H. R. Percival in the Nicene and PostNicene Fathers, 2nd ser. xiv. 168 ff.; F. Maasen Geschichte d. Quellen

IN PISIDIA

7I

des Kanonischen Rechts, i. 65 ff. (1870). See also Councuzs.

ANTIOCH COLLEGE, an institution of higher education at Yellow Springs (O.). The college is governed by a board of 20 trustees, the president of the college being ex officio president of the board, and was opened in 1853, Horace Mann being its first president. As reorganized in 1921, by Arthur E. Morgan then president, Antioch entered upon a distinctive career that has attracted widespread attention both on the part of the general public and of educators. The enrolment is limited to about 7oo. The course for undergraduates commonly requires five or six years,

and leads to the B.S. or B.A. degree. In choosing students, consideration is given to reports on required physical examinations, secondary school records, intelligence tests, life sketches by the applicants, and reports of references. The traditional dominant purpose of the American college is the “stimulation and development of those gifts of intellect `

|

uen

E SNS ET H : Eo.H ees

caa

with which nature has endowed

the student.”

Antioch has en-

deavoured to restate the proper purpose of the college. According to its philosophy, that purpose is nothing less than the integration of ‘life and its symmetrical development. In America the college and university, including the technical school, are becoming recognized

as providing the chief and almost the only ordered means for preparing intelligent young people for life. Students should be concerned, not with scholarship or technical skill alone, but with learning what life means and how BY COURTESY OF ANTIOCH COLLEGE STUDENTS AT ANTIOCH COLLEGE to make the most of it. Antioch SECURING PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE holds that there is no single facIN A LOCAL MACHINE SHOP ulty, not even intelligence, which is the chief element of human excellence, or which chiefly needs systematic development. The work of the college falls under four main heads; required physical education, a required liberal curriculum, technical or professional training, and part-time practical economic work. The required courses include two years of English‘and literature; four years of history, economics, and government; one year each of mathematics, chemistry, physics, biology, earth science (a combination of physiography, geology, and astronomy); psychology; and a study of scientific method. A year of philosophy is required; and a year of “applied aesthetics.” In the autumn of 1928, Antioch adopted a system of “autonomous study,” for all students above the sophomore year. Under the new plan upperclass students are not required to attend classes. The work for an entire term is outlined and the student then is left to master the subject in his own way, coming to the instructor only for necessary help, for discussion, and for inspiration. To develop traits not easily reached by class-room work, such as initiative, self-reliance, responsibility, courage, and adaptability, and to help practical adjustment to life, both men and women students spend half their time at college and half in practical economic occupations, in alternate five-week shifts. Each working position is continuously filled, one student working while his or her alternate studies. These “co-operative” students work over a radius of 1,000m., with 200 employers, in a wide variety of callings; the positions being chosen because of their educational value to the particular students. Self-support is incidental, but the students, to a large degree, themselves meet college expenses. (A. E. M.)

ANTIOCH

IN PISIDIA, an ancient city, the remains of

which lie close to the modern Yalovach, in the vilayet of Hamidabad in Turkey. It was situated on the lower southern slopes of the Sultan Dagh, on the right bank of a stream, the ancient

72

ANTIOCHUS—ANTIPATER

Anthius, which flows into the Hoiran Geul. It was founded on the| territory of a Phrygian sanctuary, by Seleucus Nicator, before 280 B.c. and was made a free city by the Romans in 189 B.c. It was a thoroughly Hellenized, Greek-speaking city, in the midst of a Phrygian people, with a mixed population that included many Jews. Before 11 B.c. Augustus made it a colony, with the title Caesarea, and it became the centre of civil and military administration in south Galatia, the romanization of which was progressing rapidly in the time of Claudius, a.p. 41-54, when Paul visited it (Acts xiii. 14, xiv. 21, xvi. 6, xviii. 23). In 1097 the Crusaders found rest and shelter within its walls. The ruins are interesting, and show that Antioch was a strongly fortified city of Hellenic and Roman type. There are many inscriptions in Greek and Latin, including fragments of a Latin copy of the Res Gestae of Augustus.

ANTIOCHUS, the name of 13 kings of the Seleucid dynasty

in nearer Asia. ANTIocHUs I. SoTER (281-252 B.c.) was the son

of Seleucus, a general of Alexander the Great and founder of the dynasty. Upon his father’s assassination (281 B.c.) he succeeded to the difficult task of holding the Seleucid empire together. He turned back an invasion of Gauls from the north, fought the Ptolemies of Egypt over the possession of Palestine, and endeavoured to check the growing power of Pergamum. His son, ANTIOCHUS II. THros (252-247 B.c.), made peace with Egypt by his marriage with the daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus, but was tyrannical and unpopular with his people. Antiochus III., surnamed The Great (223-187 B.c.), and most famous of the line, was a nephew of Antiochus Theos. By wars in the East, in Asia Minor, and against Egypt he extended the Seleucid empire almost to its original bounds. In an invasion of Greece he was, however, disastrously defeated by the Romans at the Pass of Thermopylae and forced to retire into Asia Minor. The Roman army under command of the brothers Scipio crossed the Hellespont and again defeated him at Magnesia, destroying his army. The defeat stripped Antiochus of all his former conquests in Asia Minor.

ANTIocHUS IV., EpIPHANES

(176-164 B.C.), defeated Egypt's

attempt to reconquer Palestine and invaded and occupied Egypt until later driven out by the Romans. He is also known for his attempt to suppress Judaism by force, his persecutions resulting

in the Maccabaean rebellion.

Antiochus VII. Sidetes (138-129

B.C.) was the last strong ruler of the dynasty. He conquered Jerusalem and died fighting the Parthians. The name was also borne by the kings of Commagene (69 B.C-A.D. 72), whose house was affiliated to the Seleucid. ANTIOCHUS J. of Commagene, who without sufficient reason has been identified with the Seleucid Antiochus XIII. Asiaticus, made peace on advantageous terms with Pompey in 64 B.C. Subsequently he fought on Pompey’s side in the Civil War, and later still repelled an attack on Samosata by Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony). He died before 31 B.c. and was succeeded by one Mithridates I. This Mithridates was succeeded by an ANTIOCHUS II., who was executed by Augustus in 29 B.c. After

another Mithridates we know of an ANTIOCHUS

See R. Hoyer, De Antiocho Ascalonita (Bonn, 1883).

ANTIOCHUS OF SYRACUSE, Greek historian, flourished about 420 B.c. He wrote a History of Sicily from the earliest times to 424, which was used by Thucydides, and the Colonizing

of Italy, frequently referred to by Strabo and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. See Müller, Fragmenta Historicorum Antiochos von Syrakus (1872).

ANTIOPE.

Graecorum,

i.; Wölfin,

(1) In Greek legend, the mother by Zeus of

Amphion and Zethus.

Her beauty attracted Zeus, who, assum-

ing the form of a satyr, took her by force. She ran away from her father and married Epopeus, king of Sicyon. Thereupon her father killed himself, first bidding his brother Lycus punish her.

Lycus (who in some accounts was her former husband) killed Epopeus, brought Antiope back, and imprisoned and tormented

her (or his wife Dirce did so, out of jealousy).

On the way back,

or after escaping from prison, she bore twins, Amphion and Zethus, who were brought up by herdsmen. Long after, she escaped and joined her sons; they recognized her, killed Lycus, and bound Dirce to the horns of a wild bull. For this, Dionysus, to whose worship Dirce had been devoted, visited Antiope with madness, which caused her to wander restlessly all over Greece till she was

cured and married by Phocus of Tithorea, on Mt. Parnassus, where both were buried in one grave (Ovid Metam. VI., IIL: Apollodorus ITI., 42-44; Hyginus, Fab.; 7, 8; Pausanias, IX. I7, i 6). (2) Daughter of Ares, sister of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons, the wife of Theseus (q.v.).

ANTIOQUIA,

an interior department of the republic of

Colombia, lying south of Bolivar, west of the Magdalena river,

and east of Cauca.

Area, 22,870sq.m.; population (census 1896)

648,190; (1918) 817,530. The greater part of its territory lies between the Magdalena and Cauca rivers and includes the northern end of the central Cordillera. The country is covered with valuable forests, and its mineral wealth renders it one of the most important mining regions of the republic. The capital, Medellin—with population (census 1902) 53,000, (1918) 79,146—is a thriving mining, commercial and manufacturing centre, 4,822ft. above sea level, and 125m. from Puerto Berrié on the Magdalena. Other important towns are Antioquia, the old capital, on the Cauca; and Puerto Berrié on the Magdalena, connected by a railway with the capital.

ANTIPAROS

(anc. Oliaros), a Greek island in the modern

eparchy of Naxos, separated by a narrow strait from the west coast of Paros; 7m. long by 3 broad. Pop. about 700, mostly in

Kastro, on the north coast, employed in agriculture and fishing.

Formerly piracy was common. The only remarkable feature in the island is a stalactite cavern on the south coast, reached by a dangerous descent with the aid of rope-ladders; the grotto is

about rsoft. by 100, and soft. high.

See J. P. de Tournefort, Relation d'un voyage au Levant Engl. ed., 1718, vol. i. p. 146,

(1717);

III., on whose ANTIPAS: see ANTIPATER. death in A.D. 17 Commagene became a Roman province. In 38 ANTIPATER (398?—310 3.c.), Macedonian general, and his son AntrocHus IV. EPIPHANES was made king by Caligula, regent of Macedonia during Alexander’s Eastern expedition (334who deposed him almost immediately. Restored by Claudius 323). He had previously (346) been sent by Philip as ambassain 41, he reigned until 72 as an ally of Rome against Parthia. dor to Athens and negotiated peace after the battle of Chaeroneia In that year he was deposed on suspicion of treason and retired (338). About 332, while he was dealing with a rebellion in Thrace, to Rome. Several of his coins are extant. the Spartan king Agis (q.v.) rose against Macedonia. Having On all the above see “Antiochos” in Pauly-Wissowa’s Realencysettled affairs in Thrace as well as he could, Antipater hastened klopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, i. part ii. (1894). south and, near ANTIOCHUS OF ASCALON (rst century, B.c.), Greek over the insurgentsMegalopolis (331), gained a complete victory (Diodorus xvii. 62). His regency was troubled philosopher who attempted to reconcile the doctrines of his by the ambition of Olympias, mother of Alexander, and he was teachers Philo of Larissa and Mnesarchus the Stoic. Against the nominally superseded by Craterus. But on the death of Alexander, scepticism of Philo, he held that the intellect has in itself a in 323, he was, by the first partition of the empire, left in command sufficient test of truth; against Mnesarchus, that happiness, of Macedonia, and in the Lamian War at the battle of Crannon though its main factor is virtue, depends also on outward circumstances. This electicism is known as the Fifth Academy (see (322) crushed the Greeks, who had attempted to re-assert their independence. Later in the same year, hearing that Perdiccas ACADEMY, GREEK). His writings are lost, and we owe our in- contemplated making himself sole master of the empire, Antipater formation to Cicero (Acad. Pr., ii. 43), and Sextus Empiricus and Craterus prepared for war against him and allied themselves (Pyrrh. hyp., i. 235). Antiochus lectured also in Rome and with Ptolemy, the governor of Egypt. Antipater crossed to Asia Alexandria. l In 321, and while still in Syria he heard that Perdiccas had been

ANTIPATHY—ANTIPYRINE murdered by his own soldiers. Craterus fell in battle against Eumenes (Diodorus xviii. 25-39). Antipater, then sole regent, having quelled a mutiny of his troops and commissioned Antigonus to continue the war against Eumenes, returned to Macedonia, where he arrived in 320 (Justin xiii. 6). In 319 he fell ill and, passing over his son Cassander, appointed the aged Polyperchon regent, a measure which gave rise to much confusion and illfeeling (Diodorus xvii., xviii.). See Cambridge Ancient History vol. vi. chaps. xiv. and Xv., with bibliographies there given.

ANTIPATHY is a permanent emotional attitude of dislike and aversion felt toward both people and things, an attitude usually originating in some sort of conflict, real or imagined, between the person feeling the antipathy and the object toward which the antipathy is felt. If one person has been compelled to comply with another, against his will, he is apt to feel a lasting antipathy toward his victorious antagonist. In many cases people forget the names or titles of persons toward whom they feel antipathy, not realizing that such lapses of memory are merely expressions of their secret aversions. Some people experience very unpleasant antipathies upon sight of mice, spiders, snakes or insects such as cockroaches; or when the tips of the fingers are rubbed over cotton, or when cloth is placed in the mouth. These antipathies may possibly originate in childhood. (W. M. M.) ANTIPHANES (c. 408-334 B.c.), the most important writer of the Middle Attic Comedy with the exception of Alexis. He was apparently a foreigner who settled in Athens, where he began to

write about 387. More than 200 of the 365 (or 260) comedies attributed to him are known to us from the titles and considerable fragments preserved in Athenaeus. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Fragments in Koch, Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta (1884) ii.; see also Clinton, Philological Museum (1832) i.; Meineke, Historia Critica Comicorum Graecorum (1839).

ANTIPHILUS, a Greek painter, of the age of Alexander. He worked for Philip of Macedon and Ptolemy I. of Egypt. The descriptions of his works extant show that he excelled in light and shade, in genre representations and in caricature. See Brunn, Geschichte der griechischen Künstler, ii. p. 249.

ANTIPHON, of Rhamnus in Attica, the earliest of the “ten”

Attic orators, was born in 480 B.c. He was largely responsible for the establishment of the Four Hundred in 411 (see THERAMENES); on the restoration of the democracy he was accused of treason and condemned to death (Thuc. viii. 68). He was a professional speech-writer for other litigants, and never addressed the people himself except when he defended his policy at his trial. Fifteen of his speeches are extant: twelve are school exercises, divided into tetralogies, each consisting of two speeches for prosecution and two for defence; three refer to actual legal processes. All deal with

cases of homicide (dovexai dixar), Antiphon is also said to have composed a Téxvy or art of Rhetoric. See edition, with commentary, by Maetzner

(1838); text by Blass

(1881); Jebb, Attic Orators; Plutarch, Vitae X. Oratorum; Philostra-

tus, Vit. Sophistarum, i, 15; van Cleef, Index Antiphonteus, Ithaca, N.Y. (1895); P. Hamberger in Die nednerische Disposition in der alten Téxvn pntopucy (Paderborn, 1914)—deals with Antiphon’s style. See also RHETORIC.

ANTIPHONY,

a species of psalmody in which the choir or

congregation, being divided into two parts, sing alternately in a manner suggested by the derivation of the word (Gr. ayri, and dwn, a voice). The peculiar structure of the Hebrew psalms renders it probable that the antiphonal method originated in the service of the ancient Jewish Church. According to the historian Socrates, its introduction into Christian worship was due to Ignatius (d. a.D. 115) who in a vision had seen the angels singing in alternate choirs. In the Latin Church it was not practised until more than two centuries later, when it was introduced by Ambrose, bishop of Milan. The antiphonary still in use in the Roman Catholic Church was compiled by Gregory the Great (A.D. 590).

ANTIPODES, a term applied strictly to any two people or places on opposite sides of the earth, so situated that a line drawn from the one to the other passes through the centre of the globe and forms a globe diameter. (Gr. dvri, opposed to, and sddes, feet.) Any two places having this relation—as London and, ap-

73

proximately, Antipodes Island, near New Zealand—must be distant from each other by 180° of longitude, and the one must be as many degrees to the north of the equator as the other is to the south, in other words, the latitudes are numerically equal, but one is north and the other south. At the antipodes the seasons and day and night are reversed but in calculation of days and nights, midnight on the one side may be regarded as corresponding to noon either of the previous or the following day.

ANTIPOLO,

a municipality in the highlands of the prov-

ince of Rizal, in Luzon, in the Philippine Islands, about zom. from Manila. Pop. (1918), 5,657, of whom 2,842 were males (no whites). It is situated in the midst of a rich agricultural district, and has many waters which are highly esteemed for their medicinal qualities. In 1918 it had 27 manufacturing establishments with only a nominal capital, but a total output valued at 47,500 pesos, and four schools (three public). A meteorological station is situated there. The town is chiefly famous as the home of the celebrated virgin of Antipolo, and crowds annually resort thither to offer their devotions and make their vows.

ANTIPYRETICS

are agents used to reduce the tempera-

ture in fever. They may be classified under two headings, namely, chemical and physical. Until about 1885 the chief chemical antipyretic was quinine, which was used most successfully in malaria. Soon after that numerous other drugs were introduced and it is mainly to them that the name of antipyretics is applied. Of them antipyrin, acetanilid and phenacetin have survived longest and even they are now looked upon with some suspicion because their use is so often accompanied by ill effects. Their action seems to be a specific effect on the heat regulating centre, situated somewhere in the brain. Through it they are thought to decrease the production of heat in the body and thereby lower temperature. Salicylates, such as aspirin, have a much more favourable and comparatively safe antipyretic action in fever. They cause dilatation of the peripheral blood vessels and sweating, and consequently a more rapid loss of heat from the body. The physical means of controlling unduly elevated temperature would seem the more satisfactory. They are cold baths, ice packs, alcohol sponges, and similar measures. The danger is slight and the results, although often only temporary, are sometimes quite striking.

ANTIPYRINE,

a colourless and slightly bitter alkaloidal

substance derived from coal tar, used in medicine as an antipyretic and analgesic, called also phenazonum and analgesine. It melts at 113° C, is soluble in 1-3 parts of water and dissolves even more readily in alcohol. It reduces the temperature of fevers and pyrexia of pneumonia, pleurisy and phthisis. It relieves locomotor ataxy, facial neuralgia and rheumatism. Administered hypodermically it is beneficial in lumbago, sciatica and angina pectoris. A skin rash has been observed after its use, poisonous

effects have been noticed with injudicious usage, and it has even been employed homicidally. The safe dose is 03 grams (5 grains). In aqueous solution it has a mild anaesthetic action when painted on the mucous membrane. Antipyrine was first prepared (1884) by L. Knorr. In studying the condensation of acetoacetic ester (g.v.) with phenylhydrazine, this investigator obtained phenylmethylpyrazolone, a substance which has since proved useful as an intermediate for certain azo-dyes (see Dyes: SyNTHETIC). Methylation of this pyrazolone derivative led to phenyldimethylésopyrazolone (lI.

antipyrine). (I.)

CH;:C==CH | |

CH3-N

Y

XZ

CO

en (CHi): CH3:N

3

CO

(IT.)

Sop

C: H; Ce H; The success attending the use of antipyrine in therapeutics led

to many researches in the pyrazolone series, and out of these the most important drug obtained was Pyramidon or Dimethylamino-

antipyrine (formula II.) which had similar uses to antipyrine but was efficacious in smaller doses and of special effect in sciatica. In its preparation, antipyrine was converted into the green nitroso-

74

ANTIQUARY—ANTI-SEMITISM

antipyrine by the action of nitrous acid. Reduction with zinc dust and acetic acid led to aminoantipyrine (yellow needles, m.p. 109° C) which was methylated with methyl iodide in methylalcoholic potash. Pyramidon is a white powder melting at 108°, soluble in nine parts of water. Both antipyrine and pyramidon are used in combination with other drugs. Salipyrine (antipyrine salicylicum) is antipyrine salicylate, employed in acute rheumatic fever, sciatica and chronic rheumatism. Acetopyrine (antipyrine acetosalicylate), an analgesic and antipyretic, is used in sciatica, influenza, etc. Amidopyrine acetosalicylate and veramon (amidoantipyrine diethylbarbiturate) are salts of pyramidon with aspirin and veronal respectively, used in headache and neuralgia. (G. T. M.)

ANTIQUARY,

a person who devotes himself to the study

of ancient learning and “antiques”; ż.e., ancient objects of art or science. In 1572 a society was founded by Bishop Matthew Parker, Sir Robert Cotton, William Camden, and others for the preservation of national antiquities, and existed till 1604, when it was abolished by James I. on account of its alleged political character. Papers read at its meetings are preserved in the Cottonian library and were printed by Thomas Hearne in 1720 under the title A Collection of Curious Discourses, a second edition appearing in 1771. In 1707 a number of English antiquaries began to hold regular meetings for the discussion of their hobby and in 1717 the Society of Antiquaries was formally reconstituted, finally receiving a charter from George II. in 1751. Its headquarters are now at Burlington House, Piccadilly. The Society of Antiquaries of Scotland was founded in 1780, and manages a large national antiquarian museum in Edinburgh. In Ireland a society was founded in 1849 called the Kilkenny Archaeological Society, holding its meetings at Kilkenny. In 1869 its name was changed to the Royal Historical and Archaeological Association of Ireland, and in 1890 to the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, its office being transferred to Dublin. In France La Société Nationale des Antiquaires de France was formed in 1814 by the reconstruction of the Académie Celtique, which had existed since 1805. The American Antiquarian Society was founded in 1812, with its headquarters at Worcester, Massachusetts. It has a library of upwards of 100,000 volumes and its transactions have been published half-yearly since 1849. In Germany the Gesamtverein der Deutschen Geschichts- und Altertumsvereime was founded in 1852. La Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord at Copenhagen is widely known.

ANTIQUE, belonging to former times, venerable. The term

is applied to the remains of ancient art, such as sculptures, gems, etc., principally to those of Greek or Roman origin; to furniture of an early period, and to anything out of date or old-fashioned.

ANTIRRHINUM: see Snappracon. ANTI-SALOON LEAGUE, an American temperance or-

ganization founded on May 24, 1893, at Oberlin, O. The forerunner of the Anti-Saloon League was the Oberlin Temperance Alliance founded at Oberlin on March 20, 1874. The Metcalf law of 1882, granting local option to all Ohio college towns, and the Beatty Township Local-option law of 1888, gave impetus to the meeting held in the Spear library, Oberlin, on May 24,

program of the Anti-Saloon League has always been “agitation

(including education), legislation and law enforcement.”

The

departments of the League are executive or administrative, legal legislative, publicity, together with a new department of educa-

tion, publicity and research established January 1, 1928. These departments are located at Westerville, O., and Washington, D.C. In legislation its policy has been to secure progressive legislation

against the liquor traffic backed by a sound public sentiment.

Beginning shortly after its organization a campaign for municipal local option was begun and it has steadily worked toward the goal of complete national prohibition of alcoholic beverages through the various steps of municipal and county local option,

state-wide prohibition, culminating in the 18th Amendment to the Federal Constitution. Throughout its existence the League

has advanced at every opportunity through both state and federal

legislation the constantly widening circle of restrictions and prohi-

bitions of the liquor traffic. Through its legal department it has defended these laws against attack in all courts to the Supreme Court of the United States. Since its inception it has raised from private contributions and expended toward the cause of temperance or prohibition more than-$40,000,000 and has been responsible for the signing of over 5,000,000 total abstinence pledges.

ANTI-SEMITISM, areligious, political, and social agitation

against the Jews, which played a conspicuous part in the political struggles of the concluding quarter of the roth century and which, in less serious forms, has occasionally manifested itself in recent times. The Jews contend that anti-semitism is a mere atavistic revival of the Jew-hatred of the middle ages. The extreme section of the anti-semites declare that it is a racial struggle, and that the anti-semites are engaged in an effort to prevent what is called

the Aryan race from being subjugated by a Semitic immigration. There is no essential foundation for either of these contentions, Religious prejudices reaching back to the dawn of history have been reawakened by the anti-semitic agitation, but they did not originate it, and they have not entirely controlled it. The alleged racial divergence is, too, only a linguistic hypothesis on the physical evidence of which anthropologists are not agreed (Topinard, Anthropologie, p. 444; Taylor, Origins of Aryans, cap. i.). Moreover, the Jews have been Europeans for over 1,000 years, during which their character has been in some respects transformed, The movement took its rise in Germany and Austria, very largely as a consequence of the widespread ruin brought about by the financial crisis of 1873. In that year an obscure Hamburg journalist, Wilhelm Marr, published a sensational pamphlet entitled Der Sieg des Judenthums tiber das Germanthum (“The Victory of Judaism over Germanism”). The book fell upon fruitful soil. It applied to the ancient prejudices a theory of nationality which, under the great sponsorship of Hegel, had seized on the minds of the German youth, and to which the stirring events of 1870 had already given a deep practical Significance. It also supplied the sufferers from the Krach with a welcome scapegoat. It was, however, in the passions of party politics that the new crusade found its chief sources of vitality. The enemies of the bourgeoisie at once saw that the movement was calculated to discredit and weaken the school of Manchester Liberalism, then

1893, which resulted in the formation of the Ohio Anti-Saloon in the ascendant. Agrarian capitalism seized the opportunity of League. The next important step in the temperance movement paying off old scores. The clericals, smarting under the Kulturwas the founding of the Anti-Saloon League of the District of kampf, which was supported by the whole body of Jewish liberColumbia, on June 22, 1893, followed on December 18, 1895, alism, joined eagerly in the new cry. The agitation gradually by the National Anti-Saloon League—later called the Anti-Saloon swelled, its growth being helped by the sensitiveness of the Jews League of America—in the Sunday school section of Calvary themselves, who contributed much to newspaper publicity, Baptist Church, Washington. Its basic organization was the same Towards the end of 1879 it spread with sudden fury over the as that of the Ohio Anti-Saloon League. Subsequently all the whole of Germany. The secret springs of the new agitatio n were states were organized into leagues, on the same plan as, but more or less directly supplied by Prince Bismarck, who, subordinate to, the National League. after his | desertion by the national liberals under the leadership of the Jew, The Anti-Saloon League of America is non-partisan and inter- Lasker, began to recognize in anti-semitism a means

denominational in character. The League is pledged to maintai n an attitude of strict neutrality on all questions of public policy

not directly and immediately concerned with the traffic in strong drink.

“The object of this League is the extermination of the beverage liquor traffic, for the accomplishing of which the alliance of all who are in harmony with this object is invited.” The

of “dish-

ing” the liberals. Marr’s pamphlet was reprinted, and within a few months

ran through nine further editions. The historian Treitschke gave the sanction of his great name to the movement.

The conservative and ultramontane press rang with the sins of the Jews, and in October Berlin and Dresden,

an anti-semitic league was founded in

ANTI-SEMITISM

75

The leadership of the agitation was now definitely assumed by a man who combined with social influence, oratorical power, and inexhaustible energy a definite scheme of social regeneration and an organization for carrying it out. This man was Adolf Stécker, one of the court preachers. He had embraced the doctrines of Christian socialism, and he had formed a society called “The Christian Social Working-man’s Union.” He was also a conspicuous member of the Prussian diet, where he sat and voted with the conservatives. Under his auspices the years 1880-81 became a period of bitter and scandalous conflict with the Jews. The conservatives supported him, partly to satisfy their old grudges against the liberal bourgeoisie and partly because Christian socialism, with its anti-semitic appeal to ignorant prejudice, was likely to weaken the hold of the social democrats on the lower classes. The Lutheran clergy followed suit, in order to prevent the Roman Catholics from obtaining a monopoly of Christian socialism, while the ultramontanes readily adopted anti-semitism, partly to maintain their monopoly, and partly to avenge themselves on the Jewish and liberal supporters of the Kulturkampf. In this way a formidable body of public opinion was recruited. Violent debates took place in the Prussian diet. A petition to exclude the Jews from the national schools and universities and to disable them from holding public appointments was presented to Prince Bismarck. Jews were boycotted and insulted. Duels between Jews and anti-semites, many of them fatal, became of daily

anti-semitism came from the Roman Catholics. They had become alarmed by the unbridled violence of the demagogues, and in 1894 the ultramontane Germania publicly washed its hands of the Jew-baiters (July 1, 1894). Thus gradually German anti-semitism became stripped of every adventitious alliance; and at the general election of 1903 it managed to return only nine members to the Reichstag. More serious were the effects of the German teachings on the political and social life of Russia. Here mediaeval anti-semitism was still an integral part of the polity of the empire. The Jews were cooped up in one huge ghetto in the western provinces, “marked out to all their fellow-countrymen as aliens, and a pariah caste set apart for special and degrading treatment” (Persecution of the Jews in Russia, 1891, p. 5). Their activity or “exploitation,” as it was called, was exaggerated and resented by the land-

occurrence.

owners who had been ruined by the emancipation of the serfs. Be-

reported.

Even unruly demonstrations

Pamphlets

attacking

every

and street riots were

aspect

of Jewish

life

streamed by the hundred from the printing-press. On their side the Jews did not want for friends, and it was owing to the strong

attitude adopted by the liberals that the agitation failed to secure legislative fruition. The crown prince (afterwards Emperor Frederick) and crown princess boldly set themselves at the head of the party of protest. The crown prince publicly declared that

the agitation was “a shame and a disgrace to Germany.”

A

manifesto denouncing the movement as a blot on German culture, a danger to German unity and a flagrant injustice to the Jews themselves was signed bya long list of illustrious men, including Herr von Forckenbeck, Professors Mommsen, Gneist, Droysen, Virchow, and Dr. Werner Siemens (Times, Nov. 18, 1880).

The first severe blow suffered by the German anti-semites was in 1881, when, to the indignation of the whole civilized world, the barbarous riots against the Jews in Russia and the revival of the

mediaeval Blood Accusation in Hungary (see infra) illustrated the liability of unreasoning mobs to carry into violent practice the incendiary doctrines of the new Jew-haters. From this blow anti-semitism might have recovered had it not been for the divisions and scandals in its own ranks. Some of the extremists among the racial anti-semites began to extend their campaign against Judaism to its offspring, Christianity. In 1879 Prof. Sepp, arguing that Jesus was of no human race, had proposed that Christianity should reject the Hebrew Scriptures and seek a fresh historical basis in the cuneiform inscriptions. Later Dr. Eugen Diihring, in several brochures, notably Die Judenfrage als Frage des Rassencharakters (1881, 5th ed., Berlin, rgot), had attacked Christianity as a manifestation of the Semitic spirit which was not compatible with the theological and ethical conceptions of the Scandinavian peoples. The philosopher, Friedrich Nietzsche, had also adopted the same view. With these tendencies the Christian socialists could have no sympathy, and the consequence was that when in March 1881 a political organization of anti-semitism was attempted, two rival bodies were created, the “Deutsche Volksverein,” under the conservative auspices of Herr Liebermann von Sonnenberg and Herr Forster, and the “Sociale Reichsverein,” led by the racial and radical anti-semites, Ernst Henrici and Otto Bockel. In 1886, at an anti-semitic congress held at Cassel, a

reunion was effected under the name of the “Deutsche anti-semitische Verein,” but this lasted only three years. In June 1889 the anti-semitic Christian socialists under Stocker again seceded. During the subsequent ten years the movement became more

and more

discredited.

The financial scandals connected with

Forster’s attempt to found a Christian socialist colony in Paraguay, the conviction of Baron von Hammerstein, the anti-semitic

conservative leader, for forgery and swindling (1895-96), and several minor scandals of the same unsavoury character, covered the party with the very obloquy which it had attempted to attach to the Jews. At the same time, the Christian socialists who had remained with the conservative party also suffered. After the elections of 1893, St6écker was dismissed from his post of court preacher. The following year the emperor publicly condemned Christian socialism and the “political pastors,” and Stécker was

expelled from the conservative party for refusing to modify the socialistic propaganda of his organ, Das Volk. Another blow to

sides this, a nationalist and reactionary agitation, originating like its German analogue in the Hegelianism of a section of the lettered public, had manifested itself in Moscow. After some early vicissitudes, it had been organized into the Slavophil party, which, under Ignatiev and Pobédonostsev, became paramount in the government, with a policy based on absolutism, orthodoxy and the racial unity of the Russian people. This was the situation on the eve of Easter 1881. The hardening nationalism above, the increasing discontent below, the economic activity of the Hebrew heretics, and the echoes of anti-semitism from over the western border were combining for an explosion.

A scuffle in a tavern at Elisabethgrad in Kherson sufficed to ignite this combustible material. The scuffle grew into a riot, the tavern was sacked, and the drunken mob, hounded on by agitators

who declared that the Jews were using Christian blood for the manufacture of their Easter bread, attacked and looted the Jewish quarter. The outbreak spread rapidly. Within a few weeks the whole of western Russia, from the Black Sea to the Baltic, was smoking with the ruins of Jewish homes. Scores of Jewish women were dishonoured, hundreds of men, women and children were slaughtered, and tens of thousands were reduced to beggary and left without a shelter. Murderous riots or incendiary outrages took place in no fewer than 167 towns and villages, including Warsaw, Odessa and Kiev. Europe had witnessed no such scenes of mob savagery since the Black Death massacres in the rath century. As the facts gradually filtered through to the western

capitals they caused a thrill of horror everywhere. An indignation meeting held at the Mansion House in London, under the presidency of the lord mayor, was the signal for a long series of popular demonstrations condemning the persecutions, held in most of the chief cities of England and the Continent. The tsar’s ministers, ardent Slavophils, were not slow to recognize in the

outbreak an endorsement of the nationalist teaching of which they were the apostles, and, while reprobating the acts of violence,

came to the conclusion that the most reasonable solution was to aggravate the legal disabilities of the persecuted heretics. To this view the tsar was won over, partly by the clamorous indignation of western Europe, which had wounded his national amour propre and partly by the strongly partisan report of a commission appointed to enquire into the “exploitation” alleged against

the Jews, the reasons why “the former laws limiting the rights of the Jews” had been mitigated, and how these laws could be altered so as “to stop the pernicious conduct of the Jews” (Rescript of Sept. 3, 1881). The result of this report was the drafting of a “Temporary Order concerning the Jews” by the minister of the interior, which received the assent of the tsar

76

ANTI-SEMITISM

on May 3, 1882. This order had the effect of creating a number of fresh ghettos within the pale of Jewish settlement. The Jews were driven into the towns and their rural interests arbitrarily confiscated, with the result that their activities were completely para_ lysed, and they became a prey to unparalleled misery. As the gruesome effect of this legislation became known, a fresh outburst of horror and indignation swelled up from western Europe. It proved powerless. The Russian May laws were the most conspicuous legislative monument achieved by modern anti-semitism. They were an experimental application of the political principles extracted by Marr and his German disciples from the metaphysics of Hegel, and as such they afford a valuable means of testing the practical operation of modern anti-semitism. Their immediate result was a ruinous commercial depression which was felt all over the empire and which profoundly affected the national credit. The Russian minister of finance was soon at his wits’ ends for money. Negotiations for a large loan were entered upon with the house of Rothschild, and a preliminary contract was signed, when, at the instance of the London firm, M. Wyshnigradski, the finance minister, was informed that unless the persecutions of the Jews were stopped the great banking-house would be compelled to withdraw from the operation. Deeply mortified by this attempt to deal with him de puissance & puissance, the tsar peremptorily broke off the negotiations and ordered that overtures should be made to a non-Jewish

French syndicate. In this way anti-semitism, which had already so profoundly influenced the domestic politics of Europe, set its mark on the international relations of the Powers, for it was the urgent need of the Russian treasury quite as much as the termination of Prince Bismarck’s secret treaty of mutual neutrality which brought about the Franco-Russian alliance (Daudet, Hist. Dipl. de l'Alliance Franco-Russe, pp. 259 et. seq.).

A new era of conflict dawned with the great constitutional struggle towards the end of the century. The conditions, however, were very different from those which prevailed in the ’80s. The May Jaws had avenged themselves with singular fitness. By confining the Jews to the towns at the very moment when Count Witte’s policy of protection was creating an enormous industrial proletariat they placed at the disposal of the disaffected masses an ally powerful in numbers and intelligence, and especially in its bitter sense of wrong, its reckless despair, and its cosmopolitan outlook and connections. As early as 1885 the Jewish workmen, assisted by Jewish university students, led the way in the formation of trade unions. They also became the colporteurs of western European socialism, and they played an important part in the organization of the Russian Social Democratic Federation which their “Arbeiter Bund” joined in 1898 with no fewer than 30,000 members. The Jewish element in the new democratic movement excited the resentment of the government, and under the minister of the interior, M. Sipiaguine, the persecuting laws were once more rigorously enforced. They were not abolished until the revolution. of IQI7. The only other country in Europe in which there has been legalized anti-semitism is Rumania. In the old days of Turkish domination the lot of the Rumanian Jews was not conspicuously unhappy. It was only when the nation began to be emancipated and the struggle in the East assumed the form of a crusade against Islam that the Jews were persecuted. Rumanian politicians preached a nationalism limited exclusively to indigenous Christians. Thus, although the Jews had been settled in the land for many centuries, they were by law declared aliens. This was done in defiance of the Treaty of Paris of 1856 and the convention of 1858, which declared all Rumanians to be equal before the law, and also in violation of the Treaty of Berlin under which Rumania agreed to abolish religious disabilities. It was not until 1919 that they were finally swept away. In Austria-Hungary the anti-semitic impulses came almost simultaneously from the North and East. Already in the ’7os the doctrinaire anti-semitism of Berlin had found an echo in Budapest. Two members of the diet, Victor Istoczy and Geza Onody, together with a publicist named Georg Marczianyi, busied themselves in making known the doctrine of Marr in Hungary. In

=e

1880 Istoczy tried to establish a “Nichtjuden Bund” in Hungary, with statutes literally translated from those of the German antisemitic league. The movement, however, made no progress. The news of the uprising in Russia and the appearance of Jewish refugees on the frontier had the effect of giving a certain prominence to the agitation of Istoczy and Onody and of exciting the rural communities, but it did not succeed in impressing the public with

the pseudo-scientific doctrines of the new anti-semitism. It was not until the agitators resorted to the Blood Accusation—that never-failing decoy of obscurantism and superstition—that Hungary took a definite place in the anti-semitic movement. The outbreak was short and fortunately bloodless, but while it lasted its scandals shocked the whole of Europe. In April 1882 a Christian girl named Esther Sobymossi was missed from the Hungarian village of Tisza Eszlar, where a small community of Jews was settled. The rumour got abroad that she had been kidnapped and murdered by the Jews, but it remained the burden of idle gossip and gave rise to neither judicial complaint nor public disorder, At this moment the question of the Bosnian Pacification credits was before the diet. The unpopularity of the task assumed by Austria~-Hungary, under the Treaty of Berlin, which was calculated to strengthen the disaffected Croat element in the empire, had reduced the government majority to very small proportions, and all the reactionary factions in the country were accordingly in arms. The government was violently and unscrupulously attacked on all sides. On May 23 there was a debate in the diet when M. Onody, in an incendiary harangue, told the story of the missing girl at, Tisza Eszlar and accused ministers of criminal indulgence to races alien to the national spirit. In the then excited state of the public mind on the Croat question, the manoeuvre was adroitly conceived. All the anti-liberal elements in the country became banded together in this effort to discredit the liberal government, and the Hungarian anti-semites found themselves at the head of a powerful party. Fifteen Jews were arrested and thrown into prison. No pains were spared in preparing the case for trial. Perjury and even forgery were freely resorted to. The son of one of the accused, a boy of 14, was taken into custody by the police and by threats and cajoleries prevailed upon to give evidence for the prosecution. He was elaborately coached for the terrible rôle he was to play. The trial opened at Nyiregyhaza on June 109, and lasted till Aug. 3. It was one of the most dramatic causes célébres of the century. Under the brilliant cross-examination of the advocates for the defence the whole of the shocking conspiracy was gradually exposed. The public prosecutor thereupon withdrew from the case, and the four judges—the chief of whom held strong anti-semitic opinions— unanimously acquitted all the prisoners. Meanwhile, a more formidable and complicated outburst was preparing in Austria itself. Here the lines of the German agitation were closely followed, but with far more dramatic results. It was exclusively political—that is to say, it appealed to anti-Jewish prejudices for party purposes while it sought to rehabilitate them

on a pseudo-scientific basis, racial and economic.

At first it was

confined to sporadic pamphleteers. By their side there gradually grew up a school of Christian socialists, recruited from the ultraclericals. For some years the two movements remained distinct, but signs of approximation were early visible. In 1891 the German Radical Nationalists under Schénerer, who had joined hands with the anti-semitic leagues, formed an alliance with the feudal Christian socialists. During the elections of that year Prince Liechtenstein came forward as an anti-semitic candidate and the acknowledged leader of the united party. The elections resulted in the return of 15 anti-semites to the Reichsrat, chiefly from Vienna. Although Prince Liechtenstein and the bulk of the Christian soclalists had joined the anti-semites with the support of the clerical organ, the Vaterland, the clerical party as a whole still held aloof from the Jew-baiters. The events of 1892~95 put an end to their hesitation. The Hungarian government, in compliance with longstanding pledges to the liberal party, introduced into the diet a series of ecclesiastical reform bills providing for civil marriage, freedom of worship, and the legal recognition of Judaism on an equality with other denominations. These proposals gave a great

ANTI-SEMITISM impulse to anti-semitism and served to drive into its ranks a large number of clericals. In Oct. 1894 the magnates adopted two of the ecclesiastical bills with amendments, but threw out the Jewish

77

mist party, and had started the Union Générale with funds obtained from his new allies. Bontoux promised to break up the alieged financial monopoly of the Jews and Protestants and to found a new plutocracy in its stead, which should be mainly Roman Catholic and aristocratic. The bait was eagerly swallowed.

bill by a majority of six. The Crown sided with the magnates and the ministry resigned. An effort was made to form a clerical cabinet, but it failed. Baron Banify was then entrusted with the con- For five years the Union Générale, with the blessing of the pope, struction of a fresh liberal ministry. The announcement that he pursued an apparently prosperous career, but in Jan. 1882 it failed, would persist with the ecclesiastical bills lashed the clericals and with liabilities amounting to 212,000,000 francs. The cry was at anti-semites into a fury, and the agitation broke out afresh. The once raised that the collapse was due to the manoeuvres of the pope addressed a letter to Count Zichy encouraging the magnates Jews, and a strong anti-semitic feeling manifested itself in clerical to resist, and once more two of the bills were amended and the and aristocratic circles. In 1886 violent expression was given to third rejected. The papal nuncio, Mgr. Agliardi, thought proper to this feeling in a book since become famous, La France juive, by pay a visit to Budapest, where he allowed himself to be interviewed Edouard Drumont. The author illustrated the theories of German on the crisis. This interference in the domestic concerns of Hun- anti-semitism with a chronique scandaleuse full of piquant pergary was deeply resented, and Baron Banffy requested Count sonalities, in which the corruption of French national life under Kalnoky, the imperial minister of foreign affairs, to protest against Jewish influences was painted in alarming colours. The book was it at the Vatican. Count Kalnoky refused and tendered his resigna- read with avidity by the public, who welcomed its explanations of tion to the emperor. Clerical sympathies were predominant in the growing debauchery. The Wilson scandals and the suspension Vienna, and the emperor was induced for a moment to decline the of the Panama Company in the following year, while not bearing count’s resignation, but he soon retraced his steps. Count Kal- out Drumont’s anti-semitism, fully justifed his view of the prenoky’s resignation was accepted, the papal nuncio was recalled, a vailing corruption. Out of this condition of things rose the Boulanbatch of new magnates were created, and the Hungarian ecclesi- gist movement, which rallied all the disaffected elements in the country, including Drumont’s following of anti-semites. It was astical bills passed. Simultaneously with this crisis another startling phase of the not, however, until the flight of General Boulanger and the ruin of anti-semitic drama was being enacted in Vienna itself. Encouraged his party that anti-semitism came forward as a political movement. The chief author of the rout of Boulangism was a Jewish politiby the support of the clericals, the anti-semites resolved to make an effort to carry the Vienna municipal elections. So far the alli- cian and journalist, Joseph Reinach, formerly private secretary to ance of the clericals with the anti-semites had been unofficial, but Gambetta and one of the ablest men in France. He was a Frenchon the eve of the elections (Jan. 1895) the pope, influenced partly man by birth and education, but his father and uncles were Gerby the Hungarian crisis and partly by an idea of Cardinal Ram- mans, who had founded an important banking establishment in polla that the best antidote to democratic socialism would be a Paris. Hence he was held to personify the alien Jewish domination clerically controlled fusion of the Christian socialists and anti-sem- in France, and the ex-Boulangists turned against him and his coites, sent his blessing to Prince Liechtenstein and his followers. religionists with fury. The Boulangist agitation had for a second The elections resulted in a great triumph for the Jew haters. The time involved the legitimists in heavy pecuniary losses, and under new municipal council was, however, immediately dissolved by the the leadership of the marquis de Morès they now threw all their government, and new elections were ordered. These only strength- influence on the side of Drumont. An anti-semitic league was esened the position of the anti-semites, who carried 92 seats out of tablished, and with royalist assistance branches were organized all

a total of 138. A cabinet crisis followed, and the premiership was entrusted to the Statthalter of Galicia, Count Badeni, who assumed office with a pledge of war to the knife against anti-semitism. In October the new municipal council elected as burgomaster of Vienna Dr. Karl Lueger, a vehement anti-semite, who had displaced Prince Liechtenstein as leader of the party. The emperor declined to sanction the election, but the council repeated it in face of the imperial displeasure. Once more a dissolution was ordered, and for three months the city was governed by imperial commissioners. In Feb. 1896 elections were again held, and the anti-semites were returned with an increased majority. The emperor then capitulated. The growing anarchy in parliament at this moment served still further to strengthen the anti-semites, and their conquest of Vienna was speedily followed by a not less striking conquest of the Landtag of Lower Austria (Nov. 1896). After

over the country. In 1892 Drumont founded a daily anti-semitic newspaper, La Libre Parole. With the organization of this journal a regular campaign for the discovery of scandals was instituted. At the same time, a body of aristocratic swashbucklers, with the marquis de Morès and the comte de Lamase at their head, set themselves to terrorize the Jews and provoke them to duels. Antisemitism was most powerful in the army, which was the only branch of the public service in which the reactionary classes were fully represented. The republican law compelling the seminarists

to serve their term in the army had strengthened its clerical and royalist elements, and the result was a movement against the Jewish officers, of whom 500 held commissions. In 1894, a prominent Jewish staff officer, Capt. Alfred Dreyfus was arrested on a charge of treason. From the beginning the hand of the anti-semite was flagrant in the new sensation. Anti-semitic feeling was now that a reaction of sanity slowly but surely asserted itself. In 1908 thoroughly aroused. Panama had prepared the people to believe the anti-semites had governed Vienna 12 years, and, although they anything; and when it was announced that a court-martial, sitting had accomplished much mischief, the millennium of which they in secret, had convicted Dreyfus, there was a howl of execration were supposed to be the heralds had not dawned. On the contrary, against the Jews from one end of the country to the other. the commercial interests of the city had suffered and the rates had Dreyfus was degraded and transported for life amid unparalleled been enormously increased (Neue Freie Presse, March 29, 1901), scenes of public excitement. The Dreyfus case registers the climax while the predatory hopes which secured them office had only been not only of French, but of European anti-semitism. It was the realized on a small and select scale. The spectacle of a clerico- most ambitious and most unscrupulous attempt yet made to prove anti-semitic tammany in Vienna had strengthened the resistance the nationalist hypothesis of the anti-semites, and in its failure it of the better elements in the country, and anti-semitism soon afforded the most striking illustration of the dangers of the whole movement by bringing France to the verge of revolution. By a ceased to be a political force. The last country in Europe to make use of the teachings of Ger- series of amazing accidents it was soon discovered that the whole man anti-semitism in its party politics was France. The anti-cleri- case against Dreyfus rested on a tissue of forgeries and even worse calism of the bourgeois republic and its unexampled series of finan- crimes. Nevertheless, the authorities, supported by parliament, cial scandals, culminating in the Panama “Krach,” afforded declined to reopen the Dreyfus case. It now became clear that nothing short of an appeal to public opinion and a full exposure of obvious opportunities for anti-semitism. Nevertheless, it was not until 1882 that the movement was seri- all the iniquities that had been perpetrated would secure justice at

ously heard of. Paul Bontoux, who had formerly been in the em- the hands of the military chiefs. On behaii of Dreyfus, Emile ploy of the Rothschilds, but had been obliged to leave the firm in Zola, the eminent novelist, formulated the case against the general consequence of his disastrous speculations, had joined the legiti- staff of the army in an open letter to the president of the republic,

ANTISEPTICS

78

scala

&

which by its dramatic accusations startled the whole world. The letter was denounced as wild and fantastic even by those who were in favour of revision. Zola was prosecuted for libel and convicted, and had to flee the country; but the agitation he had started was taken in hand by others, notably M. Clemenceau, M. Reinach and M. Yves Guyot. In Aug. 1898 their efforts found their first reward. A re-examination of the documents in the case by M. Cavaignac, then minister of war, showed that one at least was undoubtedly forged. (Esterhazy and Col. Henry, of the war office intelligence department—who cut his throat when under arrest— were the real culprits.) In spite of this damaging discovery the war office still persisted in believing Dreyfus guilty and opposed a fresh enquiry. It was supported by three successive ministers of war and apparently an overwhelming body of public opinion. By this time the question of the guilt or innocence of Dreyfus had become an altogether subsidiary issue. As in Germany and Austria, the anti-semitic crusade had passed into the hands of the political parties. On the one hand the radicals and socialists, recognizing the anti-republican aims of the agitators and alarmed by the clerical predominance in the army, had thrown in their lot with the Drtyfusards; on the other, the reactionaries, anxious to secure the support of the army,

took the opposite view, denounced their opponents as sans patrie, and declared that they were conspiring to weaken and degrade the Army in the face of the national enemy. The controversy was, consequently, no longer for or against Dreyfus, but for or against the Army, and behind it was a life-or-death struggle between the republic and its enemies. The situation became alarming. Rumours of military plots filled the air. Powerful leagues for working up public feeling were formed and organized; attempts to discredit the republic and intimidate the government were made. The president was insulted; there were tumults in the streets, and an attempt was made by M. Dérouléde to induce the military to march

on the Elysée and upset the republic. The government now resolved to strike at the root of the mischief by limiting the power of religious orders, and with this view a drastic Associations bill was introduced into the chambers. This anti-clerical move provoked the wildest passions of the reactionaries, but it found an overwhelming support in the elections of 1902 and the bill became law. The war thus definitely reopened soon led to a revival of the Dreyfus controversy. The nationalists flooded the country with incendiary defamations of “the government of national treason,” and Dreyfus on his part loudly demanded a fresh trial. It was clear that conciliation and compromise were useless. Early in 1905 M. Jaurés urged upon the chamber that the demand of the Jewish officer should be granted if only to tranquillize the country. The necessary faits nouveaux were speedily found by the minister of war, General André, and having been examined by a special commission of revision were ordered to be transmitted to the court of cassation for final ajudication. On July 12, 1906, the court, all chambers united, gave its judgment. After a lengthy review of the case it declared unanimously that the whole accusation against Dreyfus had been disproved, and it quashed the judgment of the court-martial sans renvoi. N othing was left undone to repair the terrible series of wrongs which had grown out of the Dreyfus case. Nevertheless, its destructive work could not be wholly healed. For over ten years it had been a nightmare to France, and it now modified the whole course of French history. In the ruin of the French Church, which owed its disestablishment very largely to the Dreyfus conspiracy, may be read the most eloquent warning against the demoralizing madness of anti-semitism. During the World War of 1914-18, which gave rise to a wide-

spread revival of national consciousness, anti-semitism of the Marr type made a fresh appeal to German and Russian public opinion, largely under the influence of a Germanized Englishman, Houston Stewart Chamberlain, the son-in-law of Richard Wagner. The Bolshevist revolution in Russia, which was erroneously pictured as the work of the Jews, helped this new phase of the movement, and for a time a strange theory of a Jewish conspiracy founded on a secret Jewish teaching and aiming at the overthrow of Christian civilization obtained a certain vogue. In 191g an effort was made

in Germany to bolster up this superstition by re-publication of 4 book, Protocols of the Elders of Zion (Eng. edit. 1920), alleged to be the minutes of a secret Zionist congress at which this teaching was set forth. The book at first commanded a great deal of unde. served attention, but in 1921 it was discovered by the Times to be an impudent forgery, the work of a former member of the Ochrana or Russian secret police. This proved the crowning discomfiture of anti-semitism in Western Europe. In the Russian and Austrian Succession States in Eastern Europe, where the possibilities of a political career for anti-semitism still existed, the Minorities Treaties, concluded by the Peace Conference of 1919 and supplemented

SES See hanes YTY S

by. the League of Nations under whose guarantee they were

placed, have proved an effective remedy. The emancipation of the Jews in those countries has thus been completed, discriminating legislation has almost disappeared, and although in Poland, Rumania, and even Hungary violent popular explosions of the old Jew-hatred still occasionally manifest themselves, they have ceased to find any countenance in the governments or, to any appreciable extent, in the better elements of public opinion.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The

most comprehensive works on anti-semitism

are Israel among the Nations, by A. Leroy-Beaulieu (1895) and L’Anii-sémitisme, son histoire et ses causes, by Bernard Lazare (1894). A good list of books relating to Jewish ethnology will be found at the end of M. Isidor Loeb’s valuable article, “Juifs,” in the Dictionnaire universel de géographie (1884). To these should be added, Adolf Jellinek, Der Jidische Stamm (1869); Chwolson, Die semitischen Volker (1872); Nossig, Maiterialien zur Statistik (1887); Jacobs, Jewish Statistics (1891); and Andree, Zur Volkskunde der Juden (1881). A bibliography of the Jewish question from 1875 to 1884 has been published by Mr. Joseph Jacobs (1885). During the period since 1885 the anti-semitic movement has produced an immense pamphlet literature. Some of these productions have already been referred to; others will be found in current bibliographies. The most valuable collection of facts relating to the Russian persecutions of 1881-82 are to be found in the Feuilles Jaunes (32 nos.), compiled and circulated for the information of the European press

by the Alliance

scarce.

Israélite of Paris.

Complete

collections

are very

For the subsequent struggle see the publications of the Bund

(Geneva; Imprimerie Israélite); Seménoff, The Russian Government and the Massacres, and Quarterly Review, Oct. 1906. On the Rumanian question, see Bluntschli, Roumania and the Legal Status of the Jews (London, 1879); Sincerus, Juifs en Roumanie (London, 1901); Dehn, Diplomatie u. Hochfinang in der rumänischen Juden-

cage ype E2-

frage (1901r); on Hungary and the Tisza Eszlar Case, see (besides the references in Jacobs) Nathan, Der Prozess von Tissa Eszlar (Berlin, 1892). On this case and the Blood Accusation generally, see Wright, “The Jews and the Malicious Charge of Human Sacrifice,” Nineteenth Century, 1883; Strack, The Jew and Human Sacrifice

(1909).

The origins of the Austrian

agitation are dealt with by

Nitti, Catholic Socialism (1895), but the most valuable source of information is the Osterreichische Wochenschrift, ed. Dr. Bloch. The case of the French anti-semites is stated by E. Drumont in his France jutve and other works; the other side by Isidor Loeb, Bernard Lazare, Leonce Reynaud, etc. Of the Dreyfus case there is an enormous literature; see especially the reports of the Zola and Picquart trials, the revision case before the Court of Cassation, the proceedings of the Rennes court-martial, and the final judgment of the Court of Cassation printed in full in the Figaro, July 15, 1906; also Reinach, Histoire de Vaffaire Dreyfus (1908). On the history

of the anti-semitic movement generally, see Wolf, Notes on the Diplomatic History of the Jewish Question (1919); The Peace Conference, Paris 1919, Report of the Delegates of the Jews of the British Empire (1920); Wolf, The Myth of the Jewish Menace in World Affairs (1921). (L. W.)

ANTISEPTICS and ASEPSIS. Antiseptics are substances used for the prevention of bacterial development in animal or

vegetable matter. Some are true germicides, capable of destroying the bacteria, whilst others merely inhibit their growth.

The antiseptic method of treating wounds (see SURGERY) was

introduced by the late Lord Lister, and was an outcome of Pasteur’s germ theory of putrefaction, The standardization of antiseptics has been effected in many instances, and a water solution of carbolic acid of a certain fixed strength is now taken as the standard with which other antiseptics are compared. The more important of those in use to-day are carbolic acid, the perchloride and biniodide of mercury, iodoform, formalin, sali-

cylic acid, etc. Among the more recently introduced antiseptics, chinosol, a yellow substance freely soluble in water, and lysol,

another coal-tar derivative, are much used. But every antiseptic, however good, is more or less toxic and irritating to a wounded surface.

Hence antiseptics are nowadays used mainly for the dis-

ares ep wee Se eee ee

Sempe emen ee ga m

| |g

$

l i l

ANTI-SLAVERY infection of instruments, apparatus, the field of operation on the

patient’s skin and the surgeon’s hands, and in cases which are

already septic (see Sepsis). Where an incision is to be made into healthy skin or tissues antisepsis has been replaced by asepsis, which relies on keeping free from the invasion of bacteria rather than destroying them when present. During recent years the study of antiseptics has gone mainly along two lines—to produce more efficient antiseptics for use in the ordinary way by external application, and to elaborate chemical substances which can be injected into the circulation and destroy the infecting microbes. At the same time many studies have been made on the natural antiseptics by which the body rids itself of infection.

Natural Antiseptics.—These exist in greater or Jess degree

in almost every cell of the human body, as well as in most of the secretions. Mechnikov showed that some cells (phagocytes), and especially the white corpuscles of the blood, could ingest and digest microbes, and Wright discovered that this ingestion or

phagocytosis only took place after the microbes had been acted on by the blood fluids. The blood fluids also have a considerable power of destroying or restraining the growth of many pathogenic bacteria (see Immunity). Fleming showed in 1922 that the cells and secretions of the human body have a remarkable antiseptic power toward certain microbes by virtue of their containing a ferment which has been called “Lysozyme.” Of all the secretions the tears are the richest in this ferment, and it has been shown that human tears, even when diluted six million times, have a markedly destructive action on some of the microbes found in

the air—obviously a natural means

of protection against in-

fection. Chemical Antiseptics.—Research has been directed to the

action of these on the natural defences of the body, and the body cells are, in general, found to be much more susceptible to the action of these chemicals than are bacteria. If an ordinary chemical antiseptic, e.g., carbolic acid, is added to blood infected with staphylococci or streptococci (the ordinary microbes of suppuration) the following instructive series of events may be observed. The normal blood itself has such a power of killing these microbes that with a moderate implantation some 95 to 99% are destroyed; but when the concentration of carbolic acid in the blood reaches I in 600 the whole of the natural antiseptic power of the blood is lost and every microbe implanted survives and multiplies. Of course, more concentrated solution of the chemical will, in addition to killing the blood cells, inhibit or destroy the bacteria and so exert an antiseptic action, but this is only manifest after the natural defences against infection have been destroyed.

Chemotherapy.—The ideal method of using an antiseptic for the treatment of a bacterial infection is to introduce it into the

circulation so that it reaches every portion of the infected focus and destroys the microbes. For ordinary bacterial infections this ideal has not yet been attained, but remarkable advances have been made in this direction in certain infections. In 1910 Ehrlich prepared an organic arsenical product which, when injected into the body, rapidly destroyed the microbe of syphilis, and this product, salvarsan, together with the more recently introduced substances of similar constitution, has revolutionized the treat-

ment of this disease (see VENEREAL Diseases). Following Ehrlich, Morgenroth prepared a quinine derivative (Optochin) which had a remarkable affinity for the pneumococcus (the microbe

SOCIETY

79

in favour of aseptic methods which aimed at preventing the access of microbes to the wound. During the war, however, it was found that all the wounds were infected with septic microbes, and many antiseptic methods were employed in the hope of destroying these microbes. Briefly, the results obtained were these: none of the antiseptics was able rapidly to sterilize a wound; most of them were without any evident effect on the bacterial infection; those

which have appeared to have some influence on the course of the infection had, in addition to their “antiseptic” action on the bacteria, a stimulant effect on the infected tissues, and this probably contributed largely to their success. The popular pre-war antiseptics, such as carbolic acid, iodine and the salts of mercury, were found to be without effect on the progress of an infection, although outside the body these are powerful bactericidal agents.

Chlorine derivatives obtained great popularity in the form of eusol (hypochlorous acid), sodium hypochlorite (Dakin’s fluid) or chloramine-T, a more complicated organic derivative, and this type of antiseptic is still in common use under various trade names. Some of the aniline dyes also are used as antiseptics, and outside the body these are probably the most powerful of all the chemical bactericidal agents. Gentian violet, brilliant green and acriflavine have been largely used, but in all these cases the action

on the bacteria is slow and the dyes are rapidly absorbed by the

tissues and dressings of the wound. Acriflavine differs from almost all other antiseptics in that it has a more powerful action in blood serum, than it has in water, and it was hoped from this that it would prove very effective in killing bacteria embedded in the tissues; this hope, however, has not been fulfilled, although the dye still obtains some popularity in the treatment of certain infections. Another method of using an antiseptic is to fill the wound with an almost insoluble substance which slowly gives off an antiseptic substance. A good example of this is iodoform, and although this in itself has no power of killing microbes it slowly breaks down in

contact with the body fluids and liberates small quantities of iodine, to which the antiseptic action of the iodoform is attributed. This substance, iodoform, used to be very popular in the treatment of septic infections, but it possesses a very penetrating odour and has been largely given up on this account. In addition to its direct antiseptic action, it possesses, in common with some

of the chlorine antiseptics, the power of inducing a large flow of lymph from the wound and so aiding the natural defensive mechanism of the body.

Sterilization.—While antiseptics have not been very successful in killing bacteria in infected tissues in the body, they are invaluable in sterilizing apparatus, instruments and infected matter of many kinds outside the body. An infected water supply can be efficiently and economically sterilized by the use of a small

quantity of chlorine (see Water Purification); the infective excreta from cases of typhoid fever and similar diseases can be rendered harmless by treating them with carbolic acid or other similar antiseptic; catgut for use in surgical operations can only be sterilized by the use of chemical antiseptics, and there are innumerable other ways in which these chemicals fulfil their function of destroying bacteria. (A. FL.; W. S. L.-B.) Brrrocrarny—H.

O. Nolan, Antiseptics and Germicides; Inter-

state M. J., xxiv., p. 809 (1917); C. Richet and H. Cardot, Des antiseptiques réguliers et irréguliers, C. R. Acad. de Sc.; clxv., p. 49I (1917); H. D. Dakin and E. K. Durham, Handbook of Antiseptics

which causes pneumonia), while it had little action on other

(1917); Medical Research Council, London, Special Report Nọ, 57. Studies in Wound Infections (1921); S. Rideal and E. K, Rideal,

qualities which rendered it unsuitable in practice. In some other infections, also, drugs have been found which can destroy the infecting agent without exercising any serious toxic action on the human body; notable among these are Emetine in amoebic dysentery (see DysentEry), and “Bayer 205” in sleeping sickness. The fact that drugs can be prepared which have a very specific action on one microbe offers some hope that in the near future there will

Aborigines Protection Society is a fusion of two societies, founded in 1837 and 1839 respectively. The Aborigines Protection Society was formed mainly through the efforts of Thomas Hodgkin and Thomas Fowell Buxton, as the outcome of a select parliamentary

microbes; but unfortunately this substance had certain toxic

be produced chemicals which will destroy the ordinary diseaseproducing bacteria without damaging the tissues. Chemical

Antiseptics

and Wounds—Pyrior

to the World

War the use of antiseptics in surgery had been largely discarded

Chemical Disinfection and Sterilization (1921).

ANTI-SLAVERY

SOCIETY.

The Anti-Slavery

and

committee appointed to consider measures for securing justice for the natives in British possessions. The British and Foreign AntiSlavery Society, which succeeded other similar organizations established during the long struggle, aimed expressly at the universal extinction of slavery and the slave trade, Thomas Clarkson

being its first president. As time went on, it was found that some

ANTISTHENES—ANTIUM

80

degree of overlapping in the work of the two societies was unavoidable, owing particularly to the growth of labour systems hardly distinguishable from slavery, and they were united in 1900. Slavery in Recent Times.—The objects of the society’s work in the second half of the last century were many and various. They included the abuses of coolie indentured labour and the Kanaka and similar labour systems in the South Seas, slavery and the slave-trade in Egypt and the Sudan (upon which the AntiSlavery Society was in close touch with Gen. Gordon); slavedealing in Morocco and the southern Sahara, native labour in South Africa, domestic slavery in many parts of Africa, labour conditions in the New Hebrides, and the scandalous ‘‘contract labour” system from the interior of Portuguese Angola to the cocoa islands of S. Thomé and Principe. The Brussels Conference of 1889-90, and the General Act which followed, opened the way to fighting African slavery more effectively. Towards the end of the century the question of slavery in Zanzibar was predominant, and the society sent out its own commissioner to East Africa more than once to investigate conditions. While slavery and the slave trade are now universally reprobated by civilized States, they still persist in outlying regions. The Slavery Commission of the League of Nations in 1925 reported that the slave trade and “similar acts” prevail in 19 political areas, including Abyssinia, China and Liberia. The more subtle forms of modern slavery, however, are those connected with the increasing demand for tropical and semi-tropical produce; e.g., rubber, cotton, sugar, palm oil, etc., which cannot be gathered by white workers. This means a tendency to exploit unwilling labour. Other forms of modern slavery are debt slavery, or peonage, as illustrated by the horrors disclosed, largely owing to the society’s efforts in 1911-12, in the remote Putumayo region of the Upper Amazon. The society laboured successfully for the

abolition of the Mui Tsai system in Hongkong, another form of slavery disguised under the name of “adoption” of children. The society keeps in frequent communication with the League of Nations.

ANTISTHENES

(c. 444~c. 365 3.c.), the founder of the

Cynic school of philosophy, was born at Athens of a Thracian mother. In his youth he studied rhetoric under Gorgias, perhaps also under Hippias and Prodicus. He came under the influence of Socrates, and became a devoted pupil. So eager was he to hear the words of Socrates that he used to walk daily from Peiraeus to Athens, and persuaded his friends to accompany him. He founded a school of his own in the Cynosarges. Thither he attracted the poorer classes by the simplicity of his life and teaching. He wore a cloak, and carried a staff and a wallet, and this costume became the uniform of his followers. Diogenes Laertius says that his works filled ten volumes, but of these fragments only remain. Aristotle speaks of him as uneducated and simple-minded, and Plato describes him as struggling in vain with the difficulties of dialectic. His work represents one great aspect of Socratic philosophy, and should be compared with the Cyrenaic and Megarian

doctrines.

(See Cynics.)

BrptiocrapHy.—Charles Chappuis, Antisthéne (1854); Miiller, De Antisthenis cynici vita et scriptis (1860) ; T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers (Eng. trans., 1905), vol. ii. pp. 142 ff., 150 ff. For his philosophy see Cywics, and for his pupils, Diogenes and Crates, see articles under these headings.

other hand, been disappointing. The streptococcus of scarlet fever and that of erysipelas belong to different strains, as is shown by failure of erysipelas anti-serum to be of any value in scarlet fever and vice versa. ANTISTROPHE, the portion of an ode which is sung by the chorus in its returning movement from west to east, in re. sponse to the strophe, which was sung from east to west. It is of the nature of a reply, and balances the effect of the strophe. Thus, in Gray’s ode called “The Progress of Poesy,” the strophe, which

dwelt in triumphant

accents

on the beauty, power and

ecstasy of verse, is answered by the antistrophe, in a depressed and melancholy key: Man’s feeble race what ills await, Labour, and Penury, the racks of Pain, Disease and Sorrow’s weeping Train, And Death, sad refuge from the storms of Fate... .

When the sections of the chorus have ended their responses, they unite and close in the epode, thus exemplifying the triple form in which the ancient sacred hymns of Greece were composed, from the days of Stesichorus onwards.

ANTITHESIS (the Greek for “setting opposite”), in rhetoric, the bringing out of a contrast in the meaning by an obvious contrast in the expression, as in the following :—‘‘When there is need of silence, you speak, and when there is need of speech, you are dumb; when present, you wish to be absent, and when absent, you desire to be present; in peace you are for war, and in war you long for peace; in council you descant on bravery, and in the battle you tremble.” The force of the antithesis is increased

if the words.on which the beat of the contrast falls are alliterative,

or otherwise similar in sound, as—‘‘The fairest but the falsest of

her sex.” Among English writers who have made the most abundant use of antithesis are Pope, Young, Johnson, and Gibbon.

ANTITOXIN, a principle in the blood serum which combats

the bacteria causing a disease. When the blood of the patient is deficient in antitoxins, serum containing the appropriate antitoxin is injected. (See DIPHTHERIA; SCARLET FEVER: and MEDICAL RESEARCH.)

ANTITYPE, the correlative of “type,” to which it corre-

sponds either as the stamp to the die or as the die to the stamp

(Gr. dvrirviros). It is used in the New Testament in Heb. ix.

24, I. Peter iii. 21, translated “figure” (A.V.) and “pattern” or “likeness” (R.V.). So, theologically, it denotes the reality behind the symbol or copy; ¢.g., Christ the antitype, of which the Jewish ritual is the type. In the Greek Fathers (¢.g., Irenaeus, Gregory Nazianzen) the bread and wine in the Eucharist are called antitypes. ANTIUM (mod. Anzio), ancient Volscian city, on the coast of Latium, about 33m. S. of Rome. The legends are fanciful. Antium, Ardrea, and Circeii Lavinium appear as under Roman protection in the treaty with Carthage in 348 s.c. In 341 it lost its independence after rising with Latium against Rome, and the

beaks (rostra) of six captured Antiatine ships decorated and gave their name to the orators’ tribunal in the Roman forum. From late Republican times wealthy Romans including the Julian and Claudian emperors frequently visited it; both Caligula and Nero

were born there. The latter founded a colony of veterans and built a new harbour, the projecting moles of which are still extant. In the middle ages it was deserted in favour of Nettuno. The hbarANTISTREPTOCOCCUS SERUM is the serum obtained bour was restored at the end of the ryth century, but is frefrom an animal (usually a horse) which has been repeatedly in- quently silted up. Remains of Roman villas occur along the shore, jected with streptococcus. Such serum is prepared for use in the both east and north-west of the town, and many of them have prevention and treatment of streptococcus infections in man, and tanks for pisciculture. That of Nero is generally placed at the is valuable on account of the antibodies contained in it which so-called Arco Muto. Many works of art have been found, also have been produced by the animal against the streptococcus and the only known example of a Roman calendar previous to the its poisons. This micro-organism is a very common one and is Julian era, painted on a wall. Of the famous temple of Fortune responsible for a great variety of diseases in man. However, mentioned by Horace no remains are known. The sea is encroachantistreptococcus serum has been found to be beneficial in only ing slightly at Anzio, but some miles farther north-west the old two of these, namely, scarlet fever and erysipelas. Its value in Roman coast-line now lies slightly inland (see Trser). The Volthe former disease has been definitely established by clinical scian city stood on higher ground and was defended by a deep experience, and in the case of the latter most reports indicate ditch, which can still be traced, and by walls. The modern place that it is often of benefit if given early in the disease. The is a summer resort and between it and Nettuno, 2 m. to the east, results of its use in puerperal fever and septicaemia have, on the are numerous villas.

ANTIVARI—ANTONELLI ANTIVARI

(Montenegrin Bar), so called by the Venetians

from its position opposite Bari, in Italy, a seaport of Yugoslavia, Turkish until 1878. Pop. (1921) 1,639. The old town is built inland, hidden among dense olive groves, and overshadowed by the peak of Rumija (5,226ft.). It is a ruinous walled village

with the shell of an old Venetian fortress, surrounded by mosques and bazaars, and containing the residence of the Roman Catholic archbishop. The fine bay of Antivari, with Prstan, its port, is about 3m. distant through barren country shut in by mountains. It is commanded by the fortress of Spizza (Austrian till 1918) on the northern horn of the bay. In the centre of the shore is a royal villa, and a hotel has recently been erected. The harbour works (begun in 1906) afford accommodation for 200 large vessels, and include dockyards, warehouses, a customs house, dispensary, electric lighting, telephone, and wireless installation. The only railway runs from Virpazar to Antivari, but there is a good coast road, and a service of steamers coastwise and to Bari. Fishing, olive oil refining, and tobacco growing are the main industries, but there are iron and phosphate deposits in the neighbourhood, and probably valuable bauxite ones at Spizza. The Bank of Montenegro has a branch at Antivari. The civil population successfully resisted Italian occupation in 1910.

ANTLERS, the name given to the bony outgrowths on the heads of deer, which are shed and renewed each year. For details see DEER.

ANT-LION, the name given to neuropterous insects of the family Myrmeleonidae, with relatively short and apically clubbed antennae and four narrow densely reticulated wings which are usually marked with brown or black. The perfect insects are mostly nocturnal and are believed to be carnivorous. The best-known species, Myrmeleon formicarius, which may be found adult in the late summer, occurs in many European countries, though like the rest of this group it does not occur in England. Strictly speaking, however, the term ant-lion applies to the larval form on account of its peculiar and forbidding appearance and its skilful and unique manner of entrapping prey by means of a pitfall. The sandy-grey abdomen is oval and beset with warts and bristles; the prothorax forms a mobile neck for the large square head, which carries a pair of long and powerful toothed mandibles. In dry and sandy soil the ant-lion lays its trap. Having marked out the chosen site by a circular groove, it starts to crawl backwards, using its abdomen as a plough to shovel up the soil. By the aid of one front leg it places consecutive heaps of loosened particles upon its head, then with a smart jerk throws each little pile clear of the scene of operations. Proceeding thus it gradually works its way from the circumference towards the centre. When this is reached and the pit completed, the larva settles down at the bottom, buried in the soil with only the jaws projecting above the surface. Since the sides of the pit consist of loose sand they afford an insecure foothold to any small insect that ventures over the edge. Slipping to the bottom the prey is immediately seized by the lurking ant-lion; or if it attempts to scramble again up the treacherous walls of the pit, is speedily checked in its efforts and brought down by showers of loose sand which are jerked at it from below by the larva. By means of similar head jerks the skins of insects sucked dry of their contents are thrown out of the pit. A full-grown larva digs a pit about 2 in. deep and 3 in. wide at the edge. The larva makes a globular case of sand stuck together with fine silk spun, it is said, from a slender spinneret at the posterior end of the body. In this it remains until the completion of the transformation into the sexually mature insect, which then emerges from the case, leaving the pupal integument behind. In certain species of Myrmeleonidae, such as Dendroleon pantheormis, the larva, although resembling that of Myrmeleon structurally, makes no pitiall, but seizes passing prey from any nook or crevice in which it shelters. In the United States, 58 species are recognized, and the ant-lion is locally known as doodlebug.

ANTOFAGASTA, a town and port of northern Chile, and capital of the Chilean province of the same name, situated about 768m. N. of Valparaiso in lat. 23° 38’ 39” S. and long. 70° 24’

$I

39” W. of Greenwich. Population (estimated 1902) 16,084; (1920) 121,007. Antofagasta is the seaport for a railway running to Oruro, Bolivia, and is the only available outlet for the trade of the south-western departments of that republic. The smelting works for the neighbouring silver mines are here, and a thriving trade with the inland mining towns is carried on. The town was

founded in 1870 as a shipping port for the recently discovered

See

EA

BY

COURTESY

OF

UNDERWOOD

AND

UNDERWOOD

THE HARBOUR AT ANTOFAGASTA, THE PRINCIPAL PORT OF CHILE silver mines of that vicinity, and belonged to Bolivia until 187ọ, when it was occupied by a Chilean military force. The province of ANTOFAGASTA has an area of 46,611sq.m. lying within the desert of Atacama and between the provinces of Tarapacá and Atacama. Its population in 1920 was 172,330. It is rich in saline and other mineral deposits, the important Caracoles silver mines being about gom. north-east of the port of Antofagasta. Like the other provinces of this region, Antofagasta produces for export copper, silver, silver ores, lead, nitrate of soda, borax and salt. Iron and manganese ores are also found. Besides Antofagasta the principal towns are Taltal, Mejillones, Cobija (the old capital) and Tocopilla. Up to 1879 the province belonged to Bolivia, and was known as the department of Atacama, or the Litoral. It fell into the possession of Chile in the war of 1879-82, and was definitely ceded to that republic in 1885.

ANTOINE, ANDRE

(1858-

), French actor-manager,

was born at Limoges, and in his early years was in business. But he was an enthusiastic amateur actor, and in 1887 he founded in Paris the Théâtre Libre, in order to realize his ideas as to the proper development of dramatic art. In this undertaking he had the support of Zola, who championed Antoine’s efforts for the replacement on the Parisian stage of the “well-made play” for something nearer the actualities of life. Many other writers backed the campaign, and Antoine began to produce the great series of plays by Brieux, Curel and Porto-Riche, which made his theatre famous. Mr. A. B. Walkley, in introducing M. Antoine to an English audience in 1922 justly said of him: “The great thing about the Théâtre Libre was the spirit, courage and indomitable energy of its founder.” Great as was its importance in Paris and in France, it was perhaps still greater in other countries. The Freie Bühne of Berlin, the Independent Theatre in London and other institutions of the kind, descended from it. For an account of his work, which had enormous influence on the French stage, see Drama: France. In 1894 he gave up the direction of this theatre, and became connected with the Gymnase, and later

(1896) with the Odéon.

His resignation from the Odéon in 1914

was universally regretted. See S. M. Waxman, Antoine and the Théâtre Libre (1926).

ANTONELLI,

GIACOMO

(1806-1876), Italian cardinal,

was born at Sonnino April 2 1806. Created cardinal (June 1r 1847), he was chosen by Pius IX. to preside over the council of state entrusted with the drafting of the constitution. On March ro 1848, Antonelli became premier of the first constitutional ministry of Pius IX. Upon the fall of his cabinet Antonelli created for himself the governorship of the sacred palaces in order to retain constant access to and influence over the pope. After the assassination of Pellegrino Rossi (Nov. 15 1848), he arranged the flight of Pius IX. to Gaeta, where he was appointed secretary of State. Notwithstanding promises to the powers, he restored

82

ANTONELLO

DA MESSINA—ANTONIO

absolute government upon returning to Rome (April 12 1850) and violated the conditions of the surrender by wholesale imprisonment of Liberals. In 1855 he narrowly escaped assassination. As ally of the Bourbons of Naples, from whom he had received an annual subsidy, he attempted, after 1860, to facilitate their restoration by fomenting brigandage on the Neapolitan frontier. To the overtures of Ricasoli (g.v.) in 1861, Pius IX., at Antonelli’s suggestion, replied with the famous “Non possumus,” but subsequently (1867) accepted, too late, Ricasoli’s proposal concerning ecclesiastical property. After the September Convention (1864) Antonelli organized the legion of Antibes to replace French troops in Rome, and in 1867 secured French aid against Garibaldi’s invasion of papal territory. Upon the reoccupation of Rome by the French after Mentana (1867), Antonelli again ruled supreme, but upon the entry of the Italians in 1870 was obliged to restrict his activity to the management of foreign relations. He wrote, with papal approval, the letter requesting the Italians to occupy the Leonine city; z.¢e., the district of Rome in which the Vatican is situated, and obtained from the Italians payment of the Peter’s pence (5,000,000 lire) remaining in the papal exchequer, as well as 50,000 scudi—the first and only instalment of the Italian allowance (subsequently fixed by the Law of Guarantees, March 2r 1871) ever accepted by the Holy See. At Antonelli’s death (Nov. 6 1876) the Vatican finances were found to be in disorder, with a deficit of 45,000,000 live. His activity was devoted almost exclusively to the struggle between the papacy and the Italian Risorgimento, the history of which is comprehensible only when his unscrupulous influence is fully taken into account. ANTONELLO DA MESSINA (ce. 1430-1479), Italian painter, was probably born at Messina about the beginning of the rsth century. He spent some time in the Netherlands studying the methods of the disciples of Jan Van Eyck; returned with his secret to Messina about 1465; probably visited Milan; removed to Venice in 1472, where he painted for the Council of

Ten; and died there in the middle of Feb. 1479 (see Venturi’s article in Thieme-Becker, Kiinstlerlexikon, 1907). His style is remarkable for its union—not always successful— of Italian simplicity with Flemish love of detail. There are extant —besides a number more or less dubious—zo authentic produc-

tions, consisting of renderings of “Ecce Homo,”

Madonnas,

ANTONINI ITINERARIUM, a valuable register, still extant, of the stations and distances along the various roads of the Roman empire. The original edition probably dated from the beginning of the 3rd century while the extant portion is assigned to the time of Diocletian. If it is to be ascribed to the initiative of one of the emperors, Antoninus Caracalla would be the most likely name. Editions were published by Wesseling in 1735, Parthey and Pindar in 1848. The portion relating to Britain was published as Iter Britanniarum by T. Reynolds in 1799.

ST. (Antonio Prrrozzr, also called Dr

FORCIGLIONI) (1389-1459), archbishop of Florence, was born in that city March 1 1389. He entered the Dominican order in his 16th year, and was consecrated archbishop of Florence in 1446, and won the esteem and love of his people, especially by his energy and resource in combating the effects of the plague and earthquake in 1448 and 1453. He died on May 2 1459, and was canonized by Pope Adrian VI. in 1523. Antoninus sat as papal theologian at the council of Florence (14309). See Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, i., and U. Chevalier, Rép. des s. hist. (1905), pp. 285-286.

ANTONINUS

LIBERALIS, Greek grammarian, probably

flourished about A.D. 150. He wrote a collection of 41 tales of mythical metamorphoses (Merauopdwcewy Zuwaywyh), chiefly valuable as a source of mythological knowledge. BrBLiocraPHy.—See

Westermann,

Oder, De Antonino Liberali (1886).

Mythographi

Graeci

8

belonged to Nemausus (Nimes). He was brought up by his grandfather, Arrius Antoninus, a friend of the younger Pliny. He was consul in 120, was next chosen as one of the four consulars

*

(1843) 5

aE sen EE E

for Italy, and won distinction as proconsul of Asia. On Feb. as

138, he was adopted by the Emperor Hadrian as his successor, on condition that he himself adopt Marcus Annius Verus, nephew of

his wife Faustina, and Lucius, son of Aelius Verus (afterwards the Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Aelius Verus). A months afterwards, on Hadrian’s death, he became emperor. toninus was experienced and intelligent, and sincerely desired welfare of his subjects. One of his first acts was to beg the

few Anthe sen-

Gee TER ER Feng we ane mo

ate in person to decree divine honours to Hadrian (this gained him his name of Pius), and this foreshadowed his policy, for throughout his reign he sought to increase the dignity of the senate, consulting it in person on matters of State, and giving back Italy to its management. He discouraged informers (delatores), and when conspiracies occurred showed great clemency. With the help of his council of skilled jurists, he made legal reforms

tending to greater simplicity and humanity. In Italy he promoted art and science, built baths and aqueducts, and expanded the system of provision for orphans. Under his personal care the provinces prospered; their burdens (e.g. the imperial post) were lightened, and liberal relief was granted to distressed cities. The peace of his reign was broken only by insurrections of the Moors (152), Egyptians (1533), Jews and Brigantes, and these were easily put down. The one military result of interest to us now is the

building in Britain of the wall of Antoninus from the Forth to the Clyde. Antoninus died of fever at Lorium in Etruria, probably March 7 161. His one surviving child married the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. The only account of his life-handed down to us is that of Julius Capitolinus, one of the Scriptores Historiae Augustae. See BossartMüller, Zur Geschichte des Kaisers A. (1868); Lacour-Gayett, 4. le Pieux et son Temps (1888); Bryant, The Reign of Antonine (Camb, Hist, Essays, 1895) ; P. B. Watson, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (1884), chap. ii.; for a general account of social conditions, Rostovtzev, Economic History of the Roman Empire under the Flavians and Antonines (1926).

saints, and half-length portraits, many of them painted on wood. The finest of all is said to be the nameless picture of a man in the Berlin museum. The National Gallery, London, has three works by him, including the “St. Jerome in his Study.” Antonello exercised an important influence on Italian painting by the transmission of Flemish tendencies.

ANTONINUS,

ANTONINUS PIUS (Titus Aurelius Fuivus Boionus Ar rius Antoninus) (a.D. 86-161), Roman emperor 138-161, the sox of Aurelius Fulvus, a Roman consul whose family had originally

ANTONIO

(1531-95), claimant of the throne of Portugal,

known as the Prior of Crato, was a grandson of King Emanuel the Great and son of Luis, duke of Beja, by a Jewess, Yolande Gomez. On the death of King John III. (1557) he claimed the Portuguese throne, to which Philip II. of Spain was also a claimant. He obtained some support from France and England for political reasons, but the small force which he raised in Portugal was easily routed by the duke of Alva at Alcantara

(Aug. 25 1580). Antonio fled to France, where Catherine de’ Medici, who regarded him as a useful instrument against Philip II., connived at the fitting out of a fleet manned by Portuguese exiles and English and French adventurers. This fleet was defeated by the Spanish admiral Santa Cruz (July 27 1582). Driven from France by the attention of Philip II.’s agents, Antonio found refuge in England. In 1589, the year after the Armada, an English expedition under Drake and Norris, financed partly by Elizabeth and partly by private persons, set out to invade Portugal and establish Antonio as king. The expedition was a disastrous failure,

costing thousands of lives. Antonio spent the rest of his life in exile, dying in Paris Aug. 26 1595. He was the author of a cento of the Psalms, Psalmi Confessionales (Paris, 1592), which was translated into English under the title of Tke Royal Penitent by Francis Chamberleyn (London, 1659), and into German as Heilige Betrachtungen (Marburg, 1677). Brsriocrapny-—Antonio is frequently mentioned in the French, English and Spanish State papers of the time. A life of him, attributed to Gomes Vasconcellos de Figueredo, was published in a French translation by Mme. de Sainctonge at Amsterdam (1696). A modern

account of him, Un prétendant portugais au XVe

siècle, by E.

Fournier (Paris, 1852), is based on authentic sources, See also Dom Antonio Prior de Crato—notas de bibliographia, by J. de Aranjo (Lisbon, 1897).

AeRae! time oS

ANTONIO—ANTONIUS

83

ANTONIO, NICOLAS (1617~1684), Spanish bibliographer,

quaestor, augur, and tribune of the plebs, he supported the cause

was born at Seville on July 31, 1617, and died at Madrid in the

of his patron, and was expelled from the senate-house when the civil war broke out. He was deputy-governor of Italy during Cae-

spring of 1684. His Bibliotheca Hispana nova, dealing with the

works of Spanish authors who flourished after 1500, appeared in Rome in 1672; the Bibliotheca Hispana vetus, a literary history of Spain from the time of Augustus to the end of the rsth century, was revised by Manuel Marti and published by Antonio’s friend, Cardinal José Saenz de Aguirre in Rome in 1696. A fine edition of both parts, with additional matter found in Antonio’s manuscripts, and with supplementary notes by Francisco Perez Bayer was issued in Madrid in 1787-88. This great work, incomparably superior to any previous bibliography, is still unsuperseded and indispensable.

sar’s absence in Spain (49), second in command in the decisive battle of Pharsalus (48), and again deputy-governor of Italy while Caesar was in Africa (47). In 46 he seems to have taken offence because Caesar insisted on payment for the property of Pompey which Antony had appropriated. But the breach was soon healed, for we find Antony meeting the dictator at Narbo the following year, and refusing when Trebonius suggested that he should join in the conspiracy. In 44 he was consul with Caesar. After the murder of Caesar on March 15 Antony determined to make himself sole ruler. At first he seemed disposed to treat the conspirators Of Antonio’s miscellaneous writings the most important is the leniently, but at the same time he so roused the people against posthumous Censura de historias fabulosas (Valencia, 1742), in which them by the publication of Caesar’s will and by his eloquent erudition is combined with critical insight. His Bibliotheca Hispana vabinica has not been printed; the manuscript is in the national funeral oration that they were obliged to leave the city. He forced the senate to transfer to him the province of Cisalpine Gaul, library at Madrid. ANTONIO DE LEBRIJA (Antonrus Nesarrssensts) which was then held by Decimus Junius Brutus, one of the con(1444-1522), Spanish scholar, born at Lebrija in the province spirators. Brutus refused to surrender the province and Antony of Andalusia, studied at Salamanca and at Bologna. After hold- set out to attack him in Oct. 44. But at this time Octavian, whom Caesar had adopted, arrived in ing the professorship of poetry and grammar at Salamanca, he was transferred to the university of Alcalá de Henares, where he Italy and claimed the inheritance of his “father.” Octavian oblectured until his death in 1522. His services to the cause of tained the support of the senate and of Cicero; and the veteran classical literature in Spain have been compared with those troops of the dictator flocked to his standard. Antony was derendered by Valla, Erasmus and Budaeus to Italy, Holland and nounced as a public enemy and Octavian was entrusted with the command of the war against him. Antony was defeated at Mutina France. BrsLtiocrAPHY.—MacCrie, The Reformation in Spain in the Six- (43), where he was besieging Brutus. The senate became suspicious of Octavian, who, irritated by its treatment of him, entered teenth Century (1829); Antonio, Bibliotheca Hispana Nova, i. 132 (1888) ; Prescott, History of Ferdinand and Isabella, i. 410 (note). Rome at the head of his troops and forced the senate to grant him consulship (Aug. 19). Meanwhile, Antony escaped to Cisalpine ANTONIUS, the name of a large number of well-known the Gaul, effected a junction with Lepidus, and marched towards Rome citizens of ancient Rome, of the gens Antonia. The following are with a large force. Octavian came to terms with Antony and Lepiimportant :— (1) Marcus ANTonrus (143-87 B.c.), one of the most dis- dus. The three leaders met at Bononia and adopted the title Triumviri reipublicae constituendae as joint rulers. Gaul was to betinguished Roman orators of his time, was quaestor in 113, and long to Antony, Spain to Lepidus, and Africa, Sardinia, and Sicily praetor in 102 with proconsular powers, the province of Cilicia to Octavian. The arrangement was to last for five years. A reign being assigned to him. He was consul in 99, censor 97, and held a command in the Marsic War in 90. An adherent of Sulla, he was of terror followed; proscriptions, confiscations, and executions became general, and Cicero, among others, fell a victim to Antony’s put to death by Marius and Cinna in 87. His reputation for elorevenge. In the following year (42) Antony and Octavian proquence rests on the authority of Cicero, none of his orations being ceeded against the conspirators, and by the two battles of Philippi extant. He is one of the chief speakers in Cicero’s De Oratore. annihilated the senatorial and republican parties. Antony proSee Velleius Paterculus ii. 22; Appian, Bell. Civ. i. 72; Dio Cassius ceeded to Greece and thence to Asia Minor. On his passage through xlv. 47; Plutarch, Marius, 44; Cicero, Orator, 5, Brutus, 37; Quintilian, Instit. ili. 1, 19; O. Enderlein, De M. Antonio oratore (1882). Cilicia in 41 he fell a victim to the charms of Cleopatra, in whose company he spent the winter at Alexandria. At length he was (2) Marcus ANTONIUS, nicknamed Crericus in derision, elder aroused by the Parthian invasion of Syria and the news that his son of the above, and father of the triumvir. He was praetor in 74 wife Fulvia and his brother were at war with Octavian. On arriving B.C., and received an extraordinary command to clear the sea of in Italy he found that Octavian was already victorious; on the pirates. He failed in the task and made himself unpopular by plundeath of Fulvia, a reconciliation was effected between the triumvirs dering the provinces (Sallust, Hist., iii., fragments ed. B. Maurenand cemented by the marriage of Antony with Octavian’s sister. brecher, p. 108; Velleius Paterculus ii., 31; Cicero, Jn Verrem, iii., In the new division of the Roman world made at Brundusium gt). He attacked the Cretans, who had made an alliance with the Antony received the east. Returning to his province, he made pirates, but was totally defeated. Diodorus Siculus (xl. 1) states several attempts to subdue the Parthians, without any decided sucthat he only saved himself by a disgraceful treaty. He died (72cess. In 39 he visited Athens, where he behaved in a most extrava71) in Crete. All authorities are agreed as to his avarice and gant manner, assuming the attributes of the god Dionysus. In 37, incompetence. after meeting Octavian in Italy and renewing the triumvirate for (3) Garus ANTONIUS, nicknamed Hysripa from his half-savage five years, he returned to Syria and Cleopatra. The way in which disposition (Pliny, Nat, Hist. viii. 213), second son of Marcus (1) he disposed of kingdoms and provinces in her favour alienated and uncle of the triumvir. Despite a bad reputation, he held the his supporters, and in 32 the senate deprived him of his powers consulship in 63, with Cicero, and was subsequently appointed to and declared war against Cleopaira. After two years spent in Macedonia. There he made himself so detested that he left the preparations, Antony was defeated at the battle of Actium (Sept. province, and was accused in Rome (59) both of having taken part 2, 31). He followed Cleopatra, who had escaped with 60 ships, to in the Catilinarian conspiracy and of extortion in his province. In Egypt and there, pursued by his enemies and deserted by his troops, spite of Cicero’s eloquent defence, Antonius was condemned and committed suicide in the mistaken belief that Cleopatra had alwent into exile at Cephallenia. He seems to have been recalled by ready done so (30 B.c.). Antony had been married in succession to Caesar, since he was present at a meeting of the senate in 44, and Fadia, Antonia, Fulvia, and Octavia, and left a number of children. was censor In 42. See Cicero, In Cat. iii, 6, pro Flacco, 38; Plutarch, Cicero, 12; Dio Cassius xxxvii. 39, 40; xxxviii. 10. On his trial see article Pauly-

Wissowa’s Realencyklopadie.

(4) Marcus ANTONtruS, commonly called Marx Antony, the Triumvir, grandson of (1) and son of (2), related on his mother’s side to Julius Caesar, was born about 83 B.c. In 54 he was with Caesar in Gaul. Raised by Caesar’s influence to the offices of

See Rome, History, ii. “The Republic” (ad jin.) ; Caesar, De Bello Gallico, De Bello Civili; Plutarch, Lives of Antony, Brutus, Cicero, Caesar; Cicero, Letters (ed. Tyrrell and Purser) and Philippics; Appian, Bell. Civ. i~v.; Dio Cassius xli-liii. In addition to the standard histories, see V. Gardthausen, Augustus und seine Zeit (1891— 1904); W. Drumann, Geschichte Roms (2nd ed. P. Groebe), i. pp. 46-384 (1899); article by Groebe in Pauly-Wissowa’s Realencyklopddie; and a short but vivid sketch by de Quincey in his Essay on the Caesars.

ANTONOMASIA—ANTRIM

84

(5) Luctus ANTONIUS, youngest son of (2), and brother of the triumvir. In 44, as tribune of the people, he brought forward a law authorizing Caesar to nominate the chief magistrates during his absence from Rome. After the murder of Caesar, he supported his brother Marcus. He proposed an agrarian law in favour of the people and Caesar’s veterans and took part in the operations at Mutina (43). In 41 he was consul, and had a dispute with Octavian, which led to the so-called Perusian War, in which he was supported by Fulvia (Mark Antony’s wife). He was compelled to surrender to Octavian at Perusia. His life was spared, and he was sent by Octavian to Spain as governor. Nothing is known of his death. See Appian, Bellum Civile, v. 14 ff.; Dio Cassius xlviii. 5-14.

(6) Garus AnrToNIUS, second son of (2) and brother of the triumvir. He supported Caesar against Pompey, and in 44 was urban praetor. On his way to his province of Macedonia he fell into the bands of M. Junius Brutus, who at first kept him as hostage but ultimately put him to death (42). See Plutarch, Brutus, 28; Dio Cassius xlvii. 21-24. On the whole Gest see the articles in Pauly-Wissowa’s Realencyklopadie i. pt. 2

1894).

ANTONOMASIA, in rhetoric, the Greek term for a sub-

stitution of any epithet or phrase for a proper name; as “the author of Paradise Lost” for Milton. ANTRAIGUES, EMMANUEL HENRI LOUIS

ALEXANDRE

DE

LAUNAY,

Comte v’ (1755?-1812),

French publicist and political adventurer, was a nephew of François

Emmanuel de Saint-Priest (1735-1821), one of the last ministers of Louis XVI. During the emigration he was the secret agent of the Comte de Provence (Louis XVIII.) at different courts of Europe, and at the same time received money from the courts he visited. At Venice, where he was attaché to the Russian legation, he was arrested in 1797, but escaped to Russia. Sent as

Russian attaché to Dresden, he published a violent pamphlet against Napoleon I., and was expelled by the Saxon Government. He then went to London, and it was universally believed that he betrayed the secret articles of the Treaty of Tilsit to the British Cabinet, but his biographer, Pingaud, contests this. In 1812, he and his wife Madame Saint-Huberty, an operatic singer, were assassinated by a servant whom they had dismissed.

pearance but “of excessive pride and vanity and of a marvellous weak and narrow understanding.” See Hibernia Anglicana, by R. Cox (1689—90) esp. app. xlix. vol. ji. 206; History of the Irish Confederation, by J. T. Gilbert (1882—91); Aphorismical Discovery (Irish Archaeological Society, 1879-80); Thomason Tracts (Brit. Mus.), E 59 (18), 149 (12), 138 (7). 153 (19), 61 (23); Murder will out, or the King’s Letter justifying the Marquess of Antrim (1689); Hist. mss. Comm. Series mss. of Marg,

of Ormonde.

ANTRIM,

a county in Ulster, Northern

Ireland.

It is

bounded north and east by the narrow seas separating Ireland from Scotland, the Atlantic ocean and Irish sea, south by Belfast lough and the Lagan river dividing it from Down, west by Lough Neagh, dividing it from Armagh and Tyrone, and by the River Bann dividing it from Londonderry. Area, 751,965ac. or about 1,175sq.m. Pop. (excluding Belfast) 193,864. The hilly district to the east shows north to south trend lines. There are some outstanding peaks, such as Knocklayd (1,695ft.), Slieveanorra

(1,676ůft.), Trostan (1,817ůft.), Slemish (1,457ft.), and Divis (1,567ft.); but the basalt which covers the greater part of the area has been largely weathered into a low plateau often covered

by peat. The basalt reaches the sea along the north coast in steep cliffs; e.g., the perpendicular columnar basalt of Giant’s Causeway. Fair Head is another rocky eminence of dolerite, backed by gneiss and schistose grits. A narrow zone of Jurassic, Triassic, and Cretaceous rocks separates the basalt from the consequently

milder east coast, which has low headlands and wide bays backed by the higher interior. Triassic and Cretaceous rocks also bound the basalt on the south-east and Trias is important near the lower Lagan. Lough Neagh occupies an irregularity in the surface of-the basaltic plateau due probably to faulting in Pliocene times. It is bounded by basalt rocks on the north and by Pliocene de: posits on the south. The plateau of the east slopes down gradually to the valley of the Bann, beyond which the basalt is found again in the hills of east county Londonderry.

Early History.—The evidences of palaeolithic life in Ireland are scanty and have led to diversity of opinion. There is considerably more data for the neolithic period. In Antrim there are traces of the beach 25ft. above the present sea-level which was probably formed in the period of the Littorina sea in north Europe, and in which are found the earliest certain human relics. See H. Vaschalde, Notice bibliographique sur Louis Alexandre de The coast of Antrim was doubly important in neolithic times. Launay, comte d’Antraigues, sa vie et ses oeuvres; Léonce Pingaud, Its proximity to Scotland makes it possible that it received some Un Agent secret sous la révolution et Pempire, le comte d’Antraigues (Paris, 1893) ; Edouard de Goncourt, La Saint-Huberty et opéra au of the earliest immigrants into Ireland. Further, its chalk deposits, protected from excessive erosion by a capping of basalt, were XVIIe siècle. ANTRIM, RANDAL MACDONNELL, isr MargueEss rich in flint which was in great demand for the manufacture of oF (1609-1683), son of the rst Earl of Antrim, was born in 1609 weapons. It is rich in rude stone monuments. Amber beads and educated as a Roman Catholic. He married the widow of the suggest that Antrim remained in contact with north Europe via rst Duke of Buckingham. On the outbreak of the Scottish war, Scotland during the bronze age, and spiraliform designs may have in 1639, he made a scheme to attack Argyll in Scotland, which reached bronze age Ireland from north or from south Europe. The Romans did not land in Ireland. The civilizing influence came to nothing. From that time onwards he was engaged in various schemes for the assistance of Charles I. against the parlia- of the Continent was felt, however, even in remote Antrim. St. ment—all of them abortive. He was at various times arrested as Patrick is said to have been brought back among the prisoners a suspect. The papers found on him at his capture in 1643 in- after an Irish raid on the coasts of Britain. He became a swineformed the parliamentary leaders of a plan for a rising by Mon- herd on the western slopes of Slemish. Later he studied on the trose in Scotland to be supported from Ireland. On Jan. 26, 1644, Continent and returned as a bishop, founding many churches in Antrim was created a marquess. He was employed on various north-east Ireland. During the period of Scandinavian influence, Norwegians, folmissions in Ireland and on the Continent until 1647, when he ceased to support the king’s cause. In 1649 he entered into com- lowed by Danes, penetrated along the lower Bann and also Belmunications with Cromwell, for whom he performed various fast lough, and from these made raids into the surrounding counservices, though there appears no authority to support Carte’s try. To this period have been attributed the earlier round towers story that Antrim was the author of a forged agreement for the be- found in Ireland, examples of which may be seen at Antrim and trayal of the king’s army by Lord Inchiquin. Subsequently he Armoy and on Ram island in Lough Neagh. Antrim’s position in the far north delayed its conquest by the joined Ireton and was present at the siege of Carlow. He returned to England in Dec. 1650, and in lieu of his confiscated estate Normans. Henry II., however, authorized John de Courcy to go received a pension of £500 and later of £800, together with lands into Ulster. He marched north, defeated MacDonlevy and took in Mayo. At the Restoration, Antrim was excluded from the Act his kingdom, consisting of modern Antrim and Down. Ruins of of Oblivion on account of his religion and, on presenting himself at castles may be seen perched on basalt crags fringing the coast court, was imprisoned in the Tower, subsequently being called be- from Carrickfergus to Dunluce and Dunseverick. The first-named fore the lords justices in Ireland, In 1663 through the influence of has a commanding position of strategic importance and was 0cthe queen mother he obtained a pardon, his estates being restored cupied by Edward Bruce during his expedition to Ireland in 1315. to him by the Irish Act of Explanation in 1665. Antrim died on During Tudor times there was a considerable infiltration of Scots Feb. 3, 1683. He is described by Clarendon as of handsome ap- into Antrim which, therefore, has a mixed population, although

ANTRIM—ANTUNG it was not included in the territory partitioned during the plantation of Ulster. It was a recognized division before the general establishment of shires. Economic Survey.—The chief centres of population in later times are in the lowlands and along the coastal fringe. With the exception of Belfast (q.v.) and possibly of Larne, there is no large port around the coasts of Antrim. The,numerous bays, however, afford shelter for small fishing villages and holiday resorts.

Larne has passenger

communication

with the Scottish

ports of Stranraer and Ayr. The fisheries of the Bann and of Lough Neagh are not only attractive to sportsmen but are also of commercial value, the chief centre being Toome. The plateaux of east Antrim consist of heathery moorland with a few scattered peat deposits. They provide pasturage for sheep but are sparsely populated, most of the villages being in the valleys. The more recent deposits of the valleys of the Bann and the Lagan, and also of the lowlands around Lough Neagh, form the richest agricultural areas. Oats, potatoes and flax are the principal crops. The production of flax increased considerably

during the World War but has been on the decrease since. The peasants of Antrim and of Ulster in general depend largely on the potato crop and have suffered so much in bad seasons that attempts are being made to encourage home industries and to organize resources scientifically. The cultivation of fruits is being encouraged and extended. The valley of the Lagan provides rich pasturages which are famous as cattle-fattening centres. The great linen and ship building industries of Antrim centre on Belfast (g.v.) which is the metropolis of the area. Other centres of the linen industry are Lisburn on the Lagan, and Ballymena on the Braid. The former probably owes its importance to skilled Huguenot weavers who settled there after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Industry in Antrim has been handicapped by absence of local supplies of coal and iron, but it has grown in Belfast to which such supplies can easily be brought by water, chiefly from Scotland. Some coal for local needs is mined at Ballycastle. There are a few minor activities which should be noted. Whisky distilling is carried on at a few centres. Bushmills in the north has several paper mills. Rock salt some Soft. thick is mined near Carrickfergus. The Keuper clays yield material for bricks. Bauxite, which is believed to be derived from the decay of lavas, is found between Glenarm and Broughshane, in association with iron-ores, both these materials being worked commercially. Bauxite occurs also near Ballintoy. With the exception of the Great Northern railway line from

Belfast to the south and west, with a branch from Lisburn to

Antrim, the principal lines of communication are those of the L.M.S.R. The railway network depends largely on the physical features of the county. From Belfast there is a line up the fertile Lagan valley with connections to Antrim and Ballymena and thus along the west of the main mountain area to Coleraine. Another line from Belfast skirts the important north shore of Belfast lough, through Carrickfergus to Larne. Valley routes have been utilized to give this packet station inland connections with Ballymena and also with a line connecting Antrim and Belfast lough. Two other routes across the mountains of the east may be mentioned. From Ballymena a line runs some distance beyond Parkmore; from Ballymoney there is a branch to Ballycastle, Along the east coast the absence of important towns and the narrowness of the coastal plain have hindered development of communication, the chief centres being linked, as already stated, with inland towns rather than directly with one another along the coast. The county is divided into nine urban districts and nine rural districts and into seven poor law unions. It returns seven members to the parliament of Northern Ireland and two members to the parliament of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

85

the strategic advantages of the site, which in more peacéful times led to the rise of a small market town, with manufactures of paper, linen and woollen cloth, commanding important routes. The town now has railway communications with Belfast, Larne, Coleraine and other important centres.

ANTRUM, a chamber or recess. When applied to the human

body, the unqualified term usually refers to the antrum of Highmore or maxillary sinus. This is an air space situated in the cheek bone on either side of the nasal orifice. It is the largest of the bony sinuses which communicate with the nasal cavity. It is lined with mucous membrane, and opens into the nasal cavity by a small hole at the highest point on its inner wall. During the course of a cold its lining membrane is usually inflamed like that of the rest of the nose, and if its opening becomes closed by a plug of mucus or by swelling of the mucous membrane, pus may accumulate in the cavity and give rise to fever and pain. On. account of the position of its opening, natural drainage is poor, and sometimes it is necessary to make an artificial opening at a lower level, to facilitate irrigation and drainage. Other antra are: the pyloric antrum, the lower third of the stomach between the large fundus and the narrow pyloric canal; the duodenal antrum or duodenal bulb, a dilatation in that part of the duodenum continuous with the stomach; the tympanic or mastoid antrum, a small air space in the mastoid bone leading from the middle ear to other air spaces in the mastoid.

ANTRUSTION, the name of the members of the military

household of the Merovingian kings. Any one desiring to enter the body of antrustions had to present himself armed at the royal palace, and there, with his hands in those of the king, take a special oath in addition to the oath of fidelity sworn by every subject at the king’s accession. In return for the services to which he was bound the antrustion became specially entitled to the royal assistance and protection, and his wergeld was three times that of an ordinary Frank. The antrustion was always of Frankish descent, and only in certain exceptional cases were

Gallo-Romans admitted into the king’s bodyguard. The antrustions, belonging as they did to one body, had strictly defined duties towards one another; thus one antrustion was forbidden to bear witness against another under penalty of 15 solidi. The antrustions seem to have played an important part at the time of Clovis. Afterwards, their rôle became less important. For each of their expeditions, the kings raised an army of citizens in which the Gallo-Romans mingled more and more with the Franks; they only kept one small permanent body which acted as their bodyguard, some members of which were from time to time told off for other tasks, such as that of forming garrisons in the frontier towns. The institution seems to have disappeared during the anarchy with which the 8th century opened. See M. Deloche, Za Trustis et lVantrustion royal sous les deux premières races (1873); H. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, vol. ii, pp. 97 et seq., in Handbuch systematisches der deutschen Rechtswissenschaft (1893); G. Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte, 3rd ed. vol. ii. pp. 335 et seg. (1896); P. Guilhermoz, Essai sur les origines de la noblesse au moyen age (1902). (C. PF.)

ANT-THRUSH:

see Pirra.

ANTUNG, a treaty port in eastern south Manchuria on the

Korean frontier (39° 59’ N. 124° 30’ E.). It lies at the mouth of

the Yalu river and is the natural outlet of its basin, which drains the tangled forested mountain country of east Manchuria and west Korea. Its importance as a timber market, especially significant by reason of the generally treeless character of north China, is a result of this position. Antung has had long-standing trading relations with Chefoo in the silk trade in which Antung has long been tributary to Chefoo but which she now threatens to supplant. The modern importance of Antung, however, is bound up essentially with its position as a frontier station through which the railway from Korea, whose communications are closely linked with those of Japan, passes into south Manchuria, across a in Ireland, Northern Antrim, County town, a ANTRIM, valley half a mile from Lough Neagh. Pop. (1926) 1,979. Near a long bridge over the Yalu. This railway connection is particuthe town is one of the most perfect of the round towers of Ireland, larly significant in view of the Japanese direction of the develop93ft. high and soft. in circumference at the base, which may per- ment of south Manchuria. Japan in fact monopolizes the foreign haps have been a protection against the Scandinavians who made import trade of Antung and takes one-half of its exports of raw Lough Neagh one of their bases. Antrim Castle also testifies to silk and bean products. At the beginning of the present century

ANTWERP

86

timber was the most important export of Antung, but it has since given place to silk and to bean products. The total volume of trade has risen steadily from Hk.T]s.4,763,238 in 1907, when the port was first opened to foreign trade, to Hk.Tls.93,156,8rz in 1926 and among Chinese ports it has nsen from 24th to 7th place.

ANTWERP,

rule from 1795 to 1814, and also during the timè Belgium formed part of the kingdom of the Netherlands (1815 te 1830). Antwerp

had reached the lowest point of its fortunes in 1800, and its popu-

lation had sunk under 40,000, when Napoleon, realizing its strate. gical importance, assigned two millions for the construction of two docks and a mole. In 1830 the city was captured by the Belgian insurgents, but the citadel continued to be held by a Dutch garrison under Gey.

the most northern of the nine provinces of

Belgium, conterminous with the Dutch frontier on the north. Malines, Lierre and Turnhout are among its towns, but the chief

one is the commercial metropolis of Belgium. It is divided into districts (atrondissements), viz., Antwerp, Malines, Lierre, Turnbout and Boom. These ate subdivided to 23 cantons and 154 communes. Area 707,932aC., Or 1,106sq. miles. Pop. (1925)

t

RN tat fos 4 tae NETT ala

1,101,454, or 996 per Sq. mile.

eit

ANTWERP, a fortified city in Belgium on the right bank of

BI

the Schelde. It is the capital of the province of the same name and Belgium’s commercial centte. In the 4th century Antwerp is mentioned as one of the places in the second Germany, and in the 1xth céntury Godfrey of Bouillon was for some years best ‘known ‘as marquis of Antwerp. Antwerp was the ‘headquarters of Edward III. during his early |

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OF

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CHURCH

ARCHITECTURE

IN

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BEGUN IN 1352. If HAS A BEAUTIFUL TOWER 400 FT. HIGH AND CONTAINS MANY PAINTINGS BY FLEMISH MASTERS AND A HEAD OF CHRIST ‘BY LEONARDO DA VINCI

Chassé. For a time this officer subjected the town to a periodical bombardment which inflicted much damage, and at the end of | 1832 the citadel itself was besieged by a French army. During this attack the town ‘was further injured.

In Dec. 1832, after a

gallant defence, Chassé made an ‘honourable surrender. Between 1878 and 1914 it was converted from a fortress to a fortified position by construction of an outer line of forts 5 to

11m. from ‘the city, but none of these had been completed when | war was declared in Aug. ror4. The Belgian Government left Brussels for Antwerp on Aug. 17, 1914; and three days later the Belgian army took up a position behind the fortified lines. The began on Sept. 28 and on Oct. 9 the city surrenbombardment massacred. Eight hundred houses ‘were burnt ‘down, and over By dered. that date only about a tenth of the population remained two millions Sterling of datnaze was 'wrought in the town on that 300 houses were destroyed, mostly in the in the Some city. occasion. Marché-aux-Souliers, the Avenue d’Amétique and the suburbs near AS THE TERMINUS: 'OF THE'BELGIAN' CANAL AND RIVER SYSTEM, ANTWERP "CLEARS OVER 20 MILLION ‘TONG:OF SHIPPING FROM ITS PORT ANNUALLY. THE QUAYS AND DOCKS SERVE INLAND AND OCEAN NAVIGATION

In 1585 a sévere blow’ was struck‘at the prosperity of Antwerp

when Parma captured it after a long siege and serit all its Protes-

the forts. On Nov. ro, ror8, the ‘king and queen of the Belgians

"entered the city in state. tant citizens into exile. The recognition of the independence of Antwerp is finely laid out with broad avenues along the first the United ‘Provinces by the Treaty of ‘Minster in 1648 carried enceirite. Long streets and terraces ‘of fine houses belonging to

With it a’severe blow to Anitwerp‘for it stipuldted that the Schelde

should be closed to navigation. This impediment remained in force until 1863, although ‘the provisions were relaxed during French

merchants ahd manufacturers testify to its prosperity, and recall the 16th century distich that Antwerp was noted for its moneyed men (“Antwerpia nummis”). Despite war and disturbances it

ANTWERP still preserves many memorials of its early grandeur, notably its fine cathedral, begun in the 14th century, but not finished till 1518. Its tower of over 4ooft. is seen from afar over the flat country.

A second tower was planned but never erected. The proportions of the interior are noble, and in the churca are hung three of the masterpieces of Rubens, viz., “The Descent from the Cross,” “The Elevation of the Cross’ and “The Assumption.” St. James is far more ornate than the cathedral, and contains the tomh of Rubens,

who devoted himself to its embellishment. The old Bourse or Exchange (1531), said to be the first of its name in Europe, was burnt in 1858 and replaced by a new one in 1872. Fire has destroyed several other old buildings in the city, notably in 1891

the house of the Hansa League on the northern quays.

The

Maison Plantin, the house of the great x5th century printer C. Plantin (g.v.) and his successor Moretus, stands exactly as it did in the time of the latter. The new picture gallery close to the southern, quays is a fine building divided into ancient and modern sections. The collection of old masters is very fine, containing many splendid examples of Rubens, Van Dyck, Metsys and the chief Dutch masters. Antwerp, famous in the middle ages and at the present time for its commercial enterprise, enjoyed in the ryth century a celebrity not less distinct or glorious in art for its school of painting, which included Rubens, Van Dyck, Jordaens, Breughel, the two Teniers and many others. Commerce.—In 1863 Dutch rights to. levy toll were redeemed

by purchase and since then Antwerp has grown rapidly from about 500,000. tons of shipping inwards to 14,146,818 tons in 1913. The war made a complete break, but after the war trade rapidly surpassed pre-war achievements, with a tonnage of 15,050,182 in 1922, rising steadily to 22,794,896 in 1926. Docks were built progressively before 1914, and include (1) the little or Bonaparte

dock, (2) the Willem dock, also of Napoleon’s time, (3) the Junction dock, (4) the Kattendijk, built 1860, enlarged 1881, (5) the Wood dock, (6) the Campini dock, (7): the Asia dock linked by canal with the Meuse, as well as the Schelde, (8) the Lefebvre deck, (9) the America dock, opened 1905. Post-war extensions include construction of a canal dock over three miles long which stretches from the old wet dock No. 3 to the bend of the Schelde at Kruisschans, where it ends in a maritime lock. approximately 886ft. long and, 115ft. wide, with a depth ranging from: 33. to. 48ft. The dock itself is maintained at a constant depth of about 3oft., and is connected with the other docks in the harbour by a channel about a4oyd. long and rroyd. wide. Further schemes of extension

included the construction of wet docks adjoining the canal dock and in 1925 the building of two wet and three dry docks was undertaken. The complete ‘plan was designed to give the port a total dock water area of 1,334ac. and a quayage length of 28 miles. The necessary railway extensions bring the length of the port railway system up to 500 miles. The improvements at Ant-

werp are not confined to the construction of new docks. The quays flanking the Schelde, 34m. in length, are of granite, with hydraulic cranes, warehouses, etc. The construction of river boats for export to Africa was resumed after 1918, and this industry rapidly approached its former importance. Shipbuilding proper showed but little prosperity; ship-repairing is done. In 1927 the port

obtained the right to export Alsatian potash to the amount of 150,000

tons per annum

and storage buildings

for this are

being built. Limits and Population.—At the time of the declaration of Belgian independence Antwerp’s defence was its citadel and an enceinte of about 24 miles. In 1859, in a general reorganization of Belgian defence, the old enceinte and the citadel with the exception of the Steen, now a historical museum, were removed: A new enceinte of 8m. was devised’ which is now being demolished to allow of further extensions. In May 1927 the area controlled by the municipality was increased’ by growth northwards to the extent of 3,500 hectares, with absorption of five villages. Napo-

leon thought. the left bank of the Schelde was the most natural line of expansion of Antwerp and. there have been projects of a tunnel under the river but nothing has yet heen done. In 1800 the population did not exceed 40,000. In 1846 it was 88,487; in 1851, 95,501; in 1880, 169,100; in 1900, 272,830; in

87

1904, 291,949 or, with two incorporated suburbs, 361,723; in 1925 the estimated population was 450,000. See C. Scribanii, Origines Antwerpiensium and Antwerpia (1610);

J. L. Motley, Rise of the Dutch Republic (1859); E. Gens, Histoire de la ville d’Anvers (1861); P. Génard, Anvers à travers les âges (2 vols., 1888-92); W. C. Robinson, Antwerp (1904); J. Wegg, Antwerp, 1477-1559 (1916), Decline of Antwerp under Philip of Spain (1924); T. A. Goris, Etude sur les colonies marchandes à Anvers (1925). See also Annuaire statistique de la Belgique, and for recent events bibliographies of the World War.

ANTWERP,

SIEGE OF, Sept-Oct. 1914. This was the

preliminary move of the Germans’ second bid for victory in the World War, after their opening sweep through Belgium and Northern France had been foiled in the Battle of the Marne. In ‘rear of the Meuse the natural line of defence for the Belgian | Army against an adversary from the east is the Schelde and the entrenched camp of Antwerp. As a commercial metropolis Antwerp was an obvious centre for arsenals, hospitals and stores of

munitions and provisions, and it became the army’s base of operations. By reason of its situation the fortress was also a refuge, if only a temporary one; and it was an excellent flank position for use against the lines of communication of the German Armies eperating in the north of France. Through Ostend and Zeebrugge, Antwerp had easy means of communication with

England. Under the shelter of Antwerp and the Schelde, British

troops could safely land in Flanders, operate im liaison with the

Belgian Army, protect the Pas-de-Calais coast with its sea traffic, vital ta England, and prevent the Allied left wing from being turned and enveloped. The Defences Described.—The entrenched camp of Antwerp, as it was in 1914, was the result of two distinct undertakings, the first carried out between 1859 and 1870 under the direction of Brialmont, and comprising a line of detached farts placed about two ta three miles from the agglomeration of buildings, and a polygonal enceinte on the outskirts of the city; the second, after 1906, which provided a principal Hime of defence, at a distance of 5 to rrm. from the city proper, composed of 17 forts about 3m. apart, with permanent redoubts in the intervals. Forts and redoubts were constructed entirely of ordinary concrete, with

vaults 2-50 metres, thick at the crown and surrounded by wet ditches, 33ft. wide. The old fort line was about to be transformed

into an enceinte de sdreté, the forts being organized for small weapons and connected by concrete redoubts and a grille. These extensive works had necessarily to be spread over several years and on the outbreak of hostilities in 1914, not one of the forts planned in 1906 was completed. No equipment for fire observation and no observation posts existed and the necessary survey work for firing by the map was incomplete. The substructures and the armouring, constructed to resist the 21-cm. mortar, were not calculated to face 30-5- or 42-cm. projectiles. The total perimeter was 60m. of which 6m. were protected by inundations. The defence force numbered only 40,000 men, most of whom had seen no military service for ten years. The staff was entirely inadequate for the duties. Operations Begin.—The retreat of the Belgian Army behind

the Nethe on Aug. 20 (see Betcrvm, Invasion oF), was only temporary. When the German I. Army wheeled through and past Brussels on its way to France, it dropped the III. Res. Corps under von Beseler, and three Landwehr brigades, to face northward‘ as a flankguard against the Belgian Field Army in Antwerp. Von Beseler took up his position on the line Grimberghen-overde-Vaert-Aerschot. On Aug. 25 and again on Sept. 9 the Bel-

gians, in co-operation with the Allied attacks on the frontiers and the Marne, made: sorties from Antwerp and attacked his lines. On the second’ of these- occasions His situation was at one time critical. A: third sortie was being prepared toward' Sept. 20, when reports began to come in of important German movements and of a quantity of very heavy artillery on the roads in the region north of Brussels. Falkenhayn, acting as chief of the general staff, had: given the order to carry the fortress and the powerful matériel, which had laid in ruins the forts of Liége, Namur ard Maubeuge, was being established’ in position between the Senne

and the Grande Nethe, from Sempst to Heyst. The total artil-

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Company. In another direction astonishing progress has been made of recent years. Motor cars first came to the Hejaz dur-

or earlier. A queen of this people (the “Queen of Sheba”) is

personal and official use. Nejd

Sabaean rule is generally divided into periods indicated by the titles given to their rulers. In the first of these (between the oth and the 6th century) ruled the Makarib, who seem to have been priest-kings. Their first capital was at Sirwah. The second period begins about 550 B.c. The rulers are known as “kings of Saba.”

said (I. Kings x.) to have visited ing the World War but were sternly discouraged thereafter by is, however, no mention of such Solomon about 950 B.c. There a queen in the inscriptions. The King Husain except for limited

and Hasa saw motor cars for the first time in 1919 or 1920. With the establishment

of the Wahhabi

régime in the Hejaz, how-

ever, motor transport was allowed in connection with the 1926

and subsequent pilgrimages, with the result that the number of cars in the country has increased from four to over 600 in two years. The journey between Jedda, Mecca and Medina is now

regularly performed by car, while the road between Medina and

Yanbu has recently been opened. Ibn Saud and his large camp following have also in two successive years performed the journey between Hejaz and Riyadh in the royal fleet of cars, from 25 to

30 vehicles.

ETRE EE elii iheyelel7 AAT

Motor transport is thus definitely established in

etA NSl XAFI EEEN al

Arabia. At the end of 1927 the construction of a metalled road between

Jedda and Mecca was begun but there are no other metalled roads in the whole

country.

Of the old caravan-routes

one of the

Porteesateseese

most important, that from Damascus to Medina, has been killed

by the Hejaz railway, as the adoption of the sea route killed the

pilgrim track along the coast from Aqaba to Yanbu and Mecca.

Camel transport still holds its own, however, on the Hejaz pilgrim tracks and for goods, while it still enjoys the monopoly of the main north to south and east to west routes across the penin-

sula, as well as on all the feeder-routes.

There is regular steamship communication between Suez and Port Sudan and the Arabian ports of the Red Sea down to Aden,

while in the pilgrim season Jedda receives numerous ships direct

from Java, Singapore and India. Mokalla is in similar commercial communication with Bombay and Karachi, whence there are also regular sailings to the Persian Gulf ports. In addition to the above a great part of the Arabian coasting traffic is carried on by native sailing-boats. Commerce.—For want of exact statistics in most of the ports concerned with the export and import trade of Arabia it is diffcult to estimate the annual value of goods entering and leaving

Arabia. The chief articles of export are coffee (from Aden, Hodeida and Mocha), hides, wool, saman (clarified butter), sheep (mainly from Wajh to Suez) and dates (from Hasa). Specie, mainly brought in by the pilgrims visiting the country, is exported in large quantities to make good the deficit between the small volume of exports and the heavy imports of the ordinary necessaries of life—piece-goods, rice, flour, sugar and tea. Of recent years motor cars and machinery of all kinds have formed a rapidly increasing part of the import trade of the country. (H. Sr. J. B. P.) HISTORY Arabia is a land of Semites, and is supposed by some scholars to have been the original home of the Semitic peoples. The dispersion of the early Arabian Semites is easy to imagine. The migration into Babylonia was simple, as there are no natural boundaries between it and north-east Arabia. That of the Aramaeans at an early period was likewise free from any natural hindrance. The connection with Palestine has always been close; and the Abyssinian settlement is probably as late as the beginning of the Christian era. Of these migrations, however, history knows nothing. Arabian literature has its own version of prehistoric times, but it is entirely legendary. In the roth century the discovery and translation of numerous early Arabian inscriptions revealed the existence of a great civilization in Arabia for at least 1,000 years before the Christian era and stimulated the study of the materials in the Assyrian inscriptions, the Old Testament, and classical writings. All scholars are agreed that the inscriptions reach as far back as the gth century B.c. and prove the existence of at least four civilized kingdoms during these centuries. These are the kingdoms of Matin (Minaean), of Saba (Sabaean), of Hadhra-

maut (Hadramut) and of Katabania (Katabanu).

Of the two

latter little is known. Saba and Ma‘in.—As to the Sabaean kingdom there is fair agreement among scholars. The inscriptions go back to 800 B.c.

BY COURTESY

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The inscription is a dedication to the god Almakah, deity. The script used is developed from the so-called the Sth century B.C.

IN BAS

RELIEF

who was a Sabaean Phoenician of about

Their capital was Ma’rib. Their sway lasted until about Irs B.C., when they were succeeded by the Himyarites. During this period they were engaged in constant strife with the neighbouring kingdoms of Hadramut and Katabanu. The great prosperity of south-west Arabia at this time was due in large measure to the fact that the trade from India with Egypt came there by sea and then went by land up the west coast, but this trade was lost when the Ptolemies established an overland route from India to Alexandria. The connection of Saba with the

north, where the Nabataeans (q.v.) had existed from about 200 B.C., was now broken. The decay that followed caused a number of Sabaeans to migrate to other parts of Arabia. The Minaean kingdom extended over the south Arabian Jauf, its chief cities being Karnau, Matin and Yathil. Some 25 kings are known from the inscriptions, and their history must cover several centuries. As inscriptions in the Minaean language are found in al-‘Ula in north Arabia, it is probable that they hac colonies in that district. With regard to their date opinion is much divided; some scholars maintaining that their kingdom existed prior to that of Saba, others that none of the inscriptions is earlier than about 800 B.c. and that the Minaean kingdom existed side by side with the Sabaean. It is curious that the Sabaean inscriptions contain no mention of the Minaeans, though this may be due to the fact that very few of the inscriptions are historical in content.

About 115 B.C. the power over south Arabia passed from the Sabaeans to the Himyarites, a people from the extreme south-west of Arabia; and about this time the kingdom of Katabanu came to an end, The title taken by the new rulers was “king of Saba and Raidan.” In this period the Romans made their one attempt at direct interference in the affairs of Arabia. But the expedition under Aelius Gallus was betrayed by its guides and lost in the desert. During the latter part of this time the Abyssinians, who had earlier migrated from Arabia to the opposite coast of Africa, began to flow back to the south of Arabia, and in the 4th century they became strong enough to overturn the Himyarite kings and establish a dynasty of their own. The Himyarites were, however, still active, and having accepted Judaism founded a Jewish Sabaean kingdom. The struggle between them and the Abyssinians now became one of Judaism against Christianity, and apparently for this reason Christian Abyssinia was supported from Byzantium in its attempts to regain power. These attempts were crowned with success in 525, but in 575 the Persians, who had been called in by the opponents of Christianity, succeeded in taking over the rule and in appointing governors over Yemen. (See further ETHIOPIA: The Axumite Kingdom.)

Hira, Ghassan and Kinda.—The kingdom of Hira (Hira) was established in the fertile boundary land between the Euphrates

178

ARABIA

and the Arabian desert. The chief town was Hira, a few miles south of the site of the later town of Kufa. The inhabitants of this land are said in Tabari’s history to have been of three classes: —(1z) The Tanukh (Tnuhs), who lived in tents and were Arabs from the Tehama and Nejd, who had united in Bahrein to form a new tribe, and migrated from there to Hira about the beginning or middle of the 3rd century av. The Arabian historians relate their conflict with Zenobia. (2) The ‘Ibad or ‘Ibadites, who dwelt in the town of Hira in houses and so led a settled life. These were Christians, whose ecclesiastical language was Syriac, and language of intercourse Arabic. A Christian bishop of Hira is known to have attended a synod in 410. In the sth century they became Nestorians. (3) Refugees of various tribes, who came into the land but did not belong to the Tanukh or the ‘Ibad. There is no trustworthy information as to the earlier chiefs of this people. The dynasty of the Lakhmids, famed in Arabian history and literature, arose towards the end of the 3rd century and lasted until about 602.

[HISTORY

advent the country was peopled by various tribes, some more or less settled under the government of south Arabia, Kinda, Hira and Ghassan, these in turn depending on Abyssinia, Persia and

Rome (i.e., Byzantium); others as in the Hejaz were ruled in smaller communities by members of leading families, while in various parts of the peninsula were wandering Arabs still maintain-

ing the traditions of old family and tribal rule. To these may be

Although so many of their subjects were Christian, the Lakhmids remained heathen until Nu‘man, the last of the dynasty. The kingdom of Hira always stood in a relation of dependence on Persia. At the height of its power it was able to render valuable aid to its suzerain. Much of its time was spent in wars with Rome and Ghassan. Its revenues were derived from the neighbouring Bedouins as well as its own subjects. About 602 the Lakhmid dynasty fell, and the Persian Chosroes IT. appointed as governor

an Arab of the tribe of Tai. In the beginning of the 6th century a.p. a dynasty khown as the Jafnids enter into the history alike of the Roman and Persian empires. They ruled over the tribe of Ghassan in the extreme north-west of Arabia, east of the Jordan, from near Petra in the south to the neighbourhood of Rosafa in the north-east. Of their origin little is known except that they came from the south. A

part of the same tribe inhabited Yathrib (Medina) at the time of Mohammed. The first certain prince of the Jafnid house was Harith ibn Jabala, who, according to the chronicle of John Malalas, conquered Mondhir of Hira in 528. In the following year, according to Procopius, Justinian perceived the value of the Ghassanids as an outpost of the Roman empire, and as opponents of the Persian dependants of Hira, and recognized Harith as king of the Arabs and patrician of the Roman empire. He was thus constantly engaged in battles against Hira. In 54r he fought under Belisarius in Mesopotamia. After his death friendly relations with the West continued until about 583. The Ghassanid kingdom split into sections each with its own prince. Some passed under the sway of Persia, others preserved their freedom at the

BY COURTESY

OF THE

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OF

THE

BRITISH

MUSEUM

EARLY HIMYARITIC SCRIPT ON A BRONZE TABLET

expense of their neighbours. At this point their history ceases to be mentioned in the Western chronicles.

This tablet, 1934 In. by 1034 Inohes, Is characteristic in its representation of animals and plants. The top border depicts two sphinxes, backed by palm trees and facing each other from opposite sides of the conventional sacred tree

central Arabia, the tribe of Kinda under the sway of the family of Aqil ul Murar, who came from the south. They seem to have

‘added a certain number of Jewish tribes and families deriving their origin partly from migrations from Palestine, partly from converts among the Arabs themselves. Mohammed appealed at once to religion and patriotism; the external conquests of the Arabs were

In the last decade of the sth century a new power arose in

stood in much the same relation to the rulers of Yemen, as the people of Hira to the Persians and the Ghassanids to Rome. Abraha in his invasion of the Hejaz was accompanied by chiefs

of Kinda.- Details of their history are not known, but they seem

to have gained power at one time even over the Lakhmids of Hira: and to have ruled over Bahrein as well as Yemama until the battle of Shi’b ul Jabala, when they lost this province to Hira. The poet Amru’ul Qais was a member of the princely family of Kinda. The Coming of Mohammed.—Apart from the powers men-

tioned above, Arabia in the 6th century was ina state of political chaos. Bahrein, inhabited chiefly by the Bani ’Abd Qais and the Bani Bakr, was largely subject to Persian influence near its coast, and a Persian governor, Sebocht, resided in Hajar, its chief town. In Oman the Arabs, who were chiefly engaged in fishing and sea-

faring, were Azdites mixed with Persians. The ruling dynasty of Julanda in their capital Suhar lasted on till the ‘Abbasid period.

On the west coast of Arabia the influence of the kingdom of Yemen was felt in varying degree according to the strength of the rulers of that land. Apart from this influence the Hejaz was simply a collection of cities each with its own government, while outside the cities the various tribes governed themselves and fought continual battles with one another. Thus at the time of Mohammed’s

the natural outcome of his ideas, but his own work was the unifcation of Arabia. It began with the formation of a party of men —the Muhajirun (Refugees or Emigrants) and the Ansar (Helpers or Defenders)—-who accepted Mohammed as their religious leader. As the necessity of overcoming his enemies became urgent, this party became military. A few successes in battle attracted to

him men who were willing to accept his religion as a condition of membership of his party, which soon began to assume a national form. The capture of Mecca (630) was not only an evidence of his growing power, which induced Arabs throughout the peninsula to join him, but gave him a valuable centre of pilgrimage. At his death in 632 Mohammed left Arabia practically unified.

Early Caliphs.—Abu Bekr (632-634), the first of his successors, Was a man of simple life and profound faith. He understood

the intention of Mohammed as to foreign nations, and as soon as

he assumed office he sent out the army already chosen to advance

against the Romans in the north. The successful reduction of the

rebels in Arabia enabled him in his first year to send his great

general Khalid with his Arab warriors first against Persians, then

against Romans. Under the second caliph Omar (634-644) the

HISTORY]

ARABIA

Persians were defeated at Kadesiya (Kadessia), ‘Iraq was completely subdued, and the new cities of Kufa and Basra were

founded (635). In the same year Damascus fell into the hands of the Arabs. In 636 Jerusalem fell and received a visit from the

caliph. Three years later the fateful step was taken of appointing Moawiya (Mu’awiyya) governor of Syria. In 640 ‘Amr-ibn-el-

Ass invaded Egypt, and the following year took Alexandria and

179

though it was involved in the struggle which followed the election of ‘Ali. Ayesha, Talha and Zobair, who were strong in Mecca, succeeded in obtaining possession of Basra, but were defeated in 656 at the battle of the Camel (see Art). In the south of Arabia ‘Ali succeeded in establishing his own governor in Yemen, though

the government treasure was carried off to Mecca. But the centre

of strife was not to be Arabia, When ‘Ali left Medina to secure Basra, he abandoned it as the capital of the Arabian empire. With the success of Moawiya Damascus became the capital of the caliphate (658) and Arabia gation of Persia and crowned the conquests of Omar’s caliphate. importance because, of its a mere province, though always of possession of the two sacred cities, The reign of the third caliph Othman (644-656) was marked by Mecca and Medina. The final blow to any political pretensions of the beginning of the internal strife which was to ruin Arabia; but Medina was dealt by the caliph when he had his son Vazid declared the foreign conquests continued. In the north the Muslim arms his successor, thus taking reached Armenia and Asia Minor; on the west they were success- zens of Medina to elect away any claim on the part of the citito the caliphate. ful as far as Carthage on the north coast of Africa. After the murThe Omayyads and ‘Abbasids.—The early years of

founded Fostat (which later became Cairo). The victory at Nehavend in 641 over the Persians, the flight of the last Sassanid king and the capture of Rei or Rai in 643 meant the entire subju-

der of Othman, “Ali (656-661) became caliph, but Moawiya, governor of Syria, soon rebelled on the pretext of avenging the death of Othman. After the battle of Siffn (657) ‘Ali was deposed (658), and the Omayyad dynasty was established with its capital

at Damascus. During these early years the Arabs had not only made conquests by land, but had found an outlet for their energy at sea.

In 640 Omar sent a fleet of boats across the Red Sea to protect the Muslims on the Abyssinian coast. The boats were wrecked. But Othman allowed a fleet from Africa to help in the conquests of the Levant and Asia Minor, and in 649 he sanctioned the establishment of a maritime service, on condition that it should be voluntary. Abu Qais, appointed admiral, showed its usefulness by the capture of Cyprus. In 652 Abu Sarh with a fleet from Egypt defeated the Byzantine fleet near Alexandria.

The first task of Abu Bekr had been to reduce the rebels who

threatened to destroy the unity of Arabia even before it was fully

established. At the end of the first year of his caliphate he saw Arabia united under Islam. The new national feeling demanded that all Arabs should be free men, so the caliph ordained that all Arab slaves should be freed on easy terms. The solidarity of Arabia survived the first foreign conquests. It was not intended that Arabs should settle in the conquered lands except as armies of occupation. Thus it was at first forbidden that Arabs should

buy or possess land in these countries, Kufa was to be only a military camp, as was Fostat in Egypt. The taxes with the booty from conquests were to be sent to Arabia for distribution among the Muslims. Many of those who went forth acquired property and rank in the new lands. Kufa attracted chiefly men of south Arabia, Basra those of the north. Both became great cities, each with a population of 150,000 to 200,000 Arabians. Yet so long as the caliphs lived in Medina, the capital of Arabia was the capital of the expanding Arabian empire. To it was brought a large share of the booty. The caliphs were chosen there, and there the rules for the administration were framed. Thence went out the governors to their provinces. Omar was the great organizer of Arabian affairs. He compiled the Koran, instituted the civil list, regulated the military organization, He, too, desired that Mohammed’s wish should be carried out and that Arabia should be purely Muslim. To this end he expelled the Christians from Nejran and the Jews from Khaibar. The secondary position that Arabia was beginning to assume in the Arabian empire is clearly marked during the caliphate of Othman. In his appointments to governorships and other offices, as well as in his distribution of spoil, Othman showed a marked preference for members of his own tribe the Koreish (Quraish) and his own family the Bani Omayya (Umayya). The other Arab tribes became Increasingly jealous of the Koreish, while among the Koreish themselves the Hashimite family came to hate the Omayyad, which now had much power, although it had been among the last to accept Islam and never was very strict in its religious duties. But the quarrels

which led to the murder of Othman were fomented not so much in Arabia as in Kufa and Basra and Fostat. In Kufa a number of the Koreish had settled, and their arrogance became insupportable.

The result was the murder of the caliph. Syria alone remained

the Omayyads were years of constant strife in Arabia. The Kharijites

who had opposed ‘Ali on the ground that he had no right to allow the appeal to arbitration, were defeated at Nahrawan or Nahrwan

(658), but those who escaped became fierce propagandists against

the Koreish, some claiming that the caliph should be chosen by the Faithful from any tribe of the Arabs, some that there should be no caliph at all, that God alone was their ruler and that the government should be carried on by a council. They broke up into many sects, and were long a disturbing political force in Arabia as elsewhere. On the death of ‘Ali his house was represented by his two sons Hasan and Hosain (Husain), Hasan soon made peace with Moawiya. On the accession of Yazid, Hosain refused homage and raised an army, but was slain at Kerbela (680). ‘Abdallah ibn Zobair immediately stepped forward in Mecca as the avenger of ‘Ali’s family and the champion of religion. The two sacred cities supported him, Medina was besieged and sacked by the troops of Yazid (682) and Mecca was besieged the following year. The siege was raised in the third month on the news of the death of Yazid, but not before the Ka'ba had been destroyed. ‘Abdallah remained in Mecca, recognized as caliph in Arabia, and soon after in Egypt and even a part of Syria. He defeated the traops of Merwan I., but could not win the support of the Kharijites. In 691 Abdalmalik (‘Abdul-Malik) determined to crush his rival and sent his general Hajjaj against Mecca. The siege was begun in March 692, and in October the city was taken and ‘Abdallah slain. Abdalmalik was now supreme in Arabia and throughout the Muslim world. During the remaining years of the Omayyad dynasty’ (2.@,, until 750) little is heard of Arabia in history. The conquests of Islam in Spain on the one side and India on the other had little or no effect on it. It was merely a province. The accession of Abul ‘Abbas and the transference of the capital of the caliphate from Damascus to Kufa, then Anbar and soon after (in 760) to Baghdad meant still further degradation to Arabia and Arabs. From the beginning the ‘Abbasids depended for help on Persians and Turks, and the chief offices of State were frequently filled with foreigners, In one thing only the Arabs con-

quered to the end; that was in their language. The study of Arabic was taken up by lexicographers, grammarians and poets with a zeal rarely shown elsewhere. The old Arabian war spirit was dying, Although the Arabians, as a rule, were in favour of the Omay-

yad family, they could not affect the succession of the ‘Abbasids. They returned more and more to their old inter-tribal disputes. The Carmathians,—Towards the close of the oth century Arabia was disturbed by the rise of a new movement which during the next hundred years dominated the peninsula. In 880 Yemen was listening to the propaganda of the new sect of the Carmathians (g.v.) or followers of Hamdan Qarmat. Four years later these had become a public force. In goo ‘Abu Satid al-Jannabi, who had been sent to Bahrein by Hamdan, had secured a large part of this province and had won the city of Katif (Ketif) which contained

many Jews and Persians, The Arabs who lived more inland were

mostly Bedouin who found the obligations of Islam irksome, and do not seem to have made a very vigorous opposition to the Carmathians who took Hajar the capital of Bahrein in 903. From this. they made successful attacks on Yemama (Yamama), and

loyal to the house of Omayya. Arabia itself counted for little, attempts on Oman. In 906 the court at Baghdad learned that these

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sectaries had gained almost all Yemen and were threatening Mecca and Medina. Abu Sa‘id was assassinated (913) in his palace at

[HISTORY WAHHABI

MOVEMENT

Modern Arabian history begins with the Wahhābi movement Lahsa, which in 926 was fortified and became the Carmathian of the middle of the 18th century. Arabia was at the time parcapital of Bahrein. His son Sa‘id was deposed and succeeded by celled out in a number of principalities or baronies, independent of his brother Abu Tahir. His success was constant and the caliphate each other and ever striving for existence and mastery. Of the was brought very low by him. In Arabia he subjugated Oman, central and eastern States those of the ‘Arair house in Hasā, of Ibn and swooping down on the west in 929 he horrified the Muslim Mu‘ammar at ‘Ayaina and of Ibn Da‘as at Manftha appear to have world by capturing Mecca and carrying off the sacred black stone been the principal when the originator of the Wahhabi puritan re. to Bahrein. In 939, however, the stone was restored and pilgrim- vival, Muhammad Ibn ‘Abdul Wahhab, returned about 1750 to ages to the holy cities were allowed to pass unmolested on pay- ‘Ayaina, where he had been born at about the beginning of the ment of a tax. So long as Abu Tahir lived the Carmathians con- 18th century. He had during a long period of absence studied at trolled Arabia. After his death, however, they quarrelled with the Basra and Damascus and visited Mecca for the pilgrimage, returnFatimite rulers of Egypt (969) and began to lose their influence. ing convinced of the backsliding of his fellows from the pure prinIn 985 they were completely defeated in ‘Iraq, and soon after lost ciples of the Muslim faith and determined to preach reform on control of the pilgrimages. Oman recovered its independence. puritanical lines, involving an uncompromising return to the pracThree years later Katif, at that time their chief city, was besieged tice and precepts of the Prophet. Rejected by the prince of and taken by a Bedouin sheikh, and subsequently their political ‘Ayaina as a mischief-making busybody he sought and found hospower in Arabia came to an end. It was significant that their pitality at the court of the petty but ambitious baron of Dar'iya, power fell into the hands of Bedouins. Arabia was now completely Muhammad Ibn Sa‘tid, who found himself hemmed in between the disorganized. Mohammed’s attempt to unify it had failed. The two fires of ‘Ayaina and Manfitha. Within a few years Muhammad country was once more split up into small governments, more or Ibn Sa‘tid, who died in 1765, had gathered a considerable army of less independent, and groups of wandering tribes carrying on their fanatical Bedouins round his standard and effectually established petty feuds. Of their history during the next few centuries little his own supremacy throughout central and eastern Arabia. His is known, except in the case of the Hejaz. Here the presence of son, ‘Abd-ul-‘aziz, extended his power far beyond the limits of the sacred cities led writers to record their annals. The two cities Nejd and his attacks on the pilgrim caravans from 1780 onwards were governed by Arabian nobles (sherifs), often at feud with one compelled the attention of the Ottoman sultan. In 1798 a Turkish another, recognizing formally the overlordship of the caliph at force invaded Hasa but was compelled to withdraw, the Wahhibis Baghdad or the caliph of Egypt. Thus in 966 ‘Alyite took posses- retaliating in 1801 by the capture and sack of the Shia‘ holy city sion of the Government of Mecca and recognized the Egyptian of Karbala and capturing Mecca the following year. On both occacaliph as his master. About a century later (1075-94) the ‘Abba- sions they destroyed tombs and other objects of veneration and sid caliph was again recognized as spiritual head owing to the carried away all relics and treasure of value. In Oct. 1802, ‘Abdsuccess in arms of his protector the Seljuk Malik-Shah. With the ul-‘aziz Ibn Sa‘tid was murdered in the mosque at Dar‘iya by a fall of the Baghdad caliphate all attempts at control from that Shia‘ fanatic in revenge for the desecration of Karbala. Sa‘tid, who quarter came to an end. After the visit of the Sultan Bibars had for many years commanded his father’s armies in the field, (1269) Mecca was governed by an amir dependent on Egypt. celebrated his accession to the throne by the capture of Medina in Outside the two cities anarchy prevailed and the pilgrimage was 1804. The Wahhabi empire, which reached the confines of Oman frequently unsafe owing to marauding Bedouins. In 1517 the and Yemen in the south, was now at its zenith and seemed desOsmanli Turkish sultan Selim conquered Egypt, and, having been tined to embrace the whole Arab race. The Ottoman sultan was, accorded the right of succession to the caliphate, was solemnly however, now roused to a sense of the dangerous situation which presented by the sherif of Mecca with the keys of the city and had arisen in Arabia, and at the same time the discipline accepted recognized as the spiritual head of Islam and ruler of the Hejaz. by the Bedouin tribes as the condition of their victorious and At the same time Yemen, which since the 9th century had been in profitable progress through the length and breadth of Arabia began the power of a number of small dynasties ruling in Zubed, San‘a, to be irksome in the circumstances of peace. Turkey was fully ocSa‘da and Aden, passed into the hands of the Turk. Little more cupied with affairs in Egypt and, accordingly, the sultan deputed than a century later (1630), a Yemen noble, Khasim, succeeded to Muhammad ‘Ali, the viceroy of Egypt, the task of crushing the in expelling the Turk and establishing a native imamate, which Wahhabis. Sa‘tid had set out on a campaign against Baghdad in lasted until 1871. 1811 when Tussin, the pasha’s son and only 16 years of age, For the history of Yemen during this period see H. C. Kay, landed with 10,000 men on the Hejāz coast. The Wabhabi ruler, Omarah’s History of Yaman (1892), and S. Lane-Poole, The turning west to meet the new danger, defeated Tusstin, but Mecca Makommedan Dynasties, pp. 87-103 (1894). and Medina were occupied by the Egyptian forces in 1812. In 1813 Since the separation from the caliphate (before a. 1000) Muhammad ‘Ali himself took charge of the operations but without Oman had remained independent. For more than a century it was success, and in 1814 Tussin suffered a defeat near Taif. The same governed by five elected imams, who were chosen from the tribe year Sa‘iid died and his son, ‘Abdullah attempted to negotiate, but of al-Azd and generaily lived at Nizwa. After them the Bani the Egyptian pasha advanced in 1815 to Rass which was captured. Nebhan gained the upper hand and established a succession of Peace was then arranged and the Egyptians retired from Nejd, kings (maliks) who governed from 1154 to 1406. During this whereupon ‘Abdullah refused to carry out some of the conditions time the country was twice invaded by Persians. The “kings of imposed on him. In 1816 the struggle was renewed, Ibrahim Pasha Hormuz” claimed authority over the coast land until the begin- replacing his brother Tussin in the Egyptian command. Having ning of the 16th century. In 1435 the people rose against the secured by presents the allegiance of the Harb and Mutair tribes tyranny of the Bani Nebhan and restored the imamate of the tribe he defeated ‘Abdullah at Wiya and advanced into Nejd. The foural-Azd. In 1508 the Portuguese under Albuquerque seized most months siege of Rass failed but Ibrahim, leaving it aside, captured of the east coast of Oman. In 1624 a new dynasty arose in the ‘Anaiza after a bombardment and occupied Buraida. The ‘Ataiba interior, when Nasir ibn Murshid of the Yariba (Ya‘aruba) tribe and Bani Khalid having now joined his cause he captured Shaqra (originally from Yemen) was elected imam and established his in Jan. 1818 after a regular siege and, sacking Huraimala on the capital at Rustak. He was able to subdue the petty princes of the way, began the siege of Dar‘iya on April 14. On Sept. 9 the capital country, and the Portuguese were compelled to give up several surrendered and ‘Abdullah was ignominiously beheaded at Contowns and pay tribute for their residence at Muscat. About 1651 stantinople. Dar‘iya was razed to the ground and Egyptian garthe Portuguese were finally expelled from this city, and about 1698 risons were posted in several of the Nejd towns. ‘The Wabhibi from the Omanite settlements on the east coast of Africa, empire had collapsed incontinently and the Arabs recognized their For the history of Oman from 661 to 1856 see G. P. Badger, inability to stand before disciplined troops, but the Egyptians History of the Imams and Seyyids of Oman by Salil-ibn-Razik found equal difficulty in retaining their hold on the turbulent (1871). (G. W.T.) interior.

HISTORY]

ARABIA

In 1824 ‘Abdullah’s son, Turki, headed a rising and re-estab lished the Wahhabi State with his capital at Riyadh. Accepting the nominal suzerainty of Egypt and paying tribute, he consoli-

181

‘Ataiba followed the standard of the Wahhabi allies. Zamil was in an impregnable position based on the sand-hills opposite Qara ‘a while the enemy sought in vain all day to tempt him to open combat in the plain. Towards sunset his patience gave way and Ibn Rashid’s superior cavalry soon had the allies at their mercy. Zamil

dated his power on solid foundations til] 1834 when he was murdered by his cousin, Mishari. In 1836 his son and successor Feisul, refused tribute and an Egyptian force was sent to depose him. and his eldest son were killed as also two of the Ibn Sa‘id family. He was led away captive to Cairo, Khialid, of a collateral branch ‘Anaiza and Buraida opened their gates to the victorious Muhamof the family, being installed in his place as amir. The Egyptian mad, to whom Riyadh and its dependent provinces soon made garrisons were, however, gradually withdrawn to support Muhamtheir submission. For the six years of life which remained mad ‘Ali and Ibrahim in their conflict with Turkey for to him Syria. In his writ ran unquestioned from Jauf to Wadi Dawasir. The 1842 Feisul, having escaped from prison, reappeared in Arabia and Wahbhabi dynasty ceased to exercise any shred of authority in was universally accepted as ruler. The last remnants of the EgypArabia and the exiled remnants of the Ibn Sa‘tid family found tian troops were ejected and the Wahhabi State was once more inscattered refuges at Kuwait and Bahrein and other localitie s on dependent of all foreign control. Oman, Yemen and Hejaz rethe Persian Gulf. To all appearances the Wahhabi power was fimained outside the pale and Bahrein, with British support, refused nally at an end and the strong and stable Government of Muhamto return to the Wahbhabi fold, but elsewhere Feisul re-established mad Ibn Rashid gained the praise and approbation of all who saw his writ within the old limits. The rest of his reign until his death it. But fate was busy with other designs and only three years in 1867 was spent in the consolidation of his central Arabian doafter his death in 1897 the house of Ibn Sa‘iid was back in the minions, in strenuous efforts to keep the peace between his two saddle and only a quarter-century later Muhammad’s own dynasty eldest sons, “Abdullah and Sa‘iid, and in constant watchfulness to had ceased to exist. The wheel of fortune had come full circle. ward off the challenge of a rival power which had arisen ‘Abd-ul-‘aziz IL. Ibn Sa‘td.—Muhammad, leavin in the g no sons, north during his Egyptian exile. was succeeded by his brother Mit‘ab’s son, ‘Abd-ul-‘aziz, who posOwing to a feud between his family and the Ibn ‘Al, the presessed none of the political acumen of his uncle and soon estranged mier house of the Shammar tribe, ‘Abdullah Ibn Rashid, had mi- the sympathies of the Wahhabi provinces. Meanwhile the growin grated to Riyadh in 1830. Four years later he had rendered signal g power of Shaikh Mubarak of Kuwait was becoming a serious service to Feisul by helping him to recover Riyadh from the usurfactor in the Arabian situation, and a still more serious factor, as pation of his father’s murderer. As a reward he was granted the events were to prove, was the young prince ‘Abd-ul-‘aziz Tbn governorship of Hail and by skilful and sympathetic administraSa‘ad (g.v.), living in exile at Kuwait with his father, ‘Abd-u l-rahman, tion of the Bedouins had by the time of Feisul’s return from exile the youngest of Feisul’s four sons. The political trainin g received consolidated his position as a ruler independent in all but name. by young ‘Abd-ul-‘aziz at the hands of Mubarak was destin In 1843 he died and was succeeded by his son, Talal, who, with the ed to be a large factor in the history of the country during the first quarter loyal assistance of his uncle, ‘Ubaid, carried on the work of his of the 20th century, the first decade of which was a period father, fortified his capital and extended his jurisdiction to Khaiof war and rumours of war in Arabia.

bar, Taima and Jauf. At the same time in spite of occasional

alarums and excursions he maintained a proper attitude towards Feisul, while flirting alternately with the Turks and Egyptians. His death by his own hand in 1868 was the beginning of a long series of tragedies in the house of Rashid. Leaving no children he was succeeded by his brother Mit‘ab, who was soon after murdere d by his nephews, the elder of whom, Bandar, became amir. Muhammad, the third son of ‘Abdullah, realizing, thanks to Hamid, the son of ‘Ubaid, that his life was in danger, saved himself by slaying Bandar and seizing the Citadel. He then perpetrated a general massacre of the members of his family and thus, with blood on his hands, began a reign destined to be both long and disting uished in the annals of Arabia. Muhammad Ibn Rashid.—Securely established in north and west Arabia Muhammad in 1872 found a suitable occasio n for interference in the affairs of the south. ‘Abdullah, the son of Feisul, had after a reign of five years been ejected by his brother, Sa ‘tid, and appealed to Muhammad who succeeded in oustin g the usurper. In 1874, however, ‘Abdullah, once more deposed, found an asylum at Hail whence he appealed for assistance to Midhat Pasha, the Turkish governor at Baghdad. The latter, in spite of British protests, occupied Has& in 1875 and established a new province under the title of Nejd with ‘Abdullah as its governor, thus reasserting the Turkish claim to suzerainty over central Arabia abandoned three decades earlier by the Egyptians. Nejd itself was, howeve

r, not occupied and ‘Abdullah was left to prosecute

his quarrel with Sa‘id, now ruler of Riyadh, as best he could. Turkey

was too busy with the Russian war to attend to Arabian affairs though a few years later her attempt to occupy Bahrei n was frustrated by a British gun-boat. Central Arabia revert ed to a state

of anarchy centring round the constant struggles of the

hābi brothers for supremacy, while the astute ruler two Wahof Hail manoeuvred to establish his own power throughout the whole of Nejd.

This menace from the north resulted in a loose coaliti on of the southern provinces under Zamil, the famous amir of ‘Anaiza, who protected Doughty in 1877. A long period of desulto ry skirmishing without result found the rival armies drawn up in line of

battle for the final test at Mulaida in 1891. With

were his own Shammar and the Harb, while the Muhammad Mutair and

An unsuccessful attempt by ‘Abd-ul-rahman in 1900 to reassert Wabhabi claims in Arabia was followed next year by a bold and successful coup-de-main on the part of ‘Abd-ul-‘aziz, then a lad of 20. The attention of Hail, encouraged by Turkey, was concentrated on a quarrel with Mubarak against whom an expedition under Ahmad Faizi Pasha was equipped at Basra in 1901. Mubarak appealed to Great Britain and the Turkish design was duly frustrated. Kuwait was not formally, placed under British protection, but it was officially announced by the Government on May 5, 1903, “that the establishment of a naval base or fortifie d port in the Persian Gulf by any other power would be regarded as a very grave menace to British interests which would certainly be resisted with all the means at its disposal.” Meanwhile ‘Abd-ul-‘aziz Ibn Sa‘tid, having launched out into the desert with a mere handful of followers, succeeded in entering Riyadh by night and slaying the Rashidite governor. Having thus assumed the Amirate of the capital he busied himself during the next few years in recover ing the outlying provinces of the south and Washm and Sudair on the north. Simultaneously Mubarak in alliance with Sa‘din Pasha of the ‘Iraq Muntafik threatened Ibn Rashid from the east and with their assistance Ibn Sa‘id in 1904 recovered the provinc e of Qasim, inflicting two defeats on the Shammar forces. The Porte now came to the assistance of its protégé by sending out columns of troops from Medina and Basra, the latter again under Ahmad Faizi Pasha. The Qasim was occupied without difficulty but in 1904 an important battle took place between the Wahhabis under Ibn Sa‘tid himself, who was wounded, and the combined TurcoShammar force at Bukairiya. No decisive result was achieved, but the Wahbhabi claim to the victory is at least justified by the fact that the Turks withdrew their forces finally from central Arabian soil and the Qasim remained under the dominion of Ibn Sa‘td. This position was definitely crystallized in 1906 by the defeat and death in battle of ‘Abd-ul-‘aziz Ibn Rashid at Raudhat al Muhanna. Since then the Shammar forces have never seriously threatened the Wahhabi dominions. From 1906 to 1908 a period of anarchy followed at Hail under a succession of short-lived amirs of the ‘Ubaid branch until in the latter year Sa‘td, the son of ‘Abdul-‘aziz, definitely emerged triumphant and remained on the throne until 1920, when he was assassinated. Apart from intermittent

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ARABIA

struggles for suzerainty over Jauf and a somewhat desultory alliance with the Turks during the World War, the history of Hail since 1908 is that of a petty State eclipsed by the growing greatness of the rival Wabhabi State of the south, with which it became finally merged by the capture of Hail by Ibn Sa‘iid in August 1921, and the removal of the surviving members of the Ibn Rashid dynasty—including the last two reigning amirs, ‘Abdullah Ibn Mit‘ab and Muhammad Ibn Talal—-to Riyadh. Jabal Shammar, for 87 years an independent State and during part of Muhammad’s reign the capital of a central Arabian empire, thus ceased to exist except as a province of the Wahhabi power, in which status it has remained ever since.

The victory of Raudhat al Muhanna left Ibn Sa‘iid in undisputed mastery of central and southern Nejd and free to concentrate on the consolidation of his State on firm foundations, The history of Arabia had taught him two lessons by which he was quick to profit with results visible in the Arabia of to-day. The first was that the centrifugal tribal organization of the mainly nomad population could be welded together under a suitable stimu-

[HISTORY

British authorities abandoned the idea of further active co-operation with Ibn Sa‘tid, with whom, however, a treaty of friendship

was concluded at ‘Ugair in Dec. 1915 by Sir Percy Cox, But for the purposes of the war the centre of Arabian gravity was now transferred to Hejaz (g.v.), where Sharif Husain Ibn ‘Ali, amir of Mecca, raised the standard of revolt against the Turks in June

1916, His unauthorized assumption of the title of “King of the Arab Countries” was not viewed with favour by Ibn Sa‘id and

created between the two rulers an ever-growing coolness which was only prevented from culminating in open hostilities during the war by the constant efforts of the British Government. This

estrangement was exacerbated by a dispute over the village of

Khurma on the Hejaz-Nejd border at the end of 1917, when the Philby mission visited Ibn Sa‘tid on behalf of the British Govern. ment to re-focus his attention on an attack on Ibn Rashid, In 1918 the Khurma affair developed in a series of crises and the village folk under their Sheikh, Khalid Ibn Luwai, were called upon to defend themselves against three attacks by the Sharifian forces. Meanwhile Ibn Sa‘tid was engaged in an expedition which

lus, such as religious revival, for the prosecution of a common led him to the walls of Hail but achieved no solid result, and the cause whether defensive or offensive, but could not be held to- World War ended leaving him still within his pre-war frontiers gether in cold blood for purposes of peaceful development. The with a potential casus belli in Khurma in the west. In 1919 King second was that a single great tribe could achieve great conquests Husain appealed for British intervention on this issue and in under a leader of capacity, but could not administer its conquests March Lord Curzon, deciding in his favour, authorized him to except under the urge of a religious stimulus. The plan he formu- occupy Khurma and warned Ibn Sa‘id to relinquish it on pain of lated was nothing less than to break down the Bedouin constitu- incurring the displeasure of the British Government and of losing tion of his subjects under the stimulus of a new religious revival his subsidy of £60,000 a year. In May the Hejaz forces under and to perpetuate that break-down for the purposes of adminis- ‘Abdullah, the king’s second son, camped at Turaba, 80m. from tration under peace conditions by the creation of agricultural col- Khurma, and were attacked during the night by the Wahhabi onies wherever possible. Thus the Bedouins, tending to settle on army. ‘Abdullah’s force was annihilated, though he himself the land in non-tribal groups based on agriculture rather than pas- escaped with a small following, and Taif was evacuated by its ture, acquired a stake therein which could easily be used to ad- inhabitants for fear of a Wahhabi attack. But Ibn Sa‘iid, content vantage against their nomad brethren. “Back to the Koran and on with the annexation of Turaba, withdrew to Riyadh and turned to the land” became as it were the matto of the new Jkhwan move- his attention to other fields of expansion. The upland districts ment, an ultra-puritan revival of the original Wahhabi movement, of ‘Asir with its capital, Ibha, were the first to fall to his sword which Ibn Sa‘tid incepted and financed at the desert wells of ‘Arta~ in 1920. The following year Hail capitulated and the Wahhabi Wiya In 1912—now a large walled city with nearly 10,000 inhabi- armies occupied Khaibar and Taima, In 1922 Jauf fell and the tants. The first adherents to the new movement were the Mutair whole of inner Arabia was under Ibn Sa‘ud’s control, his out: under Faisal al Duwish, their leading sheikh, and since then over posts reaching to the confines of Oman and Yaman. The struggle 50 [khwan settlements have come

into existence in all parts of the with Hejaz was still to come and the British Government, having

country with a permanent population of not less than 50,000 souls —the nucleus of the standing army of the Wabhabi State. For five

placed its nominees, the Sharifs Feisal and ‘Abdullah, on the thrones of Trans-Jordan and ‘Iraq, endeavoured to compose the years the essential] character and immense possibilities of this differences between the rival parties by convening a conference movement were not appreciated outside the limits of Nejd itself, at Kuwait during the of 1923-24, The definite failure of Consciqusness of it then began to dawn slowly on the world, which (his gathering to arrivewinter at any arrangement by April resulted in declined to take it seriously. And to-day its achievements are uni- its dissolution and in Sept. 1924, the capture and sack of Taif by versally recognized and admitted. Ghatghat and ‘Artawiya are the Wabbabi vanguard ushered in the final campaign against names ta conjure with in all the border-lands, as many explorers Hejaz, Mecca was occupied in October and Ibn Sa‘id made his have found to their advantage. formal entry into the holy city on Dec. 5. The siege of Jidda was Having organized the nucleus of this movement, and warned by immediately begun and somewhat later that of Medina. The fall recent developments of the revival of Turkish interest in the of both cities in Dec. 1925 left Ibn Sa‘iid master of Hejaz of direction of Nejd-—the proposal to utilize Kuwait as the terminus which he was proclaimed king on Jan, 8, 1926. During the siege of the Baghdad railway and the mission of Saiyid Talib Pasha of of Jidda Sir Gilbert Clayton visited Ibn Sa‘id in Wadi Fatima Basra to Has& were not the least of such indications—Ibn Sa‘iad to negotiate the treaties of Bahra and Hadda, by which the bounddecided to strike a blow in vindication of his independence. Early aries of Nejd and in 1914 he descended suddenly on Hasā with a small force and between ‘Iraq and Trans-Jordan were fixed and various questions captured Hufif by a night-attack almost without resistance on the was negotiated at Nejd settled. In May 1927 a further treaty Jidda by Sir Gilbert Clayton with Ibn Sa‘id in part of the Turkish garrison, which took refuge in the fort-like his dual character of king of Hejaz and N ejd and its dependencies, precincts of the Ibrahim Pasha mosque but surrendered next day, Nejd having been proclaimed a kingdom in Feb. 1927, when Ibn The Turkish troops were escorted to the coast, and with the garri- Sa‘tid returned to Riyadh for his first visit since the beginning of sons of Qatif and ‘Uqair, which likewise surrendered, were allowed the Hejaz campaign. By subsidiary treaties in 192z and 1922 to depart in peace by sea. And, before the Turks could avenge the (negotiated at Muhammara and ‘Ugair) various outstanding loss of their eastern province, they were involved in the World questions between Ibn Sa‘iid on one side and ‘Traq and Kuwait War, as the result of which they ceased to exercise dominion in any on the other had been regulated, including the frontiers between part of Arabia, Nejd and the two States mentioned. Late in 1927, however, the The World War.—-The co-operation of Ibn Sa‘tid was sought building of a police outpost by the ‘Iraq Government at Busaiya hy Great Britain at an early stage of the World War, Captain W. in the neighbourhood of the frontier—by a protocol attached to H. I. Shakespear of the Indian political department being deputed the ‘Uqair treaty the building of fortifications on desert wells to get into touch with him, Ibn Sa‘id immediately began hostili- near the frontier was forbidden—precipitated a renewal of the old ties against Jabal Shammar which had declared for Turkey, and a troubles, and raids by the Mutair into ‘Iraq were answered by the battle was fought at Jarrab in Jan. 1915, without decisive result. despatch of R.A.F. aeroplanes into the deserts of Nejd in search Unfortunately Shakespear was killed in this encounter and the of the raiders,

HISTORY]

ARABIA EUROPEAN

Oman.—European

INFLUENCE

influence, which has hever penet

rated far inland, was not felt in any part of Arabia until the 16th century after

the discovery of the Cape route. In t 506 the Portuguese under Albuquerque seized Hormuz and occup ied Maskat and the coast

of Oman (g.v.) until 1650. The Persian occupation

which succeeded the Portuguese lasted roo years till 1759 when the Ghaffari dynasty, which has lasted ever since , was established by Ahmad Ibn Sa‘id. In 1798 his son entered into treaty relations with

183

In 1905 the commander, ‘Ali Ridha Pasha, surrendered and Ahmad Faizi Pasha was sent out from Constantinop le with a large force to restore the situation, San‘a being recovered and the rebellion crushed. In I9II ‘Asīr staged a revolt against the Turks

under

Saiyid Muhammed al Idrisi who with Italia n assistance succeeded in asserting his virtual independence in the Tihima. In 1915 he allied himself with Creat Britain but contributed little to the common cause, while the Imam of Yemen remained faithful to his Turkish

allegiance, and early in the East India Company with the object of exclu ding the caused to the authorities at Aden by the war some anxiety was French fromm Oman, and the next ruler, Sa‘id the development of a Turk(1804-56) still ish menace to the Protectorate. further strengthened the British connection. For From 1918, the Turks having a while early surrendered all their Arabian interes in the roth century Oman became subject to the ts, the Imam Yahya continued Wahhabj empire to rule independently from San‘a, but regained its independence in 1818 Mean but Hudaida was Occupied in while a British- 1920

Indian expedition had in 1810 destroyed the stron

by the Idrisi, relying on his treaty with Great Britain, after

Jawasimi pirates on the coast. Sa‘id subsequent gholds of the the failure of a British mission under Col. H. F. Jacob in late fleet and took possession of Socotra and even ly equipped a I9I9 to get into touch with the Imam—it was forcibly detained Zanzibar, as well at Bajil by the Quhra tribes men, Subsequently the Imam estabas the Persian coast north of Hormuz to Gwad ar on the east. On lished his authority at Hudai da and, Ibn Sa‘id having occupied his death in 1856 his dominions were divid ed between his sons, upland ‘Asir, the Idrisi was left with only a small area in the Majid teceiving Zanzibar while Thuwaini with British support Tihama and was forced by circum established himself in Oman, whose Independence stances in 1926—Saiyid Muwas recognized hammad had been succeeded in 1862 by Great Britain and France. Turki succe by his son, ‘Ali, and the latter had eded Thuwaini been expelled by his uncle, Hasan, on his assassination in 1866 and, on his death the present governor—to place in 1888, the British himself under the Protec torate of Ibn Sa‘td. In 1926 a British Government installed and subsidized Feisy] on the condition that mission under Sir Gilber t Clayton failed to arrive at an agreement he should cede no part of his territory te any other Power. Great with Imam Yahya, with whom the Italian Government made a Britain has followed a similar policy of exclu sive influence in a treaty in the same year, recognizing him as king of Yemen. series of agreements with the petty States of the Trucial coast, Hejaz—In Hejaz European interests the southern coast and the shores of the Persian Gulf have long been repreup to Kuwait. sented by the consuls and agents Oman figures prominently in connection with of various Powers at Jidda and the arms traffic in 1916 the British authorities question, itt which French subjects were activ organized and supported the revolt ely interested, early of Sharif Husai

in the 2oth century, while German and Russi an inter

ests were active at the same time in efforts to secure coali ng-stations in the

gulf. The World War helped to stereotype the de facto position of Great Britain as warden of the south and éast coasts of Arabia

and of the adjacent seas, and this position finds expre ssion in the various treaties

n against the Turks. Jidda and Wajh were captured with British naval assistance and the land operations of the Arabs against the Hejaz railway were actively supported by

the Arab

bureau of Cairo which was charged in this theatre. The captute of ‘Aqaba by Lawrewith the operation nce in 1917 practically completed

the defeat of the Turks in Hejaz, though they held out at Medina till Jan. 1919. The whole country was then left to King Husain to administer as an and Mukalla. Late in 1927 the Persian Governme independent kingdom nt and, though he gave the British Government challenged this position in respect of Bahrain much trouble and (g.v.) in a some- many anxious motnents by his what naive protest to the League of Natio ns. For all practical to interfere with the local reckless rule, no attempt was made purposes the “British lake” policy holds the administration. Lawrence in 1921 field in the Persian failed to negotiate a treaty with Gulf to-day and the only section of its Husain and in 1924 British inArabian coast which ig tervention to adjust his difficulties with Ibn Sa‘tid again failed effectively independent is the Flasa shore of at Ibn Sa‘iid’s dominions. the Conference of Kuwait . During the Wahhabi invasion which Recently there has been talk of laying the route of the Cairo- followed Great Britain and the other Powers declared their neuKarachi air-mail along this coast, but no decis ion hag yet mate- trality and Husain, having abdica ted the throne in 1924, retired rialized. to ‘Aqaba, which, with Ma’an, the British Yemen.—As in the Persian Gulf, so in Government made an the Red Sea the Portu- unsuccessful attempt in negotiation with King ‘Ali to detach guese were the first to show a European flag. In 1516 they failed from the Hejaz in favour of Trans-Jordan. In July 1925, however, in an attempt on Jidda, while the occupation of Yemen soon after a favourable opportunity of achieving this object présented itself by the Turks frustrated their designs in this direction. For a long and, King Husain having been deported to Cyprus, the British period thereafter the Arabian coast of the Red Sea figured but Government anriexed the territory in question down to the Haqllittle in international citcles, but the openi ng route to India brought it into prominence. The of the overland Mudawwara line. Ibn Sa‘tid has steadily declined to recognize this Hejaz and Yemen annexation as being inconsistent were at this time held by Muhammad ‘Ali with the declared neutrality of as Viceroy of Egypt, Great Britain during the war with though they reverted to direct Turkish rule about 1845. Mean- almost the only cornet of Arabia Husain, and this area remains while in 18309, after some years of trouble, the where the relations of the Arabs British had occupied and Europe have not been satisf actorily adjusted. A similar probAden, which has remained in their possession ever since. Jem In 1857 exists on the Aden Protectorate border where the island of Perim was similarly occupied. the Imam is in In 1842 the conquest occupation of a small area south of Yemen placed the whole of the Red Sea of the Anglo-Turkish boundary littoral (Midian was of 1905. or understandings in force between Great Brita in on the one hand and the rulers of Kuwait, Bahrain, the Trucial States, Oman

ceded to the Turks by ‘Abbas Hilmi in 1892) (H. Sr. J. B. P.) Brsiiocrabuy.—C, Niebuh and during the period 190205 a joint Anglo under Turkish rule eibung von Arabien (Copen-Turkish commission hagen, 1774), with trans. byr, R.Beschr Heron, Travels through Arabia (2 laid down the boundary between Turkish territory and that part vols., poe 1792); J. L. Burckhardt, Travel s in Arabia (1829) of the mainland opposite Aden claimed as and Notes on Bedouin s and Wahdabys a British protectorate. in Arabia (2 vols., 1838): G. A. Wallin (1830); J. R. Wellsted, Travels The line runs from Shaikh Sa‘id opposite , “Journey from Cairo . . . to Perim to a point in Nejd in 1848,” Journ. Wadi Bana 12m. N.E. of Qa‘taba, and Geog. Soc., vol. xxiv. (1854) : H. J. Carter, continues thence (unde- Geological papers on Roy. Wester n India 6. . Gnd the south-east Coast fined) in a north-eastetly direction into the Great Desert. During of Arabia (1857); W. G. Palgrave, Narrat ive of a Year’s 1892-93 Turkey was engaged in the suppressio of y throug h Centra l and Easter n Arabia (2 vols., 1865); L. Pelly, Journe n a serious re- on Report volt in the Yemen headed by the Im&ém a@ Journe y to the Wahha bee Capital of Riyadh .. . (Bombay, with his headquarters at 1866); J. Halévy, “Rappo Sa‘da; but Ahmad Faizi Pasha’s eventual success sur une mission archéologique dans was followed Yémen,” Journal Asiatique rt(1872) ; A, Zehme, Arabien und die Arabgrle by a period of general unrest and in 1904 anoth er rebellion took seit Hundert Jahren

Se and, as a result, San‘a was cut off from comm unication with € coast,

(Halle, 1875); A. Sprenger, Die Alte Geographie Arabiens (Bern, 1875); F, M. Hunter Settlement at Aden, in Arabia (1877 , An Account of the British ); Sir R. F. Burton, The Gold Mines of Midian (1878), Midian Revisited (1879) and Pilgrimage to

ARABIA

134

al Medinah and Meccah (new ed., 1906); E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography (2 vols., 1879); Lady A. Blunt, Pilgrimage to Nejd (2 vols., 1881); J. F. Keane, Six Months in Meccah (1881), My Journey to Medinah (1881), and Six Months in the Hejas (1887) : C. Huber, Journal d'un voyage en Arabie (1883-84) ; R. Manzoni, El Fèmen (1884) ; L. W. C. van den Berg, Le Hadhramout et les colonies Arabes (1886); D. H. Muller, Geographie Hamdanis (Prague, 1886); E. Glaser, Petermanns Mitteilungen (1886—89) and Skizze der Geschichte und Geographie Arabiens (1890); A. Defiers, Voyage en Femen (1889); C. Snouck Hurgronje, Bilder aus Mekkah (Leyden,

1889), “The Holy War’ made in Germany (1915) and The Revolt in Arabia (1917); W. B. Harris, A Journey through the Yemen (1893); E. von Nolde, Reise nach Inner Arabien (Braunschweig, 1895); L. Hirsch, Reisen in Sud-Arabien (Leyden, 1897); J. T. and M. V. A. Bent, Southern Arabia (1900); S. Zwemer, Arabia, the Cradle of Islam (1900); W. F. Hume, The Rift Valleys and Geology

of Eastern Sinai (1901); D. G. Hogarth, The Penetration of Arabia (1904) and Arabia (1922); Gertrude Bell, The Desert and the Sown (1907) and Amurath to Amurath (and ed., 1924); A. Musil, The

Northern Hegéz; Arabia Deserta; The Middle Euphrates; Palmyrena; Northern Negd; The Manners and Customs of the Rwala Bedouins (Am. Geog. Soc’y, 1926~28); G. W. Bury, The Land of Uz (1911)

and Arabia Infelix (1915); H. F. Jacob, Perfumes of Araby (1915) and Kings of Arabia (1923); B. Raunkiaer, Through Wahhabiland on Camel-back (trans., 1916); C. Guarmani, Northern Nejd (trans., 1917); A. J. B. Wavell, 4 Modern Pilgrim in Mecca and a siege in Sanaa (2nd ed., 1918); H. St. J. B. Philby, The Heart of Arabia (2 vols., 1922) and Arabia of the Wahhabis (1928); P. W. Harrison, The Arab at Home (1925); Countess D. Malmignati, Through Inner Deserts to Medina (1925); Lowell J. Thomas, With Lawrence in Arabia (6th ed., 1925); R. E. Cheesman, In Unknown Arabia (1926) ; C. M. Doughty, Arabia Deserta (new ed. in 2 pts., 1926); T. E. Lawrence, The Seven Pillars of Wisdom (1926) and Revolt in the Desert (1927); A. Rihani, With the Wahhabis in Nejd (1928) ; Gertrude Bell, Letters (edit. by Lady Bell, 1927) and official reports; R, Graves, Lawrence and the Arabs (1927); Around the Coasts of Arabia (1930).

ARCHAEOLOGY

Arabia lay between the still more ancient civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia, and was exploited by its two neighbours from early days. Egyptian commercial enterprise in the Red Sea was fully developed before the V. Dynasty (c. 2743 B.c.) and brought gold and incense from East Africa and Arabia; whilst about 2600 B.c. Gudea of Lagash procured diorite and timber from Me-luh-ha, which seems then to have denoted a district in south Arabia, though the name was afterwards extended to East Africa. The evidence for this early penetration of Arabia has to be gathered from Egyptian, Sumerian and Akkadian records; no direct evidence is known to exist in Arabia itself. Mesopotamian influence passed down the Persian Gulf and across south Arabia, where it evolved a local culture of which traces remain. At a later date the trade route from India to the Persian Gulf was extended along south Arabia and so to Egypt and Europe; many articles found in Arabia are connected with this trade route. In south-west Arabia, the cultural centre, there were two great kingdoms, Minaea and Saba’ but it is a matter of controversy whether they were contemporary or followed one another. About A.D. 244 they were replaced by Himyar. In 522 the Abyssinians conquered south Arabia, but towards the end of the 6th century the Persian empire spread down and absorbed all south Arabia. In 622 Mohammed established Islam as a secular power, and ancient conditions came to an end. ; Inscriptions.—The first archaeological material obtained from Arabia was a very faulty copy of five inscriptions made by U. J. Seetzen in 1811. Scientific work dates from J. Halévy, who procured over 600 inscriptions in 1869. From time to time others were found, until E. Glaser, in three expeditions, in 1882-88, obtained 1,032 more, and on these our knowledge of pre-Islamic Arabia is mainly based. In them the two languages, Minaean and Sabaean, are clearly distinguished; a third variety, the Kattabanian, is only a dialect of Minaean. All are loosely classed as Himyaritic. The languages are Semitic, closely related to Akkadian (Babylonian-Assyrian) and to the Ethiopic of Abyssinia, which was colonized from Arabia about the 2nd century B.c., suggesting a culture drift, Mesopotamia—Arabia—East Africa. The modern dialects of Mahra (south Arabia) and Sokotra contain

elements akin to these ancient languages.

| 3

[ARCHAEOLOGY

The script used is developed from the so-called Phoenician of about the 8th century B.c. onwards, and is the direct parent of that still used in Abyssinia. Some inscriptions are adorned with

figures of animals and plants, and these show very clearly the influence of late Assyrian art (cf. Brit. Mus. 48455, 48456). Buildings.—The oldest temples and fortresses in Arabia are due to Graeco-Roman influence and occur mostly in the north. At Marib, the Sabaean capital, are ruins covering an area of about soo metres in diameter, amongst them marble columns without

capitals. Other such remains are scattered over south-west Arabia, but as yet have not been examined adequately, and it is impossible

to say to what period they belong.

West of Marib are the re-

mains of the dam which figures so prominently in Arabic tradition.

These show a very solid construction with several sluices. It was destroyed by a flood and restored about A.D. 447-450 by the Abyssinian governor, Abraha; the inscription recording this has been copied by E. Glaser (Zwei Inschr. uber d. Dammbruch von Morib, in M.V.G. 1897); south-west of this is a building constructed of large blocks of hewn stone. At Aden are rock-hewn reservoirs (cleared in 1856); it is doubtful whether these are of the Minaean-Sabaean age or date from the Persian occupation. In the 6th and 7th centuries Christianity spread over parts of Arabia, its centre being Nejran (north-north-east of Marib). The mosque at San’a was once a church, and Christian symbols occur in various parts. Possibly some of the ancient wells lined with masonry near Medain Salih were the handiwork of monks who brought Byzantine methods of engineering to Arabia and are celebrated in Arabic poetry as well-makers. Within the territory of the ancient Nabataean kingdom, suppressed by Trajan in AD. 106, are found rock-hewn temples and sepulchres in the later

| Greek style, and similar monuments are reported by Doughty as

far south as Medain Salih. Coins, Sculptures, etc.—These finds connect with the ancient trade routes. Greek and Roman coins have been found, sometimes surcharged with Himyaritic letters, as well as native imitations of these types, e.g., obverse, head of Athena, reverse owl, olive spray, crescent, letters often blundered. Later coins, head of Athena replaced by beardless male with curly hair copied from Ptolemaic coins (?), head of Arab king or god encircled by wreath

(Seleucid?). Sculptures, including bronzes, of later Greek workmanship (cf. Brit. Museum, 43311), a very few possibly Egyptian or Assyrian.

Prehistoric Remains.—The prehistoric remains in Arabia are its least known antiquities. In 1926 Flight-Lieut. Maitland observed and photographed circles, forts or cattle-pens, on the

Jebel Druze east of the Dead Sea (Antiquity, 1927, 197), and Doughty reports similar relics some

room.

farther south.

Dol-

mens are scattered over areas east of Jordan, but no information is available as to how far they extend down into Arabia. BIBLiocGRAaPHY.—E. Glaser, Gesch, Arabiens . . . bis zu Muhammad (1880), Skizze (1889-90), Die Abessiner in Arabien u. Afrika (1895); C. M. Doughty, Arabia Deserta (1888, repub. 1921), Corpus Inscript. Semitic., part iv. tom. i. (4 fascic., 1889-1908), tom. ii. (4 fascic., 1911-20), inscriptions, descriptions of localities in introductory notes;

F. Hommel, Siidarab. Chrestomathie (1893), (language, etc.) , Grundriss der Geogr. u. Gesch. d. alten Orients, i. (1904), ii. (1926) ; H. St. J. Philby, Heart of Arabia (1922); G. F. Hill, Catalogue of Greek Coins

of Arabia

(1922), supersedes all previous work;

kanakis (Dr. D. Nielsen), Handbuch

Hommel-Rhodo-

d. Altarabischen Altertumskunde

(1927) ; Admiralty Handbook for Arabia (n. d.), vol. i. only. (D. L. O'L.)

Antiquities.—Much spade-work remains to be done before a

complete picture of life in ancient Arabia can be pieced together. Systematic exploration of its antiquities has never been possible and our knowledge of the subject depends entirely on the reports

and collections of explorers often not properly equipped for the task. In 1876 Doughty studied, sketched and copied the Nabataean rock-tombs and inscriptions at Madain Salih, which have since been studied by Peres Jaussen, Sevignac and others. Other Nabataean rock-tombs with inscriptions were studied in 1877 by Burton

during his examination

of the ancient gold-

workings of Midian. Roman ruins have been found in or near the border of northern Hejaz. At Taima, Huber in 1883 secured

the famous Semitic inscription now in the Louvre, and Doughty

ARABIAN

ART—ARABIAN

recorded the existence of “flagstones set edge-wise” and “round heaps, perhaps barrows” during his wanderings between Khaibar and Hail. The monoliths mentioned by Palgrave at Uyun south

of the latter place were not recorded by Huber or Leachman who

visited the place later and must be held under suspicion pending

verification. At Sadus in Nejd, Pelly found an ancient “Christian” column since destroyed by the Wahhabis. In wadi Sirhan are Roman and early Arab remains—basalt masonry with inscriptions. Near Taif, Doughty found a “prehistoric” sketch of a colossal human being and he and others have recorded the existence at Taif itself of two large shapeless stone idols worshipped by

the ancients under the names of Lat and Uzza and broken up by

the Wahhabis in 1925. The third idol of this group, Manat, possibly a prehistoric monolith, is said to exist somewhere south of

Taif. The meteoric black stone of Mecca was doubtless an ob-

ject of prehistoric veneration and superstition, and the well of Zamzam is certainly of great antiquity. “Eve’s tomb” at Jedda did not apparently exist at the time of Varthema’s visit (16th

century) and has recently (1927) been demolished by the Wah-

habi régime. On the other side of Arabia the puzzle of the exact locality of the ancient seaport of Gerra would seem to have been solved by the discovery by Cheesman of ruins at Ukair, whose name unquestionably preserves the ancient appellation of the city.

In the provinces of Kharj and Afiaj, Philby found ruins in connection with the irrigation systems of these parts. They are perhaps comparable to the tumuli of Bahrein, examined and attributed to the Phoenicians by Bent, Prideaux and others. In

Oman, B. W. Thomas has recently discovered ruins which prove to be of importance. These and the reported buried may cities

of the Rub’ Al Khali deserve investigation. The parts of Arabia most exhaustively studied from the archae-

ological point of view are Yemen and Hadhramaut where considerable remains of the Sabaean and Minaean civilizations have been found. The ruins of Marib, the old Sabaean capital have been visited by Arnaud, Halévy, Glaser and others, who collected a number of inscriptions in the language of Minaea and Saba on bronze and limestone, ‘Arnaud studied in detail the famous dam, on which the irrigation of the district depended and which are comparable to the well-known tank system of Aden. These are unquestionably of great antiquity and were repaire d in and 6th centuries a.p. according to two long inscriptions the sth published by Glaser. Another dam 150 yards long with three tanks above it was seen by W. B. Harris at Hirran in Yemen, The inscriptions above mentioned are in letters apparently derived from the Phoenician. Many of them are of votive character and those of a historical bearing are undated and therefore the subject of controversy. The range of possible dates seems to be from 800 B.c to the 6th century A.D. Among the remains (some în situ and others built into walls) are altars and statue-bases, the later stones being ornamented with designs of leaves, flowers, ox-heads, men and women. Some have designs of a sacred tree similar to those of Babylonia. Grave-stones and stelae as well as bronze castings of various animals also occur. The Vienna Museum possesses a small numbe r of seals of bronze, copper, silver and stone with Sabae an inscriptions and gems of later date with various figures and even Arabic inscriptions. Coins imitated from Greek models but with Sabaean inscriptions have been brought to Europe from Aden, Sana and arib. (H. Sr. J. B. P.)

Ethnology.—As Arabia forms a single unit ethnologically with Asia Minor these two political areas are treated together under Asta Minor: Ethnology. ARABIAN ART: see MOHAMMEDAN ART.

ARABIAN NIGHTS? ENTERTAINMENT: SAND AND ONE NICHTS.

ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY.

see Txov-

What is known as

n” Philosophy owed to Arabia little more than its name“Arabia and its language. It was a system of Greek thought, expressed in a Semitic tongue, and modified by Oriental influences, called into

existence

amongst the Muslim people by the patrona more liberal princes, and kept alive by the intrepid ge of their ity and zeal of a small band

of thinkers, who stood suspected and disliked

PHILOSOPHY

in the eyes of their nation.

185

Their chief claim to the notice

of the historian of philosophy comes from their warm reception of Greek philosophy when it had been banished from its original soil, and whilst western Europe was still too rude and ignorant to be its home (oth to 12th century).

Origin—In the course of that exile the traces of Semitic

or Mohammedan influence gradually faded away, and the last of the line of Saracen thinkers was a truer exponent of the one philosophy which they all professed to teach than the first. The whole movement is little more than a chapter in the history of Aristotelianism. That system of thought, after passing through the minds of those who saw it in the hazy light of an orientalized Platonism, and finding many laborious but narrowpurposed cultivators in the monastic schools of heretical Syria, was then brought into contact with the ideas and mental habits of Islam. But those in whom the two currents converged did not belong to the pure Arab race. Of the so-called Arabian philoso phers of the East, al-Farabi, Ibn-Sina and al-Ghazali were natives of Khorasan, Bokhara and the outlying provinces of north-eastern Persia; whilst al-Kindi, the earliest of them, sprang from Basra, on the Persian Gulf, on the debatable ground between the Semite and the Aryan. In Spain, again, where Ibn-Bajja, Ibn-Tuf ail and Ibn Rushd rivalled or exceeded the fame of the Eastern schools, the Arabians of pure blood were few, and the Moorish ruling class was deeply intersected by Jewish colonies, and even by the natives of Christian Spain. Thus, alike at Baghdad and at Cordova, Arabian philosophy represents the temporary victory of exotic ideas and of subject races over the theological one-sid edness of Islam, and the illiterate simplicity of the early Saracens . Islam had, it is true, a philosophy of its own among its theologians

(see Istam). It was with them that the Muslim theology—the science of the word (Kalim)—first came into existence. Its professors, the Mutdkalliman (known in Hebrew as Medabberim, and as Loquentes in the Latin versio ns), may be

compared with the scholastic doctors of the Cathol ic Church. Driven in the first instance to speculation in theolo gy by the needs of their natural reason, they came, in after days, when Greek philosophy had been naturalized in the Caliphate, to adapt its methods and doctrines to the support of their views. They employed a quasi-philosophical method, by which, according to Maimonides, they first reflected how things ought to be in order to support, or at least not contradict, their opinion s, and then, when their minds were made up with regard to this imaginary system, declared that the world was not otherwise constit uted. The dogmas of creation and providence, of divine omnipo tence, chiefly exercised them; and they sought to assert for God an immediate action in the making and the keeping of the world. Space they looked upon as pervaded by atoms possessing no quality or extension, and time was similarly divided into innume rable instants. Each change in the constitution of the aloms is a direct act of the Almighty. When. the fire burns, or the water moistens, these terms merely express the habitual connection which our senses perceive between one thing and another. It is not the man that throws a stone who is its real mover: the suprem e agent has

for the moment created motion. If a living being die, it is because God has created the attribute of death; and the body remains dead, only because that attribute is unceasingly created. Thus,

on the one hand, the object called the cause is denied to have any efficient power to produce the so-called effect: and, on the other hand, the regularities or laws of nature are explai ned to be direct interferences by the Deity. The supposed uniformity and necessity of causation is only an effect of custom, and may be at any moment rescinded. In this way, by a theory which, according to Averroes (g.v.), involves the negation of science, the Muslim theologians believed that they had exalted God beyond the limits of the metaphysical and scientific conceptions of law, form and matter; whilst they at the same time stood aloof from the vulgar doctrines, attributing a causality to things. Thus they deemed they had left a clear ground for the possibility of miracle s. But at least one point was common to the theological and the philosophical doctrine. Carrying out, it may be, the principles of the Neo-Platonists, they kept the sanctuary of the Deity

186

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PHILOSOPHY

securely guarded, and interposed between Him and His creatures the introductory treatises of the Aristotelian logic. To the Jsagoge a spiritual order of potent principles, from the Intelligence, which of Porphyry, the Categories and the Hermeneutica of Aristotle, is the first-born image of the great unity, to the Soul and Nature, the labours of these Syrian schoolmen were confined. These they which come later in the spiritual rank. Of God the philosophers expounded, translated , epitomized and made the basis of their said we could not tell what He és, but only what He is not. The compilations, and the few who were bold enough to attempt the highest point, beyond which strictly philosophical enquirers did Analytics seem to have left their task unaccomplished. not penetrate, was the active intellect,—a sort of soul of the world The energy of the Monophysites, however, began to sink With in Aristotelian garb—the principle which inspires and regulates the the rise of the Muslim empire; and when philosophy revived development of humanity, and in which lies the goal of perfec- amongst them in the 13th century, in the person of Gregorius tion for the human spirit. In theological language the active in- Bar-Hebra eus (Abulfaragius) (1226-1286), the revival was due tellect is described as an angel. The inspirations which the prophet to the example and influence of the Arabian thinkers. It was receives by angelic messengers are compared with the irradiation otherwise with the Nestorians. Gaining by means of their proof intellectual light, which the philosopher wins by contempla- fessional skill as physicians a high rank in the society of the tion of truth and increasing purity of life. But while the theo- Muslim world, the Nestorian scholars soon made Baghdad familiar logian incessantly postulated the agency of that God whose with the knowledge of Greek philosophy and science which they hature he deemed beyond the pale of science, the philosopher, possessed. But the narrow limits of the Syrian studies, which following a purely human and natural aim, directed his efforts added to a scanty knowledge of Aristotle some acquaintance with to the gradual elevation of his part af reason from its unformed his Syrian commentat ors, were soon passed by the curiosity and state, and to its final union with the controlling intellect which zeal of the students in the Caliphate. During the 8th and oth moves and draws to itself the spirits of those who prepare them- centuries, rough but generally faithful versions of Aristotle’s selves for its influences. The philosophers in their way, like the principal works were made into Syriac, and then from the Syriac mystics of Persia (the Sufites) in another, tended towards a into Arabic. The names of some of these translators, such as theory of the eommunion of man with the spiritual world, which Johanniti us (Hunain ibn-Ishiq), were heard even in the Latin may be considered a protest against the practical and almost schools. By the labours of Hunain and his family the great body prosaic definiteness of the creed of Mohammed. of Greek science, medical, astronomical and mathematical, beArabian philosophy, at the outset of its career in the oth cen- came accessible to the Arab-speaking races. But for the next three

tury, was able without difficulty to take possession of those resources for speculative thought which the Latins had barely

achieved at the close of the 12th century by the slow process of rediscovering the Aristotelian logic from the commentaries and verses of Boéthius. What the Latins painfully accomplished, owing to their fragmentary and unintelligent acquaintance with ancient philosophy, was already done for the Arabians by the scholars of Syria. In the early centuries of the Christian era, both within and without the ranks of the Church, the Platonic tone and method were paramount throughout the East. Their influence was felt in the creeds which formulated the orthodox dogmas in regard to the Trinity and the Incarnation. But in its later days the Neoplatonist school came more and more to find in Aristotle the best exponent and interpreter of the philosopher whom they thought divine. It was in this spirit that Porphyry, Themistius and Joannes Philoponus composed their commentaries on the treatises of the Peripatetic system which, modified often unconsciously by the dominant ideas of its expositors, became in the 6th and 7th centuries the philosophy of the Eastern Church. But the instrument which, in the hands of John of Damascus (Damascenus), was made subservient to theological Interests, became in the hands of others a dissolvent of the doctrines which had

been reduced to shape under the prevalence of the elder Platonism. Peripatetic studies became the source of heresies; and conversely, the heretical sects prosecuted the study of Aristotle with peculiar zeal. The church of the N estorlans, and that of the

Monophysites, in their several schools and monasteries, carried on from the sth to the 8th century the study of the earlier part of the Organon, with almost the same means, purposes and results as were found among the Latin schoolmen of the earlier centuries. Up to the time when the religious zeal of the emperor Zeno put a stop to the Nestorian school at Edessa, this “Athens of Syria” was active in translating and popularizing the Aristotelian logic. Their banishment from Edessa in 489 drove the Nestorian

scholars to Persia, where the Sassanid rulers gave them a welcome; and there they continued their labours on the Organon. A new seminary of logic and theology sprang up at Nisibis, not far from the old locality; and at Gandisapora (ar Nishapur), in the

east of Persia, there arose a medical school, whence Greek medicine, and in its company Greek science and philosophy, ere long spread over the lands of Iran. Meanwhile the Monophysites had followed in the steps of the Nestorians, multiplying Syriac

versions of the logical and medical science of the Greeks. Their

school at Resaina is known from the name of Sergius, one of the first of these translators, in the days of Justinian; and from their

monasteries at Kinnesrin (Chalcis) issued numerous versions of

centuries fresh versions, both of the philosopher and of his com-

mentators, continued to succeed each other. To the Arabians Aristotle represented and summed up Greek philosophy, even as Galen became to them the code of Greek medicine. They adopted the doctrine and system which the progress of human affairs had made the intellectual food of their Syrian guides. From first to last Arabian philosophers made no claim to originality; their aim was merely to propagate the truth of Peripateticism as it had been delivered to them. It was with them that the deification of Aristotle began; and from them the belief that in him human intelligence had reached its limit passed to the later schoolmen (see Scwozasticism). The progress amongst the Arabians on this side lies in a closer adherence to their text, a nearer approach to the bare exegesis of their author, and an increasing emancipation from control by the tenets of the popular religion. Under the Caliphate.—Secular philosophy found its first entrance amongst the Saracens in the days of the early caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty, whose ways and thoughts had been moulded by their residence in Persia amid the influences of an older creed, and of ideas which had in the last resort sprung from the Greeks. The seat of empire had been transferred to Baghdad, on the highway of Oriental commerce; and the distant Khorasan became the favourite province of the caliph. ‘Then was Inaugurated the period of Persian supremacy, during which Islam was laid open to the full current of alien ideas and culture. The incitement came, however, not from the people, but from the prince: it was in the light of court favour that the colleges of Baghdad and Nishapur first came to attract students from every quarter, from the valleys

of Andalusia as well as the upland plains of Transoxiana. Mansir,

the second

of the Abbasids, encouraged

the appropriation of

Greek science; but it was al-Ma‘min, the son of Hariin al-Rashid,

who deserves in the Mohammedan empire the same position of royal founder and benefactor which is held by Charlemagne in the history of the Latin schools. In his reign (813-833) Aristotle was first translated into Arabic. Orthodox Muslims, however,

distrusted the course on which their chief had entered, and his philosophical proclivities hecame one ground for doubting his final salvation.

In the eastern provinces the chief names of Arabian philosophy are those known to the Latin schoolmen as Alkindiys, Alfarabius, Avicenna and Algazel, or under forms resembling these. ‘The first. of these, Alkindius (sea Kuypr), flourished at the court of Baghdad in the first half of the oth century. His claims to notice at the present day rest upon a few works on medicine, theology, music and natural science. With him begins that encyclopaedic

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character—the simultaneous cultivation of the whole field of in- Strictly so called. It is intellect which first makes the abstrac t idea vestigation which is reflected from Aristotle on the Arabian school. a true universal. In

Tn him too is found the union of Platonism and Aristotelianism

expressed in Neoplatonic terms.

Towards the close of the toth

century the presentation of an entire scheme of knowledge, beginning with logic and mathematics, and ascending through the

various departments of physical enquiry to the région of religious doctrine, was accomplished by a society which had its chief seat at Basra, the native town of al-Kindi. This soclety—the Brothers of Purity or Sincerity (Ikhwan us Safati)—divided into four

orders, wrought in the interests of religion no less than of science;

the third place, the form or essence may be looked upon as embodied in outward things , and thus it is the type more or less represented by the member s of It is the designation of these outward things which a natural kind. forms the “first Intent

ion” of names; and it is only at a later stage, when thought Comes to observe its own modes, that names, looked upon as predicables and universals, are taken in their “secon d intention.” Logic deals with such second intentions. It does forms before their embodiment in things, .¢., not consider the as eternal ideas—

hor as immersed in the matter of the phenomenal

world—but as they exist in and for the intellect which has examined and còmparted. Logic does not come in contact with things, except as abroad a desire for further information. The proposed reconciliathey tion between science and faith was not accomplished, because the words are subject to modification by intellectual forms. In other , universality, individuality and speciality are all equally compromise could please neither party. ‘The 51 treatises of which modes of our comprehension or notions; their meaning consists this encyclopaedia consists are interspersed with apologues in in their setting fo rth the relations attaching to any object of our true Oriental style, and the idea of goodness, of moral perfection, conce ption. In the mind, e.g., one form may be is as prominent an end in every discourse as it was placed in referin the alleged ence to a multitude of things, and as thus related will be universal. dream of al-Ma‘miin. The materials of the work come chiefly The form animal, e.g., is an abstract intelligible or metaphysical from Aristotle, but they are conceived in a Platonizing spirit, idea. When an act of thought employ s it as a schema to unify which places as the bond of all things a universal soul of the world several species, it acquires its logical aspect with its partial or fragmentary souls. Contemporary with of generality; and this the various living beings qualified to have the name animal applied semi-religious and semi-philosophical society lived Alfarabius (see to them constitute the natural class or kind. Avicenna’s view of Farast), who died in 950. His paraphrases of Aristotle formed the universal may be compared with that of Abélard, who calls the basis on which Avicenna constructed his System, logical treatises produced a permanent effect on the logicAndof his it “that whose nature it is to be predicated of several,” as if the the generality became explicit only in the act of predication, Latin scholars. He gave the ‘tone and direction to nearly in the all sub- Proposition, and not in the abstract, unrelated sequent speculations among the Arabians. His order and enumeraform or essence. The three modes of the universal before tion of the principles of being, his doctrine of the things, in things, and double of intellect, and of the perfect beatitude which consists aspect after things, sprin g from Arabian influence, but depart somewhat in the from his standpoint. aggregation of noble minds when they are delivered from the The place of Avicenna amongst Muslim philo separating barriers of individual bodies, present at least sophers is seen in in germ the fact that Shahrastani takes him as the the characteristic theory of Averroes. But al-Farabi type of all, and that was not Ghazali’s attack against philosophy is in reality almost entirely always consistent in his views; a certain sobriety checked his directed against Avicenna. His system is in the main a codificaspeculative flights, and although holding that the true perfection tion of Aristotle modified by fundamenta of man is reached in this life by the elevation of the intellectual origin, and it tends to be a compromise l views of Neoplatonist nature, he came towards the close to think the with theology. In order, Separate existence for example, to maintain the hecess ity of creation, he taught that of intellect no better than a delusion, all things except God were admissible Avicenna.—Unquestionably the most illustrious name amongst nature, but that c ertain of them were or possible in their own the Oriental Muslims was Avicenna (980~1037) rendered necessary by the (q.v.). His rank act of the creative first agent—in other words, that the possible in the mediaeval world as a philosopher was far beneath his fame could be transformed into the necessary, Avicenna’s theory of the as a physician. Still, the logic of Albertus Magnu s and succeed- process of knowledge is an intere sting part of his dòctrine. Man ing doctors was largely indebted to him for its formulae. In logic has a rational soul, one face of which is turned towards the body, Avicenna starts by distinguishing between the isolated concept and, by the help of the highe r aspect, acts as practical underand the judgment or assertion; from which two primitive ele- standing; the other face lies open ments of knowledge there is artificially genera to the reception and acquisition ted a complete of the intelligible forms, and its aim is to become a reasonable and scientific knowledge by the two processes of definition and world, reproducing the forms of the universe and their intelligible syllogism. But the chief interest for the histor y of logic belongs order. In man there is only the susceptibility to reason, which to his doctrine in so far ag it bears upon the nature and function Is sustained and helped by the light of the active intellect. Man of abstract ideas. The question had been sugges ted alike to East may prepare himself for this and West by Porphyry, and the Arabians influx by removing the obstacles were the first to ap- which prevent the union of the intellect with the human vessel proach the full statement of the problem. Farabi that the universal and individual are not distin had pointed out destined for its reception. The stages of this process to the acguished from each quisition of mind are generally enumerated by Avicenna as four: Other as understanding from the senses, but that both universal in this part he follows not Aristotle, but the Greek commentator. and individual are in one respect intellectual , just as in another The first stage is that of the hylic or material intellect, a state of į connection they play a part in perception. He the universal essence in its abstract nature, had distinguished mere potentiality, like that of a child for Writing, before he has | from the universal ever put pen to paper. The second considered in relation to a number of singul stage is called in habitu, it is ars. These suggestions compared to the case of a child that has learhed the elements of formed the basis of Avicenna’s doctrine. The essences or forms— writing, when the bare possibi the intelligibilia which constitute the world lity is on the way to be developed, of real knowledge— and is seen to be real. In this period of half-trained reason it may be looked at in themselves (metaphysically), In the things of sense (physically), or as expres or as embodied appears as happy conjecture, not yet transformed into art or sing the processes science proper. When the power of thought (logically). The first of these of writing has been actualized, three points of view we have a parallel to the ¿intellectus in actu—the way of science deals with the form or idea as self-contained in the princi ples of and demonstration is entered. And when writing its own being, apart from those connections has been made a and distinctions which permanent accom plishm ent, or lasting property of the subject, It receives in real (physical) science, and throu gh the act of into be taken up at will, it corresponds to the intellectus adept tellect, Secondly, the form may be looked us— evolved by a process of comparison, as the at as the similarity the complete mastery of science. The whole process may be comwork of mental reflec- pared to the gradual illumin ation of a body naturally capable of tion, and in that way as essentially expressing a relati on. When receiving light. There are, however, grades of thus considered as the common features derive susceptibility to d by examination the active intellect; że., in theological languag rom singular Instances, it becomes a unive e, to communication rsal or common térm with God and Hig angels. Someti mes the receptivity is so vigorous

and though its attempt to compile an encyclopaedia of existing knowledge may have been premature, it yet contributed to spread

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one step to the in its affinity, that without teaching it rises at ry measure. vision of truth, by a certain “holy force” above ordina menon pheno the for t accoun to tried ophy (In this way philos But the active of prophecy, one of the ruling ideas of Islam.) is the uniintellect is not merely influential on human souls. It world. the versal giver of forms in istic In several points Avicenna endeavoured to give a rational rule, ic prophet of arly particul dogmas, ical account of theolog ence of miracles, divine providence and immortality. The perman those of individual souls he supports by arguments borrowed from ry corolla a be to shown is prophet a of of Plato. The existence ena from a belief in God as a moral governor, and the phenom of the of miracles are required to evidence the genuineness to prophetic mission. Thus Avicenna, like his predecessors, tried s religiou the with phy philoso of forms t abstrac the ze harmoni by vitiated ly general are nts argume faith of his nation. But his the fallacy of assuming what they profess to prove. His failure and is made obvious by the attack of Ghazali on the tendencies results of philosophic speculation.

peace. This shows the true character of the treatise which, alike

ng an in mediaevalsand modern times, has been quoted as containi of exposition of his opinions. The work called The Tendencies

et the Philosophers, translated in 1506, with the title Logica the Philosophia Algazelis Arabis, contains neither the logic nor philosophy of Ghazali.

It is a mere abstract or statement of the

Peripatetic systems, and was made preliminary to that Destruction of which we have already spoken. This indictment against liberal thought from the standpoint by of the theological school was afterwards answered in Spain the light of n extinctio the heralded it Baghdad in but Averroes; of philosophy. Moderate and compliant with the popular religion as Alfarabius and Avicenna had always been, as compared with their Spanish successor, they had equally failed to conciliate the

popular spirit, and were classed in the same category with the heretic or the member of an immoral sect. The 12th century exhibits the decay of liberal intellectual activity in the Caliphate, and the gradual ascendancy of Turkish races animated with all the intolerance of semi-barbarian proselytes to the Mohammedan faith. Philosophy, which had only sprung up when the purely Ghazali.—To Ghazali (g.v.) it seemed that the study of Arabian influences ceased to predominate, came to an end when the secular philosophy had resulted in a general indifference to resceptre of the Muslim world passed away from the dynasty of a ligion, and that the scepticism which concealed itself under Persia. Even in 1150 Baghdad had seen a library of philosophical pretence of piety was destroying the life and purity of the naburned by command of the caliph Mostanjid; and in books hy philosop of tion. With these views he carried into the fields same place might have witnessed a strange scene, in the 1192 the aims and spirit of the Muslim theologian. His restless life the books of a physician were first publicly cursed, and was the reflex of a mental history disturbed by prolonged agi- which d to the flames, while their owner was incarcerated. committe then tation. Revolting, in the height of his success, against the current while the Latin Church showed a marvellous receptivity creed, he began to examine the foundations of knowledge. The Thus, philosophy, and assimilated doctrines which it had at ethnic for reason. by senses are contradicted by one another, and disproved declared impious, in Islam the theological system date Reason, indeed, professes to furnish us with necessary truths; an earlier towards the end of the 12th century in the itself d entrenche not may reason of but what assurance have we that the verdicts of the Asharites, and reduced the votaries of orthodoxy be reversed by some higher authority? Ghazali then interrogated narrow Greek philosophy to silence. all the sects in succession to learn their criterion of truth. He In Spain.—The same phenomena were repeated in Spain under first applied to the theological schoolmen, who grounded their faith Mohammedan rulers of Andalusia and Morocco, with this the the preserve to only was aim their religion on reason; but that the time of philosophical development was shorter, the difference, examined from heresy. He turned to the philosophers, and Spanish thinkers soared were greater. accepted Aristotelianism in a treatise which has come down to and the heights to which Second (961-976) inaugurated in the al-Hakam of reign 20 on The them assails He rs. us—The Destruction of the Philosophe philosophical studies which were and scientific those points of their mixed physical and metaphysical peripateticism, Andalusia Society of Basra. From Cairo, the by prosecuted usly , simultaneo scepticism pretended his of spite in from the statement of which, , books both old and new Alexandria and Damascus his of Baghdad, we can deduce some very positive metaphysical opinions the library of the prince; 27 free for price any at procured eternity the were of dogmas the that shown have to claims own. He for the education of the poor; of matter and the permanence of the world are false; that schools were opened in Cordova more widely diffused in perhaps was their description of the Deity as the demiurgos is unspiritual; and intelligent knowledge part of Europe at that other any in than Spain an simplicity, Mohammed the unity, the that they fail to prove the existence, with crowds who filled were city the of mosques the incorporeality or the knowledge (both of species and acci- day. The law and religion. literature, and science on lectures to celestial the listened to souls of ascription their that dents) of God; postponed. The long was promised thus glory future attribthe which But spheres is unproved; that their theory of causation, it a politic step to request utes effects to the very natures of the causes, is false, for that all usurping successor of Hakam found law to examine the royal actions and events are to be ascribed to the Deity; and, finally, the most notable doctors of the sacred , astronomy and philosophy of treating book that they cannot establish the spirituality of the soul, nor prove its library; and every flames. But the the to condemned was topics of forbidden state other sceptical a like nothing disclose mortality. These criticisms and the social races of fusion the by fostered research, theoof spirit mind, but rather a reversion from the metaphysical to the , was not crushed engendered thus n competitio , or intellectual and tendencies intrinsic the denies He thought. of stage logical century and more the souls, by which the Aristotelians explained the motion of the by these proceedings; and for the next and Baghdad the intelspheres, because he ascribes their motion to God. The sceptic higher minds of Spain found in Damascus towards the close of last, At desired. they which aliment assertfor lectual Renan censures Lewes H. would have denied both. G. of Mohammedan energies spiritual long-pent the ing of Ghazali’s theory of causation—“ Hume n’a rien dit plus.” the 11th century, men. Whilst the illustrious of series brief a in forth burst according law Spain natural the that maintains Ghazali that It is true the Moorish kingto which effects proceed inevitably from their causes is only native Spaniards were narrowing the limits of of the Almocustom, and that there is no necessary connection between them. doms, and whilst the generally fanatical dynasty , the century speculation repress to expected been have might hades But while Hume absolutely denies the necessity, Ghazali merely cultiremoves it one stage farther back, and plants it in the mind of the preceding the close of Mohammedan sway saw philosophy Deity. This, of course, is not metaphysics, but theology. Having, vated by Avempace, Abubacer and Averroes. Even amongst the as he believed, refuted the opinions of the philosophers, he next Almohades there were princes, such as Yusūf (who began his investigated the pretensions of the Allegorists, who derived their reign in 1163) and Yaqūb Almansūr (who succeeded in 1184), doctrines from an imam. These Arabian ultramontanes had no who welcomed the philosopher at their courts and treated him word for the doubter. They could not, he says, even understand as an intellectual compeer. But about 1195 the old distrust of the problems they sought to resolve by the assumption of infalli- philosophy revived; the philosophers were banished in disgrace; bility, and he turned again, in his despair, to the instructors of works on philosophical topics were ordered to be confiscated and his youth—the Sifis. In their mystical intuition of the laws of burned; and the son of Almansiir condemned a certain Ibn-

life, and absorption in the immanent Deity, he at last found

Habib to death for the crime of philosophizing.

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and examine the existing things of the world. Averroes, at the same time, condemns the attempts of those who tried to give demonstrative science where the mind was not capable of more than rhetoric; they harm religion by their mere negations, destroying an old sensuous creed, but cannot build up a higher and intellectual faith. In this spirit Averroes does not allow the fancied needs of theoreasoning to interfere with his study of Aristotle, whom logical Réor Republic the on one notably some philosophical essays, interprets as a truth-seeker. The points by which he simply he system gime of the Solitary, understanding by that the organized were all implicit in Aristotle, but Averroes set in Europe told on of rules, by obedience to which the individual may rise from the original had left obscure, and emphasized things the what relief intelligible pure of mere life of the senses to the perception theologian passed by or misconceived. Thus Christian the which susprinciples and may participate in the divine thought which effect. He was the great interpreter of double a had Averroes image the but are tains the world. These rules for the individual On the other hand, he came to Schoolmen. later the to Aristotle state; or reflex of the political organization of the perfect or ideal sm most alien to the spirit Peripatetici of aspects those represent not solitary, the called is life this and the man who strives to lead Muslim gave his name religious deeply the and ; Christendom of he it, in because he withdraws from society, but because, while party, to the materialists, sceptics and tal anti-sacerdo the to society. ideal an state, higher a to reference guides himself by atheists, who defied or undermined the dominant beliefs of the Avempace does not develop at any length this curious Platonic end church. idea of the perfect state. His object is to discover the highest On three points Averroes, like other Muslim thinkers, came activivarious the classifies of human life, and with this view he into relation, real or supposed, with the religious creed, specially ties of the human soul, rejects such as are material or animal, of the world, the divine knowledge of particular creation the activiviz., the which to forms spiritual and then analyses the various and the things, of the human soul. future such of scale ties may be directed. He points out the graduated Averroes is seen in his resolute prosecuof are none grandeur that real The shows and rise, may soul the forms, through which science in matters of this world, and in forms, of standpoint intelligible the of pure tion final or complete in themselves, except the is not a branch of knowledge to be doing religion so in that and recognition grasp, his can intellect the These ideas. of the ideas systems of dogma, but a personal and s measure a in is proposition to and reduced acquisitus, it becomes what he calls intellectus which stands distinct from, divine. This self-consciousness of pure reason is the highest ob- and inward power, an individual truth es of scientific law. In universaliti the to, speculative ry the by contradicto not but attained be to is and ject of human activity, the Schoolmen he and to and Greeks, truth the followed ultimate he his science method. The intellect has in itself power to know of the ancient world. s philosopher as seemed rightly illumination compatriots mystical a his require not does and intelligence, and ve science with its demonstrati of to claim the directly alike lead clear, maintained is He it Ghazili taught. Avempace’s principles, in that ethereal world, the Averroistic doctrine of the unity of intellect, but the obscurity generalities for the few who could live life of each soul as and incompleteness of the Régime do not permit us to judge how and the claim of religion for all—the common theology, or the But ss. consciousne phil. de personal and an individual far he anticipated the later thinker. (See Munk, Mélanges evil to both— of source a as regarded he two, the of mixture 383—410.) pp. juive et arabe, s to religion, philosopher of hostility a his in in belief (g.v.) vain the fostering The same theme was developed by Ibn-Tufail philosophical romance, called Hayy zbn-Yakdhdn (the Living, and meanwhile corrupting religion by a pseudo-science. The latent nominalism of Aristotle only came gradually to be Son of the Waking One), best known by Pococke’s Latin version, gave to as the Philosophus Autodidactus. It describes the process by emphasized through the prominence which Christianity Abélard, in as notices, passing from apart lower and, his life, from individual the himself detaches r truth-seeke which an isolated Duns Scotus. The passions, and raises himself above the material earth and the first found clear enunciation in the school of idealist aspect which the emphasized contrary, movethe on their of Arabians, source the are which forms the to heaven orbs of the Neoplatonist commentament, until he arrives at a union with the supreme intellect. The had been adopted and promoted by world finds its true experiences of the religious mystic are paralleled with the ecstatic tors. Hence, to Averroes the eternity of the movement of ceaseless The God. of pure eternity of the in world a expression sees hermit al vision in which the philosophic form as a after form in matter presents which this growth and change, intelligences, where birth and decease are unknown. It was movement is and time in which finality a of after famous search most continual and last the (1126-98), Averroes theory which aspect the world the thinkers of Muslim Spain, made use of in his doctrine of the not and cannot be reached, represents only the shows to the physicist and to the senses. In the eye of reason unity of intellect. is already and always Averroes.—For Aristotle the reverence of Averroes was un- the full fruition of this desired finality the senses, is achieved bounded, and to expound him was his chosen task. The uncritical attained; the actualization, invisible to element of time. This tranreceptivity of his age, the defects of the Arabic versions, the em- now and ever, and is thus beyond the the world of nature is which that és being of abstract or scendent phatic theism of his creed, and the rationalizing mysticism the actuality, of which intellect, or thought is He seeking. and always astray, him led s sometime have may thought, some Oriental in successive instants attainment fragmentary the anism. but is Aristoteli of movement given prominence to the less obvious features sense a creator, yet But in his conception of the relation between philosophy and re- of time. Such a mind is not in the theological some modern what as same the not is movement The onward the without. were Latins the which ligion, Averroes had a light and absoperfect the For . development by mean to science, falsely so called, of the several theological schools, their thinkers seem at any generated not is movement of on consummati rethe he tions, lute, demonstra l sophistica and ns groundless distinctio operathe guides which end, ideal an is it process; the in allegorpoint . The garded as the great source of heresy and scepticism for its achievement. ical interpretations and metaphysics which had been imported tions of nature, and does not wait upon them and therefore into religion had taken men’s minds away from the plain sense of God is the unchanging essence of the movement, the Koran. God had declared a truth meet for all men, which its eternal cause. A special application of this relation between the prior perfect, needed no intellectual superiority to understand, in a tongue which found in the doctrine each human soul could apprehend. Accordingly, the expositors and the imperfect, which it influences, is nt) intellect with (transcende abstract the of connection the of of enemies the are included, cs, Ghazali of religious metaphysi with the connected sometimes is mind t transcenden This man. syllogism. true religion, because they make it a mere matter of who assigned an imAristotle, of theory the to according moon, and words the to made be must return a that Averroes maintains the sublunary, and in teaching of the prophet; that science must not expend itself in perishable matter to the sphere beyond orbs as living and intelligent. celestial the upon looked general of fragments of ces consequen dogmatizing on the metaphysical productive, as being the author doctrine for popular acceptance, but must proceed to reflect upon Such an intellect, named active or Avempace.—Arabian

speculation in Spain was heralded by

Avicebron or Ibn Gabirol (g.v.), a Jewish philosopher (1021—58). About a generation later the rank of Muslim thinkers was introduced by Abi-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya, surnamed Ibn-B3jja, at and known to the Latin world as Avempace. He was born Saragossa, and died comparatively young at Fez in 1138. heBesides wrote commenting on various physical treatises of Aristotle

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ARABIAN

PHILOSOPHY

is the permanent, eternal of the development of reason in man, and physical movement. c cosmi thought, which is the truth of the passes most evidently le sensib or cal physi the that It is in man nity is the chosen Huma al. ration into the metaphysical and led; and so long revea is vessel in which the light of the intellect iduals destined indiv some be s alway must as mankind lasts there point of view ial mater the from to receive this light. What seems life, is from moral a and study ng, learni of n sitio to be the acqui cendent trans the of ion estat manif the higher point of view the of the heart and n ratio prepa The . idual indiv the in intellect en the original prefaculties gives rise to a series of grades betwe l intellect. These actua of disposition and the full acquisition nna. But beyond Avice by given those ble resem grades in the main soul a union in the of bliss st highe these, Averroes claims as the therefore, is one ect, intell The ect. intell l actua the with this life only in the degree and continuous in all individuals, who differ was the Averroist Such which their illumination has attained. universal nature and l eterna the lect— intel of unity doctrine of the transformed was it rs prete inter of true intellectual life. By his when thus and nd, manki all to on comm soul one of y into a theor of a ines doctr the with ly sonab unrea corrupted conflicted not future life, common to Islam and Christendom.

the badge of the stood, it soon followed that his name became with the subtle disbegun had What . sceptic the and scoffer

list putes of the universities of Paris, went on to the materia

the world teachers in the medical schools and the sceptical men of

in the cities of northern Italy.

The patricians of Venice and

ymous with doubt the lecturers of Padua made Averroism synon

chy, and criticism in theology, and with sarcasm against the hierar of out come can thing good any that e Petrarch refuses to believ Arabia, and speaks of Averroes as a mad dog barking against at one the Church. In works of contemporary art Averroes is at another he time the comrade of Mohammed and Antichrist; lance of St. lies with Arius and Sabellius, vanquished by the Thomas. The School of Padua.—tIt was in the universities of north Italy that Averroism finally settled, and there for three centuries it continued as a stronghold of Scholasticism to resist the efforts

of revived antiquity and of advancing science.

Opponents of Averroism.—Averroes, rejected by his Muslim

whom Maimocountrymen, found a hearing among the Jews, to In the cities ion. speculat Greek of paths free the shown nides had driven by been had they which to of Languedoc and Provence, Arabic, Spanish fanaticism, the Jews no longer used the learned His y. necessar became s Averroe of works the and translations of at Perpignan, writings became the text-book of Levi ben Gerson 1250, Averroes and of Moses of Narbonne. Meanwhile, before of versions, means by en Schoolm became accessible to the Latin William of others. and Scot Michael of names the by ed accredit doctrines the s criticize who an Schoolm Auvergne is the first and St. of Averroes, not, however, by name. Albertus Magnus st Averroi the of tion examina an to s treatise special Thomas devote in confute to labour they theory of the unity of intellect, which as early as But e. Aristotl of xy orthodo the h establis to order as Aegidius Romanus (1 247—1316), Averroes had been stamped credited the patron of indifference to theological dogmas, and experience with the emancipation which was equally due to wider absence and the lessons of the Crusades, There had never been an Tours of r Berenga . doctrine ical hierarch the against of protest , Abélard with and interest, that in d (11th century) bad struggle grew in the z2th century, the revolt against authority in belief

loud. The dialogue between a Christian, a Jew and a philosopher

the suggested a comparative estimate of religions, and placed ons. revelati positive all above law moral the of natural religion exNihilists and naturalists, who deified logic and science at the pense of faith, were not unknown at Paris in the days of John of Salisbury. In such a critical generation the words of Averroism found willing eats, and pupils who outran their teacher. Paris became the centre of a sceptical society, which the decrees of bishops and councils, and the enthusiasm of the orthodox doctors and knights-errant of Catholicism, were powerless to extinguish. At Oxford Averroes told more as the great commentator. In the days of Roger Bacon he had become an authority. Bacon, placing him beside Aristotle and Avicenna, recommends the study of Arabic as the only way of getting the knowledge which bad versions made almost hopeless. In Duns Scotus, Averroes and Aristotle are the unequalled masters of the science of proof; and he pronounces distinctly the separation between Catholic and philosophical truth, which became the watchword of Averroism. By the rath century Averroism was the common leaven of philos-

ophy; John Baconthorpe is the chief of Averroists, and Walter

Burley has similar tendencies. Meanwhile Averroism had come to be regarded by the great Dominican school as the arch-enemy of the truth. When the Emperor Frederick II. consulted a Muslim free-thinker on the mysteries of the faith, when the phrase or legend of the “Three Impostors” presented in its most offensive form the scientific survey of the three laws of Moses, Christ and Mohammed, and when the characteristic doctrines of Averroes were misunder-

Padua became

was the seat of Averroist Aristotelianism; and, when Padua spread republic the of printers the 1405, in Venice by conquered As early abroad the teaching of the professors in the university. medias 1300, at Padua, Petrus Aponensis, a notable expositor of of John and faith; in heterodoxy a betrayed cal theories, had

Jandun, one of the pamphleteers on the side of Louis of Bavaria,

„and was a keen follower of Averroes, whom he styles a “perfect Venice most glorious physicist.” Urbanus of Bologna, Paul of by (d. 1428), and Cajetanus de Thienis (1387-1465), established

their lectures and their discussions the authority of Averroes, and a long list of manuscripts rests in the libraries of Lombardy

to witness the diligence of these writers and their successors, Even a lady of Venice, Cassandra Fedele, in 1480, gained her

laurels in defence of Averroist theses.

With Pietro Pomponazzi (q.v.) in 1495, a brilliant epoch began

for the school of Padua.

Questions of permanent

and present

disinterest took the place of outworn scholastic problems. The putants ranged themselves under the rival commentators, Alexthe ander and Averroes; and the immortality of the soul became battle-ground of the two parties. Pomponazzi defended the Alexandrist doctrine of the utter mortality of the soul, whilst Agostino Nifo (q.v.), the Averroist, was entrusted by Leo X. with the task of defending the Catholic doctrine. The parties seemed to have changed when Averroism thus took the side of the Nifo Church; but the change was probably due to compulsion. ns expressio his but 7); (1495-9 Averroes of had edited the works gave offence to the dominant theologians, and he had to save himself by distinguishing his personal faith from his editorial capacity. Alessandro Achillini, the persistent philosophical adversary of Pomponazzi, both at Padua and subsequently at Bologna, attempted, along with other moderate but not brilliant Averroists, to accommodate their philosophical theory with the requirements of Catholicism. It was this comparatively mild Averroism, reduced to the merely explanatory activity of a commentator, which continued to be the official dogma at Padua during the 16th century. Its typical representative is Marc-Antonio Zimara (d. 1592), the author of a reconciliation between the tenets of Averroes and those of Aristotle. Summary.—Meanwhile, in 1497, Aristotle was for the first time expounded in Greek at Padua. Plato had long been the favourite study at Florence; and Humanists, like Erasmus, Ludovicus Vives and Nizolius, enamoured of the popular philosophy of Cicero and Quintilian, poured out the vials of their contempt

on scholastic barbarism with its “impious and thrice-accursed Averroes.” The editors of Averroes complain that the populat

while taste had forsaken them for the Greek. Nevertheless, their to attention claiming were Fallopius, Vesalius and Galileo discoveries, G. Zabarella, Francesco Piccolomini (1520-1604)

and Cesare Cremonini (1350-1631) continued the traditions of

Averroism, not without changes and additions.

Cremonini, the

and last of them, died in 1631, after lecturing 12 years at Ferrara

40 at Padua.

The great educational value of Arabian philosophy

for the later schoolmen consisted in its making them acquainted

with an entire Aristotle. At the moment when it seemed as if everything had been made that could be made out of the frag-

Yor

ARABIAN SEA—ARABIC LANGUAGE Capella, Cassiodorus ments of Aristotle, and the compilations of d the only

and astronomical works are due. The movement towards introducing Arabian science and philosophy into Europe, however,

denly widened by the acquisition of a complete Aristotle. Thus

(1212-50). Partly from superiority to the narrowness of his and partly in the interest of his struggle with the Papacy, this Malleus ecclesiae Romanae drew to his court those savants whose pursuits were discouraged by the Church, and especially students in the forbidden lore of the Arabians. He is said to have pensioned Jews for purposes of translation. One of the scholars to whom Frederick gave a welcome was Michael Scot, the first translator of Averroes. Scot had sojourned at Toledo about 1217, and had accomplished the versions of several astronomical and physical treatises, mainly, if we believe Roger Bacon, by the labours of a Jew named Andrew. But Bacon is apparently hypercritical in his estimate of the translators from the Arabic. Another protégé of Frederick was Hermann the German (Alemannus), who, between the years 1243 and 1256, translated amongst other things a paraphrase of al-Farabi on the Rhetoric, and of Averroes on the Poetics and Ethics of Aristotle. Jewish scholars held an honourable place in transmitting the Arabian commentators to the schoolmen, It was amongst them, especially in Maimonides, that Aristotelianism found refuge after the light of philosophy was extinguished in Islam; and the Jewish family Ben-Tibbon were mainly instrumental in making Averroes known to southern

and others, and when mysticism and scepticism seeme II. edge was sud- culminated under the patronage of the emperor Frederick resources left for the mind, the horizon of knowl age, of an imperfect the mistakes inevitable in the isolated study bearing of old real The made. be forth hence not Organon could es, were seen disput many of questions, and the meaninglessness Metaphysics the by given anism oteli Arist of ption conce new the én alism were Nomin and sm Reali r and other treatises. The forme salizing univer the of ple princi the by phase r highe a into lifted tem. action of intellect—Jntellectus

in formis agit untversaltta

The commentaries of the Arabians in this respect supplied nutripure text ment more readily assimilated by the pupils than the

would have been. of ArisArabian philosophy, whilst it promoted the exegesis as the notable less not was ty, totle and increased his authori

Specusource of the separation between theology and philosophy. movel heretica the cases many In paths. ous lation fell on irreligi ing tendment was due less to foreign example than to the indwell

not less certain encies of the dominant school of realism. But it is s from theoArabian the of that the very considerable freedom logical bias prepared the time when philosophy shook off its Church ecclesiastical vestments. In the hurry of first terror, the

ions struck Aristotle with the anathema launched against innovat

in philosophy. The provincial council of Paris in 1209, which

of condemned Amalricus and his followers, as well as David Dinant’s works, forbade the study of Aristotle’s Natural Philos-

ophy and the Commentaries.

In 1215 the same prohibition was

repeated, specifying the M etaphysics and Physics, and the Commentories by the Spaniard Mauritius (ze., probably Averroes). ng Meanwhile Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, accepti controto best their did s, Arabian the of services al the exegetic vert the obnoxious doctrine of the Intellect, and to defend the orthodoxy of Aristotle against the unholy glosses of infidels. But it is doubtful whether even they kept as pure from the infection of illegitimate doctrine as they supposed. The tide meanwhile flowed in stronger and stronger. In 1270 Etienne Tempier, bishop of Paris, supported by an assembly of theologians, anathematized 13 propositions bearing the stamp of Arabian authorship; but in 1277 the same views and others more directly offensive to Christians and theologians had to be censured again. Raymond Lully, in a dialogue with an infidel thinker, broke a lance in support of the orthodox doctrine, and carried on a crusade against the Arabians in every university; and a disciple of Thomas Aquinas drew up a list (De erroribus philosophorum) of the several delusions and errors of each of the thinkers from Kindi to Averroes. Strong in their conviction of the truth of Aristotelianism, the Arabians

carried out their logical results in the theological field, and made

the distinction of necessary and possible, of form and matter, the basis of conclusions in the most momentous questions. They refused to accept the doctrine of creation because it conflicted with the explanation of forms as the necessary evolution of matter. They denied the particular providence of God, because knowledge in the divine sphere did not descend to singulars. They excluded the Deity from all direct action upon the world, and substituted for a cosmic principle the active intellect —thus holding a form of Pantheism. But all did not go the same length in their divergence from the popular creed. The half-legendary accounts which attribute the introduction of Arabian science to Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylvester II., to Constantinus Africanus and to Adelard of Bath, if they have any value, refer mainly to medical science and mathematics.

It was

not till about the middle of the 12th century that under the patronage of Raymond, archbishop of Toledo, a society of trans-

France. (See JEWISH PHILOSOPHY,)

—S, Munk, Mélanges de philosophie juive et arabe BIBLIOGRAPHY. (1859) ; E. Renan, De Philosophia Peripatetica apud Syros (1852), and Averroës et lAverroisme (3rd ed., 1867); Am. Jourdain, Recherches critiques sur Vdge et Vorigine des traductions latines d’Aristote (2me ed. 1843) ; B. Hauréau, Philosophie scolustique (1850), tome i. p. 359; E. Vacherot, Ecole d’Alexandrie (1846-51), tome ili. p. 85; Schmolders, Documenta philosophiae Arabum (Bonn, 1836), and Essat sur les écoles philosophiques chez les Arabes (1842) ; Shahrastani, History of Religious and Philosophical Sects, in German translation by Haarbriicker (Halle, 1850-51) ; Dieterici, Streit zwischen Mensch und Thier (1858), and his other translations of the Encyclo paedia of the Brothers of Sincerity (1861 to 1872) ; T. J. de Boer, The History of Philosophy in Islam (1903); K. Prantl, Geschichte der‘ Logik (Leipzig, 1861); ; J. Hell, The Arab Civilization (1926) ; and the Histories of Philosophy mentioned. also the literature under the biographies of Pee

ARABIAN

AL.; SEA (anc. Mare Erythraeum), the north-west

section of the Indian ocean, bounded east by India, north by Baluchistan and southern Persia, and west by Arabia and the “horn” of Africa, It has two important branches—the Gulf of Aden, connecting with the Red sea through the Strait of Bab-elMandeb; and the Gulf of Oman, leading to the Persian Gulf. The sea, long a centre of coastwise sailing, forms part of the

chief highway between Europe and India. Its islands are few and

insignificant, the chief being Socotra, off Somaliland, and the Laccadives.

The coasts, save for the Indian shore between Bom-

bay and Karachi, are steeply tilted and fall into deep water.

is ARABIC ACID, also known as arabin and gummicIt acid, be can Gums.) (See arabic. gum of constituent the chief obtained as an amorphous precipitate by treating with alcohol an aqueous solution of gum arabic in the presence of hydrochloric acid. It is soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol. Pure arabic acid, or A-arabinosic acid, CoakTssOzz, differs from the naturally occurring gum acid which is a compound of arabinosic acid with the sugar residues, arabinan and galactan.

ARABICI, a religious sect originating about the beginning of the 3rd century, mentioned by Augustine (De Haeres, c.

Ixxxiii.), and called also @vyropuxirar (“mortal-souled”) by John of Damascus (De Haeres, c. xc.). Their distinctive doctrine was

a form of Christian materialism, showing itself in the belief that the soul perished and was restored to life along with the body.

ARABIC LANGUAGE.

Inthe yth and 8th centuries, Arab

head, conquests and the expansion of Islam spread the Arabic language lators, with the archdeacon Dominicus Gundisalvi at their form or and into many countries outside Arabia, and in some Avicenna of ries produced Latin versions of the Commenta in languages) other with along (sometimes, spoken is it other Ghazali, of the Fons Vitae of Avicebron, and of several Aristoand Africa, north Malta, Egypt, telian treatises. The working translators were converted Jews, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, further south; ¢.g., in the Sudan, Nigeria, the the best-known among them being Joannes Avendeath. With in certain districts Zanzibar. Arabic was formerly spoken in and this effort began the chief translating epoch for Arabic works. western Sahara, important contributions to Arabic literaproduced which Spain, Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine was first translated into Latin by and Sicily (up to the end of the period islands Balearic the Gerard of Cremona (d. 1187), to whom versions of other medical ture, in

ARABIC

192

LITERATURE

of Arab domination), in the island of Pantelleria, between Sicily and Tunis (up to the 18th century) and in Madagascar. Even in Arabia itself the Arabic language exhibits dialectic differences, and such variations are still more marked in countries more remote from the land of its origin. But the written language has almost invariably conformed to that type which has been conveniently denominated as classical Arabic, characterized by an extraordinary richness of vocabulary and the logical, systematic character of its grammatical structure.

Alphabet.—The Arabic alphabet consists of 28 letters. (For

pronunciation, see W. H. T. Gairdner, The Phonetics of Arabic,

1925.) To these may be added ’ (hamza), the glottal stop. (Fora discussion of the divergent theories on hamza, see C. Landberg, Glossaire Datînois, p. 1,744, Sqq., 1923.) Roots.—Most Arabic words (except those of foreign origin) can be traced back to a triliteral root; some words are considered to be derived from roots of two consonants only (v. Th. Noldeke, Neue Beiträge zur semitischen Sprachwissenschaft, pp. 109-178, 1910). By combining these consonants with certain other letters, the original idea associated with the root can be modified in such a manner that the three letters of the root (provided that one or more of them is neither hamza, waw nor ya) can in most cases be clearly recognized; e.g., from the root KTB “write,” we have KaTaBnā “we wrote,” naKTuBu “we will write,” KāTiB”“” “writing, a writer,” KiTaB"" “a book,” maKTaB*” “a place of writing, a school,” muKTiB“” “a teacher of writing,” taKäTaBā “they two

corresponded with one another,” astaKTiBu “TI will ask (him) to write,” wa.KiaTaBa “and he got his name written down (in the register),” KuTTaGB"" “scribes,” muKaTaBat™" “correspondence,” etc. Verbs.—The Arabic verb has only two tenses: Perfect and Imperfect. The Perfect tense of the Indicative of the Active of the simple verb, formed from the root QTL (meaning “kill”), is as follows: Sing. Dual Plural 3m. f. 2m. f. ı m.f.

qatala qatalat qatalia qatalti gqataliu

gatala gatalata eno

gatali gatalna gataltum . qataltunna gatalna

In some verbs (generally intransitive) the vowel following the second radical is z, in others (always intransitive) u. The Imperfect Indicative Active tense, from the same root, is: Sing. 3m. f. 2m. f. Imi.

yagtulu taqtulu tagtulu tagiulina agtulu

Dual yaqtuläni taqtuléni poore

Plural yaqtulüna yaqtulna taqtuliina taqtulna naqtulu

iprocity or effort (e.g., KaTaBa “he wrote,” KaTaBa “he cor. responded with,” GhaZaBa “‘he overcame,” GhaLaBa “he tried to

overcome”). IV prefixes hamza, with a causative meaning (e.g, JaLaSa “he sat,” ’'aJLaSa “he made to sit”). V (ta-}II, e.g, taKaSSaRa “it is smashed”) and VI (ta--ITl, e.g., taKāTaBă “they are in correspondence with one another”) and VII (a+I,

e.g., wa nKaSaRa “and it is broken”) and VIII (ża inserted between the first and second radicals, e.g., FaRaQa “he divided,” wa FtaRaQa “and it went asunder”) commonly express a state or condition. IX doubles the third radical and is used chiefly of colours and defects (e.g., wa SFaRRa “and it is yellow”). X (st +I, e.g., GhaFaRa ‘he pardoned,” wa sta—Fara “and he asked for pardon”) has a variety of meanings—asking for, reflexive, denominative, etc. Conjugations XI to XV are comparatively rare. These forms of the simple verb undergo modifications if the second and third radicals are identical, or one of the radicals is

hamza or W or Y.

Articles.—There are two articles: (1) definite J “the” (originally a demonstrative pronoun, “this, that’); at the beginning of a sentence al, and always so written, except after the preposition

li “for,” and (2) indefinite v “a, an,” affixed to the end of a now, etc.; e.g., li L maliki “for the king”; li malikin “for a king.” Nouns.—There are two declensions of nouns in the singular: (1) triptote, u (nom.),¿ (gen.), a (acc.); (2) diptote, u (nom.), a (gen. and acc.); the latter never takes the indefinite article and conforms to (1) when determined by the definite article or by a following genitive. There are terminations for the dual and plural. But the idea of plurality is more often expressed by means of singular collective nouns, among which are the so-called “broken plurals,” of which there are 29 varieties, each associated with some one or more forms of the singular noun. Gendet.—There are two genders only, masc. and fem. (For the theories on the origin of gender, v. A. J. Wensinck, Some aspects of gender in the Semitic languages; 1927.) Numerals.—The cardinal numbers (with the exception of the first two, which are adjectives) are all substantives and are followed, from 3 to ro, by the genitive of the broken plural (where possible) and take the fem. form when the objects numbered are masc., and vice versa:—from 11 to 99, by the acc. sing.; 100 and 1,000 by the gen. sing. Dialects.—It is not possible here to give an account of the dialectical peculiarities of the different local varieties of Arabic, but details may be found in regard to the more important of these in the grammars enumerated below:—Egypt: W. H. T. Gairdner, Egyptian colloquial Arabic (1926); J. S. Willmore, The spoken Arabic of Egypt (1905); D. C. Phillott and A. Powell, Manual of Egyptian Arabic (1926); Syria and Palestine: G. R. Driver, A

grammar of the colloguial Arabic of Syria and Palestine (1925); H. H. Spoer and E. N. Haddad, Manual of Palestinian Arabic (1909); Mesopotamia: J. Van Ess, The Spoken Arabic of Mesopotamia (1917); A Socin, Der arabische Dialekt von Mosul und Mardin (1904); Algeria: A. G. P. Martin, Méthode déductive d'arabe nord-africain (1919); Morocco: M. Gaudefroy-Demombynes et L. Mercier, Manuel d’arabe marocain (1913); Nigeria: G. L. Lethem, Colloquial Arabic, Shuwa dialect of Burnu, Nigerio, ing tenses of the Active in that the first radical of the Perfect is and of the region of Lake Chad (1920); Tunis: J. Clermont, always followed by u and the second radical by i; while in the L’arabe parlé tunisien (1909); Sudan: A. Worsley, Sudanese Imperfect the prefixes take u and the second radical a. The Pas- Grammar (1925); S. Hillelson, Sudan Arabic, an English-Arabic (1925); Malta: H. Stumme, Maltesische Studien sive has the same moods as the Active, with the exception of the Coe Imperative and the Energetic of the Imperative, the Apocopated 1904). | BIBLIoGRAPHY.—W. Wright, Grammar of ihe Arabic Language being used instead. The meaning of the simple verb may be modified in various (1896) ; H. Reckendorf, Die syntaktischen Verhdltnisse des Arabischen (1898); J. B. Belot, Cours pratique de langue arabe (1902); Socinways by the addition of one or more letters to the root, and thus Brockelmann, Arabische Grammatik (1909). (T. W. A.) 14 derived conjugations may be formed. The commonest of these ARABIC LITERATURE begins with the poems and provand of the changes of meaning they imply are as follows:—II, by erbs of the northern Arabs of the sth and 6th centuries after doubling the medial consonant of the root the meaning is intensiChrist. Of written literature, prior to the redaction of the Koran, fied (¢.g., KaSaRa “he broke,” KaSSaRa “he smashed”); or an. nothing is known. intransitive verb becomes transitive (e.g., FaRiHa “he was glad,” FaRRaHa “he gladdened”); or a transitive verb becomes doubly PRE-ISLAMIC POETRY transitive (¢.g., HaMoLa “he carried,” HaMMaLa “he made to The origins of Arabian poetry can only be guessed at. Poets carry”). III adds @ after the first radical, with the idea of rec- to whom the earliest pieces are attributed already exhibit a fullyIf the vowel following the second radical in the Perfect is i, that of the Imperfect is generally a; if this vowel in the Perfect is u, that of the Imperfect is invariably x. The Arabic verb has in the Active five moods, viz., the Indicative (both Perfect and Imperfect), the Subjunctive and Apocopated (Imperfect only), the Imperative (having a special form) and the Energetic (both Apocopated and Imperative). The Perfect and Imperfect Passive differ from the correspond-

ARABIC LITERATURE developed art. Their poems are couched in elaborate metres, of which 16 in all were recognized when the metrical system was eventually standardized in the 8th century by Khalil ibn Ahmad (g.v.). The historical development of these metres from a simple

iambic measure has yet to be elucidated; some were possibly of recent introduction, due to foreign influences, in Khalil’s time. In all the verse is divided into equally-balanced halves, and the same rhyme is retained at the end of each verse throughout the poem. The rule that every verse should form an organic whole gives a certain jerkiness to the poem, making it easy to displace lines and to extract choice passages for inclusion in anthologies.

The poetic language was that of the desert Arabs, somewhat standardized and amplified by dialect variations. This language became, under the influence of the Koran, the standard language of all later Arabic literature, and its excessive richness led in time to the compilation of commentaries and lexicons. In form and content the poems fall into two groups. On the one hand are the occasional poems, of from two to 20 lines, called out principally by the emotions of war or revenge. Praise of his own tribe and satire of its enemies were indeed the original functions of the primitive poet (shd@‘ir, z.e., “kenner” or medi-

193

of several minor poets have been edited, Lyall’s edition of ‘Abid ibn Abras (London, 1913) deserving special mention, and one tribal diwdn, that of the tribe Hudhail. Among the many poets of whom only a few pieces survive two robber-poets

and outlaws, Ta’abbata Sharra and Shanfara, are specially celebrated, and the poems attributed to them, whether genuine or not, breathe in magnificent language a courage and hardihood rarely if ever equalled in any literature. Along with the work of the desert poets some interesting relics have come down of a different class of poetry. The Christian ‘Adi ibn Zaid, a townsman of Hira (g.v.), wrote wine-songs as well as graver verse. There were

Jewish poets, of whom Samau’al ibn ‘Adiya is the best-known. Controversy still rages over the religious poems attributed to Umayya ibn abi’s-Salt, which bear a remarkable resemblance to passages in the Koran, though Umayya rejected Mohammed’s mission. Of the other poets contemporary with the Prophet, the diwan of Hassan ibn Thabit, Mohammed’s “‘court-poet,” is interesting from that circumstance, and a panegyric addressed to him by Ka‘b ibn Zuhair (known from its opening words as Banat Su‘dd) is one of the most celebrated of Arabic qasidas.

Anthologies——The second category consists of collections or

cineman). An important place is taken by elegies, for which a anthologies, of which three, the Mu‘allagat, the Haméasa and the number of poetesses, notably Khansa (g.v.), are specially famed. Mufaddaltydt, are held in special favour. Distinct from these poems is the elaborate ode (gasida) of from Al-Mu‘allaqgat is the title of a group of seven pre-Islamic odes. 60 to 100 lines. In this form there is a regular scheme, which is The name signifies “the suspended,” the traditional explanation followed whatever the subject of the poem. In the opening verses being that these poems were hung up by the Arabs in or on the (called the masib) the poet is supposed to be on a journey. He Ka‘ba at Mecca. But this legend must be entirely rejected, as a halts with his companions at a deserted camping-ground, whose pure fabrication based on the name, which was taken in its literal mouldering traces recall the memory of an ancient passion, and sense. The selection of the seven poems is ascribed, with much tells of his love and the sorrow of parting. After this section he probability, to Hammad ar-Rawiya, in the 8th century a.p. His continues his journey and describes his camel or horse, comparing collection appears to have consisted of the same seven poems it to some wild animal of the desert. The natural descriptions or which are found in modern editions, composed respectively by accounts of the chase introduced in this connection often form Amrv’ul-Qais, Tarafa, Zuhair, Labid, ‘Antara ibn Shaddad, ‘Amr the most attractive part of the poem. His journey at last leads ibn Kulthtm, and Harith ibn Hilliza, to which later scholars up to the occasion of the poem, which may be praise of his tribe appended three other poems, one each of Nabigha, A‘sha, and or of his own gallantry, descriptions of camp or desert life (such ‘Abid ibn Abras. The lives of these ten poets were spread over a as a storm), or most frequently panegyric of some patron in period of more than roo years. The earliest was Amru’ul-Qais whose honour the poem has been composed, and from whom the (q.v.), regarded by many as the most illustrious of Arabian poets. poet expects a reward. It may well occasion surprise that a He was a scion of the royal house of the tribe Kinda, which lost volume of poetry so uniform, so artistic within its limits, and of its power in the year 529. ‘Abid ibn Abras was a contemporary a metrical regularity rarely violated in spite of the complex of Amru’ul-Qais, and belonged to the enemies of Kinda, the metres, should have been produced by the poverty-stricken and Banti Asad. The Mz ‘allaga of ‘Amr hurls defiance at the king of predatory inhabitants of a barren country. Hira, ‘Amr ibn Mundhir (554-568), who was afterwards slain Transmission.—The oral transmission of these compositions by the poet. The same prince is addressed by Harith in his over a period of from 150 to 250 years, or even longer, was car- Mu‘allaga, and a few satirical verses directed against him by ried out by a class of professional reciters (rdwis), amongst Tarafa have been preserved. The productive period of ‘Antara, whom many of the most famous poets were numbered. The Zuhair and ‘Alqama is probably to be placed in the end of the powers of memory with which the reciters are credited are re- 6th century, which is certainly the date of Nabigha (¢.v.). The markable, but even on the most favourable view it must be poem of A‘sha contains an allusion to the battle of Dhiu Qar, in allowed that the poems thus preserved were liable to suffer which a Persian force was defeated by the tribe Bakr between mutilations, omissions and transpositions. The divergences in 604 and 610. Labid (g.v.) is the only one of the ten who emthe text of many ancient poems are very great, and frequently braced Islam, though his Mzallaga, like almost all his other portions of different poems are found pieced together. Unfor- poetical works, belongs to the pagan period. The Mu‘allagdt tunately several of the most famous rawis, especially two of represent almost every type of ancient Arabian poetry in its those who first undertook the writing down of the early poems excellences and its weaknesses. In order rightly to appreciate in the 8th century, Hammad ar-Rawiya (g.v.) and Khalaf al- them we must translate ourselves into the world of the Badawin Ahmar, are suspected of dealing in the most arbitrary manner and seek to realize the peculiar conditions of his life, together with with their material, and roundly declared to be clever forgers. the views and thoughts arising from these conditions. In the On these and other grounds the authenticity of much so-called Mu‘allaga of Tarafa we are repelled by a long, anatomically pre-Islamic poetry is open to serious question, and some scholars exact description of his camel, but such a description had an extraordinary charm of its own in a society where every man was even reject the whole or all but a small portion outright.! Diwans.—The poems attributed to the early bards have come a perfect connoisseur on this subject. In the Mu‘allagas of ‘Amr down to us in two kinds of collections. We have on the one hand and Harith we can read the haughty spirit of the powerful chiefmany diwdns, or collected poetical works, of individual poets, and tains, boastfully celebrating the splendours of their tribe. The In particular of all the principal bards, Amru’ul-Qais, Tarafa, song of Zuhair contains the practical wisdom of a sober man of Zuhair, Nabigha, ‘Alqama, A‘sha and Labid (see under each the world. The other poems are fairly typical examples of the separately, and below under Mu‘allagat). In addition the diwans customary qasida, and bring before us the various phases of Badawin life. Al-Hamésa is an anthology compiled by the poet Abū Tam‘See Ahlwardt, Bemerkungen über die Aechtheit der alten Arabischen Gedichte (Greifswald 1872); Lyall, Introduction to the Mufaddaliyat mäm (g.v.) about 836 A.D., from, it is said, the materiale con(see below); Margoliouth in Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, July tained in the library of a citizen of Hamadhān. The collection is al-jahili Fi’l-adab Husain, Taha Arabic) (in and (Cane ae so called from the opening book, containing poems descriptive 0, 1927).

194

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of constancy and valour in battle, patient endurance of calamity, steadfastness in seeking vengeance, manliness under reproach and temptation, all which qualities make up the attribute called by the Arabs kamāsa. It consists of ten books, containing in all 884 poems or fragments, divided as follow: (1) Gallantry (Hamdsa),

261 pieces; (2) Dirges, 169 pieces; (3) Manners, 54 pieces; (4) The Beauty and Love of Women (Nasib), 139 pieces; (5) Satires, 80 pieces; (6) Hospitality and Panegyric, 143 pieces; (7) Miscellaneous Descriptions, 3 pieces; (8) Journeying and Drowsiness, 9 pieces; (q) Pleasantries, 38 pieces; (ro) Dispraise of Women, 18 pieces. The first two books together make up more than half the bulk of the work. The poems are for the most part fragments selected from longer pieces, though a number are probably entire. They are taken from the works of Arab poets of all periods down to that of Abi Tammam himself, but chiefly of the poets of the pre-Islamic time and of the rst century of the Hijra (622-719). Many of the poems belong to the class of extempore or occasional utterances, as distinguished from qasidas. While the latter abound with comparisons and long descriptions, in which the skill of the poet is exhibited with much art and ingenuity, the poems of the Hamdsa are short, direct, and for the most part free from comparisons. It is due probably to the fact that Aba Tammam preferred this style of composition for his collection that he has chosen hardly anything from the

works of the most famous poets. The fragments in the fourth book, however, are generally taken from the opening verses of qasidas, or alternatively from the productions of the school of erotic poetry of the early Islamic period. The worth of the Hamdsa as a store-house of ancient legend, of faithful detail regarding the usages of the pagan time and early simplicity of the Arab race, can hardly be exaggerated. The high level of excellence which is found in its selections, both as to form and matter, is remarkable, and caused it to be said that Abū Tammam displayed higher qualities as a poet in his choice of extracts than in his own compositions. What strikes us chiefly is its exceeding

set down all that he could gather of this ancient bard, and that his interest in him was chiefly due to his antiquity. The

Mufaddaliyat differs from the Hamdasa in being a collection of complete odes, while the latter is an anthology of brilliant pas. sages, selected for their interest or effectiveness. It is, of course, not the case that all the poems are complete; many are mere fragments, and even in the longest there are often gaps, but Mufaddal evidently set down all that he could collect of a poem, and did not, like Abi Tammam, pick out only the best portions, We are thus presented with a view of the literature of the age which is much more characteristic and comprehensive than that given in the Hamdsa and enables us to form a better judgment of the general level of poetic achievement. In addition to these anthologies, numerous excerpts are contained in the works of later compilers, notably the Book of Poetry and Poets of Ibn Qutaiba (g.v.), the “gd al-Farid of Ibn ‘Abd Rabbihi (q,v.), and the greatest work of this kind, the

Kitab al-Aghani (“Book of Songs”) of Abu’l-Faraj (q.v.). (C. J. L.; TH, N.; H. A. R. G.) POST-ISLAMIC

POETRY

Umayyad Period.—During the ist century after Mohammed

there was little change in the general character of Arabic poetry, The four outstanding poets were Akhtal (q.v.), Farazdaq (¢.v.), Jarir (g.v.), and Dhu’r-Rumma (ed. Macartney, Oxford, 1919), In the work of the last-named it is already obvious that the qasida

is becoming a stereotyped and archaic exercise. In the partisan feuds which still rent, though on a wider scale, the Arab world,

both major and minor poets carried on the traditions of tribal panegyric and satire. Yet at the same time, the new conditions

of city life, both in the conquered lands and in the now metro-

politan cities of Arabia, brought about a change in Arab manners and pursuits, which led to the rise of new modes in poetry. The love-lyric was established as an independent art by ‘Omar ibn Abi Rabi‘a of Mecca and his fellow-countryman Jamil. Simul-

truth and reality, its freedom from artificiality, the evident first- taneously a sort of Platonic love became the theme of several hand experience which the singers possessed of all which they poetic romances associated with the tribe of Udhra, and attributsang. It has the true stamp of the heroic time, of its cruelty and ed to various poets and poetesses, of whom the most famous are Majnin Bani ‘Amir and Laila. The poems of the Caliphs Vazid wantonness as of its strength and beauty. When “the Hamdsa” is spoken of, that of Abii Tammam, as I. (680-683) and Walid II. (743-744) were the precursors of the first and most famous of the name, is meant, but several col- the wine-songs and hunting-poems of the next period. An attempt lections of a similar kind, also called Hamasa, exist, the best- to remodel the qasida in the freest of Arabic metres, the iambic rajaz, was made by ‘Ajjaj and his son Ru‘ba, Although the exknown of which is the Hamdsa of Buhturi (q.v.). The Mufaddaliydi is an anthology of poems named after periment failed, the rajaz metre was retained for impromptus and Mufaddal ibn Ya‘la, of the tribe Dabba, who compiled it for the long descriptive poems, ‘Abbasid Period.—While it is still an open question how far instruction of the future caliph Mahdi, between 762 and 784. It has recently been edited and translated by Lyall (Oxford, 1921). Mufaddal was a careful and trustworthy collector both of texts

Persian influences contributed to these developments, there can be no doubt that the Persian atmosphere of the court of Baghdad and traditions, and is praised by all authorities on Arabian his- after the establishment of the ‘Abbasid caliphs in 750 strongly tory and literature as in this respect greatly the superior of favoured the new tendencies, which reached their apogee in Abii Hammad and Khalaf. The collection, which in its present form Nuwas (g.v.) and a brilliant company of poets contemporary contains 126 pieces of verse, long and short, is of the highest with him. Henceforward Arabic poetry flows in a number of importance as a record of the thought and poetic art of Arabia channels. The exponents of the classical tradition, such as Bubin the time immediately preceding the rise of Islam. Almost all turi (g.u,), continued to imitate the subjects, mannerisms, and the poets represented belong to the days of “the Ignorance,” and metres of the old desert poetry, with but one modification, the though a certain number of those born in paganism accepted substitution for the old imaginative phrases of rhetorical tropes Islam, their work bears few marks of the new faith. The ancient (badz'), a fashion set by Muslim ibn Walid (d. 803), followed by virtues—hospitality to the guest and the poor, profuse expendi- Abi Tammam, and carried to the verge of excess by Mutannabi. ture of wealth, valour in battle, faithfulness to the cause of the On the other hand the school of Abii Nuwdas used metres with tribe-——are the theme of praise; wine and games of chance, for- much greater freedom and excelled in anacreontic and occabidden by Islam, are celebrated by poets who professed them- sional verse. Even for this later period the text or authenticity selves converts; and if there is no mention of the old idolatry, of many poems Is far from certain. The only diwan hitherto pubthere is also little spirituality in the outlook on life. The 126 lished in a critical edition is that of a comparatively unimportant pieces are distributed between 68 poets, and the work represents poet, al-Wa’wa of Damascus (d. 988; ed. Kratchkowsky, Petroa gathering from the compositions of those who were called grad (Leningrad), 1914, with a valuable introduction on the muqilun “those of whom little has survived,” jn contrast to the poetic art of the post-Jslamic period). Generally speaking, the famous poets whose works had been collected into diwdus. At the poets sought less after depth and originality than elegance in exsame time many of them are extremely celebrated, and among pression and brilliance in metaphor, and the polished and delicate the pieces selected by Mufaddal several reach a very high level productions of the later writers, such as Bah& ad-Din Zuhair of excellence. A remarkable feature of the work is the insertion (d. 1258), recall in some measure English 17th century and af ten pieces by Muraqqish the Elder, a poet who is assigned to Augustan verse. Nevertheless there were some who struck out the end of the 5th century a.D. It is probable that the compiler new paths; Abu’l-‘Atahiya (d. 828), whose moralizing verse is

ARABIC

LITERATURE

295

expressed in unaffected popular language; Ibn al-Mu‘tazz (d. 869), way from the most diverse sources into Arabic literature. the author of a long historical poem and of other brilliant and

original verse; Abu’l-‘Ala Ma‘arri (q.v.), in whose Luzimtydt

Arabic poetry touches its deepest human note; and the mystical

poets Ibn ‘Arabi (g.v.) and Ibn Farid (g.v.).

Western Poetry.—In Spain and the West, Arabic poetry at frst continued along traditional lines, represented by Ibn Hani of Seville

(d. 973).

In the

following

century

Of these works of entertainment the most familiar are the Thousand

and one Nights (q.v.; see also SINDBAD THE SAILOR), and a collection of fables related to those of Aesop and ascribed to Luqman (g.v.). The historical romances are dealt with in the following section. (H. A. R. G.) HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY

Ibn Rashiq

of Qayrawan (d. 1070), Ibn Zaydiin of Cordova (d. 1071),

Historical Composition.—The early Arabic historians differ

from all others in the unique form of their compositions. Each (d. 1078), with whom was associated also the most famous of the event is related in the words of eye-witnesses or contemporaries, Arab poets of Sicily, Ibn Hamdis, were the principal among a transmitted to the final narrator through a chain of intermediate galaxy of poets who released themselves from the old conventions, reporters, each of whom passed on the original report to his sucand made their verse a vehicle of self-expression. A still greater cessor. Often the same account is given in two or more slightly breach with tradition was the rise of strophic verse, which the divergent forms, which have come down through different chains stronger conservative influences had hitherto succeeded in re- of reporters. Often, too, one event or one important detail is pressing in the East. In Spain strophic verse took the form called told im several ways on the basis of several contemporary statemuwashshah (“the girdled”), marked by internal rhymes with a ments transmitted to the final narrator through distinct lines of rhyming refrain. Though it was practically confined to erotic tradition. The writer, therefore, exercises no independent critiverse, it made great strides; on the one hand it exercised a strong cism except as regards the choice of authorities, and sometimes influence on the nascent Provencal poetry, while in the other di- he states which of several accounts seems to him the best. A rection it reached Egypt at the end of the reth century second type is that in which an author combines the different and rapidly took root there. Several other popular forms of traditions into one continuous narrative, but prefixes a statement strophic verse were invented about the same time or shortly after, as to the lines of authorities used or followed. In this case the of which one, the zajal, in the colloquial language, was raised to writer recurs to the first method, already described, only when the different traditions are greatly at variance with one another. literary rank by the troubadour Ibn Quzman (d. 1160). Mu‘tamid, king of Seville (d. 1095) and his wazir Ibn ‘Ammar

The number of anthologies of the later poetry is very large.

Many were devoted to special genres, especially wine-songs; amongst those of more general scope the most noteworthy are the Yatimat ad-Dahr of Tha‘alibi (qg.v.); the Qald’id al-Iqydn of Fath b. Khäqān

(d. 1134), a brilliant anthology of Spanish-

Arabic verse; and the Khizdnat al-Adab of ‘Abd al-Qadir of Baghdad (d. 1682), professedly a commentary on the verses cited in an earlier work on grammar. BELLES-LETTRES

The growing refinement of social life in the 8th and oth centuries is reflected in the rise of a prose literature intended to entertain the reading public, supply the elements of polite education (adab), and convey moral instruction in a palatable form. The earliest books of this class were the translations by Ibn

Muaaffa‘ (d. 760) of two old Persian works on manners, and of the Fables of Bidpai (q.v.), under the name of Kalile wa-Dimna. The last work has ever since been regarded as a classic. The development of the essay, a medley of citations and reminiscences from poetry, history, traditions, etc., was due to the genius of

Jahiz (q.v.). Its contents were more systematically organized by Ibn Qutaiba (g.v.), especially in his ‘Uyién al-Akhbar, which was the model for the most famous work of its kind, the ‘Jgd al-Farid of Ibn ‘Abd Rabbihi (g.v.), of Cordova. In the following century the Faraj ba'd ash-Shidda and Nishwér al-Muhadara

of Tantikhi (d. 994; latter ed. Margoliouth, London, 1921) mark the growing predominance of the anecdote. Of the numerous later works of this class the most famous is the Mustatraf of Abshihi (d. 1446).

With the introduction of rhyming prose (saj‘) Arabic belles-

lettres reached their most characteristic form. The credit for this step is given to Abi Bakr Khwarizmi (d. 1002), whose Letters in this style set a fashion followed amongst others by Hamadhani (q.v.) and Abu’l-‘Ala. Hamadhani was also the creator of the Magama or “Assembly,” than which probably no more elaborate literary exercise has ever been conceived. The central figure of the Magémat is always a witty vagabond, who in various assemblies of scholars puts all his rivals to shame by his wit, elo-

quence, scholarship and poetic gift. The most famous Magamdt aré those of Hariri (q.v.). The last class of works which may be included under this head-

ing are the popular romances and story-cycles which found their 10n Ibn

Quzmin and the relations between Arabic and Provencal

poetry see Ribera, Discurso leido ante la Real Academia Española (Madrid, x912).

In yet a third type of history the old method is entirely forsaken, and we have a continuous narrative only occasionally interrupted by a citation of the authority for some particular point. But the principle still is that what has been well said once need not be told again in other words. The writer, therefore, keeps as close as he can to the letter of his sources, so that quite a late writer often reproduces the very words of the first narrator. The appearance of the Prophet with the great changes that ensued, the conquests that made the Arabs lords of half the-civilized world, supplied a vast store of*new matter for relations. Thus it came about that at Madina, where the Prophet had lived so long, and where his first successors and the majority of his companions continued to live, a school was gradually formed, where the chief part of the traditions about Mohammed and the rise of Islam took a form more or less fixed, supplemented by the traditions of various provincial schools. Thus by the end of the ist century of Islam many dictata were already in circulation.

Early Compilations.—In

the 2nd century (719~816)

real

books began to be composed. The materials were supplied in the first place by oral tradition, in the second by the dictata of older scholars, and finally by various kinds of documents, such as treaties, letters, collections of poetry, and genealogical lists. The oldest extant history is the biography of the Prophet by Ibn Ishaq (g.v.), at least in the revision of Ibn Hisham (g.v.). This work is generally trustworthy, though in dealing with Mohammed’s early life and the story of his ancestors it is mixed with tables and illustrated by spurious verses. A second life of the

Prophet, by Ibn ‘Oqba (d. 758), exists only in fragments.

We

fortunately possess the Book of the Campaigns of the Prophet by Waqidi (qg.v.) and the important Book of Classes of his disciple Ibn Sa‘d (g.v.). Wāqidī had much more copious materials than Ibn Ishaq, and though he gives way much more to a popular and sometimes romancing style of treatment, the additional details he supplies set various events before us in a clearer light.

The monographs of Abii Mikhnaf (d. 748) and Mada’ini (d: 840) are known only by excerpts contained in the works of later writers. A just estimate of the relative value of the historians can only be reached by careful comparison in detail. This has been essayed by Briinnow in his study on the Kharijites in which the conclusion is reached that Abit Mikhnaf and Mada’ini are

both well-informed and impartial.

Of the other early sources,

the narratives

have

of Sayf b. Omar

been

thoroughly

ex-

amined by Wellhausen, and found to be inferior in accuracy. Along with these should be mentioned Abū ‘Ubaida (g.v.), and Azraqi, whose excellent History of Mecca was the first of many histories of the Holy cities. A further important point to notice

196

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LITERATURE

in the 2nd century is that in it Persians began to take part in the | BIA); the History of the Philologists of Ibn Qifti (d. 1248): g creation of Arabic historical literature. Ibn Muqaffa‘ translated number of early Spanish-Arabic biographies; the vast dictionary the great Book of Persian Kings, and others followed his example. of Safadi (d. 1363), still scattered in loose volumes through half Tabari and his contemporaries preserve to us a good deal of the the libraries of Europe and the East; not to speak of numerous information about Persian history transmitted through such dictionaries of the early heroes of Islam, of students of tradition, of theologians and jurists of the various rites, and many other translations. General Histories—The 3rd century (816-913) was far classes and groups. The value of these works is that they present more productive than the 2nd in general works, in addition to to us, as the history-books seldom do, authentic portraits of monographs and works on special branches by various authors. the lives of the people, and extort our admiration for the many ' Ya'‘qubi (q¢.v.) wrote a short general history of much value and generations of teachers and scholars that patiently knitted up the Ibn Qutaiba (g.v.) a useful Handbook of History. Both are sur- threads of culture, again and again shattered by war, rapine and passed by Baladhuri (g.v.), the author of a valuable narrative of pestilence that bound the Mohammedan world together from The Arab Conquests and a large genealogical history of the Arabs. Morocco to the Indies. The 14th and 15th centuries are remarkable for the appearance All these histories are more or less thrown into the shade by the great Annals of Tabari (g.v.), whose fame has never faded from of encyclopaedic compends, intended as handbooks for the official his own day to ours. As a literary composition they do not rank classes. The two earliest, the Encyclopaedia of Nuwayri (4, very high, nevertheless the value of the book is very great. The 1332) and the Masaltk al-Absar of Ibn Fadlallah (d. 1348), are author’s selection of traditions is usually happy, and the most in course of publication at Cairo, a later work, the Subh al-A‘shi important episodes are treated with most fulness of detail. The of Qalqashandi (d. 1418) having already been printed there in 14 Annals soon came to be dealt with in various ways. They were large volumes (1913-19). Though the writing of memoirs and of published in shorter form, with the omission of names of author- historical compendiums (generally beginning with the Creation) ities and many poetical citations; on the other hand some inter- continued during the following centuries, few works outside those polations were made, one in the author’s lifetime and perhaps of the writers already mentioned attained any note, until the pubby his own hand, and many later writers added supplements. lication of the History of Egypt and the Diary of Jabarti (GabMiskawayh (or Ibn Miskawayh, d. 1030), the first writer to arti, d. 1825), who may be regarded as the last (and not the compose a general history as an organic structure with the aim least worthy) representative of the old school of Arabic historiof displaying its human and instructive aspects, drew almost ography. Historical Romances.—A word must be said of the historical entirely on Tabari down to 907; the two final volumes (Amedroz and Margoliouth, Eclipse of the Abbasid Caliphate, Oxford, romances, the beginnings of which go back to the first centuries 1920-21) contain original material and show him to be a writer of of Islam. The veneration paid to the Prophet and love for the talent. In 963 an abridgement of the Annals was translated into marvellous soon gave rise to fables about his childhood, his visit Persian by Bal‘ami, who, however, interwove many fables. Ibn to heaven, etc., which, with many Jewish legends, and the YemenAthir (qg.v.) abridged the whole work, usually with judgment, but ite fables circulated by ‘Abid ibn Sharya in the rst century, have sometimes too hastily. Many other writers also took Tabari as found their way even into sober histories. Romantic legends their main authority, but sometimes consulted other sources and clustered round the history of the conquests, and the fortunes of so add to our knowledge, notably Ibn Jawzi (d. 1201), who adds ‘Alt and his house, and history was often forged for party ends. many important details. In later times Ibn Athir’s abridgement The people accepted all this, and so a romantic tradition sprang supplanted the original work as a source, e.g., in the works of up with a literature of its own. In the oldest specimens, such as Abvu'l-Fedā (q.v.) and Ibn ‘Amīd (al-Makīn; see ELmacın). the Conquest of Egypt and the West by Ibn ‘Abd al-Hakam (d. Later Works.—The number of historical and biographical 871; ed. Torrey, Yale univ., 1922), truth and falsehood are works composed in the later centuries is very large. The most mixed. Most of the extant literature of this kind is, in its present important writers, Mas‘idi, Biriini, Ibn Athir, Abu’l-Faraj (see form much more recent, e.g., the Story of the Death of Husayn Bar-Hepracus), Ibn Khaldiin, Maqrizi, Suyiiti, Maqqari, and by the pseudo-Abū Mikhnaf and the Conquest of Syria (see Hajit Khalifa, are the subjects of special articles. Of other works Waaqipi). Further enquiry into the origin of these works is ‘several are worthy of special mention. The Annals of Eutychius needed, but some of them were plainly directed to stirring up (d. 940; ed. Cheikho, Paris, 1906) are important as representing fresh zeal against the Christians. In the 6th century A.H. some of the Christian tradition. The Book of Wazirs of Hilal as-Sabi’ these books had gained so much authority that they were used (d. 1056; ed. Amedroz, Beyrouth, 1904) is a mine of information as sources, and thus many untruths crept into accepted history. for the social life of the 9th and roth centuries. The history of Distinct from these are the popular romances, which have Mahmud of Ghazna (Kitab al-Yaminz) of ‘Utbi (d. 1036) set the never been taken for serious history. The most famous are the fashion of rhetorical composition in history, which was followed Story of ‘Aniar, a romance of Arabian desert life (see under by ‘Imad ad-Din (d. r20r) in his histories of Saladin and of the ‘ANTARA); the Story of Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan, centred on Yemen Saljuq dynasty, and was carried to excess in the History of and Abyssinia; and the Story of the Bani Hilal, one of the Arab Tamerlane of Ibn ‘Arabshah (d. 1450). The later compilers could tribes which took possession of the Libyan desert in the r1th cenalso draw on numerous local and dynastic histories, many of tury. (M. J. pe G.; H. A. R. G.) which are now lost. In most cases these works are of purely TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE technical interest, being either bare statements of facts in chronological order, or else designed to glorify the dynasty and oozing Geography and Travel.—Arabic geographical literature was adulation from every page. Full, scientific, and impartial ac- stimulated in the first place by Greek mathematical geography counts, such as was given (over a somewhat wider field) by ‘Abd and the necessities of administration. The first road-book was al-Latif (g.v.) in his Description of Egypt, are rare. Not all local written in the 9th century by Ibn Khirdadhbih, the royal posthistories, however, dealt with political events; some were more master at Samarra, to give particulars of the provinces and their concerned with local theologians, scholars and saints. Of this revenues. Soon afterwards love of travel and intellectual curiosclass the most important surviving work is the still unedited ity produced a valuable series of descriptive works, of which those History of Damascus of Ibn ‘Asakir (d. 1176), a vast compila- of Ya‘quibi (q.v.), Ibn Hauqal (g.v.), Mas‘iidi (g.v.), and Maqtion in 30 volumes, in which history crosses the borderline into dist (Mokaddasi) are the most famous. While these early writers biography. Of the great biographical dictionaries proper, one, the prided themselves that their knowledge was derived from personal famous work of Ibn Khallikan (g.v.), has already gained a rep- investigations, their successors, Bakri (q.v.), Idrisi (g.v.), Yaqit utation outside the Arabic world, but there are many others (g.v.), and Abu’l-Feda (q.v.), nevertheless contrived to compile which scarcely yield to his in interest. Amongst these are the excellent geographical treatises based almost entirely on written newly-recovered Dictionary of Men of Letters of Vaqit (q.v.); and narrative sources. There are also accounts of embassies and the Lives of the Physicians of Ibn abi Usaibi‘a (see Inn Usat- journeys both into Central Europe and the remoter parts of

ARABIN—ARABI Asia. Ibn Jubair of Valencia wrote an admirable journal of his travels to and from Mecca by way of Syria and Egypt in 118184. In the 14th century Ibn Battiita (g.v.) earned the title of “The Traveller of the Arabs” by his extensive journeys. The commercial relations long existing between the Persian Gulf and

India and the Far East produced several exceedingly interesting works on those countries, notably the Chain of Histories (see Remaup) and Marvels of India, besides manuals of navigation

PASHA

.

rO7

writers in the East, its advanced wing is formed by the recent group of Syro-American writers belonging to the large Lebanese communities now settled in the United States, Brazil and elsewhere in the New World. In Egypt a movement of reconciliation between the two schools, initiated by Shaykh Mohammed ‘Abduh (d. 1905) had much success, but in default of a leader to succeed him has itself broken into a conservative and a modernist wing.

The present situation is therefore on the whole less productive than concerned with clearing the ground for new foundations. ors even set out from Lisbon to cross the Atlantic. In later times The effects of this instability and hesitation are most marked in geography shared the general decline, and, except for the geo- the work of the leading modern poets. In subject and content graphical sections of the great encyclopaedias mentioned in the Western influences tend to predominate, but the style and convenpreceding section, was merged into cosmography. The works of tions remain for the most part those of the classical age. Neverthe earlier cosmographers, Qazwini (d. 1283) and Dimishqi (d. theless the many experiments now being made in Egypt and also 1327), are not indeed without interest and importance, but with in the Lebanon, where the modernist movement is triumphant, the economic ruin of the Arabic world all study of geography give abundant evidence of vitality. In Damascus and ‘Iraq, the ceased. (See further under GEOGRAPHY.) traditional disciplines have only within the last few years been Philology.—The beginnings of the study of Arabic grammar challenged by Western influences, either directly, or mediated can be traced to ‘Iraq early in the 8th century, where the two through Egypt and the Lebanon. cities of Basra and Kūfa produced rival schools of philology, a BIBLIOGRAPHY.—There is no complete history of Arabic literature. third being afterwards established in Baghdad (see Flügel, Die An exhaustive bio-bibliographical survey is given by C. Brockelmann, grammatischen Schulen der Araber, Leipzig, 1862). The earliest Geschichte der arab. Litteratur (Weimar, 1898-1902). R.A. Nicholson,

in prose and verse. In the roth century some Spanish-Arab sail-

systematic treatise on grammar was written by Sibawaihi (g.v.) of Basra, and among the other members of this school were Abi

‘Ubaida (g.v.), Asma‘

(g.v.), Mubarrad,

and Ibn Duraid

(g.v.). The rival school of Kifa claimed to be less antiquarian, but exercised less influence. The principal founder of the school of Baghdad was Ibn Qutaiba (g.v.). The most important services rendered by the older philologists were the collection of the old poetry and of materials for lexicography. On their shoulders stood the later systematizers, such as Jauhari (q.v.), Tha‘alibi (g.v.), Jurjini (q.v.), Zamakhshari (g.v.), Sakkaki (d. 1229), author of the standard text-book on rhetoric, and Ibn Malik (d. 1273), who wrote a celebrated metrical summary of grammar in a thousand lines. The great Arabic dictionaries are of late date; the two most esteemed are the Lisdn al-‘Arab of Ibn Manziir (d. 1311) and the commentary called Taj al-‘Ariis by

Murtada Zabidi (d. 1790) on the Qamis of Fairiizabadi (¢.v.). (See Dictionary, § Arabic.) Philosophy and Science.—Arabic philosophical and scientific studies are dealt with elsewhere (see ARABIAN PurLosopHy and historical sections of ASTRONOMY, CHEMISTRY, MATHEMATICS, MEDICINE, etc.; a general survey is given by G. Sarton, Introduc-

tion to the history of Science, vol. i, Washington, 1927). All such studies came to the Arabs through Syriac translations from Greek, supplemented by Indian and possibly Persian influences, and were confined to comparatively small circles of students. NINETEENTH-CENTURY

LITERATURE

While the writing of books and composition of poetry continued in Egypt and Syria, and sporadically elsewhere, through-

out the 17th and 18th centuries, little of originality or value was produced. During the 19th century the new political, social, economic and intellectual movements resulting from contact with Europe prepared the way for a revival of Arabic letters, particularly in Syria and Egypt. This took on the one hand the form of a throw-back to Classical Arabic models, represented in Syria by Nasif Yaziji (1800-71), the author of Magdmdat on the model of

Hariri, and in Egypt by the activities of the orthodox theological

seminary of al-Azhar. On the other hand the influences exerted by the missionary schools in Lebanon, and the Western sympathies of Mohammed ‘Ali (g.v.) and Isma‘il Pāshā (g.v.) led to a rapid and superficial assimilation of Western ideas, fostered by the translation of large numbers of French works, especially scientific works, novels and plays. The westernizing movement was strengthened by the creation, in the last decades of the century, of an Arabic daily press (see Ecypt, Movern, § Literature and the Press), which has contributed to the evolution of a new and more flexible literary style, and also of an Arabic theatre. While

the modernist school has been represented by many influential

A Literary History of the Arabs (1907, etc.,) is the best general work on the subject. It is full and reliable, and contains a classified bibliography of general works. A list of translations is contained in an appendix to Arabic Literature, An Introduction, by H. A. R. Gibb (Oxford, 1926). More elaborate biographical and bibliographical data will be found in the Encyclopaedia of Islam (Leyden, 1913, proceeding), and a large number of literary sketches in Carra de Vaux’s Les Penseurs de PIslam (1921-26). For roth-century writers see article by H. A. R. Gibb in Bulletin of the School of Oriental

Studies, vol. iv., part 4 (London, 1928).

ARABIN: see AraBIc Aci. ARABI PASHA (18392-1911),

(H. A. R. G.)

more

correctly AnMmaD

“ARĀBI, to which in later years he added the epithet al-Misrī, “the Egyptian,” Egyptian soldier and revolutionary leader, was born in Lower Egypt in 1839 or 1840 of a fellah family and entered the army as a conscript. Said Pasha gave him a commission in 1862, and he served in the Abyssinian campaign of 1875 under Ismail Pasha. A charge of peculation, unproved, was made against him in connection with this expedition and he was placed on half-pay. He joined a secret society formed by Ali Rubi with the object of getting rid of Turkish officers in the Egyptian army. In 1878 he was employed by Ismail to foment a disturbance against the ministry of Nubar, Rivers Wilson, and de Bligniéres, and received in payment a wife from Ismail’s harem and the command of a regiment. In the agitation against the government of Tewfik Pasha, Arabi was put forward as the leader of the discontented Egyptians; he was in reality little more than the mouthpiece and

puppet of abler men such as Ali Rubi and Mahmud Sami. On Feb. r, 1881, Arabi and two other Egyptian colonels, summoned before a court-martial for acts of disobedience, were rescued by their soldiers, and the khedive was forced to dismiss his then minister of war in favour of Mahmud Sami. A military demonstration on Sept. 8, 1881, led by Arabi, forced the khedive to increase the numbers and pay of the army, to substitute Sherif Pasha for Riaz Pasha as prime minister, and to convene an assembly of notables. Arabi became under-secretary for war at the beginning of 1882. Sherif fell in Feb., Mahmud Sami became prime minister, and Arabi (created a pasha) minister of war. Arabi, after a brief fall from office, acquired a dictatorial power that alarmed the British, Government. British and French warships went to Alexandria at the beginning of June; on the rrth of that month rioting in that city led to the sacrifice of many European lives. Order could only be restored through the intervention of Arabi, who adopted a more distinctly anti-European attitude. His arming of the forts at Alexandria was held to constitute a menace to the British fleet. On the refusal of France

to co-operate the British fleet bombarded the forts (July 11) and a British force, under Sir Garnet Wolseley, defeated Arabi on

Sept. 11, at Tel-el-Kebir. Arabi fled to Cairo where he surrendered and was tried (Dec. 3) for rebelion. In accordance with an understanding made with the British representative, Lord Dufferin, Arabi pleaded guilty, and sentence of death was imme-

ARABISTAN—ARABS

198

diately commuted to one of banishment for life to Ceylon. The same sentence was passed on Mahmud Sami and others. After Arabi’s exile had lasted for nearly 20 years, however, the khedive Abbas II. exercised his prerogative of mercy, and in May Igor Arabi was permitted to return to Egypt. He died at Cairo on Sept. 21, rgorz. Arabi, as has been said, was rather the figurehead than the inspirer of the movement of 1881-82 and was probably more honest, as he was certainly less intelligent, than those whose tool, in a large measure, he was. The movement which he represented in the eye of Europe, whatever the motives of its leaders, “was in its essence a genuine revolt against misgovernment” (Lord Cromer in Egypt, No. 1, 1905, p. 2), and it was a dim recognition of this fact which led Arabi to style himself “‘the Egyptian.” See Ecyrt: History; also Lord Cromer’s Modern Egypt (1908).

ARABISTAN, Persia: see Kuuzistan. ARABLE.

The social movements of the age, especially the

later developments of the industrial revolution in Britain, have given a peculiar emphasis to the word arable and the condition it describes. For purposes of agriculture the “land” is commonly divided in British official statistics into grass land and arable land, or soil that is left continuously undisturbed and soil that is at intervals ploughed or otherwise cultivated. But the two are not so easy to distinguish, either by the casual observer or the statistician, as they once were. The practice of sowing “leys” is now very common. “Seeds,” as they are generally known among farmers, are sown on the arable land along with or rather later than the cereal crop, and when the corn is cut, giving place to sown mixtures of grass or clover, the field may assume very nearly the appearance of a meadow; and may never return to tillage.

In the period of depression of British farming that began in 1920 many farmers sowed “seeds” in order to watch events. If times continued bad, the “leys” would be allowed to remain for the maximum period and thereafter in the worse cases degenerate into grass. If, on the other hand, prosperity returned they would be ploughed up. But the general distinction holds. Arable land is usually ploughed, or otherwise stirred once a year, but it is still classed as arable, if the intention is to use the plough again, as soon as the “seeds” have served their purpose. It is becoming a custom therefore in official statistics to divide the arable area in a country into two main groups: the land actually ploughed in any one year and the acreage carrying clover and sown rotation grasses. Proportion of Tillage——The proportion of tilled land at various junctures has changed more abruptly in Britain than in any other country of which authentic accounts exist. One of the most

remarkable facts in Domesday Book is the great amount of arable

land recorded at that date in many English counties. At its publication in 1086 the plough was a very simple machine—with a short handle and a big wheel—and the sods were broken with a mattock, the harrowing done with a large rake. Nevertheless, the arable area in general was much bigger at the end of the Irth century than at the beginning of the 19th. The most remarkable figures relate to Somerset and Gloucester. In Somerset the tilled area had reached 577,000 acres in 1086, and 238,456 in 1907. The end of the period of abundant tillage may be dated from 1348, the year of the Black Death. But other causes were at work, as well as pestilence. We know that meadow land was much more valuable than arable long before the plague, being rented on the

average at 2s. as compared with 6d. for ploughed land. The re-

lapse of arable to grass in the 14th century was not made good. The doggerel maxim “Up horn, down corn” was popular at a later age, and Tudor husbandmen in all parts of the country “substituted pasture for tillage, sheep for corn. They took their

seats on the woolsack, and maidens of all degrees were spinsters.”

When mutton became more important than wool towards the close of the 18th century, farming improved, but there was no general

break-up of the sheepwalk. The modern Danish proof that arable

will carry more stock than grass land was not yet appreciated. In subsequent history the proportion of arable to pasture hag

oscillated this way and that, in rough relation to the price of

wheat (which touched its highest points in 1855 and 1921). By the loss of arable has been continuous in Great Britain in modern times since the disastrous harvest of 1879. The weather of that year was the occasion for an acceleration of a change due to more lasting causes, such as cheaper transport and the ploughing of virgin land overseas, in North America, in the Argentine, jp Australia and in other places. Decline of British Arable.—Taking the single years 1871 anq

1925 the arable area of Britain declined by about 4,300,000 acres, from 14,950,000 to 10,680,000; and the proportion of arable from

56-8% to 41-59%. If only the cultivated area is taken (excluding rough grazing) about one-third is ploughed annually and two. thirds are either permanent grass or rotation grasses. In regard to the proportion of arable in England the country may be roughly

divided into three groups. The eastern counties from the Thames to Flamborough Head are markedly arable. The south-eastern counties of Kent, Sussex, Surrey, Hants and Berks, with Oxford and Worcestershire,

occupy

a middle

place,

and

all western

counties, with Northumberland, Durham and the West Riding

are chiefly grass.

While the proportion of arable land to grass decreased in Britain it was notably augmented in many countries of a very different nature.

When Danish farmers began to surrender corn-

growing for dairying, they often increased the ratio of arable land, plus lucerne or some

such cultivated green

crop.

They grew

gramineous crops for fodder instead of grain for food, and diminished the permanent grass to a minimum. The most salient extension of arable land in the world is to the credit of the so-called prairie provinces of Canada; and a like development continues to progress in Australia. A good example of the purposeful extension of the corn area is to be seen in the south of Western Australia. The Canadian figures are very remarkable. There were only a half million acres under wheat in 1871. ‘Then the discovery of a wheat that would ripen in the

north and endure the climate sent the ploughs to the far north, and the arable area for growing wheat alone had increased in 1926 to 23,000,000 acres, with prospects of yet greater extension.

While the arable area in northern Canada has been increased, thanks chiefly to the “creation” of new varieties of grain, many of thé hot, dry lands of the south of the United States have come under cultivation thanks to the art of “dry farming,” or so treating the surface by repeated but shallow tillage that the moisture

cannot escape by capillary attraction.

(W. B. T.)

(See AGRICULTURE and AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS.)

ARABS. The term Arab as used in the Sudan signifies any people professing Islam, however dark-skinned they may be, 80 that while thè term has an obvious cultural value it is strictly

speaking of little ethnic significance. But in a broad sense the word may be taken to denote a congeries of tribes claiming, even if they have it not, a predominantly Caucasian ancestry, boasting a particular historic tradition, and speaking a Semitic language.

In this sense, in contrast with the older stocks of the Sudan, the

Arabs are comparatively new comers.

In spite of an early slow

infiltration via the Abyssinian hills and spasmodic

driftings

towards the Nile Valley from Mediterranean lands, it seems certain that the Arabs did not exert any considerable influence in the northern Sudan before the decay of the Christian kingdoms of Dongola and ‘Alwah after the 13th century. There seem to have been only two great movements into the Sudan, the first taking place in the 13th and 14th centuries as the result of the conquest of the Christian Kingdom of Dongola, the second following

the Turkish conquest of Egypt in the 16th century. This seems to be the view taken by MacMichael, but before his work appeared J. W. Crowfoot, using material published (in Arabic) by Naum

Bey Shoucair, had pointed out the influence exerted in the Arabization of the Sudan by the Fung, who appear in history as a horde of blacks under a leader tracing his ancestry to the Beni Ommayya. Makrizi (1366-1442) shows how completely at an earlier date the kingdoms of Dongola and ‘Alwah barred the way to Arab penetration up the Nile valley, but there was no precise knowledge of the factors that led to the downfall of this barrier until the publication by MacMichael of a hitherto untranslated

ARABS passage in Makrizi referring ta the Guhayna, who, in the pre-

Islamic period occupied Nejd and the neighbourhood of Medina, where a section dwells to this day. Many migrated to Egypt,

taking part in the conquest. They reached Aswan by the ninth century, and by the fourteenth century had penetrated far into Nubia. “At first the kings of the Nuba attempted to repulse them, but they failed; then they won them aver by giving them their daughters in marriage. Thus was their Kingdom disintegrated, and it passed to certain of the sons of the Guhayna on account of their mothers, according to the custom of the infidels as to

199

highest proportion of members with negro or negroid features, so that most black blood is often found in the richest and most influential divisions of these tribes,

On the physical side it may be suggested that the great majority

of the nomads are dolichocephalic, though stature and build vary; skins are of every colour, and noses of every form, nor can the shape of the nose and the colour of the skin be correlated. Details concerning particular Arab tribes are given in Mac-

Michael’s works, Belonging to the Ga’aliin group are the Ga’aliin

proper, and most of the northern riverain tribes such as the the succession of the sister or the sister’s son. So their Kingdom Gawabra and Bedayria (who might with as much truth be classed fell to pieces, and the A’rab of Guhayna took possession of it. as Danagla, inhabitants of Dongola, z:e., Nubians), the Rubatab, But their rule showed none of the marks of statesmanship . . . the Batahin, the Shaikia and also many of the tribes of Kordofan, they remain nomads following the rainfall like the A’rab of including the Gawama’a (perhaps the most negroid of Kordofan Arabia.” Arabs), the Gima’a and the Ghodiat. To the Guhayna, using the This dual policy of following the rainfall and of intermarriage term in its wider sense, belong the Rufa’a, the Shukria and the led to the rapid spread of those mixed stocks all now calling them- great mass of camel nomads of Kordofan such as the Kababish selves Arab, though this process was for some time confined to and their rivals the Kawahla, the Lahawiin and the Dar Hamid the country north of the confluence of the two Niles and the (the last with many sedentary sections). The Guhayna proper Arabization of the Central Sudan was in great part a result of are now represented by a small group of tribes in the neighbourthe conversion to Islam of the Fung, who, assisted by Arab hood of Kassala where they are subject to the Shukria. The immigrants, did much to overthrow the Kingdom of ‘Alwah. But designation Fezara, common in writings of the 18th and earlier in spite of the spread of Islam no great spread of Arab mode of roth centuries, when it was applied to certain of the strongest life or thought seems to have taken place in the central Sudan, camel-owning nomads, e.g., the Dar Hamid, is now scarcely used the land being divided into small kingdoms subject to the Sultan in Kordofan. of Sennar. The country may have continued in much the same Mode of Life.—The typical organization of the Arabs is reprecondition for some three centuries, though doubtless throughout sented by the tribe, under the control of a sheikh, an office northe whole of this period Arabic influence was slowly spreading. mally hereditary but sometimes elective. Within the tribe are The last phase began scarcely a hundred years ago. The Egyptian a number of sections with patrilineal descent, themselves often conquest of the Sudan by Mohammed Ali broke down the last formed by smaller groups, the term khasham beit being someremains of the independent kingdoms, indeed the tendency of times applied to the true section and sometimes to one of its the whole of the last century, including the great upheaval with smaller divisions. Each section has its own sheikh, subordinate which it terminated, was towards the destruction of the older to the tribal sheikh, and much importance is attached to the presergroupings and modes of thought and the substitution of the Arab vation of the tribal and sectional genealogies (nisba). The size of tribal system and Arab speech. a tribe or section may fluctuate from time to time with the popuTribal Divisions.—The Arabs of the Sudan are divisible into larity and strength of its sheikh or leader; a strong and just man two great moieties, one calling themselves Guhayna and tracing will attract to his unit families or groups of families from other their origin to the eponymous founder of the tribe, the other tribes, and these in time may give rise to sections or lose their

claiming descent from ‘Abbas, the uncle of the Prophet. Thus in identity in that of their adopted unit. Among the sedentary poputhe Sudan the name Guhayna is used in a broad as well as in a lation tribal organization is naturally weaker than among the narrow (tribal) sense. In the latter it is restricted to certain nomads. nomads inhabiting the Sennar Province, but in the wider sense it The daily life of the town Arabs of the Sudan probably varies is understood to include the Baggara and the vast group of camel but little from that of their fellow-townsmen throughout the nomads in Kordofan, all of whom if pressed will claim descent from Near East, and perhaps much the same may be said of the sedenAbdulla el Guhani, The other great division of the Sudan Arabs, tary agriculturists. That of the nomads is conditioned by the even larger and more loasely knit than the Guhayna, that claiming severity of the dry season and the organized effort that is required ‘Abbas as their ancestor, may be called the Ga’aliin. In the main to meet it, Movements of families are no casual wanderings,

this group is sedentary. The fusion of the Arabic element with the nor except in the wet season, are groups of tents to be found scatolder settled inhabitants of Nubia was so close that MacMichael tered over the country, but all movement takes place en masse,

applies the term Go’aliin-Danagla to this great moiety, which

the whole life of the tribe being regulated by the supply of water

tary tribes in Kordofan.

are few ( their use formerly often led to fighting, and even now-

includes most of the riverain tribes as well as a number of seden-

Apart from this genealogical and to a great extent ethnological Classification there is another used by the Arabs themselves,

and of grass for men and cattle. Since permanent watering places

adays is a fruitful source of bad feeling) it is necessary each year to dig temporary wells in localities in which the water bearing ie., the broad division into nomads and sedentaries, the former strata come within reasonable distance of the surface. This rebeing again divided into camel-nomads (Ahl Ibl), and cattle folk quires considerable man-power, hence the common dry season (Bakkara) (g.v.), who are mainly nomads, while the sedentaries unit is a (tribal) section under its sheikh, may be considered to fall into two much less well defined groups, Although the Arabs of the Sudan observe the outward forms of namely riverain cultivators, z.e., users of the sakia and other seden- Islam, including the fast at Ramadan and abstention from alcohol, tary villagers. However there are sedentary sections or divisions there is a strong and widespread cult of the dead in one form or of many nomad tribes, and the condition of minor groups may another, a belief which is hardly counterbalanced by confidence vary from time to time. The distinction between camel and cattle in the efficacy of holy writings. Thus, while almost every Arab men is more radical, and is largely determined by geography, for wears a charm (hegab), which in fact or theory contains a pascamels should not be taken south of latitude 13° N., owing to sage from the Koran, the most valid oaths are sworn not upon fly, whereas cattle, which require more water, are successfully the Holy Book but upon the shrine of some local holy man. pastured south of this latitude as far as the Bahr el-Arab and The belief in the evil eye (qg,v.), is universal, and many of the westwards into southern Darfur. Moreover the great nomadic sedentary Arabs are as superstitious—-using the word to signify tribes, such as the Kababish and Kawahla, have a smaller infusion unorthodox belief—-as are the Egyptian peasantry with whom of negro blood than the riverain tribes of the north or the seden- they share the names of some of their spirits. The nomadic tribes taries of Kordofan, though the amount varies from tribe to tribe on the other hand, if Jess religious in that their fear of the superand even in different divisions of the same tribe, the richest divi- natural is less, are free from many unorthodox beliefs of their sions, że., those possessing most ‘slaves, tending to contain the settled co-religionists. Among the leading men at least of the

ARACAJU—ARACHNE

200

Kababish the writer found none of that fear of the dark or of of Philodendron have feeding roots which penetrate the soil ang empty spaces, or belief in afrit, which is common in the mixed clasping roots that fix the plant to its support. Some are epipopulation of the towns, nor as far as he could discover are the phytes, and a tew, such as the water lettuce (Pistia Stratiotes), sar and zikr—religious exercises inducing auto-hypnosis, and are floating plants. The leaves, which show great variety in size and form, are sometimes hystero-epileptic seizures—which are frequent enough among the town dwellers and villagers, found among the nomads. generally broad and net-veined, though sometimes sword-shaped But though the precepts of the Koran with regard to marriage, and parallel-veined. In Arum (q.v.) the blade is simple. In other inheritance, and so forth, are followed where there is an explicit direction, there is everywhere an important substratum of preIslamic or non-Islamic beliefs, habit and custom being largely governed by an older social condition, which, if not matrilineal, at least had many matrilineal traits. Thus among the nomads of Kordofan the wedding tent is built in that part of the settlement in which live the bride’s people who provide by far the greater RUDIMENTARY part of the tent material and its furniture; so too in the payment of blood money, it is not only relatives of the slayer’s clan who provide this but his mother’s people are also expected to contribute. Another most interesting series of pre-Islamic customs are described by Crowfoot (Sudan Notes and Records, Vols. L., 1918, II., 1919, V., 1922), in connection with the marriages, circumcision and pregnancy, of the riverain Arabs, and in northern and central Kordofan, though these customs are not found among the nomads of the west nor the Baggara of the south. Essentially these ceremonies centre round certain insignia called jirtik, the name being applied both to the rites and collectively to the insignia worn, one of the most important elements being a bracelet on which is threaded a blue or green stone, or sometimes a particular kind of glass bead. Usually the various ornaments are previously dipped in milk, and are worn thereafter during forty days. It is to be noted that in the case of marriage the jzrtzk ornaments can only be worn once, whether by boy or girl, so that even if marriage has not been consummated neither party wears the jirtik insignia for a second wedding. BrpiiocraPpHy.—C. G. and B. Z. Seligman, The Kababish, a Sudan Arab Tribe, Harvard African Studies, vol. ii. (1918); H. A. MacMichael, Tribes of Northern and Central Kordofan (1912), and History of the Arabs in the Sudan (1922); J. W. Crowioot, Sudan Notes and Records, vol. i. (1918), ii. (x919); v. (1922). (C. G. S.)

ARACAJU, a city and seaport of Brazil, capital of the State

A.

FROM

GROOM,

WILD ARUM

“ELEMENTARY

BOTANY”;

B.

(ARUM MACULATUM),

FROM

STRASBURGER,

COMMONLY

“TEXTBOOK

OF

BOTANY"

“LORDS AND LADIES"

A. Details showing mode of development of the flowers B. The plant itself

C. The berries, exposed when the large sheathing leaf that encloses them withers

;

of Sergipe, 170m. N.N.E. of Bahia, on the river Cotinguiba, or genera the leaves are divided and sometimes very large; those Cotindiba, 6m. from the coast. The municipality, of which it of Dracontium (tropical America) may be 15 ft. high. In the forms a part, had a population in 1890 of 16,336, about two-thirds ceriman (Monstera) the large perforated leaves appear as if cut of whom lived in the city itself. Its population in 1920 was 37,440. full of holes. The small flowers are crowded on thick, fleshy Aracajú is on the right bank of the river at the base of a ridge of spikes, which are usually enveloped by a large leaf (bract), the sand-hills. Good limestone is quarried in its vicinity, and the spathe, which is often the most conspicuous feature of the plant. country tributary to this port produces large quantities of sugar. For example, in the cuckoo-pint the spathe is large and green; in Cotton is also grown, and the back country sends down hides and the jack-in-the-pulpit it is purple-striped; in the callas it is white skins for shipment. The anchorage is good, but a dangerous bar or yellow; and in the anthuriums it is scarlet. In Amorphophallus, at the mouth of the river prevents the entrance of vessels drawing an East Indian genus, the “flower” (spathe and spadix) often more than 12 feet. The port is visited, therefore, only by the exceeds 3 ft. in length. The true flowers are often extremely smaller steamers. The river is navigable as far as the town of simple, sometimes, as in Arum, reduced to a single stamen or Maroim, about 10m. beyond Aracaju. The city was founded in pistil. The fruit is a berry. Usually the plants contain a poisonous 1855. acrid juice. The underground stems (rhizomes or tubers) are rich

ARACATY or ARACATI, a city and port of Brazil, in the

State of Ceara, 75m. S.E. of Fortaleza, on the River Jaguaribe, 8m. from the sea. Population of the municipality (1890) 20,182, of whom about 12,000 belonged to the city; (1920) 27,551, of whom 17,375 belonged to the city. A dangerous bar at the mouth of the river permits the entrance only of the smaller coasting steamers, but the port is an important commercial centre, and exports considerable quantities of cotton, hides, maniçoba, rubber, fruit, and palm wax.

ARACEAE

or AROIDEAE,

the arum family, a large

group of monocotyledonous plants containing upwards of too genera and more than 1,000 species, of which the cuckoo-pint in Great Britain, and the jack-in-the-pulpit, found in eastern North America, are familiar examples. Neither of these small plants, however, gives more than meagre indication of the characters of this interesting plant family which attains its most conspicuous development in the Tropics. The aroids are generally

herbaceous, often, however, reaching gigantic size; but they are sometimes shrubby climbing plants. Many are peculiar in form and habit and grotesque in appearance. Various climbing species

in starch; those of the tropical taro (g.v.) providing a valuable article of food. From the rhizomes of the cuckoo-pint Portland arrowroot was formerly prepared. The starchy corms of the jackin-the-pulpit were utilized for food by the Indians of eastern North America. Besides the cuckoo-pint, the Acorus Calamus (q.v.) or sweel flag occurs in Great Britain, though it is supposed to have been

introduced. In North America about 15 native species of aroids are found, chiefly in the southern and eastern United States. Among these are the jack-in-the-pulpit, green dragon, golden-club, sweet flag, wild calla, water-lettuce (gqg.v.) and skunk-cabbage. Only one native species, the western skunk-cabbage (Lysichiton kamschatensis), occurs on the Pacific coast. Because of their unusual foliage and inflorescence numerous species of Alocasia, Anthurium, Caladium, Colocasia, Dieffenbachia, Scindapsus, Xanthosoma, and other genera are grown in greenhouses for ornament and as curiosities. A good series of tropical aroids may be seen in the aroid house at Kew.

ARACHNE, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Idmon of

Colophon in Lydia, a dyer in purple. She had acquired such skill

ARACHNIDA in the art of weaving that she ventured to challenge Athena. Offended at her having depicted the amorous adventures of the gods, and enraged at the perfection of her work, the goddess tore it to pieces. Arachne hanged herself in despair; but the goddess out of pity loosened the rope, which became a cobweb, while Arachne herself was changed into a spider. The name Arachne means “spider.”

ARACHNIDA.

The Arachnida are a class of animals be-

longing to the phylum Arthropoda and comprising the scorpions, spiders, mites and their allies, which are typically terrestrial airpreeders, and also a host of marine forms, mostly extinct, of which

the king crabs are the only existing representatives. The name was originally restricted to the terrestrial species resembling the inCENTRAL MONOMENISCOUS EYES LATERAL COMPOUND EYES 1 TO VI APPENDAGE BEARING SOMITES OF THE PROSOMA TERGUM OF THE GENITAL SOMITE OR SUPPRESSED PRAEGENITAL SOMITE VIII ro XIII SOMITES OF THE MESOSOMA, EACH WITH A MOVABLE PLEURAL SPINE AND A PAIR OF DORSAL ENTOPOPHYSIS OR MUSCLE-ATTACHING INGROWTHS

XIV TO XVIH THE CONFLUENT OR UNEXPRESSED SIX SOMITES OF THE METASOMA

POST-ANAL SPINE

BY COURTESY OF THE “QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE” FIG. 1.~-DORSAL VIEW OF THE KING CRAB (LIMULUS), WITH THE POSTANAL SPINE CUT SHORT

sects, centipedes, etc., in the possession of organs adapted for atmospheric respiration; king crabs possessing gills or branchia being for that reason associated with the Crustacea. But in 1881 Ray Lankester proved conclusively that the king crab (“Limulus”) must be regarded as an arachnid on account of the fundamental resemblance between it and the scorpion in all essential structural characters. This conclusion, which is generally accepted, focused attention upon the Trilobites (g.v.), a great group of extinct marine arthropods, previously classified as crustaceans but exhibiting many points of likeness to the king crabs. In 1902 Lankester gave cogent reasons for the belief that the Trilobites were primitive Arachnida and placed them in that class; and this opinion was confirmed by the subsequent discovery of numerous fossils linking them with king crabs and their allies. So far as external characters are concerned—and these are the only characters known in the extinct species—the arthropods here referred to as the Arachnida agreed in the following particulars: (1) The body is divided into two main regions or parts, the prosoma or cephalothorax, and the opisthosoma or abdomen; (2) the prosoma, carrying the mouth, is composed of five or six somites or segments and is marked off from the opisthosoma by the fusion of more or fewer, generally all, of the dorsal plates or terga to form a heavy shield or carapace which bears the eyes, when present. It is usually attached to the opisthosoma by a movable joint and, excepting the Trilobites, is further separated from it by the structure and function of its appendages. (3) Except in one degenerate family of mites, each segment of the prosoma is provided with a pair of appendages or limbs of which one pair only is situated in front of the mouth (preoral). The next are behind the mouth, or postoral, and the first pair of these at least is concerned with the mastication of food or with feeding in some other way. The remaining three or four pairs are mainly or wholly locomotor in function. (4) The opisthosoma and its ap-

pendages are much more variable in structure and agreed throughout the different orders in two characters only, the anus opens upon the last segment and the genital ducts on the first or second. It is only by the position and function of the anterior appendages

201

of the prosoma that the Arachnida mainly differ from the Crustacea. In the Crustacea there are two pairs of preoral appendages, the second pair, corresponding to the first postoral pair in the Arachnida, having taken up a preoral position and lost their masticatory function, the third pair, not the second pair as in the Arachnida, being the first pair of jaws. Possibly some representatives of the Trilobites will be found to link the Crustacea with the Arachnida, showing that we must look to the Trilobites as the common ancestors of the two classes. According to the theory of the evolution of the Arachnida and the interpretation of this morphology propounded by Ray Lankester and adopted in this article, the better known terrestrial forms, the scorpions, spiders and mites traced their descent and their structural characters from marine forms of which the Trilobites are the oldest known representatives. In the Trilobites the prosoma is composed of five segments, & 4 DORSAL with its dorsal plates welded into a g SURFACE a carapace provided with compound lateral eyes. The mouth, ~ 9 ff \ NAY g situated near the middle of its yl $ lower surface, is bordered in \\ front by a plate acting as an yf Mae =< “upper lip” or labrum and behind by a small plate, the “lower lip” or labium. The preoral appendages are long, many jointed feelers or antennae, and the basal segments, or coxae, of the four pairs of postoral appendages act as jaws. The rest of the limb en

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consists of two branches: an endopodite, used for crawling, and an exopodite carrying a number of branchial filaments. The opisthosoma is very variable in the number of its segments; but in the earliest forms there is a great number of them, all freely jointed together in a series, and each segment except the last carries a pair of appendages approximately like those of the prosoma in structure and function, the last or telson, carrying the anus, being sometimes provided with a post-

anal caudal spine. The next stage was the restriction of the number of segments

of the body to 18 or 19, the loss, in most cases at all events, of appendages on some of the posteAFTER BEECHER FROM ZITTELL, “TEXT-BOOK rior segments and a change in the OF PALAEONTOLOGY” MACMILLAN & CO, structure 4n function of the apFIG, 2.—RESTORATION OF A TRILOpendages of the prosoma and BITE (TRIARTHRUS BECKI) SHOWING THE SINGLE PAIR OF TACTILE opisthosoma, those of the proPREORAL APPENDAGES, AND THE soma losing to a great extent, if FOUR PAIRS OF POST-ANAL APPENnot wholly, their branchial funcDAGES BELONGING TO THE ANTERtion and becoming specialized for IOR SECTION OF THE BODY locomotion and the prehension and manipulation of food, those of the opisthosoma retaining for a time the double function of respiration and locomotion but later, as in the king crabs, losing their locomotive function and becoming specialized for the most part as carriers of the branchial plates attached, to the branchial filaments of the Trilobites, to the outer branch or exopodite. In the stage represented by the king crabs and many of their extinct allies, the prosoma consists of six segments with six pairs of locomotor or prehensile limbs and the appendages of the opisthosoma are reduced to six pairs corresponding to the first six segments of this region in the adult. The appendages of the first

ARACHNIDA

202

of these segments cover the genital apertures and form the genital operculum. It probably carried branchial plates in some forms, but these have disappeared in the living king crab. It must be noted, however, that this segment, the genital, is morphologically the second segment of the opisthosoma because in the course of its development the king crab shows in front of the genital somite a transient somite, which cannot certainly be traced in the adult. This pregenital somite is important because it appears again in

some of the terrestrial Arachnida but its occurrence is so inconstant that the genital somite VENTRAL VIEW is regarded as the first of this AFTER LEUCKART FROM KORSCHELT AND region in this article. The limb- HEIDER bearing region of the opistho- Fi¢. 3.—TRILOBITE LARVA OF THE soma is called the mesosoma in KING CRAB (LIMULUS) contrast with the metasoma,

the limbless region of the body

behind it, which carries the anus and the caudal spine. The most important allies of the king crab as witnesses of the kinship between that group and the terrestrial air-breathing

class. Of these adaptations atmospheric respiration is the most important. As already explained the respiratory organs of the king crabs are clusters of branchial lamellae, called gill-books, of which there is a pair upon the second to the fifth appendages of the opisthosoma. In thé scorpions the respiratory organs are four pairs

of small sacs, containing clusters of super-imposed lamellae, and they open by spiracles upon the sternal plates of the third to the sixth somites of the opisthosoma. These lamellae, called lungbooks, are dėveloped in the embryo bėħind the bàse of the four

pairs of transient bud-like limbs. They closely resemble even in

microscopic details the gill-books of the king crabs: and Lapnkester’s query that they are modified insunk branchial lamellae js generally accepted. But in the embryo scorpion there is also g pair of bud-like limbs in the first and second segments of the opisthosoma. These persist, the first pair developing into a double or

single plate, the genital operculum, and the second into a pair of peculiar tactile organs, called the combs or pectines, which consist of a jointed shaft provided with a series of teeth, the whole structure recalling and evidently representing the branchial exopodite of the Trilobite limb. Thus in their structure and develop-

ment the pectines and lung-books of the scorpions bear out the

Arachnida are the Eurypterida which resemble scorpions much view of the descent of this group from marine forms with branchial more closely than the king crab resembles them, namely in shape, plates on the exopodite of five pairs of limbs of the opisthosoma: in identity in the number of somites, 18, exhibiting precise and further evidence of this head is supplied by the discovery in differentiation into the three categories prosoma, mesosoma and Silurian strata of a scorpion which lived in the sea and in a measmetasoma, composed of six somites each and the narrowing of the ute links the typical scorpions with the Eurypterida. freely jointed, limbless metasoma to form, with the postanal Less important adaptations to terrestrial life in scorpions are spine, a tail-like termination to the body. But since only the exo- certain modifications of the last four pairs of limbs of the prosoma skeleton of the Eurypterida is known, we must look to the king for walking on land and the forward shifting of the mouth from crabs for the evidence of relationship in the internal organs. the middle of the lower side of the prosoma to the anterior end, The following are the principal anatomical resemblances be- thus freeing the basal segments of the last two pairs of limbs from tween them: (1) The alimentary canal is provided with a power- function of manipulating or masticating food which they perform ful suctorial pharynx, worked by special muscles, and with lateral in the king crabs and Eurypterida. segmentally-arranged diverticula, the so-called “gastric glands.” Although according to the theory of the evolution of the Arach(2) The vascular system is highly developed, consisting of a dor- nida here briefly sketched, the scorpions are the most primitive sal many-chambered “heart,” from which arises a rich supply of of all the terrestrial orders of the class, they cannot be regarded arteries enveloping or intimately connected with the central nerv- as the direct aticestors of any one of them. Nor can any of these ous system. There is also 4 paired series of veno-pericardial other orders, the most specialized or the most degenerate, being muscles passing from the great ventral venous sinus to the peri- directly derived from another. In some cases they exhibit puzcardium and constituting a i zling gross resemblances associated with profound structural differ-

mechanism aiding fow of blood

along the veins which pass from the sinus to the heart. (3) On each side of the prosoma there is an excretory gland, the “coxal gland,” which opens by a pore

between

the

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(coxae) of the fifth and sixth ap-

pendages. (4) Lodged in the prosoma between the ventral

nerve-mass and the alimentary canal is an internal skeletal plate, the “entosternite,” a fibro-cartilaginous structure giving support to the numerous musdles of the limbs arid other organs and arising apparently from the solida-

See

CAMEROSTOME

@

OR EPISTOMA

THE COMPOUND

EYES

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1 TO 8 SEGMENTS OF THE SIXTH PROSOMATIC APPENDAGE

CHILARIUM

OR METASTERNITE

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is

FROM ZITTELL, “TEXTBOOK OF PALAEONTOL+ tion of connective tissue and of OGY” the inner portion of the great FIG. 4—DORSAL VIEW OF PTERYdorso-ventral and longitudinal GOTUS, SHOWING THE SCORPIONand crural muscles. (5) The LIKE SHAPE OF THE BODY ovaries and testes form a closed network and are not in the form of simple, or simply branched, tubes. (6) Median and lateral eyes are present. The medians are composed of two layers of cells (diplostichous) and the laterals of a single layer (monostichous), the elements of the lateral eyes in the scorpions being separated, whereas in the king crabs they are coalesced to form a compound

eye, The principal structural differences between the typical scor-

pions òn the one hand and the king crabs and Eurypterida on the

other are concerned with adaptations to life on the land, 4 new

departure which marked a further stage in the evolution of the

STERNUM

FROM

ZITTELL,

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OF

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THE

SEVENTH

PALAEONTOLOGY

FiG. 5.~-RESTORATION PART

OF

POSTERIOR

OF LOWER REGION

I-V. are gill-bearing

OF

SIDE OF PROSOMA THE

appendages

BODY

OF THE

of the posterior

AND

ANTERIOR

PTERYGOTUS

region

ences. Throughout the series a general tendency is traceable towards the shortening and simplification of the opisthosoma, usually called the abdomen, towards the disappearance or fusion of its segments, its coalescencé with the prosoma or cephalothorax, obliteration of the distinction between mesosoma and metasoma; and these changes are accompanied by simplification of the digestive, nervous and alimentary systems. The eyes also tend to disappear; but apart from them the organs connected with the cephalothorax are generally at least as elaborate as in the scorpions, sometimes more so, and these call for special mention.

ARACHNIDA Alimentary System.—The Arachnida subsist almost wholly

203

fugae, Palpigradi, Acari), or the pharynx, which is in front of the

ing tubes strengthened by a spiral thread as in the insects. A pair of similar tubular tracheae open ventrally upon the second abdomInal somite in the Opiliones; and four pairs open dorsally upon the first four somites in some Acari (Notostigmata).

connection. In the king crabs fertilization is effected after the eggs are laid; but in the air-breathing forms the eggs are fertilized within the body of the female but the sperm of the male is intro-

not, however, been accepted by all authorities. Leuckart, and fol-

upon the soft tissues of their prey which are drawn into the minute mouth by suckers. The labrum may act in this manner (Soli-

brain, as in the Scorpiones, Pedipalpi and Araneae: or the stomach Spiracles are also present in the cephalothorax and are equally which is just behind the brain as in the Araneae and Pedipalpi, variable in position. In the Ricinulei there is a single pair of which are thus provided with two alimentary suckers. In the tufted tracheae opening above the base of the appendages of the scorpions there is only one pair of diverticula from the midgut in fifth pair, and in the Solifugae a pair of tubular tracheae open the cephalothorax, but there are four pairs of segmentally ar- ventrally behind the base of the appendages of the fourth pair. In ranged diverticula in the Araneae (spiders) or even five in some the Acari, in which the tracheae may be tufted or tubular, spirPedipalpi (Thelyphonus). acles may open above the appendages of the first pair, above the Excretory Organs.—Excretory tubules physiologically similar fourth pair or in the articular sockets of the third, fourth, fifth or to those of insects but morphologically different from them open sixth pairs; and in some Opiliones there is a spiracle from the into the gut in the abdomen in scorpions, Pedipalpi, Araneae and fifth segment (tibia) of the last four pairs of appendages. Solifugae, but are absent in the Opiliones. The coxal glands have The Tracheae and the Ancestry of Air-Breathing Arachbeen found in all the orders; but they are more elaborate in the nida.—The tracheae are a morphological puzzle upon the soluPedipalpi and Araneae than in the Scorpiones. The position of tion of which two diametrically opposed hypotheses of the descent the orifice varies. In some (Chelonethi, Mygalomorph spiders) it of the Arachnida mainly rest. In accordance with the view that is close to the base of the fifth appendage as in scorpions and king the lung-books of the scorpions, Pedipalpi and some Araneae crabs; in others (Pedipalpi, typical Araneae, Palpigradi, Solifugae) (spiders) were derived from branchial lamellae like those of the it is behind the base of the third appendage. No doubt in the ances- king crabs, their presence upon the first and second abdominal tor of the Arachnida, possibly in Trilobites, there was a pair of somites in the Pedipalpi and Araneae and upon the third to the coxal glands in each somite of the prosoma. sixth in the scorpions suggests that in earlier members of the king Entosternite.—The most highly developed entosternite is crab and Eurypterine stock they were also present upon the genifound in the Pedipalpi and Araneae, which also contain the prim- tal operculum, making altogether six pairs of clusters. It also initive pregenital somite. In these orders this plate is more like the volves Lankester’s conclusion that the lung-books were the primientosternite of the king crabs than it is in the scorpions; in the tive type of respiratory organs in the air-breathing form, that they Solifugae it is largely, if not wholly, replaced by a chitinous were subsequently partly suppressed or replaced by tracheal tubes ingrowth (entosclerite) from the ventral surface. on the abdomen and were functionally supplemented by addiThe Generative Organs.—The essential glands, testes and tional tracheae with spiracle opening upon various parts of the ovaries are usually simple and tubular but in the Chelonethi they cephalothorax; and the belief that these cephalothoracic spiracles are joined by transverse bands and are reticulated, as in the and tracheae are adventitious organs gained support from their scorpions and king crabs. Some remarkable phenomena connected : presence on the tibia of the legs with the copulation of the Arachnida may be referred to in this of some Opiliones.

This view of the matter has

duced in a variety of singular ways. The scorpions copulate front

to front, the genital orifices of the two sexes being mutually applied during the process. The same method is probably adopted by the Pedipalpi and Chelonethi. In the Opiliones, so far as is known, the male and female stand facing one another and the male thrusts forward his penis, which is relatively of great length, beneath the cephalothorax of the female into her generative orifice which in many genera opens only a short distance behind the mouth. In other orders, however, the method of pairing is quite different, one of the pairs of cephalothoracic appendages being modified as an intromittent organ. In the spiders (Araneae), the terminal segment of the second pair, or palpi, is furnished with an apparatus adapted for taking up the liquid sperm after it has been deposited on a sheeting of web, and carrying it until the male finds a female and fertilizes her by inserting the organ into her generative ducts. Functionally similar organs occur upon the terminal segment or tarsus, of the fifth pair of limbs in the Ricinulei and upon the mandibles or chelicerae of the Solifugae. But in these cases the apparatus is adapted for the transmission of spermatophores into the female. The Respiratory Organs of air-breathing Arachnida have been extensively used in classification on account of the diversity in structure and position they exhibit. Pulmonary sacs with “lung-

books” very similar to those of scorpions are found in the Pedipalpi and many Araneae (spiders); but in these orders they open

behind the sternal plates of the first and second abdominal somites, In other spiders, however, the lung-books of the second

somite, and occasionally of the first as well, are replaced by tra-

cheae, called “tufted tracheae,” composed of a wide sac from which a number of fine tubes are given off. Two pairs of similar

tracheae opened by spiracles upon the sides of the second and third somites of the abdomen in the Chelonethi. In the Solifugae

there is a pair of spiracles on the sterna of the second and third and occasionally of the fourth somites; but the tracheae which arise from these are of a different type, consisting of long branch-

lowing him, Hansen and Sörensen, believed that segmentally arranged typical tubular tracheae, like those of insects, were the earliest form of respiratory

organs in the Arachnida and that from these they derived the tufted tracheae and from the tufted tracheae, Jung-books. The primitive Arachnida in fact were’ terrestrial air-breathers. Hansen also believed that in these primi-

tive forms the cephalothorax was divided into two regions, a head,

or cephalon, composed of four somites and bearing the eyes, mouth and four pairs of appendages, and a thorax consisting of two free somites with separate RESTORED AFTER R. I. POCOCK

THORELL'S

FIG. 6.—DORSAL

INDICATIONS

BY

VIEW OF PALAEQ-

PHONUS, A MARINE SCORPION OF

THE SILURIAN PERIOD

terga and two pairs of appendages. The acceptance of this opinion compels the belief that

the Palpigradi are the most prim-

itive of existing Arachnida so far

as the cephalothorax is concerned, with the Solifugae standing next to them. Bernard went a step farther and pictured the primitive Arachnida as a terrestrial air-breathing arthropod composed of 18 somites, each provided with a pair of limbs, approximately alike throughout the series, a pair of tracheal spiracles and alimentary diverticula.

These theories need not be further discussed. But it may be pointed out that neither involves a denial of the kinship between the scorpions and the king crabs and their allies because the

branchial lamellae of the latter may have been derived from the

pulmonary lamellae of the former.

They involve, however, the

ARACHNIDA

204

conclusion that the king crabs and Eurypterida were derived from air-breathing land forms which became adapted to living in the sea, a conclusion diametrically opposed to the conclusion upheld in this article which maintains their descent from the Trilobites whose kinship with the king crabs was never questioned until the affinities of the latter with scorpions were established. CLASSIFICATION The Arachnida are classified as follows:— Grade 1. Anomomeristica.—Number of somites typically great and variable, usually exceeding eighteen. All the somites of the opisthosoma except the last with a pair of appendages structurally and functionally like the postoral appendages of the prosoma. The dorsal area trilobite.

SUB-CLASS TRILOBITA The tergal plates of the anterior five somites fused to form a dorsal shield or carapace. The preoral appendages long and antenniform. All the postoral appendages biramous, the external branch branchial, the internal locomotor or also maxillary in function. For the other characters and classification see TRILOBITA. Grade 2. Nomomeristica—Number of somites never exceeding 18 in the adult. Some of the somites of the opisthosoma without appendages. When appendages are present on this area, they are structurally and functionally differentiated from those of the prosoma. The dorsal area, except in some Xiphosura, not trilobite. SUB-CLASS LIMULAVA Resembling the Trilobita in having the prosoma composed of five somites, the preoral appendages antenniform and the appendages of the opisthosoma provided with a locomotor inner and a branchial outer branch. Order Copura. Nine pairs of appendages on the opisthosoma, none on its last three somites, the terminal somite expanded into a swimming plate but without a postanal caudal spine. This order containing the family Sidneyidae is represented by genera of mid-Cambrian age. The best known is Sidneyia which in its 12-jointed opisthosoma and absence of “trilobation” of the dorsal surface superficially resembles the Eurypterida. The postoral appendages of the prosoma are very peculiarly modified. Resembling apparently the Trilobita and the Limulava in having prosoma five-segmented as the preoral appendages antenniform is a group, the Agalaspina (Agalaspius), of Cambrian age. In certain other respects this group shows marked resemblance to the Xiphosura, which follow, and it is considered by Walcott to be the intermediate between that order and the Trilobites. It may for the present be left unclassified. SUB-CLASS MEROSTOMATA (GIGANTOSTRACA) Differing from the Limulava in having prosoma composed of six somites, the preoral appendages not antenniform, the appendages of the opisthosoma, of which there are only six pairs, laminate and not locomotor in function, the terminal somite not expanded into a caudal fin but with a postanal spine or plate. Order Xiphosura. Trilobite-like forms with expanded pleural areas, the dorsal surface generally “trilobate,” the opisthosoma with nine or ten somites and its appendages, where known, biramous. Most of the genera of this order are Palaeozoic and extinct. They differ from the Mesozoic and existing king crabs (Limulidae) in having the opisthosoma distinctly segmented. Well defined genera are Belinurus, Hemiaspis, Pseudoniscus, and others; but their classification needs revision. The discovery in these that some genera related to Agalaspius, formerly regarded as closely akin to these forms, have Trilobite-like appendages and other characters may show that these ancient forms are not so nearly related to the Limulidae as has been supposed. Order Eurypterida. Chiefly differing from the Xiphosura in being typically scorpion-like in shape, without pleural areas, with the opisthosoma composed of 12 somites of which the posterior six are limbless and the anterior six provided with unbranched plate-like appendages, the first carrying a median rod which prob-

ably acted as an ovipositor in the female, as a penis in the male The Eurypterida occur in Palaeozoic strata and are wholly ex. tinct. Some of them, being over two yards in length, are the largest arthropods known. They exhibit great variation in the structure of their prosomatic limbs, the last pair being frequently modified as broad paddles (Eurypterus, Pterygotus), or the last two pairs may be very long and act as oars (Stylomurus). The preoral appendages may be long, massive pincers (Péerygotus) or insignificant in size. By these and other characters the group is divisible into a number of families and sub-families.

SUB-CLASS

PECTINIFERA

Differing from the Merostotana in having the first pair of ap. pendages of the Mesosoma (abdomen) represented by a very small genital operculum, without a rod-like ovipositor or penis, and the second pair converted into the pectinei or combs; in the last of all external trace of the remaining four pairs in the adult: in the small size of the basal segment of the last pair of legs and its loss of maxillary function, the breaking up of the lateral eyes into separate ocelli and the presence of poison glands in the postanal spine. Order Scorpiones. The first pair of appendages (mandibles) small, three jointed and chelate; second pair (palpi) long, massive and chelate, the remaining four pairs (legs) locomotor, with the basal segments of at least the two first acting as jaws. Sub-order Apoxypoda. Legs short, composed of stout sub-equal segments, the last or tarsus pointed and armed at most with a single claw, the basal segments of the last two pairs meeting in front of the sternal plate of the cephalothorax and the pectines with a short inner branch (endopodite). Family Palaeophoridae

(Palaeophorus.)

This sub-order contains the Silurian scorpion which was un-

doubtedly marine. It has no trace of spiracles and probably breathed by means of branchial lamellae as in the Eurypterida. Sub-order Dionychopoda. Legs long, with unequal segments, the last truncated and armed with two claws; the last two pairs of legs with their basal joints (coxae) abutting against the sternal plate; the pectines without endopodite. To this sub-order belong all the recent scorpions which are referred to four families, Buthidae, Pandinidae, Vaegovidae and Bothorinidae. A number of genera from the Coal Measures mostly resembling recent forms in essential characters are also known. One of them (Eobuthus), however, has no trace of spiracles, the

DORSAL

VIEW

1 TO VI THE PROSOMATIC APPENDAGES

4TH, 5TH AND 6TH TERGITES OF THE OPISTHOSOMA

BY COURTESY OF POCOCK AND PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE FIG. 7.—DORSAL VIEW OF LIPHISTIUS,

A PRIMITIVE

SPIDER

respiratory lamellae being probably concealed beneath the ventral plates of the abdomen as in Palaeophorus. It may have been a water-breather, living in the Carboniferous marshes. SUB-CLASS EPECTINATA Distinguished from the Pectinifera by the absence of pectines and of a long tail-like termination to the body, by the presence of not more than 11 somites in the abdomen, excluding the pregenital somite, and of at most four pairs of small appendages upon the abdomen in the embryo. Also when lung-sacs are retained, they belong to the first and second abdominal somites not to the third, fourth, fifth and sixth.

ARACHNIDA SUPER-ORDER Caulogastra. Distinguished from the rest of the

Epectinate Arachnida, as well as from the Scorpiones, by the

deep constriction of the retained pregenital somite to form a slender, stalk-like waist between the cephalothorax and abdomen and by the presence of a pair of spiracles opening alongside the

genital orifice on the first abdominal somite. Order Pedipalpi. Abdomen composed of 1r somites with distinct tergal and sternal plates, without spinning appendages. Mandibles chelate or hemichelate, without poison-glands. Palpi very large and prehensile, their basal segments meeting in the

205

That the Araneae are tolerably closely related to the Amblypygi is forcibly attested by the structure of the coxal glands, the endosternite and the alimentary canal. Sub-order Mesothelae. Abdomen segmented, with xr tergal

plates and two sternal plates covering the lung-sacs and genital orifice, followed by the two pairs of biramous spinning appendages

which retain their embryonic position in the middle of the lower DORSAL VIEW

middle line. Legs of first pair long slender clawless and tactile;

==”

see PEDIPALPI.

Sub-order Uropygi.

PROSOMATIC APPENDAGES

Abdomen with a postanal sclerite, which,

GENITAL

with the narrowed last three somites, forms a tail-like termination to the body. The last somite with a pair of defensive, acidsecreting glands. The cephalothorax long and narrow. Basal seg-

SOMITE

(FIRST SOMITE)

ments of the palpi almost immovably fused to form a trough beneath the mouth.

Legs of the first pair with only the terminal

segments many-jointed. Tribe Urotricha (Oxopaei).

i Postanal sclerite forming many-

jointed flagellum. Two pairs of lung-sacs. Carapace unsegmented with median and lateral eyes. Palpi chelate, folding almost in a horizontal plane. The single family Thelyphonidae contains many genera (Thelyphonus, Hypoctonus, Mastigoproctus, etc.), occurring in the

tropics of Asia and America.

A genus (Geralinura) has been

found in the Coal Measures. Tribe Tartarides. The postanal sclerite short, unjointed. Only

L

i AA| AR AA)

VENTRAL VIEW OF PROSOMA AND OF ANTERIOR REGION OF OPISTHOSOMA WITH THE APPENDAGES CUT OFF NEAR

THE BASE

MESOSTERNITE

g

AAR A

LA

METASTERNITE OF THE PROSOMA

Ñ Él

j

VENTRAL SURFACE OF THE PRAEGENITAL SOMITE

one pair of lung-sacs retained. Cephalothorax segmented, its last two somites free. A mere trace of eyes at most remaining. Palpi

STERNITE OF THE GENITAL SOMITE (FIRST OPISTHOSO-

MATIC. SOMITE)

not chelate, folding in a vertical plane and armed with a terminal

piercing claw. ` The single family Hubbardiidae (Hubbardia, Schizomus, Trithyreus) is distributed in the warmer parts of Asia, Africa and America, and contains very small, less highly organized form than the Thelyphonidae. Sub-order Amblypygi.

VENTRAL VIEW WITH THE PROSOMATIC APPENDAGES CUT SHORT EXCEPTING THE CHELICERAE

STERNUM OF THE FIRST OPISTHOSOMATIC SOMITE COVERING THE FIRST PAIR F LUNG-SACS INNER RAMUS OF THE APPENDAGE

OUTER RAMUS OF THE

THREE TERGAL PLATES OF THE PROSOMA

Differs from the Uropygi in the absence

of a caudal termination to the body and of acid-glands, in having a broad cephalothorax with its appendages radiating round a broad sternal area, the palpi more freely movable and armed with many spines, and the legs of the first pair long and antenniform. The numerous genera (Phrymus, Tarantula, Charis, etc.), belonging to the group, which is found in the warmer parts of Europe, Asia, Africa and America, are referred to three families. The genus Graeophorus occurs in the Coal Measures. Order Araneae (Spiders). Distinguishable from the Pedipalpi mainly by the following characters: (1) The abdomen is provided

S

Ñ

ol

j YN Ze

itt

To VI PROSOMATIC

APPENDAGES

Sees IV STERNITE OF THE SECOND OPISTHOSOMATIC SOMITE COVERING THE POSTERIOR PAIR OF LUNG-SACS.

CIN AO

THE SPINNING APPENDAGES

APPENDAGE

STERNITE OF THE ELEVENTH SOMITE OF THE OPISTHOSOMA

ANUS

COURTESY OF POCOCK AND PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE FIG. 8.—VENTRAL VIEW OF LIPHISTIUS,

WITH

THE LEGS

CUT SHORT

with two pairs of appendages, which belong morphologically to the third and fourth-somites and are the manipulators of the silk

secreted in the abdominal glands, the ducts of which open upon

them. (2) The mandibles are provided with the poison-gland opening close to the tip of the second segment which is trans-

formed into a piercing fan. (3) The palpi are small, pectiform, not prehensile; their basal segments are not united but are separated by the labial sternal plate which forms a lower lip to the mouth.

OF

THE PROSOMA

AA

PRAEGENITAL I To VI PROSOMATIC

SOMITE

AFPENDAGES

1 TO 10 THE TEN SOMITES OF THE OPISTHOSOMA

BY COURTESY OF POCOCK AND PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE FIG. 9.—KOENENIA, THE ONLY GENUS

OF THE

PALPIGRADI

surface of the abdomen, traces of seven sterna between these appendages and the anus. The single genus Liphistrus of the family Liphistiidae, restricted to the East Indies, is the most primitive spider known. Apparently related is Arthrogiosa from the Coal Measures. Sub-order Opisthatheae. Abdomen at most indistinctly segmented posteriorly, without tergal plates and the sternal plates represented only by the pulmonary opercula. The spinning appendages at the posterior end of the body close to the anus. All existing spiders, except the Lithistiidae, belong to this suborder which is divisible into two tribes. Tribe Mygalomorphae.

The plane of the articulation of the

mandibles to the cephalothorax is vertical, distal segment or fang closing backwards in a line sub-parallel to the long axis of the body. Coxal glands opening on the fifth cephalothoracic somite. Two pairs of lung-sacs always present. This tribe, confined to tropical and temperate regions of the world, contains the bird-eating spiders (Avicularia, Thevaphosa, etc.), often called tarantulas, the trap-door spiders (Cteniza, Nemesia, etc.), the purse-web spiders (Atypus, etc.) and others. They are referred to several families, the Theraphosidae, Ctenizidae, Atypidae, etc., the Theraphosidae being the largest spiders known. Tribe Arachnomorpha (Araneae verae). The plane of the articulation of the mandibles horizontal, the fangs closing almost transversely inwards; the coxal glands opening on the third somite

Tn the males the terminal segment carries the intromittent organ. | of the cephalothorax. (4) The first pair of legs are locomotor, like the other pairs. This tribe, the most specialized section of the order in struc-

ARACHNIDA

206

ture and instincts, contains most of the living species of spiders. They exhibit great variation in the structure and position of their breathing order, in the formation of the mouth parts, the number and distribution of the eyes, the construction of their spinning appendages and of their external genital organs. By these variations they have been classified into a number of families, Araneidae (Aranae, Nephila), Lycosidae (Lycosa, Ocyale), Atti-

Sub-order Panctenadactyli. The serrula, on the movable digit of the mandible fixed throughout its length, an accessory process on the immovable digit. Carapace narrow In front, mandibles small. Families Cheliferidae (Chelifer), Garypidae (Garypas). Sub-order Hemictenodactyli. The serrula, free at its distal end: no accessory process; carapace wide, mandibles large. Families Obisidae (Obisium), Chthoniidae (Chthonius). The arachnids of this group are all of small size, their large

pincer-like palpi giving them a superficial resemblance to scorpions. BASAL SEGMENTS OF THE PROSOMATIÇ APPENDAGES LATERAL REGION ỌF THE CEPHALIC PLATE

domen jointed to the cephalothorax without the intervention of a waist or of the pregenital somite and in the presence of spiracles on the fourth segment of the cephalothorax; and distinguishable

AN

EEA fA)

CEPHALIC PLATE WITH MEDIAN EYE

from all orders by the frm articulation of the mandibles to the sides of the carapace, the partial freedom of the fourth tergal plate from the carapace and the presence of racket-shaped processes or malledi on the basal segments of the fourth legs, Order Solifugae. Cephalothorax jointed, its fifth and sixth seg.

OPISTHOSOMA

SECOND PLATE OF THE PROSOMA

Their old-fashioned popular name, book-scorpion, was due to the discovery of specimens in libraries. Most of the species, however, live under stones or bark where they feed upon mites, etc. SUPER-ORDER Mycetophora. Differing from the foregoing orders of Epectinate in having the first, or genital, somite of the ab-

E aw (e_o)

THIRD OR HINDERMOST PLATE OF THE PROSOMA

FIG.

10.—DORSAL

VIEW

OF

GALEODES,

WITH

THE

LEGS

CUT

DORSAL VIEW

SHORT

I TO Vi PROSOMATIC APPENDAGES

dae (Attus), Phaleidae (Pholeus), Dysderidae (Dysdera) and others too numerous to mention. (See SPER, TARANTULA.) Order Palpigradi. Resembling some Pedipalpi in the tail-like termination of the body and the segmented carapace, but differing essentially from them in having ten abdominal somites without separated terga and sterna, in the absence of breathing organs in the large, chelate, three-jointed mandibles, the slender, pediform palpi with their basal segments widely separated, jointed to the sides of a large sternal plate and disconnected from the mouth, which opens at the end of a projecting proboscis, and in the palpiform locomotor first pair of legs. The order contains one genus Koenenia; family Koeneniidae. Tt is a minute arachnid found in Europe and America.

SUPER-ORDER Cucullata.

EYES PRAE-GENITAL SOMITE

TERGITES OF THE GENITAL OR FIRST OPISTHQSOMATIC SOMITE

TERGITE OF THE TENTH SOMITE OF THE OPISTHOSOMA

iN

EVANESCENT ELEVENTH SOMITE OF THE OPISTHOSOMA

Distinguished from the rest of the

ANUS

Arachnida by the presence of a large plate jointed to the front of the carapace and folding like a hood over the mandibles, by the

construction of the first and second abdominal segments and their

VENTRAL VIEW

concealment between the third segment and the cephalothorax

which can be locked together by means of the basal segment by the

STERNO-COXAL PROCESS OF THE BASAL SEGMENT OF THE SECOND APPENDAGE

last pair of legs; and by the telescoping of the reduced last three

segments of the abdomen within the enlarged sixth segments. Order Ricinulei (Podogona). Mandibles chelate, two jointed, palpi small, chelate, basally united to form a suboral trough and in contact with the corresponding segments of the second legs, which like those of the succeeding pairs meet in the middle line

STERNITE OF THE GENITAL (FIRST OPISTHQSOMATIC

practically obliterating sterna, A single pair of tufted tracheae above the base of the third pair of legs. Intromittent organ of male on the tarsus of these limbs.

TERNITES OF THE OPISTHOSOMA EACH SHOWING A TRACHEAL STIGMA

Family Cryptostemmidae (Crypiostemmus, Cryptocellus), These remarkable arachnids are found in tropical Africa and America.

Related genera (Paliachera, etc.) occur in the Coal Measures. This order was classified by Hansen and Sörensen with the orders above referred to the Caulogastra, the group being comprehensively called the Micrura.

SOMITE SOMITE)

ANUS

BY COURTESY

OF

POCOCK

AND

PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE

FIG. 11.—DORSAL AND VENTRAL VIEWS OF GARYPAS, ILLUSTRATING THE CHARACTERS OF THE PSEUDOSCORPIONES. THE LEGS OF THE LEFT SIDE ARE CUT SHORT

_ SUPER-ORDER Pseudoscorpiones. Differing from the Caulogastra In the absence of a “waist” the large size of the dorsal plate of ments free. Mandibles two jointed, powerful and chelate. Palpi the

pregenital somite, the absence of spiracles on the first abdominal somite, the presence in the cephalothorax of silk glands opening upon the mandibles, which are provided with a special organ,

the serrula, for manipulating the silk. _ Order Chelonethi.

jointed, chelate,

Carapace unsegmented.

Mandibles

two

Palpi very large and chelate, their basal seg-

ments and those of the four pairs of legs meeting in the middle line and replacing the sterna. Abdomen sometimes with 11 freely jointed somites, second and third with a pair of spiracles,

pediform and tactile, their basal segments fixed, dissociated from

the mouth which is at the apex of a porrect proboscis. Legs with

their basal segments fused across the middle, replacing the sterna. Abdomen with ten somites, the second, third and sometimes the fourth with ventral spiracles. Intromittent organs of the male situated on the mandibles. Families Galeodidae (Galeodes), Solpugidae (Solpuga). The Solifugae, mostly large active, rapacious Arachnida, are found in the warmer parts of the eastern and western hemispheres. They

ARACHNIDA are a very distinct group, showing some

Palpigrada.

,

SUPER-ORDER Phalangiomorphae.

resemblances

a

to the

es

Distinguished from the pre-

ceding groups of Epectinates in the following characters:—(r)

The cephalothorax and abdomen are widely confluent. (2) The sternum of the genital somite is indistinctly defined in the adult,

the genital orifice being thrust forward between the last pair of MOVABLE (HINGED) SCLERITE (SO-CALLED HOOD), a

FUSED TERGA OF THE PROSOMA FOLLOWED BY THE OPISTHOSOMA OF FOUR VISIBLE SOMITES

OVERHANGING THE FIRST Q PAIR OF APPENDAGES

AY COURTESY OF

POCOCK

FIG. 12.--DORSAL

LATERAL VIEW WITH APPENDAGES Ill TO VI REMOVED

N si

ORIFICE WITHIN WHICH THE LAST THREE SEGMENTS ARE WITHDRAWN

domen sometimes showing indications of ten segments defined

by shallow grooves, typically without trace of segmentation. Sub-order Euacari. Parasitic or free-living, sometimes aquatic Or marine, forms with a short abdomen and four pairs of normal locomotor legs. Families Oribatidae, Gamasidae, Ixodidae, Trombidiidae, etc., classified by the spiracles. Sub-order Tetrapoda. Vegetable parasites with the abdomen very long and annulated, the third and fourth pairs of legs absent. Family Eriophyidae (Gall-mites). Sub-order Vermiformia. Parasitic forms living in the hairfollicles of Mammalia, with the abdomen long and annulated and

APPENDAGES OF THE PROSOMA

(>

CSA CÊ TR

207

XTREMITY OF THE FIFTH APPENDAGE OF THE MALE

MODIFIED TO SUBSERVE COPULATION AND

VIEW

VENTRAL VIEW

PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE

OF

CRYPTOSTEMMA,

ONE

OF

THE

PODOGONA

JITO VI APPENDAGES

legs. (3) There is a pair of foetid glands opening upon the cephalothorax. (4) The basal segments of the first and generally of the second pair of legs act as jaws. Order Opiliones. Mandibles chelate and three jointed. Palpi

UNITED BASAL SEGMENTS OF THE SECOND PAIR OF APPENDAGES

variable, their basal segments acting as jaws. Legs locomotor in

GENITAL ORIFICE

function. Abdomen containing ten somites more or less fused together, the second with a pair of spiracles. Male and female respectively with a long penis and ovipositor. Sub-order Palpatores. Palpi small, pediform. Sternum of cephalothorax short.

BASAL SEGMENT OF THE SIXTH PROSOMATIC APPENDAGE OF THE RIGHT SIDE

Tribe Eupnoi. With accessory spiracles on the fifth segment of the legs. Family Phalangiidae (Phalangidum). Tribe Dyspnoi. No accessory spiracles on the legs. Families

ANUS

Nemastomidae, Trogulidae, etc.

Sub-order Laniatores. Palpi prehensile with a piercing claw. Sternum of cephalothorax long and usually very narrow. Families Gonyleptidae (Gonyleptis), Oncopodidae (Oncopus), etc. Sub-order Cyphophthalrni. Palpi pediform; sternum of cephalothorax minute or absent, the foetid glands are glands on a high tubercle. Family Sironidae (Siro, Stylocellus). The Opiliones are found in temperate and tropical latitudes of the eastern and western hemispheres. Most of the British species, belonging to the Phalangiidae, are remarkable for the extreme length and thinness of their legs and the small pill-like bodies.

SUPER-ORDER Rhynchostomi. Resembling the Phalangiomorphae in the wide confluence of the cephalothorax and abdomen; but HOOD OVERHANGING FIRST PAIR OF APPENDAGES PART OF 3RD APPENDAGE

FOURTH SEGMENT OF 2ND APPENDAGE POSITION OF THE GENITAL ORIFICE | To Vi THE Six PAIRS OF APPENDAGES OF THE PROSOMA, THE LAST THREE CUT SHORT

1, 2, 3; 4. SOMITES OF THE OPISTHOSOMA

ANUS BY

COURTESY

orf

POCOCK

AND

PICKAR D-CAM BRIDGE

F1G. 18.—VENTRAL VIEW OF CRYPTOSTEMMA

essentially distinguished by the presence of a wide sternal area

between the basal segments of the legs, which are disassociated from the mouth

and have no maxillary function, and by the fusion of the basal segments of the palpi beneath the mouth which lies

at the front end of the body.

_Order Acari (mites and ticks). Mandibles and palpi very

nable, either the one or the other, frequently both, modifievad, Closely associated with the labrum to form a suctorial proboscis

Which may be borne on a special segment, the capitulum. Ab-

DORSAL VIEW

AFTER

THORELL

FIG. 14.-~ONE OF THE ORDER OF THE MITES AND TICKS

OF ACARI,

ILLUSTRATING

THE STRUCTURE

four pairs of legs, short, conical and three-jointed. Family Demodicidae (Demodex), the cause of follicular mange. (See MITE, TICK.) Most of the existing orders of terrestrial Arachnida are represented in the Coal Measures. But those deposits have yielded remains of genera referable to three distinct orders, the Haptopoda, Phalangiotarbi and Anthracomarti. The Haptopoda in the wide confluence of the cephalothorax and abdomen, the apparent fusion of the abdominal segments and the pediform palpi superficially resemble some Opiliones; but in the presence of rx abdominal segments, the structure of the abdominal sterna, the separation of the basal segments of the postoral appendages of the cephalothorax by a distinct sternal area and the tactile function of the legs of the first pair resemblance may be traced to some of the Caulogastra.’ One genus only, Plestosiro, family Plesiosiromidae is known. The Phalangiotarbi also recall the Opiliones in the above mentioned characters, but are distinguished from all the other orders by the progressive increase in length of the abdominal segments

from the first to the ninth, and in the radial arrangements of the

large wedged-shaped basal segments of the four pairs of legs round the small sternal area, those of the first pair concealing the basal segments of the other palpi; the genital sternal plate was situated between the last pair of legs. Families Phalangiotarbidae

(Phalangiotarbus), Architarbidae (Architarbus, Geraphrynus), The Anthracomarti

had a widé movable

joint between

the

cephalothorax and abdomen, the abdomen consisting of as many as ten segments provided with pleural plates, those of the eighth overlapping small ninth and tenth segments; the pediform palpi and four pairs of legs were separated by a distinct sternal area very much as in the Aranéae; but the structure of the abdomen is distinctive of the order. Families Brachypygidae (Brachypyge),

ARACHOSIA—ARAGO

208

Anthracomartidae (Antkracomartus), Anthracosironidae thracosiro), Eophrynidae (Eophrynus).

(An- | built town and contains many handsome buildings, including a cathedral. It is the seat of a Greek-Orthodox bishop and possesses

It is significant that although these extinct orders show gross | a Greek-Orthodox theological seminary, two training schools for

resemblances to existing orders of epectinate Arachnida, serving to link more closely constituents of that section into a coherent assemblage, no fossil forms are known bridging in any way a structural interval between the Epectinata and the Pectinifera. Certain other groups, namely the Pycnogoniea or Pantopoda, the Tardigrada and the Linguatulida or Pentastomida were forTST AND ZND APPENDAGES

teachers—one Hungarian and the other Rumanian—and a conser.

vatoire for music. It has a museum containing relics of the Hungarian revolution of 1848-49. One of the public squares contains a martyrs’ monument, erected in memory of the 13 Hungarian

generals shot here on Oct. 6, 1849, by order of the Austrian gen. eral Haynau. Arad is an important railway junction and the larg-

est industrial and commercial centre of western Rumania. Its principal industries are distilling, milling, machinery-making, leather.

working and saw-milling.

A large trade is carried on in grain,

flour, alcohol, cattle and wood. Arad was a Turkish fortress dur. ing the 17th century. The new fortress, built in 1763, played a

great role during the Hungarian struggle for independence in 1849, It was captured by the Hungarians on July 1, 1849, and was their

headquarters during the latter part of the insurrection. Here Kossuth issued his famous proclamation (Aug. 1849), and here he

X LENS Vt

ZS =m AN

f fr XX

Mi

ars

GENITAL OPERCULUM

LISA

AS)

\

2 N G

=

=

The town of New Arad, on the opposite bank of the Mures, is practically a suburb of Arad, with which it is connected by a bridge. It was founded during the Turkish wars of the 17th cen-

=

tury, growing up round works erected by the Turks for the capture

NJ

w=

handed over the supreme military and civil power to Görgei. The fortress was recaptured shortly after Géorgei’s capitulation at Világos.

of Arad. ETH APPENDAGE

SPTRACLES.

A

ARAGO, DOMINIQUE FRANÇOIS JEAN (17361853), French physicist, was born Feb. 26 1786, at Estagel, Perpignan, eastern Pyrenees. He was the eldest of four brothers. Jean (1788-1836) emigrated to America and became a general in the Mexican army. Jacques Etienne Victor (1799—1855) took part in L. C. de S. de Freycinet’s exploring voyage in the Uranie from 1817 to 1821, and on his return to France devoted himself

to journalism and the drama. The fourth brother, Etienne VinTST AND GTH SEGMENTS OF OPISTHOSOMA

cent (1802~92), is said to have collaborated with Balzac in the Heéritiére de Birague, and from 1822 to 1847 he wrote a great

number of light: dramatic pieces, mostly in collaboration. A strong republican, he was obliged to leave France in 1840, but | returned after the amnesty of 1859. In 1879 he was nominated director of the Luxembourg Museum. Francois Arago was educated at the municipal school of PerPOST-ANAL SPINE pignan and at the Ecole Polytechnique, but instead of entering the army as had been intended, he became secretary to the Paris FIG. 15.—VENTRAL VIEW OF SCORPION (PANDINUS), WITH THE POSTobservatory. He became acquainted with Laplace, and through ORAL APPENDAGES OF THE PROSOMA CUT SHORT ON THE LEFT SIDE his influence was commissioned, with J: B. Biot, to complete merly referred to the Arachnida. The last two seemed to have the meridional measurements which had been begun by J. B. J. no claim to be so classified. For particulars concerning them see Delambre, and interrupted since the death of P. F. A. Méchair TARDIGRADA, and LINGUATULIDA. The Pycnogonida (qg.v.), how- (1744-1804). The two left Paris in 1806, and began operations ever, are like the Arachnida in some respects and were retained in among the mountains of Spain, but Biot returned to Paris after the class by Lankester. But they are here regarded as a distinct they had determined the latitude of Formentera. class on account of several important characters they possess. Arago was left alone to make the geodetical connexion of There may be, potentially at all events, eight pairs of appendages Majorca with Iviza and Formentera. The expedition coincided set apart for locomotion, prehension or other purposes instead of with the French invasion of Spain, and the astronomer was the six pairs seen in the Nomomeristis Arachnida. Also the ab- involved in a series of amazing adventures. In making his domen, always large and conspicuous in the Arachnida, as here escape from the Balearic islands to Algiers he was captured by a understood, is reduced to a mere anal knob. More important still Spanish corsair, and spent three months in Spanish prisons. is the lodgement in the four parts of the body of the genital glands Released with other prisoners at the demand of the Dey of which open upon the basal segments of more or fewer of the ap- Algiers, he spent six months in Africa before he returned to pendages. These features in the organization of the Pycnogonida Marseilles. He was in quarantine there when he received his first cannot be brought into agreement with that of the true Arachnida letter from A. von Humboldt, who became his lifelong friend. the orders of which form a coherent assemblage of more or less Through all his vicissitudes Arago had preserved his observations intergradational types of Arthropoda. (R. I. P.) and records. Though he was still only 23 years of age he sucARACHOSIA, a far eastern province of the Persian empire ceeded J. B. L. Lalande in the chair of analytical geometry at and that of Alexander. It was early lost by the Seleucids and be- the Ecole Polytechnique, and became one of the astronomers at came part of the rising Parthian empire. It lay north of Gedrosia the Royal Observatory. (Baluchistan) and occupied the southern portion of Afghanistan In 1830 he entered the chamber as republican deputy for (g.v.). Its chief town was Alexandria Arachosiorum. (See also Seine Inférieure. In the chamber he advocated many important Persia, Ancient History.) practical measures for the advancement of science and for techARAD, a town in western Rumania, capital of the department nical development in railways, telegraphs, etc. In the same of the same name. Pop. (1924) 79,000, of which 39,400 were year he was made director of the observatory, and perpetual Hungarians. It lies on the right bank of the River Mures and secretary of the Academy of Sciences. During the reign of Louis consists of the inner town and five suburbs. Arad is a modern- Philippe he was absorbed in his scientific work, but after the

ARAGON revolution of 1848 he joined the Provisional Government as minister of war and marine.

Arago carried important reforms

during his short tenure of office. He improved the sailors’ rations, abolished flogging, and did away with political oaths, He

also secured the abolition of negro slavery in French colonies. In 1852 when Louis Napoleon’s Government demanded an oath of allegiance from all its functionaries Arago resigned his post as astronomer at the Bureau des Longitudes, but the PrincePresident declined to accept his resignation. Arago died in Paris on Oct. 2 1853.

Arago’s fame as an experimenter and discoverer rests mainly on his contributions to magnetism and optics. He found that a

magnetic needle made to oscillate over non-ferruginous surfaces, such as water, glass, copper, etc., falls more rapidly in the extent of its oscillations according as it is more or less approached to the surface. This discovery was followed by another, that a rotating plate of copper tends to communicate its motion to a

magnetic needle suspended over it (“magnetism of rotation”).

Arago is also fairly entitled to be regarded as having proved the

long-suspected connexion between the aurora borealis and the

variations of the magnetic elements. In optics he has the credit of stimulating the genius of A. J. Fresnel, with whose history, as well as with that of E. L. Malus and of Thomas Young, this part of his life is closely interwoven.

In the beginning of the roth century these three philosophers were shaping the modern doctrine of the undulatory theory of

light. Fresnel’s arguments in favour of that theory were not acceptable to Laplace, Poisson and Biot, the champions of the emission theory; but they were ardently espoused by Humboldt and by Arago, who had been appointed by the Academy to report

on the paper. An intimate friendship sprang up between Arago and Fresnel. They carried on together further researches, which led to the enunciation of the fundamental laws of the polarization of light known by their names. Arago constructed a polariscope, which he used for observations on the polarization of the light of the sky. To him is also due the discovery of the power of rotatory polarization exhibited by quartz, and last of all, among his many contributions to the support of the undulatory hypothesis, comes the experimentum crucis which he proposed to carry out for comparing directly the velocity of light in air and in water or glass. On the emission theory the velocity should be accelerated by an increase of density in the medium; on the wave theory, it should be retarded. In 1838 he communicated to the Academy the details of his apparatus, which utilized the revolving mirrors employed by Sir C. Wheatstone in 1835 for measuring the velocity of the electric discharge; but owing to the great care required in the carrying out of the project, and to the interruption to his labours caused by the revolution of 1848, it was not until the spring of 1850 that he was ready to put his idea to the test; and then his eyesight suddenly gave way. Before his death, however, the retardation of light in denser media was demonstrated by the experiments of H. L. Fizeau and J. B. L. Foucault, which, with improvements in detail, were based on the plan proposed by him. BrsrrocraPayY.—Arago’s Oeuvres were published after his death under the direction of J. A. Barral, in 17 vols., 8vo (1854-62); also separately his Astronomie populaire, 4 vols.; Notices biographiques, 3 vols.; Notices scientifiques, in 5 vols. Voyages scientifiques, in 1 vol.; Mémoires scientifiques, in 2 vols.; Mélanges, in 1 vol.; and Tables analytiques et documents importants (with portrait) in 1 vol. English translations of various portions of his works have appeared.

ARAGON, constituent kingdom of the Spanish monarchy, administrative unit until 1833, now divided into the three provinces of Saragossa, Huesca and Teruel (g.v.). The north frontier of Aragon follows the Pyrenean water-parting, from the peak of Anie (2,504m.), the last of the great peaks towards the west, to the peak of the Aneto (3,404m.) in the Maladetta group. Thus Aragon is backed by the western, or forward, échelon of the high Central Pyrenees, nearly to the point where the headwaters of the River Garonne separate it from the eastern. From this background of high peaks the descent to the lowlands of the Ebro is

less rapid (average gradient 34 in 100) than the descent towards the Garonne on the French side (7 in 100). The difference is due

209

to the much greater development on the south side of topographical features parallel to the principal axis of the chain. Thus the River Aragon—finding at Jaca the soft marl which runs from east to west in a belt from Pamplona, in Navarre, to Boltafia—is diverted west and forms the broad valley of the Canal de Berdun; the influence of this belt is seen also in the course of the Cinca and of certain minor streams. East of Boltafia the rivers flow directly south, and the first of these, the Noguera Ribagorzane, gives the eastern boundary of Aragon. South of the belt of marl, a series of sierras—roughly aligned from west-north-west to east-south-east—of which the Sierra de Guara (2,070m.) is the most important, runs from the River Aragon to the Sierra del Montsech (1,693m.) in Catalonia; these sierras overlook the great, saucer-shaped central lowland on their south, across which runs the River Ebro. The heart of Aragon is this lowland and more strictly that part to which the descent from the crest of the Pyrenees is most obviously a descent by steps. The

approaches to the defile by which the Ebro cuts its way from this

enclosed basin through the Catalan coastal chain to the sea belong to Catalonia from Fayón downstream. The western boundary of Aragon runs more or less diagonally across the sierras bordering the central plateau so as to include within Aragon, in the south, the greater part of the sierra belt, while in the north the commanding Sierra del Moncayo (2,315m.), immediately overlooking the Ebro lowland, forms an advanced bulwark of Castile. The descent from the central plateau is again by steps, and the border of Aragon is defined so as to cover the important structural depression, occupied in part by the River Jiloca, which runs from Calatayud, on the river Jalón, to Teruel. From the eastern limit of this depression the boundary runs to the Ebro at Fayón so as to include in Aragon the headwaters of the streams flowing to the Mediterranean. It is clear from the above that Aragon divides naturally into zones, parallel in the north to the Pyrenees and in the south to the border of the plateau. In the first zone, that of the high Pyrenean valleys, cultivated patches sustain scanty village populations; there is some mining —the cobalt mines are interesting—but the forest and the high summer pastures are the chief resources, The next, the limestone zone to the south, includes picturesque scenic forms carved by the rivers; it is represented as high as the Pyrenean crest in the Monte Perdido (3,352m.), one of the Three Sisters group. The zone is of no economic importance, but its strategic interest is obvious from the structure. Behind the protecting sierras to the south, Sierra di Guara, etc., beyond which the Muslims made no lasting conquest or impression, sprang up early in the Muslim period the countships of Aragon, with centre at Jaca, Sobrarbe, with centre at Ainsa, and Ribagorza, at first forming a single fief with Pallás. Until its establishment as an autonomous fief in 875, Ribagorza-Pallds was dependent on Toulouse through Cerdagne, and the influence of the easy Segre-Cerdagne pass across the Pyrenees extended as far westwards as the Esera, the western boundary of Ribagorza. The separation of Pallas, the amalgamation (between 1034 and 1038) of Ribagorza with the western countships, which had always looked west to Navarre, and the declaration of Aragon as an independent kingdom (c. 1034) defined the boundaries of Upper Aragon as described above. The lowland zone, which dips from an altitude of soom. to the Ebro (at 200m. near Saragossa) and rises again to the south towards the sierras, is by no means uniform. The frequency of local regional names, Monegros, Desierto de Calanda, Llano de Violada, indicates variations which express themselves sometimes in the nature of the soil (especially in the presence or absence of gypsum), but principally in the presence or absence of a non-brackish water-supply. Huesca, in the north of the zone, on the old road from the coast by Lerida which, to-day as always, avoids the arid, waterless plateau of Los Monegros, was an important town long before Saragossa, the natural centre of the lowlands. In the period following the final establishment by Augustus of Roman authority in the entire peninsula and with the new appreciation of the importance of the line of the Ebro as a base-line in strategical schemes envisaging the peninsula as a

210

ARAGONITE—ARAGUA

whole, Saragossa became a most important nodal point of communications. Standing at the point of confluence with the Ebro of the Gallego valley, by which came the road from the Pyrenean pass of Summus Portus, and of the Huerva on the south, Saragossa was also within 15 miles of the mouth of the Jalón, the entrance to the pass leading by the Sierra Ministra and the river Henares to the Tagus, and in Saragossa was focussed the importance of the central lowland from which radiated all the routes to the interior of the peninsula. These advantages of site the city has always enjoyed, mutatis mutandis, in a degree corresponding with the degree of unification of the peninsular regions. The central lowland of Aragon had its most complete historical expression in the Muslim period as the kernel of the kingdom of Saragossa. Not always able to maintain its independence of the Umaiyads of Cordova or of the Moroccan dynasties controlling the south, nor able always to control the north of its own area where the cities had climatic advantages and where Huesca had a much older tradition, the kingdom did not long survive the capture by Aragon of Monzén (1089) and of Huesca (1096); Saragossa itself fell in 1118. The union of the enlarged kingdom of Aragon, now centred in Saragossa, with the maritime state of Catalonia (1135) gave it a new Mediterranean outlook. The circumscription of Aragon by Castile both on the north, where the district of La Rioja and the plateau of Soria became finally Castilian, and on the south, where the conquest of Murcia for Castile drove a wedge between Valencia, held by the Aragonese, and the Muslims of Granada, forced eastwards the expansion of Aragon and led to the foundation of the Aragonese empire, for which see general article on Spain. The southern part of Aragon would form one single zone of hill country were it not for the strip of sheltered valleys along the line of the Jalón and of the depression marked by the towns of Calatayud, Daroca and Teruel. With Albarracin, on the upper Guadalaviar, these towns formed the four communities which dominated the hill pastures for many centuries. The peach ripens in the valleys, where the irrigated lands are intensely: cultivated: apart from these the sheep pastures on the hills are the principal resource. In temperature Lower Aragon is intermediate between that of Old Castile with its low mean winter temperatures and that of New Castile with its high mean summer temperatures. Northward from the Sierra de Guara the seasons are reduced more and more to long severe winters and short cool summers; in a lesser degree the same is true of the highlands of Aragon. The rainfall is small save on the Pyrenean front, and we note the approximate equality both of the winter and summer minima and of the spring and autumn maxima. The deficiency of the rainfall, which does not exceed 500mm, annually over the greater part of Aragon, and falls below 3oomm. in the neighbourhood of Saragossa, has made irrigation a prime necessity. For irrigation conditions are less favourable than they appear at first sight to be if one considers only the schematic arrangement of lowland with surrounding hills and mountains and the apparent abundance of the watersupply in the rivers. This ideal schema is discounted by the unfavourable conditions of relief and of soil, which have made the provision of canals proper, as opposed to mere trenches, imperative for irrigation, and by the extreme seasonal variation in the rivers, to meet which schemes are now in progress for the construction of enormous dams on their upper courses. Large capital expenditure under State leadership has made irrigation in Aragon a political question; the phrase politica hidréulica was coined here to describe the impassioned campaigns of Joaquin Costa

(1846-1911) on its behalf. In the most recent times a new and

wider conception of the whole problem of irrigation in the northeast has led to the establishment by royal decree (March 5, 1926), of the Confederación Sindical Hidrográfica del Ebro with headquarters in Saragossa, which grew from a scheme for a reservoir at Reinosa, province of Santander, of capacity 550,000,000 cubic metres to regulate the Ebro. The indirect social and political consequences of assembling round one table delegates from Castile, the Basque Provinces, Navarre, Aragon and Catalonia for vital

economic business may be even greater than the direct economic

consequences of a unified irrigation policy. Of the canals the most important are the Imperial canal (96 kilos in length with 12 kilos of annexes), with intake from the Ebro on the right bank below Tudila and terminating at El Burgo, below Saragossa: the Canal de Tauste (344 kilos), on the opposite side of the river; the Canal de Aragon y Catalufia, with intake from the Esera near Olvena, the principal canal terminating near the junction

of the rivers Segre and Cinca. The largest reservoir is that of La Peña, on the River Gallego, with a capacity of 2 5,000,000

cubic metres.

The Moneva reservoir, on the River Aguas, with a

capacity of 11,000,000 cubic metres, is the largest in south Aragon. These figures are dwarfed by those of the proposed new reservoirs and canals. Besides the Reinosa reservoir mentioned above, those of Sotonera on the Gallego and of El Mediano on the Cinca enormously exceed in capacity any existing reservoir: they form part of a scheme for the irrigation of Upper Aragon, which includes the construction of a canal 146 kilos in length for the irrigation of Los Monegros, a canal which, if constructed,

will be the longest in Europe after the Cavour canal, in Italy,

BrsriocraPuy.—M. Serrano y Sanz, Noticias y Documentos historicos del Condado de Ribagorza (1912); R. B. Merriman, Rise of the Spanish Empire, vol. i. book II. (1918), with bibliographical appendix

to each chapter; R. Menendez Pidal, Origenes del Espanol (1926),

ARAGONITE,

one of the mineral forms of calcium car-

bonate (CaCO,), the other form being the more common mineral calcite. It crystallizes in the crystals are either prismatic or are, however, rare; twinning on teristic feature of the mineral. often on the same plane and

terminal

faces of the crystals;

orthorhombic system, and the acicular in habit. Simple crystals the prism planes being a characThis twinning is usually repeated gives rise to striations on the often, also, three

crystals are

twinned together on two of the prism planes of one of them, producing an apparently hexagonal prism. The mineral is colourless, white or yellowish, transparent or translucent, has a vitreous lustre, and, in fact, is not unlike calcite in general appearance, It may, however, always be readily distinguished from calcite by the absence of any marked cleavage, and by its greater hardness

(H.=34—4) and specific gravity (2-93); further, it is optically biaxial, whilst calcite is uniaxial. The mineral was first found as reddish twinned crystals with the form of six-sided prisms at Molina in Aragon, Spain, where it occurs with gypsum and small crystals of ferruginous quartz in a red clay. It is from this locality that the mineral takes its name. Fine groups of crystals of the same habit are found in the sulphur deposits of Girgenti in Sicily. Fibrous forms are also common. A peculiar coralloidal variety known as flosferri (“flower of iron”) consists of radially arranged fibres: magnificent snow-white specimens of this variety have long been known from the iron mines of Eisenerz in Styria. The calcareous secretions of many groups of invertebrate animals consist of aragonite (calcite is also common); pearls may be specially cited as an example. Aragonite is the more unstable of the two modifications of calcium carbonate. A crystal of aragonite when heated becomes converted into a granular aggregate of calcite individuals: altered crystals of this kind (paramorphs) are not infrequently met with in nature, whilst in fossil shells the original nacreous layer of aragonite has invariably been altered to calcite. The thermal springs of Carlsbad deposit spherical concretions of aragonite, forming masses known as pisolite or Sprudelstein,

ARAGUA,

one of the smaller States of Venezuela lying

principally within the parallel ranges of the Venezuelan Cordillera and comprising fertile and healthful valleys. It is bounded

on the east by the Federal District and State of Miranda, on the south by Guarico and on the west by Zamora and Carabobo. Pop. (1926) 105,839. Aragua has a short coast-line on the Caribbean, west of the Federal district, and a port at Ocumare Is growing. Cattle, swine and goats are raised, and the State

produces

coffee, sugar, cacao, beans, cereals and cheese.

The

climate of the higher valleys is sub-tropical, the mean annual temperature ranging from 74° to 80°. The new capital, Maracay

(population 10,000), is situated in the fertile Aragua valley 1,509

ARAGUAYA—ARAKCHEYEV

211

ft. above sea level and 77m. S.W. of Caracas, with which it is areas too wet for teak; of the higher slopes a forest of everconnected by a fine highway. There is also a new highway to green oaks. But the forests have been destroyed over huge areas Ocumare, to Victoria, to Valencia, etc. Other important towns by native cultivators and their place taken by a useless tangle of are Barbacoas (population 15,000) on the left bank of the bamboo. Guarico in a fertile region; Victoria (population 8,000); Ciudad The natives of Arakan trace their history as far back as 2666 de Cura. The most important features of recent progress are B.C., and give a lineal succession of 227 native princes down to the new highways traversing the State, providing outlets for modern times. According to them, their empire had at one period agricultural and other production. (W. A. R.) far wider limits, and extended over Ava, part of China and a ARAGUAYA, ARAGUAY or ARAGUIA, a river of portion of Bengal. This extension of their empire is not, however, Brazil and principal affluent of the Tocantins, rising in the Serra corroborated by known facts in history. At different times the do Cayapé, where it is known as the Rio Grande, and flowing in Moguls and Pegus carried their arms into the heart of the country. a north by east direction to a junction with the Tocantins at Sao The Portuguese gained a temporary establishment in Arakan; but Joao do Araguaya, or Sao Joao das Duas Barras. Its upper course in 1782 the Burmese conquered the province and it was ceded to forms the boundary line between Goyaz and Matto Grosso. The the British in 1826, under the treaty of Yandaboo. The former river divides into two branches at about 13° 20° S. lat., and unites capital, Arakan, is on an inferior branch of the Kaladan river. again at 10° 30’, forming the large island of Santa Anna or Bana- Remoteness from ports and harbours, and extreme unhealthiness nal. The eastern branch, called the Furo, is the one used by boats, have led to its gradual decay and Akyab (g.v.) is now the chief as the main channel is obstructed by rapids. Its principal affluent town in Arakan. The old city (now Myohaung) lies som. northis the Rio das Mortes, which rises in the Serra de São Jeronymo, east of Akyab. near Cuyabá, Matto Grosso, and is utilized by boatmen going to The Arakanese are Burmese, but separated from the parent Pará. Of other affluents, the Bonito, Garças, Cristallino and stock by the Arakan Yoma mountains, and they have a dialect Tapirapé on the west and the Pitombas, Claro, Vermelho, Tucupá and customs of their own. Like the Burmese, they are Buddhists. and Chavante on the east nothing definite is known as the country (L. D. S.)

is still largely unexplored. The Araguaya has a course of 1,080m., considerable stretches of which are navigable for small river

steamers, but as the river below Santa Anna island is interrupted by reefs and rapids in two places—one having a fall of 8sft. in

18m., and the other a fall of soft. in r2m.—it affords no practicable outlet for the products of the State. It was explored in part by Henri Coudreau in 1897. See Coudreau, Voyage au Tocantins-Araguaya (1897).

ARAKAN,

a division of Burma

(g.v.), a strip along the

eastern seaboard of the Bay of Bengal, from the Naaf estuary, on the borders of Chittagong, to Cape Negrais. Length from northern extremity to Cape Negrais, about 4oom.; greatest breadth in the northern part, gom., gradually diminishing towards the south, as it is hemmed in by the Arakan Yoma mountains,

until, in the extreme south, it tapers away to a narrow strip not

more than 15m. across. The coast is studded with islands, the most important of which are Cheduba, Ramree and Shahpura. The Arakan Division does not extend as far south, the coastal strip for a hundred miles northwards from Cape Negrais lying in the

Bassein District of the Irrawaddy Division. The division has its headquarters at Akyab and consists of four districts—namely, Akyab, Northern Arakan Hill Tracts, Sandoway and Kyaukpyu, once called Ramree. Its area is about 18,4%0 sq.m. The population at the time of the British occupation in 1826 did not exceed 100,000. In 1831 it amounted to 173,000; in 1839 to 248,000; in Igor to 762,102; in 1911 to 839,896, and in 1921 to 909,246.

The principal rivers of Arakan are—(1) the Naaf estuary, in the north, which forms the boundary between the division and Chittagong; (2) the Mayu river, an arm of the sea, running a course almost parallel with the coast for about som.; (3) the Kaladan river, rising near the Blue mountain, in the extreme

north-east, and falling into the Bay of Bengal a few miles south

of the Mayu river, navigable by vessels of from 300 to 400 tons burden for a distance of 4om. inland; and (4) the Lemro river, a

considerable stream falling into the bay and a few miles south of the Kaladan.

Farther

south nearness

of the boundary range

makes the rivers short. Among them the Dalet and the An are navigable by boats; others are the Sandoway, the Taungup and the Gwa streams, the latter of which alone has any importance,

owing to its mouth forming a good port of call or haven for vessels of from 9 to roft. draught. There are several passes over the Yoma mountains, the easiest being that called the An (or Aeng) toute, leading from the village of that name in Arakan to Ngapé and Minbu in Central Burma, and the Taungup route leading

from Taungup in Arakan to Prome on the Irrawaddy.

Only one-

tenth of this very hilly division is cultivated and rice occupies

over nine-tenths of the cropped area. Other crops include fruits,

chillies, dhani and tobacco.

The natural vegetation of the lower

slopes of the hills (up to 3,000ft.) is evergreen forest, in most

ARAKCHEYEV,

ALEKSYEI

ANDREYEVICH,

Count (1769-1834), Russian soldier and statesman, was descended from an ancient family of Great Novgorod. In July x791 he was made an adjutant on the staff of Count N. L saltuikov, who recommended him to the tsarevich Paul Petrovich for reorganizing the army corps maintained by the prince at Gatchina. Arakcheyev won the confidence of Paul by his zeal and technical ability. His inexorable discipline soon made the Gatchina corps a model for the rest of the Russian army. On the accession of Paul to the throne Arakcheyev was immediately promoted, and was entrusted with the reorganization of the army. He remorselessly applied the iron Gatchina discipline to the imperial forces, beginning with the Preobrazhenskoe Guard, of which he was colonel. He soon became generally detested, but pursued his course unflinchingly and introduced many indispensable hygienic reforms. Nevertheless the opposition of the officers proved too strong for him, and on March 18 1798 he was dismissed from all his appointments. Arakcheyev’s first disgrace only lasted six months. On Aug. 11 he was reinstated and on May 5 1799 was created a count, the emperor himself selecting the motto: “Devoted, not servile.” Five months later he was again dismissed, this time on the strength of a denunciation subsequently proved to be false. During the earlier years of Alexander I., Arakcheyev was completely overlooked; but on April 27 1803 he was recalled to St. Petersburg, and employed as inspector-general of the artillery. His wise reorganization of the whole department contributed essentially to the victories of the Russians during the Napoleonic wars. The commissariat scandals which came to light after the peace of Tilsit convinced the emperor that nothing short of the stern and incorruptible energy of Arakcheyev could reach the sources of the evil, and in Jan. 1808 he was appointed inspectorgeneral and war minister. When, on the outbreak of the Swedish war of 1809, the emperor ordered the army to cross the ice of the Gulf of Finland, it was only the presence of Arakcheyev that compelled an unwilling general and a semi-mutinous army to begin a campaign which ended in the conquest of Finland. On the institution of the “Imperial Council” (Jan. 1 1810), Arakcheyev was made a member of the council of ministers and a senator, while still retaining the war office. Subsequently Alexander was

alienated from him owing to the intrigues of the count’s enemies, who hated him for his severity and regarded him as a dangerous reactionary. The alienation was not for long. True, Arakcheyev took no active part in the war of 1812, but all the correspondence and despatches relating to it passed through his hands, and he was the emperor’s inseparable companion during the whole course of it. In Alexander’s last years Arakcheyev was his chief counsellor and friend, to whom he submitted all his projects for consideration and revision. On the accession of Nicholas I.,

ARAL—ARAM

212

Arakcheyev, thoroughly broken in health, gradually restricted his immense sphere of activity, and on April 26 1826 resigned all his offices and retired to Carlsbad. His last days he spent on his estate at Gruzina, carefully collecting all his memorials of Alexander. Arakcheyev died on April 21 1834. In 1806 he had married but lived apart from his wife. BreriocraPHy.—See Vasily Ratch, Memorials of Count Arakcheyev (Rus.) (1864); Mikhail Ivanovich Semevsky, Count Arakcheyev and the Military Colonies (Rus.) (1871) ; Theodor Schiemann, Gesch. Russland's unter Kaiser Nikolaus I., vol. i.. Alexander I., etc. (1904).

ARAL, alake or inland sea in western Asia, between lat. 43°

30’ and 46° 50’ N., and long. 58° o’ and 62° E. It was known to the ancient Arab and Persian geographers as the Sea of Khwarizm or Kharezm, from the neighbouring district of the Chorasmians, and derives its present name from the Kirghiz designation of Araldenghiz, or Sea of Islands. It is the fourth largest inland sea of the world having a total length of 280 miles and a width of some 130 miles. The maximum depth is only 68 metres, in a depression parallel to the west coast, and the average is only 16 metres. Its altitude is 74 metres above the Caspian, z.e., 48 metres above the ocean. It is surrounded on the north by steppes; on the west by the rocky plateau of Ust-Urt, separating it from the Caspian; on the south by the alluvial district of Khiva; and on the east by the Kyzyl-kum or Red Sand Desert. The north shores are low, and broken by irregular bays such as those of Sary-chaganak and Paskevich. On the west an almost unbroken wall of clay formation extends from Tschernyshewa bay southwards, and attains a height of some 250 feet. On the south is the delta of

the Oxus (Jihin, Amu-darya), one of the arms of which, the Laudan, forms a swamp, 130km. long and 3okm. broad,

before it discharges into the sea. The Jaxartes (Sihūn, Syrdarya) enters in the north-east and is suspected to be shifting its embouchure to the north. These rivers bring down vast quanby 34 tities of sediment; the delta of the Syr-darya increased. sq.km. between 1847 and 1900. The eastern coast is fringed with multitudes of small islands, and others, some of considerable size, lie in the open towards north and west. Frequency and vio‘lence of storms, and almost total absence of shelter hinder navigation; there is little shipping save some flat-bottomed boats of the

Kirghiz. The north-east wind is the most prevalent, and sometimes blows for months together. The salinity of Aral is only 10-7 per cent. The surface temperature varies between 32°F. in winter, when long stretches of the coast are ice-fringed, and 80°F. in late summer (E. Berg, 1900-8). Variations of level are remarkable and irregular and quite unconnected with the Briickner 35-year cycle, but the old idea that the sea disappears at times is wrong. Until 1880 the sea had long been diminishing and this gave rise to the idea, in western Europe, that the inland basins of west central Asia were drying up, but from 1880 to 1908 the level rose by nearly 3 metres, and there was increased utilization of the waters of Amu-darya and Syr-darya in their upper courses for irrigation. Islands previously linked with the shore became widely separated from it. Between the 13th and 16th centuries and in antiquity the Amu-darya may have sent an arm to the Caspian south of the Ust-Urt plateau. Within historic times also the Aral sea may have had a connection with the Mertyyi Kultuk gulf of the northeast Caspian, and in this case would then have been a freshwater lake. Its level was much higher in post-Pliocene times, for shells of Pecten and Mytilus species occur in the Kara-kum desert 5skm. to the south of, and 24 metres or even perhaps 65 metres above,

the present sea. The fish of Aral are freshwater species and some of its rapid streams still preserve the ancient fish type Scaphirhynchus. Fishing is not so productive as in the Caspian but fsh are

sent to Turkistan, Merv and Russia. The shores are uninhabited, the nearest settlements being Kazala, gokm. east on the Syr, and Chimbai and Kungrad in the Amu delta, The Orenburg-Tashkent Railway passes near the north-east corner of Aral. BreriocRraPHy.—Makshéev, Description of Lake Aral, Zapiski, Russ. Geogr. Soc., Ist ser., vol. v.; Kaulbar, Delta of the Amu, ibid., new ser., vol ix.; Mushketov, Turkestan, vol. i. (1886); Berg, fZzvestia, Turkistan Branch of Russ. Geogr. Soc. (Tashkent, 1902 and 1908); Lee al Aralsee, Peterm. Mitt. (1909); Halbfass, Die Seen der

1922).

ARALIA, a genus of aromatic herbs, shrubs and small trees of the aralia or ginseng family (Araliaceae), containing about 35

species, found in North America, Asia, Malaya and Australia, Various forms are cultivated for ornamental foliage and some possess medicinal properties. The stems and leaf stalks are often spiny or bristly; the leaves are usually much divided into toothed leaflets; and the small flowers, which are borne in panicled umbels, are sometimes exceedingly numerous and showy. Among the best known North American members of the genus are the American spikenard (A. racemosa), which grows from 3ft. to 6ft. high in rich woods from New Brunswick to South Dakota and south to Georgia and Missouri; the Virginian sarsaparilla (A. nudicaulis),

a foot in height, found in woods from Newfoundland to British Columbia, south to North Carolina and Colorado; the bristly sarsaparilla (A. hispida), about 2ft. high, native to sandy clearings from Newfoundland to Hudson bay and southward to North Carolina and Indiana; the Elk clover (A. californica), a robust form, sometimes 1oft. high, found along mountain streams in California and Oregon; and the angelica tree, Hercules’ club or

devil’s walking-stick (A. spinosa), a spiny shrub or small tree,

sometimes 4oft. high, native to low grounds from New York to

Indiana and southward to Florida and Texas, frequently planted for ornament and sometimes escaping to rcadsides and thickets, The Chinese angelica tree (A. sinensis and japonica) is the east Asian counterpart of the North American A. spinosa, but is less

prickly and has more showy flowers. Many hardy varieties of the Chinese angelica tree are in cultivation. Numerous greenhouse plants called aralias are species of Polyscias and related genera of the aralia family. Ginseng (g.v.) is obtained from Panax Ginseng, native to China, a plant closely related to the aralias.

ARAM, EUGENE

(1704-1759), English scholar, and mur-

derer, was born of humble parents at Ramsgill, Yorkshire.

In

1745, when he was schoolmaster at Knaresborough, a man named Daniel Clark, his intimate friend, after obtaining a considerable quantity of goods from some of the tradesmen, suddenly disappeared. Suspicions of being concerned in this swindling transaction fell upon Aram. His garden was searched, and some of the goods found there. As, however, there was not evidence suficient to convict him of any crime, he was discharged, and soon after set out for London, leaving his wife behind. For several years he travelled through parts of England, acting as usher in a number of schools, and settled finally at Lynn, in Norfolk. During his travels he had amassed considerable material for a projected Comparative Lexicon of the English, Latin, Greek, Hebrew and Celtic Languages. He was undoubtedly an original philologist, who realized, what was then not yet admitted by scholars, the affinity of the Celtic language to the other languages of Europe, and could dispute the then accepted belief that Latin was derived from Greek. But he was not destined to live in history as the pioneer of a new philology. In Feb. 1758 a skeleton was dug up at Knaresborough, and some suspicion arose that it might be Clark’s. Aram’s wife had more than once hinted that her husband and a man named Houseman knew the secret of Clark’s disappearance. Houseman was at once arrested and confronted with the bones that had been found. After denials, he confessed that he had been present at the murder of Clark by Aram and another man, Terry, of whom nothing further was heard. He also gave information as to the place where the body had been buried in St. Robert's Cave, a well-known spot near Knaresborough. A skeleton was dug up here, and Aram was immediately arrested, and sent to York for trial. Houseman was admitted as evidence against him. Aram conducted his own defence, and did not attempt to overthrow Houseman’s evidence,

although there were some discrepancies in that; but made a skilful attack on the fallibility of circumstantial evidence in general, and particularly of evidence drawn from the discovery of bones. He brought forward several instances where bones had been found in caves, and tried to show that the bones found in St. Robert's Cave were probably those of some hermit who had taken up his abode there. He was found guilty, and condemned to be executed on Aug. 6 1759, three days after his trial. While im his cell he confessed his guilt, and asserted that he had discovered

ARAMAIC

LANGUAGES—ARANY

a criminal intimacy between Clark and his own wife. On the night

before his execution he made an unsuccessful attempt at suicide

by opening the veins in his arm.

His story has been romanticized in verse by Thomas Hood (‘The Dream of Eugene Aram”) and in prose by Bulwer Lytton (Eugene dram). Reports of the trial are in (Borrow’s) Celebrated Crimes, the Newgate Calendar, Tyburn Chronicle and similar publications, The

best study is E. R. Watson, Eugene Aram (10913).

ARAMAIC LANGUAGES:

see SemrTIC LANGUAGES.

213

are seven similar structures in the group. Inishmore also bears the name of Aran-na-naomh, Aran-of-the-Saints, from the number of its religious recluses who gave a celebrity to its holy wells,

altars, and shrines.

On Inishmore are remains of the abbey of

Killenda. When Christianity was introduced, Aran became one of the most famous island-resorts of religious teachers and ascetics. The total area of the islands is 11,579 acres. Killeany, the harbour of Inishmore, has a curing station. :

, a town of central Spain, 30m. S. of Madrid, on ARAMEANS, the former inhabitants of Aram, a country or theARANJUEZ Tagus, which above this receives few tributaries for a long

north Semitic kingdom extending from the western borders of

Babylonia to the highlands of western Asia. Their central city was Zenjirli to the north of Aleppo and here many inscriptions have been found. In the Septuagint and Vulgate the name of this territory appears as Syria and the Arameans were in race, language and religion a part of the north Semitic family. ARANDA, PEDRO PABLO ABARCA DE BOLEA, counT oF (1719-98), Spanish minister and general, was born at the castle of Siétamo, a lordship of his family near Huesca, in Aragon, Aug. 1 1719. The first half of his life was spent alternately in travel, in soldiering and in diplomacy. He introduced the Prussian system of drill into the Spanish army, and was director-general of artillery under Ferdinand VI. He threw up that post because he was not allowed to punish fraudulent army

contractors, and was for some time in disgrace. But he came into favour again under Charles III., and when riots in Madrid (1766) compelled the king to leave the capital, Aranda was summoned to restore order. As president of the council of Castile he showed himself an inflexible administrator, and carried out many important reforms. The chief event of his ministry, which lasted until 1773, was the expulsion of the Society of Jesus from Spain. During his travels Aranda had come under the influence of Voltaire, and he probably persuaded the king that the Jesuits were plotting against him. In 1767 the Order was expelled, its members being transferred to Italy. They suffered great hardships, and their brethren in South America, who were also expelled, suffered even more. Aranda’s ability, his remarkable capacity for work, and his popularity made him indispensable to the king. But he was a trying servant, for his temper was captious and his tongue sarcastic, while his aristocratic arrogance led him to display an offensive contempt for the golillas (the stiff collars), as he called the lawyers and public servants whom the king preferred to choose as ministers, and he permitted himself an amazing freedom of language with his sovereign. He was held responsible for the diplomatic humiliation of Spain over the Falkland Islands, and at last, in 1773, Charles III. sent him as ambassador to Paris in a disguised disgrace. Aranda held this position till 1787. In the reign of Charles IV., with whom he had been on familiar terms during the life of the old king, he was for a very short time prime minister in 1792. In reality he was merely used as a screen by the queen, Maria Louisa and her favourite, Godoy. His temper, which had become perfectly uncontrollable with age, made him insufferable to the king. He was imprisoned for a short time at Granada, and was threatened with a trial by the Inquisition. The proceedings did not go beyond the preliminary stage, and Aranda died at Epila, Jan. 9 1708.

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THE ROYAL PALACE AT ARANJUEZ, FOR MANY CENTURIES RESIDENCE OF THE KINGS OF SPAIN

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A FAVOURITE

is the crossing point for the southern road and rail from Madrid. Pop. (1920) 13,535. The vega or united flats of the two rivers is very large and fertile and forms a market garden for Madrid (especially for asparagus and strawberries). Part is pasture for royal brood-mares, and the Hippodrome is the “Epsom Downs” of Madrid. The Grand Masters of the Order of Santiago moved

from Ocaña (7m. S.E.) in the 14th century to this natural oasis.

Their summer residence and the perpetual mastership passed to the crown in the 16th century, a succession of royal residences was built here, rivalling for a while the Escorial, Buen Retiro

and San Ildefonso. Ferdinand VI. (1746-59) built the town, one of the few in Spain on a prearranged plan; it was closely asso-

clated with Charles IV. (1788-1808), for whom his father laid out the Jardin del Principe, and who built the Casa del Labrador (1803). Charles was forced to abdicate (1808). See O. Jürgens, Die Spanische Städte (Hamburg, 1926).

ARANY,

JANOS. (1817-1882), Hungarian poet, was born

at Nagy-Szalonta on March 2, 1817. His family were small Calvinist yeomen of noble origin, whose property consisted of a rushthatched cottage and a tiny plot of land. An only son, late born, seeing no companions of his own age, hearing nothing but the voices of his parents and the hymns and prayers in the little Calvinist chapel, Arany grew up a grave, gentle, and precocious child. From 1832 to 1836 Arany was a teacher, then a travelling actor. Remorse for the despair of his father, who had meant to make a pastor of this prodigal son, drove him home, carrying all his property tied up in a handkerchief. Shortly after his

home-coming his mother died and his father became stone-blind.

Arany at once resolved to remain with his father. He obtained a conrectorship and in 1840 a notaryship. He married Juliana Ercsey, the penniless orphan daughter of an advocate. The next See Don Jacobo de la Pezuela in the Revista de Espana, vol. XXV. few happy years were devoted to his profession and a good deal (1872); Don Antonio Ma Fabié, in the Diccionario general de politica of miscellaneous reading, especially of Shakespeare (he learnt administracion of Don E. Suarez Inclan (Madrid, 1868), vol. 1.; English in order to compare the original with his well-thumbed M. Morel Fatio, Études sur l'Espagne (2nd series, Paris, 1890). German version) and Homer. Meanwhile the reactionaries of ARAN ISLANDS or Sours Aran, three islands lying across Vienna were goading the Magyar Liberals into revolt, and Arany Galway bay, on the west coast of Ireland, in a south-easterly direc- composed a satirical poem in hexameters, entitled “The Lost lion, forming a natural breakwater. They belong to County Gal- Constitution,” for which he received a prize (1846) from the way, and their population in 1921 was 1,625. They are Inishmore Kisfaludy Society, the great literary association of Hungary. He (or Aranmore), the great island in the north; Inishman, the mid- won a second prize with his Toldi (the first part of his epic dle island; and Inisheer, the eastern island. The first has an ele- trilogy), and found himself famous. Petéfi was the first to greet vation of 354ft., the second of 2soft., and the third of 202ft. Their him as a brother. In 1848 the people of Szalonta elected him formation is carboniferous limestone. These islands are remark- their deputy to the Hungarian parliament. But neither then nor able for a number of architectural remains of early date. In Inish- subsequently (1861, 1869) would he accept a parliamentary more there are remains of a circular cyclopean tower, called Dun- mandate. In 1849 he was in the civil service of the revolutionary Aengus, ascribed to the Fir-bolg or Belgae, or to Aengus, who government, and after the final catastrophe returned to his reached Aran islands from Scotland in the ist century A.D. There native place, living as hest he could on his small savings till 1850,

214

ARAPAHO—ARARAT

when Lajos Tisza, the father of Kalman Tisza, the future prime | non-agricultural and clanless, kept a bundle containing a tubular minister, invited him to his castle at Geszt to teach his son pipe as tribal fetish and were divided into seven age-gradeqg Domokos the art of poetry. In the following year Arany was ritual societies for men and one for women, besides Practising

elected professor of Hungarian literature and language at the Nagy-K.orés gymnasium. He also attempted to write another epic poem, but the time was not favourable for such an undertaking. The miserable condition of his country, and his own very precarious situation, weighed heavily upon his sensitive soul. Moreover, reflection on past events made clear to him not only the sufferings but the defects and follies of the national heroes, and a bitterly humorous vein in his writings dates from this time. Thus Bolond Istók, the first canto of which he completed in 1850, is full of sub-acrid merriment. During his nine years’ residence at Nagy-Koérés, Arany composed some beautiful Magyar ballads, and wrote two dissertations on the technique of the ballad in general: “Something concerning assonance” (1854), and “On Hungarian National Versification” (1856). When the Hungarian Academy opened its doors again after a ten years’ cessation, Arany was elected a member (1858). In 1860 he was elected director of the revived Kisfaludy Society, and went to Pest. In November, he started Szépirodalmi Figyelö, a monthly review of Magyar criticism and literature, better known by its later name, Koszeru. He also edited the principal publications of the society, including the translation of Shakespeare’s works, to which he contributed the Midsummer Night’s Dream (1864) Hamlet and King John (1867). The same year he won the Nádasdy prize of the Academy with his poem “Death of Buda.” From 1865 to 1879 he was the secretary of the Hungarian Academy. He issued an edition of his collected poems in 1867, and in 1880 won the Karacsonyi prize with his translation of the Comedies of Aristophanes (1880). In 1879 he completed his epic trilogy by publishing The Love of Toldi and Toldi’s Evening, which were

received with universal enthusiasm. He died suddenly on Oct. 24 1882. The first edition of his collected works was published in 1884-85.

Arany first gave Hungarian literature a national direction. He compelled the poetry of art to draw nearer to life and nature, extended its boundaries and made it more generally intelligible and popular. He wrote not for one class or school but for the whole nation. He introduced the popular element into literature, but at the same time elevated and ennobled it. What Petofi had done for lyrical he did for epic poetry. Yet there were great differences between them. Petofi was more subjective, more individual; Arany was more objective and national. As a lyric poet Petofi naturally gave expression to present moods and feelings; as an epic poet Arany plunged into the past. He took his standpoint on tradition. His art was essentially rooted in the character of the whole nation and its glorious history. His genius was unusually rich and versatile; his artistic conscience always alert and sober. His taste was extraordinarily developed and absolutely sure. To say nothing of his other great qualities, he

is certainly the most artistic of all the Magyar poets. See Posthumous Writings and Correspondence of Arany, edited by Laszl6 Arany (Hung.) (1887-89); article “Arany,” in A Pallas Nagy Lexikona, Kot 2 (Budapest, 1893); Mér Gaal, Life of Jdnos Arany (Hung.) (1898); L. Gydéngydsy, Janos Arany’s Life and Works (Hung.) (1901). Translations from Arany; The Legend of the Wondrous Hunt (canto 6 of Buda’s Death), by D. Butler (1881) ; Toldi, poéme en 12 chanis (1895) ; Dichtungen (Leipzig, 1880) ; König Budas Tod (Leipzig, 1879) ; Balladen (1886).

ARAPAHO,

an Algonkin Plains tribe, bison hunting, and

tepee dwelling, on the upper Platte and Arkansas at the time of first white settlement, now on reservations in Wyoming and Oklahoma. About 1,500 survive of the former 3,000-4,000. Besides the northern and southern divisions now recognized, there are submerged remnants of two or three other groups, once perhaps tribally independent, since they spoke distinct dialects: besides the Atsina or Gros Ventre, close to the Arapaho in speech, but chiefly associated with the Blackfoot during the roth century. Arapaho is one of the most divergent Algonkin languages, suggesting that its speakers have been long separated from the body of the stock, presumably on or at the edge of the Plains. They were

the Sun dance in elaborate form. Their ceremonial system, deco. rative art and other traits indicate them as one of the nuclear or

typical tribes participating in Plains culture. They adhered vig. orously to the messianic Ghost dance religion of 1889-91. See A. L. Kroeber, Bull. Amer. Museum Natural Hist., vol. xviii. 1902; G. A. Dorsey, Field Mus. Publ. Anthr. Ser, vol. iv., 1903: Dorsey and Kroeber, zbid., vol. v., 1903.

ARARA:

see CASTE.

.

ARARAT, a municipal town in Ripon county (Western district) in about the S.W. centre of Victoria (Australia). It is situated towards the western end of the western Victorian highlands and is flanked on the south and east by a range of hills, the Pyrenees. The “mountains” in this area are worn-down plateau-like remnants of very early formations composed of rocks of granitic

character.

But in addition extensive lava-flows

(basalt) have

occurred and the soils derived from these are very fertile. Ararat, therefore, standing at about 1,030ft. above sea-level, and having a fairly regular rainfall of 23—24in. (mean annual) is the centre of

a flourishing agricultural and pastoral area (wheat, vines, sheep, etc.). Gold mining (reef as well as alluvial gold from “deep

leads”), besides quarrying, is carried on in the vicinity, and the excellent timber resources of the area have been exploited. Ararat is a railway junction of local importance. It is situated on the main overland (Adelaide-Melbourne) line, about 130m. from Melbourne. The lines of the South-western system (Caster-

ton, Hamilton) take off from here, and Portland and Warrnambool are rising ports of this area. Ararat’s population has increased steadily from 3,580 in rgor to 4,653 in 1921 (1923, 5,500).

ARARAT, the culminating point of the Armenian plateau,

17,000ft. above the sea. The massif of Ararat rises on the north and east out of the alluvial plain of the Aras, here from 2,sooft. to 3,000 ft. above the sea, and on the south-west sinks into the plateau of Bayezid, about 4,50oft. It is thus isolated on all sides but the north-west, where a col about 6,gooft. high connects it with a long ridge of volcanic mountains. Out of the massif rise

two peaks, “their bases confluent at a height of 8,80oft., their summits about 7m. apart.” The higher, Great Ararat, is “a huge broad-shouldered mass, more of a dome than a cone”; the lower, Little Ararat, 12,84oft., is “an elegant cone or pyramid, rising with steep, smooth, regular sides into a comparatively sharp peak” (Bryce). On the north and west the slopes of Great Ararat are covered with glittering fields of unbroken névé. The only true glacier is on the north-east side, at the bottom of a large chasm which runs into the heart of the mountain. The great height of the snow line, 14,c0oft., is due to the small rainfall and the upward rush of dry air from the plain of the Araxes. The middle zone of Ararat, 5,000—-11,500ft., is covered with good pasture, the upper and lower zones are for the most part sterile. There is poetical fitness in the legend that Ararat was the restingplace of Noah’s Ark, inasmuch as this mountain is about equally distant from the Black Sea and the Caspian, from the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf. Round Mt. Ararat gather many traditions connected with the Deluge. The Garden of Eden is placed in the valley of the Araxes; Marand is the burial-place of Noah’s wife; at Arghuri, a village near the great chasm, was the spot where Noah planted the first vineyard, and here were shown Noah’s vine and the monastery of St. James, until village and monastery were overwhelmed by a fall of rock, ice and snow, shaken down by an earthquake in 1840. From the Armenian plateau Ararat rises in a graceful isolated cone far into the region of perennial snow. It was long believed by the Armenian monks that no one was permitted to reach the “secret top” of Ararat, with its sacred remains, but on Sept. 27,

1829, Dr. Johann Jacob Parrot (1792—1840) of Dorpat, a Ger-

man in the employment of Russia, set foot on the “dome of eternal ice.” Ararat has since been ascended by a number of

climbers, among them D. W. Freshfield (1868), James Bryce (1876), A. V. Markov (1888), P. Pashtukhov and H. B. Lynch (1893). There are a number of glaciers in the upper portion, and

ARAROBA

POWDER—ARAUCANIAN

the climate of the whole district is very severe. The greater part

ARATUS,

of the mountain Is destitute of trees, but the lower Ararat is

215

of Soli in Cilicia, a minor Greek didactic poet,

a contemporary of Callimachus and Theocritus, was born about clothed with birches. 315 B.c. He resided at the courts of Antigonus Gonatas and AnBoth Great and Little Ararat consist entirely of volcanic rocks, trochus I. of Syria and died in Macedonia about 245 B.c. His chiefly andesites and pyroxene andesites, with some obsidian. No only extant works are two short poems, or two fragments of his crater now exists at the summit of either, but well-formed para- poem Phainomena written in hexameters; an imitation of a prose sitic cones occur upon their flanks. There are no certain historic work on astronomy by Eudoxus of Cnidus, and Diosémeia (on records of any eruption. (See also ASSYRIA.) weather signs), chiefly from Theophrastus. The work has all the BigsuocrarsYy.— jJ. J. F. W. von Parrot, Reise Zum Ararat (1834) ; characteristics of the Alexandrian school of poetry. His poem Mor. Wagner, Reise nach dem Ararat (1848); H. Akich, Die Besteigung des Ararat (1849); D. W. Freshfeld, Travels in the Central attracted the notice of specialists, such as Hipparchus. Amongst Caucasus and Bashan (1869) ; A. H. Sayce, “Cuneiform Inscriptions of the Romans it enjoyed a high reputation (Ovid, Amores, i. 15, Lake Van” in Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, vols. xiv. (1882), 16). Cicero, Caesar Germanicus, and Avienus translated it; the xv. (1888), and 1893; J. Bryce, Transcaucasia and Ararat, 4th ed. two last versions and fragments of Cicero’s are still extant. Virgil (1896); Sir G. Maspero, Histoire ancienne des peuples de Orient has imitated the Prognostica to some extent in the Georgics. One classique, tome iii. Les Empires (Paris, 1899) ; J. Hastings, Dictionary verse from the opening invocation to Zeus has become famous of the Bible (1900) ; H. B. Lynch, Armenia (1901). ARAROBA POWDER, a drug occurring as a yellowish- from being quoted by St. Paul (Acts xvii. 28). BIBLiocRAPHY.—Editio princeps (1499); later editions, Buhle brown powder, varying in tint, which derives an alternative name (1793); Maass (1893); Aratea (1892); Commentariorum in Aratum —Goa powder—from the Portuguese colony of Goa, where it Reliquiae (1898), by the same. English translations: Lamb (1848) ; appears to have been introduced about the year 1852. The Poste (1880); R. Brown (1885); Prince (1895); Mair (1921). On tree which yields it is Andira araroba of the natural order Legumi- recently discovered fragments, see H. I. Bell, in Classical Quarterly nosoe. It is met with in low and humid spots in the province (April 1907) ; also Berliner Klassikeriexte, Heft, v. I, DP. 47-54.

of Bahia.

The tree is from 80 to tooft. high and has large

imparipinnate leaves, the leaflets of which are oblong, about t4in. long and Zin. broad, and somewhat truncate at the apex. The flowers are papilionaceous, of a purple colour and arranged

in panicles. The Goa powder or araroba is contained in the trunk, filling crevices in the heartwood, and yields to hot chloro-

form 50% of crude chrysarobin, which has a definite therapeutic value and is contained in most modern pharmacopoeias. It occurs as a micro-crystalline, odourless, tasteless powder, very slightly soluble in either water or alcohol which contains pure chrysarobin (CisH1203)

; di-chrysarobin methylether

(C30H230¢-OCHs3),

di-chrysarobin (CsoH2407). Chrysarobin is a methyl trioxyanthracene and exists as a glucoside in the plant, but is gradually oxidized to chrysophanic acid (a dioxy-methyl anthraquinone)

ARATUS OF SICYON (271-213 B.C.) Greek politician. He set up a democracy in Sicyon (251) and brought it into alliance with the Achaean League (g.v.) of which he became the

moving spirit, being elected general in alternate years. From 243, when he captured from Antigonus the fortress of Corinth, the League aimed at replacing Macedonian ascendancy in the Peloponnese by free democracy; Megalopolis joined in 234, Attica was freed in 229, and the League reached its zenith in 228 with the accession of Argos. But Aratus could not brook a rival, and rather than admit the supremacy of Cleomenes III. of Sparta (see CLEOMENES) he undid his own work and called in Antigonus Doson. Cleomenes was defeated (221), but the League became subject to Macedonia. Aratus was a skilful diplomatist but an unsuccessful general.

and glucose.

The drug is a powerful irritant. Modern dermatologists use only chrysophanic acid, which may be applied externally and given by the mouth in doses of about one grain in cases of psoriasis and chronic eczema.

BIBLIOCRAPHY.—See Plutarch, Aratus, Cleomenes; Freeman, H istory

of Federal Government

(new ed. 1893) ; W. Tam, Antigonus Gonatas

ej

ARAUCANIA, the name of a large

(1913).

ARAS, the anc. Araxes, Phasis (Xenophon), Ras (Turk-

ish and Arabian), Yerask (Armenian), Rashki (Georgian), a river which rises south of Erzerum, near the source of the Euphrates, in the Bingeul-dagh, and flows east through Armenia. It is about 6oom. long, and its chief tributary, the Zanga, flows by Erivan and drains Lake Gokcha. It is a rapid muddy

Á 4 fd E

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JON

J

pe, (q MS canian Indians at the time of their indei No | pendence of Spanish and Chilean authority. The loss of their political independence has been followed by that of the greater part of their territory, which has been divided up into the Chilean provinces of Arauco, Bio-bio, Malleco and Cautin, and the Indians, much reduced in “ZA

iep t?

attacked the Lutherans.

Civil war broke out, and in 1551 the

bishop of Holar and two of his sons were captured and executed. Arason, who was the last Roman Catholic bishop in Iceland, is celebrated as a poet and as having introduced printing there.

ARATOR, of Liguria, a Christian poet, who lived during the

6th century. He was educated by Laurentius, archbishop of Milan, and Ennodius, bishop of Pavia. He practised as an advocate, and was appointed to an influential post at the court of

Athalaric, king of the Ostrogoths. About 540 he took orders. He gained the favour of Pope Vigilius, to whom he dedicated his De Actibus Apostolorum (written about 544), which was much in the middle ages. A text was published by Hiibner,

See Leimbach, “Der Dichter Arator,” in Theologische Studien und Ga (1873); Manitius, Geschichte der christlich-lateinischen Poesie

T

3

Bii N

uh?)

(1484-1551), Icelandic bishop and poet,

succeeded Gottskalk in the see of Holar in 1 522; but he was soon driven out by the other Icelandic bishop, Ogmund of Skalholt. In 1548, when a large number of the islanders had accepted the reformed doctrines, Arason and Ogmund joined their forces and

oe 50.

A “A

E

stream, dangerous when swollen by the melting snows of Armenia, but fordable in its ordinary state. It formerly joined the Kura; but in 1897 it changed its course, and now runs directly into the Caspian. On an island in the river stood Artaxata, the capital of Armenia from 180 B.c. to AD. 50.

ARASON,

iy fe

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fl £. b

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Yypyers territory of Chile, South America, south Of the Bio-bio river, belonging to the Arauy fe Mee,

number now live in the wooded recesses of the three provinces last named.

ARAUCANIAN, alinguistic stock

RK| of South American Indians, comprising a | number of different tribes, originally occu-

i

Soe.

Waaa pying a considerable area in central Chile.

eee] Some have regarded them as allied to the

BY COURTESY OF THE MUSEUM OF tribes of the Argentine Pampas, and there-

vana

fore as invaders and immigrants in Chile,

AN ARAUCANIAN INDIAN Where the true Araucanians have probWOMAN OF CHILE WHO ably long been residents, being quite dis-

HAS ADOPTED THE EURO- tinct from the nomadic Puelchean (g.v.)

PEAN STYLE OF DRESS tribes of the Pampas.

Considerable in-

vasions of the latter probably occurred in pre-Spanish times,

when the originally sedentary Araucanian group was divided into two parts, the Picunche north of the Maule river, and the Huilliche from the Tolten river south to Chiloe. The newcomers who occupied the region in between, mixed with the older Araucanians and ultimately adopted their speech, although retaining something of their old nomad culture. They stopped the Inca conquest at the Maule, and successfully opposed the full strength of the Spanish forces for two hundred years—a struggle immortalized in Ercilla’s epic poem entitled “La Araucana.” Under

216

ARAUCARIA

Spanish pressure considerable bodies of Araucanians moved east-

ward across the Andes into the Pampas, where since the latter

part of the 16th and particularly in the 18th and early 19th cen-

turies they occupied considerable areas. The Araucanians were a sedentary, agricultural and hunting folk, living in numerous small villages, in houses of poles and thatch. In Araucania proper, these were small, for single families; elsewhere large and communal. Their clothing was of wool or skins, and generally rather meagre. They made considerable use of body painting but not of tattooing. The bow, spear and

club (the club often flattened and bent at the end) were their main weapons, and hides or occasionally united strips of whalebone, together with skin shields served for body armour and protection. Reed and pole balsas or rafts were in use for coastwise navigation, while toward the south, three-plank boats, called dalcas with rudimentary sails, were known. The totemic clan was the basis of their social organization, the clan chiefs being the normal leaders of the rather scattered population. The elaborate and centralized form of government, with tribal chiefs and “national” leaders was a post-Spanish development. The Araucanians had no religious structures or temples, but had a welldeveloped religious ritual, centred in the veneration of the clan ancestors and the clan totems, puberty rites and victory in war. In the last mentioned case, human sacrifices occurred, with ritual cannibalism. The dead were normally buried, either in heavy, canoe-shaped wooden coffins, or in stone cists. away from home were cremated.

Persons

dying

See R. E. Latcham, La organizacion social y las creencias religiosas de los antiguos Araucanos (Pub. Museo de Etnologia y Antropologia de Chile vol. iii., pp. 245-868); J. T. Medina, Los Aborijenes de Chile (Santiago, 1882).

ARAUCARIA, a genus of coniferous trees included in the tribe Araucarineae. They are magnificent evergreen trees, with apparently whorled branches, and stiff, flattened, pointed leaves, found in Brazil and Chile, Polynesia and Australia. The name of the genus is derived from Arauco, the name of the district in southern Chile where the trees were first discovered. Araucaria imbricata, the Chile pine, or ‘monkey puzzle,” was introduced into Britain in 1796. It is largely cultivated, and usually stands the winter of Britain; but in some years, when the temperature has fallen very low, the trees have suffered much. Care should be taken in planting to select a spot somewhat elevated and well drained. The tree grows to the height of rsoft. in the Cordilleras of Chile. The cones are from 8 to 84in. broad, and 7 to 74in. long. The wood of the tree is hard and durable. This is the only species which can be cultivated in the open air in Britain. Araucaria brasiliana, the Brazilian pine, is a native of the mountains of southern Brazil, and was introduced into Britain in 1819. It is not so hardy as A. imbricata, and requires protection during winter. It is grown in conservatories for half-hardy plants. Araucaria excelsa, the Norfolk Island pine, a native of Norfolk Island and New Caledonia, was discovered during Captain Cook’s second voyage, and introduced into Britain by Sir Joseph Banks in 1793. It cannot be grown in the open air in Britain, as it requires protection from frost, and is more tender than the Brazilian pine. It is a majestic tree, sometimes attaining a height of more than 220ft. The scales of its cones are winged, and have a hook at the apex. Araucaria Cunninghami, the Moreton Bay pine, is a tall tree abundant on the shores of Moreton Bay, Australia, and found through the littoral region of Queensland to Cape York Peninsula, also in New Guinea. It requires protection in-England during the winter. Araucaria Bidwilli, the Bunya-Bunya pine, found on the mountains of southern Queensland, between the rivers Brisbane and Burnett, at 27° S. lat., is a noble tree, attaining a height of too to 1s5oft., with a straight trunk and white wood. It bears cones as large as a man’s head. Its seeds are very large, and are used ` as food by the natives. Araucaria Rulez, which is a tree of New Caledonia, attains a height of so or 6oft. Araucaria Cookii, also a native of New Caledonia, attains a height of rsoft. It is found also in the Isle of Pines, and in the New Hebrides. The tree has a remarkable appearance, due to shedding its primary branches for about five-sixths of its height and replacing them by a small

ARAWAKAN bushy growth, the whole resembling a tall column crowned with foliage, suggesting to its discoverer, Captain Cook, a tall column of basalt.

ARAUSIO, BATTLE OF.

From 202 B.C., when the battle

of Zama “gave the world to Rome,” the tide of Roman expan.

sion rolled onwards without serious check or menace for nearly a century. Then, however, a thunder-cloud gathered beyond the Alps which sent a shiver of fear through Italy. It was the first— and after it came a long interval—of the great migrations which lapped and ultimately submerged the bulwarks of Rome. The two principal tribes—or, really, nations—were the Cimbri and the Teutones, and after a pause of several years in Gaul they

moved afresh towards Italy. So seriously was the menace viewed that the consul Maximus was sent (105 B.c.) with an army to

reinforce the existing army of the proconsul Caepio.

Caepio

resented the loss of his independent authority, although he joined Maximus at Arausio (mod. Orange) on the lower Rhone. While Maximus was prudently negotiating, Caepio attacked the Cimbri single-handed, although having to fight with the river at his back. He was overwhelmed and the consular army was drawn into the disaster—comparable in scale with Cannae. Happily for Rome

the Cimbri and Teutones inexplicably turned aside from Italy ang followed the route to Spain. The disaster at Arausio and the urgent need to raise fresh forces gave the coup de grâce to the traditional system of citizen armies, already decaying, and sup.

plied the impetus which enabled Marius, months later, to develop the highly-trained sional army. The new model was soon to Aquae Sextiae (Aix) (q¢.v.). (For an account

elected consul two long-service profes. be ‘“‘christened” at of the modern town

see ORANGE.)

ARAVALLI

HILLS, an Indian mountain range; running

for 300m. in a north-easterly direction, through the Rajputana states and the British district of Ajmere-Merwara, situated between 24° and 27° N., and between 72° and 75° East. The series

of ridges and peaks, with breadth varying from 6 to 6om., are generally from 1,000 to 3,oooft. in elevation, the highest point, Mount Abu (5,65o0ft.), being in the extreme south-west. Geologically they belong to the primitive formation characteristic of the Indian Deccan-granite, compact dark blue slate, gneiss and syenite. Masses of rose-coloured quartz give a dazzling snow-like appearance to the peaks. The Luni and Sakhi rivers, from the steep north-western slopes, turn south-west to the Gulf of Cutch. Two distinct river systems drain the south-eastern slopes; one debouches in small streams on the Gulf of Cambay, while the other unites to form the Chambal river, a tributary of the Jumna and the Ganges system. The Aravalli hills are for the most part bare and thinly populated, with large areas of sand and stone, or huge masses of quartz. The valleys are generally sandy deserts, with sparse oases of cultivation. Occasionally, however, a fertile tract marks a natural drainage line, e.g., that of Ajmer city, with its

lake. The Aravalli hills send off rocky ridges north-east through

the states of Alwar and Jaipur, which reappear in the form of isolated hills near Delhi.

ARAWAKAN,

one of the most important and widely ex-

tended of the linguistic stocks of South American Indians, whose name is taken from the Arawaks, one of the earliest and best known tribes. The Guana, the most southerly tribe of this stock, were on the upper Paraguay river, in southern Matto Grosso in Brazil, The Moxos and Baures were in northern Bolivia, whence a practically continuous belt of Arawakan tribes extended northwards and north-westwards from the upper Tapajoz across the whole of the upper Amazon drainage to the mouth of the Orinoco and the Guiana coast. The Antis or Campas on the Apurimac river north-west of Cuzco in Peru

were outlying members of the stock in the west, as were the Goajiras in the peninsula of the same name in Colombia. Tribes of this stock also held the whole northern and eastern coast of

the continent from the Amazon delta to the Orinoco, and may, prior to the Carib invasions, have extended westward continu-

ously through Venezuela far into Colombia. From the South American mainland they extended northward through the whole

chain of the Antilles to the Bahamas. At the end of the ssth

ARBACES—ARBITRAGE

219

century, however, the Caribs had ousted them from all the script of the Registers of the Stationers? Company, 1553-1640 Lesser Antilles, and were beginning to raid the larger islands, (1875-94), and The Term Catalogues, 1668-1709; with a number held by tribes known as the Tainos, further north. for Easter Term 1711 (1904-06), edited from the quarterly lists Physically the Arawakan tribes are in the main of medium of the book-sellers. or slightly under medium stature, and appear to be prevailingly ARBITRAGE, the term applied to the system of equalizing brachycephalic or round-headed. Culturally they rank among prices in different commercial centres by buying in the cheaper the more advanced tribes of the eastern half of the continent, market and selling in the dearer. These transactions, or their conbeing sedentary agriculturalists and makers of excellent pottery verse, are mainly confined to stocks and shares, foreign exchanges

and textiles. BILIOGRAPHY.—See ÀA. F. Chamberlain, “Nomenclature and Distribution of the Principal Tribes and Sub-tribes of the Arawakan Linguistic Stock” (Journ. Soc. Americanistes de Paris, n.s. vol. x. pp. 473-496); M. Schmidt, Die Aruaken (Leipzig, 1917).

ARBACES, according to Ctesias (Diodor. ii. 24 ff. 32), one

of the generals of Sardanapalus, king of Assyria and founder of

the Median empire about 830 B.c.

But Ctesias’s whole history

of the Assyrian and Median empires is fabulous; his Arbaces and his successors are not historical personages. From the in-

scriptions of Sargon of Assyria we know one “Arbaku Dynast of Arnashia” as one of 45 chiefs of Median districts who paid

tribute to Sargon in 713 B.C. (See Menia.) ARBE (Serbo-Croatian Ras), an island in the Adriatic sea, forming the northernmost point of Dalmatia, Yugoslavia. Pop. (1921) 5,099. Arbe is 13m. long; its greatest breadth is 5m. The capital of the same name, is a beautiful walled town on a steep ridge on the west coast. At the seaward end is the 13thcentury cathedral, behind which the belfries of four churches,

at least as ancient, rise in a row along the crest of the ridge; behind these again are the castle and a background of desolate hills. In another part of the island are excellent state forests. One of the palaces is the birth-place of Marco Antonio de Dominis. Fishing, agriculture, tobacco growing, marble quarrying, and the ancient silk industry are still maintained. There are excellent springs near the harbour.

ARBELA

(modem Erbil), an important foothill town in

north-eastern Mesopotamia, about 48m. E. by S. of Mosul in

36° N. and 44° West. In ancient times Arbela (Arba-ilu) formed one of the group of cities of Assur, the other members of the group being Ashur, Nineveh and Nimrud, all close to one another. It was, however, an old Sumerian settlement and its goddess ap-

pears to have been Ninlil, who there became the consort of the god Ashur. The town lies in the centre of a very productive wheat country, lying as it does on the edge of the mountains between the greater and lesser Zab, with a more abundant supply of water than to the south. The modern district still is engaged in the production of cereals, which are traded down the Tigris to Baghdad. Arbela has at present an estimated population of 25,000, mostly Kurds. It lies on the caravan route between Mosul and Baghdad, and Mosul and Rowanduz. It is also the projected terminus of a branch line from Mosul. Owing to its command of the foothill routes and its water supply, Arbela, unlike most other ancient cities in Mesopotamia, has preserved its position ever since early times. Arbela is the name popularly but not quite correctly given to the decisive battle in which Alexander the Great overthrew

Darius and the Persian empire in 331 B.C. (See GAUGAMELA.)

ARBER, EDWARD

(1836-1912), English man of letters,

was born in London on Dec. 4, 1836, and was killed in a taxicab accident in London on Nov. 23, 1912. Arber is associated

with the “English Reprints” (1868-80), by which an accurate text of the works of many English authors, formerly only accessible in rare or expensive editions, was placed within reach of the general public. Among the 30 volumes of the series were

Gosson’s School of Abuse, Ascham’s Toxophilus, Tottel’s Miscellany,

Naunton’s Fragmenta Regalia, etc. It was followed by

the “English Scholar’s Library” which included the Works (1884) of Captain John Smith, governor of Virginia, and the Poems

(1882) of Richard Barnfield. In his English Garner (1877-96)

he made an admirable collection of rare old tracts and poems;

i 1899-1901 he issued British Anthologies, and in 1907 began

a series called A Christian Library. He also accomplished singlehanded the editing of two invaluable bibliographies: A Tran-

and bullion, and are carried on between the various financial centres of the world. When prices are affected in any country by some local financial or political event of outstanding importance,

all other markets are sooner or later influenced.

For instance, a

crisis in France would immediately depress all French securities, and by exciting the fears of capitalists, would stimulate transfers of funds and raise all the exchanges against France. The scale of profit on arbitrage transactions varies with the risks entailed. Take for instance arbitraging in exchange. Dealing in francs between London and Paris in terms of sterling is a simple operation and the risk of loss is very small as such transactions are almost invariably carried on by telephone and can be closed almost immediately. When on the other hand arbitrage dealers in London and Paris operate in marks, lire or pesetas, there is a double risk and the margins of profit aimed at are somewhat larger. Nevertheless, the slightest advantage in any market is put to profit, and international exchanges are adjusted with extreme rapidity. For example, a dealer wishes to buy ten million French francs which he can obtain in London at 124.02 and he telephones to his Paris correspondent asking him how he would buy sterling. If he bids 124.03, it is clear that Paris offers him an advantage of Ir cent per £ sterling. The dealer may, however, think that a still better rate can be obtained in the international market, and he rings up his agent in Amsterdam and asks him at what price he will sell Paris. The reply is fl. 9.753 for each frs, 100. In order to ascertain whether this offer is advantageous, the dealer has to learn the rate at which he can obtain the guilders with which to reimburse his Amsterdam agent and he finds that the best he can hope to get is 12.104, and on this basis he calculates what will be the net outturn. Arbitrage in exchanges is usually calculated by chain rule as follows :— x Francs per £ stg. £ stg. =

12.104 fls.

12.103 X too 9.753

= frs. 124.09 4 59

p

per

£

f.

9.75% fls. = 100 francs.

The dealer therefore buys his francs in Amsterdam. Another example, when a purchase of Italian lire is desired the arbitrageur finds that London sells Milan at 89.10 per £ stg. Paris quotes frs. 139.35 for lir. roo, and New York $5.48 per lir. 100. These quotations work out as follows :— Paris. x Lire per £ stg.

£ stg. = 124.03 frs. toa XIoo = lir.89. per £. Frs. 139.35 = roo lire. New York. x Lire per £ stg.

£ stg. = 4.87 dollars.

sere = lir.88.87 per £.

$5.48 = roo lir.

The dealer therefore buys in London. Arbitrage in Stocks.—Arbitrage in stocks and shares is more complicated and fraught with considerably greater risks. The expense of transferring stocks from one country to another is heavy. Not only is interest lost while the actual stocks are travelling, but

in many countries bonds have to bear the burden of local stamps,

and however high the stamp duty may be in one country, there is no reduction in the amount that must be paid to render bonds negotiable in another.

To give an example, all that portion of the 7% German Loan of 1924 that was raised in Europe is good delivery in London and also

ARBITRAGE

218

in Paris. The stamp duty in 1928 was 2 per cent in England, and 4 per cent in France, so that before these bonds could be actually

transferred to London from Paris, with a profit to the dealers, the buying price in London after deducting the cost of insurance, loss of interest and broker’s commission, would need to be more than 2 per cent above the selling price in Paris. It happens but seldom in practice that bonds of this nature are actually shipped because the arbitrageur generally manages to borrow the bonds in his own market if he foresees a chance of market conditions changing within a reasonable period. Nevertheless, the operation is complicated and long drawn out, and therefore a margin of profit has to be allowed to compensate for additional risk. There are other elements of speculation that beset stock and share arbitrageurs, even if on both sides they are members of the Stock Exchanges of their respective countries and so avoid paying brokerages. When the London operator buys abroad, unless his seller elects to keep the result of his sale in sterling, the London buyer has to provide foreign currency and run the risk of any variation in the rate of exchange. He may find also that it is more costly to fix his exchange for forward delivery than for actual spot. Again, he is constantly up against Government restrictions of all sorts, both British and foreign, which are formulated whenever a Government desires to counteract any tendency on the part of its subjects to export capital and so depreciate its exchange. So long as these difficulties exist, the volume of business done by arbitrageurs in stocks and shares by no means keeps pace with any increase in the amount of stocks and shares dealt in in the Stock Exchanges of the world, and the tendency is for investors and speculators to send their Stock Exchange orders abroad to the country where the market is the most free and is the least penalised by taxes. Two examples of arbitrage in Paris in Stock follow:— PARIS TO LONDON

Bought in Paris.

and commercial bills drawn against goods exported to India. The counter-operation consists in purchasing in India, for short or long delivery, sterling bills drawn against exports to Great Britain of Indian produce, such as cotton, tea, indigo, Jute and wheat, oy reverse Council bills. These operations greatly facilitate trade and the moving of produce from the interior of India to the seaports, Without this assistance Great Britain’s extensive trade could not be carried on, and she would have to revert to the primitive system of barter. The same advantages are afforded to her equally important trade with China and Japan, with the material difference that the supply of Government Council bills is confined to the Indian trade. Further, in settling the balance of trade with the Far East, silver plays an important part in arbitrage. To take a concrete example :—About 4 lacs of rupees have to be remitted to Bombay for payment of a consignment of jute. The arbitrageur finds that in London he could only obtain rupees at js,

6d. and India could not draw on London at a more favourable rate. He then turns to silver, and finds that he can purchase it in New York at 564 cents per ounce -999 fine and that Bombay is will ing to pay Rs. 58,8 per too tolas. Finding that the New York. London exchange is favourable, he decides to buy silver in New

York, with the result that he secures his rupees at 1s. 5.9397d., a profit of about 34 per mille as against a direct purchase of rupees at rs. 6d. Bovcur IN NEw YORK Fine ounces 250,000 @ 56} cents—$140,765.76 (per oz. +999 fine) Expenses: Freight Insurance . *Brokerage . Cartage, etc.

% “50 "I5 . . a . . . . . . . “05 Bank’s shipping commission in New York — -06 Transit time —32-4 days Interest @ 5% for 36 days “ST

127

£1000. German 7% External Loan, French issue. @say . I /% tax /o brokerage

frs. 127.00 = . firs. 127 . frs. 381

@ exchange r24= ž. 2% stamp (London)

t°/o insurance

.

.

a

n 0

a

A

frs. 127,000

508 frs. 127,508

£1,028

5 o

"a0

0

gs o

1,787.72 $142,553.48

which were remitted to New York at 4.874 = £29,241,145. od. *Broker’s commission— 7g of a cent paid by seller. SOLD In BoMBAY Fine ounces 250,c00—tolas 668,002.60

(-998 fine) @ 583% per 100 tolas=Rs.391, 199.

£1,048 10 o which works out at the exchange of ts. 5.93974. Operations in Gold.—For restoring the equilibrium of interSold in London. £1000. German 7% 1924 @ 105% f £1,052 10 o national balances between those countries which are on a gold 3,0 net commission .f1 § 9 basis, recourse is frequently had to gold and again the arbitrageur Contract stamp j 3 0 1 8 o exercises his ingenuity in finding out where gold can be obtained at £{1,05I 2 0 the cheapest rate and whether, after he has paid expenses, the net It happens more often than not that the écart between the London outturn wil be better than the current rate of exchange. Shipping and Paris quotations is not so wide as shown in this example and and insurance expenses, which are comparatively heavy to distant as mentioned above; the English buyers endeavour to borrow the countries, are frequently eliminated by the creditor country conbonds on the London market in order to save the heavy stamp senting to have the gold held at its disposal by the National Bank duty and shipping expenses and thus turn an apparent loss into a of the debtor country. Such a procedure has been followed by sev: eral countries. small profit. The following calculation shows that gold is at times the cheaper Lonpon To Paris form of remittance for balancing mercantile transactions even Bought in London. too Rio Tinto Company ordinary shares. though shipping and insurance charges are incurred. Let us as@arui=. . 1. ; sume that London has to pay Berlin about 44 million marks

Commission ło net on money. ..., . . Stamp .

Insurance}%m

.

.

.

fro

.

Sold in Paris. 100 Rio Tinto Company ordinary shares. @ 5220=. 2. 2. . 4,

we Tø tag. 3°/o brokerage

@ exchange 124=.

a

ye.

4

8 8 6 o

Ira

E

Iris £4,186 15

frs.

522 1,566

when the best rate of exchange obtainable is 20.35. The arbitra8 geur looks round for a cheaper method of remitting and finds that he could purchase a cable transfer on New York at 4.883 with 8 which to buy gold in America for shipment to Germany. By so doing he makes a saving of about 14°/ as compared with the alternative of buying direct exchange on Berlin. figures out as under: Bought in New York.

frs. 522,000

2,088 frs. 510,912 £4,192 16

6

On Rio Tintos there is no French stamp to be allowed for as it has been commuted by the company. Arbitrage with Ind —Arbitrag ia e with India consists chiefly | In buying bills of exchange in London, such as Indian Council bills

50,000 fine ounces @ $20.67183— Freight $% on $1,033,600 Insurance $°/o on $1,085,000 U.S. Mint charges (including packing) -0604% i Interest: say 10 days @ 5%

@ $4.883 ={£212,797 19 9d.

The operation

$1,0 31591-50

398769 542.50 624.29

1,415.87

$1,040,050.16

ARBITRATION Sold in Berlin. 0,000 fine ounces—kilos 1,555,174. @ mks. 2,790.—mks. 4,338,935.46. which, having cost £212,797 19 o9d., is equivalent to a rate of mks. 20.38.

(In the above illustration no allowance is made for handling

charges in New York.)

It may be mentioned that exchange on London is quoted in Australia and South Africa at a varying premium or discount, and

if the arbitrageur has to make a shipment of gold to any foreign country, he has the choice of taking it from South Africa, where telegraphic transfers on London may be at a premium, or of ordering a shipment from New York where the f sterling may be quoted at above the theoretical gold parity of $4.863. (S.; E. L. F.)

ARBITRATION, a term derived from the nomenclature of

Roman law, and applied to an arrangement

for taking, and

abiding by, the judgment of a selected person in some disputed matter, instead of carrying it to the established courts of justice. In disputes between States, arbitration has long played an im-

portant part. (See ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL.)

The present

article is restricted to arbitration under municipal law; but a

separate article is also devoted to the use of arbitration in labour disputes. (See ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION.)

Law of England.—The law of England as to arbitration is now substantially included in the Arbitration Act, 1889, and certain amending statutes. The principal act is an express code as to proceedings in all arbitrations, but “criminal proceedings by

the Crown” cannot be referred under it (ss. 13, 14). The statute subdivides its subject matter into two headings: I., References by consent out of court; IL., References under order of court. I. Here the first matter to be dealt with is the submission. A submission is defined as a written agreement to submit present or future differences to arbitration, whether a particular arbitrator is named in it or not. The capacity of a person to agree to arbitration, or to act as arbitrator, depends on the general law of contract. A submission by an infant is not void, but is voidable at

his option. (See INFANT.)

Counsel has a general authority to

210

which come within the scope of the arbitration. Where the agreement to refer stipulates that the submission of a dispute to arbitration shall be a condition. precedent to the right to bring an action in regard to it, an action does not lie until the arbitration

has been held and an award made. The court will refuse to stay proceedings where the subject matter of the litigation falls outside the scope of the reference, or there is some serious objection to the fitness of the arbitrator, or some other good reason of the kind exists. Under the Arbitration Clauses (Protocol) act, 1924, proceedings may also be stayed in respect of matters to be referred to arbitration in pursuance of agreements to which the protocol of Sept. 24, 1923, on arbitration clauses applies. An arbitrator is not liable to be sued for want of skill or for negligence in conducting the arbitration (Pappa v. Rose, 1872, LR. 7 C.P. 525). When a building contract provides that the certificate of the architect, showing the final balance due to the contractor, shall be conclusive evidence of the works having been duly completed, the architect occupies the Position of an arbitrator, and enjoys the same immunity from liability for negligence in the discharge of his functions (Chambers v. Goldthorpe, Igor, r Q.B. 624). An arbitrator (and the following observations apply mutatis mutandis to an umpire after he has entered on his duties) has power to administer oaths to, or take the affirmations of, the parties and their witnesses; and any person who wilfully and corruptly gives false evidence before him may be prosecuted and punished for perjury (Arbitration act, 1889, sched. i. and s. 22). At any stage in the reference he may, and shall if he be required by the court, state in the form of a special case for the opinion of the court any question of law arising in the arbitration. The arbitrator may also state his award in whole or in part as a special case (#bid. s. 19), and may correct in an award any clerical mistake or error arising from an accidental slip or omission. The costs of the reference and the award—which, under sched. i. of the act, must be in writing unless the submission otherwise provides—are in the arbitrator’s discretion, and he has a lien on the award and the submission for his fees, for which—if there is an express or implied promise to pay them—he can also sue

deal with the conduct of an action, which includes authority to refer it to arbitration, but he has no authority to refer an action (Crampton v. Ridley, 1887, 20 Q.B.D. 48). A professional man, against the wishes of his client, or on terms different from those undertaking the duties of arbitrator without any stipulation as to which his client has sanctioned; and if he does so, the reference payment, cannot be presumed to be giving his services gratuimay be set aside, although the limit put by the client on his tously, and is therefore entitled to remuneration (Macintyre counsel’s authority is not made known to the other side when Bros. v. Smith, 1913, S.C. 129, p. 132). the reference is agreed upon (Neale v. Gordon Lennox, 1902, A. If there is no express provision on the point in the submission, C. 465). The committee of a lunatic, with the sanction of the an award under the Arbitration act 1889 must be made within judge in lunacy, may refer disputes to arbitration. (See LUNACY. ) three months after the arbitrator has entered on the reference, As an arbitrator is chosen by the parties themselves, the ques- or been called upon to act by notice in writing from any party tion of his eligibility is of comparatively minor importance; and to the submission. The time may, however, be extended by the where an arbitrator has been chosen by both parties, the courts arbitrator or by the court. An umpire is required to make his are reluctant to set the appointment aside. This question has award within one month after the original or extended time arisen chiefly in contracts for works, which frequently contain appointed for making the award of the arbitrators has expired, a provision that the engineer shall be the arbitrator in any dis- or any later day to which he may enlarge it. The court may by pute between the contractor and his own employer. The practical order remit an award to the arbitrators or umpire for reconsideraresult is to make the engineer judge in his own cause. But the tion, in which case the reconsidere d award must be made within courts will not in such cases prevent the engineer from acting, three months after the date of the order. An arbitrator is a comwhere the contractor was aware of the facts when he signed the petent witness in an action to enforce his award, and in modern contract, and there is no reason to believe that the engineer will be practice in commercial arbitrations he is entitled to support in the unfair (Ives and Barker v. Willans, 1894, 2 Ch. 478; Hickman & arbitration or before an umpire, the case of the party appointing Co. v. Roberts, 1913, A. C. 229). So, too, where a barrister was him. appointed arbitrator, the court refused to stay the arbitration on An award must be intra vires; it must dispose of all the points the mere ground that he was the client of a firm of solicitors, the referred; and it must be final, except as regards certain matters conduct of one of whom was in question (Bright v. River Plate of valuation, etc. (see In Re Stringer and Riley Brothers, IQOI, I Construction Co., 1900, 2 Ch. 835). The Arbitration Act, 18809, K.B. 105). An award may, however, be set aside where the arbiprovides that a submission, unless a contrary intention is expressed trator has misconducte d himself (an arbitrator may also be in it, is irrevocable except by leave of the court or a judge, and is removed by the court on the ground of misconduct), or where to have the same effect in all respects as if it had been made an it is ultra vires, or lacks any of the other requisites—above menorder of court. Provision is made for failure to appoint arbitra- tioned—of a valid award, or where the arbitrator has been wiltors or umpires. The court may compel parties to carry out an fully deceived by one of the parties, or some such state of things arbitration, not only in the above cases by directly appointing an exists. An award by leave of the court, be enforced in the arbitrator, etc., or by allowing one appointed by a party to pro- same manner as amay, judgment or decree to the same effect. Proceed alone with the reference, but also indirectly by staying any visions for the Proceedings before the legal tribunals to determine matters tained in many arbitration of special classes of disputes are conacts of parliament; e.g., the Acquisition of Land t

220

ARBITRATION

(Assessment of Compensation) act, 1919, the Agricultural Hold- | (Arbitration ings act, 1923, the Small Holdings and Allotments acts, 1908-26, the Light Railways acts, 1896 and 1912, the Lands Clauses acts, the Housing act, 1925, the Rating and Valuation act, 1925, and the Workmen’s Compensation act, 1925~26. In 1892 a chamber of arbitration for business disputes was established by the joint action of the corporation of the City of London and the London Chamber of Commerce. The London Chamber, or as it is now styled, Court of Arbitration is simply a joint committee of persons nominated partly by the City Corporation and partly by the London Chamber of Commerce, which appoints arbitrators to deal with disputes referred to it irrespective of the nationality of the parties. II. The court or a judge may refer any question arising in any cause or matter to an official or special referee, whose report may be enforced like a judgment or order to the same effect. This power may be exercised whether the parties desire it or not. The official referees are salaried officers of court. The remuneration of special referees is determined by the court or judge. An entire action may be referred, if all parties consent, or if it involves any prolonged examination of documents, or scientific or local examination, or consists wholly or partly of matters of account. (See the Supreme Court of Judicature [Consolidation] act, 1925, ss. 88-97.) Scots Law.—The Arbitration (Scotland) act, 1894, unlike the English Arbitration act, 1889, did not codify the previously existing law, and it becomes necessary, therefore, to deal with that law in some detail. It differs in important particulars from the law of England. Although (as in England apart from the Arbitration act, 1889) there is nothing to prevent a verbal reference, submissions are generally not merely written but are effected by deed. The deed of submission first defines the terms of the reference, the name or names of the arbiters or arbitrators, and . the “oversman” or umpire, whose decision in the event of the arbiters differing in opinion is to be final. Formerly, where no oversman was named in the submission, and no power given to the arbiters to name one, the proceedings were abortive if the arbiters disagreed, unless the parties consented to a nomination. But under the Arbitration (Scotland) act, 1894, s. 4, where arbiters differ in opinion, they, or, if they fail to agree on the point, the court, on the application of either party, may nominate an oversman whose decision is to be final. The deed of submission next gives to the arbiters the necessary powers for disposing of the matters referred (e.g., powers to summon witnesses, to administer oaths and to award expenses) and specifies the time within which the “decree arbitral” is to be pronounced. If this date is left blank, practice has limited the arbiter’s power of deciding to a year and a day, unless, having express or clearly implied power in the submission, he exercises this power, or the parties expressly or tacitly agree to its prorogation. The deed of submission then goes on to provide that the parties bind themselves, under a stipulated penalty to abide by the decree arbitral, that, in the event of the death of either of them, the submission shall continue in force against their heirs and representatives, and that they consent to the registration, for preservation and execution, both of the deed itself and of the decree arbitral. The power to enforce the award depends on this last provision. Under the common law of Scotland a submission of future disputes or differences to an arbiter, or arbiters, unnamed, was ineffectual except where the agreement to refer did not contemplate the decision of proper disputes between the parties, but the adjustment of some condition, or the liquidation of some obligation, contained in the con-

tract of which the agreement to submit formed a part. And by the Arbitration (Scotland) act, 1894, s. 1., an agreement to refer to arbitration is not invalid by reason of the reference being to a

person not named, or to be named by another, or to a person merely described as the holder for the time being of any office or appointment. An arbiter who has accepted office may be compelled by an action in the court of session to proceed with his duty unless he has sufficient cause, such as ill-health or supervening interest, for renouncing. The court may name a sole arbiter, where provision is made for one only and the parties cannot agree

[Scotland]

Act, 1894, s. 2); and may name ap

arbiter where a party having the right or duty to nominate one of two arbiters will not exercise it (zbid. s. 3). Scots law as to the requisites of a valid award is practically identical with the lay

of England. The grounds of reduction of a decree arbitral are “corruption,” “bribery,” “false hood” (Scots Act of Regulations. 1695, s. 25). An attempt was made to include, under the expres. sion “constructive corruption,” among these statutory grounds of reduction, irregular conduct on the part of an arbitrator, with

no suggestion of any corrupt motive. But it was definitely over. ruled by the House of Lords (Adams v. Great North of Scotlang Railway [1891], A. C. 31). The statutory definition of the grounds of reduction was intended, however, merely to put an end to the practice which had previously obtained of reviewing awards on their merits, and it does not prevent the courts from

setting aside an award where the arbitrator has exceeded his juris. diction, or disregarded any one of the expressed conditions of the submission, or been guilty of misconduct. The original rule was that a private arbiter could not demand remuneration except in virtue of contract, or by implication from the nature of the work

done, or if the reference was in pursuance of some statutory enactment (e.g., the Lands Clauses [Scotland] act, 1845, s. 32), The view taken by the courts of this question in modern times is

expressed in the case of Macintyre Bros. v. Smith, cited on p. 219,

Judicial references have been long known to the law of Scotland. When an action is in court the parties may at any stage with-

draw it from judicial determination, and refer it to arbitration. This is done by minute of reference to which the court interpones its authority. When the award is issued it becomes the judgment of the court. The court has no power to compel parties to enter into a reference of this kind, and it is doubtful whether counsel can bind their clients in such a matter. A judicial reference falls like the other by the elapse of a year; and the court cannot review the award on the ground of miscarriage. By the Court of Session act, 1850, s. 50, a provision is introduced whereby parties to an action in the supreme court may refer judicially any issue for trial to one, three, five or seven persons, who shall sit as a jury and

decide by a majority. Law of Ireland.—The Arbitration act, 1889, did not extend to Ireland. There has been no independent legislation on the subject since the treaty of 1922, either in Northern Ireland or in the Irish Free State. In both, the Common Law Procedure (Ireland) act, 1856, provides, on the lines of the English Common Law Procedure act, 1854, for the conduct of arbitrations and the enforcement of awards. Irish statute law, both before and since the establishment of the Free State, contains numerous provisions

for arbitration under special enactments.

Indian and Colonial Law.—The provisions of the English Arbitration act, 1889, have in substance been adopted by the Indian Legislature (see act ix. of 1899), and by many of the colonies; e.g., No. 24 of 1898, Natal; c. 20 of 1899, Bahamas; No. 10 of 1895, amended by No. 4 of 1923, Gibraltar; No. 29 of 18098, Cape of Good Hope: s. 7 of this last statute excluded from submission to arbitration criminal cases, so far as prosecution and punishment are concerned, and, without the special leave of the court, matters relating to status, matrimonial causes, and matters affecting minors or other persons under legal disability; Trinidad and Tobago, No. 35 of 1898; Ontario, No. 35 of 1909 (consolidating), No. 36 of 1909 (appointment of Chambers of Arbitration); Leeward Islands, No. 11 of 1907; Saskatchewan, No. 20 of 1920 (consolidating); Nigeria, No. 17 of 1914; Federated

Malay States, No. 17 of 1912; Victoria, No. 2,265 of rọro. In Newfoundland the Board of Trade was authorized in 1910 (No.1 of 1910) to appoint committees of arbitration and committees of appeals to decide matters voluntarily referred to them. The award of any such committee is to have the effect of a judgment of the supreme court. Law of France.—Voluntary arbitration has always been recognized in France. In cases of mercantile partnerships, arbitration was formerly compulsory, but in 1856 (law of July 17, 1856) jurisdiction in disputes between parties was conferred on the Tribunals of Commerce (as to which see Code de Commerce,

ARBITRATION arts. 615 ef seg.). The subject is fully dealt with in the Code de procédure Civile (arts. 1,003-1,028). The submission to arbitration (compromis) must, on pain of nullity, be acted upon within three months from its date (art. 1,007).

The submission ter-

minates (i.) by the death, refusal, resignation or inability to act of one of the arbitrators;

(ii.) by the expiration of the period

agreed upon, or of three months if no time had been fixed; (iii.) by the disagreement of two arbitrators, unless power be reserved

to them to appoint an umpire (art. 1,012). An arbitrator cannot resign if he has once commenced to act, and can only be relieved on some ground arising subsequently

to the submission

(art.

1,014). Each party to the arbitration is required to produce his evidence at least 15 days before the expiration of the period fixed by the submission (art. 1,016). If the arbitrators, differing

in opinion, cannot agree upon an umpire (tiers arbitre), the president of the Tribunal of Commerce will appoint one, on the application of either party (art. 1,017). The umpire is required to give his decision within one month of his acceptance of the appointment; before making his award, he must confer with the previous arbitrators who disagreed (art. 1,018). Arbitrators and umpire must proceed according to the ordinary rules of law, unless they are specially empowered by the submission to proceed as amiables compositeurs (art. 1,019). The award is rendered executory by an order of the president of the Civil Tribunal of First Instance

(art. 1,020). Awards cannot be set up against third parties (art. 1,022), or attacked by way of opposition.

An appeal against an

award lies to the Civil Tribunal of First Instance, or to the court

of appeal, according as the subject matter, in the absence of arbitration, would have been within the jurisdiction of the justice of the peace, or of the Civil Tribunal of First Instance (art. 1,023). Up to the end of 1925 the law of arbitration in France had regard only to the submission of existing disputes, although clauses were sometimes incorporated into contracts providing that they should be governed by English law and thus rendering the reference of future disputes possible. The law of Dec. 31, 1925, for the first time makes general arbitration valid in French law (Sirey, Lois Ann., 1925). A law of June 21, 1924, codifies the law as to arbitration between master and servant, the institution of arbitration courts for dealing with differences, the election of judges, and the extent of their jurisdiction. The law becomes part, and is entitled Book IV., of the Code du Travail. Other Foreign Laws.—The provisions of French law as to arbitration were followed in Belgium (Code de Proc. Civ., arts. 1,003 et seœ.); and a convention (July 8, 1899) between France and Belgium regulates, iter alia, the mutual enforcement of awards. The law of France was also reproduced in substance in Holland (Code of Civil Procedure, art. 62 e¢ seg.). The German Imperial Code of Procedure did not create any system of arbitration in civil cases. The matter is at present regulated by the Code of Civil Procedure, 1879 (arts. 1,025 et seq.). Courts of Arbitration, connected with large trade associations, chambers of commerce and stock exchanges were set up. Provision is made for the reference of existing or future disputes. The reference is to two arbitrators, unless the submission otherwise provides. If the arbitrators reach a deadlock and notify it to the parties,

the submission is void. There is apparently no provision for the appointment of an umpire. An order of court is necessary for the enforcement of the award. The law is unsatisfactory and its early amendment is considered probable (43 Law Quarterly Review, 205). Spain followed the French Law (Code Civ. Proc.,

arts. 1,003—1,028; Civil Code, arts. 1,820-1,821). In Norway the “Arbitration Bureau for Goods,” which had been operating in connection with the exchange since 1870, was in 1905 rearranged

and subjected to a new regulation as “the Arbitration Bureau of the Exchange.” See also the following foreign laws: Brazil C.C. arts. 1,037~1,048; Japan, general law, Code Civ. Proc., and special provisions for mediation, as regards leased lands and houses, Nos. 41 and 339 of 1922, and 17 of 1924, and as regards commercial cases, No. 42 of 1926. The legality of agreements for general arbitration was recog-

nized by a protocol signed at Geneva under the League of Nations

on Sept. 24, 1923. This occasioned the Act of Great Britain, chap.

221

39 of 1924; the French law of Dec. 31, 1925, above mentioned, and those laws of other ratifying States. (For commercial arbitration see INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS.)

BrstiocraPHy.—Annual Practice (London, yearly); J. H. Redman, A Treatise on the Law of Arbitration and Awards (1903) ; F. Russell, On the Power and Duty of an Arbitrator (11th ed., 1923). As to Scots law: J. M. Bell, A Treatise on the Law of Arbitration in Scotland (1877); J. Erskine, Principles of the Law of Scotland (21st ed.,

1911); W. M. Gloag and R. C. Henderson, Introduction to the Law

of Scotland (1927). As to foreign law generally: the texts of the laws cited; the Annuaire de législation étrangére and the Annuaire de

législation française. (A. W. R.) The United States.—Beginning with the English common law of arbitration as it existed in the early 18th century, including per-

haps the substance of 9 and 10 William III. ch. x s (Shriver v.

State, Md., 1837, 9 Gill and J. 1; contra, Shearer v. Mooers, Mass., 1837, 19 Pickering 308), the several jurisdictions of the United States have in the past deviated far less from that system than has the mother country. Thus, the dictum in Vynior’s Case (1609, 8 Coke 8z b) as to revocability and the doctrine of the illegality of attempts to “oust the court of its jurisdiction” are still put forth as common law (Cochrane v. Forbes, 1926, 257 Mass. Rep. 135. Echoes are still found in cases of a rule

going back to feudal times excluding titles to realty from the list

of arbitral matters (Bunnel v. Reynolds, 1920, 205 Mo. App. 653). The rule that none but actual controversies already arisen can be made the subject of an agreement of arbitrators is still repeated (Cocalis v. Nazlides, 1923, 308 Ill. 152). Though there are numerous references in the statute books to arbitration in particular cases such as disputes among stockholders of corporations, in the main the statutes prior to the New York Act of 1920 (except in Pennsylvania) hardly went beyond 9 and ro William III. ch. rs, making it possible by agreement to give to a submission the quality and effect of a rule of court. Among the causes contributing to the tardiness of this legislation were the spirit and the letter of several clauses in the Federal and State Constitutions, such as those making the courts coordinate with the legislatures and those pertaining to the right of trial by jury and to due process of law. In fact, the question of the constitutionality of arbitration statutes is still occasionally raised in the courts (Cf. Exell v. Rocky Mountain Bean and Elevator Company, Colorado, 1925, 232 Pacific Rep. 680). Compulsory arbitration unless accompanied by adequate provisions for an appeal to the ordinary courts has been deemed unconstitutional (St. Louis, I. M. and S. Ry. Co. v. Williams, 1887, 49 Ark., 492; In re compulsory arbitration, 1886, 9 Colo. 629). When such appeal is provided for, as in the Pennsylvania Act of 1836, compulsory arbitration has been upheld. Blackstone (3 Com. 16) speaks of an award as the equivalent of “the agreement of the parties, or the judgment of a court of justice.” As between the views assimilating the award to the one or the other, with their corollary treatment of the arbitrators as agents or as judges, and of the entire proceeding as a business negotiation or as a mode of trial, the tendency of the U.S. courts has been generally in the direction of the view that arbitration is essentially a mode of trial. At least holdings are found contrary to those in England under the common law: giving arbitrators judicial exemption from civil liability for mistakes or even fraud in the performance of their functions; allowing them to tax their own costs; to correct errors after an award is made; and many minor points (Harvard Law Review, xl., 129). In spite of this conservatism of the courts and the legislature the use of arbitration has increased in the United States for commercial matters, largely under the influence of chambers of commerce and trade associations. The New York State Chamber of Commerce has printed (1913) its earliest arbitration records, consisting of minutes of its committees from 1779 to 1792. The Year Book on Commercial Arbitration in the United States for 1927 contains the provisions for arbitration including forms, rules and regulations, and panels of arbitrators in trade associations in 30 principal branches of commerce, and a comprehensive list of chambers of commerce, exchanges, municipal courts, legal aid societies, and bar associations furnishing arbitration facilities in every part of the country. The attitude of bar associations, and particularly

222

ARBITRATION,

the American Bar Association, has been friendly and, in view of a possible conflict of interest, even generous. Largely through the efforts of the latter there has been passed a Federal arbitration act (in effect Jan. 1, 1926) limited, of course, to types of disputes cognizable in the Federal courts (cases in admiralty, inter-state commerce, diversity of citizenship) and excluding employment contracts even from these. The act embodied, like the earlier New York (1921) and New Jersey (1923) acts and the contemporary Massachusetts (1925) and Oregon (1925) acts, these three principles: arbitration agreements in writing are valid; they are made enforceable and irrevocable; they may embrace matters not yet in dispute. With the exception of the provision for future disputes these principles are also embodied in the act drafted (1925) by the Commissioners on Uniform State Laws affiliated with the American Bar Association (adopted in Nevada, 1925, North Carolina, 1927, Wyoming, 1927). Provision is further made for guidance by the court on questions of law, for the aid of the court in compelling the attendance and testifying of witnesses, for a limited judicial review, and, in the case of the Uniform act, for provisional and ancillary remedies for the preservation of the property involved and for securing satisfaction of the award.

INTERNATIONAL given to each party an opportunity of being heard, or has exceeded

its jurisdiction. An instance under the last head occurred in 183; when it was referred to the king of the Netherlands as sole arbi. trator to fix the north-eastern boundary of the state of Maine The king’s representatives were unable to draw the frontier line

by reason of the imperfection of the maps then in existence, and

| Fm, 7 A

law is applicable. Arbitration differs from mediation (q.v.) in so far as it is a judicial act, whereas mediation involves no decision, but merely advice and suggestions to those who invoke its aid. Arbitral Tribunals.—An international arbitrator may be the chief of a friendly power, or he may be a private individual. When he is head of a state he is not expected to act personally; he may appoint a delegate or delegates to act on his behalf, and avail himself of their labours and views, the ultimate decision being his only in name. In civil arbitration an arbitrator cannot delegate his office without express authority. The analogy between the two fails to hold good in another respect also. In civil arbitration, the decision or award may be made a rule of court, after which it becomes enforceable by writ of execution against person or property. An international award cannot be enforced directly; in other words it has no legal sanction behind it. Its obligation rests on the good faith of the parties to the reference, and on the fact that, with the help of a world-wide press, public opinion can always be brought to bear on any state seeking to evade its moral duty. The obligation of an ordinary treaty rests on precisely the same foundations. Where there are two or any other even number of arbitrators, provision is usually made for an umpire. (See BERING SEA ARBITRATION and “ALABAMA” ARBITRATION.) Arbitral tribunals may have to deal with questions either of law or fact, or of both. When they have to deal with law only, that is to say, to lay down a principle or decide a question of liability, their functions are judicial or quasi-judicial, and the result is arbitration proper. Where they have to deal with facts only; e.g., the evaluation of pecuniary claims, their functions are administrative rather than judicial, and the term commission is applied to them. “Mixed commissions,” so called because they are composed of representatives of the parties in difference, have been frequently resorted to for delimitation of frontiers, and for settling the indemnities to be paid to the subjects of neutral powers in respect of losses sustained by non-combatants in times of war or civil insurrection. : Awards.—International awards, as already stated, differ from civil awards in having no legal sanction by which they can be enforced. On the other hand, they resemble civil awards in that they may be set aside; z.¢., ignored, for sufficient reason, as, for

example, if the tribunal has not acted in good faith, or has not

A

BS

f

BrstioGRAPHY.—Dunn and Dimond, On Commercial Arbitration (1922); J. H. Cohen, Commercial Arbitration and the Law (1918); American Arbitration Association, Year Book on Commercial Arbitration (1927); Suggestions for the Practice of Commercial Arbitration in the United States (1928). (N. I.)

ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL. International arbitration is a proceeding in which two nations refer their differences to one or more selected persons, who, after affording to each party an opportunity of being heard, pronounce judgment on the matters at issue. It is understood, unless otherwise expressed, that the judgment shall be in accordance with the law by which civilized nations have agreed to be bound, whenever such

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inno Ve

CO

POr

an

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pen y oee

THE PEACE PALACE AT THE HAGUE, HOLLAND, THE SEAT OF THE HAGUE TRIBUNAL, THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF ARBITRATION

he therefore directed a further survey. This direction was beyond the terms of the reference, and the award, when made, was repudiated by the United States as void for excess. The point in dispute was only finally disposed of by the Webster-Ashburton treaty of 1842.

Subject-matter.—The history of international arbitration is dealt with in the article Peace, where treaties of general arbitration are discussed. The rapid growth of international arbitration may be gathered from the following figures. Between 1820 and 1840, there were eight such instances; between 1840 and 1860, there were 30; between 1860 and 1880, 44; between 1880 and 1900, 90. Of the governments which were parties in these several cases Great Britain heads the list in point of numbers, the United States of America being a good second. The present article is concerned exclusively with arbitration in regard to such existing differences as are capable of precise statement and of prompt adjustment. These differences may be arranged in two main groups: (a) Those which have arisen between State and State in their sovereign capacities; (b) Those in which one State has made a demand upon another State, ostensibly in its sovereign capacity, but really on behalf of some individual, or set of individuals, whose interests it was bound to protect. To group (a) belong territorial differences in regard to ownership of land and rights of fishing at sea; to group (b) belong pecuniary claims in respect of acts wrongfully done to one or more subjects of one state by, or with the authority of, another state. To enumerate even a tenth part of the successful arbitrations in recent times would occupy too much space. Permanent Court of Arbitration of The Hague.—The' establishment of a permanent tribunal at The Hague by the convention of 1899, for the pacific settlement of international disputes marks a momentous epoch in the history of international arbitration. This tribunal realized an idea put forward by Jeremy Bentham towards the close of the 18th century, advocated by

James Mill in the middle of the roth century, and worked out later by Mr. Dudley Field in America, by Dr. Goldschmidt in

ARBITRATION, Dates of agreement

; Parties.

to refer.

INTERNATIONAL

ae. Arbitrating authority.

Subject-matter.

223 Date of

TABLE I.

Territorial Disputes (Ownership). Queen of Spain i Island of Aves in Venezuela

1857

Holland and Venezuela

1872

Great Britain and Portugal President of French Republic i , , i Argentine Republic and Paraguay} President of United States a , tae Great Britain and Germany Mized Commission . , i ;

1869

1876 1885 1886

Great Britain and Portugal

President of United States

Bulgaria and Servia

Mixed Commission

1896 1902

Great Britain and Venezuela Austria and Hungary

1869

. Great Britain and the Transvaal]

1871

ee Britain

1873

Italy and Switzerland

tates

1885 1890 1895 1897

France and Brazil

IQOT 1903

Delagoa Bay (part of), Inyack and Elephant Is., South-East Africa ` Territory between the Verde and the Pilcomayo river of Paraguay Islets and guano deposits on South-West Coast of Africa

Territory near the village of Bregovo

Mixed Commission British Guiana Mixed Commission (with Presi-| Territory in the district of Upper Tatra dent of Swiss Federal tribunal as umpire)

and the United}

i o. Great Britain and Russia France and Holland Great Britain and Portugal

Island of Bulama on West Coast of Africa

TABLE II. Delimitation of Frontiers. Lieutenant Governor of Natal | The southern boundary of the South African Republic The German emperor The San Juan water boundary Mixed

Commission

(with U.S.|

The Canton of Ticino

minister at Rome as umpire) Mixed Commission North-Western Afghanistan Tsar of Russia French Guiana and Dutch Guiana se cae of the Italian Court of| Manicaland

ppea

|

ee

of the

ederation

Great Britain and Brazil Great Britain and Portugal

|

Swiss

Con-| River Yapoe named in the Treaty of Utrecht r813}

King of Italy King of Italy

1903

oe

1917 1923

Colombia and Venezuela Great Britain and Turkey

1851

United States and Portugal

1863

Great Britain and Brazil

1863

Great Britain and Peru

1870 1873 1874 1879 1885 1888

United States and Spain Japan and Peru United States and Colombia France and Nicaragua United States and Spain United States and Denmark

1895

Great Britain and the Nether-| lands

British Guiana Barotseland

Britain and the United} Mixed Commission

Alaska

tates

King of the Belgians

B

Senate of Hamburg | Mixed Commission Tsar of Russia Mixed Commission French Court of Cassation Italian Minister at Madrid British Minister at Athens

strong

of three British officers of the ship “Laj

orte’ A at Callao of Capt. Melville White, a British| subject The American s.s. “Col. Lloyd Aspinwall” The Peruvian barque “Maria Luz” The American s.s. “Montijo” The French ship “Le Phare” The American s.s. “The Masonic”

The s.s. “Benjamin Franklin” and the barque} “Catherine Augusta”

Tsar of Russia, who delegated his} Arrest of the master of the “Costa Rica” packet} duties to Prof. F. de Martens

Germany, and by Sir Edmund Hornby and Mr. Leone Levi in England. The credit of the realization is due, first to the tsar of Russia, who initiated the Hague Conference of 1899; secondly to David Jayne Hill, at that time assistant secretary of State of the United States; and thirdly to Lord Pauncefote (then Sir Julian Pauncefote, British ambassador at Washington), who urged before a committee of the conference the importance of organizing a permanent international court, the service of which should be called into requisition at will, and who also submitted an outline of the mode in which such a court might be formed. The result was embodied in the following articles of the convention, signed on behalf of 16 of the assembled powers on July 29, 1890. (Art. 23.) Each of the signatory powers is to designate within three months from the ratification of the convention four persons at the most, of recognized competence in international law, enjoying: the highest moral consideration, and willing to accept the duties of arbitrators. Two or more Powers may agree to nominate one or more members in common, or the same person may be nominated by different powers. Members of the court are to be appointed for six years and may be re-nominated. (Art. 25.) The signatory powers desiring to apply to the tribunal for the settlement of a difference between them are to notify the same to the arbitrators. The arbitrators who are to determine this difference are, unless otherwise specially agreed, to be chosen from the general list of members in the following manner:—each party is to name two arbitrators, and

1875

1878 1886 1887 1899

1902

1870 sth 1874

1887 1891 1897 100o 1904 1905

1903

Swiss Federal Council Boundaries of Colombia and Venezuela Council of the League of Nations| Boundary of Iraq Taste III. Pecuniary Claims in respect of Seizures and Arrests. President of French Republic Seizure of the American privateer “General| :

1865 1870

(a British subject)

1922 1925

1852

1863 1864 1870 1875 1875 1880 1885 1890 1897

these are to choose a chief arbitrator or umpire (sur-arbitre). If the votes are equally divided the selection of the chief arbitrator is to be entrusted to a third power to be named by the parties. (Art. 26.) The tribunal is to sit at The Hague when practicable, unless the parties otherwise agree. (Art. 27.) ‘The signatory powers consider it a duty in the event af an acute conflict threatening to break out between

two or more of them to remind these latter that the permanent court

is open to them. This action is only to be considered as an exercise of good offices.”

Several of the powers nominated members of the permanent court pursuant to Art. 25, quoted above, those nominated on behalf of Great Britain being Lord Pauncefote, Sir Edward Malet, Sir Edward Fry and Professor Westlake. On the death of Lord Pauncefote, Major-General Sir John C. Ardagh was appointed in his place. Another institution created by this Convention (see Art. 9) is the so-called international commission of enquiry, designed to facilitate a solution of a dispute arising from a difference of opinion on points of fact, and not involving the honour or vital interests of the parties. The contracting Powers also agreed to have recourse to the good offices or mediation of one or more friendly Powers, in cases of serious disputes, before appealing to arms, and that such recourse should not be regarded as an unfriendly act.

224

ARBITRATION,

At the Second Peace Conference of The Hague in 1907 the convention was redrafted, but in essentials remained unchanged. One important addition was the creation of summary procedure by means of a smaller tribunal composed of three judges. Each party is represented by an agent only and the proceedings are in writing. Hague Cases and Commissions of Enquiry.—Since the first case, The Pious Fund of the Californias, heard in 1902, some 18 disputes have been submitted to the Permanent Court of Arbitration and three to investigation of the facts by commissions of enquiry Some of these are now regarded as authoritative expressions of the law upon the issues raised. The pre-war cases are reported in The Hague Court Reports (1916), edited by James Brown Scott, and the post-war in vols. 16, 17 and 20 of the American Journal of International Law. In the Dogger Bank incident of 1904 the commission of enquiry was empowered by the parties, Great Britain and Russia, not only to ascertain the facts, but also to determine the liability. Arbitral Procedure.——Not the least of the benefits of The Hague convention of 1899 (strengthened by that of 1907) is that it contains rules of procedure which furnish a guide for all arbitrations whether conducted before The Hague court or not. These may be summarized as follows:—The initial step is the signing of a compromise by the parties clearly defining the subject in dispute and other terms and conditions of the arbitration. The next is the choice of the arbitrators and of an umpire if the number of arbitrators is even. Each party then by its agents prepares and presents its case in a narrative or argumentative form, annexing thereto all relevant documents. The cases so presented are interchanged by transmission to the opposite party. The hearing consists in the discussion of the matters contained in the several cases, and is conducted under the direction of the president who is either the umpire, or, if there is no umpire, one of the arbitrators. The members of the tribunal have the right of putting questions to the counsel and agents of the parties and to demand from them explanation of doubtful points. The award is delivered in open court by the president in the presence of the parties, the agents and counsel. Any application for a revision of the award must be based on the discovery of new evidence of such a nature as to exercise a decisive influence on the award and unknown up to the time when the hearing was closed, both to the court itself and to the party asking for the revision. These general rules are universally applicable, but each case may require the application of special rules which each tribunal must make for itself. One such special rule relates to the language to be used. This must vary according to convenience and is therefore made ad hoc. LATER TREATIES

Until 1911 progress in arbitration had been cenfined within certain limits, questions involving national honour or vital in-

terests being excluded from its operation. In IQII, however, an effort was made to widen its scope. The credit for the innovation is probably due to the United States, as the new idea was first embodied in treaties between that power and France and Great Britain respectively, though these treaties were not ratified. Arbitration Treaties Before the War.—As between other

powers, various arbitration treaties embodying to a greater or

less extent the idea of an all-embracing agreement were made; and it is regrettable to record that those which were put to a severe test failed entirely to prevent a resort to force of arms, thus apparently demonstrating the truth of the argument that arbitration on questions involving national honour or vital inter-

est was foredoomed to failure. In July 1914, arbitration on the disputed points in Austria~Hungary’s ultimatum was proposed by Serbia, and Britain proposed mediation. But this conciliatory procedure was unsuccessful.

In the Italo-Turkish War no time was given for any possible pacific intervention, and in the Austro-Hungarian conflict with

Serbia the same method of excluding pacific intervention was adopted, In the Italian conflict with Greece over the Janina murders it was the same again, in spite of the parties being

pledged to arbitration. These instances show that arbitration must

INTERNATIONAL be of immediate and automatic application if it is to prevent a disaster. Some account of the leading provisions of the arbitration treaties of 1911 between Great Britain and the United States and between France and the United States must be given, Apart from the provision that the treaties were to embrace all manner of disputes and differences, various preliminary stages of procedure were provided, which may be summarized as follow: I. Request by either party to submit any difference between them to a joint high commission of inquiry. 2. Power to either party to postpone the reference to the high

commission

for one year from the date of the request,

in order to

afford an opportunity for diplomatic discussion and adjustment of the questions in controversy. 3. Appointment by each party of three of their nationals, these to

form the joint high commission.

4. Holding of the inquiry by the joint high commission, the inquiry

to be followed by a report upon the particular question or matters referred to it, for the purpose of facilitating the solution of the disputes by elucidating the facts and defining the issues, the report to include also such recommendations and conclusions as may be appropriate, 5. If the difference persist, the case becomes the subject of an

agreement to refer the matter to arbitration, such agreement to pro-

vide for the organization of the tribunal which will arbitrate, and to determine the question or questions at issue.

The object of the treaties, however, was not only to provide automatic application, but also to divert attention from the issue to the method of settlement, and thus to enable diplomacy to gain time, while providing the means of obtaining a calm examination of the points involved. Arbitration under the Covenant.—Sinċe the World War a new era for arbitration has begun. Arbitration had been regarded as having attained a sufficiently high status in international relations in being promoted by permanent treaties to the position of a recognized adjunct of diplomacy. The Covenant of the League of Nations gave it a much higher rank, and the activities with which it was sought to invest the League would practically displace diplomacy in its present representative form. Arbitration tended to replace direct negotiations between the ministers whose departments were concerned, suppressing, or at any rate relegating to a secondary position, the use of the diplomatic channel, Under the Covenant the members of the League agree that if there should arise between them any dispute likely to lead to a rupture, they will submit the matter either to arbitration or to enquiry by the Council of the League, and they bind themselves In no case to resort to war until three months after the award by the arbitrators or the report by the Council. The members of the League agree that whenever any dispute shall arise between them which they recognize to be suitable for submission to arbitration and which cannot be satisfactorily settled by diplomacy, they will submit the whole subject-matter a te to arbitration. The members of the League also agree that they will carry out in full good faith any award that may be rendered, and that they will not resort to war against a member of the League which complies herewith. In the event of any failure to carry out such an award, the Council shall propose what steps should be taken to give effect thereto.

It is seen that these provisions do not pretend to include all difficulties, but are confined to such matters as all parties may regard as arbitrable. Another clause, however, provides that “disputes as to the interpretation of a treaty, as to any question of international law, as to the existence of any fact which if established would constitute a breach of any international obligation, or as to the extent and nature of the reparation to be made for any such breach, are declared to be among these which are generally suitable for submission to arbitration.” The attitude of the British Government in respect of these provisions of the Covenant was expressed in a speech made by Lord Balfour on July 6, 1925, in which he stated: Arbitration is the thing; there is no question which can arise which will not be submitted to arbitration. If arbitration be really observed, war will be impossible. If either party to a dispute refused to arbitrate or to carry out a decision of arbitration, our obligation and that of the other parties would be to throw in our whole strength to defend the aggrieved party.

ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL On the continent of Europe this confidence in the future of arbitration is equally strong. Before the World War, arbitration was regarded as a permissive method and though the term “com-

pulsion” was used, it was merely in the sense that contracting parties had bound themselves to submit the cases specified in their engagement to arbitration. Under the Covenant, as Lord Balfour interprets it, compulsion is given a much more effective sense. Geneva Protocol.—To secure further the inclusion of all differences between nations, and to apply compulsory arbitration as a substitute for war, the Geneva Protocol, adopted on Oct. 2, 1924, but never ratified by the Powers, provided a systematic procedure of conciliation, arbitration, and forced compliance with the League’s decisions, for the prevention of war. This took the

form of an exhaustive amplification of the above-cited articles of the Covenant. Its provisions were as follows:—

1. If the dispute submitted to the Council is not settled by it, . . .

the Council shall endeavour to persuade the parties to submit the

dispute to judicial settlement by arbitration, 2. (a) If the parties cannot agree to do so, there shall, at the request of at least one of the parties, be constituted a committee of arbitrators. The committee shall so far as possible be constituted by agreement between the parties. (b) If within the period fixed by the Council, the parties have failed to agree, in whole or in part, upon the number, the names, and the powers of the arbitrators and upon the procedure, the Council shall settle the points remaining in suspense. It shall, with the utmost possible despatch, in consultation with the parties, select arbitrators and their president from among persons who, by their nationality, their personal character, and their experience, appear to it to furnish the highest guarantees of competence and impartiality. (c) After the claims of the parties have been formulated, the committee of arbitrators, on the request of any party, shall through the medium of the Council request an advisory opinion upon any

points of law in dispute from the Permanent Court of International

Justice (g.v.), which in such case shall meet with the utmost possible

pe i of the parties asks for arbitration the Council shall again take the dispute under consideration. If the Council reaches a report which is unanimously agreed to by the members thereof, other than the representatives of any of the parties to the dispute, the signatory States agree to comply with the recommendations therein.

The Protocol unfortunately amplified also the coercive clauses, military and economic, in case either party to a dispute failed to comply with the pacific solution proposed or arrived at by the League. Owing more particularly to these coercive provisions Great Britain repudiated the Protocol. The United States, which had been foremost in promoting arbitration, did not adopt

the Covenant owing mainly to these very coercive provisions which the Protocol made the mistake of amplifying. Great Britain’s repudiation of the Protocol prevented its general application.

As regards economic coercion against a power which declines to accept arbitration, it is not a principle much more feasible than coercion by force. Suspension of trade between any two industrial countries may be as much a loss to the one as to the other. Feeling in Great Britain and the United States seems practically unanimous in distrusting the application of any coercive method whether or not a domestic interest is involved. Until some new method is found of accentuating moral force which will not have the defects of the sanctions provided by the Covenant, the moral force of universal public opinion seems destined to be the only guarantee of respect for arbitration and its award. Meanwhile Germany, Sweden, Finland and Switzerland have concluded treaties of arbitration in which questions of national honour and vital interests are not reserved. In these a new element has been added to the system of compulsory treaties, in the form of a standing committee of competent persons appointed

by the two contracting States, to which all difficulties can be

referred for examination and counsel. At the sixth meeting of the Assembly of the League of Nations

the failure of the Protocol of 1924 was dealt with in a report containing the following paragraph :— At the moment when the declarations of certain governments have shown that an early entry into force of the Protocol for the pacific

settlement of international disputes is not to be expected, several delegations have been anxious to affirm the fidelity and unanimity with which the members of the League remain attached to the triple

226

object underlying that draft treaty, namely, arbitration, security, and disarmament, and to indicate methods or measures by which an approach might be made to this object, pending the achievement of

a general settlement which many consider indispensable.

The government most particularly concerned in the wrecking of the Protocol was that of Great Britain. Its attitude produced among the other members of the League of Nations the impression that Great Britain, in spite of her active championship of arbitration, was not prepared to accept the obligations resulting from strict compliance with the provisions of the Covenant. This impression was shared by many Englishmen, but Lord Balfour’s Statement made it clear that it was erroneous; and it was not surprising that, later on, the foreign secretary, Sir Austen Chamberlain, should take the lead in calling a special conference to deal with the problems existing in Central Europe, under the auspices of the Covenant itself. Great Britain thus showed that while observing her traditional attitude of distrust towards international generalities, she was genuinely attached to the principle of arbitration and was ready to give it the widest feasible scope. Locatno Pact.—The result of the conference called by the British Government at Locarno in Oct. 1925 was a pact under which the Powers between whom difficulties are most likely to arise undertake in no circumstances whatever to resort to war. They pledge themselves to submit disputes of every kind to some form of peaceful procedure. This agreement must be taken in conjunction with Article 16 of the Covenant, which provides that disputes as to the interpretation of a treaty, as to any question of international law, as to the existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute a breach of international obligation, or as to the extent and nature of the reparation to be made for any such breach, are declared to be among those generally suitable for submission to arbitration or judicial settlement. Both the Geneva Protocol and the Pact of Locarno adopted the same principle as that which underlay the abortive AngloAmerican treaty of 1897; though that treaty was called a treaty of arbitration it was at the same time a treaty of conciliation. It is interesting to note that Lord Salisbury, who acted, it is believed, on the advice of Lord Alverstone, initiated the negotiations for the treaty in question in a draft, the first proposition of which was as follows: Her Britannic Majesty and the President of the United States shall each appoint two or more permanent judicial officers for the purposes of this treaty, and on the appearance of any difference between the two Powers which, in the judgment of either of them, cannot be settled by negotiation, each of them shall designate one of the said officers as arbitrator; and the two arbitrators shall hear and determine any matter referred to them in accordance with this treaty.

This principle, though it was not adopted in the treaty of 1897, has been adopted in practically all the new treaties of arbitration entered into since the conclusion of the World War. The important object of international arbitration is further dealt with in a number of articles of which the following may be mentioned: Europe: History; Leacue or Nations; Locarno, PACT OF; SANCTIONS AND GUARANTEES; TACNA-ARICA; WORLD Court. BrstiocraApHy.—Among special treatises are: Kamarowsky, Le Tribunal international (traduit par Serge de Westman, 1887) ; Rouard de Card, Les Destinées de Varbitrage international, depuis la sentence rendue par le tribunal de Genéve ‘(1892) ; Michel Revon, L’ Arbitrage internatzonal (1892); Ferdinand Dreyfus, L’Arbitrage international (1894), (where the earlier authorities are collected); A. Merignhac, Traité de arbitrage international (1895); Le Chevalier Descamps, Essai sur POrganisation de Varbitrage international (1896); FeraudGiraud, Des Traités d’arbitrage international général et permanent, Revue de drott international (1897); Pasicrisie International, by Senator H. Lafontaine (1902) ; Recueils d'actes et protocols de la cour permanente Q Arbitrage, Langenhuysen Frères, the Hague. Of works in English the most important are J. B. Moore, History of the International Arbitrations to which the United States has been a@ Parity (1898). John Westlake’s paper in the Zuternational Journal of Ethics, Oct. 1896, which its author reprinted privately; W. Evans Darby,

International

Tribunals

(1900).

See also The British

Year

Book of International Law, current editions; Rapports du Conseil administratif de la Cour Permanente d’Arbitrage, current editions; W. H. Taft, The United States and Peace (1914); Sir T. Barclay, International Practice and Diplomacy, New Methods (1917); J. B. Scott, Une Cour de Justice Internationale (1918); M. Erzberger, League of Nations (Eng. trans., 1919) ; L. Oppenheim, The Future of

ARBOGAST—ARBORETUM

226 International

Law

(1921);

Lord

Bryce,

International

Relations

(1922); Documents for the Year 1024, International Conciliation (Carnegie Endowment, 1924); P. J. N. Baker, The Geneva Protocol

(1925); W. R. Bisschep, The Locarno Pact (Grotius Soc. trans. vol. xi, 1926). (M. H. C.; T. B.)

ARBOGAST

(died 394), a barbarian officer in the Roman

army at the end of the 4th century. His nationality is uncertain, but Zosimus, Eunapius and Sulpicius Alexander (a Gallo-Roman historian quoted by Gregory of Tours) all refer to him as a Frank. Having served with distinction against the Goths in Thrace, he was sent by Theodosius in 388 against Maximus, who had usurped the empire of the west and had murdered Gratian, and completely defeated him. Theodosius then appointed him chief minister for his young brother-in-law, Valentinian II. In 392, Valentinian died mysteriously at Vienne (in Gaul}; Arbogast named as his successor Eugenius, a rhetorician, and pro-

single trees to beautify public grounds, it has become the occasion

for impressing on the minds of school children the importance of

forestry and for the planting of thousands of seedling trees to reforest otherwise waste lands. The time of celebration varies jp

different States—sometimes even in different localities in the same State—but April or early May is the rule in the northern States,

and February, January and December are the months in the va. rious southern States. BIBLIÓCRAPHY.—See, Robert W. Furnas, Arbor Day (1888); N. Eggleston, Arbor Day: Its History and Observance (1896); R. H Schauffier

Day

(ed.) Arbor

Day

and Its Founder,”

(1909);

John Howard

vol. viii. p. 313-20

Brown,

Americana

“Arbor

(1923).

Lewis Charles Everard, Arbor Day, Its Purpose and Observance U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 1492 (1926); Arbor Ge, Fs Poeiry, compiled by Carnegie Library School Association 1926).

In May, 394, Theo-

ARBORETUM, a place where trees and shrubs are cultivated

dosius marched against him and defeated him at the battle of the Frigidus. Arbogast escaped to the mountains, where he committed suicide (Sept. 8 394). Arbogast appears to have been an energetic statesman and one of the greatest soldiers of the later empire.

for scientific, ornamental or other educational purposes; that por-

claimed himself the champion of paganism.

See T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders (1892), vol. i. chap. xi. and note at end.

ARBOIS, a town of eastern France, among the wine-growing northern foothills of the Jura, about 30m. S.S.W. of Besançon, in the department of Jura. Pop. (1926), 3,085. The church of St. Just, founded in the roth century, has a 16th-century belfry and good wood-carving. Two towers of the old walls remain, and there is a chateau of the dukes of Burgundy. A church of 1384 is used

as market-hall, At Arbois Pasteur spent most of his youth. The

red and white wines of the vicinity are famous.

ARBOIS DE JUBAINVILLE, MARIE HENRI D’ (1827—1910), French historian and philologist, was born at Nancy

Dec. 5 1827. In 1851 he left the École des Chartes with the degree of palaeographic archivist. He was placed in control of the departmental archives of Aube, and remained in that position until 1880, when he retired on a pension. Appointed in 1882 to the newly founded professorial chair of Celtic at the Collège de France, he began the Cours de littérature celtique which in 1908 extended to 12 volumes. For this he himself edited the following works: Zntroduction a Vétude de la littérature celtique (1883); L’Epopée cel-

tion of a botanical garden used for woody plants. There are many such collections of hardy plants in cities and private parks. Rich men often spare neither pains nor money to get important collections to adorn their estates, many of which have later beep given to cities to be used as public parks. When properly maintained they make creditable arboretums. The modern arboretums

contain plants as specimens or collections arranged according to

some definite method—it may be systematic relationships, or commercial uses, or perhaps, to show ecological adaptations. The entire field of possibilities is seldom covered by any one arboretum, but each one specializes in a few projects for which it is particu. larly equipped or well situated.

As early as the middle of the 16th century René du Bellay of Touvoys, France, in co-operation with Pierre Belon made a good collection of trees and brought into France seeds of exotic species from western Asia. This collection long remained the richest and most beautiful in France or perhaps the world. About 1720,

Duhamel du Monceau, head of the French Marine, and a scientist, gathered plants from all over Europe and North America to plant on his two estates. The plants were classified, arranged and planted in a methodical manner resulting in what might be called the first arboretum made with scientific purposes. From his experience with the collection, du Mongeau wrote and published in 1755 a book on characteristics and cultivation of trees and shrubs. tique en Irlande (1892); Études sur le droit celtique (1895); and This collection of plants and the publication had a great influence Les principaux auteurs de Vantiquité à consulter sur Vhistoire des on study and early distribution of imported plant species. Many Celtes (1902). of these imported types can still be found in France. He was among the first in France to enter upon the study of the One of the most complete arboretums in the world is that at most ancient monuments of Irish literature with a solid philo- Kew, England, in the Royal Botanical Gardens. It had its beginlogical preparation and without empty prejudices. We owe to him nings as far back as 1762 though it was not thrown open to the also Les Celtes depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu’a Pan r00 public until 1841. To the latter date the ground, not exceeding avant notre ère (1904); a study of comparative law in La Famille rrac., had been held as a private estate by members of the royal celtigue (1905); Recherches sur Vorigine de la propriété foncière family. In 1845 the pleasure grounds and Royal Gardens at Kew, (1890). He died in Feb. rgtro. occupied by the king of Hanover, were given to the nation and ARBON, a town of Switzerland, on the Lake of Constance placed under the care of Sir William Hooker for the purpose of 18m. S.E. of Konstanz. Pop. (1844) 660; (1925) about 10,000. establishing an arboretum. Hooker and his son, Sir Joseph, kept The name comes from the Latin Arbor Felix. It has Neolithic pile- steadily at the task until the gardens and arboretum were among dwellings and a castle begun in the 4th century. Linen manufac- the finest and most complete in the world. The arboretum moture began in the 18th century and cotton followed in the xoth. nopolizes a large portion of the entire garden (288ac.) with trees Motor-cars are also made. and shrubs representing some 4,500 species and varieties. In adARBOR DAY, the name applied to an annual tree-planting dition to the arboretum at Kew, important collections of trees and day generally observed throughout the United States. It origi- shrubs in Great Britain are those at the Royal Botanic Gardens nated in Nebraska, where it was first observed on April 10, 1872. in Edinburgh and at the Glasnevin Garden in Dublin, and a small The plan of devoting a certain day each year to the public plant- select collection at Oxford. On the continent of Europe the clasing of trees and the name Arbor Day were proposed by J. Sterling sical example is the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. Here the gardens Morton, then a member of the State board of agriculture and later are very formal and make a striking effect. U.S. secretary of agriculture. In 1885 Arbor Day was made a In the United States the Arnold arboretum at Boston ranks legal holiday in Nebraska, and since that date about a third of the with Kew in size and completeness. This institution had its beStates have made similar enactments. At first the efforts to ex- ginnings in 1869 when James Arnold left in trust $100,000 to be tend its celebration were made chiefly through agricultural asso- used for the promotion of agriculture or horticulture. Through ciations and town authorities, but about 1882 the plan of making an agreement made with Harvard college officials in 1872, the it a school festival was inaugurated. As such, the observance of Arnold bequest was used together with a 12s5ac. tract of land, beArbor Day has spread throughout the United States and far be- queathed by Benjamin Bussey, for the establishment of a tree yond its borders. Moreover, its scope and purpose have been garden. Charles Sprague Sargent was made the first director. He greatly broadened. From simple exercises and the planting of held the position until his death in 1927. During this time he .

ARBORICULTURE made a notable arboretum, the best in the United States and

ranking favourably with the best in the world. Sargent left $r0,ooo to the Arnold arboretum to be used with accumulated interest

200 years hence, at which time it will amount to millions of dollars. Its 260ac. are planted with 6,536 species and warieties

of trees, shrubs and vines belonging to 339 genera. Of these, 2,418 species or varieties are exotic, coming particularly from Japan, China, Siberia and the Himalayas. The Arnold arboretum by agreement is a part of the regular park system of Boston, but, being under the management of a great university like Harvard,

227

nomic plants and, like the pathologist, tries to find ways to exterminate or control the pests. The ecologist studies the habitats and environmental effects on plants, ever trying to find ideal conditions which would insure their maximum development. The plant propagator specializes in the multiplication of plants by means of seeds, cuttings or grafting. It is his problem to find the best and most economical methods to multiply valuable plants. If plants do not come true from seed, as is the case with varieties

and hybrids, he must work out methods for vegetative propaga-

tion.

(P. W.

Z.)

it has an aspect differing entirely from an ordinary park. GENERAL PRACTICE Among the other most outstanding arboretums in the United In arboriculture the cultivator’s aim is to produce specimen States are the Missouri Botanical garden in St. Louis, Mo., the Morton arboretum near Chicago, Il., and the Hilland gardens in trees with fine trunks carrying evenly balanced heads of well deRochester, New York. Three million dollars have been appropri- veloped branches, whereas in silviculture well-grown trunks free

ated for the establishment of the Boyce Thompson arboretum in

connection with the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Yonkers, New York. The Boyce Thompson arboretum combines a large collection of trees and shrubs with a great plant

research institute thus utilizing the greatest range of possibilities of an arboretum. The National arboretum at Washington, D.C., has received an appropriation of $300,000 from the Government

for the purchase of lands. Further appropriations will be given for buildings and maintenance as the needs arise. It will be a

laboratory for the plant scientists of the U.S. department of

agriculture. The California Botanical garden at Los Angeles, Calif., has received a gift of 2,000ac. of land, part of which will be used for the arboretum and part of which can be sold for capital and maintenance. The tendency of recent times is to manage arboretums so as

to make them serviceable to the people. To serve most people an arboretum must have a scientific, an economic and a cultural as-

pect. On the scientific side the arboretum furnishes all types of hardy plants for the systematic botanist, the plant pathologist, the plant physiologist, the plant-breeder and the entomologist. From this will come a thorough study of diseases and rational control measures; a better knowledge of soil requirements and cultural methods; many new plant hybrids from controlled cross-breeding ; and new methods of combating insect pests. The nurserymen and horticulturists look upon an arboretum as a place where plants are tested and displayed for the purpose of showing their economic possibilities. In this way the forester selects the species which fulfil specific needs for paper pulp, trees for hardwood lumber, etc. The nurserymen select from the arboretum species that they can fit into the landscape for the increasing demands of the public. Lastly, the public in general looks upon an arboretum as an unusually fine park, a place to go when in need of peaceful rest and a place that offers a chance to increase one’s knowledge about nature. (See also Botanic GARDEN, Forestry and Hortt-

CULTURE. )

(P. W. Z.)

ARBORICULTURE, the scientific management of trees

(Lat. arbor, a tree). In its broadest sense arboriculture includes that part of horticulture which deals with selection and cultivation of ornamental and fruit trees and shrubs and that part of

forestry known as silviculture. Because of its broad meaning the word arboriculture is seldom used in practice. More specific meanings can be conveyed by such words as pomology which means the scientific cultivation of fruit trees or silviculture which means the scientific management of trees for commercial timber purposes. The growing of woody plants for educational and scientific purposes has been practised since the middle of the 16th century when a collection of trees was made at Touvoys in France by René du Bellay. Many of the different phases of arboriculture have received particular attention from scientists and there are specialists in different fields; e.g., systematic relationships, diseases of trees and shrubs, insect pests, pruning of trees and shrubs, soil management, ecology and propagation. The systematists classify plants according to likes and unlikes,

placing them in their proper genera and families. The pathologist studies diseases of plants and works out rațional control meas-

ures. The entomologist is interested in insects that feed on eco-

from branches, produced in the shortest possible space of time, are the first requirement, and the minimum branch area only is tolerated that will keep a tree in good health and help in provid-

ing the necessary food required to build up the trunk.

Isolated,

the one is seen as a handsome specimen, the other as a gaunt trunk bearing meagre branches about the upper part. Further, in arboriculture trees are widely spaced in order to facilitate branch development and display, but in silviculture they are grown close together so as to suppress side branches, encourage height growth, and to obtain the largest possible quantity of timber from the area on which they stand. However, there are common grounds on which the two sections meet and function together. The best marked instances are park and hedgerow trees which are grown partly for decorative purposes and partly for profit. Such trees are often allowed to form large heads of branches but they are usually felled at the time of their greatest commercial value. Propagation and Pruning.—Arboriculture may be regarded from many different standpoints. The scientist considers it from the point of view of collections of different kinds of trees drawn together from many parts of the world for the purpose of study. The owner of a large estate practises it in connection with the amenities of his property; the ordinary householder in connection with the adornment of his garden; municipal and county council authorities as a means of beautifying the parks, gardens, streets and roads under their control, and so on. However, in whichever way arboriculture may be practised there are certain fundamental operations. Of these propagation is one. There are many methods of propagation. Some trees are raised from seeds; others from cuttings, grafts or layers. In some instances a tree may succeed quite well if propagated by one of two or three methods, but there are others that must be raised by one and one only of the several means if the best results are required. Propagation must be followed in most cases by one or more years in nursery quarters, where, by careful attention and training the foundation for the future tree is laid. Pruning constitutes a very important item in this early training. A tree must be encouraged to develop with a single strong leading shoot. Branches are very liable to develop at the expense of the leading shoot. If side branches are suppressed or removed too rapidly there is a tendency for the tree to become spindly and unable to support its own weight, therefore pruning is so directed that the correct balance is maintained between the main axis and leaf-bearing branches, by first shortening and later on very gradually removing side branches. Root pruning is also practised during the nursery period. This is done by biennial transplanting. At that time long roots are shortened to encourage fibrous roots, for the more fibrous roots a tree possesses, the better is it likely to re-establish itself when removed from the nursery to a permanent position. Trees may sometimes be transferred to permanent positions when no more than two or three years old and a foot or two in height, or they may be allowed to remain many years,

Street and avenue trees are often allowed to remain

in nursery quarters until they are eight or 10 years old and 15 to

r8ft. high. Some kinds of trees cannot be transplanted successfully after they have attained a height of 3ft. or 4ft. Pines succeed very much better if they are planted in permanent positions

when less than 1ft. high, As a rule deciduous trees transplant a=

228

ARBOR VITAE—ARBOS

better than evergreens after they have attained a height of several

Street Plantings.—Too little thought is given to trees planted

feet. in streets and by the sides of roads, yet they have a very great Securing Vertical Growth.—Trees that are growing in open bearing upon the amenities of towns and the countryside positions have a very decided tendency to develop in a lateral Trees should not be planted in very narrow streets and roads: rather than vertical direction and to counteract this defect it is they are in the way, are often injured by traffic, and their branches necessary to shorten and sometimes remove side branches. Trees must be constantly cut back to keep them within bounds. Where should be pruned every second year until such a time as a single, gardens adjoin narrow roads it is better to encourage the owners strong leading shoot is keeping well in advance of side branches. to plant small trees in their gardens in order that they may over.

After that less frequent pruning may be required. For a considerable time, however, it will be necessary to remove the lower branches now and then. Once the trees have attained the desired height branch development may be allowed to go on unchecked. In the case of old trees it is often necessary to remove one or more lower branches to balance the tree or lift the lower branches from the ground in order to disclose distant objects, open out vistas, or expose the trunk, for in some instances a view of the trunk adds very materially to the effectiveness of the tree. The removal of dead and broken branches from old trees is a very necessary practice in arboriculture. When dead branches are allowed to remain on the trees they are not only a source of danger to living parts but to other trees and dangerous living branches should also be shortened or cut off. When the higher branches of trees such as oaks or elms die, the tree may often be rejuvenated by lowering the whole head to a point well below the dead part. With care the contour of the head can be left rather similar to the original, and in the course of a few years new branches will be formed, which will effectively hide the wounds and form a new head. Whether branches are removed from young or old trees they should, whenever possible, be removed in a line parallel with the bark of the trunk. A wound formed in this manner is almost sure to heal well but should only a short snag be left it will not heal properly. All wounds must be covered with a coat of coal-tar or some other antiseptic and protective substance as soon as made. Where cavities of dead wood occur in trees they should be cleaned out, as much as possible of the dead wood removed, the surface painted with a strong solution of carbolic acid, and afterwards with coal-tar if possible. The cavity should then be built up with cement, concrete or asphalt, the surface being so finished that water will be thrown off. Ivy should not be allowed to encircle young trees but there is little use in removing it from old and fully matured trees. In some instances it may even help to support decaying trees and is certainly effective during winter. Pruning may be carried out during summer, autumn or early winter. Botanical Grouping.—When arboriculture is practised for scientific purposes it is a good plan to arrange the trees in botanical sequence, placing the species of each genus together and allowing the related genera to follow each other. Soil conditions may not always allow this; then digressions must be made. More than one tree of each kind should be planted and they should be allowed enough space to develop to their full size. This will probably necessitate nurse trees being planted between the permanent examples, which can be removed as occasion warrants. Proper records must be kept of all collection trees, whence obtained, when planted, height and condition when planted and any other pertinent matters. They must also be properly labelled. Garden Plantings—When trees are planted for decorative purposes care must be taken to select kinds suitable for the available positions and they must be given ample space for their full development. Conifers should not upon any account be chosen for gardens in or about manufacturing towns where the atmosphere is heavily smoke-laden, or impure through chemical fumes. Deciduous trees give better results, but they must be very carefully chosen for such places. When the atmospheric conditions are fairly clear of impurities and the soil is good, almost any hardy tree will thrive. Ericaceous plants, arbutuses, rhododendrons and the like, however, do not thrive where lime is present in the soil to any appreciable extent. For public parks arboriculture should take an educational form; trees suitable for the neighbo urhood should be planted and given every chance of developing into fine specimens, in order that residents in the neighbourhood may make a choice of those suitable for their own gardens.

hang the footpath, rather than plant trees on the sidewalk. Jy wide streets trees can be used with very great advantage. Even

in such positions, however, they are often planted too close to. gether and it is doubtful whether upon any occasion they need be spaced closer than 6oft. Close planting results in severe pruning

and it is wise to avoid heavy pruning as much as possible. In the past, street and road trees have had a great deal to contend with by the presence of water and gas-pipes, etc., laid near the roots Each time one of the services requires attention the roots of the trees are injured and very often premature death of the trees can be traced to such injury. New roads should be provided with proper accommodation

for such services in order that injury to

the trees may be avoided. Care is necessary in selecting the right kinds of trees for definite soils and positions, and vigorous trees should be specially prepared for the purpose. Park, hedgerow and cop-

pice trees should either be native trees or such exotics as will

harmonize with native trees.

Kinds with variegated foliage for

instance are more in place within the confines of the garden than planted in association with common species. (See also ARBORETUM, TREE PLANTING.) (W. D.)

ARBOR VITAE (Tree of Life), a name given by Clusius to

species of Thuja. The name Thuja was adopted by Linnaeus from the Thuya of Tournefort and seems to be derived from the Greek word @vos, signifying sacrifice, probably because the resin

procured from the plant was used as incense. The plants belong to the family Coniferae, tribe Cupressineae (Cypresses). Thuja occidentalis is the Western or American arbor vitae, the

Cupressus Arbor Vitae of old authors. It is a native of North America, and ranges from Canada to the mountains of Virginia and Carolina. It is a moderate-sized tree, and was introduced into Britain before 1597, when it was mentioned in Gerard’s Herbal, In its native country it attains a height of about soft. The leaves are small and imbricate, and are borne on flattened branches, which are apt to be mistaken for the leaves. When bruised the leaves give out an aromatic odour. The flowers appear early in spring, and the fruit is ripened about the end of September. In Britain the plant is a hardy evergreen, and can only be looked upon as a large shrub or low tree. It is often cut so as to form hedges in gardens. The wood is very durable and useful for out-

door work, such as fencing, posts, etc. Another species of arbor vitae is Thuja orientalis, known also as Biota orientalis. ‘The latter generic name is derived from the Greek adjective Buwrés, formed from Bios, life, probably in connection with the name “tree of life.” This is the Eastern or Chinese arbor vitae. It is a native of China. It was cultivated in the Chelsea Physic Garden in 1752, and was believed to have been sent to Europe by French missionaries. It has roundish cones, with numerous scales and wingless seeds. The leaves, which have a pungent aromatic odour, are said to yield a yellow dye. There are numerous varieties of this plant in cultivation, one of the most remarkable being pendula, with long, flexible, hanging, cord-like branches. The variety pygmaea forms a small bush a few inches high.

ARBOS, E. FERNANDEZ

(1863-

), Spanish violinist

and composer, was born in Madrid and trained at the conservatoire there, and later at Brussels and at Berlin under Joachim. He became a professor at Hamburg and then at Madrid, becoming known meanwhile as one of the finest violinists of the day; and after visiting England in 1890 and establishing his reputation there he became professor at the Royal College of Music in London. In 1908 he returned to Spain and became conductor of the symphony orchestra of Madrid.

As a composer he is best known

€ Te uae pieces„and by a comic opera, El Centro de la Tierra 1895).

ARBOUR—ARBUTUS ARBOUR,

originally “herber” or “erber”

229

(O.Fr. herbier,

versity College, Oxford. He was graduated M.D. at St. Andrews in 1696. His papers on mathematical subjects, notably an Essay the word came to be spelt “arber” through its pronunciation, as on the Usefulness of Mathematical Learning (1701), brought him in the case of Derby, and by the 16th century was written “ar- an F.R.S. He became a fashionable physician, and later became bour,” helped by a confusion of derivation from Lat. arbor, a royal physician in ordinary to Queen Anne; but his memory lives tree, and by change of meaning. A grass-plot or lawn, a herb- for the wit and varied learning which made him the chosen friend garden and a shady bower of interlaced trees, or climbing plants and counsellor of Swift and Pope, and for his genius as a Tory trained on lattice-work. The application of the word has shifted pamphleteer. Arbuthnot fixed the popular conception of John from the grass-covered ground to the covering of trees overhead. Bull, though he did not invent the character, in the five tracts “Arbor” is a term applied to the spindle of a wheel, particularly printed as “The History of John Bull” in Miscellanies in Prose and in clock-making. Verse (1727), the preface to which is signed by Pope and Swift. ARBROATH or AsersrotHock, royal, municipal, and police Arbuthnot was one of the leading spirits in the Scriblerus Club, burgh and seaport, Forfarshire (Angus), Scotland, at the mouth of whose members were to collaborate in a universal satire on the Brothock water, 17m. N.E. of Dundee by the L.N.E.R. Pop. abuses of learning. The Memoirs of the extraordinary Life, (1931) 17,637. The town is under provost, bailies, and council, Works, and Discoveries of Martinus Scriblerus, of which only the and, with Brechin, Forfar, Bervie, and Montrose, returns one first book was finished, first printed in Pope’s Works (1741), was member to parliament. It makes sailcloth, canvas, and coarse chiefly the work of Arbuthnot, who is at his best in the whimsical linens, boots and shoes, spins flax, tans, bleaches, works in iron, account of the birth and education of Martin. Swift, writing on builds ships, and has fisheries. The harbour, originally constructed July 3 1714 to Arbuthnot, says: “To talk of Martin in any hands and maintained by the abbots, by an agreement between the bur- but yours, is a folly. You every day give better hints than all of gesses and John Gedy the abbot in 1394, was enlarged in 1725 and us together could do in a twelvemonth: and to say the truth,

from Lat. herbarium, “‘a collection of herbs,” herba, “grass”);

1844 and the old part made into a wet dock (1877) when the entrance to the new harbour was deepened. A signal tower, soft. high, communicates with the Bell Rock (q.v.) lighthouse on the Inchcape Rock, 12m. S.E. The parish church dates from 1570, but has been much altered, and the spire was added in 1831.

Hospitalfield, 4m. E., once the abbey hospice, and the “Monksbarn” of Scott’s Antiguary, is now an art school with a collection of Scottish art. The ruins of the abbey, once one of the richest

in Scotland, stand in High street. It was founded Lion in 1178 for Tironensian Benedictines from secrated in 1197, being dedicated to St. Thomas the king had met at the English court. It was

by William the Kelso, and conBecket, whom William’s only

personal foundation, and he was buried within its precincts in 1214. Its style is mainly Early English, the western gable Norman. The cruciform church measured 276ft. long by 16oft. wide. Here parliament met on April 6th, 1320 to send the pope the notable letter, asserting the independence of their country and reciting in eloquent terms the services which their “lord and sovereign” Robert Bruce had rendered to Scotland. Arbroath was created a royal burgh in 1186, and its charter of 15909 is preserved. King John exempted it from “toll and custom” in every part of England excepting London. Arbroath is “Fairport” of Scott’s Antiguary. Auchmithie, 3m. N.E. (‘“Musselcrag” of the same romance), is an old-fashioned fishing village in picturesque coast scenery. At the 14th-century church of St. Vigeans, ım. N. of Arbroath, stands one of the most interesting of the sculptured stones of Scotland, thought to be the only legible Pictish inscription. The parish—originally called Aberbrothock and now incorporated with Arbroath for administrative purposes —takes its name from a saint or hermit whose chapel was situated at Grange of Conon, 34m. N.W. Two miles west by south are the stone quarries of Carmyllie. ARBUTHNOT, ALEXANDER (1538-1583), Scottish ecclesiastic and poet, educated at St. Andrews and Bourges, was principal of King’s College, Aberdeen, from 1569 until his death. His extant works are (a) three poems, “The Praises of Wemen” (224 lines), “On Luve” (ro lines), and “The Miseries of a Pure Scholar” (189 lines), and (b) a Latin account of the Arbuthnot family, Originis et Incrementi Arbuthnoticae Familiae Descriptio

Historica (still in ms.), of which an English continuation, by the

father of Dr. John Arbuthnot, is preserved in the Advocates’ Library, Edinburgh.

_ The particulars of Arbuthnot’s life are found in Calderwood, Spot-

tiswood, and other Church historians, and in Scott’s Fasti Ecclesiae Scoticanae. The poems are printed in Pinkerton’s Ancient Scottish

Poems (1786), i. pp. 138-155.

ARBUTHNOT, JOHN (1667-1735), British physician and wit, the friend of Swift and Pope, was born at Arbuthnot, Kincardineshire. The son of an episcopalian minister who had been deprived of his living, he supported himself for some time in

London by teaching mathematics, and then in 1692 entered Uni-

Pope who first thought of the hint has no genius at all to it, to my mind; Gay is too young; Parnell has some ideas of it, but is idle; I could put together, and lard, and strike out well enough, but all that relates to the sciences must be from you.” The death of Queen Anne put an end to Arbuthnot’s position at court, but he still had an extensive practice. Lord Chesterfield and William Pulteney were his patients and friends; also Mrs. Howard (Lady Suffolk) and William Congreve. His friendship with Swift was constant and intimate; he was friend and adviser to Gay; and Pope wrote (Aug. 2 1734) that in a friendship of twenty years he had found no one reason of complaint from him. Arbuthnot’s youngest son died in Dec. 1731. He never quite recovered his former spirits and health after this shock. On July 17 1734 he wrote to Pope: “A recovery in my case, and at my age, is impossible; the kindest wish of my friends is Euthanasia.” In Jan. 1735 was published the “Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot,” which forms the prologue to Pope’s satires. He died on Feb. 27 1735 at his house in Cork Street, London. The Miscellaneous Works of the late Dr. Arbuthnot were published at Glasgow in an unauthorized edition in 1751. This includes many spurious pieces. See also The Life and Works of John Arbuthnot (1892), by George A. Aitken.

ARBUTUS, a genus of evergreen trees or shrubs of the heath family (Ericaceae) characterized by smooth, red, exfoliating bark, handsome foliage, showy flowers in terminal clusters and attractive, berry-like red fruit. There are about 20 species, found chiefly in the Mediterranean region, Central America and western North America. In mild climates several species of Arbutus are planted for their beautiful foliage, flowers and fruit. Of these, the best known is the strawberry tree (A. Unedo), a native of southern Europe and Ireland. The Madrofia (A. Menziesii), an elegant tree of the west coast of North America, is sparingly transplanted. The trailing arbutus (g.v.), or mayflower, of eastern North America, belongs to a different genus (Epigaea) of the heath family.

ARBUTUS,

TRAILING

(Zpigaea repens), a fragrant,

flowering plant of the heath family (Ericaceae), also called mayflower, common in rocky woods and on hillsides from Maine to Florida and westward to Minnesota. It appears as early as April, while the snow still lingers, and is eagerly sought as one of the first signs of spring; in regions near towns it is often stripped from the woods by ruthless persons and also sold on street corners. The plant stems are tough and sturdy, rough-hairy, and creep close to the ground under the dead leaves of the preceding season. The old leaves are rusty, dull green and heavily mid-veined. New leaves develop in June, rough in texture with fine netted veins and paler on the lower surface than on the upper. The tiny nectar-bearing flowers, which exist in four

forms (see C. Darwin, Forms of Flowers), are white to pale pink and delicately scented, five-lobed and tubular, and grow on stems 6 to 12in. in length.

ARC—ARCADIA

JE i te

BY COURTESY OF BURLMANN, “CLASSIC AND RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE” (NEFF AND HELBURN): BENOIT, “ARCHITECTURE DE L'ORIENT (RENOUARD); “LE LOUVRE GARDNER, “GUIDE TO ENGLISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE” ET LES TUILERIES” (MORANCE); (CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS); MAYER, “ARCHITECTURE AND APPLIED ARTS IN OLD SPAIN” (DELPHIN); “CALLI (ONGANIA); VIOLLET-LE-DUC, “DICTIONNAIRE RAISONNÉ DE L'ARCHITECTURE E CANALI DI VENEZIA” FRANÇAISE; ARCHITECTURAL FORUM; VITRY, “HOTELS ET MAISONS DE LA RENAISSANCE FRANCAISE” (LEVY)

B AND C, ROMAN; D, BYZANTINE; F, L AND M, ROMANESQUE; (M, AN INTERLACING ARCADE); A, G, K, AND R, GOTHIC; A, HOTEL DE VILLE, S. QUENTIN; K, DOGE'S PALACE, VENICE; R, HOUSE OF JACQUES COEUR AT BOURGES; H, MOORISH (MOSQUE AT CORDOVA): O, P AND Q, ITALIAN RENAISSANCE; N. FRENCH RENAISSANCE; E, 19TH-CENTURY FRENCH (NOUVEAU LOUVRE, PARIS); J, MODERN AMERICAN (HOTEL SHELTON, NEW YORK, A. L. HARMON, ARCHITECT); F, L AND M ARE PURELY DECORATIVE, ALL OTHER EXAMPLES ARE STRUCTURAL

ARC, ELECTRIC: see Licutinc. ARCACHON, town and bathing-resort, south-west France,

in the department of Gironde, 37m. W.S.W. of Bordeaux on the

Southern railway. Pop. (1926) 11,724. It is situated on the south shore of a large bay, the Bassin d'Arcachon, at the foot of pine-clad dunes. The summer town, extending for 24m. along the shore, has a sandy beach, frequented by bathers; the winter town, farther inland, is a climatic station among the pine woods.

ARCADE, in architecture, a series of arches assembled in a

single composition, particularly when the arches are of approximately the same size and placed upon the same level. Arcades are used structurally as in the arcade between the nave and aisles of a church, which supports the clerestorey wall and the nave roof. They are also used, purely decoratively, where a band of horizontal decoration is required. Although the arch was known to many of the peoples of antiquity, it was the Romans who first appreciated its decorative possibilities and who made it, again and again, a dominant feature of great architectural importance, as in the Tabularium (g.v.) and in any Roman amphitheatre. An arcade, such as those used by the Romans, with the front face of each pier ornamented bya pilaster or engaged column that carries an entablature running over the tops of the arches, is known as a Roman arcade, and was a favourite motive of the Renaissance . During the late Empire, the Romans started to build arcades whose arches were carried directly upon the capitals of a range of columns (¢.g., the great court of the palace of Diocletian at Spalatro), and during the Romanesque and Gothic periods this became the normal type, although in the Byzantine work of eastern empire, spreading blocks, known as impost blocks, the were often placed between the capitals and the arches. Arcades were used decoratively, to a great extent, in north Italian Romanesque. Some fronts, such as that of the cathedral at Pisa, consist entirely of rows of freestanding arcades. In the mediaeval architecture outside Italy (except for the Romanesque eourches on the Rhine, where Italian influence is strong) deco-

rative arcades were almost always actual parts of the wall and are

known as wall arcades. Interlacing arcades are those in which every arch spans the space, not to the adjacent support, but to one of those beyond. All of the arches are of the same size and, therefore, apparently overlap or intersect each other. They form a favourite motive for the decoration of walls, both exterior and interior, in the Romanesque work of northern Europe generally and the Gothic of England. The word arcade is also used, at the present time, to designate any covered passageway on which shops open. (T. F. H.)

ARCADELT

or ARCHADELT,

JACOB

(c. rsu-

c. 1575), celebrated Nethetlands composer, who lived and worked

chiefly in Italy. Among his numerous compositions five books of madrigals, published at Venice, probably gave a great stimulus to the beginnings of the Venetian school of composition. After 1555 he published three volumes of masses, besides contributing motets to various collections.

ARCADIA, in Greece, the central district of Peloponnesus.

Shut off from the coast on all sides by mountain barriers (in the north Erymanthus [mod. Olonos] rises to 7,400ft., and Cyllene [Ziria] to 7,900ft.; in the south Parthenium and Lycaeum exceed 5,000ft.) this inland plateau is again divided by numerous subsidiary ranges. In east Arcadia these enclose a series of plains drained only by underground channels or zerethra. The west country is more open, with isolated mountain-groups and the winding valleys of the Alpheus (g.v.) and its tributaries the Ladon and

Erymanthus. The ancient inhabitants were shepherds and hunters,

worshipping Pan, Hermes and Artemis, primitive nature-deities.

The difficulties of communication and especially the lack of a sea-

board seriously hindered intercourse with the rest of Greece. Consequently the same population held the land throughout historic

times, without admixture of Dorian immigrants, the dialect maintaining a peculiar resemblance to that of Cyprus. Arcadia was weak owing to chronic feuds between the towns. Its fortunes in Greek history turned on its position between Sparta and the

ARCADIUS—ARCH Isthmus. Unable to force their way through Argolis, the Spartans

early set. themselves to secure the passage through the central plateau. The resistance of single cities, and the temporary union of the Arcadians during the second Messenian war, did not defer complete subjugation past the 6th century. In 469 and again in 420 disaffected cities, backed by Argos, came near to establishing their independence. In 371, after the battle of Leuctra, a political league grew out of an old religious synod, and a federal capital was founded in a commanding strategic position at Megal-

23I

ARCA MUSARITHMICA, an instrument or machine for

the composing of music mechanically, by the arranging and combining of notes according to rule in various ways ; described by Athanasius Kircher in his Musurgia universalis, Rome, 1660. Samuel Pepys possessed such a “composition box,” which is still to be seen in the Pepys library at Magdalene college, Cambridge.

ARCESILAUS

(316-241 3.c.), Athenian philosopher and

founder of the New, or Middle, Academy (see ACADEMY, GREEK). opolis (g.v.). But a severe defeat by Sparta in 368 (the “tearless His doctrines, which must be gathered from the writings of others battle”) and internal discord paralysed this movement. Megalop- (Cicero, Acad., i. 12, iv. 24; De Orat., iii. 18; Diogenes Laertius olis accentuated mutual jealousy. During the Hellenistic age iv. 28; Sextus Empiricus, Adv. Math., vii. 150, Pyrrh. Hyp. i. Megalopolis stood staunchly by Macedonia; the rest of Arcadia 233), represent an attack on the Stoic ¢avracta xaradnrrexh rebelled against Antipater (330, 323) and Antigonus Gonatas (Criterion). He held that strength of intellectual conviction can(266). Similarly the cities divided their allegiance between the not be regarded as valid. The uncertainty of sensible data applies Achaean and the Aetolian Leagues, and fell a prey to Sparta and equally to the conclusions of reason, and therefore man must be Macedonia. In Roman times Arcadia had fallen into decay. An content with probability which is sufficient as a practical guide. influx of Slavonic settlers in the 8th century a.p. checked depopu- “We know nothing, not even our ignorance’; therefore the wise lation, but Arcadia suffered severely from the constant quarrels of man will be content with an agnostic attitude. its Frankish barons (1205-1460). Turkish rule, combined with BrstrocGRaPHy.—See R. Brodeisen, De Arcesila philosopho (1821); Albanian immigration, raised the prosperity of the land, but in the Wars of Independence the strategic importance of Arcadia once more made it a centre of conflict. The population remains sparse, and pending complete restoration of the water conduits

Aug. Geffers, De Arcesila (1842); Ritter and Preller, Hist. philos. graec. (1898); Ed. Zeller, Phil. d. Griech. (ii. 1448}; and general works under SCEPTICISM. .

the soil is unproductive.

of the National Agricultural Labourers’ Union, was born at Barford, a village in Warwickshire, Nov. ro 1826, and died there Feb. 12 1919. He founded, in 1872, the National Agricultural Labourers’ Union, of which he was president. Temporary rises in wages were secured, but the farmers were able within 18 months to break up the union. Arch was returned to Parliament for north-west Norfolk in 1885, and although defeated next year owing to his advocacy of Irish home rule, he regained his seat in 1892, and held it in 1895, retiring in 1900. He was deservedly

The modern department of Arcadia ex-

tends to the Gulf of Nauplia, with a sea-coast of about 40 miles. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Strabo, pp. 388 sq.; Pausanias viii.; W. M. Leake, Travels in the Morea (London, 1830), chs. iii., iv., xi—xvili., xxiii-xxvi.; E. Curtius, Peloponnesos (Gotha, 1851), i. 153-178; H. F. Tozer, Geography of Greece (London, 1873), pp. 287-292; E. A. Freeman, Federal Government (ed, 1893, London), ch. iv. § 3; B. V. Head, Historia Numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 372-373; B. Niese in Hermes

(1899), pp. 520 f.; Pauly-Wissowa

(s.v.).

ARCADIUS (378-408), Roman emperor, the elder son of Theodosius the Great, was created Augustus in 383, and succeeded his father in 395. The empire was divided between him and his brother Honorius, Honorius governing the two western prefectures (Gaul and Italy), and Arcadius the two eastern (the Orient and Illyricum). There was estrangement between the two governments throughout the reign of Arcadius. Honorius’s general Stilicho (q.v.), was always on the watch to annex the prefecture of Illyricum. Arcadius was guided at first by the praetorian prefect Rufinus, and, after his murder, probably instigated by Stilicho (end of 395), by the eunuch Eutropius (executed end of 399). His wife Eudoxia (daughter of a Frank general, Bauto), had great influence over him; she died in 404. In the last years of his reign, Anthemius (praetorian prefect) was his minister. In 395-06 the West Goths, under Alaric, ravaged Greece. In 399-400 the Gothic General Gainas, with the aid of partisans in Constantinople, tried to set up a German domination. But he fell after having held the city for six months, and the German danger was averted from the east. The banishment in 404 of John Chrysostom (q.v.), patriarch of Constantinople, who had offended the empress and quarreled with the bishop of Alexandria, was important, as determining the supremacy of the emperor to the patriarch. AuTHoritres.—Ancient: Fragments of Eunapius and Olympiodorus (in Miiller’s Fragmenta Histaricorum Graecarum, vol. IV.); fragments of Philostorgius, Socrates, Sozomen, Zosimus, Synesius of Cyrene (“The Egyptian”), Claudian. Modern: Gibbon’s Decline and Fall, vol. III., ed. Bury; J. B. Bury, Later Roman Empire (395-565) (1923), chap. v.; T. Hodgkin, Italy and her invaders, vol. 2nd ed. (1892); Güldenpenning, Geschichte des ostrOmischen

dosius II. (1885).

Reiches

unter

den Kaisern

Arcadius

und

Theo-

ARCADIUS, of Antioch, Greck grammarian, flourished in

the 2nd century A.D. According to Suidas, he wrote treatises on orthography and syntax, and an onomasticon (vocabulary). An

epitome of Herodian’s work on general prosody, wrongly attributed to Arcadius, is probably the work of Theodosius of Alexandria or

a grammarian named Aristodemus. The zoth book of this epitome is the work of a forger of the 16th century. See text by Barker, 1823; Schmidt, 1860; see also Galland, De Arcadii qui fertur libro de accentibus (1882), and Cohn in Paulyissowa s.v. Arkadios.

ARCH, JOSEPH

(1826-1919), English politician, founder

respected in the House of Commons. A biography written by himself, or under his direction, and edited

by Lady Warwick (1898), tells the story of his career.

ARCH, any combination of blocks of building material, generally wedge-shaped ‘and with radial joints, employed to cap an opening wider than any of the blocks themselves capping it. In form, arches are usually, though not always, built with the soffit (g.v.) following a curved line. By extension, the word arch is used for any curved head of an opening or recess, even when the material is homogeneous, as in a concrete arch. From the use of arch forms, to bridge the spaces between the beams in early fireproof construction, the word arch is employed technically for any structure between steel beams, even when the structure may be of reinforced concrete, and, therefore, theoretically a beam, and not an arch at all. In the normal arch, the inside face or soffit is known as the intrados, the outside face as the extrados, the wedge-shaped blocks as voussoirs, the centre voussoir as the keystone and the two end voussoirs as the springers. The spring of the arch is the level of the bottom of the springers, which usually coincides with the beginning of the curvature, but a stilted arch is one in which the apparent spring is well below this beginning. The haunches of an arch are the parts between keystone and springer. A continuous arch, such as a tunnel, is known as a vault. Due to the nature of its construction, with wedge-shaped blocks, any arch exerts at its spring, not only a downward weight, but a tendency to spread, which is known as thrust, and for the arch to remain stable it is necessary for this thrust to be resisted adequately by abutments, buttresses or the strength of the wall itself in which the arch is placed. This quality of exerting thrust has profoundly affected architecture (see Burtress, Fiyrinc BurtTRESS, GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE). The principle of the arch has been known from very early times. When neolithic man discovered that a wide opening could be spanned by leaning two stones together at its apex, the first arch was made, and such triangular arches are widely found throughout the Mediterranean basin (for example, one at Alea in Arcadia; a similar triangular shape, though in corbelled construction is seen in the Gate of the Lions at Mycenae). The

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3 FOILED BY COURTESY OF C. H. WHITAKER; BENOIT, “ARCHITECTURE DE L'ORIENT” (RENOUARD); “ARCHITECTURAL RECORD"; METHOD,” EIGHTH ED. (1928), BATSFORD; MAYER, “ARCHITECTURE AND APPLIED ARTS IN OLD SPAIN” (DELPHIN)

SIR

BANISTER

FLETCHER,

“HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

ON

THE

COMPARATIVE

A AND E, ETRUSCAN: A, TOMB AT CERVETRI; E, CITY GATE, FERENTINO; B AND D, PRIMITIVE GREEK (AEGEAN) CORBELLED ARCHES; B, GATE OF LIONS; D, THOLOS OR TOMB OF ATREUS, MYCENAE; C, MODERN AMERICAN, NEBRASKA STATE CAPITOL (B. G. GOODHUE, ARCHITECT); F, CHINESE, SUMMER PALACE, PEKIN; G, MODERN CANADIAN, PETERBOROUGH, CANADA: H. INDIAN, PALACE AT DELHI; I, ENGLISH ROMANESQUE, CHAPEL, TOWER OF LONDON; J, ROMAN, GATE OF AUGUSTUS, PERUGIA; K, LATE SPANISH GOTHIC, EL PAULAR; L. ENGLISH TUDOR, ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE; M, FRENCH GOTHIC, AMIENS CATHEDRAL; N, MOORISH, PUERTA DEL SOL, TOLEDO; O, SPANISH RENAISSANCE, ESCUELAS MINORES, SALAMANCA; P, ENGLISH GOTHIC, SALISBURY CATHEDRAL

earliest known developed arches with curved sides that occur in the Tigro-Euphrates valley, at least as early as 4000 B.c. In Egypt, also, the arch was known, although it was used only for utilitarian purposes. Almost all of these early examples are over drains, where the abutment question was simple, but in Asia, the Assyrians, at least, used the arch monumentally in gateways. It was, however, in Italy, at the hands of the Etruscans,

that the arch received its most important early architectural treatment, as in the famous

gate of Perugia.

Following the

Etruscans the Romans (see RoMAN ARCHITECTURE) adopted the arch as perhaps the chief structural feature in the de-

sign of their monumental buildings and by them its use was spread all over the civilized world to become an integral feature of all the architecture succeeding them until the middle of the roth century. Since that time the discovery of the fact that iron, and later steel, could be formed into beams of great strength over long spans has reduced the use of the arch to a subsidiary and often merely decorative position.

„For the different types of arch see the illustration and for its

history the general articles under the headings of the’ various styles of architecture. See also ARCADE. (T. F. H.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

ARTICLES.

In addition to the

general article ArcmAEoLocy, where the development of the science is fully treated, there are numerous archaeological subsections to continents and countries (these subsections are found under the names of the territories). Special articles on individual civilizations appear under their distinctive names, ¢.g., AEGEAN

CIVILIZATION.

As is the case with ANTHROPOLOGY

territories (e.g., Africa) are subdivided for archaeological purposes into different areas of varying importance. Numerous short articles deal with the most prominent gods and rulers of ancient vanished peoples. So that Aprs or Harr; Ammon; Evi, MeroDACH; AMENOPHIS, etc., receive adequate treatment and carry cross-references to articles where comparative material may be found. Special subdivisions of archaeologic study have individual articles, e.g., ÅPULIAN GEOMETRIC POTTERY; CAHOKIA MOUND; CARNAC, MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS; CATACOMBS; CAve; CLIFFDweLLINGS; DEAD, DisrosaL of; EoLITHS; ETRUSCANS; FLINTS; Hittites; IBERIANS; INSCRIPTIONS; Iron AcE; LABYRINTH; Lake Dwrzrtincs; La TÈNE; MADELENIAN; MESOLITHIC; MounD BurLDERS; Papyrotocy; SABAEANS; SARCOPHAGUS; SCARAB; SEQUENCE DATING; SHELL-MOUNDS; SPHINX; STONE MONUMENTS; STRATIGRAPHY; TypoLocy; VILLANOVANS; and VITRIFIED Forts. See also the article ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES.

Archaeological terms are defined and treated in short special articles having cross-references to the main articles, where more detailed information is given. Ample bibliographies to the larger articles give references to the most recent authoritative works.

ARCHAEOLOGY

is at the same time a science and an

art. It is or should be a scientifically ordered branch of knowledge professed by men of truly scientific training, of a certain subject,

namely the remains of ancient human activity. It is or should be also the art that deals scientifically with these remains, that excavates them from the earth where they have been buried, con-

(g.v.), large serves them and restores them (but only so far as to make them

INTRODUCTORY]

ARCHAEOLOGY

intelligible), and publishes them for the information of ourselves and posterity. It is a science that has some difficulty in keeping true to its ideal, because the human interest of the subject attracts to its study many persons of untrained minds. The general public realizes that expert work is necessary in order to conserve and set

up antiquities in the way they are seen in a public museum. And

it will probably realize in time that expert work is necessary in order to dig properly as well. Quite rightly, therefore, the laws of some countries in which archaeology is an important mat-

ter take cognizance of the damage that may be done by untrained seekers after antiquities: Egypt, for instance, allows no person, however well-known he may be from the scientific point of view, to dig except under the aegis of a museum, university, or some other scientific body, and the amateur is totally barred unless he has a scientific explorer, authenticated as such, with him to control his digging.

Methods.—The methods of archaeology are exemplified in the study and in the feld. The recent Glozel controversy showed that in France at any rate public opinion as reflected in the journals is still inclined to regard the archaeologist as the purely stay-at-home arm-chair “savant” of the old school, and that the modern field archaeologist is a conception new to it. It is perhaps a fact that the real old type oí antiquarian scholar has survived untouched by new ideas longer in France than in England, where he is nearly extinct. The volume of work in the field that has been done by

British archaeologists during the last half-century has impressed itself so deeply upon the minds of teachers and students here that the purely scholarly type hardly counts as an archaeologist at all in

the modern sense of the word. Yet he has his uses still, and the most efficient all-round type is the man who is at once scholar, historian and worker in the field. Work in the study has still to be done and indeed becomes more and more necessary. The purely “scientific” field-worker in Egypt or Mesopotamia cannot progress without the help of his student colleague who reads the hieroglyphic or cuneiform inscriptions that he finds, or that of the historian and the anthropologist; and obviously the most useful man is he who can combine all these functions. But it is difficult to find men who are equally competent in all these spheres, and the work now is being done by an intimate alliance of the men who are primarily field-workers, but have a working knowledge of the languages and history of the ancient peoples whose relics they unearth, with those who are primarily scholars or historians but have a working knowledge of excavation and of conservation. Museum archaeologists should be of the latter type with a special

knowledge of conservation. No excavator, whatever the excellence

of his technique, can be really efficient unless he himself is also

as much as possible a savant or he works in close association with savants on the “dig.” If one merely brings things home for the scholars to appraise, efficiency is lost. Thus the archaeologist’s work is done in the study as well as in the field. The work of the student is obvious. When, as in the case of prehistoric Europe or America, there are no ancient Janguages to be known, it is much lightened. But in the case of Minoan Greece their place is taken by the classical knowledge that is indispensable to all workers in that sphere and in Italy, without which the results of excavation cannot satisfactorily be interpreted. The work is greatest in Egypt and Mesopotamia, where the scholarly archaeologist has to know at least something of scripts as complicated and difficult as Japanese, and of various types and in various languages! It is no wonder that the fieldworker often has no time for more than a smattering of these tongues, and when this is the case has all the more to associate himself with his more scholarly colleagues. Only in the prehistoric

field can he work with anthropological knowledge merely in addi-

ton to his praxis of excavation. In the field the excavator has to be more or less expert in many ways. He has to have some knowledge of elementary engineering

and of lifting heavy weights. He should be a practical photographer. He should be able to improvise practical methods of attacking any problem in digging and of conserving any object he may find: it is “up to him” to do this in the most efficient way possible with the means at his disposal; and the better he does it

233

the better excavator he is; but he must be used to making good bricks without straw. He must know how to manage men, and especially Orientals, without friction: he may have to deal suddenly with strikes, he may find himself “in a tight place” at any

moment: he must be able to work tactfully with others. He must have an eye for the lie of the land: the man who cannot diagnose what he is likely to find from the appearance of the terrain is not likely to be so successful as the man who can. He must know whether there is “likely to be anything there” or not. The random digger is not a scientific digger. And in a country like Egypt, where digging has gone on continuously for over fifty years, there is a corpus of experience to be drawn upon and to be learnt in a matter like this, where also the assistance of intelligent native helpers whose ancestors have dug for antikas for generations is by no means to be despised. This “eye for country” is one of the greatest assets of an excavator. And obviously the more he knows of the more studious side of his work, of the styles of art or of tomb-construction characteristic of the various periods of development of the ancient civilization he is investigating, the better. Without such knowledge he remains but a hewer of wood or drawer of water for those who have it, despite all his field-technique, and despite the opinion of the market-place. So we see that the scientific excavator is indeed a labourer “worthy of his hire,” which, by the way, is generally absurdly small. Differences in Soil—The actual methods employed in excavation vary of course with the nature of the soil. One does not work anywhere with steam navvies or pneumatic drills! The work is far too delicate for that. It is much too delicate for the ordinary North-European or American labourer to undertake at all except under the strictest supervision. Picks and shovels wielded by British navvies would do more harm than good. In the East the slow native methods of hoe and basket are the most efficient, allowing the archaeologist to intervene when necessary to do the fine work with his pen-knife. There large numbers of men may be employed. In the West only a few intelligent and well-trained workers can be safely employed. The happy mean between the two is probably found in Greece, where the diggers combine the delicate touch of the Oriental with the intelligence of the European. Different styles of work are required in the wet clay of Britain, the dry stony soil or the crumbling kouskouras rock of Crete, the sand, the limestone rubbish, or the argillaceous shale of Egypt, the compact earth of ‘Iraq. As an instance of the care that is requisite, may be mentioned the ancient Babylonian walls of mud-brick, which it needs a practised eye to distinguish from

the surrounding indurated earth. Only a trained archaeologist with native workmen using their primitive tools would ever be able to trace and clear them accurately. British Tommies, hacking with their entrenching tools with all the good will in the world to help (as they did in the World War), would never even see them. In Upper Egypt, where it only rains once in five years, or in Chinese Turkistan, with its dry cold, things are easier, on account of the aridity of the earth; the soil is easily removed, and because of this dryness in these regions objects are found preserved in a manner unequalled elsewhere, save in the peat-bogs of the North. An old boot thrown out on to the Egyptian desert will remain there, if not removed, unaltered for centuries. Palaeolithic flint implements are found on the desert surface in the ateliers where they were made: where one has lain over another the upper is burnt black by the oxidizing effect of the sun of centuries, while the lower remains unpatinated. In Crete, with its rain in winter, conditions somewhat resemble those in ‘Iraq. Conservation and Reconstruction.—A very difficult piece of excavation and reconstruction—a classical example of archaeological method—was the digging out and rebuilding of the grand staircase, corridors and halls on the east slope of the palace-hill at Knossos by Sir Arthur Evans. The building, three or more stories high, was found collapsed, but with its arrangement still recognizable. It has been re-erected as it was. (“It is indeed rarely that natural conditions allow an ancient building of three or four stories to be dug out, its charred beams carefully replaced by iron girders, and its calcined pillars replaced by new on the old lines, so that we can mount, as at Knossos, an ancient grand stairway of three

234

ARCHAEOLOGY

flights on its original steps, and with the original steps above us as we mount, in their proper place as they were built.”) And this is not the only part of the Knossian palace in which Sir Arthur Evans has carried out reconstruction work of the kind, all, be it remembered, at his own personal expense. It is an ideal way of doing things, when it can be done, as in the present case, with some certainty of accuracy. Otherwise of course it should not be permitted to be attempted, however convinced the archaeologist himself may be of the accuracy of his theory; it is human to err. An extension of the reconstruction method is exemplified at Knossos by Sir Arthur Evans’s recent specimens of partially restored Minoan buildings, such as the South-East House, and part of the Hall of the Procession Frescoes. Whether it is advisable to carry out such reconstructions as these must always be a matter on which opinions may differ. In the present case they serve to show what the actual buildings probably were like, and are shelters for the reproductions of the frescoes (the originals being of

course preserved in the Candia Museum) which it is a good idea to exhibit on the actual spot where they were found. Analogous to the conservation of buildings is the conservation of objects found, not only in the field, but also in the laboratory at home. Objects can only be brought home somewhat summarily preserved in a “first field dressing” so to speak (well exemplified by Mr. Woolley at al-‘Ubaid and Ur), and must be treated expertly on their arrival by chemists, if they are to survive. Examples of such work are to be found in the treatment of the copper and inlaid objects from Ur in the laboratory of the British Museum under Dr. Alexander Scott and Dr. Plenderleith, and the tissues and other objects from the tomb of Tuttankhamun in the laboratory-tomb at Thebes by Dr. Scott and by Mr. A. Lucas. Accuracy

of Record;

Scope of Publication.—A

point of

modern archaeological method is accurate recording. This was rare in early days, especially among French archaeologists, by whom les menus objets were not taken seriously. The ideal of anthropological science, to note everything, even the most insignificant matters, lest anything be ignored that present or future generations might consider important, was unknown to them. But a Scotsman, Rhind, working at Thebes in the ’sixties, had seen its importance,

and made careful record of his work, though the absolute necessity for this was first emphasized by Prof. Sir Flinders Petrie, who astonished the old school of antiquaries in the early eighties by his insistence on the careful record of what seemed to them mere rubbish. What seemed rubbish to the elderly scholars of forty years ago does not always seem rubbish to us now. But this method may be too rigid. In many excavations now it is an impossibility to record and catalogue everything found, still less to publish everything found, to illustrate as well as describe everything. Reisner has tried to do the latter; Evans has not. Reisner’s method of publication. is that of the scientific catalogue. Evans writes a readable book. There is no doubt that with the first method we are in danger of not being able to see the wood for the trees, and money will not run to publication on a completely comprehensive scale. How could it be possible to publish Knossos on Reisner’s method? And would it serve any good purpose to do so? Also in publication there is the question nowadays of references to literature. While the results of excavation were still manage-

able and the number of workers few it might fairly be expected of an archaeological writer that he should show himself to be acquainted with the whole literature of his subject and be able to quote in his footnotes authority for every statement he makes. But with the great extension of the subject-matter of late years and the increase of the literature dealing with it, it has become almost impossible to keep tally of everything written on the subject in all countries (for the scientific man, it must be remembered, is international, and must have at least a working knowledge of many tongues). To give all references would make publications

too lengthy and unreadable; and is unnecessary. So that it will soon be impossible, as it now is unjust, to criticize an archaeological writer for not referring to everything published that is germane to his argument. He must be allowed to omit references without being accused of being ignorant of them, which indeed he may often be, so far as obscure papers, say in Russian or Magyar, are

[INTRODUCTORY

| concerned, without his work being seriously affected thereby. An example of the fullest footnote references, as complete as they can possibly be made, is Sir Arthur Evans’s book on Knossos

(The Palace of Minos), already mentioned, which well exhibits the author’s wonderful knowledge of the literature of the subject and unrivalled power of illustration and comparison. In publication the question of footnotes versus end-notes is a theme of discussion. Without copious illustration of course scientific publication is

impossible.

And the preparation of these illustrations begins in

the field. The excavator should be himself a capable photographer, or have an expert with him, though elaborate apparatus is not

generally necessary, and native boys can be trained to develop negatives admirably. Photographs must be taken of all the successive stages of the disinterment of an ancient burial, of the déblaiement of an ancient building. Here Reisner’s example is to be followed generally, though the number of photographs that can be taken is limited by the expedition’s purse, and of course only a

selection can be published; the rest kept for examination by students.

As much as possible should be photographed on the

ground. Photographs left to be done in the studio at home are rarely satisfactory, unless of course they are of objects the complete restoration of which was only possible in an European laboratory. Illustrations should be mainly photographic, and when possible in collotype; but it is a mistake to suppose that everything can be illustrated by photography. Line drawing is often necessary. Photography will not turn a corner satisfactorily nor will it reproduce faint indications. Neither will it satisfy as an illustrator of design. An ideal archaeological publication will then include illustrations not of everything, but of everything that is necessary to exhibit the results. The illustrations will be photographic (and in collotype) when possible: otherwise in line. Illustrations of the results should be as far as possible in plates at the end of the book. Illustrations in the text should be rigidly confined to purely “illustratory” pictures from other sources, designed to illustrate the finds further or to reinforce the argument of the text.

Otherwise confusion with the plates and with the actual results of the “dig” is likely to occur. Every picture must have its scale given. And no book, however short, should be without an index. Limits and Material—It may be asked: what are the limits of the subject? what precisely is the material of archaeology? and how late a time does it concern itself with? or in other words when does the archaeologist become an antiquary? I take it that the material consists of what has been defined above as “the remains of ancient human activity,” and that it begins at the beginning. The Palaeolithic period belongs to the sphere of the archaeologist, not the geologist; the Piltdown skull and its successors are archaeological as well as craniological material. Archaeology takes cognizance of all of ancient Man and his works. The boundary between archaeology and antiquarianism is an unreal one, for the scientific antiquary is an archaeologist, even if he be dealing only with the relics of the ’sixties, or let us say “Middle Victorian Ila.” But for practical purposes the line of division may be placed in England, France and Germany at the Renaissance: the middle ages belong to archaeology, whereas the sixteenth century is modern, and does not. In the Near East the division-line may be placed at the time of the taking of Constantinople: in Spain at

that of the expulsion of the Moors: in Italy earlier, at the end of the trecento. The actual nature of the material will of course differ according to the nature of the land; the objects are preserved well when the surrounding earth is dry, or if they are buried in such a preservative medium as peat. So dry is the earth in Egypt that tombs are found, like that of Tut‘ankhamun, intact with all their objects in them as they were left. In wetter lands like Babylonia

and Crete tombs are usually found full of infiltrated earth which has more or less damaged the contents unless they are of pottery or, as at Mycenae and Ur, of gold. Pottery is indestructible, for

after it has been smashed the fragments survive. Silver oxidizes as does bronze or copper, and perishes more quickly than they—gold is inoxidizable, and only the most ancient objects show a ruddiness that is gold-rust. Leather and linen and cloth perish every-

INTRODUCTORY]

ARCHAEOLOGY

235

where but in Egypt, in Chinese Turkistan, and in the bogs of the North. Dry cold in Greenland has preserved intact clothes of

of whose writing we can read, than of the Bronze Age Scandinavians. We know the names of Sumerian kings of: 3200 B.C., the fourteenth century. We have the actual garments that though we do not know who the historical original of king Arthur Egyptians wore in the days before Agamemnon; the cloth coats was. The Swedes pride themselves on being the oldest constituted and breeks of Danish men of the Bronze Age. We have food and state in Europe, but we have no real historical knowledge of bread placed in the Egyptian tombs of the XIth Dynasty (c. 2000 Sweden at any earlier date than we have of England: and Menes p.c.), and fancy pastry from Astara near Turfan in Turkistan of and the Thinites are more historical than are the Ynglingar. So the eighth century 4.D. In Egypt we have the actual mummified archaeology, and with it ancient history, continues to develop in a bodies of many of the kings and great men. So the material is somewhat lop-sided manner. greatest in Egypt. We have more of the actual objects used by Relation to Other Studies.—If{ archaeology is not to become the Egyptians, especially those made of delicate material, than a tenth Muse herself, she is at least one of the most important of those used by the Greeks and Romans. This contributes the handmaids of Clio. Of all the sciences, it is to that of History special interest of Egyptian archaeology. that Archaeology bears the closest relation. No modern historian Conditions.—The special conditions of archaeological work can neglect archaeology. History nowadays is not conceived as have already been touched upon. Work in the field, or a good the record of wars and of the reigns of kings primarily, but as knowledge of it by the ordinary stay-at-home archaeologist is the organized knowledge of the development of human civilization. the first requisite condition. One can no longer be an archaeolo- Religion and art, the progress of invention, the housing of the gist by reading books, however intelligent one may be. There is people, the changes of fashion in costume of men and women, the always much that cannot be understood without actual experience growth of luxury, and the economic questions that have been the of excavation. A regular and uniform development of archaeo- real cause of wars in the past as in the present, the impinging of logical knowledge all over the world is hampered by the fact that one people on another and the conflict of characteristics that so much more is known from the literary side of some civiliza- arises therefrom, all these things are the subject-matter of history tions and peoples than of others. To classical Greece and Italy, and in the correct delineation of them archaeology must bear her and the countries described by the classical authors, and to Pal- share. Then comes the relation to anthropology. No archaeoloestine and Syria, we have for a century past been able to add gist can neglect what the anthropologists can tell him of the Egypt as known not only from the classical writers but also from culture of various races in modern times, if he is to understand her own inscriptions and papyri, and for eighty years past the those of ancient days: every anthropologist must have some lands of the cuneiform script, Assyria, Babylonia, Elam and Persia, knowledge of archaeology, if he is to know anything of the have also told us their story in their own words. We cannot yet origins and reasons of what he is observing. Of the relationship add Minoan Crete and Greece, or the hieroglyphs of the Hittites of the archaeologist to the engineer and the chemist we have of Anatolia to the list in spite of various efforts, though we can already spoken. In this case we are mainly dealing with a temread Hittite when written in cuneiform, as it often is. Nay, porary indebtedness for a specified purpose, but archaeology nearer home, we have not yet been able to translate Etruscan, does owe much both to engineering and to chemistry. With the though, written as it is in Greek characters, we can read it. The art of architecture the connection of archaeology is close. Withsame is the case with the fragments of the Eteocretan script, that out trained architects and surveyors in the field we could not no doubt enshrine words of the old Minoan tongue. The Cyprian secure reliable plans of our finds. And the architects have learnt syllabary, of Minoan origin, reads in Greek, so we understand the much of use to them in the practice of their art from the results values of its signs, which would seem to point a way for the of archaeological research. Modern plans, elevations and decodecipherment of Minoan. And we have the new “Indo-Sumerian” rations once more show the scholarly attention to fine ancient writing of Sind and the Punjab, recently discovered with remains models that distinguished them at the end of the 18th cenof a culture contemporary with and connected with that of early tury: the archaeological leaven is working, and is working truly, Babylonia before 2500 B.c., by Sir John Marshall. When we whereas the unconsidering enthusiasm of the Romantic period for cannot read the writing of a people our interpretation of its mediaeval architecture was not based on scientific investigation archaeology must necessarily remain one-sided. If we could not of its models, and only succeeded in giving a meretricious mediread Egyptian would our reconstitution of Egypt’s history on aeval exterior appearance to Victorian interiors. Enthusiasts for archaeological grounds alone be likely to be anything near correct, mediaevalism in church architecture and liturgy may nowadays, if however careful and scientific our method? The literary side of they employ architects and sacristans with the requisite modern archaeology cannot be safely ignored if existent, while if non- archaeological knowledge, have their churches built and their existent, owing to the language remaining a sealed book, we can rites performed as they should be, without tasteless and ignorant only hope that decipherment will soon bring it into existence. modern accretions of the 17th—z9th centuries. And artists and It may be regarded as ancillary to the practical side (the scholar actors, if they are not going to paint the Crucifixio or act Julius n would put the matter the other way), but the two factors must Caesar in modern dress, must consult the archaeologists if they work hand in hand if correct results are to be obtained. So that want to get things right. nothing is more to be desired than a decipherment of the Minoan History.—The history of archaeology begins with the end of Writing, to take one instance, and perhaps the most important the period with which it deals, viz., with the Renaissance. It natuone in view of the special importance to the early history of rally began in Italy in the fifteenth century when the minds of European culture and knowledge of the origins of Greek legend intelligent men began to concern themselves with the ruins of anof a correct cognizance of the history of Bronze Age Greece. tiquity that lay around them. The coming of the Greek scholars Till then, Aegean archaeology must necessarily present a one- to Europe after the fall of Constantino ple brought the first knowlsided and undeveloped character in comparison with that of Egypt edge of ancient Greece into the west, and in the sixteenth century or of Mesopotamia. To a less degree this is the case with the the Humanists were the first real archaeologis ts. The great artists Hittites and even the Etruscans. Still more is it the case with of the time studied the antique as the basis of their work, both in the early peoples of Central Europe or South America. As in early sculpture and architecture . The artistic Popes and Princes of Greece, what we know of the former is the history of the devel- Italy in the sixteenth century made the first collections of ancient opment of their pottery and their stone and bronze weapons, and sculptures, a taste which first the French and later the English the hints of manners and customs and of convulsions or inva- acquired. In England in the seventeenth century an intelligent Sons that study of their settlements may provide. We know of merchant like Tradescant collected antiquities, some of which still no historical events beyond those indicated by classical authors survive in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. We all know what or by legend. Our information is merely better in the case of the great nobles and landowners of England, the “Dilettanti,” did Greece, where also we have invaluable historical connections and in the eighteenth century to accumulate here the antiques that

synchronisms with Egypt, and even with Babylonia, to help us.

We know more of the real history of the Maya in Yucatan, some

were admired by the taste of their day. Excavation began in Italy for the purpose of finding antique sculpture. At Naples in

236

[INTRODUCTORY

ARCHAEOLOGY

the eighteenth century Pompeii and Herculaneum were discovered, and the regular excavation of Pompeii began. France, that has so often given the signal for new movements of culture, inaugurated Egyptian archaeology when Buonaparte took the savants with him to Egypt: the Description de l'Égypte was the first book on Egyptian archaeology, for the seventeenth century aberrations of the Jesuit Kircher can hardly be taken seriously. Then in the early nineteenth century improved taste led collectors and students, under the influence of Winckelmann, to Greece, and when Lord Elgin brought back to London the marbles of the Parthenon, the foundations of modern Greek archaeology were laid. Roman and Etruscan accretions were sloughed off gradually, and by the ‘sixties Greek art was fully appreciated for itself. The work of Champollion unlocked the key of Egyptian lore. The museums of Europe were filled with Egyptian sculpture and other objects, brought back by Salt, Belzoni and others. Champollion himself led the first really scientific Egyptological expedition: the work of Rosellini was followed by that of the great Prussian expedition of the ’forties under Lepsius, which contributed to make the Berlin Museum one of the most up-to-date in Egyptian matters at that time. Then came the work of Botta and Layard in Assyria, and the bulls of Nineveh and Khorsabad were set up in the halls of the new British Museum and under the vaults of the Louvre. This was the first modern excavation, to be soon followed by that of Mariette in Egypt, the results of which were to fill the new Viceregal Museum at Cairo. Mariette inaugurated a new system in Egypt, by which none was allowed to excavate

In Egypt during the forty-five years that have elapsed since 1883, de Morgan has discovered the predynastic age and Petrie has given it its chronology; and Petrie excavated the tombs of the earliest Egyptian kings scientifically; Naville has excavated Bubastis, the temples of Dair al-bahri and the Osireion at Abydos:

and both he and Petrie considered that they had settled the question of the route of the Israelites though this is by no means considered so certain now. A list of the names of all the other international workers in this field would be too long even if only the protagonists were enumerated. De Morgan was even more distinguished by his work in Persia, and in Babylonia de Sarzec was the first to take up for France the mantle of Botta with his discoveries at Telloh of the Sumerian antiquities that are now the glory of the Louvre. And now the Germans, Koldewey and Andrae, with their work at Babylon and Assur, and the Englishmen Langdon and Woolley, for Oxford-Chicago and London-Philadelphia respectively

at Kish

and

Ur, have

made

far-reaching

discoveries. In Syria Hogarth inaugurated the excavation at Hittite Carchemish for the British Museum of which political conditions have prevented the continuance. Montet for France has

revealed

an

astonishing

Egyptian

colonial

settlement

at

Byblos (Jebail) in Phoenicia, dating back to 3000 B.c. In Anatolia, Hittite finds at Boghàz

Kyöi and Cappadocian

at Kil

Tepè, Dörpfeld’s work at Troy, the Americans at Sardis, Ramsay’s journeys throughout Anatolia and Hogarth’s excavation at Ephesus have been outstanding events. And in Crete the great excavation of Knossos by Sir Arthur Evans, and those of Phaistos and Hagia Triada by the Italians, have been epoch-making. In Greece itself the German work at Olympia and Tiryns, the French at Delos, the British at Sparta have been achievements of the great archaeological schools at Athens. In the other work done in Greece Americans have taken a leading part, and the Greeks have been by no means behindhand, especially in Crete (Xanthoudides). In Sicily (Orsi) and Malta (Zammit), important work has been done, and in Italy the labours of Boni and Lanciani at Rome and the continued excavation of Pompeii are world famous. In

but he. This monopoly persisted from the middle “fifties to the early ’eighties, when after the British occupation a liberal policy allowed the Egypt Exploration Society to begin its work, under Naville and Petrie, which still successfully continues, though its activity seems likely to be hampered by the present restrictions, which though incorrectly described as a partial return to the system of Mariette, yet deprive the excavating societies of the full legitimate fruits of their labours, which for forty years had been divided amicably and justly on the half-and-half principle between them and the Cairo, Museum. Mariette’s system has Northern Africa the French have efficiently explored such mighty not been completely imitated elsewhere, but Italy presents the remains of Roman dominion as Timgad, and the Italians nearest approach to it, for there no foreigner may dig: a curious are undertaking the excavation of Leptis Magna. At Constantipiece of strictness. Greece has followed a different policy. nople the excavation of the Hippodrome has been started. All There the help of learned and rich foreign societies has been over Central Europe the labours of hundreds of archaeologists, welcomed, although the objects found by them have mostly been German, Swiss, Austrian, Russian, Serbian, have revealed the required to stay in the country. This is not felt to be such a Danubian, “Black Earth,” Hallstatt and La Téne cultures; in grievance as is the present restrictive action of Egypt after ex- Northern Europe those of men like Montelius in Sweden and perience of the more liberal Egyptian policy, which will always be Shetelig in Norway and many others have continued to tell us associated with the honoured name of Maspero. ‘Iraq follows a an enormous amount of the Stone, Bronze and Iron Age cultures sensible policy, which reserves to Baghdad all objects of real of Scandinavia. In France prehistoric archaeology has taken the outstanding importance and value while liberally giving to the first place, and there the name of the Abbé Breuil is the most excavating museums or learned bodies duplicates and all objects honoured. All know something of the story of the discovery and the conservation of which 1s beyond the powers of the nascent excavation of the caves of the Dordogne in France and those of Baghdad Museum. Northern Spain, such as Altamira, which have given us such astonThe modern epoch of archaeology the world over begins with ishing revelations of the most primitive human civilization in the the inception of the work of the Egypt Exploration Fund in 1883. West. Of British excavation such work as that at Silchester on a Its dawn had been heralded by the enthusiastic and brilliantly Roman site, of Sarum on a mediaeval one, the discovery of the successful work of Schliemann at Mycenae in 1875, which re- Traprain hoard of Roman plate in Scotland, the recent use of vealed—after Biliotti’s tomb-digging at Rhodes (to the cost of the aeroplane to discover ancient traces on Salisbury Plain, and which Ruskin contributed) in 1871—+the first known relics of pre- many another important archaeological event might be mentioned. historic Greece, the first found remains of the Minoan civilization. Passing eastward, we have modern discoveries of the most ` But Schliemann was an unscientific digger, as he showed at Troy. Important nature in the Caucasian region by Russian archaeoloIt was reserved for Petrie in Egypt to inaugurate the new system gists, and Sir Aurel Stein’s epoch-making campaigns in Chinese of careful excavation, recording and speedy publication which has Turkistan, that have connected up Chinese with classical civilizaalways been characteristic of his work, whether for the Egypt tion, followed by the German Lecoq; Prof. Pelliot’s studies of Exploration Fund or for his own later organization, the Egyptian Chinese archaeology; and the discoveries of the T’ang tombs (¢. Research Account, which he called the British School of Archae- 700 A.D.) with their coloured pottery figures of guards, servants, ology in Egypt, a name that has survived, though it is not a British horses and demons which are now such a feature of our museums. School of Archaeology in the same official sense as the schools at And the Swedes have now found the poetry of prehistoric China, Athens and at Rome. For forty years he has laboured, to find while Japanese archaeologists (Umehara) have successfully excahimself at the last unable to agree with the new regulations, vated the tombs of ancient Korean kings. Finally, and with the obliged to dig just beyond the borders of Egypt, in Palestine. .exception of the latest finds at Ur, the newest of all, and certainly His way of work, which is simply the way of common-sense tinc- by far the most surprising of all, is the discovery by Sir John tured by certain idiosyncracies, has inspired, with modifications Marshall of the early bronze age “Indo-Sumerian” culture of the and improvements, that of all other excavators since. Punjab and Sind, with its undeniable connection with early Baby-

INTRODUCTORY]

ARCHAEOLOGY

lonia c. 2500 B.C. The excavation of Taxila, interesting in itself, belongs to the historic period. American archaeology is well illustrated by the work on the Maya cities of Yucatan and Guatemala, now followed by a British

Museum expedition in British Honduras. And the discoveries of early culture on the coast of Ecuador and Peru show how much may yet be recovered from the land of the Inca. Space fails in which to say more of the history of excavation.

And it must be remembered that besides the publication of all this field-work, the study-work of the Egyptologists, the Assyriolo-

gists, the Sanskritists and the Sinologists has gone on, ever increasing the sum-total of our knowledge of the ancient peoples of the world.

The Future.—If

one asks to what end all this labour, it

can be replied that no labour is in vain which teaches us what our forerunners and culture-ancestors did in the world. To know the past is to be better equipped to deal with the question of our civilization in the present and in the future. We have seen what additions to our knowledge have already been made: what of the future in archaeology? New realms have opened to us undreamt of before in prehistoric Greece, in Egypt, in Turkestan, in Central Europe and in America. New realms are opening in Anatolia,

Syria, China, India and possibly even in Africa, where though Zimbabwe may be mediaeval, there are in the region east and

north of the Great Lakes probable fields of far older human activity. The possibilities of Egypt may be nearly exhausted by the intensive work of half-a-century, though the tomb of Tut‘ankhamun has shown us that she still has surprises for us. Mesopotamia and India are comparatively untouched, and we are now

going forward on the full tide of their new excavation with the

modern methods practised long in Greece and Egypt but as yet

poorly represented further east. It is there that the earliest revolutionary discoveries may be expected. The other fields open out beyond them a vista of undreamt possibilities. “Regions Caesar never knew, our posterity shall sway.” But much depends on the

237

is not very expensive work on the whole; and it is a sound investment for a great nation to show that it has enlightened views as to the educational value of work of this kind, and is desirous of showing that it has officially and as a nation an appreciation of aesthetic and historical as well as of mere mechanical knowledge, that, in fact, it is really civilized and not merely barbarous. BrpriocrapHy.—A. Lucas, Ancient Egyptian Materials (London, 1926) ; Antiques, their Restoration and Preservation (ibid., 1924); W. M. F. Petrie, Art and Crafts of Ancient Egypt (ibid., 1910) ; Methods and Aims in Archaeology (ibid. 1904); Petrie, Hall and others, How to Observe in Archaeology (British Museum, 1920); A. Scott, H. J.

Plenderleith,

The

Cleaning

and Restoration

of Museum

Exhibits

(Stationery Office, 1926); F. Rathgen, Die Konservirung von Altertumsfunden (Berlin, 1898). It is impossible to give even a selected list of principal archaeological works, so large is the literature of the subject: the chief are the publications of the various learned societies, such as the Hellenic Society, the Egypt Exploration Society, British Schools of Archaeology at Athens and in Egypt, and the Palestine Exploration Fund; of the museums such as the British Museum and Philadelphia Museum (Excavations at Ur), the Service des Antiquités of Egypt and the Government of India Archaeological Service; and of private or subsidized investigators like Sir Arthur Evans or Sir Aurel Stein.

(H. R. H.) 1. STONE AGE Although no fixed chronological epoch in world-history is understood by the words stone age, the term has the same connotation in the history of Asia as in that of Africa. It denotes the condition of a people or an ethnic unit unacquainted with the working of metal. Thus stone of various kinds is used as the material from which cutting implements and weapons are manufactured. It is the stone age of man’s development in his appreciation and use of the materials by which he finds himself surrounded. It is obvious, therefore, that the stone age of some peoples is far behind them, while, with others, their present development that their stone age ended but yesterday.

indicates

PALAEOLITHIC intelligent co-operation of governments. A narrow policy of mere In 1836 Christien Thomsen suggested that human history acquisitiveness, nominally for the national museums, really be- could be divided into three main stages: the first during which cause politicians and officials, especially in the newly enfranchised metal was unknown and all tools, weapons, etc., were made of countries of the East, have a vague idea that these things are wood, stone, bone, antlers or ivory; a second when the smelt“valuable property,” will defeat its own object. For the nations ing of copper and the hardening effect produced by alloying that have developed archaeological work such as Britain, France, it with tin (that is the manufacture of bronze) had been discovGermany, Scandinavia, America, Greece and Italy, and have ered and was practised; and finally the third when mankind had the money (especially America) with which to carry it out learned to prepare and work iron for all purposes. efficiently, cannot be expected to do so if they are not permitted to We are here concerned with the earliest of these stages, generpossess a fair share of the results, not only for study, but to keep, ally known as the stone age, which is divided into a “dawn” or in return for their expenditure of money and toil. Italy does not eolithic period, the old stone age (palaeolithic), the transitional permit foreign excavation on her soil, so that there is no question (mesolithic), and the new stone age, or neolithic period. there of foreign workers being badly treated by not being perIn palaeolithic times men fashioned their stone tools exclusively mitted to possess a fair proportion of their finds. Also in the past by a chipping technique. The climatic conditions, too, were very foreign museums have been well provided with the spoils of Italy. dissimilar from those obtaining to-day, for this period coincided But work in the East will be seriously hampered unless the owner- with the great ice age and geologically with Quaternary times. nations realize that the excavator-nations should be generously, The mesolithic period commences with a complete change in not parsimoniously treated in this matter. After all, the past of climatic conditions and is intermediate between the end of the Greece or of Egypt is not, as their schoolmasters and politicians old stone age and the beginning of the new stone age, when agriseem to think, exclusively the concern of Greece and Egypt: it is culture, the domestication of animals and pottery making, had bethe concern of the whole civilized world, which equally with gun to be understood, and when tools were often manufactured modern Greece is the heir of ancient Greece, far more than mod- by a grinding and polishing technique. ern Egypt is the heir of ancient Egypt. The following technical terms may be defined thus:— In England and America the tradition is that work of this kind Artefact: Any object fashioned by man. Industry: An assemblage of artefacts at a given locality and should be carried on almost exclusively by private subscription of the same age. (whether of the universities or of societies of private persons), Culture: The sum of the activities of the people as shown except in England in so far as it is the work of the national by their industries and other discoverable char-

museums. The British Government also contributes a small subsidy to the British Archaeological Schools at Rome and Athens.

It is to be hoped that the newly founded school at Jerusalem (working now in collaboration with the old established Palestine

Exploration Fund) will shortly justify a renewed official contri-

bution to its funds, if it receives sufficient private support.

But

the sum-total of this official help is very much less than that afforded by some other nations, and despite the pressure of taxatlon, it is devoutly to be hoped that it may be found possible in

the future to increase it, For, after all, archaeological exploration

acteristics.

Excavation and typological study have shown that the palaeolithic period can be subdivided, there resulting a chronological sequence of cultures which ‘show the different phases, through which mankind has passed. This sequence is obtained by studying the stratigraphy (g.v.) found in a large number of cave and rock shelter habitations.

Naturally the cultures do not all occur uni:

versally. The best known sequence is that observed in western Europe, especially in France; it is called the Archaeological Record and can be tabulated as over:—

ARCHAEOLOGY

238 Cultures. Magdalenian

= PRSE o ga Palaeolithic

Solutrean

Aurignacian Middle Palaeolithic | Palaeolithic | Period

ee

Micoquean Lower Palaeolithic

Acheulean Chellean | Prechellean

Derivations of Names. La Madeleine, a rock shelter near Les

Eyzies (Dordogne). A rock shelter at Solutré near Mâcon. A cave at Aurignac in the Pyrenees, now quarried away. A rock shelter at Le Moustier (Dordogne). La Micoque, a rock shelter near Les Eyzies (Dordogne). Gravel pits at St Acheul, Amiens. Gravel pits at Chelles-sur-Marne.

Each of the cultures can be further divided into a number of stages partly on stratigraphical and partly on typological grounds. These smaller divisions, however, need not concern us further. As to the climatic conditions prevailing during Quaternary times, whose effect on the contemporary cultures was profound, towards the end of the Tertiary period the climate of western Europe gradually became cold and a glacial period set in. There followed a succession of glacial maxima with warm intervals between. The number of these maxima is in dispute. Some authori-

about the latitude of Hull.

[STONE AGE Coups de poing, the pear-shapeq

chipped stone tools typical of these cultures, are frequently foung

in the gravels of many English rivers, especially in East Anglia, They are common in the valley of the Hampshire Avon and in the gravels of the upper terraces of the Thames valley, and have been

found in the older gravels of the Severn in Gloucestershire. Ip France their classic place of origin is the Somme valley, whence they were discovered in the middle of the last century by Boucher de Perthes, and after an investigation in 1859 by Prestwich and Evans were accepted as contemporary with the gravels in which they were found. Prechellean implements, tools similar to but rougher than those of the succeeding cultures, are found in the upper gravels of the Somme valley, but one of the best places for finding industries of this description is in the Cromer forest bed at Cromer. Here they consist mainly of large irregular flakes. Many such flakes have been washed out of the deposit and can be readily picked up at low tide from the pebble sheets which are then exposed on the beach. True Chellean industries yield many rough coups de poing, as well as rude borers and scrapers. The animal remains most typically associated with them are those of a warmth-loving fauna, which includes Machairodus neogaeus

(the sabre-toothed

tiger), Hippopotamus

amphibius,

Elephas antiquus and Rhinoceros merckii. The vegetable remains include those of the fig tree and canary laurel; the molluscs those of Corbicula fluminalis. In Acheulean industries the coups de poing are better made and an oval form known as the ovate develops. Also the “S” twist along the sides of the tools is found (FLInts, g.v.). The fauna is a mixed warmth and cold loving one, indicating that a cool climate prevailed. It includes the Chellean fauna without the sabre-toothed tiger but with the ties claim that there were two (Bayer), others three (Boule), and addition of the Elephas primigenius (mammoth). Rhinoceros the more orthodox school four (following Penck and Obermaier). tichorhinus (woolly rhinoceros), etc. The Acheulean culture is The latter have named the glaciations after four little rivers in the quite evidently an autochthonous development from the Chellean Alps. Gtinz (the earliest), Mindel, Riss and Wiirm. The inter- in western Europe. At La Micoque small slender coups de poing vening warm periods are called Giinz-Mindel, Mindel-Riss and occur, sometimes showing a large flake surface on the under side; Riss-Wiirm respectively. After the last glaciation the tempera- though reindeer bones are not found in association, cold conditure rose but then fell again, though not far enough to constitute tions had set in and industries of this type are probably due to a glacial epoch except in the north. This is known as the Bühl influences from the approaching Mousterian culture. oscillation. From Bühl times onwards the climate definitely amelSo far no skeletons have been discovered that can be ascribed iorated. Even during the glacial maxima Europe was not entirely with certainty to the lower palaeolithic cultures. covered by ice sheets and the mean annual temperature was probThe famous Piltdown skull cannot unfortunately be dated exably only a few degrees lower than at present. But near mountain actly, although in all probability it is of early Pleistocene age and masses existing glaciers were very large and swept out into the would therefore be Prechellean. The equally well known Heidelplains in such districts as southern and eastern France, while in berg jaw, found in the Mauer sands, is probably of the same age northern England veritable ice sheets existed and huge glaciers in time, but it must be connected on anatomical grounds with an flowed down the eastern side of the country reaching nearly as early appearance of middle palaeolithic man. far as the Thames. Naturally these great changes in climate afThe Middle Palaeolithic Culture.—The middle palaeolithic fected the plant and animal life of Europe. For example, during a period is occupied only by the Mousterian culture which was glacial maxima reindeer abounded and red deer were very rare; brought into western Europe by the Neanderthal race, so named during an interglacial period the opposite was the case. from a small valley near Diisseldorf, where a skull of peculiar The correlation of the archaeological and geological records is type was found in 1856 which resembles several other skulls since naturally controversial. The Magdalenian culture, however, is discovered in association with Mousterian industries. clearly post-Würm, as at Schweizerbild, near Schaffhausen; MagThe Mousterian industries were first recognized in the French dalenian industries have been found in a deposit resting on a glacial caves and occur there stratigraphically above the Acheulean. moraine of Würmian age. The Solutrean and Aurignacian cultures They are found associated with an Arctic fauna including Cervus seem to be connected with some later phase of the Würm glacia- tarandus (reindeer), Elephas primigenius (mammoth), Canis tion and the Mousterian in some areas with an early phase of lagopus. L., etc. This epoch must then have coincided with the Würm, in others as early as a late phase of the Riss glaciation. on-coming of a glacial period, and there is evidence to show that On stratigraphical grounds the Acheulean and Chellean cultures this was the last of the great glacial maxima. In central Europe precede the Mousterian. From a study of the animal bones found where lower palaeolithic tools are rare their place is taken by what associated with these cultures it seems that the former occurred appear to be early prototypes of typical Mousterian tools, assowhile moderate or cool conditions prevailed, while the latter, ap- clated with a warmth-loving fauna such as is found with Chellean parently covering a long period of time, existed under various industries in France. This early Mousterian also occurs in one climatic conditions. or two instances in England, in Belgium and in northern France Lower Palaeolithic Cultures.—The distribution of lower at Montiéres, where it replaces the Acheulean. It would seem palaeolithic industries is nearly world-wide. It is therefore possi- probable, then, that so far as western Europe is concerned, the ble that in them we are dealing with one of the main features of Neanderthal folk arrived from central Europe, introducing the human development. Naturally the age in time of the cultures is Mousterian culture. By the time the Dordogne district of France not the same in widely separated regions. We do not know exactly was reached the last glacial maximum was approaching. Whether where the cradle of the cultures was. They apparently reached the Mousterian culture developed in central Europe or was evolved Europe from north Africa and are found all over the western still earlier elsewhere, merely sojourning for a time in central part of the continent and in the British Isles up to somewhere Europe until driven to migrate by the approach of cold condi-

STONE AGE]

ARCHAEOLOGY

tions, is not yet known. Its distribution is very wide, though per-

haps not quite as extensive as that of the lower palaeolithic cultures. Typical industries have been found in Britain, France, Spain, north Africa, Italy, Germany,

Switzerland, Czechoslo-

yakia, Poland, Jugoslavia, Crimea, Siberia and perhaps China, Asia Minor and Palestine. Typical tools found in Mousterian industries are the side-

239

randus (reindeer), Elephas primigenius (mammoth), Rhinoceros tichorhinus (woolly rhinoceros), Canis lagopus (Arctic fox), Bos priscus (bison), Cervus elaphus (stag), Ursus arctos (brown bear), Ursus spelaeus (cave bear), etc., continued with smaller variations throughout upper palaeolithic times, the reindeer being especially prominent in Magdalenian times, which are therefore often known as the “reindeer age.”

scraper, the point, the levallois flake and tortoise core. As regards Aurignacian Culture.—On grounds of stratigraphy (g.v.) technique the tools are made from flakes, there being as a rule a and typology (g.v.) the Aurignacian period can be subdivided

faceted platform, and the secondary working edge shows “re- into five stages or more simply into an earlier middle and later solved” flaking (FLINTS, q.v.). In the case of the point, both phase. Tools belonging to the earliest phase appear in the latest edges are so trimmed that they intersect and form a sharp tip. Mousterian industries in the Dordogne. The older culture, howThe levallois flake is oval and its upper side boldly flaked to form ever, is soon replaced by that of the new and develops in France a flat surface, the edges often being made even and sharp by some into the rich middle Aurignacian, the tools of which often show “resolved” flaking. : a wonderful fluting technique difficult to copy even to-day. The The Mousterian culture in France is subdivided into three last phase in France does not seem to be derived from this midstages. In the industries belonging to the earliest we find many dle Aurignacian and may be due to a fresh migration perhaps from reminders of the former Acheulean industries, there being 2 num- north Africa, Finally the Aurignacian culture was submerged by bers of coups de poing, though generally small in size, neatly made the Solutrean incursion, except in areas not reached by the new and often triangular or slightly heart-shaped. In mid-Mousterian folk; where therefore the Aurignacians continued to develop undistimes the coups de poing become rare and the tools though them- turbed, such as in western Europe, the Pyrenees, the western selves well made exhibit but few types. In upper Mousterian times foothills of the Alps, and England, though here in the south-westthe coups de poing cease, and we find for the most part only a ern and eastern regions a Solutrean influence, at any rate, seems monotonous series of small neatly made side-scrapers and points. to have been felt. A fact of extraordinary interest is the occurrence as early as The tools of this period are quite unlike the Mousterian ones. Mousterian times of ceremonial burial, which shows that the Gone are the endless side-scrapers with “resolved” chipping. InMousterian must have had some definite ideas about death. At stead we have beautifully made end-scrapers, keeled or otherwise, La Chapelle-aux-Saints a skeleton was found by itself in a small in which percussion flakes rise fanwise to a central point. Burins cave buried in a carefully prepared trench together with beauti- (q.v.) are numerous, and points having a sharp working edge and fully made implements. No trace of any habitation was found at blunted back appear and develop. Sometimes there are double the site. This would clearly seem to indicate a careful burial. But tools, a graver at one end and an end-scraper at the other, and at La Ferrassie the remains of a child were found in a trench be- also some bone tools among which the bone point with a split low a large rock artificially placed there, the surface of the rock base is common in middle Aurignacian industries. itself being covered with carefully made cup markings, which Ceremonial burial is known, the bodies being often buried in must not be confused with cup and ring markings. red ochre with beautifully made implements as well as ornaments The skeletons of Mousterian man exhibit distinctive character- and necklaces, sometimes made from sea shells, which must have istics. The skull have great beetling brows; the eyebrow ridges been imported from a considerable distance. The skeletons are of expand beyond the limits of the side of the head; the forehead is more than one type, denoting either an intermixture of races or receding; the upper lip is long and the jaw is projecting and chin- the development im situ in Europe or elsewhere of variations of less. The thighs are curved and the arms long. It is questionable the original stock. These variations, all covered by the generalized how far speech was possible, and casts of the inside of the skull term “neoanthropic race” include Cro-Magnon man, Combeexhibit a very simple form of brain. What has been said then as Capelle man and perhaps, too, the Grimaldi “infants,” an old regards ceremonial burial becomes still more interesting. The woman and young man, who are said to possess some negroid more important Mousterian human remains are: a skull cap at characteristics. They resemble modern man in many ways, and Neanderthal, two skeletons at Spy (Belgium), a skeleton at La the characteristics especially associated with Neanderthal have Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corréze, France), a skull at La Quina (Char- disappeared. ente, France), and recently a skull at Galilee, Palestine, and the Solutrean Culture.—This culture has been divided into a skull of the child at Gibraltar, the discovery of which helps to proto, lower and upper Solutrean stage. The Solutreans seem to substantiate the find of a Neanderthal-like skull made there long have been small in number who, through the invention of a type ago, the exact details of which were lost. of slender javelin head, known from its shape as the laurel leaf, Upper Palaeolithic Cultures.—Three different cultures, the and made possible by the discovery of a pressure technique for Aurignacian, the Solutrean and the Magdalenian, occupy the up- flint flaking (FLInTs, qg.v.), dominated for a time large parts of per palaeolithic period. They were brought into Europe by neo- western Europe. They originated probably in Hungary and may anthropic man, a being quite different in appearance from and far perhaps be a hybrid product of Neanderthal and Aurignacian man. more advanced than his Neanderthal predecessor who arrived They seemed to have swept through central Europe into France. apparently from the south, and spread over the whole of Europe Traces of their influence can be noted in eastern and southwestern and in Great Britain, as far north as Derbyshire, coming perhaps England. They appear as far west as Cantabria in north Spain, from somewhere in north Africa where, at any rate, rich indus- are not found around the Mediterranean nor in Palestine, and it tries, generally called Capsian from the type station at Gafsa in is difficult to connect the laurel leaves found in certain African inTunis, have been found along the northern margin of the contin- dustries with the true Solutrean culture. The laurel leaf therefore ent. This area, at any rate, seems to have been the jumping off must not be taken as typical of Solutrean industries only. In upground from which the new people entered Europe. The wealth per Solutrean times a certain type of tool, the shoulder point, and variety of the tools found in upper palaeolithic industries is developed by late Aurignacian man, reappears modified often by astonishing and examples of most of the tool families occur. Tools the peculiar pressure technique employed by Solutrean man. made from bone, horn, antler and ivory appear for the first time These herald the end and the Solutreans seem to have rapidly disand are especially common in Magdalenian industries, a number appeared, their place being retaken by the folk of the earlier stock of types being confined to this period. who, however, had developed considerably in the interval. SoluAurignacian times appear to be just subsequent to the last gla- trean times must be considered as a sort of parenthesis in an evocial maxima of the great ice age, but cannot be dissociated from lutionary sequence from the early Aurignacian to the late Magthe glacial period. The fauna found with the industries remains dalenian. cold-loving and the Pleistocene species still survive. The climatic Very few burials of undoubtedly Solutrean man have been conditions indicated by this fauna which includes the Cervus ta- made known. As has been suggested the Aurignacians probably

240

ARCHAEOLOGY

[STONE AGE

difficult in any i dustries. In the course of the evolution of the art the increase in a specimen be- the conventionalization of animal figures depicted is interesting, An interesting and a study of the conventionalizations themselves forms an im. Bavaria where portant investigation. Series can be found starting with naturalof the animals and finishing with what ap. a Solutrean skeleton was buried in red ochre which probably indi- istic representations pear to be mere patterns derived from them. Besides these cates a ceremonial burial. found what might be Magdalenian Culture.—The Magdalenian culture appears to “schematic” figures there are sometimes in one case a herd of example, For pictures.” “suggestion called wide, have been mainly evolved in France, whence it spread far and reindeer is depicted on a fragment of bone, but the first three Britain Great as areas such in evidence little although there is very and Moravia for any replacement on a large scale of the Aurig- and the last animals alone are reasonably well drawn, while between them are merely a number of engraved lines representing nacian inhabitants by Magdalenian folk themselves. As has been a forest of antlers. Tools post-glacial. definitely stated the Magdalenian culture is The distribution of the “home” art in Magdalenian times is not made from bone, horn, antler and ivory appear throughout upper perhaps quite so wide as it was in earlier Aurignacian days. This numermost are industries Magdalenian palaeolithic times and in Magdalenian culture was essentially a ous and most beautifully made. The skill in bone working of these is to be expected; the say a French product. In western Euto not European, western this In needles. fine-eyed beautiful their by people is indicated “home” art commonly in the Magdalenian the find we itself rope times, Aurignacian culture, too, prehistoric art, first noticed in and in Cantabria. Eastwards it occurs reached its highest development. A six-fold division of the Mag- Dordogne, in the Pyrenees, can perhaps be traced in Moravia, dalenian culture has been rendered possible by a stratigraphical in the Jura and its influence but the culture to which the art there belongs appears to be an and typological study of the industries, certain bone tools being Aurignacian, contemporary the of development autochthonous in purpose this for used are Lance-heads utilized as type fossils. of “Home” France. Magdalenian art has been rarely with the too, the earlier, harpoons in the later stages. Flint implements, best known specimen is a poorly drawn fig. the England; in found vigand perfection the although made, beautifully are and abound long ago at Cresswell Crags in our of middle Aurignacian workmanship is hardly again attained. ure of a horse which was found At the end of the Magdalenian times certain Aurignacian types Derbyshire. The motives for this “home” art were probably many and vaof tools reappear, at first in the Pyrenees district and later in the In some instances no doubt pure decoration was the reason: ried. Dordogne. This would seem due to the arrival of the Azilian culother cases it may have been due to a desire for self-expression in proball in were, which period, mesolithic the to tures belonging undoubtedly must have been an artistic people. Again what among Capsian basic ability, themselves a late development from the the artist may have wanted to make sketches from nature, to be stock. The “Home” Art.—An engraving on a flat piece of bone was elaborated later into cave masterpieces. Undoubtedly, too, the found in the cave Chaffaud at Sévigné (Vienne, France) as long drawings were often made as amulets or to ensure efficacy to is often ago as 1834, though its great antiquity was not then recognized. weapons thus decorated. This is in accord with what of eviDuring extensive diggings in the Dordogne in the 60’s undertaken found among modern primitive peoples. A certain amount schools art of nature the in something that show to colexists rich dence a however, Christy, Mr. with association in by M. Lartet lection of decorated objects was discovered. Their age is unques- must have been in existence. At a “home” like La Madeleine, for tionable as the decorated objects are found associated with datable instance, only well made drawings and sculptures occur, but at Les Eyzies thousands of fragments of bone have been found, covered tools and the remains of a Quaternary fauna. It was formerly stated on psychological grounds that sculpture with attempts at drawing such as beginners would make. The Cave Art.—It was in 1879 that the marquis de Sautuola must precede line engraving. But though sculpture is at first commoner than engraving, the latter is found from the earliest times. and his little daughter, aged 5, went up to the cave of Altamira It is doubtful whether Solutrean man practised any form of art, near the village of Santillana del Mar (Cantabria). The cave had unless he was in contact with and influenced by the folk among been recently discovered while digging out the quarry in the course whom he had penetrated, for little trace of it is found in Solutrean of a hunt and the marquis hoped by excavating in the floor of the times. The “home” art is therefore divided into an Aurignacian vestibule to discover some bones and stone implements. He busied and Magdalenian cycle. In the former the art is still crude himself in this occupation while his daughter, becoming bored, though vigorous. Especially to be noted are the famous sculp- walked about with a candle amusing herself. The ceiling is very tures representing human beings, generally known as “Venuses,” low but owing to her small size she was, unlike her father, able to found at Brassempouy (Landes), at Mentone, at Willendorf stand upright. Happening to look upwards she caught sight of (lower Austria), at Unter Wisternitz (Moravia) and elsewhere. one of the bison belonging to the now famous frieze, and called Other human figures in high relief come from Laussel. (Les Eyzies, out to her father, “Toros! Toros!” z.e., bulls! bulls! The marquis Dordogne), one example depicts a steatopygous woman with a came to examine the spot and thus were the famous Altamira bison’s horn raised aloft in her right hand. An engraving of a frescoes discovered. At first they were not accepted as prehistoric horse on a fragment of bone has been found in an Aurignacian in- by the scientific world, and it was only in 1895 that evidence from dustry at the cave of Hornos de Ja Pefia (Cantabria). Painting, La Mouthe finally convinced the sceptics. La Mouthe is a cave as might be expected, is rarely preserved in the “home” art, but not far from Les Eyzies and consists of a large vestibule, formerly at Sergeac (St. Léon, Dordogne) human hands were found painted inhabited by prehistoric man, from the back of which a passage opens leading to corridors and chambers with engraved and in red on a piece of rock with a late Aurignacian industry. In Magdalenian times the “home” art flourished exceedingly, painted walls. The entrance to this passage, however, was filled and hundreds of sculptures, reliefs, bone silhouettes and engrav- with archaeological deposits, the upper layers containing a Magings, representing animals, as well as geometric patterns have been dalenian industry, and it was not discovered or made passable for discovered. Frequently tools, such as spear-throwers, spatulae, a human being until excavation had taken place. No one then had etc., were decorated. Painting, too, has been noted but is naturally entered the decorated corridors behind since Magdalenian times. Since 1895 numerous painted and engraved caves have been disbut rarely preserved. The Magdalenian culture was in a stage of rapid evolution, and covered in the Dordogne, in Corréze, in the central districts of the great developments, therefore, took place in the styles and tech- Pyrenees, and in Cantabria. A similar art occurs in south Spain, nique of the art. Not only can an improvement and an increased in the districts of Malaga and Ronda; there is also a site in the skill in the use of the burin be noted, but also certain types of geo- “heel” of Italy and one or two in Provence. Up to date no palaeolithic cave paintings have been discovered in Great Britain. metric patterns, etc., are made only at certain times. The engravings were made with: sharp flint tools called burins The “home” art can therefore be utilized by the prehistorian in subdividing the Magdalenian period, with results which agree (g.v.), examples of which are very common in upper palaeolithic in a remarkable way with those obtained from analysis of the in- industries, though from their number it would seem that they cancontinued to exist throughout the period and it is one case to be sure that we are really dealing with longing to the invading and dominating people. burial, however, has been discovered at Klause in

ARCHAEOLOGY

IMPLEMENTS 2. Eoliths from near Ipswich, England Coup de Poing, Lower

Palaeolithic Ovate, Lower Palaeolithic Coup de Poing, Middle Palaeolithic Point, Middle Palaeolithic Side Scraper, Middle Palaeolithic Core Scraper, Upper Palaeolithic bw a A wea Keelea-Scraper, Upper Palaeolithic

10. 11. 12. 13, 15. 16, 17.

Audi

AND

WEAPONS

OF THE

PLATE I

STONE

Point, Upper Palaeolithic

Gravette Point, Upper Palaeolithic Double End Scraper, Upper Palaeolithic 14. Burins, Upper Palaeolithic Awl, Upper Palaeolithic Solutrean

Laurel

Upper Solutrean Palaeolithic

Leaf,

Upper

Shouldered

Palaeolithic Point,

Upper

AGE 18. Campigny Axe, Mesolithic 19. Asturian Pick, Mesolithic 20-23. Pigmy tools, Mesolithic

24. Tanged 25. 26. 27. 28.

and Winged

Arrow-Head,

Tanged Arrow-Head, Neolithic Polished celt, Neolithic Flint dagger, Neolithic Battle axe, Neolithic

Neolithic

ARCHAEOLOGY

PLATE II

BY COURTESY

OF

(7)

MASSON

AND

COMPANY

FROM

PIETTE,

“L'ART

PENDANT

L'AGE

EXAMPLES

DU

RENNE”,

PHOTOGRAPHS,

OF STONE

1. Engraving described as reindeer discovered in the cavern of Combarelles, Dordogne. Probably Lower Magdalenian period. 2. Sculpture of horse in high relief, Abri Cap Blanc, Dordogne. Probably Lower Magdalenian period. 3. Two bisons modeled in clay, from Cave of Tuc D’Audoubert, Pyrenees. 4. Polychrome picture of bison from cave at Altamira, Spain

AGE

(f, 2)

DELL

AND

WAINWRIGHT

ART

(after tracing by H. Breuil). 5. The “Venus of Willendorf” sculptured out of a fine oolite limestone; from a cast, the original of which is in Vienna. Of the Upper Aurignacian Age. 6. Engraving of a horse, from Laugerie Basse, Dordogne. Late Magdalenian in style. 7. Horse’s head carved in reindeer horn, from Mas d’Azil (Pyrenees) Palaeolithic

241

ARCHAEOLOGY

STONE AGE]

not have been exclusively used for this purpose. In one instance (Trois Fréres) a burin was actually found lying on a projection

of a lion. Doubtless from the cave wall just under an engraving when the artist had finished he laid down his tool and while sur-

veying his work, forgot it; and there it remained for 10,000 years ; or more.

The painting material, as a rule, consisted of mineral oxides; those of iron gave various shades of red, that of manganese a

blue-black. Besides these oxides, carbonates of iron were utilized,

iving colours ranging from yellow to dark orange, and finally burnt bones provided the artists with black, a more fugitive pig-

ment than that from the mineral oxides but sufficiently permanent when not exposed to weathering action. The raw colours were

The fine shaded paintings of phase 2 are replaced by poor effects in silhouette or “flat wash,” the figure being often first engraved and the colour applied afterwards in such a way that the “register” is not exact. While the artist still took careful note of anatomical details, his painting of them was by no means always naturalistic.

Phase

4.—The

engravings

developed into fine scratchings

which, though perhaps rather wooden, still show considerable ar-

tistic merit. The vigour of the paintings lost in phase 3 is regained, not by a return to the former techniques, but by the use of several colours resulting in the well known polychrome pictures. By finding in the industries fragments of bone engraved in the same style, it is possible to correlate certain styles and therefore

ounded and mixed with fat; bone paint tubes and palettes have phases of the cave art with definite industries and therefore cul$sctually been found in the industries. How the colours were ap- tures. „Again certain styles of engravings have been found covplied is not actually known. Lamps which would be necessary in ered by deposits containing datable industries. The engravings

must then be older than the deposit by which they are covered. By a combination of these two methods phase xı can be assigned utilized for this purpose. The fuel was fat and the wick probably to the Aurignacian period, phase 2 to the lower Magdalenian, phase moss, as is the case with Eskimo lamps to-day. It must be remem- 3 to the middle Magdalenian, and phase 4 to the late Magdalenian bered that some of the caves are of great length and the paint- cultures. The drawings were almost certainly made for purposes of “symings often occur a long way underground; the necessity for a good light is obvious, as without illumination it would at times not be pathetic magic.” There are only two other possible explanations, at all easy. ever to find the exit. namely that they were made for motives of decoration or self The cave paintings are not all alike, nor of one age. They range “expression.” An examination of the circumstances in the caves in date from early Aurignacian to late Magdalenian times, though disproves these two latter. Man never lived deep in the heart of once again it is doubtful whether Solutrean man ever practised a the mountains where the paintings occur, and no trace of his inpictorial art. A combination of the evidence obtained from strati- dustries is there found, so decoration of the “home” can be ruled graphical and typological considerations applied to the art has out. Again not only do styles belonging to different phases, and given us a chronological sequence comprising a number of differ- therefore differing considerably in age, form palimpsests, but ent styles amd techniques. This has been made possible by the sometimes styles belonging to the same phase, and therefore not finding of a large number of painted palimpsests showing a se- very different in time, occur one on top of another. The result is quence of different styles superimposed one upon another and by hardly decorative! The occurrence of the art in obscure crannies noting that whenever observed the sequence of the various styles difficult of access argues against the desire of expression explanais always the same. In this way four distinct phases, as they are tion! On the other hand “sympathetic magic” offers a reasonable called, of different age and assignable to definite cultures have and likely motive, comparable with many of the manifestations been determined. Each of these phases shows a number of differ- of “sympathetic magic” that have been observed among modern ent styles of drawing which do not differ much from one another primitive peoples. The underlying fundamental desire was food— in age and belong to the same culture. They often have a limited a dire necessity in the case of a hunting people living under diffgeographical distribution. The artistic progress was not always cult conditions, and practising neither agriculture nor domesticaconstant, and there is evidence for a considerable degeneration at tion of animals, and having only inferior weapons, and no means of storing food. Doubtless as with many modern primitive peoples one period. Phase 1.—The engravings consist of meandering parallel lines pent-up emotion gave rise to ceremonial dances and the like; but and poorly drawn outlined figures of animals. Except towards the it would appear that part of the ritual consisted in taking the end of the phase only two legs are represented, the animals’ bodies hunter into the long cave and then showing him pictures of aniare depicted in profile, while the head is shown full face. The mals, very often with an arrow represented in their sides, and then same is true of the paintings with the addition that representa- the sending him forth suggesting to him that he would likewise suctions of the human hand occur. Where it is a direct impress it is cessfully hunt and kill them. The weirdness of the caves must known as a positive hand; where the hand has been placed on the have induced a state of mind on which suggestion would work cave wall and colour applied round it so that the surface of the easily, and the officiating sorcerer would induce self-confidence wall is coloured, except where the hand actually was, it is known in the hunter. And since in matters of the chase self-confidence Is half the battle, the sorcerer’s rites were no doubt quite effective. as a negative hand. Examples of both methods are known. Phase 2.—The engravings show great progress; no longer do That at any rate, in Magdalenian times, the artist-sorcerers formed we find merely a simple outline; the figures of animals are vigor- a definite class is probable; similar changes in the phases take ous and very wrue to life. All the little details like the cloven hoof place simultaneously over wide areas, a fact which argues for in the ox family and so on have been carefully remembered. An- definite schools of tradition; and further, a very interesting site other style especially common in Cantabria has been recognized has been discovered at Trois Fréres (Montesquieu-Ariége, where the engraving is much finer and the whole body of the ani- France), where there is a small chamber, with engraved walls mal is filled in with fine lines. The result is perhaps a little less which is dominated by a sort of pulpit, raft. from the ground and naturalistic, but none the less vigorous. The paintings, too, show, reached from behind, where no doubt the actual artist-medicine very great improvement and two styles have been isolated, “stump man-priest, stood. On the blank wall to the left is a representation

the darkness of the caves have been found hollowed out from a jump of stone, though a fragment of skull was often doubtless

drawing,” the shading producing an effect of relief and a technique where the outlines of the animal figures are made by delicate punctuations. Sculpture and reliefs are also known, and man’s desire to obtain a figure in three dimensions is further ex-

emplified by his habit of making use of natural bosses of stalactite inthe caves, more or less resembling the figures of animals, and painting gn them such necessary details as horns, nostrils, hoofs,

2 : as to turn them into good representations of the animals

esired. Phase 3.—The engravings exhibit a certain falling off in vigour,

though rot in skill, but the paintings show great degeneration. '

,

of the sorcerer himself, showing a man masked with antlers of a stag and the tail of an ox or horse. Another late palaeolithic art group is found covering the walls

of rock shelters in eastern Spain. The best known sites are at Cogul near Lérida and Alpera. The whole appearance of this art

is totally different from that with which we have been dealing. Scenes, rare in the former, are here common; human beings, generally conventionalized, are frequent; the bow and arrow is figured. Drawings of Quaternary animals, though known, are rare. Instead of occurring in long deep mysterious caves the paintings are found on the walls of shallow rock shelters, protected from the

24.2

ARCHAEOLOGY

nce of lichen growths on the weather, as is shown by the abse ved. walls where paintings have survi rn Spanish group are quite The motives underlying this easte but possibly sacred spots, s, home not unknown. The places were h whic had been decorated for where ritual practices took place, our churches are ornamented. of Many aS n much the same reaso ted seem to show, as might The numerous hunting scenes depic was a dominant considerafood for quest the be expected, that er, is dissimilar to that howev ght, tion. The situation in full dayli seem likely that the explanaof the cave paintings, and it would apply. here not do good tions which there held ed.

[STONE AGE

y of tool that appears of the small round type. The only new variet barbs which differ d forme y poorl is a broad, flat harpoon with instead of being from their Magdalenian forerunners in that the round stem from cting proje much and prominently cut out

sides of the flat piece they are now formed by notches cut in thereindeer antler, almost antler, of material. This is usually stag being now very rare. There exclusively used by the Magdalenians, or almond shaped) (round is generally a central attachment hole

cut through the base of the implement. date are known. There Hardly any engraved objects of Azilian a small stone covered of sting consi s is one example from Sorde pebbles have been river with meaningless lines. However, many of the Old Stone Age, 3rd Men or combinations n, lines Osbor and F. dots with .—H. apHy ochre Bretiocr of European Archaeology, found painted in red book Text, ister se these soMacal purpo S. what A. For R. (1918); (1923); W. J. Sollas, Ancient of both, forming veritable patterns. one site a At ); vol. i (1921); M. Boule, Fossil Man own. (1924 unkn is Spain made in were Man l es” Fossi pebbl ted aier, broken in G. called “pain Hunters, 3rd ed. (1924) ; H. Oberm vol. i. 2nd ed. (1924); G. ully caref been had one every The Cambridge Ancient History, M. C. Burkitt, Prehistory, 2nd number were found, and te ritual defini some had ); Maccurdy, Human Origin (r924 two, a fact which might suggest that they (M. C. B.) ngas: churi alian Austr with ared ). comp (1925 been ed. significance. They have , boards ing count y, mone MESOLITHIC it has been suggested that they were toys, on the pebrns patte ed paint the en that sudd a ders consi with Obermaier coincided The close of the palaeolithic periodtions which had obtained etc. Dr. represent highly conventionalized figures of human bechange in climate. The Arctic condi disappeared, the mean an- bles may human form appear in a ings. Similar conventionalizations of the throughout its middle and later phases ging to the late neobelon Spain old ern the and most of er art group in south nual temperature rose, forests appeared or migrated to cooler rock-sheltcopper age. But it is very uncertain whether any of this extinct lithic or quaternary fauna either became complete later conventionalized art can be ref erred to an Azilian culture, and and en sudd this of cause The . regions farther north cultural connection may perhaps have been con- comparisons therefore are dangerous unless a determined. The climatic change is unknown, but it be can art of of ugh ions thro estat break manif the final between the two in the prenected with some such phenomenon as vered disco ago long es redistribution of ocean so-called Azilian painted pebbl the Strait of Dover and the resulting land) are quite (Scot ness Caith in broch c Celti late a cincts of ction with currents, re and art disap- unlike true Azilian painted pebbles and have no conne Magdalenian man with his wonderful cultu er of different, more Or them. peared, his place being taken by a numb ,” Azilian industries of Europe until the most Using the flat harpoon as the “type fossil ied occup who es less isolated, peopl west as Asturias; in far as They have left us their have been recognized in north Spain arrival of the true neolithic civilization. in east France; in ees; Pyren h the Frenc for the ems of cts probl many the central distri industries which, though productive of in Belgium near ia; Bavar in by artistic manifes- Switzerland just south of Basle; (Yorks), near prehistorian, are for the most part unrelieved Settle near Cave ia at Victor some at n and s Britai origin Great ent Liége; in ere. tations. The various cultures had differ elsewh and island ay Orons But on olithic cultures, Kirkcudbright, at Oban, least had their roots in the older upper palae ently developed from appar tries indus his peras they well as which man under an Azili none the less in view of the new conditions new climatic of them and the fact upper palaeolithic predecessors under stress of the t invariably sisted, the interconnections between some almos were folk ed as palaeolithic, it conditions. Whereas the palaeolithic at Ofnet in that in general they certainly cannot be class found l buria an Azili g eestin archa the inter in an stage long-headed, rtion of propo has become advisable to create a new main in certa a total le derab among a consi hic periods. the Azilological record between the palaeolithic and neolit , Meso- Bavaria shows that ate ithic individuals; this may perhaps indic Several descriptive names—Transitional, Epipalaeolmany ways the round-headed mixed race. The burial in question consists of two in ians were a lithic—have been suggested for the new period; d skulls arranged in con. small pits or nests containing decapitate last of these seems to be the most satisfactory ochre present as well much is there west; been g far facin so The following different mesolithic cultures have the Asturian, centric circles, all aces and other objects of decoration. At one , as a number of neckl recognized in Europe; the Azilian, the Tardenoisean This place at least the bones of a dog have been found in an Azilian site. nian. Campig the and n Midde n Kitche the n, mosea the Magle belonging to this l sequence; The Tardenoisean Culture.—The industries list of cultures does not indicate any chronologica en Tardenois in Fére at n statio type the tely after comple named been culture and their relations to each other have not yet y of pygmy mainl t consis , France in the department of the Aisne, determined. les, blunted backs and triang s, lunate or at nts zed cresce recogni first ising was compr tools The Azilian Culture.—This culture l of the culture.

(Ariége, the like. There is also a small burin which is typica the and named after a site above the village of Mas d'Azil enters The pygmies indicate that Tardenoisean man had discovered river the as just Arise France) on the left bank of the of one made haft the has which tool the site there compo a a famous natural tunnel through the hill. While digging stratig- advantage of Thus a wooden or ng material and the working edges of another. used to mount the lectknown prehistorian M. Piette observed the followi be could tough and light is which bone haft raphy :— or saw teeth which are sharp though

flint pygmy knife blades ents less than half an Surface soil. brittle. Apart from their small size—cresc ). oundry f (with ies ic feature that all industr terist age charac bronze e and n—th ic Neolith inch in length are know the implements an). unlike (=Azili y that, is industr Loam with the new pygmy industries have in common they show is which ng chippi dary secon the Sterile loam with reindeer bones. of the older types, industhat it shall enian order Magdal in and blunt bones r edge reindee an Black loam with intended to make bank of generally en a working tough or shape to than rather tries similar to some already excavated on the right haft its not cut into y formed by the intersection the river. edge. The working edge itself is simpl Sterile gravels. of two flake surfaces. , but it is unsafe Pygmy industries have a world-wide distribution upper between y industr new The intermediate position of the discovery °

place palaeolithic and neolithic industries is here clearly seen. In former the tools, stone and bone of the splendid Magdalenian often beautifully decorated, the Azilian industries comprise poorly

and a made bone polishers, spatulae or chisels, rough bone awls

being monotonous series of flint tools, including scrapers, many

culture. to class them all as Tardenoisean in

The

made by many the advantages of a composite tool may have been distribution 0 the ss thele Never peoples at very different times.

of the Azilian. It the Tardenoisean culture is wider than that’ean and penetrates occurs all round the shores of the Mediterran

STONE AGE]

ARCHAEOLOGY

being found in Engnorthwards at each end of the alpine massif, a and land, France and Belgium on the one hand and in the Crime an Capsi late the with cted conne ly clear is Poland on the other. It

24.3

Since the Magdalenian culture in France probably coincided

with the Biihl oscillation, the Maglemosean culture, which is post-

Biihl and therefore post-Magdalenian, is thus seen to be truly mesolithic. It was in all probability contemporary with the Aziliowas earlier in time than upper palaeolithic, probably late Capsian, culture. At Valle in Tardenoisean culture farther south, but which however it is linked with Middens Kitchen the of culture her the toget found are tools an north Spain Tardenoisean and Azili and be separated except ties by cannot from many sharply which it fore are there in the same archaeological layer; the two cultures Midden other, Kitchen no the for if this in reason For then, age. the as her toget ed group often are contemporary. In fact they culture too must be classed as mesolithic. Azilio-Tardenoisean culture. At the Grotte des Enfants, near Maglemosean industries were first recognized under the “great show Mentone, occur many feet of archaeological deposits which near Mullerup on the west coast of Zealand. Since then heath” d Soluby turbe , undis an Aurignacian culture steadily developing many other sites have been discovered in Denmark. The industhat note g to estin inter is It ions. n invas lenia trean and Magda tries consist of stone and antler tools. The former comprise almost insensibly the Aurignacian tools diminish in size and change scrapers—both end scrapers and core scrapers—awls and a few find to ised surpr nt is stude s the layer top the in until form, their pygmies. The latter include pierced axes, or more frequently himself in the presence of an Azilio-Tardenoisean industry. adzes, as well as a characteristic type of harpoon having a single Vitof A Tardenoisean burial under a tumulus in the vicinity row of barbs. There are also pierced antler sleeves in which stone Bain Ofnet, At Obermaier. by described toria, Spain,.has been implements were affixed to give a sharp working edge, while the collected, been varia, Tardenoisean as well as Azilian tools have sleeves themselves were hafted on to a stick; the directions of the at notably found, are industries an Tardenoise and in England an industries of north Africa and was undoubtedly evolved from

holes through which the sticks must have passed relative to the Hastings and on the Pennine hills near Huddersfield. direction of the flint working edges show that these tools were chiefly occur industries Asturian he The Asturian Culture.—T usually adzes and not axes. in the north Spanish province of Asturias, where they were first The Kitchen Midden Culture.—The position of the Kitchen They have brought to light by the Count de la Vega del Sella.

been recognized also near Biarritz, and as far east as Catalonia; perhaps, too, traces of the culture occur farther north in France. The industries are found in veritable kitchen midden refuse heaps

which consist largely of sea shells that have been thrown into the

caves, these having served seemingly as dustbins for the inhabi-

tants. From stratigraphical evidence the Asturian culture is postAzilian, for deposits containing Asturian industries are found resting on others containing typical Azilian tools. Asturian implements are very crude, but there is one character-

istic tool, the pick, which is manufactured from a more or less oval river pebble by chipping one end of it so as to leave a rough

point. There are also some poorly made bone tools. Among the enormous quantity of the remains of shell-fish that have been found is the species trochus. This fact is important as it indicates that the mean annual temperature of the district must have been slightly higher than it is to-day. The Maglemosean Culture.—This culture is essentially north European, and industries belonging to it have been found in districts stretching from Poland to the Baltic; they are especially

common in the latter region. Isolated Maglemosean tools have been found as far west as eastern England, and south-westwards a site has been discovered in north-east France, near Bologne. Of great interest is the correlation of the Maglemosean culture with the earth movements that have taken place in the Baltic area since Quaternary times. At the end of the great ice age the whole area lay at a lower level than it does to-day and to the north of the Baltic sea there was a wide open channel connecting it with the Arctic ocean, The whole was known as the Yoldia sea, and in time this period corresponded with the post-glacial Bühl oscillation. There followed an uplift of the land when the Baltic became a lake known, from a small shellfish then common, as the Ancylus lake. At this period the pines which preceded the growth of oakwoods were predominant and it was now that the Maglemosean culture flourished. Later a second depression of the land occurred, but this time it was not on a large enough scale to produce a connection with the

Arctic ocean. However in place of the “Belts” a wide opening to

the North sea existed, and the increased Ancylus lake is now known as the Littorina sea because of the common occurrence in it of the shells of Littorina litorea. We find the pines were now largely teplaced by oaks and the Maglemosean culture by that of the Kitchen Middens. In Finland, however, Maglemosean industties are found associated with oak trees, which indicates that in this district they were of rather later date than in Denmark and were contemporary with the Kitchen Midden culture there. Finally a slight uplift occurred inaugurating conditions similar to those

Which prevail to-day, and at the same time the oaks gave way to the beech and the birch.

Midden culture relative to the Maglemosean culture and to the

post-glacial earth movements

in Scandinavia has been already

given. As regards its distribution—it is found near the coasts of south Scandinavia and round the southern shores of the Baltic— it is in fact again an essentially Baltic culture. It remains to say a few words about the industries themselves and their occurrence. The Kitchen Middens form low mounds a yard or more in height and sometimes covering an area of as much as rooyds. by 50 yards. They occur close to the coast and are composed almost entirely of the remains of shellfish thrown aside by man. In these rubbish heaps are often rough stone and bone implements, and

sometimes primitive burials. The remains of the dog are found and also a primitive pottery, the pots having a pointed bottom and a rough decoration just below the rim. The characteristic tool is a sort of chisel formed from a piece of flint or split stone pebble by squaring the sides, removing a large flake at one end and so obtaining a sharp edge by the intersection of this flake surface with the flat under-surface of the material. This tool also occurs commonly in the next culture to be considered. The same kind of antler tools and sleeves that were conimon in the Maglemosean culture persist, but now in the case of the sleeves it is noticeable that axes were the tools generally required. Tools made by a grinding or polishing technique are absent. There are indications that the climate must have been slightly warmer than it is to-day— may we for this reason suggest a contemporaneity for the Kitchen Midden and Asturian cultures?

The Arctic culture, perhaps connected with the Maglemosean culture, survived and developed undisturbed in the hinterlands where the Kitchen Midden folk do not seem to have penetrated. This culture is found in Scandinavia and Finland and may occur

even farther eastwards; to it belongs, in all probability, the well

known rock engraving art group of western Norway and northern and central Sweden, as well as some characteristically decorated pottery.

The Campignian Culture.—The Campignian culture is similar in many respects to that of the Kitchen Middens, but it is found in more southern areas distant from the coast-line. The type station is near Blangy-sur-Bresle (Seine Inférieure, France). Here are found a number of pit dwellings, oval in shape and varying in size, being sometimes as much as five yards in the longer diameter and several feet deep. Over these hollows there were

doubtless roofs formed of rough beams with an infilling of twigs and mud. At Campigny several of these pit dwellings had been

sunk in mammoth-bearing gravels of Quaternary age and the fol-

lowing section is vouched for by M. Capitan. At the bottom was

found a hearth with cinders and charcoal. Above these cinders was a yellow sandy loam containing Campignian tools. On the top was a modern humus which yielded, in one instance, a few

polished stone tools. The industries from the sandy loam included

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the typical Campignian axe already described in connection with the Kitchen Midden industries, rough awls, scrapers, etc., and a coarse kind of pottery. The distribution of the culture is restricted to the northern part of western Europe, more especially to the north of France and Belgium. The folk belonging to these various mesolithic cultures must have been in a primitive stage of civilization and must have eked out a somewhat precarious existence in the various parts of Europe. Nothing suggesting artistic tendencies in them has been found with the exception of a few more or less geometrically decorated objects of Maglemosean and Kitchen Midden age. Their story is very different from that of their immediate palaeolithic forbears; yet it is these people, in all probability, who very largely formed the basal stock of the later neolithic peoples of western Europe, absorbing the new knowledge introduced with the neolithic civilization, influences of which they began to feel both from the east and from the south at the end of mesolithic times. NEOLITHIC

Civilization is the right word to use for this stage of man's history, for the mode of life and general outlook of the folk of the new stone age was profoundly different from that of their palaeolithic and mesolithic forerunners. For this change four new discoveries or practices were mainly responsible; viz., (1) agriculture, (2) domestication of animals, (3) manufacture of pottery,

(4) tool-making by a grinding and polishing technique. The first two of these enabled man to lead a far less precarious existence than formerly, for he could by means of them store food against times of dearth. Further, a given area of country can support a far larger population under these conditions than it can when hunting and food collecting are the sole means of subsistence of the people. Again—and this particularly applies to the crop-growers—more settled communities developed, involving communal existence and therefore to a large extent specialization in work. The manufacture of pottery played a not unimportant part in the refinement of the home. The surface of an unbaked pot simply calls for decoration and it is not too much to say that art for art’s sake is in large measure coincident with the discovery of pottery making. A grinding and polishing technique enabled man to obtain a sharp and tough edge on fine-grained igneous rocks, a result unobtainable by chipping methods alone. In the case of flint a chipped edge is very sharp, but extremely brittle. A sharp, tough edge is essential for the carpenter, and any kind of woodwork had been impossible except on a very small scale before neolithic times. Agriculture.—Information under this head has largely been gained from investigations in Switzerland where, for protection against wild animals and the like, neolithic man often built villages on piles above the marshy margins and indeed sometimes stretching quite a long way out above the surfaces of lakes. He threw his rubbish down from the pile-supported platforms of the huts and it has often been preserved for us in the accumulations of mud and peat which have been deposited on the floor of the lake below. Examining these it has been found that amongst the earliest and most important of the various farinaceous groups cultivated by man there appears a small six-rowed barley (Hordeum hexastichum sanctum) and small wheat (Triticum vulgare antiquorum); after this comes the beardless compact wheat (Triticum vulgare compactum muticum) and the larger six-rowed barley (Hordeum hexastichum densum) with occasionally its two-rowed relative. Two kinds of millet also appear, as well as Egyptian wheat (Triticum turgidum) which is, however, a rarity. Oats, spelt and rye have not yet been found. Apples, pears and the poppy have been collected, and the parsnip, pigweed, walnut and grape were certainly eaten, as well as raspberries and blackberries. But most of these species doubtless occurred wild. Flax was used for cloth-making and in the manufacture of fishing nets, etc. For cultivating and preparing such crops as those indicated above ploughs or hoes would be needed to break up the ground, sickles to reap the crop, and some form of handmill to powder the grain. All these have been discovered in neolithic industries.

[STONE AGE

The first must often have been made of wood, and ploughs of this nature can still be seen in out of the way districts in Spain ang

elsewhere, but it was soon found that an unprotected share js rapidly destroyed. It has been suggested that in all likelihood many of the roughly chipped and pointed bars of quartzite ang other tough materials that are found may have been attached to

the share in such a way as to protect it from rough usage. Doubt. less too the land was often prepared for agricultural purposes by means of hoes, and polished tools suitable for hafting as such have been found, especially in the eastern, Danubian, area. The celt—the characteristic tool in neolithic industries (see FLInts)— may itself have been sometimes hafted and used for this purpose, Sickles consisted, as a rule, of a curved wooden haft, into a groove in the inner side of which long flint blades were fixed, their

working edges being frequently denticulated. The constant friction of these edges against the straw while reaping has produced on them a polish which is very characteristic, although it is not

unlike the sand polish found on flints in desert regions. The hand. mills were of the nature of pestles and mortars, or more frequently a sort of polished stone rolling pin and slightly concave slab of fine-grained sandstone. The Domestication of Animals.—Palaeolithic man may have occasionally tamed wild animals and these may have been made

to work for him, but true domestication involves breeding in captivity, a custom which does not appear before the neolithic civiliza-

tion developed. The first animals to be domesticated were dogs, sheep and goats, cattle and pigs. The horse was not mastered until a later date. Bones of dogs have been found in one or two instances in mesolithic industries, and already in neolithic times there were two distinct varieties; one, derived from the jackal, being a housedog variety; another derived from the wolf, being a sheepdog. There are four basal stocks from which all sheep are

derived: (1) the Mouflon, (2) the Urial, (3) the Argali, (4) the American Bighorn. The Mouflon existed wild in western Europe in Quaternary times, but the species seems to have become ‘extinct before mesolithic times and the first domestic sheep known in Europe—the so-called “turbary” sheep of the Swiss lake dwellings—was of Urial stock, probably introduced from central Asia. Later there appears in Europe a hybrid of this with the Mouflon. Hybrids with the Argali stock are only found at a much later period. Wild cattle (Bos primigenius) existed in palaeolithic times. They were of large size and had immense spreading horns. The frst cattle to be domesticated had, however, short horns, and were also probably introduced into Europe from central Asia. They are named Bos longifrons (formerly known as Bos brachyceros). Later the Bos primigenius itself was domesticated and hybrids developed. The wild pig existed in late palaeolithic times and was painted on the walls of caves by Magdalenian man. But the “turbary” pig found in a domestic state in neolithic settlements was a much smaller animal with comparatively long legs. Central Asia was probably its place of origin.

Pottery.—In one or two instances fragments of what has been described as pottery have been found in palaeolithic industries,

but no finished article has been yet unearthed. True pottery (¢.v.) is made by moulding carefully prepared clay into the required shape and scientifically firing it after it has been mixed with something, sand or other micaceous material, or charcoal made

from burnt wood or bones, to render it porous so that the steam when formed may readily escape. Most clays contain a small quantity of iron salts, and if firing takes place in the presence of air, these oxidize and produce a red colour. If, however, the air is absent when the clay is fired, the colour is usually black or grey. Man soon learnt the use of “slip.” The pot was moulded out of quite coarse material and then, just before firing, was dipped into a mixture made of a fine clay and water. A thin veneer of this mixture thus covered the pot and formed a smooth outer surface over the inner coarser material from which the main body of the pot was made. Even in mesolithic times a crude attempt at decoration is found, generally made with a piece of stick or impresses of the finger. In later neolithic times pottery decoration included both engraved and painted vessels, and in the case of the former the

ARCHAEOLOGY

STONE AGE]

engraved lines were sometimes filled in with a white or coloured material, often giving a striking and beautiful effect.

The Grinding and Polishing of Tools—Hitherto in Europe

practically all stone tools had been made from flint or flinty ma-

terial; but now in neolithic times, with the invention of the pro-

cesses of grinding and polishing, any fine-grained compact rock could be used and could be given an edge both sharp and tough.

For this purpose however slabs of fine-grained sandstone were needed to form the grindstones. In such areas as East Anglia,

where sandstone suitable for this purpose does not occur, the

chipping technique continued to be employed for everything far

longer than elsewhere, as did also the use of flint. In fact, fre-

quently a polished tool—no doubt a rare treasure—had to be resharpened by chipping. Flint itself can be ground and polished

24.5

which lie to the east of the Caspian sea. Though desert lands, at the end of Quaternary times quite prevailed; large areas of country were covered inland ocean, of which the Caspian sea, Lake

to-day these are other conditions by an immense Aral and Lake

Balkash, etc., are the dwindled remains, and the regions round about it were highly fertile. Neolithic influences too probably reached the western area from Spain and the Mediterranean regions. Tombs.—In the northern and western areas one common feature is the development of a series of very interesting tombs constructed with immense roughly dressed stones, which in some

cases weigh many tons. How these blocks of rock were moved

into position remains a mystery. The simplest form of tomb, called a “dolmen,” consists essentially of a large more or less flat also, and the edge so produced is distinctly tougher than that slab of rock supported on three or more uprights . The whole was formed when it is merely chipped. sometimes left open, sometimes covered with a mound of earth, Fine-grained igneous rocks occur in many places, especially in forming a tumulus. Dolmen s appear first and continue well into the west of England, but flint, which was still preferred for many the bronze age. Somewhat later than their first appearance the purposes, has a more capricious distribution.

It occurs in bands

in limestone deposits, and primitive man frequently obtained his raw material by mining it. Many of these mines are known both

in England and on the Continent.

One of the most famous is

Grimes Graves near Brandon in Suffolk. There a number of shafts were sunk which struck the flint-bearing strata at a depth of about 40 feet. From the bottom of the shaft passages radiated in all directions, along them the raw material was brought to the bottom of the shaft and thence hoisted to the surface. It would

seem probable that mining in a simple way was started at Grimes

Graves as early as late mesolithic times, but its importance grew

throughout the neolithic period and it was, in all probability, still flourishing during the earlier part of the bronze age. Throughout mesolithic and neolithic times the climate of Europe

played an important part in the history of the cultures we are considering. Climatic changes show themselves in variations of

both temperature and humidity. but little concerned after the end no startling temperature changes comparable to those of the old

With the former of these we are of the great ice age. There were in mesolithic and neolithic times stone age, but there were alter-

nately warm-dry and warm-damp periods, and these have profoundly affected humanity because during warm-damp periods forests increased and flourished, while in times of greater dryness they retreated and dwindled. Not until the days of the roadmaking Romans was man able to withstand the growth of forests and in consequence he had to retreat and migrate elsewhere. It is a fact that the many movements of peoples which took place in pre-Roman times were largely the result of forest growths and therefore of climatic changes. During most of the mesolithic period the climate was warm and dry, except near the Atlantic seaboard where damp conditions prevailed. But at the end of this time, warm, damp conditions set in with the result that forests flourished and in fact covered the whole of central Europe. For this reason the neolithic civilization in these districts was unable to spread over the continent and as a result there developed three more or less distinct cultural areas; an eastern including the basin of the Danube, a northern comprising the lands round the Baltic sea and north Germany, and a western which includes Britain, France, Belgium, parts of Holland, Switzerland, etc. Interchange or commerce between them was of course always possible up river valleys and over loess lands, where dense forests did hot readily extend even under favourable climatic conditions, but between the northern and western areas communication was made specially difficult, as much of what is now north Holland was then under the sea.

At the end of neolithic times the climate again became warm

and dry with the result that the primaeval forests dwindle d and

the people of all the three areas pushed in to occupy the forest-free lands of central Germany. Naturally the contact now with

each other engendered a large number of hybrid cultures and the examinat ion of these has developed into an exceedingly difficult

and complex study, Whence did the neolithic civilization penetrate into Europe? Probably to a great extent from those regions of central Asia

passage-grave, corridor-grave or allée couverte was made.

This

consists of a small chamber of upright stones with a lid upon the top, access to which is obtained by means of a corridor, itself composed of upright stones upon which roofing flags are laid. The whole construction is usually covered by a mound of earth and there is often a sort of threshold where the end of the passage emerges from the tumulus. Several varieties of this grave type are known. Sometinies in France, more rarely in England, there is a division made between the passage and the chamber consisti ng of a large flag pierced by a round hole just large enough to admit a person. These are called “port-hole entrance” corridor-graves. Passage-graves are frequently of immense size. At the Cueva Menga, for example, near Antequera in the south of Spain, there is a chamber, over 25 metres long by rather more than 6 metres wide and nearly 3 metres high, completely covered by only five lid stones. Finally there appears the “stone-kist.” This consists of a small chamber, sometimes so small in size as to be a mere coffin, buried under a tumulus, there being no passage to the exterior. Stone-kists continued to be used in the bronze age. Excavat ions in these megalithic monuments have often yielded a rich funeral furniture consisting of pottery, implements and objects of decoration. The occurrence of animal bones may suggest the practice of sacrificial meals. Sometimes the human body or bodies were buried at once in the tomb; sometimes, however, the tombs seem to have been merely ossuaries where the bones were preserved after decomposition of the body had taken place elsewhere. Inhumation, not cremation, seems almost entirely to have been the rule in neolithic times. In some cases the stones composing the tomb have been roughly sculptured, it being possible to recognize poorly drawn animals, conventionalized figures of men, signs and the like. Besides these tombs single standing stones marking a burial below are often found. These are sometimes of enormous height and may or may not be dressed; they are known as menhirs. Circles of small menhirs are known as cromlechs. Occasionally a single menhir is found in the centre of such a stone circle. Sometimes they are arranged in parallel lines forming a series of ave-

nues.

These are known as alignments.

The most important yet

discovered are those at Carnac (g.v.) in Brittany where there are ten such avenues stretching for more than a quarter of a mile and leading down from a large cromlech. The reasons for building these cromlechs and alignments and the uses to which they were

put are not known.

The place of origin and the distribution of the practice of burial under megalithic constructions, as they are in general termed, is of great interest. One view is that the practice Originated in Egypt and spread thence over parts of Europe. It is difficult, however, to find enough connecting links to support this theory. In southern Spain, megalithic tomb construction was practised throughout the new stone age, which was of very short duration there and early developed into a copper-using culture, owing to the occurrence locally of suitable ores. The various methods of building there employed and the great size to which the construc-

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246

tions attained suggest that southern Spain (see Spain; Archaeology) may have been an actual cradle of the megalithic tomb culture, and this seems more than likely when we consider the geographical situation of Spain and how easily influences from the

east would be felt there, tending to contribute to the early growth of a rich native culture.

oa

The motives lying behind the construction of these megalithic tombs remain obscure. Undoubtedly they involve the conception of some sort of cult of the dead. If a dead body is just thrown on one side it becomes a prey of wild beasts. Again, if a heap of stones or earth, sufficient to protect the dead body from such wild animals, is heaped over the corpse, the weight crushes the body out of recognition. It may be that, in the first instance, the difficulty was got over by the creation of a small chamber in which the body could lie secure, and that later these chambers grew in size and the cult, whatever it was, developed. Exactly what the builders of the megalithic tombs believed about their dead or whether the details of the buildings were the result of any particular belief we cannot tell.

[STONE AGE

made from coarse material and is but roughly decorated. Various types of pots, including cups, spoon-like objects and so on, have been found.

A number of special industries have been found in the lake dwellings of Switzerland and northern Italy. In the first place these areas seem to have been occupied by folk from the eastern area. Later, however, there was a change of climate; the lakes rose and the early villages were submerged. Then the level of the lakes again sank and the area was repopulated, but it is now rather to the West than to the East that we must look for the revival of the lake dwelling culture. Small, very beautifully made

polished celts are found, often fashioned from green stone, and these were often hafted Bone awls, needles and harpoons were made. made but somewhat larger and quite different

a carefully selected into antler sleeves, They are often well in appearance from

their palaeolithic precursors. The pottery, too, is good and shows various characteristic forms and decorations. At the end of ne-

olithic times quite a commerce in a special fine, honey-coloured flint found in France at Grand Pressigny grew up. Tools made from this material are found in Switzerland, as well as in Belgium

Dwellings.—Neolithic man lived in huts which were often grouped together in clusters or villages. Not infrequently these and elsewhere. The Northern Area.—In the northern area the development were fortified and on the tops of hills. The simplest form of hut is the pit dwelling, such as that described in connection with the is not quite the same as in the western area and there seems to Campignian culture, circular, oval or occasionally in the form of a have been an admixture of peoples, a theory which is confirmed trench with a fireplace in the bottom and a roof above it. In dry by the occurrence of several different types of skeletons. The areas this kind of home has obvious advantages; it is warm, fairly basal stock was probably also mesolithic and it may be assumed draught-proof and the roof is easy to construct as it can spring that it was connected with that of the Kitchen Midden folk. The directly from the level of the ground. In late neolithic times, second influence was of a totally new people who introduced a wooden houses, often well made, with two or even more compart- characteristic type of stone tool, bored for hafting and known as ments and occasionally two storeys, occur. In certain areas, espe- the Battle Axe. Their dead were buried singly in flat graves, not cially in Switzerland and the countries bordering the Alps both on several together in megalithic tombs. These single graves first the northern and southern sides, villages were built on piles driven appear in Jutland in early neolithic times. Some authorities coninto the floors of lakes. The piles were sometimes 3oft. in length sider that this culture developed around the shores of the Baltic, and gin. thick, and as many as 50,000 have been counted in a others that it arrived as an invasion, having been evolved originally single village. Beams laid horizontally on the tops of the piles in southern Russia. However this may be, the Battle Axe folk formed platforms on which the houses were constructed. Ac- proved themselves to be the dominant strain and later, when the cess to the shore was assured either by rafts or sometimes by a nar- climate became dryer and the forests dwindled, we find large row causeway. This type of village had the obvious advantages of areas of the northern part of central Europe, hitherto scarcely security and rubbish could be easily disposed of. (See LAKE inhabited, occupied by these people of the northern area. The industries of the northern area comprise the celt, chisel, DWELLINGS.) The Western Area.—In all probability the neolithic people of gouge, battle axe, etc., and the pottery both in form and decorathe western area were in a large measure of the same stock as their tion is more varied and better made than it was in the western mesolithic predecessors. The old folk adopted, and adapted area. The characteristic feature of the decoration consists of a themselves to, the new neolithic civilization, which enabled a series of close deep zigzags running round the body of the vessel, larger population to exist in the same areas. This mesolithic back- quite different from the shallower poorly engraved lines of the ground explains a certain monotony which is apparent in the neo- western area decorations. Scandinavian authorities have shown lithic industries of the western area. Indeed it was not till the end that the dolmen preceded the passage-grave which, in turn, apof neolithic times that western Europe began seriously to forge peared before the stone-kist. If we consider the evolution of the ahead. The new civilization seems to have been introduced partly stone celt in the northern area (see FLINTS), the evolutionary from intercourse with the Danubians of the eastern area, which series of this family will be found to agree with this determination, could take place by way of the Danube and the Rhine, following the final development being only found in the stone-kist, an earlier the forest-free lands of southern Germany, and partly from south form in the passage-grave, and the first development from the Spain. In Belgium there appears what is known as the Omalian original type in the simple dolmen. It is thus possible to divide culture which on stratigraphical grounds seems to occur very the neolithic period of the northern area into three periods. The neolithic civilization continued far longer in these northearly in a neolithic sequence. Omalian pottery shows undoubted connections with that of the eastern area, In a similar manner ern regions than it did elsewhere, especially where natural copper connections with south Spain can be demonstrated and the mega- was easily obtainable. In such areas the pure neolithic civilization was of short duration and it is probable, for example, that in south lithic constructions penetrated northwards from that region. The most typical tool in neolithic industries is the ground and Spain copper was in use throughout most of the period contem-

polished celt. (See Frints.) The development of this tool in the western area is different from that in the northern area; the stumpy massive basal type becomes finer, longer and flatter and

develops into an almost chisel-like tool. Another type of tool common in these industries is the so-called neolithic pick which consists essentially of a roughly chipped bar of flint or other material, blunted at one end and having a sharp cutting edge at the other. It varies considerably in length. A smaller variety, much more neatly made and sometimes ending in a rounded rather than a sharp working edge, is known as a fabricator. Awls also occur, as well as beautifully chipped flint arrow heads, but these latter only develop at the very end of neolithic times and during the earliest metal age.

The pottery of the western area is largely

porary with neolithic times farther north.

Owing to its geographical situation the problems connected with the neolithic civilization in England are not always easy to unravel. The country was undoubtedly influenced both from the northern and western areas. This can be shown from a study of the pottery,

which falls readily into two groups.

The distribution of one of

these groups covers all the north of England and stretches down as far as Dorset, while the distribution of the other is centred farther south and only extends as far north as Yorkshire. All three kinds of megalithic tomb occur; the passage-grave is usually

covered by an oval or pear-shaped tumulus (long barrow), that covering the later stone-kist (which in England already belonged

to the bronze age) being circular (round barrow). The industries

BRONZE AGE]

ARCHAEOLOGY

are rich but vary considerably in different parts of the country and it is not always easy to assign them with certainty to a purely neolithic culture; thus the surface finds in East Anglia, which in-

clude arrow heads, awls, chisels etc., belong in part, at any rate, to the culture of the “Beaker” folk who reached East Anglia at the end of neolithic times, probably bringing with them the knowledge and practice of copper working together with characteristically shaped and decorated pottery vessels called “bell beakers.”

On the surface of the downs in southern England, however, rough flint implements seem to have been in use until comparatively recent times, and Kipling’s story of the stone worker going down into the woods to get the metal knife is by no means too fanciful. That flint was in use for certain purposes in the bronze age and even in the iron age is attested by the fact that flint implements are found in villages and settlements belonging to these periods. With the change of climate at the end of neolithic times and the setting in of warm dry conditions it became possible to cross the Alps by way of the Brenner pass. The first people who seem

to have penetrated by this route into northern Europe were the “Beaker” folk. From the cradle of their culture in south Spain they passed into Italy and thence into northern Europe, whence, turning westwards, they eventually arrived in England via the Rhine valley. Another branch of the same people reached Brittany, but there seems to have been no connection between that

country and England as the types of pottery developed in the two areas are dissimilar. The “Beaker” folk introduced the use of copper to the northern peoples, but very soon afterwards the manufacture of bronze was evolved and a close contact with the more developed peoples of the Mediterranean was assured by the growth in the north of an export trade in metal ores, especially in tin from Bohemia. See J. M. Tyler, The New Stone Age in Northern Europe (1921) ; H. Reiuerth, Chronologie der Tungeren Steinzeit in Süddeutschland (Augsburg, 1923); V. G. Childe, The Dawn of European Civilization (1925); M. C. Burkitt, Our Early Ancestors (1926); and the Cambridge Ancient History, vol, i. (M. C. B.)

2. BRONZE AGE The Bronze Age is the name commonly applied to that stage of human culture during which the alloying of copper with tin in regular proportions became a widespread practice, and the material thus obtained was used for tools and weapons as a supplement to or a substitute for stone. Its end begins when iron was frst used for these purposes. The term has no absolute chronological value, but marks a period of civilization through which the peoples of Europe, Egypt, many parts of Asia, as well as some parts of Central America, passed at one time or another. At the beginning of the bronze age metal was relatively scarce, though more so in some places than in others, so stone tools were used for many purposes, while the poorer folk had to be content with the cheaper material for all their needs, and those who had bronze implements apparently remelted old ones to get material for new ones. Thus it happens that in many regions, especially in the north-west of Europe, flint tools and weapons were for a time made in imitation of those of bronze, and only sporadic finds of early bronze implements occur during the earlier phase of the bronze age. It is considered, however, that a region had entered the bronze age as soon as that metal had made its appearance

there, however rare its use may have been. Thus the overlap of the different materials is considerable. Stone was used throughout the bronze age, and hoes and other flint implements were not uncommon during the earlier centuries of the iron age. It is generally believed that bronze was first used about 2000 B.C., or perhaps a little earlier, and that the knowledge of this alloy spread rapidly to most parts of Europe and the adjacent parts of Asia and Africa. Some of the outlying areas, however, and those remote from trade routes, remained ignorant of the new material

for several centuries, or, if aware of its existence, were too poor

to obtain supplies. This seems to have been true for parts of south

and central France, for Norway and for the north-east of Europe,

while bronze did not appear in Switzerland until it arrived from taly several centuries after it had been known in most of the coastal lands of Europe.

247

Use of Copper.—Copper had been known and freely used in the Near East from a very early date, and the knowledge of this metal spread thence to Crete, Greece and other parts of south-east Europe, as well as along the Mediterranean sea to south Italy, Sicily, Spain and Portugal. Thence it may have spread to Brittany and perhaps to Denmark, but whether it then reached the British Isles is uncertain. Copper tools of an early type have been found in Britain and more commonly in Ireland, but it is uncertain at present whether it is safe to speak of a British copper age. It seems, on the evidence available at the moment, that bronze was the first metal to reach these shores. It was difficult to obtain tin in Ireland, and bronze tools may well have been copied in copper in that island. _ Small traces of tin, probably due to the accidental presence of impurities in the ore, have been found in a few copper objects of very early date found in Mesopotamia, but there is no evidence that true bronze, intentionally alloyed, occurs there earlier than clsewhere. A fine adze-head, with a hole perforated to receive the shaft, has recently been found at Ur some feet beneath buildings of the 1st dynasty of that city. It is composed of an alloy of gold, silver and copper, with a trace of tin. It has been stated that the statue of Pepi I., a king of the sth dynasty in Egypt, was made of bronze; this has recently been shown to be erroneous, for the statue is of copper, though a band added much later is of bronze. Again a rod of bronze was found in a tomb of the 6th dynasty at Medûm, but, since this is the only example of bronze for which so early a date has been claimed, most authorities now believe that, owing to the carelessness of a workman, it must have fallen in from a higher layer. It has been claimed that the earliest tools and weapons found in Crete were of bronze, but recent analyses have shown that most of these were of copper, and the earliest daggers, proved to be of bronze, came from tombs that were in use as late as the first middle Minoan period. (See AEGEAN CrvILIZATION.) Hissarlik Finds.—The earliest specimens of undoubted bronze were obtained by Schliemann from the second city at Hissarlik: they formed part of the famous hoard L. This city was twice rebuilt and the period of its existence may thus be divided into three phases. It seems clear that hoard L belonged to the third of these phases, which is roughly contemporary with the first middle Minoan period in Crete and with the 11th and 12th dynasties in Egypt. This phase may thus be dated roughly as having lasted from about 2200 to about 1900 B.C. It has been pointed out recently that objects, some clearly made at the second city at Hissarlik and others that are imitations of such objects, have been found at various sites throughout the central portion of the Danube basin, in the Moravian gap, and still farther north in Silesia and Saxony. A line of trade seems to have existed along this route at that time, and it has been suggested that traders from Hissarlik came hither in search of metal ores. It is believed that ultimately they found and worked the copper deposits of the Erzgebirge and later on the tin lodes in the same region. As a result of this, it would seem, the discovery was made that a certain percentage of tin, added to the copper, increased its hardness and made it possible to make castings in a closed mould. How early this discovery was made, and whether by the Hissarlik traders or by the Bohemian miners, is uncertain; it seems likely, however, that bronze, hardened by the addition of about 6 to 10% of tin, was being made and used at Hissarlik as early as the beginning of the third phase of the second city, if not earlier. Thus we may believe, with a fair measure of certainty, that bronze was known in the Aegean about 2200 B.C. This date accords well with the available evidence from Crete, Egypt and other fields of archaeological activity, Not long after the discovery of bronze we find a considerable development of metallurgy arising in Bohemia and Saxony. The civilization in which this first arose is known as the Aunjetitz culture, from the site at which this industry was first noted, a village

some miles south of Prague. All the evidence available at the moment suggests that it was from these two centres, Hissarlik and Bohemia, that the knowledge of bronze became dispersed throughout Europe and the adjacent regions.

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[BRONZE AGE

Since bronze, unlike copper, could be cast in closed moulds Trade Routes.—For some centuries preceding the discovery of bronze, Hissarlik had been in touch with Syria and Mesopo- it was possible to make a great variety of forms, and the bronze tamia, probably by an overland route connecting it with the settle- age is essentially a period of metallurgical experiments. As ye. ment of Sumerian traders at Kara Euyuk in the Halys basin, and gards tools and weapons, the bronze age exhibits far more types thence also, through the Cilician gorge, with Cyprus. Hissarlik than are met with during the much longer period in which iron had sea connections with the Cyclades, the inhabitants of which and steel have been in use. This is especially true for axes, spearwere carrying on a trade with the people of south Russia and the heads, daggers and swords. The types show a steady development northern slopes of the Caucasus; also with the Cretans, who had from the primitive shapes, formerly made in copper, based as they were in most cases upon for long traded with Egypt. A further line of connection has been stone models. There are, howtraced between Hissarlik and Euboea, and it is suspected that ever, several parallel lines of dethe by perhaps peninsula, Balkan the crossed route another trade velopment, which pursued their line afterwards followed by the Via Egnatia, to the shores of the courses simultaneously in differAdriatic. By some such routes the products of Hissarlik had ent regions. This is especially already reached a line of trade, which, starting from the neightrue of the axe-heads, which, owbourhood of Corinth, passed the island of Leucas to the eastern ing to the many phases exbibited Sicily, of coast south-east the to sea by thence and shore of Italy, by their evolution, form the best where the most important trading post was at the spot where series by which we can build up Megara Hyblaea afterwards arose. From Sicily there are indicaa relative and, to some extent, tions of trade in various directions; to the Ligurian coast, the a positive chronology. mouth of the Rhone, to Sardinia and the Balearic islands, and as Axe-head Types.—The axe. reason even is There Portugal. and Spain far as the coasts of for believing that from Portugal a further line of coastal trade ran FLAT AXE-HEAD, THE EARLIEST TYPE heads found in the second city of OF BRONZE AXE Hissarlik are plain flat blades, to Brittany and the Channel islands, and ultimately to Ireland and with slightly expanded edges and the butts usually rectangular, the west of Britain, as well as to the amber coast of Denmark. With the discovery of bronze, a few centuries before 2000 B.C., though in a few cases they are semicircular; a few are long and this trade increased, and we find objects, bearing unmistakable narrow, with rectangular butts, and more nearly resemble the affinities to metal tools found at Hissarlik, Crete and Cyprus, at blades of chisels. This long and narrow type was most commonly all the places mentioned as far as Portugal. In the Iberian pen- used in the Aegean region, and, under the influence of the insula various centres of metallurgy arose, and there can be little double axes of stone that had already developed in south doubt but that the supplies of Cassiterite, found in that peninsula, Russia, these soon acquired a thickness at the centre, which were worked very early in the bronze age. The need for tin sup- was perforated for a haft, thus forming a long and slender plied an added impetus to this trade, and we find evidence of double axe. As time went on the two blades became wider and shorter and the edges more extended. In Cyprus the axe-heads greater activity along the coastal regions. In the Iberian peninsula there arose several metallurgical cen- with the semicircular butts acquired narrower and more pointed tres, of which two are the most important; one in the copper butts, until the blade became triangular. Those with rectangular bearing region of south-east Spain, the other in south Portugal. and with semicircular butts were carried to the Iberian peninsula, The latter seems to have traded mainly with the west of Brittany, where the former became more commonly used in Portugal Ireland and the west of Britain, while the route from Spain passed and the latter in south-east Spain. The Portuguese type was by land along the coast to the neighbourhood of Narbonne, carried to the west of Brittany, to Ireland and the west of Britain, through the Carcassonne gap, down the Garonne valley and along while the Spanish type seems to have travelled through the Carthe Atlantic coast to the Morbihan; thence it passed across cassone gap and over land to the Cotentin and thence to England. It was this latter type that acquired a thickness at the sides, Brittany, probably up the Cotentin peninsula, and thence to various points on the south coast of England. At an early date some due to blows designed to keep the blade in place, thus forming of the traders who followed this route landed near St. Austell, slight flanges. These were then cast and developed in depth until and doubtless discovered the tin deposits of Cornwall. For a what is known as the flanged axe-head appeared. The place of origin of this type is uncertain, but it seems likely that it arose time, at least, the route to Denmark was discontinued. The Aunjetitz culture arose in Bohemia out of a copper culture, in the copper area of south-east Spain. Thence it travelled, not only to England by the route alin which a few objects of poor bronze are occasionally found. ready traced, but along the shores This copper culture is known as the Marschwitz culture, from the of the Mediterranean, across the village of that name, near Oblau in Silesia, where the culture was Rhone valley and the pass of first noted. A few bronze axes, similar in shape to some found Mt. Genevre into north Italy, at Hissarlik II., found their way to Bohemia and farther north in where it assumed a more elonGermany before the beginning of the true Aunjetitz culture, and gated form, with a more develtheir distribution north of the Elbe gap suggests the existence of oped edge, sometimes spatulate trade routes to various places on the southern shore of the Baltic in shape, and with a small notch between Jutland and Danzig. It was not, however, until the latter in the butt. From Italy this last half of the first period of the bronze age that the Aunjetitz cultype of axe-head spread in many ture, which received influences from Italy, and perhaps indirectly directions, across the Alps into from Spain, was fully developed. The culture then spread rapidly to Silesia, Saxony, Moravia and Bavaria, and even as far as FLANGED AXE-HEAD, THE SECOND SWitzerland, into many parts of France, across the Brenner pass, Lower Austria and Hungary. Though the people responsible for TYPE OF BRONZE AXE down the valley of the Inn, and so through Bohemia into Saxony. this culture did not spread north of a line running through Magdeburg from Glogau to Brunswick, their bronze wares were carried Ultimately some form of flanged axe-head spread into most parts almost all over north Germany, especially in the region lying of Europe. The advantage of the flanges was that the axe-head could not between the Ems and the Oder, while some found their way still farther to the north-east. Only along the shores of the Baltic now slip sideways from the cleft stick that formed the haft, but are they lacking, except in the Province of Holstein. Thus we constant use of this tool caused the haft to split farther with find two groups of implements, the one starting from the Aegean every blow until it became useless. To avoid this, a ridge was and spreading coastwise to Normandy, the British Isles, and, cast across the middle of the blade, to receive the impact of later, to Scandinavia, while the other radiates from the Erzge- the blow and thus to avoid the farther splitting of the haft; birge region, spreading chiefly to the north and reaching Scandi- this is known as a stop-ridge. Thus was developed the form of axe-head, known as a palstave, with flanges or wings on the upper navia mainly through Schleswig and Jutland. i

BRONZE AGE]

ARCHAEOLOGY

half of the blade and a pronounced -stop-ridge. What appear to be the primitive forms of this palstave have been found in Schleswig, and the early development of the palstave took place principally in north Germany. The use of this type of axe-head spread widely in north Europe and ultimately down the west of the continent as far as Portugal, in which land flanged axes had been unknown. It remained in use for many centuries, during which at least six successive variants can be traced. In the south, however, the flanges developed in size, though they were confined, sometimes to the centre, but more often to the butt end of the blade. These flanges, or wings as they are called, were hammered round the haft until they almost met, and later were cast in this form. This last type, the winged axehead, was the prevailing form in the south of Europe and in the southern part of central Europe, especially in Bavaria, and remained in use there until long after iron had become the matePALSTAVE, A LATER TYPE THAT DErial employed for most cutting VELOPED IN THE NORTH tools and weapons. Towards the close of the bronze age this type was occasionally carried still farther north, for it occurs, though rarely, in England and Denmark. In Saxony axe-heads like other tools took on forms peculiar to that area, though they were carried thence to most of the

H

adjoining regions. It seems probable that it was in this area that

there developed a new type of axe-head, known as the socketed axe-head, in which the haft fitted into a hollow socket in the blade, though how this form arose igs still uncertain. The advantage of this form was that the end of the haft could not split, while every blow fixed it more firmly into the socket. This type of axe-head spread over most parts of Europe except the south, and has been found in great numbers in the Cotentin; it seems to have been carried, as we shall see, not so much by the ordinary channels

changes cannot Minoan slightly region,

249

are still more marked in the first daggers of bronze, which with certainty be dated earlier than the first middle period. Daggers of this type, often with their sides concave, are found distributed over the Mediterranean especially in the Iberian peninsula. They did not, how-

ever, at the beginning of the bronze age reach the British Isles, where there occurs during the earliest period a type of flat dagger, with convex sides, the origin of which is obscure, Daggers of the Spanish type arrived first in Britain with flanged axe-heads. As time went on the daggers with concave sides became longer and with narrower butts, until these became trapezoidal in shape and attached to the handles with four rivets. This type is often called the dirk. These dirks continued to be made with longer and longer blades, until they became sword-like in length, when they are often known as rapiers. These rapiers were used all over the west of Europe, from Spain to Britain, until the introduction of the leaf-shaped sword, which arrived with the socketed axehead under circumstances that will be described later. Another s variant of the Aegean dagger seems to have developed in north Italy. This was absolutely triangular, with straight sides, parallel to which were two or three straight grooves. These were carried to France and more rarely to Britain; they have also been found in Switzerland, and more commonly in Bohemia. Daggers of the Spanish type were often attached to long poles by being inserted in a cleft and riveted; the blade was usually attached at right angles to the pole or nearly so. Daggers that have been so attached are known as halberds, and they are found SPEAR HEADS abundantly in Spain and PortuA. Of middle Bronze Age gal, also in Ireland. They occur



By Ot Tate Bronze: Age

more rarely in France and Eng-

land and one has been found in Holland; they found their way, too, into the region of the Saale and the Elbe, whither the Aunjetitz culture had already penetrated, and here the shaft and blade were cast in one piece in bronze. In Britain flat daggers, not unlike those of the Spanish type, but with a long tang, were attached upright at the ends of staves, and used as spear-heads. As the tang tended to split the staff,

this was enclosed in a bronze ferrule, which was attached by rivets to the staff. Then blade and ferrule, including the rivetheads, were cast in one piece, thus producing the first socketed spear-head. These at first had loops at their sides, and later at

WINGED AXE-HEAD, A LATER TYPE THAT DEVELOPED IN THE SOUTH

SOCKETED AXE-HEAD, A TYPE THAT DEVELOPED IN CENTRAL EUROPE

of trade as by considerable movements of peoples, which took place in the centuries immediately preceding 1000 B.C.

Dagger Types.—We must now tum to another implement,

which was in general use from the beginning of the bronze age,

and had been made in considerable quantities during the preceding ropper age. This was the dagger, often used, no doubt, as a knife, The earliest copper daggers found in Crete and the Aegean até roughly triangular, with broad butts to which the handles Were attached by rivets. Similar daggers have been found in Sicily and south Italy. Before the close of the copper age the

blades had become longer and the butts narrower, and these

the base of the blade, through which leather thongs could be passed for strengthening the attachment. Finally this was achieved by passing a long rivet through socket and shaft, During the pre-copper and copper ages there had been great movements of peoples across Europe and in some places a mingling of peoples of diverse origins and customs. During the earlier half of the bronze age the population seems to have been fairly stationary, and each group continued to develop its civilization in its own way. Trade, however, received an impetus from having a new commodity to carry, and from the need felt by manufacturers of procuring the raw material for their industry, namely copper and tin. The Beaker Folk.—It was at one time believed that bronze was introduced into Britain by a people who buried their dead in round barrows accompanied by an earthenware drinking cup, of a type now known as a beaker. These people were fairly tall and very robust, with fairly broad and square heads and marked supraorbital ridges. They were known formerly as the bronze age Invaders of Britain or the Round Barrow men. Since many

of these skeletons have been found in Britain, and a few only

were buried with implements of bronze, it has been doubted whether they introduced this alloy or whether they were even

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ARCHAEOLOGY

[BRONZE AGE

users of it when they first arrived, and since the great majority two cultural provinces, Thessaly and the Peloponnese, while of round barrows were erected to cover the cremated remains the intervening region, central Greece, oscillated between the two of another people at a later date, it has been suggested that Before the close of the copper age Cycladic mariners had made both these names should be abandoned, and they are now usually settlements in the Argolid, where their culture is known as Hel. known as the Beaker folk or the Beaker makers. Beakers, closely ladic; before the introduction of bronze they had penetrate resembling the British types, have been found in a zone lying northwards as far as the Spercheios valley, to some extent dis. between the Rhine and the Elbe, stretching northwards from placing Thessalian peasants, who had preceded them in this area, Bohemia and ending in Denmark and Holland. In Denmark the These Thessalian peasants had, at an earlier date, been ousted graves containing the beakers are known as single graves, and from eastern Thessaly by people coming, it is believed, from the the earliest of these contain little if any metal; since metal, Black Earth lands of south Russia, who had introduced the though already known, was scarce in that country before their painted pottery known as Dhimini ware. Some centuries before arrival, it is impossible to decide whether they were acquainted the introduction of bronze this painted pottery deteriorated, and with its use before they reached Jutland. No skeletons from the its place was taken by encrusted ware, decorated by the applicasingle graves have been sufficiently well preserved to enable anato- tion of pink and white colour to the surface of gtey-black or mists to describe the skulls. In Holland bronze has been found reddish pots. Finally the decoration was abandoned and plain only with one beaker interment; this has been described as a pottery came into general use. It was while this degeneration of dagger, but it is in reality a halberd of Iberian type, and may the pottery was taking place that bronze came gradually into use, well have reached that country by coastwise traffic from Spain After 2000 B.c. a new type of pottery is found there; this js or Portugal. The skeletons buried with the beakers in Holland, known as Minyan ware. It was wheel-made and of a silver-grey owing to the nature of the soil, have perished, but fragmentary colour. The origin of this ware is unknown. Some authorities remains of one have been preserved, and, though it is impossible believe that it came from Asia Minor, others that it developed to measure its skull, owing to its imperfect condition, the well- from the plain wares of Thessaly. It is found gradually supermarked supraorbital ridges, characteristic of the British Beaker- seding the previous wares in that province, and was introduced makers, can be detected. It is said that some of the beakers forcibly into central Greece by invaders, who destroyed the secfound in Germany were accompanied by knives of Spanish type; ond city of Orchomenos. The makers of the Minyan ware, who it is possible, however, that these reached these people, as in were armed with daggers, halberds and spears of bronze, soon the case of the Dutch example, by a sea route. Some Dutch made themselves masters of central Greece, and extended their archaeologists believe that these people came across Europe from dominions to include the Peloponnese. Here their culture lasted the steppes of south Russia, and have pointed out that their man- until about 1625 B.c., when the whole mainland of Greece, except ner of burial resembles that found in many of the Russian Thessaly, came under the control of Cretan lords, who introduced many elements of late Minoan culture. kurgans. Central Europe.—During the copper age Hungary and the Bell-beakers.—It has been asserted by most archaeologists, though it is not universally agreed, that a form of beaker, known ‘middle Danube basin had been invaded from the east; it has been as the bell-beaker, developed in Spain, probably in imitation of suggested that the invaders came from the south-east Russian baskets woven with esparto grass. These beakers had wide globu- steppes. About the time that the discovery of bronze was made, lar bodies, with hemispherical bases, and widely expanding mouths. this region seems to have been subjected to two fresh invasions, They were decorated by zonal bands of geometric ornament. one from the north by people using cord-ornamented pottery, and Smaller beakers of the same type, usually without the char- another from the east by men armed with battle-axes of copper. acteristic decoration, were carried northwards to Brittany and It seems likely that both groups of invaders had come earlier thence to the Channel Islands, but failed to reach the British from the Russian steppes. Though bronze implements, imported from Hissarlik, were known, the metal most generally used was coast. The bell-beakers have been found very widely distributed over copper. Aunjetitz Culture—lIt was after the arrival of the Beaker the greater part of Spain and Portugal, though they are relatively scarcer in the north-west of that peninsula. They have folk that there arose in Silesia a civilization, known as the Marschbeen found also in Sardinia, Sicily, in north Italy and some parts witz culture, in which bronze of a poor quality was sparingly of France, pointing it is thought, to a route through the Belfort used. This suggests that the people living north of the Erzgegap. Either by the latter route or by the Brenner pass they are birge were learning the use of bronze. About 1900 B.c. this culsaid to have reached Bohemia, where their makers came into ture developed into that known as the Aunjetitz culture, which contact with those who used the cord-ornamented vases, which spread from Silesia into Saxony, Moravia, Bohemia and Bavaria. during the neolithic age had had a wide range over north Ger- The earlier implements from the Aunjetitz graves are clearly many. These cord-ornamented vases had long cylindrical necks, derived from north Italy, and in some cases indirectly from Spain, and it has been conjectured that it was the influence of these but with the raw materials of the industry close at hand the that led to the development of the northern beaker, consisting people of this part soon developed their own forms and exported of a globular body with a long, though slightly expanding cylin- them northwards to the plain of Germany and south-eastwards drical neck and a flat base. Be this as it may, the beakers that to Hungary, where, however, copper was still used for many purhave been found north of Bohemia are many of them of the poses. Rather later special centres of distribution arose at various latter type, and the few bell-beakers discovered in that region places in north Germany, notably to the east of Halle, around have to some extent lost their resemblance to the Spanish form. Bremen and Hamburg, and in Schleswig. At these centres variThe zonal decoration has often degenerated into a succession of ous types of palstaves were developed and traded to the north parallel horizontal rings, often of true cord-ornament. Others and west. In Hungary, as before, many other influences came would bring this ware from the Ukraine, believing that it passed in from south Russia and Asia Minor. Lausitz Culture—Towards the close of the middle bronze from central Europe to Spain, where its characteristic zonal decoration was more fully developed. The beaker culture spread over age a new culture, with a more developed metal industry, arose the whole of England, though it has less commonly been found in in the south-west of Saxony and the adjacent part of Silesia. the western counties; it is found sparingly in Wales, and is abun- This is known as the Lausitz culture. The people responsible for dant in the eastern half of Scotland as far north as the Moray this civilization burned their dead and deposited the ashes m Firth, though rarely in the west. It has not yet been found in biconical urns, over which they erected round barrows. This

Ireland, though hemispherical bowls, which occur with beakers in Spain, have been found in County Down. This culture lasted for some centuries in Jutland, Holland and Great Britain, and in the former country three distinct periods have been recognized. Greece.—During the bronze age the mainland of Greece formed

culture spread into east Bohemia and Moravia, where it dis-

placed the Aunjetitz culture; it was carried also eastward across Poland to the confines of Russia. The Lausitz culture was fertile in developing new types of implements, and it has been suggested that it was here that the socket axe-head was invented. Ulti-

ARCHAEOLOGY

BRONZE AGE] mately, in conjunction with other plain of Hungary, the Lausitz burial ments spread over the greater part Cremation.—It has often been

culture influences from the customs and types of impleof Europe. stated that the dead were

buried in the neolithic age and that cremation was introduced in

the bronze age, some would say in the late bronze age. Such statements are, however, not strictly accurate.

It seems probable that

cremation was very generally practised in central Europe in the neolithic age, for, though a few cases of inhumation have been

found, they are relatively rare in regions in which villages of

this date are common. Cremated remains have recently been found in Belgium in a neolithic settlement, and burnt bones have been met with in long barrows in Yorkshire. Cremation was also practised at an early date in many parts of Germany.

Still it

is true that these cases of cremation were to some extent con-

fined to limited regions, while in others both practices prevailed at the same time. The the dead and placing the in a round barrow or in central Europe, probably

almost universal practice of cremating charred remains in an urn, to be buried an urn-field, seems to have spread from from the Lausitz region, at the beginning

of the late bronze age, to almost every part of Europe.

Hungary.—lIt is believed that the plain of Hungary was twice

invaded, for the first time in the middle of the third millennium and again at its close, and that these invaders had come, directly or indirectly, from the grassy steppes of south-east Russia. It is believed, too, that these invaders established themselves as war-lords over the peasants, who had for long occupied that region. Be that as it may, about 1500 B.c. the inhabitants of Hungary developed very efficient weapons of a larger size than were used elsewhere. In this region the dagger, originally of west European type, was made much larger, until the strain on the

rivets, by which the hilt was attached to the blade, became insupportable. At length an experiment was made of casting with

251

found over the eastern half of the country, from the valley of the Seine to the mouth of the Rhone. It was not until a much later time that a still later form reached Brittany, probably by sea, and later still that they were carried across the Pyrenees into Spain. About rroo s.c. the bearers of these swords seem to have passed down the Rhine into Holland, and then to have crossed the North Sea to the east coast of England, where they are thought to have arrived rather before rooo B.c. There is also some evidence that at a slightly earlier date a few of them penetrated south Russia, though the evidence of their presence there is slight. Wherever they went the bearers of the leaf-shaped swords carried with them socketed axe-heads, which seem to have been invented in the Lausitz region, socketed gouges and a great variety of tools. They also used spear-heads with a leaf-shaped blade and a single rivet through the socket. The shafts of these spears had their ends cased in bronze ferrules. The sudden arrival in most parts of Europe of a civilization, which had its origin in Saxony, Moravia and Hungary, seems to indicate that these new tools and weapons of bronze were carried, not by the ordinary channels of trade, but by invading hordes. It appears safe to attribute to these people the universal custom of cremation, which was adopted in the late bronze age, and we may with good reason attribute to them also the use of those cinerary urns that have been found in many of the round barrows and in the urn-fields, but without associated tools or weapons. A few settlements of these people have been noted and some of them excavated with care; little study has yet, however, been made of their domestic pottery, though large numbers of their cinerary urns have been studied. This culture, which was fairly uniform over most of Europe, lasted with but little change until the introduction of iron weapons.

Life in the Bronze Age.—Though much is known of the tools and weapons used at this time, and many examples of the domestic pottery of the earlier phases of the bronze age have been found in graves, as well as of cinerary urns used during the became longer and frequently expanded in the middle. Thus arose latest phase, relatively little is known of the way in which these the leaf-shaped sword, the most formidable weapon yet invented. people lived. No settlements, dating from the first phases, have It would seem that about this time the Lausitz people, with been explored, while at the close of this age some of the people their improved art of bronze working, coalesced with the people lived in villages, defended by a rectangular ditch and bank, and of the Hungarian plain, and together they began to spread in others seem to have made settlements in the low lands by the almost every direction, The first move seems to have been to sides of lakes and rivers. Since the knowledge of agriculture had the north, in the direction of Jutland, and their arrival in these reached most parts of Europe earlier than implements of bronze, parts may have accounted for the growth of the bronze industry in we may assume that the people of the bronze age cultivated grain, the neighbourhood of Bremen and Hamburg. Later they reached while remains of domesticated animals have been found in their the west of Schleswig, where more than three thousand round later settlements. Of their clothing we know little by direct barrows have been noted. Up till then metal had been relatively evidence, though the complete outfit of a man of this period scarce in the Baltic region, and such early specimens as have has been found at Treenh6l and that of a woman at Borum-Eskdi, been found, many of copper, are of types that arrived by sea in Jutland. These garments, of simple cut, were made of a woven traffic from the west. The chief warlike implement was the per- woollen material. The man had worn a tunic and a mantle, stockforated battle-axe of stone. After the arrival of the invaders from Ings or some other woollen covering on his legs, and a high cap. central Europe bronze became abundant and the conspicuous The woman had worn a long skirt and a short jacket, and upon weapon was the bronze sword. There is reason for believing that her head a bonnet made of a net-work of woollen threads. The about 1250 B.C, a movement was made towards the south, for ornaments worn were relatively few. Bracelets of bronze, more several swords of central European type have been found in Greek rarely of gold, have been found, dating from all parts of the bronze lands, two at Mycenae, two at Muliana in Crete, and one at age; these are usually plain circlets of metal, though during the Levadia in Boeotia; besides these two have been found in Egypt, last phase they are sometimes decorated with geometrical designs; on one of which was engraved the cartouch of Seti II. It has towards the end of the bronze age oval penannular bracelets somebeen suggested that the presence of these swords in Greek lands times occur, especially in central Europe. Metal ear-rings were betokens the arrival of northern invaders; these have been identi- also worn, sometimes of considerable size; these were often made fied with the Homeric Achaeans and the Akaiwasha, who attacked of gold. The most important ornament, however, was the torque, Egypt in the reign of Meneptah. Others, however, think that the usually made of a twisted band of bronze or gold. Torques have swords passed southwards by way of trade, or were loot taken been found in several forms, characteris tic of this age. The most by the Mycenaean inhabitants of Greece in some northern foray. curious ornament was the gold crescent or lunula, which has been Swords of similar type found their way into Italy, probably across found abundantly in Ireland, as well as in England, the north of the Adriatic, for the majority have been found in the nelghbour- France, north-east Germany, and Denmark. These lunulae are hood of Lake Fucino. large thin plates of gold, shaped like crescents, with the points The leaf-shaped swords found in western Europe are of a almost joining, and profusely decorated with incised geometric still later type, and the bearers of these cannot have left central designs. How they were worn has not been explained. The people Europe long before 1200 B.C., while some seem to have set out who carried the leaf-shaped swords throughout Europe seem to considerably later. These swords reached Switzerland fairly early, have worn over their shoulders a plaid or some similar garment; but were later in their arrival in France, where they haye been this they fastened with a long bronze pin. As this pin tended to the blade a flanged tang, to which plates of bone or wood could be riveted to form the hilt, and afterwards of adding to this a hilt cast in bronze. The experiment was successful and the blades

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252

slip out, various devices were designed to keep it in place. At length, about 1400 B.c., it was bent, with a coil, into a simple brooch or fibula, like a safety-pin, and during the latest phase of the bronze age these fibulae began to pass through that series of changes which continued throughout the iron age. Quest for Gold.—As has already been pointed out, the bronze age was especially a period of invention and active trade, more particularly during its earliest and latest phases. The need for a greater supply of copper and still more for tin, a much scarcer metal, caused traders to explore many parts of Europe, especially those easily accessible from the sea. Here they found many sources of supply, and had, apparently discovered the tin ores of Cornwall before flat axe-heads had given way to flanged. There was, however, another metal, sought for with much greater eagerness; this was gold. From a very remote antiquity gold has been prized, and numerous objects of the goldsmith’s art have been recovered from graves lying many feet below the foundations of buildings that date from the 1st dynasty at Ur: The richest gold-field in Europe was in Transylvania, where the mines were worked under the Roman emperors. Gold from Transylvania seems to have reached Egypt before the close of the 2nd dynasty, and this region seems for long to have supplied the needs of the Near East. There is no part of Europe that has furnished so large a number of gold objects of prehistoric date as Ireland, and the great majority of these can be shown by their decoration or associations to have been made in the bronze age. Reference has already been made to the Junulae or crescents, found so commonly in Ireland, and it is generally agreed that these, wherever found, are of Irish gold, showing that the precious metal was at that time exported in many directions. The fact that two such crescents were found in a barrow near Harlyn bay, in association with a flat axe-head of bronze, shows us that this gold trade was well developed long before the close of the early bronze age. It has been pointed out that alluvial gold deposits were worked in the Wicklow hills in the 18th century, and there is little doubt that it was these deposits that attracted traders quite early in the bronze age. These deposits and the tin lodes of Cornwall, as well as certain copper and, perhaps, gold deposits in Wales, were the lures that tempted the first bronze traders to these countries. Thus it was that, within a very few centuries after the first use of this alloy, bronze was brought to the British Isles. BIBLioGRAPHY.—John Evans, The Ancient Bronze Implements, Weapons and Ornaments, of Great Britain and Ireland (1881); British Museum, A Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age (1920); Harold Peake, The Bronze Age and the Celtic World (1922); V. Gordon Childe, The Dawn of European Civilization (1925); Moritz Hoernes, Urgeschichte der bildenden Kunst in Europa, von den Anfangen bis um 500 vor Christi, Dritte anflage, durchgesehen und erganzt von Oswald Menghin (1925); T. Rice Holmes, Ancient Britain and the invasions of Julius Caesar (1907); The Hon. John Abercromby, A Study of the Bronze Age Pottery of Great Britain and Ireland (1912) ; Joseph Déchelette, Manuel d’archéologie préhistorique, celtique et Gallo-Romaine, II. i. (1910); J. Heierli, Urgeschichte der Schweiz (1902); A. E. Schaeffer, Les tertres funéraires préhistorique dans la forêt de Haguenau: I. Les tumulus de Vage du bronze (1926) ; O. Montelius, Kulturgeschichte Schwedens von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum elften Jahrhundert nack Christus (1906) ; Sophus Müller, Débuts et première évolution de la civilization du bronze en Danemark, d'après les découvertes les plus récentes (Mem. des Antiq. du Nord, 1908-09); L’age du bronze

en Slesvig (Mem.

des Antiq. du Nord,

1916-17); A. J. B. Wace and M. S. Thompson, Prehistoric Thessaly (1912).

(H. J. E. P.)

3. IRON AGE Definition.—Care must be taken, in discussing the period known as the early iron age of Europe, to distinguish between the first appearance of wrought iron in any locality and the beginning of the local iron age. The period in question belongs to the history or prehistory of the European continent and islands; and with due qualifications for various countries, covers the thousand years immediately preceding the birth of Christ. It normally follows the bronze age, when that metal (an alloy of copper and tin) was used not only for objects of luxury, as it is to-day, but also for household and agricultural implements; but in most parts of Africa it seems to have succeeded the stone age, bronze being

[IRON AGE

almost unknown there in prehistoric times. Egypt, however, is an

exception to the rule in Africa, and has a chronological system which helps to establish the limits of the iron age in other cowtries. Iron in Egypt—Though the early iron age of Egypt did

not begin till about 800 B.C. (between the 22nd and 25th dynasties), when the metal was produced locally and passed into genera] use, there are many iron objects preserved from much earlier

dates, and the question has been raised whether they were of me-

teoric or telluric origin—that is, whether made from metallic masses which reached this planet from space and contained a large percentage of nickel; or from local iron ores reduced in some kind of furnace. A recent analysis of the lump found with copper implements and a mirror of the 6th dynasty at Abydos (now in the British Museum)

shows that no nickel is present in the rusted

surface, and only minute traces of it in the black crystalline core, which contained also traces of phosphate, sulphur, carbon and a notable quantity of copper.

The inference is that even at that

early date (2700-2500 B.C.) iron was being obtained from the

local ores by primitive metallurgical processes, and not from meteoric sources. The earliest known example in Egypt is the group of oxidized iron beads found by Wainwright at El Gerzeh, dated about 4000 B.C.; and there is documentary evidence of the authenticity and early date of the iron tool found inside the

great pyramid of Khufu at Gizeh, dating from the 4th dynasty (about 3100 B.c.). Other early specimens are quoted by J. N. Friend, who gives evidence that hard rocks can be chiselled with soft metals, provided due perseverance and patience are exercised: this in view of the contention that the stone of the pyramids cannot have been shaped without iron or steel tools. It should be observed that the earliest iron objects in Egypt and elsewhere are chiefly weapons and ornaments, not tools which had to wait for the iron age properly so called. Iron in the Bible.—Biblical references to iron are of interest in connection with the view that the Philistines (xı Samuel, xvii. 5) were connected with Crete and found a refuge in Palestine when Crete lost command of the sea and gave way to the Mycenaeans and Greeks of the Eastern Mediterranean. The iron chariots of Sisera in the days of the Judges gave the Canaanites an enormous advantage over the Israelites (Joshua, xvii. 16; Judges i. 19); but Lebanon soon became an industrial centre, and David collected iron in abundance for Solomon’s temple, which was, however, for ritual reasons, erected without the use of iron tools, From the time of Amos (middle of the 8th century, 3.c.) iron was in general use amongst the Hebrews as well as the Syrians, and smelting furnaces were known to the later Hebrew writers. It may be added that the passage in xı Samuel, xiii. 19—‘Now there was no smith found throughout all the land of Israel, for the Philistines said, Lest the Hebrews make them swords and spears”——~is regarded by Cheyne and Black (Encyc. Bibl. under Samuel, Books, col. 4,275) as an incredible statement, and merely a later interpolation in the text.

Crete and Greece.—Researches in Crete during the last 30 years have given a chronological standard only inferior to Egypt

for dating the prehistoric finds of Europe; and it is generally admitted that the iron age began in the island about 1100 B.C. Iron was certainly known locally before that date, but was regarded as a precious metal, and in 1927 a cube of it was found by E. J. Forsdyke in a sealed tomb-deposit at Knossos dating from about 1800 B.c. Another stage in its adoption is marked by mention of it in Homer, e.g. Iliad, xxiii., 834, the poem no doubt

dating from the full iron age of Greece but referring to the period about 1200 B.C. It was given as an athletic prize, but clearly for the production of tools and implements rather than weapons. Both Crete and Greece are noticed in separate articles, and it is only in connection with the iron age of Central Europe that they are mentioned here, in order to fix the route and period of the introduction of iron into Europe. The theory that the Achaeans (g.v.) brought the new culture from the Danube into the Bronze

Age areas of Greece and the islands has not been widely accepted, but there is little doubt that the Dorian (g.v.) invasion played that rôle and put an end to the Mycenaean dominion, at least on

IRON AGE]

ARCHAEOLOGY

the mainland. The Greeks called it the Return of the Heraclids or sons of Hercules, and dated the event about r104 B.c. , approxi-

mately 80 years after the fall of Troy. That the newcomers were of alien race is indicated by their practice of cremation, the dead having been buried unburnt as a rule during the bronze age.

253

a development in situ of a civilization that was destined to spread to the Atlantic, and appeared suddenly in Central Europe as a new and independent creation. It is of interest to note in this connection Prof. J. L. Myres’ theory that the Sigynnae, men-

tioned by Herodotus (v. 9) as living beyond the Danube and north of Thrace, may be identified with Strabo’s Siginni of the of the people they conquered; and the change from the Myce- Caucasus, and possibly the Sequani of the Jura, who extended naean to the Geometric style of pottery was contemporary with, later to the neighbourhood of Paris. The first two are said to have even if not due to, their arrival from the barbarian north about worn Median costume (trousers, like the Gaulish braccae, roso B.C. Novel types of the sword and brooch are seen in late breeches), and to have driven shaggy ponies attached to carts. Mycenaean association, and specially striking are the brooches of Herodotus adds that the Ligurians called the Sigynnae pedlars; spiral wire (as fig. 5) discovered at Sparta, as these are obvi- and there is reason to associate a particular form of iron spear ously connected with those of the Hallstatt (g.v.) area and period like the Gaulish gaesum and the Roman pilum with these people. in Central Europe. The name is derived from a salt-mining site in Their extensive wanderings might account for its occurrence even the Salzkammergut, Upper Austria, and the period marks the first in Cyprus, and it may be recalled that the Galates who dominated appearance of the Celts or at least of peoples speaking the Celtic Gaul in the early iron age had settlements as distant as Galatia language. in Asia Minor. Recent excavations have thus given precision to prehistoric Celts and Galates.—A new view of the Galates has been put chronology in an area for which no written documents exist, and forward by Dr. Jules Guiart, who distinguishes them from the link up the bringers of iron into Central Europe with personages three recognized human types of Western Europe—(i.) the tall, in Greek history. Whether the Dorians were Celt in origin is a blond, long-headed (dolichocephalic) Nordics; (ii.) the short, secondary question of terminology; but the Greek connection may dark, short-headed (brachycephalic) Celts of Central Europe, the be expected to throw light on the nationality and tongue of the Alpine race; and (iii.) the short, dark, long-headed Mediterranean Hallstatt invaders who are often credited with the introduction of race. In his opinion the Galates (Galatians, Gaulois) were tall, iron. blond and short-headed people who in 1500 B.c. were still roaming Celtic Culture.—With all due caution regarding the differ- over the steppes of South Russia and eventually passed westward ences between Celtic blood-relationship and the use of the Celtic to the north of the Hercynian forest (Taunus to Carpathians), idiom, it is generally agreed that the Celts were located in Central settling for a time near the North sea coast west of the Elbe, Europe (the upper Rhine valley and the later Roman provinces of whence they proceeded to occupy most of the northern half of Rhaetia and Noricum) at the time when the use of iron spread France in the Hallstatt period, thrusting the native Celtic popufrom that very region, and they are known to have migrated in lation almost to Marseilles and the Auvergne (to judge by the force to distant parts of Europe where their former presence can physical characteristics of the modern departments). It should be be traced in place-names and historical allusions. The Hallstatt added that Celts and Galates were regarded as distinct peoples by culture may not have been Celtic at first, but in any case no Bertrand, whose arguments were amplified by Piroutet in 1920

Their civilization was evidently on a low level compared with that

people of Celtic speech can be traced on the map before the Hall-

(L’Anthropologie, xxx., 51). The latter sees in the Marne inhumations in trenches a Galatian population distinct from the true Celts, the latter being responsible for the barrows (gravemounds, tumuli) over cremated burials in East and North-east France, as well as in South Germany. There is, in his view, no sist that the Celtic connection cannot be earlier than the 7th authority for the Celts before the second stage of the Hallstatt century B.c. This agrees fairly well with recent archaeological period (say 7oo B.c.). Their arrival is put much later by Schliz evidence, but does not give an upper limit of date for the Celtic (Hoops, Reallexikon, under Rassenfragen), who regards the Flachoccupation of Central Europe. graber (flat-graves, without barrows) of La Tène II. (about 400 Origin of Iron Working.—The legendary home of iron B.C.) as the earliest traces of the Celts, who came from Gaul, the is North-east Asia Minor where the Chalybes (mentioned by chief centre of brachycephaly in Western Europe; but he is careAeschylus in the 6th century B.c.) once had a kind of monopoly; ful to add that these Celts represent a blend of blond long-heads but about 200 miles to the south was Commagene (ubi ferrum (Nordic) and dark short-heads (Alpine), and correspond to the nascitur, the birthplace of iron), which also has serious claims to classical description of the Celtic warrior: they are brachypriority. Prof. Gowland mentioned two important districts in cephalic blonds. Western Asia where iron ores are very extensive and remains of Hallstatt Culture.—Whether lineally descended from it or early iron manufacture are found; but he preferred the south- not, the Hallstatt culture succeeds the bronze age of Central east angle of the Black sea (ancient Paphlagonia and Pontus), Europe; and, with Austria and South Germany asacentre, radiwhich includes iron deposits along the slopes and foot-hills of ates in several directions. Intercourse with the south was by this mountains near the coast. At the north-eastern end of this area time active, and there was a close connection with the Bologna as well as north of the Caucasus, Ernest Chantre excavated cem- area, where early iron age finds are abundant and are grouped uneteries which yielded weapons and other iron objects closely allied der the name of Villanova (g.v.) (a suburb of Bologna). The conto the Hallstatt products of Europe. tact with Thrace and the Caucasus is not so clear as with Illyria Though recognizing the prevailing uncertainty as to the begin- and the neighbourhood of Venice or with Eastern Germany (the nings of metallurgy, the late Jacques de Morgan was in favour of Lausitz or Lusatian area); but it was mainly westward that the an oriental origin for iron, and thought that the art would have new culture spread via Switzerland and the Vosges to Eastern reached the Ligurians of Central Europe through some Conti- France, and later to the Atlantic coast as well as to Spain and nental trade-current as well as by way of the Mediterranean. Britain. This last movement is attributed to the Celts, a mobile “The Celts and the Dorians must have been the principal propa- and a conquering people; but most authorities attribute the Hallgators of the iron industry . . . it is generally agreed that the statt culture of Central Europe to the Illyrians, who may have Celts came from the east by the valley of the Danube.” Apart influenced the Germans on the north-east of what has been called from striking analogies in weapons and ornaments, in brooches the Celtic cradle. Hut-urns (sepulchral vessels of pottery made and pottery found in Russian Armenia and the Hallstatt area of in the form of contemporary dwellings) are of frequent occurEurope, he insisted rather on the introduction of naturalism into rence In Mecklenburg and near the mouth of the Vistula, and the geometric art of the bronze age. Both in South-east Russia suggest some connection in the 7th century B.c. with Italy, though statt period, though the language was closely allied to Latin and was apparently the last to break off from the Aryan stem. Philologists no longer allow a Celtic population (whether by blood or language) in Britain, for example, during the Bronze Age, and in-

and in Persia products of the early Iron Age are characterized by representations of men and animals “of which both technique and style seem to derive entirely from the Geometric.” This points to

the type is also found from time to time in widely separated parts of South-eastern Europe, and in Italy (Alba Longa) is hardly later than 900 B.C.

[IRON AGE

ARCHAEOLOGY

254

CHRONOLOGY

OF THE EARLY IRON AGE HALLSTATT PERIOD

Italy. Hut-urns: Biconical urns. Pit-graves: Early Villanova.

Celtic Europe Early Hallstatt, 1000-800 B.C. Geometric style.

Hallstatt A,

Hallstatt B,

800-700 B.C.

Hallstatt C,

700-600 B.C.

|

600-500 B.C,

Hallstatt D,

Villanova period,

.

Bologna district.

S

Chamber-tombs,

eres

Late Hallstatt

?

Early Greek style,

Greek Pottery. Sub-Mycenaean, 1rth and roth centuries B.C.

Geometric, roth-8th century B.c. Proto-Corinthian, 750-600 B.C. Corinthian, 7th century B.c.

Proto-Etruscan.

Black-figure ware, 6th century B.c.

Certosa (Bologna), Etruscan period.

Early red-figure, late 6th century »B.c

|

La TENE PERIOD France. Déchelette’s La Téne I., 500-300, B.C. LL, 300-100, B.c. » » i

Germany. Reinecke’s La Téne A, 5th century B.c. » B, 4th century B.C. » 4 33

33

„ C, 3rd and 2nd ; centuries B.C.

”

„

J)

3

”

z

»

9)

IIL, Roman period.

La Tène IV. (only in Britain), 50 B.C.—A.D. 50.

» D, st century B.C.

Iron in Italy.—The iron age of Italy forms part of the history of the peninsula, and need only be summarized here in con-

nection with Central Europe. The terramara (g.v.) culture, spreading from the lakes to the Apennines, really belongs to the bronze age; but this is attributed by some to the Italici, who were later responsible for the Villanova culture, with their headquarters at Bologna, and are also credited with the foundation of Rome in 753 B.c. Villanova is five miles east of Bologna, and the district contained ancient cemeteries named after their modern proprietors (Benacci and Arnoaldi) and the local Charterhouse

(Certosa, one mile west of Bologna), The last dated from the Etruscan conquest (late 6th century), when the name was changed

to Felsina, and there was a Gaulish period (under the Boii) before

the Romans colonized it in 189 B.c. under the name of Bononia. The Etruscans (immigrants from Asia Minor) first came into contact with the Villanovans about 8so B.C. in Etruria and Latium, where they soon asserted their supremacy, and buried their dead unburnt in oriental style, using in succession the shaft, trench, corridor and chamber; whereas the early Villanovans practised cremation, which gradually gave way to inhumation as at Hallstatt. Their civilization was of a high order, now fully represented at Bologna; and the bronzes at least were largely due to Greek

traffic with the Etruscan coast. The pails (situlae) are conical (figs. 2, 2a) with lids and zones embossed with figure subjects representing contemporary life; and they have been regarded as the nearest approach to the shield of Achilles. An orientalizing tendency has been noticed in bronzes and other artistic products

of Central Europe dating from the middle Hallstatt period (about “00-600 B.C.), contrasting with the earlier geometric and later classical styles (see HALLSTATT and VILLANOVANS). Iron Age Burials.—In the Hallstatt period inhumation (bur-

ial of the dead unburnt) below a tumulus (grave-mound, barrow) was the rule in South Germany and in Eastern Gaul; and in the succeeding period (La Tène I.) the practice continued, with occasional cremation, in districts profoundly affected by the Hallstatt civilization. Old barrows re-used, or newly-constructed mounds of this period are found in Haute Marne, Burgundy, Franche-Comté, South Germany and South-west Bohemia. On the other hand, cemeteries without mounds, containing the unburnt body, are found on the outer fringe, in Gaul and Bohemia; and Déchelette concluded that barrows marked the original Celtic area in Europe, settled ever since the bronze age; whereas the vast cemeteries without mounds, as in Champagne, North Bohemia and Cisalpine Gaul, belonged to conquering tribes who

originally came from the Celtic area. Déchelette considered the barrow area and the adjacent right bank of the Rhine as the

primitive home of the Celts.

III., 100-1, B.C.

Switzerland. Viollier’s La Téne I., 450-250, B.c. Il, 250-50, B.C. » » i

l

In a recent study of the upper Rhine population who burnt their dead and buried them in cemeteries called urn-fields without

surface indications (unlike their bronze age predecessors of the

Hügelgräber, the Grave-mound or Barrow people), Georg Kraft traces some elements in their pottery and bronze types to the south-east, others to the north-east, others again to the indigenous population that became subject to these invaders. The most likely people seem to be Illyrians moving from east to west, and participating in the great migrations which account for the passage of Thracians, Phrygians and Armenians into Asia Minor via the Bosporus and Dardanelles about 1180 B.c.: the Dorian in-

vasion of Greece about 1100 B.c.; the entry of certain Balkan peoples into Italy, and the western extension of the Lausitz (Lusatian) culture of Eastern Germany. It is still an open question whether the urn-field people were Illyrians or a blend of Illyrians, Celts and other races, but the invasion of South-west Germany at this time is generally accepted, and archaeologically it coincides with the beginnings of the Hallstatt culture, though grave-mounds are still found in the Giindlingen area and period (Hallstatt B). The urn-fields have yielded an unexpected variety of pottery and bronze, the most typical being urns with cylindrical neck and bulging body, and bronze armlets tapering at both ends, with spiral wire terminals. Schumacher dates the early urn-fields about 1200-1000 B.C. and regards the people as coming into South-west Germany from the south-east, much as the Ribbonware (Bandkeramik) folk had done centuries before. They spread northward down the Rhine to the Saar and Eifel, and betray in their housebuilding and burial rites a close connection with the Italici of upper Italy; though this may be explained either by original contiguity or by blood relationship. They were good agriculturists, living in imposing villages established in the most prolific areas.

The later urn-fields (about 1000-800 B.c.) mark the opening of the early iron age (Hallstatt A), when the indigenous population was pressed northwards into the mountains and side valleys of the Rhine by invaders provided with a certain amount of iron and addicted to agriculture. The pottery is made without the wheel, and includes urns, bowls and platters apparently copied from metal patterns; of bronze are small cups with handles, long pins with globuldtsheads, brooches made of twisted wire, and sets of pendants designed to jingle (fig. 5). Hallstatt Period.—The leading authorities on the iron age of Germany allow two centuries of overlap with the bronze age, and begin the second stage about 800 B.c., Giindlingen near Frelburg (Baden) being the typical site for the 8th century (Hall-

statt B). The contemporary swords (figs. 6-8) were either of bronze in imitation of the late bronze age type, with exaggerated chapes (scabbard-ends) of winged form; or of iron, emanat-

ting from Noricum (the modern Styria and Carinthia, of Austria, Bavaria and Salzburg—the chief European the industry) and attaining huge proportions, with a blade for cutting and a broad. point not suitable for

with parts centre of two-edged thrusting.

IRON AGE]

ARCHAEOLOGY

BUCKET (CISTA)

WITH BROAD Hoops HALLSTATT

LINEAR)

ae

CORDONED BUCKET en

BRONZE PAIL (SITULA) HALLSTATT

URN FOUND CONTAINING OTHER VESSELS WURTEMBERG

COVER ee OF PAIL

BRONZE SWORD HALLSTATT

BRONZE SWORD WITH IRON BLADE HALLSTATT

LARGE IRON SWORD HALLSTATT

BRONZE BROOCHES HALLSTATT

SWORD WITH BRANCHED POMMEL HALLSTATT

RV hol.20

FIGS. 1-2 FROM “GUIDE TO THE EARLY IRON AGE ANTIQUITIES” BY COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM FIGS, 1~9.—ARTICLES OF COMMON USE BELONGING TO THE HALSTATT CULTURE, 1000-800 B.C. The name Halst att is generally applied to articles of form and decoration Iike those found at Halstatt, in Upper Austria, during the exoavations made between 1847 and 1864. The period of the Halstatt culture marks the first appearance of the Celts

256

ARCHAEOLOGY

The pottery urns (fig. 4) generally have a constricted neck and sharply out-turned lip, evidently an imported type; but there is some doubt as to the funeral rite, and perhaps both cremation and inhumation were practised. The next century (7th B.c.), corresponding to Hallstatt C, saw certain changes in the material culture, and the typical sites are Salem (representing Wiirttemberg and Baden) and Kéberstadt (Langen near Darmstadt, for Odenwald and Taunus). The former is about six miles north of the Lake of Constance, which in antiquity was known as Lacus Venetus and was therefore presumably controlled by the Venetians. The burials were mostly unburnt, and besides long iron swords there was an abundance of brightly coloured pottery, with panels and zones including geometrical designs, the urns having more open mouths and bulging shoulders than in the preceding century. Some of the burial mounds certainly contained unburnt skeletons. The Gündlingen and Salem groups have been traced across the upper Rhine and into Alsatia, entering France by the Burgundian gate and the Meurthe-Moselle valley; whereas the Köberstadt people kept more to the right bank of the Rhine, crossing later at Worms and Mainz. The Germans then lay to the north and Ligurians to the west, where they are noticed by Herodotus about 450 B.C., at any rate in the neighbourhood of Marseilles. Rademacher points out that on either side of the Rhine between Mainz and Bonn, extending from the Saar to the Fulda and again to the Saale, Celtic graves of the 6th century contained skeletons, whereas further down the Rhine barrows were raised over the cremated remains. This period (Hallstatt D) is marked by a change to short, pointed swords, generally with forked or “horseshoe” pommels (fig. 9); and the scabbard of one well-known example shows a cavalry leader with a sword, but spears only in the hands of troopers and infantry. The helmet, shield and cuirass are almost unknown in the Hallstatt area of Germany though common further east; and it was on their occurrence in such places as Glasinač (a plateau in Bosnia) and in the Homeric poems that the late Sir William Ridgeway chiefly based his theory that the Achaeans were a Hallstatt people from the Danube, but ultimately of Celtic and Nordic origin. Many of the hill-forts in Central and Western Europe are now

achievements are now generally recognized.

[IRON AGE The period extends

from about 450 to 50 B.c. and derives its name from a famous Swiss site (La Téne, the Shallows) (g.v.) at the east end of Lake Neuchatel, which was occupied probably between 250 and too B.C. as a military post or arsenal; but the richest and earliest finds of this Celtic culture are on the middle Rhine and in Easter France (Champagne). In the 6th century these people are known to have been settled in the Rhone valley and round the lakes of Switzerland and North Italy, but their earlier home is unknown and their conquests unrecorded till the sack of Rome in 390 BC. A plausible view is that they were Nordic warriors from the Baltic, marching in command of Alpine soldiery through Europe from end to end in search of plunder, rich lands to settle on, and a share in the luxuries of Mediterranean life.

In the first phase of La Tène culture (La Tène I.) burials on either side of the upper Rhine were richly furnished, but those of La Tène II. are less pretentious, and cemeteries of flat or surface graves (Flachgräber) came into fashion, containing the unburnt body, though there were numerous exceptions to this rule. The spread of cremation in the third phase of La Tène is attributed to the growing influence and the southern extension of the Germanic peoples of Northern Europe, where cremation was indigenous. This is in agreement with the historical record, for

about 100 B.C. Teutonic tribes broke through the Celtic frontier,

which is placed by Déchelette for the 3rd and 4th centuries »B.c, a little south-west of Leipzig (where Celtic inhumations met the German cremations). Before the German advance, the Celts had

occupied the middle Rhine and South-west Germany, Bohemia, Moravia, part of Silesia and lower Austria, not to mention successful expeditions to Italy, Greece and Asia Minor. In the period

of La Tène, trade was almost as well organized as in Roman times,

and the Rhone became the principal highway of commerce for Western Europe, Greek products being distributed through Marseilles and the colonies in North-eastern Spain, in competition with Northern Italy which had enjoyed a monopoly in the Hallstatt period. Celtic Coinage.—In Central European unburnt burials of La Tène II. and III. are sometimes found cup-shaped pieces of attributed to the Hallstatt people, who (like the Normans in electrum (gold with silver) called “little rainbow dishes” England) kept down the countries they invaded by establishing (Regenbogenschüsselchen), mostly in Bavaria and Württemberg, fortified posts in strong positions. In the majority of cases they the German name probably being derived from the superstitious burnt their dead and used cinerary urns of pottery; but it is belief that they may be found where the rainbow meets the remarkable that at Hallstatt itself burnt and unburnt burials have earth, many having been washed out of the earth by heavy rain. been found in almost equal numbers, and it is usual to assign the Another explanation is that the device on some of them was cremated burials, which are the more richly furnished, to the taken for a rainbow, though it is more like the rising sun. Any dominant race of invaders, and the poorer graves with skeletons resemblance to the original types was soon lost, but the comparato their indigenous subjects.. The cemetery was systematically tive abundance of money in Gaul points to considerable trade excavated by Ramsauer between 1846 and 1863, and the bulk of and intertribal communication before the conquest of the cowthe finds may be seen in Vienna. try by Julius Caesar (50 B.c.). In the south silver copies were Salt Industry.—The site owed its wealth and distinction to made, with more or less dexterity, of coins struck, at Marseilles the salt mines which were exploited in the early iron age, but and other Greek colonies on the coast or in North-eastern Spain; other methods of obtaining salt were practised in the same period. and on the Danube Celtic moneyers preferred the silver stater Brine-springs near Halle and in the valley of the Saale (Saxony) of Philip II. of Macedon to his gold stater (fig. 14), which served and near Marsal in the Seille Valley (Lorraine), for instance, were as a model in the centre and north of France as in Britain. The evaporated by running the liquid over heated pottery of the gold stater was a little heavier than the British sovereign or pound coarsest description (called briguetage); and a similar process sterling; and Gaulish copies were subject to progressive deteriorwas employed on the coasts of Belgium and Brittany. In Eng- ation both in weight and artistic merit. land salt mines do not seem to have been worked till Roman Iron Age in Spain.—The oldest historical inhabitants of the times, but the coastal Redhills of Essex which have yielded Spanish peninsula were the Iberians, but there is a possibility of pottery of the early iron age, may be the débris of a process Ligurians in the north about 500 B.c., and Herodotus (484-425, for extracting salt from sea-water; and Pliny (Wat. Hist. xxxi., 7) B.C.) records that the westernmost Celts were neighbours of the records such an industry in Gaul and Germany (see also Tacitus, Cynetes, who inhabited the south of Portugal. This agrees well Annals, xiii., 57). enough with the archaeological evidence of a Celtic invasion, La Tene Culture.—The change in the main armament of the flanking the Pyrenees, early in the 6th century. The Celtiberian Hallstatt period may have been due to the growing influence of name testifies to a mixed population, and there is a marked North Italy on the Alpine and sub-Alpine districts, but Greek absence of any early Hallstatt types, the earliest swords, for exinfluence manifests itself in the second half of the early iron ample, being derivatives of the type with horse-shoe (antennae) age (La Téne period). It is clear that the leading “barbarians” pommel (fig. 9). Cremation was the funeral rite among the Celtic (non-classical peoples) from the sth century B.c. down to the invaders, who reached the middle course of the Tagus and Roman empire were Celts, or at least spoke a dialect or dialects Guadiana; and the Hallstatt pottery in their graves is not of the Celtic language; and the new sword pattern may mark the associated with Greek wares, the influence of the Greek settleadvent or the emergence of the Celts, whose martial and artistic ments on the coast (Rhoda, Emporiae) not being felt till the

ARCHAEOLOGY

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Mas d'Azil, France.

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ON AGE

ARCHAEOLOGY

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FROM “GUIDE TO THE EARLY IRON AGE ANTIQUITIES,” BY COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES

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OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM

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i FIGS. 10—23.—ARTICLES OF COMMON USE BELONGING TO THE LA TENE CULTURE, 450-50 B.C. “La Tène” culture derives its name from a famous Swiss site at the east end of Lake Neuchâtel. It covers the second Bronze Age,

The

and shows Greek

influence on this early Celtic Culture

half of the early

258

ARCHAEOLOGY

period of La Téne, when the cultural development ran parallel to that of Gaul, but produced some peculiar local forms, especially brooches and weapons. Coinage began in the 3rd century B.c., Greek and Sicilian types being imitated, but the Carthaginians supervened (232-219); and the Roman conquest, which culminated in the fall of Numantia (133 B.c.), may be considered the end of the Early Iron Age in the peninsula. Austria and Germany.—tThe

occurrence of a few brooches

(fig. 17) of Certosa type (named after'the Charterhouse outside Bologna) gives a limiting date for the Hallstatt cemetery and

period, the site being within 4om. of Noreia, which gave its name to Noricum and is generally considered one of the earliest centres of iron-working in Europe. In Austria generally the bronze age culture gradually gave way to iron, and in late Hallstatt times there was a local revival in bronze-working, no doubt stimulated by trade with Northern Italy. Nearly all the local burials of that date were under grave-mounds (tumuli), and the dead were cremated. In the succeeding period (La Téne) the polychrome pottery characteristic of the Hallstatt period disappears and gives place to wheel-made ware, the first proof of the potter’s wheel

in this area. The embossed bronzes show an orientalizing tendency, and scrolls and palmettes indicate contact with Greek civilization. Italian influence did not, however, cease till the next stage (La Téne B), when the country became predominantly Celtic, and dependent on Western Europe. The Celts had extended their control to the Alpine area before they were finally incorporated im Roman provinces during the reign of Augustus. In the north-east they spread to Silesia and Western Galicia, and brought the culture of La Téne to East Germany and Poland, where Hallstatt survivals have been recognized but where the new civilization was firmly established only towards the end of the 2nd century B.C. Iron was then copiously used for weapons and ornaments; and while cremation with cinerary urns was common in the south, the northern tribes (perhaps the original

Burgundians) buried all that remained of the funeral pyre without urns (Brandgrubengraber), a custom that may have spread from the island of Bornholm. Denmark and Sweden.—In the absence of a purely Roman period, the early iron age of Denmark runs on till the Migration period (sth century A.D.), and the date of its commencement falls in the 4th century s.c. when La Téne elements reached the Cimbric peninsula (Jutland). This phase is best represented in the moor (peat-bed) finds of Nydam and Thorsbjerg, including boats and iron weapons which were the predecessors of those brought to Britain by the Anglo-Saxons. Bronze swords of Hallstatt type found in Denmark cannot be taken as proof of a local iron age before La Téne, as Jutland was at one end of the amber trade-route across Europe and naturally received a larger share of southern metal-work in exchange for the amber of its coasts during the last centuries of its bronze age. Sweden, at least in the south, was at much the same stage of culture as Denmark, but the island of Gotland in the Baltic, as a trading centre,

seems to have been somewhat in advance of the mainland.

[IRON AGE

age, culminating in the splendid achievements and barbaric luxury of the Vikings. It is remarkable that there is hardly 4

trace of Celtic civilization in Norway—none of the characteristic weapons or artistic creations which were distributed over large areas of Europe in the last two or three centuries before Christ,

Though cunning workers in metal themselves, the Celtic tribes, who were warriors first and last, did not communicate the craft

to the Germans of the Continent or the related tribes of the Scandinavian peninsula. Norway owed its knowledge of iron and its first supply of weapons to the Romans, whose nearest depits were on the western frontier of Germany; but soon learnt the method of reducing its native ores, and with home-made implements turned eagerly to boat-building, an art which contributed

largely to local prosperity in the Viking period. Britain.—In

the second half of the bronze age it was the

custom in Britain to burn the dead and erect funeral mounds of

circular form (round barrows) over the ashes, with or without cinerary urns.

Cemeteries of cremated remains in or under urns,

without any superficial indications (urn-fields), have also been found, presumably late in the bronze age, though here and there containing objects of iron; and tbis association has led O. G. $.

Crawford to attribute these graves to Celtic invaders, preferably of Goidelic (Gaelic) language and armed with the leaf-shaped

sword of bronze (Antiquaries Journal, ii., 27). It should, however, be pointed out that according to philologists there are no

traces of a Goidelic occupation of England, and the Gael only reached Scotland in the sth century A.D. The very scarcity of iron objects in these urn-fields suggests their inclusion in the bronze age, as an iron age cannot be said to begin till the metal

has passed into common use and is no longer an article of luxury. The varieties of the leaf-shaped sword referred to do not include the specific Hallstatt bronze sword, which has a spade-shaped prolongation of the hilt for a heavy pommel; and it is the latter type which characterizes the earliest Hallstatt phase abroad as well as in England: the inference is that other types are of the pure bronze age. All have been illustrated by Harold J. E. Peake who suspects that pottery with finger-tip

ormament

on raised

bands was earlier than the bronze swords of Hallstatt type, and therefore contemporary with swords of the recognized bronze age patterns. Both pottery and swords represent in his opinion an earlier invasion from the Continent; and the Hallstatt type of bronze sword was brought by people retreating before the sword of iron. In support of this he points out that the Sequani (dwellers on the Sequana, Seine), who belonged to the Q Celts

(Goidelic), had bronze swords and were not disturbed by wielders of the iron weapon, who apparently spoke a Brythonic language (P Celts). He sees a corresponding association of sword-

pattern and dialect in Italy. Hallstatt Period in Britain.—Till quite recently Britain has been denied a Hallstatt period, though in 1906 various Italian and Hallstatt types of brooches in the country were interpreted to mean at least commercial relations with Central Europe, and the argument was strengthened by the discovery of a cordoned bucket like fig. 3 (made in North Italy) at Brooklands, Surrey,

Iron Age in Norway.—Physical and economic conditions were different in Norway, where the bronze age is little more in the following year. Brooches of La Téne I. type are common than a name and the early iron age is comparatively late. In- in certain parts of England (especially Wiltshire and neighbouring counties), and that stage has been generally recognized as deed there is little of the iron age till some of the best Roman products were introduced about a.D. roo though it is generally the beginning of the British iron age, but recent discoveries tend assumed that Montelius’ classification holds good. Another line to demonstrate not only trade but occupation by people of Hallhas recently been taken by A. W. Brøgger of Oslo, who contends statt culture. Though most of the leaf-shaped swords must be that in the pre-Roman period Norway had:no bronze or iron for referred to the bronze age, a few of the peculiar Hallstatt type industrial or domestic purposes, and only becarne independent of have been found, and pottery is still better evidence of a new foreign supplies about A.D. 350 when the Roman period elsewhere wave of population, for some distorted fragments found with a was drawing to a close, there being no period of Roman occupa- kiln at Eastbourne are not only of Hallstatt ware but were evition in Norway, though the term is conveniently borrowed. Ac- dently made on the spot, as wasters would not be imported. cording to this theory the stone age only came to an end with Earlier discoveries at Hengistbury Head, Hampshire, included the general use of the iron axe, which enabled the population to fragments attributed to the same period but not so easily recogclear the woodlands and bring something more than a coastal nizable; and these have been followed by a large number of strip under cultivation. This was a turning-point as important as typical fragments át All Cannings Farm near Devizes (Wiltthe introduction of domestic animals and agriculture; and after shire}, Scarborough (Yorkshire) and Park Brow near Worthing some tribal movements occasioned by the great migrations of (Sussex).. From these associations it may be possible to assıgn the 4th and sth centuries, the country entered on its later iron certain burials without mounds, in cinerary urns of cylindrical

ARCHAEOLOGY

IRON AGE]

form with finger-nail impressions, to the first part of the early iron age, though it is not clear at what stage of the Hallstatt period these newcomers arrived, as the finds are at present few and sporadic. Unburnt burials of early La Tène date have been found (some with chariots) in Yorkshire, but more familiar are the urn-fields with cinerary urns of the pedestal type in South-

eastern England (as at Aylesford and Swarling in Kent, Welwyn

459

Hants (Society of Antiquaries, 1915); Excavation of Urn-field at Swarling, Kent (Society of Antiquaries, 1925) ; Cyril Fox, Archaeology of the Cambridge Region (1923); A. Bulleid and H. St. G. Gray, The Glastonbury Lake Village vols. i., ii. (Glastonbury Antiquarian Society, 1911, 1917); Archaeologia (Society of Antiquaries of London), vol. lii. (Aylesford Cemetery); idem. vol. Ix. (i), (Early Iron Age burials in Yorks.) ; idem. vol. Ixiii. (Welwyn, Herts) ; idem. vol. Ixvii.

(Lord Avebury’s collection from Hallstatt); idem. vol. Ixxvi. (Park

Brow, Sussex). Proceedings, Soc. Antiq. Lond. 3x., 179; xxii, 338; in Hertfordshire, and on several sites in Essex). xxvii., 9r (currency-bars). (R. A. Sm.) The artistic productions of this early iron age in Britain (as

figs. 21-23) were at their best in the period between the invasions of Julius Caesar and the conquest under Claudius (roughly 50 B.C.~A.D. 50, known as La Téne IV.); but the subject is discussed elsewhere (under La Téne), and the examples

given in the plate must here suffice. The coinage (fig. 15) was at first borrowed from Gaul, and later struck by the local tribes at Colchester, St. Albans, Silchester and other centres, the first

inscriptions being in Roman characters. There had, however, been a currency here before coins were introduced, and in 190 the iron bars adjusted to a certain weight standard, as Caesar relates, were recognized in a number of flat blades with roughly shaped handles (fig. 16) found chiefly in British earth-works and evidently conforming to a standard of 4,770 grains (309-7 grammes or about r10z. avoirdupois), no less than six denom-

4. AIR SURVEY Long before aeroplanes were invented it was confidently hoped that vertical photographs would some day be taken, and it was felt certain that, if so, they would greatly assist archaeology. Maj. Elsdale was the pioneer of air-photography in the British army. Between about 1880 and 1887 he carried out many experiments

from free balloons; but ballooning was not much in favour then and, although some progress was made, he received little or no official support in his experiments. During several years preceding the World War, Henry S. Wellcome successfully used

large box-kites, with specially devised automatic control cameras, for photographing his archaeological sites and excavations in the upper Nile regions of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. inations (fractions or multiples) being now recorded. They are During the World War, when aeroplane photographs first bealmost confined to a square with its angles at Leominster, North- came common, it was expected that archaeological features would ampton, Bridport and Portsmouth. be observed; but in the British sector in France none were seen, Ireland.—There are undoubted Hallstatt types in Ireland. The photographs were often taken at a great height, over country E. C. R. Armstrong enumerated two dozen bronze swords with which is archaeologically barren, or which was too rankly overtrapezium (or spade-shaped) pommels, one iron sword, seven grown to show results. Only on other fronts was time found for winged chapes (end of sword-scabbards), seven pails (situlae) archaeology in the air. Col. Beazeley observed and photographed and other objects which, however, do not include bronze razors, in ‘Iraq, in 1917, cities whose ruins were unintelligible on the cordoned buckets, swords with horse-shoe pommels (late Hall- ground. On an air-photograph these ruins were seen as an orderly statt), swan-necked pins or coloured pottery; but further ex- arrangement of streets and houses. This definitely proved that cavation may fill some or all of these gaps, and the succeeding air-photography could add to knowledge, and that it would be period of La Tène is better represented, though mostly in its an invaluable aid to excavation. To Col. Beazeley, therefore, is later phases. The ancient Irish population seems to have con- due the credit for the first actual application of aeroplane photogsisted of two main types: a short, dark, long-headed group of raphy to archaeology.

Mediterranean affinities (locally pre-Celtic), and a tall, fair,

long-headed people of Nordic type, representing a Celtic in-

vasion a few centuries before Christ. The earliest traces of La Téne culture date about 300 B.C., and burials of the period seem

to have been after cremation.

Ireland is comparatively rich in

The birth of the new study in England, however, dates from 1922 when Air Commodore Clark Hall observed certain curious marks on R.A.F. air-photos taken in Hampshire. With him must

be mentioned Flight-lieut. Haslam, who took a number of photo-

graphs near Winchester showing what turned out to be prehistoric stone monuments of La Téne character, from Turoe (Galway), fields. Air Commodore Clark Hall showed these photographs Castlestrang (Roscommon) and Mullaghmast (Kildare); but on to Dr. Williams-Freeman and O. G. S. Crawford, archaeology the other hand there are no coins or even a bar-currency of the officer of the Ordmance Survey, who saw that their expectations period in the country. The artistic tendencies of the Celt may were fulfilled, and even surpassed, by what was revealed. It was be seen in the local treatment of the brooch, sword-scabbards possible from these photographs to make a map of the preand enamel work, but only a few specimens can be dated by historic field-system. near Winchester. Popular interest was first comparison with Continental types, and it was in Ireland that aroused by O. G. S. Crawford’s discovery and publication of the Celtic artist took refuge and maintained the traditional style negatives showing, for the first time, the complete course of the uninfuenced by the Roman empire which included the rest of Stonehenge avenue (eastern branch). The photographs were taken Western Europe. in the dry year of 1921 by the Old Sarum squadron; but their , BistiocRaPHY.—General.—J. Déchelette, Manuel d'Archéologie, vol. archaeological importance was not recognized until two years N., parts 2, 3 (1913—14) ; Jacques de Morgan, Prehistoric Man (1924) later, in 1923. The most important archaeological air-photographs Maurice Piroutet, Contribution à Pétude des Celtes, (L’ Anthropologie, obtained are those taken during 1924 by O. G. S. Crawford and XXIX., XXX.): J. Newton Friend, Jron in Antiquity (1926). Local-——Von Sacken, Das Grabfeld von Hallstatt (1868) ; Altertümer unserer heid- Alexander Keiller. An aeroplane was specially hired, and about nischen Vorzeit, vol. v., arts. by Reinecke and Schumacher (rorz) ; 300 photographs of archaeological sites were taken. Karl Schumacher, Siedelungs- und Kulturgeschichte der Rheinlands, Outside England little has been done except in ‘Iraq, Palestine, I.Band, Die Vorrémische Zeit (1921); Rademacher, C., Niederrhein- Transjordan and Egypt. In Palestine many sites have been photoische Hiigelgraberkultur, in M annus, Erganzungsband iv., p. 112; graphed by the Royal Air Force, at the suggestion of the DepartGeorg Kraft, Beiträge zur Kenninis

der Urnenfelderkultur in Süd-

deutschland, Bonner Jahrbiicher, 131, 154; J. L. Pit, Le Hradischt de Stradonitz (1906); P. Reinecke, La Téne-Denkmiler der Zone nordwarts dey Alpen (Festschrift des Centralmuseums

zu Mainz, 1902) ;

P. Vouga, La Téne (1923) ; D. Viollier, Les sépultures du second Age du Fer sur le plateau Suisse (1916) ; D. Randall-Maclver, Villanovans and Early Etruscans (1924) ; I. Undset, Das erste Auftreten des Eisens in Nord-Europa (1882); Sophus Müller, Nordische Altertumskunde, Vol. ii, (1898); A. W. Brøgger, Kulturgeschichte des Norwegischen Altertums (1926). (Sir) John Evans, The Coins of the Ancient Britons

(1864), and Supplement (1890) ; T. Rice Holmes, Ancient Britain and Invasions of Julius Caesar (1907), Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul, 2nd ed. (19rz)+ British Museum Guide to Antiquities of the Early Iron Age,

1925 (2nd ed.), from which the illustrations herewith are reproduced

Y Permission; J. P. Bushe-Fox, Excavations at Hengistbury Head,

ment of Antiquities. A photograph of Masada on the Dead sea is described in Antiquity. Remarkable remains were revealed in the Amman region (Transjordan) by R.A.F. air-photographs. These show an elaborate system of stone walls and enclosures designed probably for the rapid herding of animals when threatened by a raiding party. A preliminary report on these was published by Flight-lieut. P. E. Maitland in 1927; further results have

been obtained in the same area by Group-captain L. W. B. Rees, V.C. In Egypt valuable archaeological results were secured as a by-product of the third Nile aerial survey (1922). Oblique photographs have been taken of Numantia in Spain, but obkligues are

always inferior to verticals in archaeological value.

260

ARCHAEOPTERYX

It is usually imagined that the camera, when fixed in an aeroplane, records marks on the ground which are invisible to the eye of an observer. That is not so. The observer can see these marks more plainly than the camera records them, for he sees them in colour. The most remarkable discoveries that have been made are due to plants, which are sensitive to slight differences of soil and moisture. For example, if a ditch has been dug on a chalk down and the down has afterwards been ploughed flat and sown

with corn, for ever afterwards the subsoil filling (or silt) of that ditch differs from the adjacent never-disturbed soil. Nothing can ever restore chalk once dug to its former state. Archaeologists have long known this, for one of the principal needs in excavation is to distinguish between disturbed and undisturbed soil. But one cannot dig up a whole field or several fields to find a ditch which, after all, may not exist. Here it is that a vertical view helps; for the effect of this moister and more fertile silt upon a crop of corn is to promote its growth and deepen its colour. Thus from above one sees, and can photograph, a belt of darker green corn following the line of the vanished ditch. These lines are sometimes visible on the ground, from across a valley, or even at closer quarters. Sometimes (as in parts of the Stonehenge avenue) they are quite invisible. But always, when more than a single ditch is concerned, the distant view is necessary to convert chaos into order. The reason for this necessity can best be explained by means of a comparison. If one looks through a magnifying-glass at a half-tone illustration made through a coarse screen, it ceases to be seen as a picture and becomes a meaningless maze of blurred dots. If one holds it some distance off and looks at it with the naked eye it becomes a picture again. The observer on the ground is like the user of the magnifying-glass; the observer (or camera) in the air resembles him who looks at the picture from a distance.

(See SURVEYING.) The majority of British prehistoric sites, and many later ones,

were a maze of ditches and pits, dug for drainage, storage, habitation, defence or boundary purposes. Many still exist on the downs, undisturbed and turf covered; many more have been flattened by cultivation. All of the Jatter can be re-discovered by air-photography, provided only that the arable has not been allowed to revert to grass. Even then traces of the ditches are sometimes visible, especially on poor soils and in dry summers, by a belt of darker green. Air observation, however, is most fruitful when young crops are growing; then discovery is easy and rapid, and every flight is productive. Such sites may afterwards be seen to exist by an observer on the ground; but few of them could ever have been discovered except from the air. Chalk is not the only soil that produces these streak-sites; they have been observed on oolitic limestone near Bath and gravel near Exbury. Other factors enable air-photography to record ancient sites. Prehistoric cultivation-banks are revealed because they either throw slight shadows or because when ploughed they appear as belts of lighter soil, from the chalk grains mixed with them (see plate). From photographs the prehistoric field-system of a district can be accurately mapped. Again, rabbits work in the

looser silt or filled-up ditches (as well as in the soil of the lynchets), and if there are many rabbits a white line, or row of white patches, is visible from the air. Daisies and poppies grow from choice above these ditches, and barrows and hill-top camps have thus been revealed by white and scarlet circles. Lastly, the low shadows at sunrise and sunset etch the slopes of low banks in deep black. That is the time to photograph lynchets. On a June morning before breakfast the greater part of Salisbury plain is seen to be covered with the banks of abandoned Celtic fields; but afterwards they “fade into the common light of day.” The great ramparts of hill-top camps throw a shadow even at mid-day, but are best photographed when the sun is low, for then not only do the ramparts stand out best, but also the banks and pits of the habitations within. Hambledon Hill, Dorset, England (see fig. xı on plate), one of the finest hill-top camps, is on an isolated hill about 300ft. above the surrounding country. The entrance of the camp is protected by a hook-like prolongation of an outer rampart; from it led a pathway within the camp, passing between oblong and circular

pits, the site of huts. Those, especially in the middle portion of the camp, are very clearly seen, and beside them is a long barrow, far older of course than the camp, which was probably made in the early iron age. Across the narrow ridge connecting the hill of the camp with the next hill, was built a formidable double scarp.

to-scarp rampart; and beyond this can be seen the faint outline of a probably older camp (only partially included). The hill must have been permanently inhabited. A scattered flock of sheep in the inner portion of the camp will give some idea of the scale of the photograph. Oakley Down, Dorset, England, another noted site, is between Salisbury and Blandford, on chalk soil now covered with twf. The principal features are: (1) The raised causeway of the Roman road running diagonally across the district; (2) a group of round barrows, or burial mounds of the early bronze age, older than the Roman road, which cuts its way through two disc-barrows; (3) a network of Celtic fields, particularly noticeable in one corner of the photograph. In the valley below is the remains of a contem-

porary pond (very large, but now dry), and there are signs of Celtic ploughing on both sides of the Roman road. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Lt.-col. G. A. Beazeley, “Air Photography in Archaeology,” Geographical Journal (1919); ibid., “Surveys in Mesopotamia During the War,” Geog. Jour. (1920); T. Wiegand, Wissenschaftl. Verdffentl d. deutsch-turkischen Denkmalschutz-kommandos, Heft 1, Sinai (1920); J. H. Breasted, Publication of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (1922); Articles by O. G. S. Crawford in The Observer (July and Sept. 1923), Results of Special Survey by A. Keiller, and O. G. S. Crawford (Aug. 1924); Articles by O. G. S. Crawford in The Christian Science Monitor (Dec. 1923); L. Franz, Wiener Prahistorische Zeitschrift, a review of air survey and archaeology giving the results of German and American work quoted (1923); R. A. MacLean, “The Aeroplane and Archaeology,” Amer. Jour. of Arch. (1923); Vertical Air Photographs reproduced in Illustrated London News, Pompeit (June 1923 and Feb.

1924) Ur (July 1923); see also Antiquaries’ Journal (1923); Stone-

henge Avenue (Aug. 1923); O. G. S. Crawford, Air Survey and Archaeology Ordnance Survey, Professional Papers New Series (1924) reprinted with numerous additions to text and with many new plates and maps, from Geographical Journal (May 1923, 2nd ed. 1928); W. Andrä, Air Photographs of Assur taken during the war by Germans; report given to Wiener Anthropologische Gesellschaft (1924). The following have appeared in Antiquity:—O. G. S. Crawford, “Lyonesse,” i. 5-14; Mrs. M. E. Cunnington, “Prehistoric Timber Circles” (Woodhenge), i. 92-95; Flight-lieut. P. E. Maitland, “The Works of the ‘Old Men’ in Arabia,” i. 197-203; E. Cecil Curwen, “Prehistoric Agriculture in Britain,” i. 261-289; “Air-photographs near Dorchester” Oxon, i. 469-474; T. Zammit, “Prehistoric Carttracks in Malta,” ii. 18-25. Many of the sites referred to in the above article are described by O. G. S. Crawford and A. Keiller in Wessex from the Air, Oxford (1928). (0. G. S. C.)

ARCHAEOPTERYX.

The discovery of the impression of

a feather in the lithographic limestone of Solenhofen, Bavaria, has enabled us to trace back the descent of birds of Jurassic times; though it afforded no clue as to the type of bird to which it belonged. This feather was named Archaeopteryx lithographica, by Hermann von Meyer, so far back as 186r. Later in the same year, and from the same quarry, a very imperfect skeleton was found, together with the “flight-feathers” of the wings and the feathers of the tail. These remains, it is of importance to notice,

were those of a “perching-bird,” though of a vastly more primitive type than any now existing. This specimen is now in the British Museum of Natural History, and was described by Owen under the name Archaeopteryx macroura. In 1872 a second and nearly perfect specimen was found— again in the same quarry—and is now in the Berlin Museum. That it represents a distinct species of the genus Archaeopterys is generally admitted. The adjoining text-cut (fig. 1) seems to justify the assumption that it fell to the bottom of some shallow lake, and was slowly covered with a deposit of fine mud, so that the bones, after the disintegration of the flesh, remained undisturbed. The interest and importance of these two specimens cannot easily be exaggerated. They have formed the theme of endless discussion by men of science; though from a lack of familiarity with avian anatomy the conclusions at which they have arrived are sometimes surprising.

That birds and reptiles are derivatives from the same common

stock is convincingly demonstrated in the structure of living birds; but in Archaeopteryx we find what the evolutionist woud

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ARCHAEOPTERYX,

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AFTER

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Skeletal remains show that the Archaeopteryx forms a definite link between

IN THE BERLIN

MUSEUM

reptiles and birds

expect: stages in the transformation from reptile to bird, to be seen very early in post-embryonic life, and sometimes before, the in modern birds only during embryonic and early post-embryonic fused mass comes to form one common bony tissue with the life. The jaws were armed with teeth, as were those of Zchthyor- metacarpals. That the wing of Archaeopteryx was evolved pari nis and Hesperornis of the later Cretaceous epoch. These teeth passu with the feathers in response to the movements peculiar are reptilian heritages. The tail furnishes still more important to the requirements of flight scarcely admits of doubt; though evidence. In Archaeopteryx, as in the reptiles, this was formed of quite different functions have been claimed for it. The problem along chain of vertebrae. The last 12 bore each a pair of stiff- of the evolution of the skeleton of the wing cannot be divorced shafted feathers, shown in fig. 2, directed backwards and outwards. from the study of the indubitable “flight-feathers” which it supIn modern birds the tail-feathers, precisely similar in character, ported. These, as in living birds, are divisible into the outermost, are arranged fan-wise, and fixed by their bases to a median lamina or “primaries,” borne by the hand, and the “secondaries,” borne of bone, the “pygostyle.” When this lamina is examined in the by the fore-arm. They are as sharply defined as in modern birds, embryo it is found to be composed of a number of separate ele- and this could not have come about save as a response to the ments, answering to from six to seven originally separate verte- same stimuli. In other words, they have the same form and arbrae. In other words, the tail of modern birds has been derived rangement because they served the same function. In one parby a process of “telescoping” the vertebrae, so that the pairs of ticular the wing of Archaeopteryx seems to differ from that of feathers they originally supported have come to lie within a living birds, and this has proved a stumbling-block to many who semicircle embracing what is now a “pygostyle,” but what was have discussed this theme after no more than a very desultory once a number of vertebrae in linear series, as seen in fig. 2. survey of the facts. This difference lies in the fact that the secThe wing is no less remarkable in this connection. In its es- ond and third digits projected beyond the outermost primaries sential features it agrees with the late embryonic and early post- and terminated each in a claw—a condition that has been interembryonic stages of living birds. Thus, in modern birds the three preted to show that the wing was used rather for climbing than metacarpal bones, answering to the bones of the palm of the as an organ of flight. We have a parallel in the wing of the nesthand, can be separated only during the early stages of develop- ling Hoatzin, and also in the wings of nestling Gallinaceous birds. ment. In Archaeopteryx they never became welded together. In In the Hoatzin the thumb and first finger, which is very long, are ving birds the first and sometimes the second digit may termi- armed with claws which enable the wing to be used for climbing hate in a claw, but the third digit has been found to possess a along the branches supporting the nest. Soon the “flight-feathe rs” claw only in one or two cases of embryos of the ostrich. The of the hand begin to grow, but the development of the outermost distal, or second row of wrist-bones in Archaeopteryx were primaries is inhibited till the inner feathers have provided a wingwelded together to form a semi-circular nodule of bone closely surface sufficient to break the force of a fall. Not till then do applied to the bases of the metacarpals. In modern birds a pre- the outer primaries make their appearance, and at the same cisely similar welding together of the wrist-bones is found, but time the claw at the tip of the second digit disappears, while by

ARCHAISM—ARCHBISHOP

262

changes in the rate of growth the hand becomes greatly shortened relatively to the fore-arm. The condition of the wing at the time of the inhibition of the primaries answers to the adult condition of the wing of Archaeopteryx, and suggests that the projecting second and third digits, and their claws, were used as climbing-hooks during the annual moult when all the quills were shed at once, as in the Amatidae, for example, to-day. 22 The shoulder-girdle of Archaeopteryx is very “reptilian,” especially in regard to the coracoid—the shaft projecting from the

Vologda; and west, Karelian A.S.S.R. Area 450,770S8q.km. Pop. (1926) 428,941; urban 67,015, rural 361,926. The province jg divided into the following districts:—Archangel (229,398), Mez-

ensk (40,971) (the pop. of the town of Mezen is 70% greater in summer than in winter), Onega (37,666), Petchora (18,396),

Shenkursky (98,976), the islands of the North sea (4,434). The climate is severe, the Kanin peninsula and the Timan coast area lying in the Arctic zone. Archangel gulf freezes at the end of Oc.

tober on the average of 140 days, and the port of Archangel is

blocked for r90 days, though the Gulf Stream influence is suff. ciently felt to make the winter no more severe than that of Onega bay 200m. south. The heaviest precipitation is in autumn. At Archangel, the average rainfall is 15-3in.; January temperature

7-3°F., July 60-4F. In the north the land remains frozen all the year, since spring and autumn are moist, with frosty nights, and summer is foggy; therefore the north is in the tundra zone, chiefly sand and reindeer moss; the south is pine forest. The chief occupation on the coast is fishing (especially cod and herring) and in

the forest, salmon fishing and hunting (brown bear, glutton, lynx, elk, fox, wolf), collecting cranberries and mushrooms to be dried and sent to the towns. The Kanin peninsula is inhabited by nomad Samoyedes, following the tundra limit with their reindeer, from which they get food, clothing and tent covers; in winter they visit the Russian and Zyrian towns and exchange their reindeer products for four and ammunition.

Barley, winter rye, oats, hemp and flax

are grown in the south, but birch bark has often to be used for flour. Potatoes are grown south of latitude 65°. Pitch, tar and timber are obtained from the forests, and shipbuilding is carried on on the coast. Cattle are raised in Kholmogory, west of the North Dwina river, and veal is sent to Leningrad. Naphtha and salt are produced in the Pinega area and lignite in Mezen. Mica is mined; the output In 1927 was 36,000 pounds. Shenkursk and

FIG.

2.—RECONSTRUCTION

OF

THE

ARCHAEOPTERYX

The outstanding features are the long reptilian tail and the teeth, 13 in the upper jaw and 3 in the lower, all in distinct sookets. The Archaeopteryx was about the size of a rook

sternum for the support of the wing. Of the sternum we know nothing. The absence of a median keel to the sternal plate has been postulated on what is, at present, mere guesswork. The pelvis, though emphatically avian in type, presents many peculiar and interesting features. Of these one of the most striking is seen in the pubes, which met towards their hinder ends to form an elongated, triangular plate; restorations which have been made of the pelvic-girdle have left out of account the probable cartilaginous areas of the hinder border of the ilium and ischium,

seen in the late embryonic and early post-embryonic pelves of modern birds. When these are added, a much more familiar look is given to the whole structure. The foot of Archaeopteryx is profoundly interesting, since, had it alone been found, it would have been regarded as that of a small Corvine bird. This means that it had already become transformed into the typical “Passerine” type of foot adapted both for perching and walking. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—H. v. Meyer, Neues Jahrb. f. Mineralog. (1861), p- 679; Sir R. Owen, “On the Archaeopteryx von Meyer... ,” Phil. Trans. (1863), Pp. 33-47, pl. i-lv.; T. H. Huxley, “Remarks on the Skeleton of the Archaeopteryx and on the relations of the bird to the reptile,” Geol. Mag. (1864), i, pp. 55-57; H. Gadow, “Vogel,” Bronn’s Klassen u. Ordnungen (1891); W. P. Pycraft, “The Wing of Archaeopteryx,” Nat. Science (1894, 1896) vol. v., viii.; B. Petronievics and A. S. Woodward, “On the Pectoral and Pelvic arches of the British Museum specimen of Archaeopteryx,” P.Z.S. (1917); B. Petronievics, Der Londoner Archaeopteryx (1921); Gerhard Heilman, Tke

Origin of Birds (1927).

W.

ARCHAISM, an old-fashioned usage, or the deliberate em-

ployment of an out-of-date and ancient mode of expression. Examples will be found in English in the forgeries of Chatterton and in the prose romances of William Morris.

ARCHANGEL.

(:.) A non-autonomous province of the

Russian §.F.S.R., decidedly smaller than the former Archangel province. Its boundaries are, north, the White sea; east, the autonomous Komi (Zyrian) area; south, the north Dwina and

Kholmogory have sulphur springs. (2.) A town and port, the administrative centre of the province, on the right bank of the North Dwina river at the head of the delta, 64° 33’ N. and 40° 50’ E. The shortest day is 3hr. 12min, the longest 2thr. 48min. Pop. (1926) 71,091. Of the White sea trade, about 82% passes through Archangel. The harbour is immense, and can accommodate hundreds of ocean-going steamers. It has six sections, the depth of water being 24-25 feet. It is ice bound from November to May. It is linked by river, canal and rail with the south, and the railway line was converted from single to double up to Vologda in 1916. Its main exports are timber, tar, flax, linseed, skins, but timber forms 80%. Its chief industry is sawmilling. Others are fishing, sail and rope making, shipbuilding, cod curing, cod-liver oil preparation, skins and blubber. English and Norwegian vessels use the port. It was visited by Norsemen in the roth century (Ottar or Othere 880-900 is best known), but the town dates from R. Chancellor’s expedition, 1553, when an English factory was built. It was long the only seaport of Muscovy and was opened to all nations by Boris Godunov (1598-1605). Its bazaar and trading hall were built by Tatar prisoners (1668-84). It declined after the building of St. Petersburg (later Leningrad) in 1702, but when equal trading facilities were granted in 1762 it gradually recovered. It has a cathedral (1709-43), a museum, the monastery of the

Archangel Michael (hence the name) and a school of navigation.

ARCHBALD,

a borough

of Lackawanna

county, Pa,

U.S.A., in the anthracite fields, rom. N.E. of Scranton, about gooft. above sea-level. It is served by the Delaware and Hudson and the New York, Ontario and Western railways. The population in 1920 was 8,603, in 1930, 9,587 by Federal census. Coal-mining is the principal industry of the borough. Within its limits is a large glacial “pot-hole,” about zoft. in diameter and 4oft. deep. Archbald was named after James Archbald, formerly chief engineer of

the Delaware and Hudson. It was incorporated in 1877.

ARCHBISHOP

(Gr. dpxericxoros) in the Christian

church, the title of a bishop of superior rank, implying usually jurisdiction over other bishops, but no superiority of order over them. The functions of the archbishop, as at present exercised,

developed out of those of the metropolitan (q.v.); though the title of archbishop when it first appeared, implied no metro

ARCHCHANCELLOR politan jurisdiction. Nor are the terms interchangeable now; for not all metropolitans are archbishops, nor all archbishops metropolitans. The title seems to have been introduced first in

the East, in the 4th century, as an honorary distinction implying no superiority of jurisdiction. Its first recorded use is by Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, who applied it to his predecessor Alexander as a mark of respect. In the next century its use seems to have been more common; for several archbishops are stated to have been present at the council of Chalcedon in 451. In the Western Church the title was hardly known before the

yth century, and did not become common until the Carolingian emperors revived

provincial synods.

the right of the metropolitans

to summon

The metropolitans now commonly assumed

the title of archbishop to mark their pre-eminence over the other

bishops; at the same time the obligation imposed upon them, mainly at the instance of St. Boniface, to receive the pallium

(q.v.) from Rome, marked the defeat of their claim to exercise metropolitan jurisdiction independently of the Pope.

At the present day, the title of archbishop is retained in the Roman Catholic Church, the Orthodox and other Churches of the East, the Anglican

Church,

Lutheran (Evangelical) Church.

and certain branches

Roman Catholic Church.—In the Roman

of the

Catholic Church

the powers of the archbishop are considerably less extensive than they were in the middle ages, their rights having been greatly curtailed by the council of Trent.

The confirmation and

consecration of bishops (see BisHop) is now

reserved to the

Holy See. The disciplinary powers once exercised by the archbishop can scarcely be said to survive. The right to hold a visitation of a suffragan’s diocese or to issue censures against him was made by the council of Trent dependent upon the consent of the provincial synod after cause shown, and the only two powers left to the archbishop in this respect are to watch over

the diocesan seminaries and to compel the residence of the bishop

203

benefice, subject to certain restrictions which have been imposed by later statutes. The archbishop also continues to grant degrees in the faculties of theology, music and law, which are known as Lambeth degrees. The Archbishop of Canterbury exercises the twofold jurisdiction of a metropolitan and a diocesan bishop. As metropolitan he is the guardian of the spiritualities of every vacant see within the province, he presents to all benefices which fall vacant during the vacancy of the see, and through his special commissary exercises the ordinary jurisdiction of a bishop within the vacant

diocese. He exercises also an appellate jurisdiction over each bishop, which, in cases of licensed curates, he exercises personally under the pluralities act 1838; but his ordinary appellate jurisdiction is exercised by the judge of the Arches court (see ArcHES, Court oF). The vicar-general exercises jurisdiction in matters of ordinary marriage licences and of institutions to benefices. The master of the faculties regulates the appointment of notaries public, and all dispensations which fall under 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21. A right very rarèly exercised by the Archbishop of Canterbury, but one of great importance, is that of the visitation and deprivation of inferior bishops (see LINCOLN JUDGMENT). It is the privilege of the Archbishop of Canterbury to crown the Kings and Queens of England. He is entitled to consecrate all the bishops within his province. He takes precedence immediately after Princes of the blood royal and over every peer of Parliament, including the lord chancellor. The Archbishop of York has immediate spiritual jurisdiction as metropolitan in the case of all vacant sees within the province of York, analogous to that which is exercised by the Archbishop of Canterbury within the province of Canterbury. He has also an appellate jurisdiction of an analogous character, which he exercises through his provincial court, whilst his diocesan jurisdiction is exercised through his consistorial court, the judges of both courts being nominated by the archbishop. It is the privilege of the Archbishop of York to crown the Queen Consort and to be her perpetual chaplain. 'Fhe Archbishop of York takes precedence over all subjects of the Crown not of royal blood, but after the lord high chancellor of England (see further, EneLAND, CHURCH OF). The Church of Ireland had at the time of the act of union four archbishops, who took their titles from Armagh, Dublin, Cashel and Tuam. By acts of 1833 and 1834, the metropolitans of Cashel and of Tuam were reduced to the status of diocesan bishops. The two archbishops of Armagh and Dublin are maintained in the disestablished church of Ireland. The title archbishop has been used in certain of the colonial churches; e.g., Australia, South Africa, Canada, and the West Indies, since 1893, when it was assumed by the metropolitans of

in his diocese. Besides archbishops who are metropolitans there are in the Roman Catholic Church others who have no metropolitan jurisdiction; e.g., certain archbishops of Italian sees who have no bishops under them. Archbishops rank immediately after patriarchs and have the same precedence as primates. The right to wear the pallium is confined to those archbishops who are not merely titular. The special ensign of the archbishop’s office is the cross, crux erecta or gestatoria, carried before him on solemn occasions (see Cross). Eastern Chutrch—In the Orthodox and other churches of the East the title of archbishop is of far more common occurrence than in the West, and is less consistently associated with metropolitan functions. : Lutheran Church—In the Protestant churches of continental Europe the title of archbishop has fallen into almost Canada and Rupert’s Land (see ANGLICAN COMMUNION). Archcomplete disuse. It is, however, still borne by the Lutheran bishops have the title of His (or Your) Grace and Most Reverend bishop of Uppsala, who is metropolitan of Sweden, and by the Father in God.

Lutheran bishop of Abo in Finland. Church of England.—In the Church of England and its sister and daughter churches the position of the archbishop is

defined by the mediaeval canon Jaw as confirmed or modified by statute since the Reformation. The ecclesiastical government of the Church of England is

BrstiosraPHy.—See Hinschius, System des katholischen Kirchenrechts (1869), also article “Erzbischof,” in Hauck, Realencyklopädie (1898) ; Phillimore, The Ecclesiastical Law of the Church of England, and authorities there cited.

ARCHCHANCELLOR,

or chief chancellor, a title given

to the highest dignitary of the Holy Roman empire, and also divided between two archbishops—the Archbishop of Canter- used occasionally during the middle ages to denote an official who bury, who is “primate of all England” and metropolitan of the supervised the work of chancellors or notaries. A charter of the province of Canterbury, and the Archbishop of York, who is emperor Lothair I. dated 844 refers to Agilmar, archbishop of ‘primate of England” and metropolitan of the province of York. Vienne, as archchancellor, and there are several other references The jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Canterbury as primate of to archchancellors in various chronicles. This office existed in all England extends in certain matters into the province of York. the German kingdom of Otto the Great, and about this time it He exercised the jurisdiction of legatus natus of the Pope appears to have become an appanage of the archbishopric of throughout all England before the Reformation, and since that Mainz. When the empire was restored by Otto in 962, a separate event he has been empowered, by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21, to exercise chancery seems to have been organized for Italian affairs, and certain powers of dispensation in cases formerly sued for in the early in the 11th century the office of archchancellor for the kingcourt of Rome. Under this statute the archbishop continues to dom of Italy was in the hands of the archbishop of Cologne. grant special licences to marry, which are valid in both provinces; The theory was that all the imperial business in Germany was he appoints notaries public, who may practise in both provinces ; supervised by the elector of Mainz, and in Italy by the elector and he grants dispensations to clerics to hold more than one of Cologne. However, the duties of archchancellor for Italy

204

ARCHDEACON—ARCHELAUS

were generally discharged by deputy, and after the virtual separation of Italy and Germany, the title alone was retained by the elector. During the r2th century the elector of Trier took the title of archchancellor for the kingdom of Arles, although it is doubtful if he ever performed any duties in connection with this office. This threefold division of the office of imperial archchancellor was acknowledged in 1356 by the Golden Bull of the Emperor Charles IV., but the duties of the office were performed by the elector of Mainz. The office in this form was part of the constitution of the empire until 1803 when the archbishopric of Mainz was secularized. The last elector, Karl Theodor von Dalberg, however, retained the title of archchancellor until the dissolution of the empire in 1806.

ARCHDEACON,

a high official of the Christian Church.

The office of archdeacon is of great antiquity. Originally the archdeacon was, as the name implies, the chief of the deacons attached to the bishop’s cathedral, his duty being, besides preaching, to supervise the deacons and their work. His close relation to the bishop gave him, though only in deacon’s orders, great importance, which continually developed. In the East, in the sth century, the archdeacons were already charged with the proof of the qualifications of candidates for ordination; they attended the bishops at ecclesiastical synods, and sometimes acted as their representatives; they shared in the administration of sees during a vacancy. In the West, in the 6th and 7th centuries, archdeacons had in addition certain well-defined rights of visitation and supervision, being responsible for the good order of the lower clergy, the upkeep of ecclesiastical buildings, and the safeguarding of the church furniture. During the 8th and gth centuries the office tended to become more exclusively administrative, the archdeacon relieving the bishop of the details of government and keeping him informed of the condition of his diocese. The archdeacon bad thus become the oculus episcopi, “the bishop’s eye,” but, empowered as he was to impose penance and even to excommunicate offenders, his power tended to grow at the bishop’s expense. This process received a great impulse from the erection in the 8th to z2th centuries of defined territorial jurisdictions for the archdeacons. The dioceses were now mapped out into several archdeaconries, and these defined spheres gradually came to be regarded as independent centres of jurisdiction. The bishops, now increasingly absorbed in secular affairs, were content with a somewhat theoretical power of control, while the archdeacons rigorously asserted an independent position which implied great power and possibilities of wealth. The power of the archdeacon reached its zenith at the outset of the 13th century. He possessed in his own right the powers of visitation, of holding courts and imposing penalties, of deciding in matrimonial causes and cases of disputed jurisdiction, of testing candidates for orders, of inducting into benefices; and these powers he might exercise through delegated oficiales. His jurisdiction had become, in fact, co-ordinate with that of the bishop. From the 13th century onward a reaction set in. The bishops began to circumvent the power of the archdeacons by appointing new officials to exercise in their name the rights to which they laid claim. These were the oficiales foranei, whose jurisdiction was parallel with that of the archdeacons, and the oficiales principales and vicars-general, who presided over the courts of appeal. The clergy having thus another authority to appeal to, the power of the archdeacons declined; and, so far as the Roman Catholic Church is concerned, it received its death-blow from the Council of Trent (1564), which confined the power of the archdeacons to holding visitations in connection with those of the bishop and with his consent. In the Roman Church to-day the office of archdeacon, where it exists, is merely titular, his sole function being to present the candidates for ordination to the bishop. His ancient functions are exercised by the vicar-general. In the Church of England the office, which occurs in 803, but did not become general until the Conquest, survives, with many ancient prerogatives. The archdeacons are appointed by their respective bishops, and they are, by an act of 1840, required to have been six full years in priest’s orders. Their functions are ancillary to those of the bishop of the diocese. They inspect the

OF CAPPADOCIA

churches to see that the fabrics are kept in repair, and hold annua] visitations of the clergy and churchwardens of each parish, for

the purpose of ascertaining that the clergy are in residence, of admitting the newly elected churchwardens into office, and of receiving the presentments of the outgoing churchwardens. They present all candidates for ordination to the bishop of the diocese, It is their duty also to induct the clergy into the temporalities of

their benefices. Every archdeacon is entitled to appoint an official to preside over his archidiaconal court, from which there is an appeal to the consistory court of the bishop. The archdeacons are

ex officio members of the convocations of their respective prov-

inces. In the Dominions the functions of archdeacons correspond to those of English archdeacons. In the Episcopal Church of America the office of archdeacon exists in only one or two dioceses. See

Hinschius,

Kirchenlexikon

Kirchenrecht,

(1882-1901);

ii. 8886,

Schréder,

diakonats bis zum x1 Jahrhundert

87;

Wetzer

Die Entwicklung

and Welte

des Archi-

(1890) ; Herzog-Hauck, Realency-

klopädie (ed. 1896); Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law, part ii. chap. v,

(1895). ARCHDUKE, a title peculiar in modern times to the Austrian

royal family (Lat. archidux, Ger. Erzherzog). The designation was exceedingly rare during the Middle Ages. The title of “archduke palatine” (Pfalz-Erzherzog) was assumed first by Duke Rudolph IV. (died 1365). Rudolph IV. used the title on his seals and charters till he was compelled to desist by the Emperor Charles IV. The title did not legally belong to the house of Habsburg until 1453, when the Emperor Frederick III. conferred the title of archduke of Austria on his son Maximilian and his heirs.

ARCHELAUS,

received the kingdom of Judaea by the last

will of his father, Herod the Great, though a previous will bad bequeathed it to his brother Antipas. He was proclaimed king by the army, but declined to assume the title until he had submitted his claims to Augustus. Before setting out, he quelled with the utmost cruelty a sedition of the Pharisees, slaying nearly 3,000 of them. At Rome he was opposed by Antipas and by many of the Jews, but Augustus allotted to him the greater part of the kingdom (Judaea, Samaria, Ituraea) with the title of Ethnarch. He married Glaphyra, the widow of his brother Alexander, though his wife and her second husband, Juba, king of Mauretania, were alive. This violation of the Mosaic law and his continued cruelty roused the Jews, who complained to Augustus. Archelaus was deposed (A.D. 7) and banished to Vienne. The date of his death is unknown. He is mentioned in Matt. u. 22, and the parable of Luke xix. 11 seg. may refer to his journey to Rome.

ARCHELAUS

(413-399 B.c.), king of Macedonia, was the

son of Perdiccas and a slave mother. He obtained the throne by murdering his uncle, his cousin and his half-brother the legitimate heir. He fortified cities, constructed roads and organized the army. He endeavoured to spread Greek civilization among his people and invited to his court, which he removed from Aegae to Pella, many celebrated men, amongst them Zeuxis, Timotheus, Euripides and Agathon. In 399 he was killed while hunting; according to another account he was the victim of a conspiracy. _, BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See Diodorus Siculus xiii. 49, xiv. 37; Thucydides ii, 100; also see MACEDONIA,

ARCHELAUS OF CAPPADOCIA (rst century B.c.), get

eral of Mithridates the Great in the war against Rome. In 87 B.C. he was sent to Greece with a large army and fleet, and occupied the Peiraeus after three days’ fighting with Bruttius Sura, prefect of Macedonia. There he was besieged by Sulla, compelled to withdraw into Boeotia, and completely defeated at Chaeroneia (86).

A fresh army was sent by Mithridates, but Archelaus was again defeated at Orchomenus (85). On the conclusion of peace, Archelaus, finding that he had incurred the suspicion of Mithridates, deserted to the Romans, by whom he was well received. Nothing further is known of him.

Appian, Mithrid. 30, 49, 56, 64; Plutarch, Sulla, 11, 16-19, 20, 23; Lucullus, 8.

ARCHELAUS, king of Egypt, was his son.

In 56 B.c. he mar-

ried Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, queen of Egypt, but

ARCHELAUS

OF MILETUS—ARCHERY

his reign only lasted six months. He was defeated by Aulus Gabinius and slain (55). xii., p.

ae a xvi. P. 796; Dio

205

ARCHERMUS, a Chian sculptor of the middle of the 6th

century B.C., is said by a scholiast (on Aristophanes’ Birds, v. Cassius xxxix. 57-58; 573) to have been the first to represent Victory and Love with A O R 3°Hirtius (?), Bell. Alex. 66; also Phe wings. This statement gives especial interest to a discovery made ARCHELAUS, king of Cappadocia, was grandson of the last at Delos of a basis signed by Micciades and Archermus which was named. In 41 B.c. (according to others, 34), he was made king of connected with a winged female figure in rapid motion (see Cappadocia by Antony, whom, however, he deserted after the GREEK ArT), a figure first regarded as the Victory of Archermus. battle of Actium. Octavian enlarged his kingdom by the addition Unfortunately further investigation has discredited the notion of part of Cilicia and Lesser Armenia. He was accused by Tiber- that the statue belongs to the basis, which seems rather to have jus, when emperor, of stirring up a revolution, and died in con- supported a sphinx.

finement at Rome (A.D. 17). Cappadocia was then made a Roman province. te l Strabo xii., p. 540; Suetonius, Tiberius, 37, Caligula, 1.; Dio Cassius

ARCHERY, the art and practice of shooting with the bow

and arrow. Nearly every country except Australia has the bow and its origin is lost in the uncertainties of the old Stone age. slix. 32-51; Tacitus, Ann., ii. 42. Excellent drawings of archers are found in the Palaeolithic carvARCHELAUS OF MILETUS, Greek philosopher, sth ings at Castellón (Spain), and elsewhere, which show a high century B.c., born probably at Athens, though Diogenes Laértius development of tackle and shooting technique. Flint arrow-heads (ii. 16) says at Miletus. He was a pupil of Anaxagoras of Aurignacian culture date back, according to different anthroand is said by Ion of Chios (ap. Diog. Laért. ii. 23) to have been pologists, from 25,000 to 50,000 years, and probably arrows withthe teacher of Socrates. Some argue that this is probably only an out stone points were used for unknown ages before that. attempt to connect Socrates with the Ionian school; others (e.g., Savage bows of to-day vary in size and strength from the feeble Gomperz, Greek Thinkers) uphold the story. In general, he fol- 3ft. stick of the African pigmy to the 8ft. long but moderatelowed Anaxagoras, but in his cosmology he went back to the weight bow of the Siriono Indian, or the heavy weapon of the earlier Ionians, postulating primitive matter, mingled with mind, African Wasukuma with a draw of 8olb. and a cast of 250 yards. which produces fire and water. From these spring animal life. No The weight of a bow indicates the force required fully to draw fragments of Archelaus remain; his doctrines have to be extracted its arrow. Primitive arrows differ according to the bow they from Diogenes Laërtius, Simplicius, Plutarch and Hippolytus. fit. The pigmy shoots a sharpened twig of 8o grains, with or withSee Iontan ScHOOL; for his ethical theories see T. Gomperz, Greek out an iron point, and the Siriono an arrow more than 8ft. long Thinkers (Eng. trans., 1901), vol. i. p. 402. and an inch thick. The average, taken the world over, ARCHENHOLZ, JOHANN WILHELM VON (1743- might show bows about sft. in length, weighing from 30 to 1812), German historian, was born at Langfuhr, a suburb of Dan- 5olb., according to their thickness and the kind of wood. (The zig, on Sept. 3, 1743, and died at Oyendorf, near Hamburg, on “weight” of a bow is the number of pounds required, when apFeb. 28, 1812. He served in the Seven Years’ War, and then pended to the string, to draw to the head an arrow of 28in. for retired from the army. He then spent a long period abroad, living a man’s bow and 2sin. for a woman’s.) The arrows, usually with in England from 1769 to 1779, and returned to Germany in 1780. three feathers and iron tips, are from 2ft. to 30 inches. Bows are His England und Italien (1785) gave a good picture of English generally made of wood, but in Asia, from very early times, a political and social life. But his best: known work is the history composite bow of horn, wood and sinew, in order from front to of the Seven Years’ War, Geschichte des siebenjahrigen Krieges back, has been used by the great military nations, such as the (first published in the Berliner historisches Taschenbuch of 1787, Greeks, Assyrians, Hindus, Scythians, Turks and Chinese, and has and later in 2 vols., Berlin, 1793; 13th ed., Leipzig, 1892). This been a potent factor in establishin g their power. It is short and book is still a useful source of information. strong, weighing up to roolb., and so resilient ARCHENTERON, the term used in embryology (g.v.) to allow great reflexion, or bending frontwards whenand elastic as to unstrung. This denote the primary body-cavity of the embryo which, in higher reflexed shape puts the strung bow in a state of high stress even forms (Coelomata, g.v.), divides into alimentary canal and coelom (g.v.), in lower is retained as the coelenteron.

ARCHER,

WILLIAM

(1856-1924), English critic, was

born at Perth, Sept. 23 1856, and was educated at Edinburgh University. He became a leader-writer on the Edinburgh Evening News in 1875, and after a year in Australia returned to England and became dramatic critic of various newspapers. Archer introduced Ibsen to the English play-going public by his translation of The Pillars of Society, produced at the Gaiety Theatre, London, in 1880. He translated, alone or in collaboration, other Scandinavian plays: Ibsen’s A Doll’s House (1889); Edvard Brandes’s A Visit (1892), Ibsen’s Peer Gynt (1892), Master

Builder (1893), Little Eyolf (1895), and John Gadriel Borkman (1897). He also edited a collected edition of Henrik Ibsen’s Prose Dramas (1890-91). Many of his dramatic criticisms were

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ENGLISH ARCHERS OF THE 14TH CENTURY SHOOTING AT THE BUTTS

The long bow, with its arrow a cloth-yard long, was for centuries the principal weapon of English soldiers, and was used with memorable effect at Crecy, Poitiers and Agincourt. it continued in use until 1590

collected in book form. Archer’s critical work exercised a real Influence upon the English stage; but in most people’s minds his before the arrow is drawn and thus increases its quickness or work was associated almost eXclusively with the more serious side casting power. of life and letters. Great was the surprise of his friends and of The interest of English-speaking people centres in the wooden, the general public when he produced (1921) an excellent but 6-ft. long bow which was, for more than a millennium, practimelodramatic piece, The Green Goddess, which was a popular cally the only projectile weapon of Great Britain. It seems to success. He died Dec. 27, 1924. His death was a great loss to have been developed by the Scandinavian races and carried by the English theatre. them into England at an early date. About 40 such bows of the

ARCHER-FISH, the name given to several small fish of the

Chaetodontidae on account of their habit of projecting water

from their mouths, thus wetting insects and knocking them into the water. The best-known species, Toxotes jaculator, inhabits the tesh waters of Java and other Indo-Malayan islands. It reaches 4 length of 6 to Jin. and can throw a jet of water 5 or 6ft. Another species, Chelmon rostratus, also inhabits Java.

5th century, dug up at Nydam, Denmark, and much other evidence, support this view. Probably the preceding Celtic bow was a short, sturdy weapon, used chiefly at short range, of a type which

persisted in Ireland. At Stamford Bridge the English archers were a formidable portion of the troops. William the Conqueror won

the battle of Hastings largely through his Norman archers, who shot high in the air and dropped their arrows behind the English

266

ARCHERY

wall of shields. From this fact it is often said, though erroneously, that he introduced the bow into England. The highest development of military archery was in the Hundred Years’ War and in the Wars of the Roses, where it was the deciding factor at Crecy, Poitiers, Agincourt and elsewhere, in France, and, to a great extent, on several battle-fields in England. With the improvement of fire-arms the use of the bow in English warfare rapidly declined, the forces of Elizabeth being the last in which it played an important rôle, although it was employed occasionally thereafter in such remote districts as the Scottish highlands. Archery then almost died. In fact, of all the myriads of bows that were made in old England only four are known to exist and two of these were recovered from a wreck which sunk in the Thames during the reign of Henry VIII. However, archery had been widely enjoyed as a sport during the middle ages. In fact, all men between 16 and 60 years were forced by law to practise it. It therefore survived among its amateurs, though comparatively feebly, in this form. A silver arrow, dated 1603, is still competed for in Scotland, and many other threads of continuity can be followed. The old English archers shot in two ways; at a small prick or white spot, on a butt of turf, standing at a distance varying from rooft. to a moderate, but uncertain, yardage, or at marks set from Iso to 300yd. away, which tried the full cast of the bow. If, at long range, the target were a white cloth stretched on a hoop, it was called a clout. Thus Shakespeare says:—‘A’ would have clapped i’ the clout at twelve score, and carried you a forehand shaft a fourteen and fourteen and a half.” This extreme is 2goyd., but a forehand shaft is one aimed no higher than can be sighted over by the eye, which might suggest an even greater cast for an underhand shaft at 45° elevation. If a succession of marks, like posts, were installed, as in the Finsbury Fields near London, the game was called shooting at rovers, and possibly was a forerunner of golf. Toward the end of the 18th century the formation of the Royal Toxophilite Society, of London, and the participation in the sport by the Prince of Wales, established modern archery as we know it. In 1844 the Grand National Meeting, which, ever since, has determined the championships of England, was held for the first time. Standards then adopted, which are still in force, were the four-foot target, coloured gold, red, blue, black and white and counting 9, 7, 5, 3, 1; the York Round, for men, of 72 arrows at rooyds., 48 at 80 and 24 at 60; and the National Round, for women, of 48 arrows at 60 and 24 at so yards. Usually these rounds are shot “double,” or repeated, and the scores combined. The best English archer of all the years since then, probably the best of all time, was Horace Alford Ford, who shot from 1848 to 1867. His Single York of 137 hits—8o0g score, in private practice, and Double York of 245—1,251, in a public meeting, stand as world’s records. The best woman archer was Miss Legh. Her magnificent Double National of 143-841, at the Grand National Meeting of 1904, is the world’s record.

In a typical jardin des archers, two open sheds face each other at so metres, one for a straw butt and small target and the other for the archers, who file in singly and shoot only one arrow apiece, Le tir & la perche (popinjay shooting) is widely and elaborately

done, each village having its méi, or mast about rooft. high

with a grille, of cross-bars, on which from 1 to 6ọ oiseaux and a cog (feathered, wooden birds) are placed. The archer knocks them off, while holding one foot against the pole, with a maguet, or heavy arrow with a blunt horn end. In the Olympic games of 1908, against an English team and the best American archers of that time, and in more than half a

dozen less formal matches in other years between English and French, the latter were always victorious at the distances to which they were accustomed. At one of the latter contests, at Le Touquet in 1914, Ingo Simon, a naturalized Englishman, shot 462yd. gin. with an 80lb. Turkish composite bow.

This modem

performance rendered credible an authenticated shot of 482yd. made in 1795, at London, with the same sort of weapon, by Mahmoud Effendi, secretary to the Turkish ambassador. In America the bow was the chief weapon of the aboriginal Indians, but their skill was not so great as story books would lead us to believe. They usually shot animals at very short ranges after skilfully stalking them. In many contests between Indians and white experts, the latter have always won by scores two or three times as great. Organized archery, on the English pattern, was initiated in 1828 by the United Bowmen of Philadelphia, a club of about 25 young men who shot regularly in that city for 30 years and whose handsome trophies are preserved in

the Pennsylvania Historical Society. Dying out in the Civil War period, it was revived in 1878 by the formation of the National Archery Association, following a wave of enthusiasm produced by the writings of Maurice Thompson, a Confederate veteran, who, with his brother Will, had lived by the bow in the forests of the far south. Tournaments to determine the championships for both sexes have been held by this body annually, beginning in 1879, except for two years during the World War. At these tournaments the York and National Rounds are shot, as in England, but the hasty American temperament has added two shorter rounds called the American, for men, of 30 arrows at 60, 50 and 4oyd. (90 in all), and the Columbia, for women, of 24 arrows at so, 40 and 3oyd. (72 in all). The American championships, since 1915, have been computed on the sum of the hits and scores of both double rounds, for each sex. At other meetings various rounds may be shot, most of which are associated with English archery societies and carry their names. The best of American origin which tests a man’s skill at all favourite distances is the Metropolitan, originated at New York in 1926, of 30 arrows at 100, 80, 60, 50 and 4oyd., or 150 in all. There is an important difference in the customs of the two countries, which makes the exact comparison of scores difficult,

in that the English place targets at both ends of the range, shooting in two directions, while the Americans shoot in only one. A small and curious meeting to shoot for a little silver dart How much this affects the score, if at all, has never been called the Ancient Scorton Arrow has been held in Yorkshire since accurately determined. Among American archers, a few have 1673 and is one of the oldest sporting events, with practically un- affixed to their bows adjustable sights, usually of metal, to facilibroken annual records, in the world. In Scotland archery is tate aiming. As this is a radical departure from the unassisted splendidly upheld by the King’s Bodyguard for that country, methods of the past, many feel that scores made with their aid called the Royal Company of Archers. The recorded minutes of should be classified separately from those made without 1, this society date from 1676, its membership comprises Scotland’s although, as yet, no official action has been taken. The leading highest nobility, and it perpetuates the best traditions of shoot- American archer is Paul Webb Crouch, of Boston. His best scores ing, both at rooft. butts within doors and at 180 and 2ooyd. are:—in practice, Single York, 132-732, Single American, 90-684, ranges without. The only other society which shoots over simi- Single Metropolitan, 148-932, the last being one of the world’s lar long distances is the Woodmen of Arden, of Meriden, Eng- outstanding feats in any sport; in tournament, Double York, land. On the Continent, archery is practically confined to Bel- 232-1,132, Double American, 180—-1,232, Single Metropolitan, gium and the parts of Holland and France that lie near it, includ- 134-810. Crouch is one of those who use the sight. The best ing Paris. It is a sport of the working classes, not of the leisured woman archer was Mrs. M. C. Howell, of Cincinnati, O., whose as in England. Some compagnies are of great antiquity, that of Double National of 132-756, made in 189s, is still the record. Flight-shooting in America is done with wooden bows only. Soissons claiming to have been formed in the Roman times of 471. The Compagnie de St. Sebastien at Bruges, with a fine medi- In England, Rawson and Troward, in the 18th century, made aeval hall, includes Charles II. and Victoria of England among its unofficial shots of 360 and 34oyd. As 2goyd. by Maxson of former members. Washington, D.C. (1891), remained the American record fot Continental shooting is much like the old English butt-practice, 25 years, some scepticism regarding those figures existed until

ARCHES Curtis, of Pembina, N.D., testing their possibility, shot 366yd.

(1927), by lying down and drawing a bow against his feet. On New Vear’s day, 1928, Howard Hill, of Opa-Locka, Fla., a magnificently built man with a strain of Cherokee blood, set a new record by shooting, in the ordinary standing position, a 5-ft. osage-orange bow with the astounding weight of 172Ib., sending a azin. birch arrow 391yd. and 23 inches.

Hunting wild game with the bow is, from necessity, practised by all savages. Among civilized nations it was a sport of royalty until the bow was replaced by the gun. In modern times, although

the Thompsons lived on small game shot with arrows, it was really left for the late Saxton T. Pope, with his close friend and pupil in archery, Arthur Young, both of San Francisco, to revive, after the Great War, the mediaeval broad-headed arrow and yew

bow as instruments of death. These skilled hunters and great archers have killed specimens of practically every game animal in North America, from squirrels to the Kodiak bear, and from birds, fish, rabbits, deer, pumas, black-bears and grizzlies to the wary mountain sheep. In 1926 they hunted lions near Nairobi, Africa, but, while they did kill seven with the arrow only, they also proved that a charging lion must be stopped by some other defence, such as a shelter orarifle. The equipment for modern archery consists of a bow, with its string, arrows, a bracer or arm-guard, finger-tips or shooting glove, a quiver and a target. The standard English bow is divided by a handle, of plush, tape or leather, into upper and lower limbs. These taper gradually and are nearly flat on the back and

half-round on the belly, or face. Nocks may be cut near the ends to receive the string, or curved tips of horn also nocked, may be added. Bows for men are from sft. 8in. to 6ft. in length and weigh from 36 to 80 pounds. Thirty-six to golb. is weak and of little use beyond 60 yards. Forty-six to 50 is about right for most men. Fifty-five to 60 is excellent at rooyd. when in strong hands.

Greater weights are chiefly used in hunting, roving and flightshooting. Women’s bows are from sft. to sft. 6in. and weigh from 18 to 35]b., with 25 as an average.

Because of their con-

venience in transportation, jointed bows, with separate limbs connected by metallic sleeves like a fishing rod, have long been used in continental Europe and, more recently, in America. Crouch made all of his big scores with them. In England they are not favoured. Owing to the rigid centre they have less wood

to bend and, therefore, are very quick but rather more liable to break. Backed bows have a strip of tough wood, like hickory, glued to a more fragile belly. The backing is often of rawhide or

hard fibre. A thin strip of steel has been used, but as yet this

has been inadequately tested. Since 1927, jointed steel bows have been made in the United States which, at least in the writer’s opinion, are fully equal to the best wooden ones. They are formed of either tapered seamless tubing or tapered U-bar, the latter being possibly the better. The best wood for bows is probably

yew, some still coming from Italy and Spain, but most from the northern Pacific slope of the United States.

It is light in hand,

quickly resilient and divided into heart and sapwoods which must

be properly proportioned in the making.

Close rivals are osage

orange, from the United States, and lemon wood and lancewood,

from the tropics. Osage is so elastic that it may be shortened to sft. or less, with improved cast. Lemon and lance bows are more slender than yew but are equally strong and shoot just as far. The parts of an arrow are the shaft, tip, feathers, nock and ctest or painted rings. The woods most often used are spruce, Norway pine and Port Orford cedar. A self-arrow is made of a single stick of wood, sometimes with a short core of steel set in its end, while a footed-arrow has a piece of hardwood spliced on it to give balance and strength. The restless ingenuity of America

hasalso brought into use hollow metal arrows made of seamless tubing of both duralumin and steel. The former were introduced

m 1927 and the Double American Round was won with them at the tournament of the National Archery Association. The latter Were not perfected until the following year. The steel is plated

With cadmium to prevent rust and the feathers are affixed to

both kinds by the medium of a coating of celluloid. The best

207

strings, of hemp, are professionally made in Belgium, where the trade has come down from the middle ages, but excellent substitutes may be made of twisted coarse linen thread. One end is laid to form an eye and the other is tied in a timber-hitch. The centre is whipped with fine thread to prevent abrasion by the arrow-nock. When shooting repeatedly at the targets it is necessary to protect the first three fingers of the drawing-hand and the inside of the wrist of the bow-arm from being injured by the string. For the former purpose a glove may be worn which is reinforced on the palmar surface of the fingers by an extra thickness of leather, or separate tips may be used which, in general, are patterned like

long thimbles. For the wrist of the bow-arm a device is a strip

or cuff of leather, laced with elastic to prevent slipping. In the occasional shots of hunting and rovers these adjuncts are frequently dispensed with. The standard target-back is made of straw rope, tightly compressed and sewn in a spiral. On permanent ranges stationary butts may be constructed of baled straw. | (R. P. E.) See R. Ascham, Toxophilus (1548); Roberts, The English Bowman (1801); The Archers Register (a year book, 1865~r914) ; Walrond, Archery (Badminton library, 1894) ; S. T. Pope, Hunting with the Bow and Arrow (1923); R. P. Elmer, Archery (1925); Henri Stein, Archers (1925, in French) ; and S. T. Pope, The Adventurous Bowmen (1926).

ARCHES, COURT OF, the English ecclesiastical court of

appeal of the archbishop of Canterbury, as metropolitan of the province of Canterbury, from all the consistory and commissary courts in the province. It derives its name from its ancient place of judicature, which was in the church of Beata Maria de Arcubus—St. Mary-le-Bow or St. Mary of the Arches, “by reason of the steeple thereof raised at the top with stone pillars in fashion like a bow bent archwise.” This parish was the chief of thirteen locally situated within the diocese of London but exempt from the bishop’s jurisdiction, and it was no doubt owing to this circumstance that it was selected originally as the place of judicature for the archbishop’s court. The proper designation of the judge is official principal of the Arches court, but by custom he came to be styled the dean of the Arches. The judge of the Arches court was until 1874 appointed by the archbishop of Canterbury by patent which, when confirmed by the dean and chapter of Canterbury, conferred the office for the life of the holder. But by the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874 the two archbishops were empowered, subject to the approval of the sovereign by signmanual, from time to time to appoint a practising barrister of ten years’ standing, or a person who had been a judge of one of the superior courts (being a member of the Church of England), to be, during good behaviour, a judge for the purpose of exercising jurisdiction under that act, and it was enacted (sec. 7) that on a vacancy occurring in the office of official principal of the Arches court the judge should become ex officio such official

principal. In this way the late Lord Penzance became dean on the retirement of Sir Robert Phillimore in 1875. Lord Penzance

received in 1878 a supplemental patent as dean from Archbishop Tait, but did not otherwise fulfill the conditions observed on the appointment of his predecessors. On Lord Penzance’s retirement in 1899, his successor, Sir Arthur Charles, received a patent from the archbishop of Canterbury as official principal of the Arches court, and he took the oaths of office according to the practice before the Public Worship Regulation Act. He was subsequently and separately appointed judge under that act. Sir A. Charles resigned in 1903 and was succeeded by Sir L. T. Dibdin, who qualified in the same way as his immediate predecessor. The official principal of the Arches court is the only ecclesiastical judge who is empowered to pass a sentence of deprivation

against a clerk in holy orders. The appeals from the decisions of the Arches court were formerly made to the king in chancery,

but they are now by statute addressed to the king in council, and they are heard before the judicial committee of the privy council.

For many years past there has been but little business in the

Arches court, mainly owing to the unwillingness of a large number of the clergy to recognize the jurisdiction of what they deny to be any longer a spiritual court, and the consistent use by the

ARCHESTRATUS—ARCHIL

268

bishops of their right of veto in the case of prosecutions under the Public Worship Regulation Act. On the rare occasions when a sitting of the court is necessary, it is held in the library of Lambeth Palace, or at the Church House, Westminster.

ARCHESTRATUS, of Syracuse or Gela, a Greek poet, who

flourished about 330 B.C. After travelling in search of foreign delicacies for the table, he embodied the result in a humorous poem called ‘Hé[email protected], afterwards freely translated by Ennius under the title Heduphagetica. About 300 lines of his poem, which parodies the style of the old gnomic poets, are preserved in Athenaeus. See Ribbeck, Archestrati Reliquiae (1877); Brandt, Corpusculum Poesis Epicae Graecae ludibundae, i. 1888; Schmid, De Archestrati Gelensis Fragmentis (1896).

ARCHIAC, ETIENNE JULES ADOLPHE DESMIER

DE SAINT

SIMON, Vicomte pd’ (1802-68), French geolo-

gist, was born at Reims Sept. 24 1802, and died Dec. 24 1868.

He wrote a Histoire des progrès de la géologie 1834—59 (Paris,

ARCHIDAMUS,

Eurypontid house.

the name of five kings of Sparta, of the

(1). The son and successor of Anaxidamus. His reign, which began soon after the close of the second Messenian War, is saiq to have been quiet and uneventful (Pausanias iii. 7. 6), (2). The son of Zeuxidamus, reigned 476-427 B.c. (but see LreotycHipes). He succeeded his grandfather, Leotychides upon the banishment of the latter, his father having already died. He

was a friend of Pericles and a man of prudence and moderation. During the negotiations which preceded the Peloponnesian Way he did his best to prevent, or at least to postpone, the inevitable struggle, but was overruled by the war party. He invaded Attica at the head of the Peloponnesian forces in the summers of 431, 430, and 428, and in 429 conducted operations against Plataea He died probably in 427, certainly before the summer of 426, when we find his son Agis on the throne. Herod, vi. 71; Thuc. i. 79-iii. 1; Plut. Pericles, 29. 33; Diodorus, x, 48-xii. 52.

(3). The son and successor of Agesilaus II., reigned 360-338 B.c. In 3712 he led the relief force which was sent to aid the sur-

1847—60). He was appointed (1861) professor of palaeontology in the Museum of Natural History in Paris. He made important contributions to Tchihatcheff’s Asie mineure (1866).

vivors of the battle of Leuctra.

the Annelida (g.v.), or segmented worms.

Arcadians, Argives and Messenians

Four years later he captured

ARCHIANNELIDA, the most primitive of the classes of Caryae, ravaged the territory of the Parrhasii and defeated the

ARCHIAS, AULUS LICINIUS, Greek poet, was born at

Antioch in Syria 120 B.C. In 102 B.C. he came to Rome, where he obtained the patronage of Lucullus, whose gentile name he assumed. In ọ3 he received the citizenship of Heracleia, one of the federate towns, and indirectly, by the provisions of the lex Plautia Papiria, that of Rome. In 6r he was accused of having assumed the citizenship illegally; and Cicero successfully defended him’ in his speech Pro Archia. This speech, which furnishes nearly all the information concerning Archias, states that he had celebrated the deeds of Marius and Lucullus, and that he was engaged upon a poem on the events of Cicero’s consulship. The Greek Anthology contains 35 epigrams under the name of Archias, but it is doubtful how many of these (if any) are the work of the poet of Antioch. : ( Ta

Pro Archia; T. Reinach, De Archia Poeta

1890).

ARCHIBALD, RAYMOND CLARE (1875-

), Amer-

in the “tearless battle,” so

called because the victory did not cost the Spartans a single life, In 364, however, he sustained a severe reverse in attempting to relieve a besieged Spartan garrison at Cromnus in south-western Arcadia. He showed great heroism in the defence of Sparta against Epameinondas immediately before the battle of Mantineia (362). He supported the Phocians during the Sacred War (35s346), moved, no doubt, largely by the hatred of Thebes, which he had inherited from his father; he also led the Spartan forces in the conflicts with the Thebans and their allies which arose out of the Spartan attempt to break up the city of Megalopolis. Finally he was sent with a mercenary army to Italy to protect the Tarentines against the attacks of Lucanians or Messapians; he fell, together with the greater part of his force, at Mandonion!, on the same day as that on which the battle of Chaeronea was fought. Xen. Hell. v. 4, vi. 4, vii. 1. 4. 3; Plut. Agis, 3, Camillus, 19; Agesilaus, 25, 33, 34, 40; Pausanias iil. 10, vi. 4; Diodorus, xv. 54, 72, XV1. 24, 39, 59, 62, 88.

ican mathematician, was born in Colchester (N.S.), Canada, on (4). The son of Eudamidas I., grandson of Archidamus III. Oct. 7, 1875. He graduated at the University of Mt. Allison colThe dates of his accession and death are unknown. In 2094 B.C, lege, New Brunswick, in 1894, and from Harvard university in 1896. Following two years’ graduate work at Harvard, he studied he was defeated at Mantineia by Demetrius Poliorcetes, who at the University of Berlin in 1898—99 and at the University of invaded Laconia, gained a second victory close to Sparta, and was on the point of taking the city itself when he was called away by Strasbourg in 1899-1900, from the latter receiving the degree of the news of the successes of Lysimachus and Ptolemy in Asia doctor of philosophy. Returning to Canada, he taught matheMinor and Cyprus. matics in Mt. Allison Ladies’ college, Sackville, N.B., in 1900-07 and in Acadia university, Wolfville, N.S., in 1907-08. He then entered the faculty of Brown university, Providence, R.I., where he served successively as instructor, assistant professor, and associate professor in mathematics until 1923, when he was made professor. In 1918 he became a member of the council of the Mathematical Society of America, of which in 1921 he was made librarian. He has contributed extensively to mathematical journals and edited important scientific publications. Among his published writings are: The Cardioid and Some of Its Related Curves (1900); Bibliography of Life and Works of Simon

Newcomb (1905, 1924) ; Carlyle’s First Love, Margaret Gordon, Lady Bannerman (1910); Mathematical Instruction in France (1910) ; Euclid’s Book

on Divisions of Figures with a Restoration

The Training of Teachers

Peirce, 1809-1880

(1925).

ARCHIDAMIAN

of Mathematics

WAR,

(1918);

(1915) ;

Plut. Agis, 3, Demetrius, 35; Pausanias, i. 13. 6, vii. 8, 5; Niese,

Gesch. der griech. u. makedon. Staaten, i. 363.

(5). The son of Eudamidas II., grandson of Archidamus IV,, brother of Agis IV. On his brother’s murder he fled to Messenia (24 B.c.). In 227 he was recalled by Cleomenes III., who was then reigning without a colleague, but shortly after his return he was assassinated. Polybius accuses Cleomenes of the murder, but Plutarch is probably right in saying that it was the work of those who had caused the death of Agis and feared his brother's vengeance. Plutarch, Cleomenes, i. 5; Polybius, v. 37, viii. x; Niese, op. ci.

ii. 304, 311.

(M. N. T.)

ARCHIL, a purple dye obtained from various species of

and Benjamin

lichens. Archil can be extracted from many species of the genera

the war between Athens and

Roccella, Lecanora, Umbilicaria, Parmelia and others, but m practice two species of Roccella—R. tinctoria and R. fuciforms —are almost exclusively used. These, under the name of “or-

Sparta, with their respective allies, which began in 431 B.c. with the surprise attack of Thebes on Plataea. The name is taken from Archidamus, king of Sparta, who on the outbreak of the war led the first invasion of Attica. Over the victims of this raid Pericles delivered his famous funeral speech (Thuc. ii. 34, seg.). The war was marked by the great plague and the campaign of Brasidas in the north. It was ended by the peace of Nicias (421). It is generally, and with reason, considered as merely the earlier part of the Peloponnesian War. (See Greece: History.)

chella weed” or “dyer’s moss,” are obtained from Angola, where the most valuable kinds are gathered; from Cape Verde Islands; from Lima; and from the Malabar coast of India. The colourmg properties are developed by special treatment. Archil is prepared for the dyer’s use in the form of a liquor (archil) and a paste (persis), and the latter, when dried and finely powdered, forms ISo Plut. Agis, 3 (all mss.). Following Cellarius, some authorities read Manduria or Mandyrium.

ARCHILOCHUS—ARCHIMEDES the “cudbear” of commerce,

269

a dye formerly manufactured in

related to, Hieron, Scotland from a native lichen, Lecanora tartarea. The manufac- studied at Alexandri king of Syracuse, and Gelon his son. He a and doubtless met there Conon of Samos, turing process consists in washing the weeds, which are then whom he admired as a mathematician and cherished as a friend. ground up with water to a thick paste. If archil paste.is to be On his return to his native city he devoted himself to mathematimade this paste is mixed with a strong ammoniacal solution, and cal research. He himself set no value on the ingenious mechanical agitated in an iron cylinder heated by steam to about 140°F, till contrivan ces which made him famous, regarding them as beneath

the desired shade is developed—a process which occupies several

days. In the preparation of archil liquor the principles which yield the dye are separated from the ligneous tissue of the lichens, agitated with a hot ammoniacal solution, and exposed to the action of air. When potassium or sodium carbonate is added, a blue dye known as litmus, much used as an “indicator,” is produced. French purple or lime lake is a lichen dye prepared by a modification of the archil process, and is a more brilliant and durable

colour than the other. The dyeing of worsted and home-spun cloth with lichen dyes was formerly a very common domestic

employment in Scotland; and to this day, in some of the outer islands, worsted continues to be dyed with “crottle,” the name given to the lichens employed.

ARCHILOCHUS, Greek lyric poet and writer of lampoons, was born at Paros, one of the Cyclades islands. The date of his birth is uncertain, but he probably flourished about 650 B.C.; according to some, about forty years earlier but certainly not before the reign of Gyges (687—652), which he mentions in a well-

known fragment.

His father, Telesicles, who was of noble family,

had conducted a colony to Thasos, whither Archilochus afterwards removed, hard pressed by poverty, and indignant because Ly-

cambes refused him his daughter in marriage.

At Thasos the poet

passed some unhappy years; his hopes of wealth were disappointed; according to him, Thasos was the meeting-place of the

calamities of all Hellas. The inhabitants were frequently involved in quarrels with their neighbours, and in a war against the

Saians—a Thracian tribe—he threw away his shield and fled. After leaving Thasos, he is said to have visited Sparta, but to have been at once banished from that city on account of his cowardice and the licentious character of his works (Valerius Maximus vi. 3, externa 1). He next visited Siris, in lower Italy. He then returned to his native place, and was slain in a battle against the Naxians by one Calondas or Corax, who was cursed by the oracle for having slain a servant of the Muses. The writings of Archilochus consisted of elegies, hymns—one of which used to be sung by the victors in the Olympic games (Pindar, Olympia, ix. I.)—and of poems in the iambic and trochaic measures.

To him certainly we owe the invention of iambic

poetry and its application to the purposes of satire. The only previous measures in Greek poetry had been the epic hexameter, and its offshoot the elegiac metre; but the slow measured structure of hexameter verse was utterly unsuited to express the quick, light motions of satire. Archilochus made use of the iambus and the trochee, and organized them into the two forms of metre known as the iambic trimeter and the trochaic tetrameter. The trochaic metre he generally used for subjects of a serious nature, the iambic for satires. He was also the first to make use of the arrangement of verses called the epode. Horace in his metres to a great extent follows Archilochus (Epistles, i. 19. 23-25). All ancient authorities unite in praising the poems of Archilochus.

(Longinus xii. 3; Dio Chrysostom, Orationes, xxxiii.; Quintilian

x. i. 6o; Cicero, Orator, i.). Horace (Ars Poetica, 79) speaks of the “rage” of Archilochus, and Hadrian calls his verses “raging iambics.” His poems were written in the old Ionic dialect. Fragments in Bergk, Poetae Lyrici Graeci; Liebel, Archilochi Reliquiae (1818); - Hauvette-Besnault, Archiloque, sa vie et ses poésies (1908).

ARCHIMANDRITE, in the Greek Church a superior abbot

who has the Supervision of several monasteries, or the abbot of

some specially important monastery, the superior of an ordinary monastery being called hegumenos. The title is also conferred as an honorary distinction.

See the Dictionnaire @archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie.

_ ARCHIMEDES (c. 28 7-212 B.c.), Greek mathematician and yventor, was born at Syracuse, in Sicily. He was the son of eldias, an astronomer, and was on intimate terms with, if not

the dignity of pure science and even declining to leave any written record of them except in the case of the opatpotota (spheremaking), as to which see below. As, however, these machines impressed the popular imagination, they naturally figure largely in the traditions about him. Thus he devised for Hieron engines of war which almost terrified the Romans, and which protracted the siege of Syracuse for three years. There is a story that he constructed a burning mirror which set the Roman ships on fire when they were within a bow-shot of the wall. It is probable that Archimedes had constructed some such burning instrument, though the connection of it with the destruction of the Roman fleet is more than doubtful. More important is the story of Hieron’s reference to him of the question whether a crown made for him and purporting to be of gold, did not actually contain a proportion of silver. According to one story, Archimedes was puzzled till one day, as he was stepping into a bath and observed the water running over, it occurred to him that the excess of bulk occasioned by the introduction of alloy could be measured by putting the crown and equal weights of gold and of silver separately into a vessel of water,and noting the differences of overflow. He was so overjoyed when this happy thought struck him that he ran home without his clothes, shouting e¥pyxa, ebonxa (generally anglicized as Eureka—“I have found it, I have found it”). Similarly his pioneer work in mechanics is illustrated by the story of his having said dés uo. rod or Kal xd THY yy (or as another version has it in his dialect, râ BO xal xv ray yar, “give me a place to stand and I (will) move the earth”). Hieron asked him to give an illustration of his contention that a very great weight could be moved by a very small force. He is said to have fixed on a large and fully laden ship and to have used a mechanical device by which Hieron was enabled to move it by himself; but accounts differ as to the particular mechanical powers employed. The water-screw which he invented (see below) was probably devised in Egypt for the purpose of irrigating fields. Archimedes died at the capture of Syracuse by Marcellus, 212 B.C. In the general massacre which followed the fall of the city, Archimedes, while engaged in drawing a mathematical figure on the sand, was run through the body by a Roman soldier. No blame attaches to the Roman general, Marcellus, since he had given orders to his men to spare the house and person of the sage, and, in the midst of his triumph he lamented the death of so illustrious a person, directed an honourable burial to be given him, and befriended his surviving relatives. In accordance with the expressed desire of the philosopher, his tomb was marked by a sphere inscribed in a cylinder, the discovery of the relation between the surface and volume of a sphere and its circumscribing cylinder being regarded by him as his most valuable achievement. When Cicero was quaestor in Sicily (75 3.c.), he found the tomb of Archimedes, near the Agrigentine gate, overgrown with thorns and briers. “Thus,” says Cicero (Tusc. Disp. v. c. 23, §64), “would this most famous and once most learned city of Greece have remained a stranger to the tomb of one of its most ingenious citizens, had it not been discovered by a man of Arpinum.” Works.—The range and importance of the scientific labours of Archimedes will be best understood from a brief account of those writings which have come down to us; and it need only be added that his greatest work was in geometry, where he so

extended the method of exhaustion as originated by Eudoxus, and followed by Euclid, that it became in his hands, though purely geometrical in form, actually equivalent in several cases to integration, as expounded in the first chapters of our text-books on the integral calculus. This remark applies to the finding of the area of a parabolic segment (mechanical solution) and of a spiral, the surface and volume of a sphere and of a segment thereof, and the volume of any segments of the solids of revolution of the second degree.

270

ARCHIMEDES—ARCHITECT

The extant treatises are as follows: (1) On the Sphere and Cylinder (Ilept c@aipas kai xvdtvdpov). This treatise is in two books, dedicated to Dositheus, and deals with the dimensions of spheres, cones, “solid rhombi” and cylinders, all demonstrated in a strictly geometrical method.

balances or levers; (4) KevrpoBapixa On centres of gravity; (5) Karorrpikå, an optical work from which Theon of Alexandria quotes a remark about refraction; (6) epl Zdarporotas, Oy Sphere-making, in which Archimedes explained the construction of the sphere which he made to imitate the motions of the

(2) The Measurement of the Circle (Kixdovu uérpnoss) is a short

sun, the moon and the five planets in the heavens. Cicero actually saw this contrivance and describes it (De Rep. i. c. 14 §§ 21-22),

book of three propositions, the main result being obtained in Prop. 2, which shows that the circumference of a circle is less

than 34 and greater than 342 times its diameter. (3) On Conoids and Spherords (Hlept xwvoedéwy kal oparpoerdewv) is a treatise in 32 propositions, on the solids generated by the revolution of the conic sections about their axes, the main results being the comparisons of the volume of any segment cut off by a plane with that of a cone having the same base and axis (Props. 21, 22 for the paraboloid, 25, 26 for the hyperboloid, and 27-32 for the spheroid). (4) On Spirals (Ilepi éXixwv) is a book of 28 propositions. Propositions 1-11 are preliminary, 13-20 contain tangential properties of the curve now known as the spiral of Archimedes, and 21—28 show how to express the area included between any portion of the curve and the radii vectores to its extremities.

(s)

On Plane Equilibria or Centres of Gravity of Planes

(Ilept éiréiwy icopporavy7} xevrpa Bapayv érurééwv.) This consists of two books, and may be called the foundation of theoretical mechanics, for the previous contributions of Aristotle were comparatively vague and unscientific. In the first book there are 15 propositions, with seven postulates; and demonstrations are given, much the same as those still employed, of the centres of gravity (1) of any two weights, (2) of any parallelogram, (3) of any triangle, (4) of any trapezium. The second book in 10 propositions is devoted to the finding the centres of gravity (1) of a parabolic segment, (2) of the area included between any two parallel chords and the portions of the curve intercepted by them.

(6) The Quadrature of the Parabola (Terpaywviouds tapaBods) is a book in 24 propositions, containing two demonstrations that the area of any segment of a parabola is */, of the triangle which has the same base as the segment and equal height. (7) On Floating Bodies (Tlepi dxovupévwv) is a treatise in two books, the first of which establishes the general principle of hydrostatics, and the second discusses with the greatest completeness the positions of rest and stability of a right segment of a paraboloid of revolution floating in a fluid. (8) The Psammites (Waupirns, Lat. Arenarius, or sand reckoner), a small treatise addressed to Gelon, the eldest son of Hieron, expounding, as applied to reckoning the number of grains of sand that could be contained in a sphere of the size of our “universe,” a system of naming large numbers according to “orders” and “periods” which would enable any number to be expressed up to that which we should write with r followed by

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The

editio princeps

of the works

of Archimedes

with the commentaries of Eutocius, is that printed at Basle (1344) in Greek and Latin, by Hervagius. A Latin version was published by Isaac Barrow in 1675. Torelli’s edition (1792) remained the best Greek text until the definitive text edited, with Eutocius’ commentaries,

Latin trans. etc., by J. L. Heiberg (1880-81, 2nd ed. 1910-13) super.

seded it. T. L. Heath edited The Works of Archimedes in modern notation, with Introduction etc. (1897) and also, as a Supplement, the newly discovered Method (1912). Modern translations are those of F, Peyrard (Paris, 1808); E. Nizze, with notes (German, Stralsund.

1824); P. ver Eecke, Les Oeuvres Complétes

Allenstein, Kugel und Zylinder

(1922);

(1921); A. Czwalina-

Uber Spiralen

(1922); Die

Quadratur der Parabel (1923); Uber Paraboloide, Hyperboloide und Ellipsoide (1923), and Uber Schwimmende Korper und die Sandzabel

(1925). See Plutarch’s Life of Marcellus (in Plutarch’s Lives, Eng, trans. Sir T. North, 1579, A. Stewart and E. Long, 1914-23); J.L.

Heiberg, Geometrical Solutions Derived from Mechanics (trans. of the Method, Chicago, 1909), and Mathematics and Physical Science in Classical Antiquity (Eng. trans. 1922); F. Jansen, De Cirkelquad. ratuur bij de Ericken (Haarlem, 1909); P. Midolo, Archimede e il suo tempo (with useful bibliography, Syracuse, 1912); T. L. Heath, Archimedes (1920); and F. Winter, Der Tod des Archimedes (1924) for a possible though by no means certain portrait. (T. L. H)

ARCHIMEDES, SCREW OF, a machine for raising water, said to have been invented by Archimedes for the purpose of removing water from the hold of a large ship that had been built by King Hiero II. of Syracuse. It consists of a water-tight ARCHIMEDES’

SCREW,

INVENTED

THE GREEK MATHEMATICIAN 287-212 B.C.)

BY

(e.

The screw was first used to remove water from the hold of a large ship. The same principle is sometimes em-

ployed in machines for handling wheat

cylinder which encloses a helix, and has its lower open end placed in the water to be raised. The water is therefore lifted mechanically by the turning of the machine. Other forms have the helix revolving free in a fixed

cylinder, or consist simply of a tube wound helically about a cylindrical axis. The same principle is sometimes used in machines

for handling wheat, etc. (see CONVEYORS).

ARCHIPELAGO, a name now applied to (1) any island-

studded sea, and (2) by transference, to a group of islands, but it was originally the distinctive designation of what is now generally known as the Aegean Sea (Alyatov méħayos), its ancient, name having been revived. The word archipelago does not occur in ancient and mediaeval Greek. ‘ApxeréXayos in mod80,000 ciphers! ern Greek has been introduced from Western languages. Several (9) The Method, addressed to Eratosthenes, is a treatise etymologies have been proposed: e.g. (1) a corruption of the anof vital interest, since in it Archimedes explains how he first cient name, Egeopelago; (2) from the modern Greek: ’Ayw arrived at many of his important results by means of mechanical méħayo, the Holy Sea; (3) it arose at the time of the Latin emconsiderations, namely, by weighing an indefinite number of ele- pire, and means the Sea of the Kingdom (Archè). ments of one figure against similar elements of another. This ARCHIPPUS, an Athenian poet of the Old Comedy, who treatise, formerly supposed to be lost, was discovered in 1906 by flourished towards the end of the sth century B.c. His most J. L. Heiberg in a palimpsest at Constantinople, and now forms famous play was the Fishes, in which he satirized the fondness of part of Heiberg’s Greek text of Archimedes. the Athenian epicures for fish. The Alexandrian critics attributed (10) A Collection of Lemmas, consisting of 15 propositions in to him four plays previously assigned to Aristophanes. plane geometry. This has come down to us through a Latin verTitles and fragments of six plays are preserved, for which see sion of an Arabic manuscript; it. cannot, however, have been T. Kock, Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta, i. (1880) ; or A. Meineke, written by Archimedes in its present form, as his name is quoted Poetarum Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta (1855). in it more than once. ARCHITECT, one who, skilled in the art of architecture Lastly, Archimedes is credited with the famous Cattle-Problem (g.v.), designs buildings, determining the disposition of both their enunciated in the epigram edited by G. E. Lessing itt 1773, which interior spaces atid exterior masses, together with the structural purports to have beeti sent by Archimedes to the mathematicians embellishments óf each, and generally supervises their erectioti. at Alexandria in a letter to Eratosthenes. Of lost works by Archi- Formerly, the architect was often active in all phases of erecting medes we find references to six: (1) investigations on poly- a building, from the project to the various details of construction. hedra mentioned by Pappus; (2) ’Apyat, Principles, a book ad- To-day, with the growing tendency toward specialization and the dressed to Zeuxippus and dealing with the naming of numbers on increasing size of buildings, his designs are executed by various the system explained in the Sand Reckoner; (3) Ilept ¢vyav, On agencies—engineers, contractors, manufacturers, machines, ett w

ARCHITECTURAL and his success, to a large extent, depends on the proper coordination of these elements. For a discussion of the architect's

problems and methods see ARCHITECTURE; for a treatment of his training see ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. Naval architect, one who designs ships and supervises their construction.

ARCHITECTURAL ARTICLES,

Architecture is treated

in this work under various headings, an account of which will

help the reader to consult any part of the subject. For a definition of architecture, a general survey of its evolution and a discussion of contemporary practice and theory, reference

should be made to the article ARCHITECTURE. The historic styles, being those divisions into which occidental architecture from the earliest times through the roth century may generally be said to fall, will be found treated under EGYPTIAN

ARCHITECTURE; WESTERN Asiatic ARCHITECTURE (after Egypt

EDUCATION

271

those modern structural resources as an artist. A considerable body of applied science is now involved in architectural practice, but it is always part of the means and never the end of architecture. The architect must be instructed how to make the technical sciences the servants of his art. Not only methods of construction, but surveying, sanitation, hygiene, heating, lighting, ventilation and acoustics come within this category, as also do such ancillary subjects as the law and finance of building. It is necessary too, that the training of the architect shall include the Study of perspective, sciagraphy, rendering (see RENDERING, ARCHITECTURAL) and the preparation of working drawings (see Drawinc, ENGINEERING). In addition, a knowledge of materials, their practical characteristics and the effects which can be obtained from them, is an essential element in the architect’s education, since they determine the durability of the fabric and its appearance. The application of all this varied knowledge is im-

to Archaic Greece); GREEK ARCHITECTURE; ROMAN ARCHITECTURE; BYZANTINE and ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE; GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE; RENAISSANCE ÅRCHITECTURE; BAROQUE ARCHITECTURE; MODERN ARCHITECTURE, 18th and roth Centuries. The

plied in design in architecture. And it is with design that the architect is primarily and ultimately concerned. Architectural design involves thinking simultaneously in three dimensions, visualizing the work in plan, section and elevation in such a way that the resultant composition is expressive and beautiful. For this, efficient creative ability of a special order is required and no

Contemporary Architecture, being more affected by science and

make possible its fullest development, can direct it along the most profitable lines and can place at its disposal, in the best

important sub-divisions of these styles, while discussed in these articles, also appear under their own headings, as EMPIRE STYLE, GEOMETRIC PERIOD, GEORGIAN STYLE, PERPENDICULAR PERIOD, etc.

by social and economic influences than by tradition or national

characteristics, is treated under headings whose significance is ex-

plained in the article ARCHITECTURE; for the articles themselves see: INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE; SOCIAL ARCHITECTURE; House

PLANNING;

THEATRE

SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE;

ARCHITECTURE;

HOSPITAL

UNIVERSITY ARCHITECTURE;

PLANNING;

LIBRARY

ARCHITECTURE; MUSEUM ARCHITECTURE; EXHIBITION ARCHITEC-

TURE; GOVERNMENTAL ARCHITECTURE; RELIGIOUS AND MEMORIAL ARCHITECTURE, Wherever it has been deemed necessary to a proper understanding of these subjects, an historical introduction

has been given. Separate articles describe CHINESE ARCHITECTURE;

INDIAN

ARCHITECTURE; JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE; MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE; RUSSIAN ARCHITECTURE. For a concise treatment of the important periods in the history of art throughout the world, the reader may well consult Perrops oF ART. A summary of the training available for a prospective architect

to-day is given under ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION.

LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE is fully treated under its own heading as is also Town Pranninc, Other special articles are also given to CoLouR IN ARCHITECTURE; ORNAMENT, ARCHITECTURAL;

RENDERING, ARCHITECTURAL; SCULPTURE, ARCHITECTURAL; SHOP Front Desicn; Zoninc. A large number of architectural sub-

jects, such as Bastrica, Dome, FOUNTAIN, House, Mosque, PARTHENON, etc., and technical terms as, for instance, ARCHITRAVE, BASE, CAPITAL, CoLUMN, GAINE and ỌRDER, are treated

independently. Finally, in the articles on many cities the reader will find descriptions of important buildings,

ARCHITECTURAL

DRAWING:

see Drawine, ENcI-

NEERING. ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. Underlying the systems of architectural education at present established in most Western countries is the assumption that architecture (q.v.) is one

of the fine arts, and that the prime object of the training which the architect should receive is to equip him as a creative artist in build-

ing, The functions of the architect to-day are manifold and some of them are of a highly technical nature. He must first of all be

expert in the actual planning of buildings, that is, he must be

acquainted with the practical requirements of the accommodation

of various kinds of Structures, often of a complex order, such

as factories and commercial buildings, hotels, theatres, hospitals and schools; he must know how to arrange the several parts of

these buildings in the most economical and convenient manner,

for the art of planning is the very basis of the art of architecture. e must have a thorough understanding of the ordinary methods of building construction, and sufficient knowledge of the prin-

“ples of steel and ferro-concrete work to enable him to employ

system of training can generate that ability.

But training can

manner, the accumulated experience of the past. These are the objects with which the present systems of architectural education are chiefly concerned. It is generally agreed that the study of architecture should be preceded by a liberal education. As one of the fine arts, historically associated with the arts of painting and sculpture, and as the background of civilized society, it demands both for its practice and its appreciation some measure of general culture. The tendency to-day is, therefore, for schools of architecture in

Europe, the British empire and America to require from candidates for admission evidence of a broad non-technical education; and in a number of cases liberal studies are pursued during at least the earlier portion of the professional course, A general sur-

vey of architectural education at the present time shows that it is principally administered in America by universities, and in Europe and the British empire, either by universities or by insti-

tutions virtually of university rank, such as the Ecole des Beaux

Arts in Paris, the High School of Architecture in Rome and the Viennese academy, Sometimes the teaching of architecture has the advantage of being conducted under academic auspices in association with painting and sculpture. In certain schools the curriculum has a strong mathematical bias, whilst in others, emphasis is laid on preserving and developing traditional methods of design. Such differences are due to national and local influences. They do not materially affect the broad cosmopolitan character of modern architectural education. That education, it is now more and more realized, is the proper responsibility of the practising profession in each country. In France the fact has always been recognized, and, since academic education was instituted in Paris in the 17th cen-

tury, the most eminent architects have themselves undertaken

educational obligations. The result has been that in no other country has the practice and teaching of architecture been so completely and successfully related. Elsewhere in the early days of the scholastic system the attempt was made to divide the architectural profession into two classes—theoretic non-practising teachers, and architects who practised and did not teach. But architecture could not be taught by theorists any more than medicine and the ex-

periment has been definitely abandoned. To-day architectural education in all countries is in the hands of practising teachers. Direct connection between the instruction given in the school and the experience of actual practice is thereby assured: the world of the school is not isolated from the world of the architect’s studio or office. At the same time scholastic training cannot of itself complete the education of the architect. The conditions of

practice must inevitably differ from those of theoretic training. For this reason, to effect a transition between the two, most sys-

272

ARCHITECTURAL

EDUCATION

tems of architectural education now in operation provide for some part of the school course being devoted to gaining actual experience of practice.

the roth century with increased rather than diminished prestige, To-day the teaching of architecture in France is still centralized

academies founded during and after the Renaissance. Henceforth the State itself assumed the responsibility and established two types of institutions to discharge it—schools of civil engineering and institutes of fine arts. Architecture was taught in the first as a structural science and in the second as an art of design associated with painting and sculpture. The inherent defects of this arrangement were not long in showing themselves. By divorcing the study of modern constructional methods from that of composition, two separate classes of experts were created, structural

petitions amongst their students.

in the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris. The regional schools in Italy.—The emergence of Italy as a unified nation in the roth Lille, Rouen, Rennes, Lyons, Marseille, Strasbourg and other pro. century finally closed that phase of architectural development in vincial cities are branches of the Paris Ecole, working on the which the training of architects was undertaken by the independent same programmes and conducting simultaneously the same com-

engineers and architectural decorators. The former- were well equipped in the scientific technique of building, but could not use their knowledge as artists; the latter, insufficiently trained in the material and practical aspects of their subject, were accomplished as a rule only in superficial design. As was inevitable in an age which exalted applied science and mechanical skill, the profession of structural engineers soon acquired a superior authority to that of the architects, with consequences unfortunate both for the latter and their work. To remedy this state of affairs a number of proposals and tentative experiments were made in the latter half of the century. The final outcome of these was the establishment in 1919 of the High School of Architecture in Rome, a school of university rank, which requires from entrants a liberal education and previous artistic training. It is the central institution for architectural education in Italy. Its professional course extends over five years and the curriculum provides for a properly adjusted balance of scientific and aesthetic studies. In the provinces, other institutions modelled on the Roman High school, are in process of being established or developed at Milan, Florence and Venice. Special provisions have recently been made by the State further affecting architectural education in Italy.

An official qualification has been introduced which is awarded on examination after a certain period has been spent in acquiring practical experience subsequent to the completion of the school course. In addition, a carefully worked out scheme has been devised to secure candidates for the profession from as wide a field as possible and to ensure that their previous education is of the most suitable kind. France.—The State control of French architectural education dates from the foundation under Colbert of the Royal Academy of Architecture in 1670. This control, temporarily interrupted by the Revolution, was resumed in 1795, when in the newly created Institut de France an academy of fine arts, embracing architecture, was included. The private school of architecture, set up by Leroi during the Revolution, was then taken under the protection of the Institut, incorporated with the other art schools administered by that body, and finally, in 1816, accommodated on the site which it now occupies, under the name, famous through-

out the world, of Ecole des Beaux Arts. Under Napoleon III., a

All of this work is sent to Paris

and judged there side by side with that executed in the capital on the same terms of anonymity. Thereafter the best designs are exhibited in the provincial schools, which in this way are ac. quainted with the general standards required and are stimulated to maintain and surpass them.

The course of studies leading to the government diploma in architecture is elaborate and difficult.

There is first of all the

preliminary training for admission to the Ecole itself. Students

are prepared for the entrance examination either in certain spe cial ateliers which

devote

themselves

exclusively to this task

or in the large ateliers mainly concerned with the subsequent design work of the course.

The examination

comprises tests in

design, drawing and modelling, mathematics, descriptive geometry, science and the history of art. Normally the number of entrants

is about 450; 60 only, including 15 foreigners, are passed. After

admission to the Ecole the work falls into three sections—second class, first class and the great prize competitions, of which the most important is that for the Grand Prix de Rome. Before promotion from the second to the first class further tests must be passed in science, mathematics, geometry, perspective (q.v.), construction and design. Concluding the studies in the first class there are final examinations in physics, chemistry, building laws,

regulations and design.

On the results of these the diploma is

awarded after a course which, from the time of admission to the second class, usually extends over at least four to five years, While a high level of performance is demanded in all the theoretic subjects of the curriculum, particularly in mathematics, the main work of the course, and that upon which chief emphasis is laid throughout, is the study of design. This is undertaken in the ateliers of which mention has already been made. Three of these ateliers are in the Ecole des Beaux Arts, each under the direction of a professor appointed by the State; some 12 or 15

others are outside the Ecole. Students are free to select the par-

ticular atelier which they wish to attend and commonly base their choice on a preference for the known work and point of view of the professor in charge. The whole training in design, in which is summed up the academic experience of over 200 years, is extraordinarily thorough. Administered by an institution which comprises schools of painting and sculpture, and transmitted through the teaching of professors who have always been among the most eminent architects of their country, the architectural education given by the Ecole des Beaux Arts is unique in its character, authority and reputation. No school of architecture in the world occupies a comparable position and none has exercised so profound and widespread an influence. Certain technical institutions

in France offer architectural courses distinct from those of the Beaux Arts. These courses, however, are of another order. Neither in their origins nor their natures can they be regarded as upon the same plane, and the bodies responsible for them have not the tradition of the school that is the lineal descendant of Colbert’s academy.

decree was issued in 1863 which, drastically altering the organization of the school, restricted the authority of the Academy of Fine Arts over it, and introduced the régime which is in operation to-day. The school became directly a State institution, with a Great Britain and Dominions.—So long as English archidirector at its head appointed by the minister of fine arts. Its professors were nominated by the educational council and its tects followed, as they did throughout the 17th and most of the courses extended and increased in number. In addition to the pro- r8th centuries, a single architectural tradition, and were content fessors who lectured, patrons or heads of ateliers, were officially simply to develop it; and so long as the technical requirements appointed to the staff. The problem of style, which the dissensions of building were relatively simple—the pupilage system was of the Romanticists and Classicists had made an acute issue, was adequate for the education of the profession. But the foundations solved by eliminating it. There were no longer any prescribed of this world of commonly shared artistic convictions and prac: or proscribed periods. All designs were judged by logical stand- tice began to be undermined when architects ceased to be satis ards and matters of taste were permitted to remain matters of fied with giving to the style of the Italian Renaissance a national taste. Compositions might be submitted in any style or in no character, and sought their inspiration in the antique origins style at all; their value would be assessed upon grounds that had of that style. The re-study of Roman forms was followed by the nothing to do with the question of architectural idiom. By thus discovery and copying of Greek, with the result that by the end adopting an attitude of the most complete catholicity the school of the 18th century the architectural student had already lost was able to stabilize its position and to emerge from the trials of his certainty of outlook. The variety of the prospects opened

ARCHITECTURAL

EDUCATION

up to him was further extended by the Romantic movement. This, finding its architectural expression in the Gothic revival, completed the confusion which had been initiated by archaeological research. The orderly development of English architecture was lost in a “battle of the styles,” and the offices of practising

273

acquire such experience in the United States. Town planning (see Town AND City PLANNING) is now a recognized subject in most schools of architecture. Two of them, Liverpool and London university, have departments of civic design with professorships established respectively in rg12 and 1914, and both award certifiarchitects, which had formerly served as the instruments of a cates and diplomas in civic design. From its foundation in 1835 the Royal Institute of British common professional education, were reduced to dissociated units, each of them the vehicle of a personal concept of archi- Architects has been the supreme controlling authority of the protecture. Finally, by the latter half of the roth century, the prac- fession throughout the empire. At no time, however, has the tical requirements of building and the methods of construction R.I.B.A. itself undertaken the teaching of architecture. But by employed had greatly increased in range and complexity, so that setting up, in the latter half of the last century, a centralized systhe technical equipment required for their mastery alone had tem of examinations when no professional tests existed in the become more than could be supplied by the normal office. All country, it performed a notable service in raising the general these factors combined to render the pupilage system no longer level of professional knowledge. Through its board of architeca satisfactory method of education for the profession. Institu- tural education it has now delegated to certain approved schools tional training had to take its place, and during the last so the task of qualifying candidates for admission to the institute,

only maintaining its own centralized examinations for students not seeking entry through scholastic channels. The following schools of architecture are now recognized for courses of instruction in the whole technique of building, and endeavouring to replace the lost traditions of design by teaching exemption from the R.I.B.A. final examination (except in the subject of “Professional Practice”): Robert Gordon’s colleges, based on rational principles. There are to-day in Great Britain four types of institutions Aberdeen; Edinburgh College of Art; Royal Technical college, giving instruction in architecture: technical schools, schools of Glasgow; University of Liverpool; Architectural association, art, independent professional schools and universities. With few London; University of London; University of Manchester; Mcexceptions the first two offer courses of not more than three Gill university, Montreal, Canada; University of Sydney, Ausyears’ duration, and the classes are in many cases held at night. tralia. The schools of architecture in the following institutions The main function of schools of this order, which are usually are recognized for purposes of exemption from the R.I.B.A. inunder municipal control, is to supplement the pupilage system in termediate examination: School of Art, Birmingham; Royal West those parts of the country, still of considerable extent, in which of England academy, Bristol; University of Cambridge; Techniit yet survives. But the real qualifying work is undertaken by cal college, Cardiff; Leeds College of Arts; Leicester College of schools whose course is a full day-time one, extending over five Arts and Crafts; Northern Polytechnic, London; Armstrong color more years. The full five year course was formally introduced lege, Newcastle-on-Tyne; University of Sheffield; Municipal

years considerable progress has been made in establishing and developing schools of architecture devoted to giving systematic

School of Arts and Crafts, Southend-on-Sea ; University of Toronto; Sir J. J. School of Art, Bombay. In both classes the maintenance of the requisite standard is assured by the periodic inspection of a visiting board, appointed by the R.1.B.A. board of architectural education, which reports to the institute on the work of the various schools granted or applying for exemption. The instiAt the present time the largest school of architecture in England tute further requires to be satisfied as to the preliminary general is that of the Architectural association and the next largest that of education of students, and evidence has now to be submitted upon Liverpool university. In Scotland the Glasgow school has the this point in each individual case. As scholastic training in archigreatest number of students. Through its affiliation with the Uni- tecture has tended to become increasingly lengthy and expensive, versity of Glasgow it has, since 1925, been able to offer a B.Sc. it has been feared that a certain proportion of potential talent degree with honours in architecture. In Ireland a single school might be excluded from the profession on that account. To meet has been established, that of University college, Dublin. Here a this contingency the R.I.B.A., with its provincial allied societies, course of three years in the school, followed by two spent in has instituted a scheme of maintenance scholarships which are gaining practical experience, leads to the degree of Bachelor of competed for annually and are tenable at schools of architecture Architecture. In the overseas dominions of the British empire-— “recognized” by the institute. A number of valuable prizes and Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand—university studentships are offered by the R.I.B.A. each year for competition schools of architecture have been founded which conduct courses amongst -architectural students throughout the empire. But the of study varying from three to five years in length. Particularly most coveted distinction open to students who are British subin the case of Canada and Australia, English influence in archi- jects is the Rome Scholarship in Architecture, established in 1913

at the Liverpool University School in 1920, when the Architec-

tural Association school adopted one of similar character. Such courses, when taken at a university by matriculated students, lead to a degree; when taken at an institution of non-academic rank, to a diploma similar to that granted by the universities to graduates who have not matriculated.

tectural education is accompanied by American, with the result by the royal commissioners of the exhibition of 1851. The annual that the complete transition from pupilage to training under uni- competitions for this scholarship are conducted under the direcversity auspices seems likely to be more rapid in these countries. tion of the faculty of architecture of the British school at Rome The normal curriculum of the larger qualifying schools in and the scholarship itself is tenable at that school for three years, Great Britain provides for the study of design and construction where architectural studies are pursued in the company of stuthroughout five years: In addition to the work done in the dents of painting, sculpture and engraving, who are Rome scholars

school studios, courses of lectures are given on the theory of design and construction, history of architecture, descriptive geometry, Sclagraphy, perspective, sanitation, hygiene, surveying, spec-

ification, estimates, contracts, professional practice and other

cognate subjects. Provision is sometimes made for specialization

during the last two years, the course being then taken with honours in either design or construction to meet the demand for ad-

vanced qualifications in both these spheres. In certain of the academic schools the first year’s programme of study includes such liberal subjects as languages, social history and literature. A Portion of the concluding part of the course is always spent by the students in gaining practical office experience, The Liverpool school, having established connection with offices of American

architects, each year sends over a number of selected students to

in those subjects. Other European

Countries.—As far as other European countries are concerned it may be said that the tendency is generally to make architectural education the business of specially organized schools. -Belgium provides for the training of architects in municipal academies of fine arts and in the professional schools known as the St. Luc academies. Architectural education in Germany, Holland and Switzerland is given by a variety of institutions, colleges, technical schools and schools of applied art. At present the Royal Academy of Art is the only institution that provides a complete training for architects in Denmark. Norway has made architectural education a State responsibility and, in the Technical university established at Drontheim, a four years’ course leading to a diploma is in force. The organized training of

274

ARCHITECT URAL—ARCHITECTURE

Swedish architects is divided between two institutions, the Architects’ Professional school of the Technical High school and the Building school of the High School of Art. A period of six years covers the total course, four being spent in the Professional school. The technical colleges of Austria are of university rank and two of them, those of Vienna and Graz, give technical and artistic training in architecture. In addition, the Viennese Academy of Plastic Arts comprises two “master colleges” for architecture, which carry the education of students to a higher stage. State examinations are held, and for those who qualify there is legal protection for the title of architect. A special faculty of architecture in the Royal Joseph Technical university at Budapest is responsible for the professional education of Hungarian architects. A diploma is awarded on the successful conclusion of the course and, as in Austria, the title of architect is legally protected. In Spain architectural training is given at the High School of Architecture at Madrid, which is affiliated with the university, and at the Barcelona school. United States.—Organized architectural instruction in the United States was first given in the schools of technology, where design was taught as early as 1860 as a part of the science of building. Prior to 1860 the English pupilage system had been the only method of qualifying for practice. The first independent courses in architecture were established by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1866, by the department of engineering of the University of Illinois in 1870, and by Cornell university in 1871. From the beginning these schools and others established at Columbia university and Harvard university in 1881 and 1890, took an active part in fostering the development of classic architecture. At a time when most architects in America were under the influence of English romanticism, the schools taught a system of design based upon the formulae of Vignola. The precision of this system no doubt appealed to the practical minds of the engineers in charge of them; but an impetus was given to more liberal teaching by the growing number of architects re-

turning from study at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris. These

architects introduced into the American schools the methods of the Ecole, gradually freeing them from the control of the engineering faculties. To further establish their system they brought French professors of design to America. The success of the latter, who to-day are among the most brilliant teachers in the American schools, completed the supremacy of the Beaus Arts methods in the United States. And finally, a society of Beaux Arts architects was formed which supports the Beaux Arts Institute of Design, an organization that by the regular issue of programmes and judgments does much to complement the work of

the collegiate schools. The more important of such schools are: Armour Institute of Technology, Chicago, HL; University of California, Berkeley, Calif.; Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, Pa.; Columbia university, New York city; Cornell university, Ithaca, N.Y.; Georgia School of Technology, Atlanta, Ga.: Harvard university, Cambridge, Mass.; University of Minois, Urbana, Ill.; Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.; University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.; University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.; Ohio State college, Columbus, O.; University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Yale university, New Haven, Conn.; University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.

Mexico.—The training of architects in Mexico is now, after

universities two years of post-graduate research may lead to the conferment of a degree. Bretiocrapnoy.—M. H. Morgan, Vitruvius (trans., 1914); William H. White, Architecture and Public Buildings—their relation to School Academy and State (1884); A. D. F. Hamlin, Architectural Education in America (1909); R. Atkinson, Report on the Education of the Architect in the United States of America (1922); A. T. Bolton

Architectural Education a Century Ago

(Soane Mus. publ., 1924) °

RIB.A. First International Congress on Architectural Proceedings (1925); Martin S. Briggs, The Architect

(1927).

ARCHITECTURAL

RENDERING:

see

Education:

in History L. B. B.)

RENDERNG,

ARCHITECTURAL.

ARCHITECTURE, the art of so building as to apply both

beauty and utility. The end of architecture is to arrange the plan, masses and enrichments of a structure in such a way as to impart to it interest, beauty, grandeur, unity and power without

sacrificing convenience. Architecture thus necessitates the posses-

sion by the designer of creative imagination as well as technical skill, and in all works of architecture properly so called these elements must exist, and be harmoniously combined. The pages immediately following are devoted to an editorial survey of architecture since it began. Any general survey that treats architecture only chronologically, however, burdens the reader with facts, interesting, but to-day of relatively small importance, for the new forms produced by steel have revolutionized the art. Modern architecture is therefore treated first; an historical survey of the influences on and the peaks of architectural evolution is appended. Elsewhere in this work the various

manifestations of the art, as explained in this main article, and many architectural subjects and terms are discussed under their

own headings (see ARCHITECTURAL ARTICLES). INTRODUCTION The problem that architecture sets itself to solve is how best to enclose space for human occupancy. For the earliest attempts at a solution see ARCHAEOLOGY, for architecture is recorded only in those buildings whose materials have endured. All building of a permanent character has been governed by four basic structural principles—the post and lintel, the wooden truss, the masonry arch and the modern steel skeleton—each of which, in evolving, gave the art new impetus. The post and lintel, the wooden truss and the masonry arch, however, all developed in periods mainly devoted to religion, agriculture, barter in the market-place and war. Industrialism created a new set of social and economic relationships. It made commerce the chief human ac-

tivity. It introduced large-scale merchandising, calling for large and individual places in which to transact business. New types of enclosed spaces rose to meet the changed conditions. Steel appeared at the beginning of this new period; speed became possible; building acquired an entirely new element.

The transition of steel from merely strengthening stone to catrying the masonry load at each floor was the most momentous step in the history of architecture since the days of Rome. In a single bound architecture was freed from the shackles of stone-weight and made flexible beyond belief. Suddenly architecture gained a new dimension, the possibility of almost unlimited verticality. The extent to which steel has liberated architecture from the burdens of past building methods may be observed in its current use in every type of structure. It is now the accepted

passing successively through Spanish and Italian phases, being method of construction. It saves space and makes for economy conducted on French lines by the Mexican National Academy of and speed in building. Walls can be made thinner without sacriFine Arts, an institution recognized as of university rank. The ficing strength. Construction goes forward on many floors al Academy course is a four years’ one, modelled essentially upon once, much more rapidly and yet at less expense. The historic architectural styles came from distinct nations that of the Beaux Arts and largely administered by professors who have had direct or indirect experience of the French system. isolated by difficult and limited means of transit and communicaJapan.—Since 1873 Japanese architectural education has been tion. Each was evolved by a segregated people, each had individorganized in the Western manner. It is entrusted to high techni- ual qualities, each in itself represented truly the society that bore cal schools and to universities. Both have three year courses in it. But during the last 100 years architecture progressed so Tap which chief attention is paid to the constructional aspect of idly that the designer, impelled by an unprecedented demand fot architecture. There are three universities with architectural de- buildings, and with knowledge at his elbow of everything the world partments in the faculties of engineering, the Tokyo and Kyoto had yet produced, turned for embellishment to the historic styles, Imperial universities and the Waseda university. In the imperial copying and adapting rather than creating. Consequently, many

ARCHITECTURE

PLATE I

bj

3

E]

1 k

E L

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BY COURTESY OF (1, 2, 5, 6) F. R. YERBURY,

MODERN

(3, 4) THE GERMAN

BUILDINGS

RAILWAYS INFORMATION OFFICE; PHOTOGRAPH,

SHOWING

ARCHITECTURAL

TREND

(7) COPR. S. ELLIS

IN DIFFERENT

COUNTRIES

l. Rotterdam. Municipal School, Baths and Lecture Hall; An interesting use of building masses. The function of the building being well expressed in its form, 2. Helsingfors, Finland. Railway station; E. Saarinen, archi-

near approach in its setback form to the American skyscraper. Verticality is the strong note in the composition. 5. Concrete houses in the Rue Mallet-Stevens, Paris; Mallet-Stevens, architect. A good example of

3. Germany. The building has been designed to lessen wind pressure and thus reduce the amount of Vibration. Exterior shows a definite attempt to repeat the forms of optical Instruments, 4. Hamburg, Germany. Chile House; F. Roger, architect. An important example in modern German commercial architecture, and a

Clemens Holzmeister, architect. A building of modern design, but strongly reminiscent of the Gothic castle, with a slight Gothic feeling in the

tect. A railway problem solved in a new manner, with modern detail but without a marked deviation from the conventional form. Einstein observatory, Potsdam; Eric Mendelssohn, architect.

modern

housing as being carried out in Paris.

symmetrically

disposed

arches.

7. London

6. Crematorium, Vienna;

County

Hall:

Ralph

Knott,

architect. A recent example of British municipal architecture, situated on the Thames near Westminster bridge. Classic forms and composition are used, interpreted with a freshness lifting the design above the ordinary

ARCHITECTURE buildings to-day express neither contemporary nor any other culture. Architects have begun to realize the falseness of thus

slavishly adhering to stylistic forms, and the new industrial and

commercial architecture of Germany and America, for example,

has issued directly from this fresh desire for logical design.

Building Activity.—In the United States of America the sustained demand for quantities of building is enormous; old

buildings give way to new, new buildings seem almost to rise over

nicht; and Europe, whose tendency has been to retain and use what exists,

shows

a marked

trend in the same direction, as in the development of Kingsway and Regent street in London and in

the Continental cutting of bouleyards in Paris and in Rome. Anything that so enormously in-

creases both the size and number of buildings must be accounted

L

POST & LINTEL

MASONRY ARCH

IFAN

f

a potent factor in all kinds of architectural developments. A prime cause of building activity is the concentration of pop-

uation in and near the larger

cities. Since about 1885 machinery had radically changed human relationships. Men and women released from the farms by traction ploughs and harvesters have

flocked to the cities to produce manufactured articles. The production and use of more and more articles, both necessities and luxuries, require more build-

ings in which to make them, more buildings from which to sell them, more buildings in which to transact the business arising from their manufacture and sale, and STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES IN BUILDmore homes to house the work- ING ers. With this concentration of population have come the corporation, the trust and the super-trust. Great buildings, great at least in bulk and cost, are required to house vast numbers of workers. Formerly, only religious or governmental agencies could build large structures; to-day private enterprise, through control of capital in large amounts, builds on a greater scale and more expensively than either. This evident and rapid change influences every walk of life and each new building. The New Architecture.—Artistically, architecture is the result of a search and struggle for beauty under restrictions imposed by the structural requirements of the plan problem and the aesthetic possibilities of the materials available. Strictly speaking, it is concerned only with those buildings that embody elements of beauty, or that at least vary from strict utilitarian necessities for the sake of better appearance. In the past, building was a slow, leisurely proceeding, expensive in terms of human energy,

but now changes in style, which are nothing more or less than period changes in the life of the people, occur more rapidly. Un-

doubtedly the outstanding feature of the new period is a growing interest in, and enthusiasm for, the architectural improvement and embellishment of all types of buildings. Whether it be homes, workshops or playhouses, improvement in appearance is demanded. The need for more buildings, the will to have them

beautiful, and steel with speed in building appeared almost simultaneously as the invigorating influences that started the new archi-

tecture off and determined its course.

The architect to-day is a sculptor in building masses. His forms are limited by the practical requirements of the plan problem, t€, the interrelation of the spaces to be enclosed and the legal

restrictions on building, by the materials out of which his build-

mg must be made, the machines that shape these materials and

the labour available for putting them into place. This has always

been essentially true, but the recent and tremendous improve-

275

ments in construction methods, the new materials and new chines used for building, and the modern type of workmen ployed have given the oldest art a thoroughly new aspect. and speed have completely altered human relationships therefore, changed architecture more than any factors that ceded them.

maemSteel and, pre-

The present-day architect has to consider not only

how best to enclose space for human occupancy, but many tendencies of contemporary life as well. The art of architecture is in constant flux, for it is an everchanging medium of expression, incapable of being static. It results from human needs and conceptions of beauty determined by the way in which the ideas of a period happen to be associated. The new art, so-called, which is evolving in both Europe and America, in fact in every nation claiming cultural advancement, can in no sense be considered strange, exotic. It does what architecture has always done: it expresses faithfully its time. When it appears strange, it is likely that the architect, under the pressure of getting out work, has not had time to study the true feeling of his art as properly as he has its physical requirements. Formerly, his knowledge of building construction, and the capacity of workmen to execute his ideas, limited the architect. So they do now; but with this difference: the machine is everywhere supplanting handicraft, and the moder architect has to design for it.

Machines

Mastered.—At

first, the ease and rapidity with

which machines accurately repeat processes and designs resulted in many ugly forms being turned out. This caused the gingerbread decoration that blighted the roth century. New materials as they appeared were disguised. Metal was used for objects previously made of wood, and, by means of a photographic process, very carefully surfaced with an enamel texture that simulated the grain of wood so perfectly that only an expert could distinguish it as false. Similarly, rubber was transformed

into imitation marble floors and walls. Here again the designer, pressed by the necessity of producing, demanded that the new materials imitate the old in order to design with the old forms as the basis of his design problem. Submission to machine power passed, however; mastery replaced it. For the first time in histary the economic problem became not how to produce enough to live, but how to market everything produced. To sell their goods manufacturers had to make them more attractive. The basis of the new art is not to use materials as substitutes, but rather. to refine their characteristic qualities. By so taking advantage of them, and by learning the capacities of machines employed to shape them, the designer evolves new surfaces in colour and texture, and new combinations in form and line, with the machine as the most important factor in the process. The machines themselves have provided the wealth that carries on such work. Wealth and Art.—There is little demand for art among a people crushed and poor, or during the rise of a nation. The essentials of life and the provision needed for its immediate future always come first. It is only after these essentials are assured and a demand has arisen for comfort and refinement that art becomes alive. But the quality of art produced by a people cannot be measured by its wealth. On the contrary, history contains many examples of peoples who have acquired great wealth and whose art has become flamboyant and debased. Art in its highest form is produced by peoples of culture who possess high ideals: artists can only be developed by a demand for art. Meanwhile, there has developed in modern art a new and revolutionary factor. To the new art which is evolving, this factor—the machine—is becoming a most valuable slave. Supported by machines, the possibilities for modern art are boundless, for it can be enjoyed and partaken of, not only by a limited group, but by all mankind. Significantly, the machine has first manifested itself in architecture, the parent art. Each building is regarded as a machine planned, designed, constructed for a special purpose, a machine to be scrapped when need for its peculiar type of service ends. Post-war architecture, and art generally, tends to express itself in mass and form, in efficient essentials refined and made beautiful, in simplicity. Called on to enclose new forms of spaces, the architect has developed new methods of. construction and is achieving new results.

ARCHITECTURE

276

Skeleton Construction.—The structural principle responsible for these new forms is the skeleton, of structural steel (see STEEL CONSTRUCTION) or of ferro-concrete (g.v.), which carries the building load. Steel takes up all the stresses to which a building is subjected; compressive, tensile and shear. Reinforced concrete acts similarly save that the tensile strain is cared for by the steel imbedded in the concrete and the compressive by the concrete itself. Steel, for protection from fire and corrosion, must always be faced by some material, such as stone or brick. Reinforced concrete can only be used in comparatively low buildings; while it gives a finished surface as well as a supporting structure, its surface is difficult to decorate; but concrete is cheap, for it eliminates highly technical labour, and effects are secured by carefully studied proportion and massing. Steel can be used in any type of building; reinforced concrete is most valuable for factories, aeroplane and airship hangars, hydraulic works, power plants and other similar purposes. Logical Design.—The designs first used in facing the new structures were drawn from old masonry forms. Conventional styles are always slow to disappear; wooden forms influenced masonry design until the days of Rome; even rock-hewn tombs, as at Corneto, had feigned roof beams. Heretofore, Gothic (g.v.), which was applied to churches to point them heavenward, was the only style with any verticality, and when tall buildings appeared, architects, naturally enough, turned to it for their inspiration. The Woolworth building, New York (Cass Gilbert, Architect), was the first great example of its use. But as tall buildings became more common, architects began to develop their inherent stylistic qualities. Steel frame structures permit such height, and their interior requirements bring such unusual plan arrangements, that it grows less and less logical for masonry to inspire the designer. The steel frame is rectangular, neither curved nor arched. Its most expressive covering, therefore, is designed in straight lines and right angles. The best American work has a real “lift” that carries the eye upward in each line of construction, by emphasizing everywhere the vertical, by subordinating the aesthetically less pleasing horizontal, and by pyramiding the masses that support the central tower. Such designing assures suitable facing for the skeleton, and the minimum of wasted material and space. The jacket of the building is then true to the underlying structure, which bears the load. In the Telephone building, New York (McKenzie, Voorhees and Gmelin, architects), the effect is one of proportional masses, and impressively simple. The architects approached their problem from the point of view of designing something with respect for this present “machine age”; they thought in terms of what could be done with the labour of to-day, with the construction of to-day and with the machinery that would shape the materials; an entirely new and thoroughly modern feeling is expressed. In matters of detail, the old-fashioned cornice, which is meaningless when raised to a height of 20 or 40 storeys, disappeared entirely. The vertical accent is never lost, however, even when the building reaches its climax; instead of crossing it with a horizontal band, the band is ornamented by inserts that give a proper finish to the wall composition without interrupting its verticality; the same holds true for the interior. All embellishments, and these, in keeping with modern simplicity, are few, were designed for manufacture by machines. The marble work, instead of being cut in pilasters with flutes carefully chiselled out, was designed for machine production. By so using machines as a basis, architects can evolve designs characteristic of this period. Notable results have already been reached.

.

Colour.—In view of the many new building materials that modern machinery has made available, colour, which was used extensively in ancient architecture, particularly in Egypt, western Asia and Greece, may again become an important factor in design. A few attempts of questionable success have been made, but most modern cities, in both Europe and America, are rather drab. Where used, colour has soon been lost under the smudge of dirt and soot that reduces everything to grey. But it is not unreasonable to suppose that improved methods of fuel consumption, electric trans-

mission and city management may eventually eliminate soot and dust from city atmosphere. New materials, especially in the field

of glazed tile of enduring colour, may then be used to advantage

in giving modern cities the brilliance characteristic of antiquity We are not here suggesting a mere plastering of colour in spots like postage stamps on otherwise drab buildings, but rather colour used as an inherent part of a building’s composition, like, for example, shadow bricks, accentuating its line, form and proportion

(See COLOUR IN ARCHITECTURE.) Problems to be Solved.—The

i

problems of the immediate

future confronting the architect demand a well-trained and highly developed imaginative faculty. With the concentration of popu. lation in cities, previously referred to, city architecture became the art’s most important phase, and the architect is now called on to help to solve many problems not properly his own (see Towy AND City PLANNING). Right concentration multiplies business efficiency and convenience, and the drift of building developments

toward single units covering entire squares has an enormous ip. fluence on design. A growing tendency to bring business and resi.

dence together, thus preventing the present waste of transporting city populations from home to office twice daily, may well lead to structures with a residential zone on top, a business zone below

and sidewalks at a high level for the residents. The architect must consider, too, the movement of traffic through the now crowded streets, whose capacity only double-decking, arcaded sidewalks or tunnelling can extend. To modern man, spending most of his waking and all of his sleeping hours indoors, buildings mean more

in comfort, convenience and well-being than any other material entities. If architecture serves his purpose, life is good; if it fails to serve it, life is harsh; it affects his thought, his art, his mode of

living and his future.

MODERN

ARCHITECTURE

Science, highly developing transit and communication, has knit all parts of the world so closely together, and so reduced time and distance, that for any nation to develop a purely indigenous architecture would mean that the material and spiritual status of its

people had been untouched by modern inventions. Modern architecture therefore will be discussed not by geographical boundaries, but according to those influences—industrial, social, educational, governmental, and religious and memorial—that are the basic causes of all building development, and common to all nations. They have been placed in the order of their importance, considered in terms of capital investment and the number of people involved. I. INDUSTRIAL

ARCHITECTURE

Under this classification are included all buildings in which manufacture, purchase, sale, exchange and transport of commodities are carried on, and in which the financing of business enterprises is negotiated. Industrial architecture has now peculiar significance, because the present period of civilization is normally

neither an age of war nor an age of art, but a scientific and industrial age. It constitutes by far the most important architectural development since 1900, not alone as measured in terms of quantity, but in terms of actual progress as well. Industry and commerce, through combination and absorption, have grown far beyond the wildest imaginings of the ’80s of the last century, and their necessities have developed a striking and significantly new architecture, highly expressive of the present age. The trend is toward larger and larger units—larger office buildings, larger department stores, larger banks, larger railway stations, larger industrial plants. The increase in the height and mass of office buildings is perhaps the most phenomenal feature of this development. Many misapprehensions exist as to its cause. One of the most persistent is that in New York, where the so-called sky-scraper has received its chief development, the long, narrow shape of the island forced growth upward. This ds far from the truth. There is still plenty of room for lateral expansion on Manhattan island. The tall build-

ings form a narrow ridge through the centre, following the general course of Broadway. Should all the buildings on the island proper be reduced to an average height, they would probably not excèe

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ARCHITECTURE

277

six or seven storeys. This contention is proved by the rapid appearance of groups of tall buildings in many other cities where the special topographical conditions of New York do not exist.

dwellings are now being brought into groups.

the third type does not differ from the many-storeyed office build-

plete service of every kind, makes it difficult to operate successfully with less than 1,000 rooms. The plan problem starts with a typical bedroom floor which is repeated many times and is the basis of income. The lower floors, the least in demand as bedrooms (for the public seems to have lost its fear of fire in modern structures and prefers to be high for light, air and freedom from noise), are used for the essential hotel offices, lounging spaces, parlours, dining-rooms, banquet-halls, restaurants, cafeterias, etc.

The construction

of homes by individual owners has diminished steadily since the World War, not only due to these new methods, or to the burdens The truth is that increased concentration makes for increased laid upon wealth, but to the difficulty of obtaining competent efficiency in commercial operations. It is probable that the domestic servants also. The large house is dependent on this class tall building originated in the desire of real estate owners to of worker which, drawn away by the war, was unwilling to return exploit small and heavily taxed property holdings. Increased rev- to domestic duties at its close. (See also SoctAL ARCHITECTURE; enue could be obtained from a small area of land by building up- House PLANNING.) ward. But the sky-scraper has proved invaluable to efficiency in Apartments (Flats), Hotels.—Apartment or flat building, business, for, in the final analysis, all important business affairs especially in America, is not confined to cities and towns where are negotiated through personal contact, in spite of telephone, the concentrated population might furnish an excuse; it has an telegraph and other means of communication. Increasing vogue even in small villages. The apartment building The City Factory.—The factory in cities is beginning to take is simply a combination of compact homes one above the other. on city dress. The open labour market commonly causes a large The plan problem consists of making a series of such home units, industrial plant, especially in such work as garment-making, to each comprising a living-room, dining-room, kitchen, and one or build in the heart of a city. Such a plant should not be a blot more bedrooms and baths. A foyer or entrance hall, library and among fine buildings, but should be in harmony with its surround- study may be added to the living-room; a breakfast-room, pantry ings. The plan problem is as varied as the nature of the work and servants’ hall may be added to the kitchen and dining-room; carried on, but industrial plants may be divided into three types, and a nursery and servants’ rooms to the bedrooms. These, howdepending on the different kinds of enclosed spaces: (1) plants of ever, are merely supplementary to the basic unit. The popular large area, of only one floor; (2) plants of large spaces for great apartment hotel is simply an apartment house in which the machines, travelling cranes, etc., in conjunction with smaller kitchens and the servants’ sections of all the apartments are conspaces of the ordinary type; (3) plants of ordinary spaces, many- centrated in one place and conducted under hotel management . storeyed and dependent on light from the sides. The first type In the hotel proper improvement in mechanical arrangements is _ furnishes simply a problem of building over large areas and with more manifest than any change in basic planning principle. As “saw tooth” skylight construction; the second involves engineering in most other types of buildings, the tendency is toward increased for broad spaces, but both clerestory and top lighting are possible; size. The heavy overhead expense of a modern hotel, giving coming in which a conventional upper floor plan is developed as a series of typical office units along both sides of a corridor. The line of vertical circulation (lifts or elevators) is fixed at a central point on this corridor, utility spaces are added, and the ground floor is devoted to special purposes.

Importance of the Architect.—Only in the 2oth century have such problems as steel plants, mining hoists, automobile works, etc., been considered in any sense architectural. Generally handled by engineers with practical considerations only in view, the architect had no essential part, but was called in, if at all, to add a bit of “dressing” to a predetermined structure. To-day, however, the large corporations are realizing more and more that beauty in its broadest sense is a commercial asset, and that thoughtful planning with consideration for the human occupants : of buildings has utility. The architect, by training and experience, has a more comprehensive sense of arrangement than the engineer or the contractor. A certain distinctive appearance, a certain completeness of design,

(See also SOCIAL ARCHITECTURE.)

Specialized Buildings.—Theatre design has markedly progressed, and the picture house has added a new problem. In old theatres, stage and auditorium formed two nearly balancing elements. Improved mechanical equipment has somewhat reduced the size of the stage, and the different seating arrangements of the auditorium have increased proportionately the ground area of this part. The cinema requires almost no stage, and in many cases the auditorium has been enlarged almost beyond the reach of the human voice. In both types the cross section shows the use of but one balcony, and no supporting posts to interrupt the a more perfect interior arrangement and a general suitability seem view. Architecturally most theatres of both types are problems more likely to prevail when the largest industrial buildings are in interior design. Being commercial enterprises, and requiring no handled through an architect’s office than when an architect is natural light, they occupy spaces away from the street and have not in the picture. The architect is consulted to advantage from at most only a small street frontage. Of course the governmentthe outset of the problem; choice of site, plan arrangement, types owned and municipal theatres are generally free standing, and, like of construction, fire prevention, natural lighting, welfare pro- the Paris Opera House, have an architectural treatment in keepvisions, plumbing, heating, ventilation and artificial illumination ing with their location. are all matters of consideration in the design of any building. (See For open-air entertainment, the most significant structure that also INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE.) has appeared is the great stadium (g.v.) rivalling in size, and in some cases in architectural embellishment, those of old. These are II. SOCIAL ARCHITECTURE of three general classes: those completely elliptical in form and Social architecture comprises all buildings for human residence, built on banked-up earth as at Yale university; those built up from recreation, entertainment and health. Not long ago, the home the level of the ground like the Colosseum of Rome but open at provided for all these activities. To-day they are more highly one end as at Princeton university; and those built only at one specialized, and are more and more taken care of in specially de- side of the play-field. (See also THEATRE ARCHITECTURE ) . signed buildings. The theatre, picture house, stadium, athletic Care of the sick has received particular attention (see HOSPITAL club, etc., provide recreation. The sick and dependent are minis- PLANNING). The World War gave medicine and surgery optered to in public and private hospitals, sanatoria, orphanages, etc. portunities for study and experiment that brought about great This custom is growing to such an extent that many people, strides in both fields and many new features in hospital design. particularly in cities, do little more at home than sleep and enter- Two types of plans may be noted: the open scheme with few tain their friends, storeys where ample space is available, and the compact manyPrivate Dwellings.—A tendency to provide co-operatively storeyed type required in cities. The open plans show a more for domestic drudgery has had fairly steady growth since 1885. orderly arrangement of building units, central administration, he factory has increasingly taken over the work of the home: kitchen facilities and power plants; general orientation is a very food js supplied in ready-cooked form;

clothes are washed in

quantity; heat and light are automatically provided. Even small

important factor, and lines of communication unite the various

elements in a direct and simple plan-scheme.

278

ARCHITECTURE

III. EDUCATIONAL ARCHITECTURE heading are included all buildings in which knowlthis Under edge is imparted and acquired, either directly, by contact between teacher and pupil, as in schools, colleges and universities; or indirectly, as in museums, libraries and exhibition buildings. Compulsory elementary education prevails in most civilized countries, and government-directed institutions are on the increase. The one-time high school group which represented merely the finishing touches of an English education has become subdivided into many different forms. Modern education, which prepares the pupil for a later status in life, has divers schools where the pupil is trained in whatever vocation he selects, and is launched successfully on a career. Schools.—The development of architecture in school buildings has been one of the most remarkable phases of architectural progress during the present century. The architect who specializes in schoolhouse construction must be a student of educational methods, and, moreover, he must know how to conserve the physical wellbeing of the pupil during school hours by surrounding him with every element of safety that will protect his health, his eyesight and his general physical condition. The tendency toward larger and larger units that runs through commerce and industry manifests itself again in educational buildings. The large institution is‘the only adequate means of meeting the demand for instruction, but there is a distinct limit to the number of students that a single teacher can handle. Much study and experiment on the part of experts in this field have evolved a classroom of fairly definite size and shape. The school plan revolves around this unit classroom. Unilateral lighting is preferred; wide corridors, leading to the exits, stairways, assembly hall, gymnasium and other special spaces, adjoin all rooms; ceiling heights are ample for ventilation purposes, and when there is 15ft. or more from floor to floor above, stairways can be doubled, thus securing two separate stair exits in the space formerly occupied by one. (See also SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.) Universities—The most interesting feature of the newer colleges and universities is the comprehensive plan lay-out, permitting future expansion, upon which they are being built. The older universities of Europe grew through the centuries by successive accretions, and they possess, of course, the charm and interest of historical background and precedent. Certain modern universities, notably in America, have endeavoured to recapture this atmosphere by imitating the semi-monastic architecture of those older institutions—-Harkness Memorial hall at Yale and the Graduate school at Princeton, to mention only two. On the other hand, there is a growing tendency to accept frankly the changed conditions of the time and build in the modern idiom. The University of Pittsburgh plans to build a sky-scraper to house its

calls for the addition of lecture-rooms, reference-rooms and even auditoriums to the usual plan. (See also Muszum Areg. TECTURE.) Expositions.—Expositions are generally housed in temporary buildings constructed for the purpose. The plan problem igs of special interest to the architect, because it gives him an opporty. nity to make experiments on a large scale which he might not care to risk in more permanent buildings. The Columbian exposition in Chicago in 1893 changed the whole tendency of architecture in America, creating a veritable renaissance of classic styles, The Paris Exposition Universelle in 1900 experimented with the flow. ing line and naturalistic ornament, but with no permanent effect on architecture in general. The Wembley exhibition near London revealed certain possibilities in the use of permanent concrete construction, but lost much effectiveness through lack of distinc. tion in setting and approach. The French, on the other hand, made the most of their Exposition des Arts Décoratifs in Paris in 1925, and many of the temporary buildings displayed architectural forms of unusual interest: the straight line, the post and lintel, sculpture in low relief panels, strong contrasting colours:

classical mouldings, capitals and cornices were conspicuous by

their absence. The influence of the Paris exposition can be seen in certain commercial buildings in America, and will doubtless have a lasting effect, because the style so readily adapts itself to modern forms of machine-made construction. (See EXPOSITION

ARCHITECTURE.) IV. GOVERNMENTAL ARCHITECTURE Many municipalities in Europe have erected new and imposing

buildings to house local administrations, State governments in the United States have undertaken new capitols. New, modernized post-offices, custom-houses, town-halls, etc., have heen built in many places.

The plan problem of modern administrative buildings is somewhat similar to that of the commercial office building except for two features: (1) the plan includes large and specially designed rooms for the assembly of boards, councils, delegates or gatherings of representatives, which dominate the plan and are surrounded by offices for government workers and permanent staffs; (2) architecturally, both exterior and interior are treated more e%

travagantly, with liberal provisions for landscaped settings (see LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE), all very properly done to impress the community with the power and authority of the State, The architectural problem is new only in so far as the tendency for the State to assume ownership of certain public utilities has considerably increased the space needed for government work.

The

London County Council hall, near the Houses of Parliament, the fine building of the Port of London Authority, the Town Hall of Stockholm and the State Capitol of Nebraska in the United States halls of learning. (See also University ARCHITECTURE.) are conspicuous examples. (See also GOVERNMENTAL ARCHILibraries.—Libraries are keeping step with the general inTECTURE.) crease in public education. Many large cities have a central building, extensive in scope and impressive in design, and one or more branches at convenient points in the populous districts. The general plan consists of a central public room, where books are loaned and returned, where card catalogues are convenient for consultation and where information is given. Together with the stack rooms, this forms the hub of the plan, around which are disposed other special spaces, such as children’s rooms, periodical rooms, reference rooms, special exhibits, etc., as the scope of the work demands. (See also LIBRARY ARCHITECTURE.) Museums.—Public museums constantly take a more important place in modern life as a means of indirect education. The addition of many commercial, industrial, mechanical, horticultural and other museums to the traditional art museum is proof of this. Here the plan is comparatively simple, consisting of large well-lighted spaces through which visitors pass from room to room. Good modern practice provides one entrance with control, and a disposition of rooms that permits of any given space being temporarily closed for rearrangement or installation of exhibits without shutting off other rooms from public access. The growing tendency of the modern museum to combine educational courses open to the public with its more traditional activities frequently

V. RELIGIOUS AND MEMORIAL

ARCHITECTURE

Religious architecture, which includes all buildings erected for spiritual or commemorative purposes, appears to be in a transitional stage. In the endeavour to adapt itself to changing conditions, the Church is faced on one hand with the necessity of broadening its activities, and on the other with the problem of effecting a physical compromise with other forms of building. Architecturally this involves two distinct problems: (1) enlarging or modifying the church to house new activities; (2) combining it with commercial structures, a course adopted to some extent in the United States. In the past, the church was a refuge for the poor and afflicted, a seat of learning and a centre of social life. One after another these functions began to be assumed by independent agencies. Education, except in the spiritual sense, fell chiefly under secular supervision; separate institutions began to care for the sick and the poor; the increased number of diversions weakened the church’s social hold on the people. There seems to be, however, a tendency to resume some of these functions in the form of welfare work and community service. This has added to the necessary equipment of the church proper such spaces as small

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toms, libraries, etc. At the north end of the building, a bank of service elevators rises in a tower which connects residence with business and pedestrian

Prate VII

ARCHITECTURE auditoriums, Sunday-school rooms, gymnasia, committee-rooms, restaurants, etc. T he modern church, excepting the ritualistic type, which has not materially changed in plan arrangement or source of design, tends more and more to assume the form of an auditorium in which the important consideration is to see and

hear adequately.

The enormous growth of large cities has left many churches stranded in business or financial sections, miles from their parishioners, so that their very existence as buildings is jeopardized. In both London and New York there are many such churches which are preserved only for their architectural interest or historic associations. With a few exceptions, these will eventually have to give way. Even in newly developed residential commu-

nities, the small church finds it difficult to retain a fixed or stable congregation. Localities are no longer local. The automobile, the railway, the telephone and the radio have all conspired to dif-

fyse and diversify public attention. New Churches.—The most startling and essentially modern feature of religious architecture is the “sky-scraper church.” In order to retain a position in the crowded, highly taxed business

centres, certain churches in America have combined with office

buildings. This enables them to carry on their social aad community service without depending entirely on voluntary contributions for maintenance. The architectural problem is a com-

mercial sky-scraper with an auditorium on the ground floor; one building is superimposed on another of quite different character. In spite of adverse conditions, many impressive churches are

being built; for instance, the cathedral at Washington, the great cathedral in Liverpool, and the cathedral of Saint John the Divine in New York. France tried a novel experiment in building the church of Notre Dame at le Raincy; this structure, built of reinforced concrete, is of rigidly simple modernistic design but of dubious aesthetic value. Memorials.—As a problem, memorials have a peculiar fascination for the architect, because they are usually untrammelled

by the practical restrictions of ordinary buildings and frequently offer the best opportunity for combination with the allied arts of sculpture and painting. The difficulties of the problem lie principally in the lack of limitations, for the freedom of choice makes selection of the appropriate mode of expression harder. War memorials, which abound in every country, frequently employ weapons and military costumes as a basis of design. The most successful, however,

stress abstract conceptions

such as

bravery and sacrifice, rather than the paraphernalia of war. An indication of the universal trend toward democracy since the World War is apparent in numerous memorials to the Unknown Soldier. War memorials range from simple wall tablets to buildings of impressive proportions. The latter sometimes take the form of memorial hospitals, soldiers’ homes, assembly halls, stadiums, etc., in which case their inclusion under memorial architecture is merely nominal. Public interest in war memorials has brought about a recrudescence of other commemorative monuments. The monument of Vittorio Emanuele II., Rome, is one of the most impressive ever erected to one man. The Lincoln memorial at Washington, D.C., and the George Washington Ma-

sonic memorial at Alexandria, Va., overlooking the Potomac river, are other examples on impressive scales. (See also RELIGIOUS AND MEMORIAL ARCHITECTURE.) HISTORICAL ARCHITECTURE History furnishes the architectural designer with opportunities to study buildings in such mass and detail that new forms can be based on accurate knowledge of the old as they exist or existed,

full size and in position, with their natural environment of light, shade, play of colour and variety of line. It gives him knowledge of the materials, the craftsmanship and the allied arts that have determined the form and character of buildings, and of the social,

political and religious changes that affected nations in the past

and were reflected in their buildings. Architectural history differs

279

architectural historian relates the information gleaned by such scientific research and develops a record of past architectural styles together with the underlying human relationships that brought them into being. To understand the evolution of the art of architecture intelligently one must first understand the mental processes by which man creates architectural works. Such procedure has not materially changed since ancient Egypt which, as far as is known, was the first western nation to establish a civilization with a fixed cultural background to leave enduring records of its achievements. The architect called on to enclose space, whether it be a tomb, shrine or simple dwelling, first looks about to see how it has been done before. If facilities are available, he travels to other lands to study foreign methods. If documents concerning ancient works exist, he turns to them also for enlightenment. From all such information as a background, from the practical requirements of his problem and from the materials and methods of construction at hand, he creates his work.

The lay mind frequently mistakes the origin of architectural styles. There are no strict demarcations between periods. Only the extent of centuries of history makes seeming divisions, because the high spot in each period is the determining factor, obscuring the transitional periods between. The present occidental art has been influenced more strongly by the ancient western countries, beginning with Egypt, than by India, China or Japan (g.v.); but the growing present-day connections between Far East and West may affect it more materially than past centuries of separated civilizations. The following outline is designed to relate the special articles, on such predominant periods as those of Egypt, Greece, Rome and the Gothic, which appear in this work under their own headings, with the general trend of the world’s architectural development from the earliest recorded efforts. (See INDIAN ARCHITECTURE; CHINESE ARCHITECTURE; JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE.) Unlike the other arts, architecture rose from a primary requirement of human life—the need for shelter. In the earliest days, the cave, the hut and the tent may have sheltered people devoted to hunting and fishing, to agriculture, to pastoral and nomadic lives. Architecture originated in more permanent dwellings in which wood was used less and less, and in which bricks, made of sun-dried alluvial clay as in the early work in Chaldaea and Egypt, became the basis of construction for walls that supported trunks of palm trees as lintels for doorheads and roofs. Some of

the earliest rock-hewn tombs at Giza reproduce old wooden forms in buildings sun-dried of great employed

stone, and so record the construction of periods whose have long since disappeared (see ARCHAEOLOGY). The bricks could not resist, much pressure and required walls thickness with a batter, or raking side, which is even in the present-day huts of the fellahs. I. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE structures discovered in Chaldaea,

Although at Tello and Nippur, seem to date back to the fifth millennium B.c., the best examples of architecture prior to Greece exist in the monumental works of the Egyptians. The culture of the period was confined to a small ruling class, made up of priests and nobles. The desert relentlessly opposed man’s struggle for existence, and the common people had to rely on their rulers for sustenance and protection, and on life after death to abolish cruelty and fear. During the seasons when the flooded Nile valley made agriculture impossible, the energy of the large slave population was directed to building vast tombs, temples and palaces for a reigning family of fixed position, unchanging religion and supreme power. Although ' stones had to be brought from distant quarries, the Egyptians achieved the most lasting architectural forms yet attempted by any civilization. The three best-known pyramids are situated about seven miles south-west of Cairo, and were built by the second, third and

fourth kings of the fourth dynasty—Khufu (c. 3969-3908 B.c.),

substantially from archaeology (q.v.) with which, nevertheless, it Khafra (c. 3908-3845 B.c.), and Menkaura (c. 3845-3784 B.c.), is too often confused. The archaeologist unearths and studies the who are better known as Cheops, Cephren and Mycerinus; their

forms, materials and embellishments of ancient buildings.

The

major interest to present-day civilization is more historic than

ARCHITECTURE struction in wood and clay on the form and outline of the more permanent stone construction, in which no such thickness of wal] or such extreme batter was necessary constructively. But their mass gives these structures a magnificent repose and an air of

lasting through eternity. A dominant will to do in each new work what had been done

before seems to have been exerted in all Egyptian architecture.

Variations were slight and in the direction of more extensive size

and more impressive scale. One would suppose that the spirit moving Egyptian architects was always so to impress the people with the overpowering, almost supernatural, dominance of their rulers and deities that they might never think for themselves or entertain the possibilty of changing their social status, a condition still existing among many of the peoples of the Far East. It is difficult for modern men and women, living in an ever-changing civilization, to realize that for so many thousands of years an entire civilization remained static, as the architecture of Egypt proves it must have done. An examination of the plan scheme of these temples shows a monotonous repetition of form, arrangement and general conception,. varying only in extent. Although the high degree of conventionalization of ornament and sculpture has some value to the modern designer in his efforts to break away from purely naturalistic forms, the position that Egyptian architecture occupies as an influence on modern architecture is more historic and archaeological than otherwise, because its extreme stylistic quality is out of place in any of the later civilizations. Only the one structural idea of the post and lintel was used: consequently all enclosed spaces of any size became a forest of columns. Flat roofs of massive stone slabs spanning outer walls and closely spaced internal columns were the most logical form of

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architectural (see Pyramip). Many temples were also constructed, as that of the Sphinx, attributed to Cephren, and tombs, such as the Serapeum at Sakkara, in which the sacred bulls were embalmed and buried, and those of the kings and queens of Thebes. We have already referred to the probable origin of the peculiar batter or raking side given to the walls of the pylons and temples, with the Torus moulding surrounding the same and crowned with the cavetto cornice. What is more remarkable is the fact that once accepted as an important and characteristic feature it should never have been departed from, and that down to and during the Roman occupation the same batter is found in all temples. Particularly notable is the strong influence of early methods of con-

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II. WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE Many architectural records are to be found in the countries north-east of Egypt, where archaeologists have unearthed the remains of Assyrian and Persian structures. A great deal of historic value in explaining the movements of people in the development of dominant monarchies has come to light. About 800 B.c. the Assyrians seem to have begun to build the magnificent series of palaces from which were brought the winged man-headed bulls and the sculptured slabs now in the British Museum. A type of architecture different from that of Egypt was developed, on account of disparate religious forms, dynasties less firmly established, less durable building materials and flat country subject

to inundations which required erection of platforms to build on. Structurally, the masonry arch, the barrel vault and even the dome were new factors, although records of the last are only preserved in bas-reliefs, not in situ.

Excavations recently under-

taken by the University of Pennsylvania have revealed indications

of the same piling up of one culture on the ruins of a preceding one that is characteristic of many great cities of modern Europe. Such researches are of intense historic interest, and many beauti-

ful objects of art, both in metals and tiles, have been discovered. But the existing remains of the palaces, even those giving fairly definite clues, are not sufficiently intact to permit restoration, o to have had any marked influence on recent architectural progress.

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developed Doric style of the Periclean period. The subtle spacing of the columns, with those at the corners closer together than those between, the beauty of the curved taper or entasis of the columns themselves, and the simple, sweeping strength of the capitals are all characteristic of the Greek genius. No mere black-and-white drawing, however, can convey an adequate picture of a Greek temple in the days of its glory. Richness of colour was everywhere. Mouldings were painted with intricate patterns, and the frieze was brilliant with the alternation of rich red and blue. The temple of Poseidon is in a remarkable state of preservation: both pediments and the epistyle at the sides are still standing

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ARCHITECTURE Plans of these palaces show long lines of parallel walls, evidently carrying vaults, and a general absence of columns, which were a dominant characteristic of the Egyptian work. The symmetry of

the Egyptian temple is absent; while such features as entrance doors, interior courts and special rooms were symmetrical, the plans as @ whole seem to have been evolved without the preconceived and broad conception evident in Egyptian work.

The

restorations show stylistic treatment of distinctive designs. The buildings themselves did not stand long enough to have much = bearing on later architecture. Designers of modern high buildings have turned with interest to existing restorations of ziggurat towers. Probably the ziggurats, representing an early effort of man to rise to any consid-

erable height above the flat alluvial plains, were the most striking

architectural feature of the ancient Assyrian cities. The Tower of Babel, of Biblical renown, was undoubtedly a construction of the ziggurat type. Ziggurats were built in several storeys set back one behind the other with a winding ramp carried round the rectangular tower; or the set-backs of each storey formed terraces

281

tion to meet their peculiar problems, which gave their art more rapid and effective development than that in other lands of the same period. About 2,000 B.c, the Achaeans began to migrate southward and, apparently, to mingle with the earlier Mycenaean civilization. This culture ultimately succumbed

before Dorian invaders from still

farther north. Before a new culture appeared some centuries passed; in the meanwhile, the invaders intermarried with the native population forming, in the mixture of the clear, cool, hardy northerner and the dark, gayer southerner, the ideal racial combination. The Greeks colonized the Aegean islands, Asia Minor, southern Italy and even Sicily. The prosperity of the colonies as well as the states proper is vouched for by splendid stone temples, the remains of many of which have lasted to this day. For centuries Greek architecture evolved by a consistent progression. The very contour of the country must have engendered

the freedom of thought, unique in the then-known world, which was expressed with equal force in philosophy, literature and architecture. Everything on this comparatively small area of land extending around the structure. At the great temple of Borsippa conspired to the development of a vigorous creative art. Nature at Birs Nimrud the ground storey was 272ft. square, and it is herself was no small contributor. The temperate, invigorating known from a description on a cylinder found on the site that there climate, the clear atmosphere, the rich blue of the Mediterranean were seven storeys, dedicated to the planets, each coloured with sea, and the mountains silhouetted against a sunny southern sky the special tint prescribed; the total probable height was 16oft., formed an ideal setting for buildings of refined lines and proporand on the top was a shrine dedicated to the god Nebo. Such tions; while the abundance of unrivalled marble, found in the towers are a marked illustration of how forms of religious wor- mountains of Hymettus and Pentelicus near Athens and in the ship have expressed themselves in architecture. Scarcely any rec- islands of Paros and Naxos, provided a finely textured building ords remain of the habitations of the common people; they were material that facilitated the exactness for which the Greeks are probably simple huts of sun-dried brick roofed with vaults of the famous. Handicapped at the start by the established precedents same material. Only the ruling forces of religion and monarchy of other countries, they were, nevertheless, too segregated by their remain architecturally recorded. geographical situation to be restrained in the development of their Persian architecture, which had its origin in the Assyrian and own peculiar talent. i Median dynasties, to whose empire the Persian monarch succeeded In spite of the comparatively small area of Greece, no single by conquest in 560 B.C., borrowed from the earlier types many group seems to have been able to control the peninsula and thereby features, such as the raised platform on which their palaces were dominate its art. Yet a common religion and love of music, the built, the broad flights of steps leading up to them and the winged drama and the fine arts bound the peoples of the various states human-headed bulls flanking the entrance portals. The point of together. Nature was kinder than in Egypt, and life pleasanter; architectural interest is the reappearance, probably from Media, the fearful gods of former civilizations were abandoned; the of the great halls of columns; but while in plan scheme they recall deities worshipped were of human form idealized. Beauty of Egyptian practice, in detail they bear no resemblance to Egyptian form, colour, mass, silhouette, texture and proportion became form; these columns probably derived their form from the high considerations in the lives of the people as well as of the wooden ones at Ecbatana described by Polybius; the capitals are workers in the field of art. The Greeks loved beauty for itself and formed by twin bulls ingeniously arranged to carry the stone idealized their conceptions of everything. Just as the Greek phiarchitraves that supported the roof. The plans of these palaces losophers loved thought for its own sake, the artists must have were symmetrically arranged and strikingly similar, with open loved beauty for itself. A study of the progress of architectural porticos on at least one and sometimes three sides. But they forms shows consistent refinement, each step being made after lacked the preconceived Egyptian balance as was shown clearly careful study of what had preceded, and each modification of when new palaces were added to the great platform on which conventional style marking an improvement in beauty of form and earlier ones had been built, as at Persepolis. delicacy of proportion. There is neither abject adherence to In these new architectural forms we begin to see evidence of precedent nor a searching for the new merely to be different, but a less dominant ruling class, a freer population, more extensive that gradual change for the better that so eminently characterizes forays into neighbouring countries, increasing intercommunication a nation of great culture, in which beauty and truth are the between nations and the consequent influence on architectural ultimate goal. design. (See also WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE, from Egypt The Parthenon (g.v.) at Athens represents the most perfect to Archaic Greece.) composition and its realization, and for centuries it has remained the ideal combination of building and setting. There is no sham or Ill. GREEK ARCHITECTURE flamboyance in either structure or embellishments. In accuracy Coincident with this movement of civilization through western and delicacy the workmanship surpasses anything that even the Asia the people of Greece were evolving a new culture and with modern machine can produce. Its studied refinements of line— ita new architecture that was destined to become the most influen- such as the very slight curving of lines intended to appear straight, tial, and still remains an ever recurring factor, in the art. Of the slight tilting in of corner columns to correct the appearance the prehistoric period, much that is archaeologically interesting of tilting outward that such vertical columns have, the spacing has been written; the extant remains, notably in the palace of of the columns so as to produce a span at the centre slightly larger Cnossus in Crete and the beehive tombs at Mycenae and in other than that at the ends—these with the complete symmetry of the parts of Greece, owe less to Egyptian and Chaldaean architecture plan as viewed from each side and the use of only one structural than was at one time supposed; although there is evidence of principle, the post and lintel, all combined to give this building commercial exchange between the several countries, it affected a simple and impressive dignity that has never been equalled. matters of detail and decoration more than the plan scheme of Philosophers, mathematicians, archaeologists and architects have thepalace referred to, or of the tombs. The point of architectural attempted with infinite research and study to discover some

interest is the Greek freedom from the too binding and established precedent in design so characteristic of Egypt.

A freer people

n a mountainous country deeply cut by the sea required imagina-

mathematical rule by which the Greeks worked to produce this great masterpiece of architecture. Enthusiasm for their own theories has led many astray, but, judging from the literature on

ARCHITECTURE

282

all the theories, it may well be that the Greeks did develop some principle since lost. It has already been seen that in Egypt the only form of popular entertainment was that of seeing the king or priests parade. In Greece, a freer people, actually participating in the government,

demanded opportunities to enjoy and take part in the achievements of the time, and the open air theatre for the production of dramas and the staging of festivals appeared. In selecting the sites for their theatres, the Greeks always utilized the slope of a hill, which they could cut out, thus saving the expense of raising a structure to carry seats and at the same time obtaining a beautiful prospect for the background. These theatres went through a natural evolution of being first a gathering place formed by the natural contour of the ground, then being furnished in some regularity with wooden seats, and finally refitted with stone seats. To-day there are remains of the theatre of Dionysus at Athens and of others at Epidaurus, Eretria, Delos, Sicyon and

Orobus. The point of architectural interest is the front row of seats, which were designed for dignitaries, and some of which still remain im situ in the theatre of Dionysus, Athens. The centre seat was made the most imposing and elaborate, but many others were inscribed, each with the name of its regular occupant. They were most graceful in line and proportion, they were embellished with exquisite detail and they are still an inspiration to the designer of seats in monuments and other places of importance. Probably the most significant element in Greek architecture is the perfect correlation of architecture, sculpture and painting. We can speak with less assurance of painting, for while we know that colour was used extensively in buildings, the ravages of time have left few definite examples and it is difficult to determine how much of the colour that has been found was part of the original conceptions. But of the sculpture there can be no question; when used it was an inherent part of the building’s design and perfectly composed for its position with respect to scale, relief and the play of light and shade upon it. In fact, purely architectural form, such as appeared profusely in later periods, notably in Rome, was significantly simple in Greek work. Sculpture gave the necessary embellishment to their buildings, effecting desirable contrasts between plain surfaces and those in which light and shade were required. In every case the sculpture symbolized the purpose. of the building, told the story of its function and became a coherent and truthful element of its composition. (See SCULPTURE, ARCHITECTURE.) The temperate Greek climate, with its scant rainfall, encouraged open-air activities and most political and social ceremonies were so held. Consequently Greek architecture is largely devoted to temples whose deities symbolized natural phenomena. The most important temples were built in the 5o years following the battles of Salamis (480 B.c.) and Plataea (479 B.C.) in exultation at the complete defeat of the invading Persians. Athenian prosperity

greater art necessarily results.

Everywhere

Roman

designers

worked for enrichment. Since the great Roman empire included all of the then-known world, extending over all of the ancien Mediterranean countries and northward across Gaul and even

Britain, and since the Roman conquerors always built in the image

of the Imperial City, the Roman

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excited Sparta to jealousy, however, and the Peloponnesian War

(431-404 B.c.) resulted, after which the leadership passed to Sparta, Thebes and Macedonia successively. Greek states disputing among themselves were easy prey for conquerors, and Rome’s power'in Greece steadily increased until in 146 B.c. the once proudly independent nation, whose art and thought were to remain fresh always, became a Roman province. (See also GREEK ARCHITECTURE.) IV. ROMAN

ARCHITECTURE

Roman architecture owes its historical importance as much to the quantity produced as to any inherent merit of the work itself. The Etruscans, who were the early inhabitants of central Italy, were great builders and employed the arched vault in their

structures. Rome complicated architecture by combining this form with that of the Greeks which, as we have seen, was based only on the post and lintel. It is readily evident that when such a simple form of construction as the post and lintel is combined with one as radically different as the arch and dome, far greater spaces without supporting columns, and a more striking impression of pomp and wealth, can be secured; but neither a finer nor a

ROMANESQUE

GOTHIC Sraak B. Doumas.

TRANSITION ARCH MADE BECAME AN

FROM THE POSTS AND LINTEL TO THE POINTED ARCH. THE POSSIBLE A GREATER CLEAR OPENING AND THEREFORE IMPORTANT AND IMPOSING FEATURE OF ENTRANCES AND

PORTICOS

irrespective of underlying structural principles made an enduring impression on nearly all of the peoples of Europe. The topography of Italy, unlike that of Greece, was sufficiently open to encourage unification of the early kingdoms in a republic. As the power of the state spread, Greece being conquered in 146 B.C., Gaul in 59 B.c., and Egypt in 30 B.C., the need for centralized government of distant provinces brought about the formation of the empire. Caius Octavius (31r B.C.—A.D. 14), later known as Augustus, which became the surname of all the Roman emperors, boasted that he found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of

marble. His boast is true in a sense, for in his reign the sun of Imperial Rome was at full noon and building flourished; but as

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The great altar of Zeus, erected by Eumenes ll., 180 B.C., was the central feature of the acropolis of Pergamum. It consisted of a large terrace bordered on three sides by a colonnade and approached by a flight of steps between the ends of the flanking colonnades. In the centre of the terrace stood the altar proper. Around the retaining wall and acting as a pedestal for the outside columns of the colonnade was a great frieze, sculptured in high relief, representing the battle of the gods and the giants, the finest example of the Pergamum school of sculpture that survives. The architectural forms are Greek in origin, but the whcle displays a feeling of luxury and dramatic climax that suggests the spirit of the earlier military monarchies of the near east. It is typically Hellenistic, rather than Hellenic. It is probably this altar which caused the writer of the Apocalypse to refer to Pergamum as “Satan’s seat” (Rev. ii. 13) The remains of the altar and its surrounding buildings were excavated during the last quarter of the 19th century and taken to Berlin, where they are now set up in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum

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ARCHITECTURE a rule marble was used only as a facing, the core of the walls being formed by rubble, bricks or concrete. The rebuilding of Rome begun by Augustus was carried even farther by his immediate successors, and most of the earliest work was destroyed in the ess.

The life of this victorious, self-honouring people is clearly depicted by their great forums, their law courts, their magnificent thermae or public baths, amphitheatres, bridges, triumphal arches, aqueducts and expensive

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The

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form, marble blocks being accurately fitted together without mortar or cement by means of unequalled craftsmanship. Marble was practically the only building material Greece had. The quarries near Rome yielded a variety of stones, but the material that made structural innovation possible was pozzolana, a volcanic earth which, mixed with lime, formed an hydraulic cement of

great cohesion. The Romans do not seem to have realized the

283

in it some of the most remarkable monuments that he had seen in his travels. The influence of Roman architecture may be divided according to its effect on (1) the world of Roman times, (2) the world immediately following the decline of Rome, and (3) the world that came with the Renaissance (g.v.) in the 16th century. In Rome,

quantity production and standardization tended to kill initiative, just as they do to-day; love of power, wealth and comfort, and lack of spiritual incentive produced art magnificently impressive but barren of truly emotional significance. The very grossness of life ultimately turned men’s thoughts to spiritual matters, and the architecture that followed Rome’s decline still inspires designers of religious buildings. When antiquity became the model for Renaissance artists, Rome had so many classical monuments that its style was dominant. No other period in history has received the study and research given to the Roman, and this, too, has

helped to impress its spirit on modern

architecture.

Finally,

science and machines excluded, the civilization of imperial Rome differed but slightly from ours; the seeming appropriateness of the

Roman spirit to-day is therefore easily understood.

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.)

V. BYZANTINE

(See also

ARCHITECTURE

The decline of Roman imperialism was automatically accompanied by that of Roman architecture and its influence. To govern the empire from a more central location, Constantine, in A.D. 324, over their halls, to counteract which they always provided cross- moved his capital from Rome to Byzantium, an ancient Greek walls. But when they had once covered large spaces with a per- city, to be known thenceforth as Constantinople. The same manent casing indestructible by fire, it not only gave an impetus emperor had already established Christianity as the State religion, to work in Rome, but led to a new type of plan which spread all and when Byzantium was rebuilt on Roman lines the new form through the Empire, and which only the differences in available of worship made itself felt architecturally. As the power of materials and labour varied. Rome decreased, that of Christianity, which was destined to beThe studied and appropriate decoration of the Greeks, like come the new unifying world force on which later civilizations their structural sincerity, disappeared in Roman architecture. The would be þuilt and later architecture developed, grew steadily. Roman legions brought home spoils from all the countries of the Byzantine is the term applied to the style of architecture ancient world; niches and pedestals in Roman buildings supported evolved in the new capital of the Roman empire. Constantine alien statues. Owing to their cement, Roman builders required erected many churches, law courts and other buildings, practically fewer columns to span greater spaces, and they could erect struc- all of which contained columns and slabs taken bodily from tures of several storeys, like the Colosseum. The column began to: Roman buildings. These structures were neither indigenous to lose its structural significance; the engaged column and the the country nor of durable form, and little or nothing of them pilaster were introduced and employed decoratively; in buildings remains. The architecture of the period had scant significance of more than one storey the orders were superimposed; the com- until Rome’s influence diminished and what was built became more posite order (g.v.), a combination of the Corinthian and the expressive of the new country, the new government and the new Ionic orders, was developed. The facings of the walls were faith. highly polished, sometimes painted. Passing to Justinian’s time (a.D. 527—565) we find St. Sophia Rome was laid out in a series of splendid forums, or public built between A.D. 532 and A.D. 537. It marks the highest developsquares, surrounded by public buildings, temples, basilicas, shops, ment of the Byzantine style. In it the arch and vault, which, as porticos and colonnades, and containing arches and other monu- explained in the section on Western Asia, probably originated ments in honour of victorious emperors. The forums were the in the East, were extensively developed. Christianity appealed to vital organs of the city. In them, commerce centred, generals the mass of the population and required buildings that could were acclaimed and captives were paraded. They formed the accommodate congregations; it was devoted to one God instead of nucleus of cities and towns even on the outskirts of the empire, many; consequently it produced large churches rather than numand are early instances of good municipal planning. erous small temples for various deities as earlier religions had. Of the ancient Roman buildings, the Pantheon (g.v.) is best St. Sophia affords one of the most perfect examples of high preserved. Now, shorn of its once splendid embellishments, it is development of vault and dome. The great central space was a Christian church known as S. Maria Rotunda. It was built by acquired by means of the vast central dome which rests on Hadrian (a.D. 120-124) and originally consisted of an immense pendentives (g.v,) leading down to four massive piers. The latrotunda (142ft. in diameter) covered with a hemispherical dome eral thrust is cared for by secondary and much lower arches tenacious properties of this pozzolana cement which in foundations formed a solid mass capable of bearing as much weight as the rock itself. They feared also the thrust of the immense vaults

(140ft. high); a portico was added later. Its walls are 2oft. thick

and contain alternately semicircular and rectangular recesses, which probably once held statues of gods. Architecturally, its most interesting feature is its only, yet ample, source of light, a circular opening (3oft. in diameter) in the centre of the dome.

The famous Colosseum (g.v.) is four storeys high, a sky-scraper for its day, though the topmost storey was not added until the frst part of the 3rd century; it is notable for the excellent use of materials to accomplish desired structural effects; it records the love of entertainment that must have impelled the creation of such 4 vast structure solely for gladiatorial and similar exhibitions.

Palaces were of a scale not conceived before or since. The villa of Hadrian extended over seven miles, and, in addition to numer-

ous halls, courts, libraries, etc., Hadrian attempted to reproduce

equally reinforced; the longitudinal thrust by two half domes each divided again into three semi-domes. The architects, Anthemius of Tralles and Isodorus of Miletus showed extraordinary skill in solving their problem. It is doubtful if modern engineers would attempt to reproduce such construction without employing the principle of the steel skeleton. In fact, the dome fell in an. 555, and when rebuilt it was raised higher and pierced round its lower part with 40 circular-headed windows, which give an effect of extraordinary lightness to the structure. When considered in terms of its great span and comparatively great height, the main dome is a mere shell of unbelievable thinness. The structure is of brick, and its being built of small elements bound together by a strong lime cement—an art developed highly

by the Romans—explains the seeming mystery of its stability.

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BY PERMISSION FROM SIR BANISTER FLETCHER, “HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE ON THE COMPARATIVE METHOD,” 8TH EDN. 1928 (BATSFORD) THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CAPITAL FROM THE GREEK TO THE GOTHIC INDICATES THE TREND OF DESIGN; IN FORM,

THE

RELATION

OF EACH

EXAMPLE

TO THE OTHER

GOTHIC IN SPITE OF THE TRANSITION

IS EVIDENT

The binding nature of the cement actually absorbs the tensile strains to which it is subjected. The building measures 26oft. from entrance door to eastern apse; in width, including the aisles, 238ft.; and 175ft. from floor to the apex of the central dome. The Roman idea of surface decoration is carried to extremes; the Greek idea of structural expression in architecture disappears totally. The walls and vault above were covered with mosaics on a gold ground. The columns of the whole church on the ground floor are of porphyry, and on the upper storey of verd antique. The columns and arches give scale to the small apses, the small apses to the larger ones, and the latter to the dome, so that its immense size is grasped from the first. The lighting is admirably distributed, and the rich decoration of the marble slabs, the monolith columns, the elaborate carving of the capitals, the beautiful marble inlays of the spandrils above the arches, and the glimpses here and there of some of the mosaic showing through the stucco,

of future happiness nearer. Symbolism and conventionalization of ornament became evident in all manner of embellishments Sculpture became a more coherent part of buildings than it had been in Rome where niches, pediments and pedestals were prepared to receive works of sculpture that might or might not be specially designed. Eventually spiritual conceptions were carried outside the Church and appeared as elements in more elaborate exterior designs. As Christianity became more general churches became outstanding architectural monuments in each community, The style of architecture known as Romanesque which devel-

oped during this early period in the countries of Western Europe

that had belonged to Rome, varied somewhat with the localities in which it appeared, yet was always dominated by Roman ideas, parts of Roman buildings being frequently installed in the new structures. The masonry arch was the structural form most used but understanding knowledge of its structural possibilities was limited. Attempts at great spans were few, and the compositions were essentially low and heavy. Used as a pier to support arches the column was stocky, robust, not graceful. Italian Romanesque,

all give a magnificent effect to the interior. Although often debased into a purely decorative feature, the column was used with real structural significance throughout the Roman work, in which it retained sufficient size to be an impressive element in the com- being nearer to the source and containing more columns and other position. But in St. Sophia the structural importance of the col- motives taken from Roman buildings, was more graceful in proumn is small, and in contrast with the enormous dome, ro7ft. in portion but lacked individual character and distinction; it has, diameter, it is a secondary factor, more decorative than otherwise. therefore, been less influential in present-day design than French The exterior of St. Sophia has little of architectural interest ‘and German, In plan, the addition of transepts and the prolongation of the except its size. Here again is a marked change from the Roman point of view, which made the superficial appearance of a building sanctuary or chancel turned the Roman basilica, which was the the most important element in its composition. To impress the model for early Christian churches, into a well defined cross. Walls passing throng must have been as important to Roman builders were roughly built with external buttresses, massive and of great as the ceremonies carried on within their buildings. At the advent weight. Round arches supported on columns carried the wall of of Christianity the congregation and the ceremonies within an the clerestory in which small openings with semicircular arches enclosed space became the means of impressing people. Byzan- occurred singly, in pairs or sometimes groups of three. One is imtine architecture, which gave such predominant importance to pressed by the great amount of masonry used and the’ small prothe interior, has had its influence on subsequent buildings up to portion of the openings to the walled surface. Columns of stumpy the present day. Its best examples, however, have appeared in proportion, with widespreading capitals in variations of the Corinsouth-eastern Europe. In the course of time the exteriors of thian or Ionic orders, gave to these structures a sense of stability buildings were embellished also, the most notable example of such and permanence to which time has proved they were entitled. Among the best examples of the Romanesque style in architectreatment being St. Mark, Venice. (See also BYZANTINE and ture are: Pisa Cathedral; S. Zeno Maggiore, Verona; the AbbayeROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.) aux-Dames, Caen; St. Trophîme, Arles; Church of the Apostles, VI. ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE Cologne; Spires Cathedral; and Romsey Abbey, Hampshire. The evolution of western architecture from the end of the (See also BYZANTINE and ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.) Roman empire in the West (A.D. 475) to the Renaissance is so VII. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE intimately related to that of the Christian Church that discussion of it belongs more properly to a study of the progress of the By the end of the r2th century the old Roman Empire had Church than to its particular manifestations in special countries. broken up into a number of distinct nations. The Church dominThe early Christians, a persecuted people worshipping in secret, ated each, however, for ecclesiastics possessed most of the knowlleft little architecture; but where they were able’to gather a fol- edge and controlled much of the wealth of the period. Commerce lowing large enough to erect churches we find a most interesting had increased and the cities and towns rivalled each other in their combination of great religious fervour and ignorance of the build- architecture as they grew. About the year 1150 the architecture ing art as it had been evolved by Greece and Rome. of western Europe changed rapidly toward a slenderer and mort Throughout the dark ages the problem of the Christian Church energetic type of building now called Gothic. For four centuries was to tell the story of religion to a people unable to read and the art of building in this style, especially in France, was pursued unacquainted with architecture, painting or sculpture. The Church with such zeal that incontestably superb churches exist with was the poor man’s only recourse; the struggle for existence had short distances of each other. again become harsh and man again, as in Egypt, placed his hopes We continually refer to ecclesiastical architecture because t of happiness in life after death; the symbolism of the Church, was absolutely dominant. The church in each community was the

the enshrined saints and the carved reliefs, all brought his goal

measure of its culture. For the people of the time the cathedrals

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ARCHITECTURE

IN THE

MIDDLE

AGES

L Constantinople. Interior of St. Sophia, begun A.D. 532. Early Byzantine style 2, Arles, France. Porch of the church of St. Trophime, 12th century. Provengal Romanesque 3. Venice. St. Mark's church,

Italian Byzantine of the 11th century, with

Venetian Gothic gables and pinnacles added later

4. Chartres cathedral, French Gothic.

Second

half of the 12th century:

x

(3, 4) EWING GALLOWAY,

(5, 6) ALINARI

IN CONSTANTINOPLE,

FRANCE

AND

ITALY

north tower early 16th century. The exterior buttressing to support interior vaulting is an essential feature of true Gothic construction 5. Siena cathedral. Italian Gothic, with purely decorative use of pointed detail having no structural function 6. Milan. Church of Sta Maria delle Grazie, early Italian Gothic, showing

transition from the Romanesque

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ARCHITECTURE represented everything to which

they might aspire. While the

influence of Gothic verticality was felt, non-religious architecture

remained essentially horizontal. To-day, in travelling through the mediaeval towns of Europe in which the modern spirit is not yet

285

in the next world. They recognized themselves as small but essential cogs in the wheel of progress. In studying the great cathedrals one realizes and feels the personal factor. Guilds of skilled craftsmen in stone, iron, bronze, gold, silver and glass developed, and

apparent, one finds the cathedral on the hilltop, rising above the their art was perpetuated through systems of apprenticeship. Each

little dwellings clustered at its foot and magnifying its importance, generation was guided by older and more experienced workers, to be the only important piece of architecture. gained knowledge from personal experience and evolved new The immense monastic activity of the time, and the need of methods after knowing and thoroughly understanding earlier ones.

accomplishing large results with limited means caused innovations in planning and structure contrary to Roman or even Romanesque methods. Through many experiments, the designers of the cathedrals learned that stone would carry much greater weight

The cathedral builders were workmen who, feeling themselves to be part and parcel of the structure they were erecting, left evidence of their identities. To build in Gothic now with the full spirit of the original, requires either an exact copy of what has superimposed than had previously been imagined. The massive been done, in which case, of course, the copy is inevitably cold columns of the Romanesque evolved into tenuous and moulded and uninspiring, or else re-creation of the guilds of workers actuGothic piers. Every line was designed to carry the eye upward: ated and guided by the same spiritual forces, and limited by the the pointed arch, crowning the vault at the highest point of a same physical and mechanical handicaps that existed when the transept, arrests the eye without, like the semicircular arch, cathedrals were built. swinging it back again. To add to this effect of lightness and deliExhaustive studies made by such men as Prof. W. H. Goodyear cacy, and to get the area of stone necessary to sustain the weight seem to prove that the cathedral builders employed studied refineand take up the vault’s outward thrust, the supporting piers were ments similar in principle to those practised by the Greeks. The turned at right angles to the main axis of the nave, and great lack of scientific instruments might easily have caused inacopenings were left to be filled by stone tracery and leaded glass. curacies. But variations from rigid lines, right angles and repetiThe pointed arch often referred to as the characteristic of the tions in the inter-axe or spacing of the piers and other elements of Gothic style is in fact only one feature; the most impressive the composition recur so frequently in the same manner as to characteristic is that of verticality and lightness. In the Roman indicate that they were designed. In the Christian church, which work, and to a degree in the Romanesque, the points of change in assembled people within its walls, the effect on the worshippers of the structural features—such as the archivolt, where an arch subdued light, incense, candles and processionals became the startrested on a pier and the line changed from the straight to the ing point of religious influence. Anything that could impress a curve; or the keystone of the arch, which locked it in position and worshipper with fear of the cruel retribution in store for him if he made possible the removal of the temporary centring used during failed to live according to the ethics of the Church, and with hope construction—were points of ornamentation and elaboration. of reward for proper conduct, became potent in architectural deThis was not so in Gothic. The stones were merely a necessary sign. Through their fear, religion held sway over a sensitive and factor. Regular courses, in the Roman many times rusticated so superstitious people. Grotesque gargoyles and demons were carved as to accentuate the structural idea, were changed in the Gothic to in stone and, together with saints and angels depicted in glass, irregular and random sizes as if to conceal their presence. To turn mosaics and paintings, created the special atmosphere desired. The the eye from ‘the horizontal to the vertical, ribs and mouldings dim interior of the old Romanesque churches was due to small and were cut through. Overhanging cornices, which would have pro- widely spaced openings. The grace and delicacy of Gothic catheduced long horizontal lines, were largely eliminated. The great drals resulted in structures whose many and large openings would buttresses were converted into the lighter, well known flying but- have flooded the interiors with light had stained glass not been tresses; at its abutment each was strengthened by a vertical used. But with great rose: windows and pointed arch openings weight which, instead of being a massive block, was composed of filled with deeply coloured glass on which the glory of the saints a series of small stones piled in diminishing ratio one above the and the suffering of sinners was told and retold, a religious atmosother and carved and embellished in the vertical spirit so as al- phere was produced that inspires and uplifts even unbelievers in ways to carry the eye upward to a point which seemed gradually this materialistic age. (See also GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.) to thin out to nothing. The horizontal bands used were interrupted VIII. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE by finials. Corbels were purposely so separated as to break any continued horizontality. Greece sprang from the seeds of Egyptian and Western Asiatic Complete in all parts, the Cathedral of Chartres is a splendid cultures; Rome, in its turn, from the seed of Greece. The Renaisexample of what this art was at its zenith. The plan has a nave sance (qg.v.) that started in Italy during the 14th century was a with aisles, transepts with aisles on each side, a choir with two new phenomenon only in that it affected all Western Europe and,

aisles all round it, and chapels beyond them. There are two immense steeples at the west end, two towers to each transept and two towers at the junction of the choir with its apse. The doorways are triple at the west end, whilst to each transept is a vast triple porch in front of the three doorways. The whole of these doorways are covered with sculpture, much of it refined, spirited and interesting to the highest degree. The interior even surpasses the exterior. The order of the columns and arches, and of all the details, is so noble and simple that no fault can be found. The whole is admirably executed: and, finally, every window is full of the richest glass coeval with the fabric. $

later, even the American

colonies.

This modern

Renaissance,

which we purposely call modern because the present is part of its growth, was literally a rebirth of the arts, science, refinements of living, culture in general. Centuries of gradual change in the spiritual and material environments of man had nurtured the cultural seeds of the Roman empire. One, the Gothic, was carried so far afield and grew up in such alien soil that it flowered like a new species, distinctly separated from other architectural forms. Another for a time lay dormant in the south, particularly in Italy where something of the splendour and popular enlightenment of the ancient Roman civilization was perpetuated; it flowered in the The separation that exists to-day between architect, builder Renaissance, carrying on the direct line of architectural developand labourer, with the architect as a professional man concerned ment where it had broken off with the downfall of the Western with the preparation of drawings and specifications, the builder empire. . as an executive directing or assembling different sub-contractors in The invention of printing (1453) made classical literature, from the execution of work, and each sub-contractor employing and di- which the Renaissance drew its chief impulse, more generally recting men in his particular field, was not so marked in the days known throughout Western Europe. By taking an important funcof the cathedral builders. All building was a more leisurely pro- tion from the painter, the sculptor and, indirectly, the architect, it ceeding then; not that the workers had shorter hours, but time, revolutionized art. Henceforth, lessons that had been taught the paramount factor in present-day life, was less important. It through the mediums of sculpture, painting, stained glass and S Very evident that the workers took pride and personal interest fresco could be brought more immediately before mankind by the in their performance, They regarded it as ensuring their happiness printed page. This change, however, was not sudden and those in

286

ARCHITECTURE

power continued to use buildings, monuments, etc., to demonstrate their importance. National governments became stabilized, material interests increased and wealth grew. Nobles, vying in material display even with the Church, became patrons of art. Scientists, philosophers, artists and scholars, whose individualities were again recognized, explored other than religious phases of life, diversifying thought. This was an age in which artist, craftsman and architect were one; artists were ready and able to accomplish whatever their patrons demanded. Michelangelo executed paintings in the Sistine chapel, sculpture in the Medici Mausoleum and the final architectural design for St. Peter’s. Leonardo da Vinci, judging from his letter of self-recommendation, seems to have been prepared for any undertaking in art, science or war. Throughout the ‘first two centuries of the Renaissance, architecture and the other arts as part and parcel of it, developed with the Roman influence paramount. The manuscript of Vitruvius, a Roman architect, was discovered about 1452; it admirably de-

imagination freer rein (see BAROQUE ARCHITECTURE).

Flam.

boyant and grotesque forms which distorted classic motifs a

peared in all countries.

They produced little of lasting valp

because their inspiration was not due to a desire for structural improvement, but only for ornamentation and embellishment

Having broken his bonds, the artist found he had nowhere to go

scribes the building materials employed in his day (c. 25 B.C.) and gives the correct proportions of the various orders (g.v.) together with a series of rules for their use. None of the original illustrations of this manuscript were preserved, and when parts of it were published by Italian architects, among whom Vignola and Palladio were the more important, woodcuts representing their interpretations of the lost illustrations were inserted. Thus textbooks of the orders were established. The Roman orders themselves became the architectural alphabet, and definite forms became the accepted fashion of the time. The spirit of verticality so admirably developed by the Gothicists was abandoned. The column was used in free-standing colonnades, as engaged columns partly buried in walls and as pilasters to decorate wall surfaces and to frame openings. A comparatively new form appeared in the interior of basilica churches, where the clerestory wall was sometimes supported on columns and a semicircular arch substituted for a lintel. Many of the palazzi show a treatment distinctly characteristic of the period. Erected in the congested centres of cities, they were built on the street line with relatively few windows and a great expanse of simple wall heavily rusticated. The ground floor was particularly solid in appearance; its windows, small and high above the street level, were protected by metal grilles as if the designers had to provide for defence against mobs or rival families. The interior courtyard was treated lightly and delicately with two or more storeys in the form of an open arcade on which the grandiose rooms about the central patio opened. The wall was capped with an imposing cornice whose projection was proportionate to the height of the building. The palazzi were invariably built on a magnificent scale; the Palazzo Strozzi, Florence, for example, with only three apparent storeys, is 104ft. from street level to top of cornice. In the later Renaissance the dignity of the simple interior wall

was somewhat diminished by adding rows of paired pilasters, cornices and balustrades. Such decorative features occur in the Palazzo della Cancelleria, the Palazzo Pietro Massimi and the Palazzo Farnese, all in Rome. In these, the proportion of window openings to wall spaces was much greater than in the Florentine palazzi; pilasters were used as frames to windows and to give prominence to the central motif of the second storey. Most interesting combinations of ancient Roman motifs were developed; the villa of Pope Julius, Rome, has, on the garden side, a semicircular facade reminiscent of forms used in Roman baths. While dominant in Italy, the Renaissance swept throughout western Europe, and the rise of independent nations gave the general movement distinctive trends. The conceptions of its early period, when artists’ imaginations were inspired by an opportunity to create in an environment not yet conventionalized, were fresh, pure, naive. As more knowledge of ancient Roman architecture, with its mechanically repeated motifs and impressive scale, was acquired, the earlier charm of the Renaissance was supplanted by excessive standardization and a consequent loss of intimate interest. But artists, seeking new means of expressing their ideas, ever revolt at rules, and the Baroque style resulted from their struggle at this time to give

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Fashion in architecture has generally been set by the cout try of greatest wealth and power, and during the 17th century

forces were at work in England that were to take full fom

under the empire builders a hundred years later. English archi

tecture showed the result of increasing prosperity, power and ne

tional consciousness. The Roman influence was as marked as 1 had been in Italy earlier, but it was somewhat differently c

ARCHITECTURE

Frare XVII

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PHOTOGRAPHS,

(1) ALINARI,

(2) ANDERSON,

l. Villa di Papa Giulio, Rome,

(3) W. F. MANSELL,

(4, 5) F. FRITH AND COMPANY,

trast between the heavily rusticated entrance and the lighter loggia above is one often seen in this style architect.

three-part

Rome,

built in 1534, Antonio

An example

ata grad i

AND SONS

RENAISSANCE STYLE IN ITALY, FRANCE AND ENGLAND designed by Giacomo Barozzo da Vignola 4. Banqueting House, Whitehall, London,

in 1550. A characteristic example of the Italian Renaissance palace, show.ng subtlety of proportion and a carefully adjusted relation between the mass of the façade and its decorative features. The con-

2. Farnese palace,

(6) VALENTINE

Sangallo

the younger,

of the box-like type of building, showing

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motifs; the detail is finely conceived and carried out, but subordinated

built 1619~21

by Inigo Jones,

showing a strong Italian influence with two-part horizontal composition. The regularity of window arrangement and repetition of detail give an effect of uniformity, as in the Farnese palace

5. Hampton

Court palace, Middlesex, combines Tudor and Renaissance

arohitecture.

The Tudor

part was

erected

in 1515 for Cardinal

Wolsey and the Renaissance part shown above was designed by Sir Christopher Wren and is a notable example of the combination of brick used in the English Renaissance. The : Band stone frequently i a pimpllalty and regularity of

influence.palace, Oxfordshire, 6. Blenheim

the composition

designed 1705

exhibit the Italian

by Sir John Vanbrugh

to the whole

for the first Duke

tect. An illustration of the French Renaissance chateau style, characterised by the variety of its outlines and decorative motifs, in

with an imposing treatment of the entrance, in which the use of heavy two-storey columns unifies this feature and makes it an integral

3. Chateau de Chambord, Touraine, built in 1526, Pierre Nepveu, archi-

contrast with the more severe dignity of the Italian forms

English

Renaissance

of Marlborough.

mansion.

part of the whole design

The

A monumental

plan shows

example

of the

perfect symmetry,

Prate XVIII

ARCHITECTURE

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PHOTOGRAPHS,

(1) EWING GALLOWAY,

(2, 3) GIRAUDON

FURTHER

EXAMPLES

OF

THE

RENAISSANCE

1. Church of St. Clement Danes, the Strand, London, Sir Christopher Wren, architect; built in 1684, the steeple finished in 1719. In the spires, which are a distinguishing feature of many of Wren’s churches, the pointed form, reminiscent of the Gothic, has been successfully com-

bined with classical features 2. Church

of the Val-de-Grâce,

successful,

STYLE

IN

ENGLAND

AND

FRANCE

3. The Louvre, Paris. The present building was begun in 1546, in the reign of Francis l., from the plans of Pierre Lescot, under oe worked Jean Goujon, the greatest decorative sculptor of the Freno Renaissance. The building illustrates successive stages of deyeoP

ment in the Renaissance style, and was not completed until ee Paris, built 1645—50,

François

Mansard,

architect, showing Italian influence, with great freedom and variety in the use of classical forms. The dome is regarded by architects as notably

|

and the composition

source of many subsequent designs

as a whole

has been the

1880.

The

colonnade

motif.

The flatness

shown

here,

built

about

1665,

is from

of the end pavilion

walls

has been

design of Claude Perrault. The long, monotonous fagade has y relieved by the use of the recessed wall at either side of ane oon relieved by recessing the central windows

the

similarly

ARCHITECTURE d. A more stabilized society caused pressed. fi wed] the city palace dth to be ha

building not of defence but of impressive elegance, an |

the growt

of an imperial yet representative government necessitated great

buildings to house its agencies. The work of Sir Christopher Wren

287

importance, a setting which was designed to surpass his rival’s and to which artists, architects and craftsmen all contributed.

Various styles of Renaissance architecture resulted from such efforts of strong personalities, of which Napoleon was the last, to

in the latter part of the century Inspired succeeding generations of record their existence. Beauty in all its forms was then evidence architects, even influencing styles in America. Wren, working in of superiority. When class barriers were broken down, however, the Renaissance spirit, adapted Roman forms to churches, which wealth and power passed from an aristocracy, which had employed

in northern countries had always been Gothic; even the spire, an

and inspired artists as a necessary adjunct of its position, to any

essentially Gothic element, was designed classically by Wren in a individual, irrespective of training or background, number of ecclesiastical structures which pierce the London sky- grasp them. The man of wealth but no official title line. In the 18th century government buildings, hospitals, palatial no different in his desires for display, but he lacked estates and university and college buildings gave evidence of the material precedents, such as the buildings and their

growing wealth and power of the State and the genius of English architects. (See also RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE.)

CONCLUSION Architecture was at a low ebb throughout the roth century (see MoperN ARCHITECTURE, 18TH AND IQTH CENTURIES), a period that to-day seems to have been compounded of pompous and complacent materialism, conventionality and self-sufficiency. While painters, writers and musicians were preoccupied with developing new forms of expression, architects, in both Europe and America, were chiefly concerned with adapting, and much too often awkwardly adapting, the old. In America, the roth century gave birth to the steel skeleton, but of architecturally memorable design it was almost barren everywhere. Fresh conceptions in mass or line were unknown until its end. Between great periods of art there is a time of darkness in which inventiveness lies stagnant. For architecture, the roth century was such. The material world was literally in flux. Such

abrupt changes in man’s ways of life as then occurred in swift succession might stimulate the painter or the writer, but at first they were appalling to the architect, for while the former may follow the dictates of imaginative impulse, the latter is always strictly governed by the need for buildings and the kind of buildings needed. In the roth century he was called upon to build on a larger scale, an ever-growing scale, for a larger and ever-increasing number of persons without any special taste or knowledge of what constitutes the beautiful. Dissolution of old conceptions and development of new were alike impossible. Inevitably the age became one of revivals. A few men persisted, as they still do, in the classic tradition, writing and talking as well as building in their efforts to perpetuate it. But the exuberance, the fresh vitality of spirit, that in the early Renaissance had given new meaning to fundamentally old forms, was lacking in the roth century. Consequently the works in classic style at this time were for the most part uninspired and uninspiring. The so-called Gothic and Romanesque revivals were no more productive. Art remained alive, but only among small groups. Life was speeded up by mechanical inventions and the attention of those men who had been patrons of the arts was turned from the problem of making their environment more pleasing to keeping pace

with its improvements.

Those who continued to regard building

as an art, over-emphasized, perhaps quite naturally, the beauty of past periods. The mind absorbed with Greek or Gothic forms was hardly capable of designing for the steel skeleton when it appeared after the three-quarter century mark had passed. Thus the roth lost to the 2oth century what might have been a claim to architectural distinction, had its designers solved creatively the new problems in proportions, masses and spaces to be enclosed. The artists were not alone to blame for their sterility;

lack of demand inevitably decreased the production of artistic

who

could

was perhaps

cultural and contents be-

longing to historic families. He was afraid to create an artistic setting of his own, to demand works of art designed especially for himself. Feeling safe in surrounding himself with things of proved value that his bank account could procure, he turned, moreover, to works of art that had already been created and the ownership of which signified wealth. The tremendous progress of science and invention during the 19th century is the third reason for the stagnation of the arts. Men’s energies, thoughts and talents were absorbed by exploration of these fields which ignorance and dogmatism had kept sealed during the middle ages and the early Renaissance. The subsequent evolution of industrialism with its concomitant mass production and mass consumption helped to turn men’s eyes from creation and enjoyment of the arts to the problem of how to achieve more concentration, more production and knowledge of natural forces. At the beginning of this article it was pointed out that modern architecture is becoming more truly expressive of contemporary culture; changes in the three conditions cited above indicate that a new flowering of the Renaissance is not impossible. The motion picture increases interest in things visual, and the radio is replacing printed words as a means of setting forth ideas. The quantity of literature now produced is so enormous that men are beginning to lift their eyes from printed pages and look about with growing enthusiasm for beautiful surroundings and a slowly awakening critical sense. Democracy, having passed through its formative period, functions more or less mechanically, releasing men’s energies from the struggle to maintain it. Science and invention still occupy men’s imaginations, but they produce for all mankind the two things most essential to successful art: wealth

and leisure. Possessed of these, both individual and group are be-

coming less uncertain as to how to express themselves artistically; they are turning from the purchase and display of antiques to settings and environments created by contemporary artists. This demand for beauty is growing on every side and, like the early Renaissance, it encourages fresh design. ' BrstiocrAPHY.—The following list includes works of general portance. Consult references at end of separate articles for imthe special periods and styles. E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné

de Varchitecture francaise du XI. au XVI. siècle, 10 vols. (1854-68) Jules Gailhabaud, Monuments anciens et modernes, 4 vols. (1865);; Paul Planat, Encyclopédie de Varchitecture et de la construction (1888-92); James Fergusson, A History of Architecture in All Countries, 5 vols. (1893-1902); Francois Benoit, L'architecture (1911-12); Russell Sturgis and A. L. Frothingham, A History of

Architecture, 4 vols. (1906-15); Fiske Kimball and G. H. Edgell, A History of Architecture (1918); John Belcher, Essentials dn Architecture (1920); A. D. F. Hamlin, A History of Architecture (new ed., rev., 1922); A. D. F. Hamlin, A History of Ornament (1916-23) ; W. R. Lethaby, Form im Civilization (1922); Geoffrey Scott, The

Architecture of Humanism (ad. ed., rev., 1924); T. F. Hamlin, The Enjoyment of Architecture (1924); Banister Fletcher, A History of Architecture on the Comporattve Method (vth. ed., 1924); A. S. G. Butler, The Substance of Architecture (1926); T. F. Hamlin, The American Spirit in Architecture (New Haven, 1926); Handbuch der architektur (Many volumes, new editions constantly appearing. Leip-

works, For this there were three reasons. The human capacity to absorb the arts is limited. When one zig, 1883—1926) ; M. S. Briggs, The Architect in History (1927) ; E. W. predominates the others are sacrificed. Throughout antiquity, the Hoak and W. H. Church, Masterpieces of American Architecture middle ages and the early Renaissance, the arts of design were of (1929) ; G. H. Edgell, The American Architecture of To-day (1929) ; first importance. Thereafter, the spread of literature was enor- C. Z. Klauder and H. C. Wise, College Architecture in America (1920); Bruno Taut, Modern Architecture (1929). The principal sources of inmous, and it turned men’s minds to reading. The fine arts, in- formation on modern architecture are the best architectural periodicals cluding architecture, became secondary and have so remained. of the various countries: Architecture, The American Architect, The

emocracy proved successful, and rulers who were also patrons of the arts vanished with the vestiges of feudalism. Formerly,

each ruler and powerful noble created, as a manifestation of his

Architect, The Architectural Forum, The Architectural Record (New York); The Architectural Review, The Architects J ournal (London) ;

Moderne Bauformen (Stuttgart) ; L’Architecte (Paris); and Architettura e Arti Decorative (Rome).

(H.

C.)

ARCHITRAVE—ARCHPRIEST

288 ARCHITRAVE, an archi-

tectural term for the chief beam E===2=

Mi

which carries the superstructure L MOM and rests immediately on the columns. In the classical entablature (g.v.) it is the lowest of the three divisions, the other two being the frieze and the

M

l

O | or

io

M

ke

=

| L

487 the lot was always used; in fact, at a date not known, the

Qualifications and Functions.—It remains to give a brief analysis of the qualifications and functions of the archons afte

(Lat. archivum, a translitera-

the year 487 B.c. After election a short time had to elapse before

tion of Gr. dpxetov, an official building), but now generally ap-

tectural

mouldings

term

of

an

entering on office to allow of the dokimasia (examination of fit. ness). In this the whole life of the nominee was investigated, and

0f 1)

e

an archi-

applied

in 487, limited sortition was introduced whereby fifty candidates were elected by each tribe, and from these the archons and the;

mixed system of Aristeides gave place to double sortition, in whic) the first nomination also was by lot. To enter here into the theory of the lot is impossible. It should, however, be observed that in the somewhat material atmosphere of constitutional Athens the religious significance of the lot had vanished; no important office in the 5th and 4th centuries was entrusted to its decision. Th. real effect of sortition was to equalize the chances of rich and poor without civil strife.

are kept the records, charters, and other papers belonging to any state, community, or family

ARCHIVOLT,

aiperot, not xAnpwrol (2.¢., chosen by vote, not by lot), and that

“secretary” were chosen by lot. It is perfectly clear that the Io was not used between the Tyranny and 487 B.c. and that after

cornice (see ORDER). The term is also applied to the moulded frame of any opening or panel. ARCHIVE, a term (generally used in the plural) properly denoting the building in which

plied to the documents themselves (see RECORD).

Sortition.—From the Constitution of Athens (22) we gather that from the fall of the Tyranny to 487 B.c. the archons wer

to the “A” MARKS THE LOCATION

OF VA-

architrave RIOUS ARCHITRAVES. UPPER FIGURE, . ITALIAN RENAISSANCE; LOWER LEFT, when carried round an arched EGYPTIAN; LOWER RIGHT, GREEK opening. (See next column.)

ARCHON, the title of the highest magistrate in many ancient

each had to prove that he was physically without flaw. Failure to pass the scrutiny involved a certain loss of civic rights (e.g, that of addressing the people). The successful candidate had to take an oath to the people (that he would not take bribes, etc.) and ty go through certain preliminary rites. Any citizen could bring an impeachment (eisangelia) against the archons. Any delinquency involved a trial before the Heliaea. Finally, an examination took place at the end of the year of office, when each archon had-to answer for his actions with person and possessions; till then he could not leave the country, be adopted into another family, dis. pose of his property, or receive any “crown of honour.” The archons at the end of their year of office became members of the

Greek states (4oxwv, ruler). The archons represented the ancient kings, whose absolutism yielded in process of time to the power of the noble families, supported no doubt by the fighting force of the state. Aristotle’s Constitution of Athens (g.v.) mentions five stages: (1) the institution of the polemarch, who took over the military duties of the king; (2) the institution of ¢he archon Areopagus, which was, therefore, a body composed of ex-archons to relieve the king of his civil duties; (3) the tenure of office of tried probity and wisdom. On entering upon office the archon was reduced to ten years; (4) the office was taken from the “royal” (archén epdnumos) made proclamation by his herald that he would not interfere with private clan and thrown open to all Eupatridae; (5) the office was made property. His official residence annual, and to the existing three offices, military, civil and rewas the Prytaneum (g.v.) where ligious, were added the six thesmothetai, whose duty it was to he presided over all questions of record judicial decisions. The change was effected by the devolufamily, e.g., the protection of pr tion of the military and civil powers of the king to the polemarch rents against children and vice and the archon, while the archon basileus (or king-archon) reversa, protection of widows, tained control of state religion. The archon became the chief wardship of heiresses and ot state official and gave his name to the year (hence archdn eponuphans, divorce; in religious matmos). The early history of the thesmothetai is not clear, but there ters he superintended the Dionyis no reason for supposing that in the early times they, with the sia, the Thargelia, the processions three chief archons, constituted a collective magistracy. At the in honour of Zeus the Saviour time of the Cylonian conspiracy responsibility attached to the and Asclepios. The archon batiarchon Megacles, not to the whole body. According to Aristotle, leus superintended the holy collective responsibility began in Solon’s time. places, the mysteries, the LampEvolution of the Office-—The history of the democratization adephoria (Torch race), etc, of the archonship is beset with equal difficulty. In the early days, questions of national religion and the importance of the office (confined as it was to the highest certain cases of bloodguiltiness class) must have been immense; there was no audit, no written His official residence was the law, no executive council. The popular assembly was ill-organized Stoa Basileios, and his wife, a and summoned by the archons themselves. The only control came officially representing the wife of from the Areopagus (q.v.), which would generally be favourably Dionysus, was called bdasidsnna disposed from the fact that the military and civil powers were BY COURTESY OF BUHLMANN, “CLASSIC AND (queen). The polemarch, who not vested in the same hands. The institution of popular courts RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE” (NEFF & HELcommander-in-chief down to was BURN) by Solon had within it the germ of democratic supremacy, but ARCHIVOLTS the immediate result was small; thus, Damasias held the archonA, ETRUSCAN; B, ITALIAN LOMBARD about 487 B.C., became in the j ROMANESQUE; C, FRENCH GoTHic; century a sort of consul who ship for more than two years in defiance of the new constitution. Gradually the archonship lost its power in judicial matters, until D, ROMAN AND RENAISSANCE TYPE Watched over the rights of resit retained merely the right of holding the preliminary investiga- dent aliens (metoikoi) in their family and legal affairs. He offered tion and the formal direction of the popular courts. Its adminis- sacrifices to Artemis Agrotera and Enyalios, superintended funeral trative powers, save those wielded by the polemarch (see next games and arranged for the annual honours paid to the tyranncolumn and cf. Stratecus), dwindled away into matters of cides. His offñcial residence was the Epiluketon. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—G. Gilbert, Constitutional Antiquities (Eng. tran routine. After 487 B.C. the list of archons contains no name of importance. This is due to the growing importance of the 1895); A. H. J. Greenidge, Handbook of Greek Constitutional Hish. (1895); G. B. Grundy, Great Persian War, pp. 174—178 (for PoleStrategus and to the institution of sortition (see next column), march) ; L. Whibley, Companion to Greek Studies. which, whether as cause or effect, is by the sth century indicative ARCHPRIEST, in the Christian Church, originally the pre of diminished importance. who presided over the presbyters of a diocese and assisted the

ARCHYTAS—ARCOT bishop in matters of public worship. Where, as in Germany, the dioceses were of vast extent, these were divided into several

archpresbyterates or rural deaneries, the office of archpriest ulti-

mately becoming synonymous with that of rural dean. In Rome, the office of archpriest of St. Peter’s developed into that of cardinal-vicar. The Roman Catholic clergy in England were under

an “archpriest” from 1598 to 1623. In the Lutheran Church in

Germany the title archpriest (Zrzpriester) was in some cases jong retained, his functions being much the same as those of the rural dean.

ARCHYTAS (c. 428-347 B.C.), of Tarentum, Greek philosopher and scientist of the Pythagorean school, famous as the intimate friend of Plato. He was seven times elected commander of the army. Under his leadership, Tarentum fought with unvarying success against the Messapii, Lucania and even Syracuse. According to a tradition suggested by Horace (Odes, i. 28), he

was drowned on a voyage across the Adriatic, and he was buried, we are told, at Matinum in Apulia. He is described as the eighth leader of the Pythagorean school, and was a pupil of Philolaus. He was the first to draw up a methodical treatment of mechanics with the aid of geometry, and to distinguish harmonic from arithmetical and geometrical progressions. He evolved an ingenious solution of the duplication of the cube. The theory of proportion,

and the study of acoustics and music were advanced by his inves-

tigations. He was said to be the inventor of a kind of flyingmachine (see Aulus Gellius Noct. Att., x. 12, 9 and article on ArronauTics).

Fragments of his ethical and metaphysical writ-

ings are quoted by Stobaeus,

Simplicius and others.

Such of

them as seem to be authentic are of small philosophical value, but Archytas must have been famous as a philosopher, as Aristotle

wrote a special treatise (not extant) On the Philosophy of Archytas. Some positive idea of his speculations may be derived from two of his observations: the one in which he notices that the

parts of animals and plants are in general rounded in form, and the other dealing with the sense of hearing, which, in virtue of its

limited receptivity, he compares with vessels which when filled can hold no more. BrstiocRaPHyY.—See G. Hartenstein, De Arch. Tar. frag. (1833); 0. F. Gruppe, Über d. Frag. d. Arch. (1840); F. Beckmann, De

Pythag. relig. (1844, 1850) ; Egger, De Arch. Tar. vit., op. phil.; Ed. Zeller, Phil. d. Griech.; Theodor Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, ii. 259 (Eng. trans. G. G. Berry, 1905); G. J. Allman, Greek Geometry from Thales to Euclid (1889); Florian Cajori, History of Mathematics (1894); M. Cantor, Gesch. d. gr. Math. (1894 foll.). The mathematical fragments are collected by Fr. Blass, Mélanges Graux (1884), and all the fragments, together with references to his life, by H. Diels, Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (1912) vol. i. For Pythagorean mathematics see further PYTHAGORAS.

ARCIS-SUR-AUBE,

a town of eastern France, in the

department of Aube, about 20m. N. of Troyes. Pop. (1926), 2,779. The ancient settlement was destroyed by successive fires from 1719 to 1814; and the little town now has an 18th-century appearance. A 1sth-century church, however (St. Etienne), with a good portal, survives. In front of it stands a statue of Danton, who was born there. There is some carrying trade with Paris

on the Aube, which becomes navigable at this point. A battle was fought there on March 20 and 21, 1814, between Napoleon and the Austro-Russian army under Schwarzenburg. (See NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.) ARCO (Ital., bow), a word used in music when, after a pizzcato passage (4.€., a passage played by plucking the strings with the fingers) the player of a bowed instrument, such as the violin, ls required to resume playing col arco or “with the bow.”

ARCOLE, a village of N. Italy, 16m. E.S.E. of Verona, on

the Alpone stream near the confluence with the Adige below Verona. The village names the three days’ battle of Arcole (Nov.

15, 16, 17, 1796), in which Napoleon defeated the Austrians commanded by Allvintzy. This battle, perhaps the most critical in Napoleon’s early career, is dealt with under Frencm REVOLUTIONARY Wars. Its close was signalized by the astonishingly successful ruse of sending a few French trumpeters to sound the charge in the rear of the Austrian army.

ARCOS DE LA FRONTERA, 2 town in Spain, province

of Cadiz; on the right bank of the river Guadalete.

Pop. (1920)

289

15,748. It occupies a ridge of sandstone, washed on three sides by the river, and commanding fine views of the lofty peak of San Cristóbal on the east and the fertile Guadalete valley celebrated in ancient Spanish ballads for its horses. From the highest point a Gothic church with a fine gateway and a modern tower overlooks the town. The fame of its ten bells dates from the wars between Spaniards and Muslims in which “Arcos of the Frontier” received its name. The town was captured in 1250 by

Ferdinand III. of Castile and Leon.

ARCOT, the name of a city and two districts of British India

in the presidency of Madras. Arcot city is the principal town in the district of North Arcot. Prominent in the history of the British conquest, it has now lost its manufactures and trade and preserves only a few mosques, tombs and ruined fortifications as traces of its former grandeur. It is a station on the line of railway from Madras to Beypur. The most famous episode in its history is the capture and defence of Arcot by Clive. In the middle of the 18th century, during the war between the rival claimants to the throne of the Carnatic, Mohammed Ali and Chanda Sahib, the English supported the claims of the former and the French those of the latter. In order to divert the attention of Chanda Sahib from the siege of Trichinopoly, Clive attacked Arcot—which was garrisoned by a force of 1,100—with a force of only 200 Europeans and 300 natives, and took the fortress without a struggle. Chanda Sahib was obliged to detach a large force of 10,000 men to recapture the city, and the pressure on the English garrison at Trichinopoly was removed. Arcot was afterwards captured by the French; but in 1760 was retaken after the battle of Wandiwash. It was also taken by Hyder Ali when he ravaged the Carnatic in 1780, and held by him for some time. The town of Arcot, together with the whole of the territory of the Carnatic, passed into the hands of the British in r8o0r. The district of North Arcot is bounded on the north by the district of Chittore; on the east by the district of Chingleput; on the south by the districts of South Arcot and Salem; and on the west by the Mysore territory. The area of North Arcot is 4,954 sq.m., and the population in 1921 was 2,055,594. The country is flat and uninteresting in the east and south, but the west, along the foot of the eastern Ghats, as well as all the country northwards from Trivellam to Tripali and the Karkambadi Pass, is mountainous. The western elevated platform is comparatively cool, being 2,000ft. above the level of the sea. The hills are principally granite and syenite, with little vegetation, but they abound in minerals, especially copper and iron ores. The narrow valleys between the hills are very fertile and well watered at all seasons. The principal river is the Palar, which rises in Mysore and flows through North Arcot from west to east, eventually falling into the sea at Sadras. Although a considerable stream in the rainy season, and often impassable, the bed is dry or nearly so during the rest of the year. The largest towns are Vellore (the district headquarters), Tirupati (a great religious centre), and Wallajapet. The district of South Arcot is bounded on the north by the districts of North Arcot and Chingleput; on the east by the French territory of Pondicherry and the Bay of Bengal; on the south by the British districts of Tanjore and Trichinopoly; and on the west by the British district of Salem. It contains an area of 4,207 sq.m., and its population in 1921 was 2,320,085. The country is low and sandy near the sea, and for the most part level till near the western border, where ranges of hills form the boundary between this and the neighbouring district of Salem. These ranges are In some parts about 5,oooft. high, with solitary hills scattered about the district. The principal river is the Coleroon which forms the southern boundary of the district, separating it from Trichinopoly. This river flows strongly for most of the year, and two irrigating channels distribute its waters. Other rivers are the Vellar, Pennar and Gadalum. A considerable proportion of land is irrigated from the rivers and from tanks. Manufacture and export of native cloth have now been almost entirely superseded by the introduction of European piece goods. The chief seaport of South Arcot is Cuddalore, close to the site of Ft. St. David. The principal crops in both districts are rice, millet, other food grains and ground nuts.

290

ARCTIC

ARCTIC REGIONS, the term applied to the regions round

the North Pole, covering the area (both ocean and lands) where the characteristic polar conditions of climate, etc., obtain. The Arctic circle is drawn at 66° 30’ N., but this has no geographical value as a boundary. A more satisfactory delimitation is the area north of the limit of tree growth. This embraces in addition to Greenland, Spitsbergen and other polar islands, the northern parts of the mainlands of Siberia, Alaska and Canada, the coasts of Labrador, the north of Iceland and a strip of the Arctic coast of Europe but the last, on other grounds, should be excluded. EXPLORATION OF ARCTIC REGIONS Ancient Ideas.—The ancients had no actual knowledge of the polar regions. By astronomical speculations the Greeks had come to the conclusion that north of the Arctic Circle there must be midnight sun at midsummer and no sun at midwinter. The general view was that the polar regions, north and south, belonged to the uninhabitable frozen zones; while according to a less scientific notion there was a happy region north of the north wind

(Boreas), where the sun was always shining and the Hyperboreans led a peaceful life. Pytheas.—The first traveller of history who probably approached the Arctic Circle was the Greek Pytheas (g.v.), from Massalia (Marseille), who about 325 B.c. made a voyage of discovery northwards along the west coast of Europe. He visited Great Britain, the Orkneys, and probably also northern Norway, which he called Thule.

Irish Discovery of Iceland.—The Irish monk Dicuil, writing

about 825, mentions the discovery by Irish monks of a group of small islands (the Faeroes), and a greater island (Iceland), which he calls Thule. The fact that Irish monks lived in Iceland before the Norsemen settled there in the oth century is verified by the Icelandic sagas. Ottar.—tin his translation of Orosius, King Alfred inserts the story of the Arctic voyage, told him by the Norwegian Ottar

REGIONS

[EXPLORATION

the sea, which was supposed to end as a bay). There can be littl. doubt that this land was Spitsbergen. On his way to Greenland from Norway in the year tooo Leif Ericsson found America, certainly Labrador, and perhaps Ney. foundland and Nova Scotia. Vinland the Good of the sagas may have referred to Nova Scotia, or it may have been a myth. A fey years later Karlsevne is said to have sailed from Greenland to make a settlement in the land discovered by Leif. He found Hell.

uland and Markland before reaching Vinland.

Hostilities wit, the inhabitants caused the settlers to return to Greenland ip 1066. The story is probably legendary.

The Icelandic annals state that in 1347 a small Greenland ship which had sailed to Markland was afterwards storm-driven to Ice.

land with 17 men.

This is the last known voyage made by the

Norsemen of Greenland which with certainty reached America, The discoveries of the old Norsemen extended over the north. ern seas from Novaya Zemlya in the east to Labrador and Ney. foundland in the west; they visited all Arctic lands in these regions, and explored the White sea, the Barents sea and the Greenland sea, Davis strait, and even some part of Baffin bay.

They were the first navigators in history who willingly left the coasts and sailed across the open ocean, and they crossed the Atlantic between Norway and America, thereby being the real discoverers of this ocean, as well as the pioneers in oceanic navi-

gation. It is hardly an accident that the undertakings of England towards the west started from Bristol, where many Norwegians

had settled, and which from the beginning of the 15th century had much trade with Iceland. Cabot.—John Cabot, sent out by the merchants of Bristol, rediscovered the American continent in 1497. He came to Cape Breton and Nova Scotia, possibly the land that Leif Ericsson had discovered soo years before. Of John Cabot’s expedition towards the west in 1498 nothing is known, not even whether he returned or not. There is no reliable evidence to prove that

John Cabot or his son Sebastian ever discovered Labrador, as has been generally believed. The Portuguese Gaspar Corte-Real probably rediscovered Cape, sailed eastwards and discovered the White sea, where he reached the south coast of the Kola peninsula and the boundary Greenland in 1500, and in 1501 Newfoundland. Cabot’s and Corte-Real’s discoveries were followed by the deof the land of the Biarmians (Beormas). After Ottar’s time many voyages, mostly of hostile nature but also for trade purposes, velopment of the Newfoundland and Labrador fisheries, and a whole fleet of English, Portuguese, Basque and Breton fishermen were undertaken from Norway to the White sea. Eric the Red.—After having settled in Iceland in the end of were soon met with in these waters, and they probably went along the oth century, the Norsemen soon discovered Greenland and the Labrador coast northward as far as Hudson Strait, without settled there. The first who is reported to have seen the coast having left any report of their discoveries. It is believed, on good grounds, that expeditions (combined of Greenland was Gunnbjörn Ulfsson, who on his way to Iceland was storm-driven westwards. He came to some islands, after- English-Portuguese) were sent out to the newly discovered re wards called Gunnbjörnskier, and saw a coast, but, without explor- gions from Bristol in rgor and 1502. It is unknown what their ing the new land, he had evidently continued his way till he discoveries were, but they may possibly have sailed along the reached Iceland. The real discoverer and explorer of Greenland coast of Labrador. It is possible that Sebastian Cabot made an Arctic expedition was Eric the Red, who, with his father had settled in Iceland. the As he and his men had there been declared outlaws for having in 1508-09, in search of a short passage to China towards attempt an made VIII. Henry King 1521, in later, and north-west, killed several people they had to leave Iceland for three years, (Alfred calls him Ohthere), who about 870 rounded the North

and he went westward to find the land which Gunnbjörn was reported to have seen. He explored the west coast of Greenland for three years, probably about 982~985. He then returned to Iceland, but: founded the following year a colony in Greenland (g.v.). Many colonists followed, and two Norse settlements were

to persuade the merchants of London to support him in sending out an expedition, under Sebastian Cabot, to the north-westem countries. It is uncertain whether it ever started, but it is certain that it achieved nothing of importance. Early in the 16th century several expeditions, including that of J. Rut (1527), tried to find a way to China through the Arctic

formed, viz., the Osterbygd (z.e., eastern settlement) on the southeastern part of the Greenland west coast, between Cape Farewell seas, but no discoveries of importance are known to have been and about 61° N. lat., and the Vesterbygd (i.e., western settle- made in the Arctic regions. Willoughby and Chancelor.—There are rumours that the ment) between 63° and 66° N. lat. The Norse settlers carried on their seal and whale-hunting still farther north along the west Portuguese, as early as 1484, had sent out an expedition towards coast certainly as far as Upernivik and even visited the east coast. Novaya Zemlya in search of a north-east passage to India. The It is reported by Adam of Bremen (about 1070) that the Nor- Genovese Paolo Centurione proposed to King Henry VIII. of wegian king Harold Haardraade (in the 11th century) made an England, in 1525, to make an expedition in search of such 4 expedition into the Arctic sea (probably northwards) in order passage to India north of Russia, and there is evidence to show to examine how far it extended, but we know nothing more about that there had been much talk about an undertaking of this kunt in England during the following period, as it was hoped that 4 this voyage. The Icelandic annals report that a land called Svalbardi (cold new market might be found for English merchandise, especially side or coast) was discovered in 1194. The land was, according cloth. But it led to nothing until 1553, when Sebastian Cabot ws to the sagas, situated four days’ sailing from north-eastern Ice- one of the chief promoters. Three ships and 112 men under Sit land northwards in the Hafsbotn (i.e., the northern termination of Hugh Willoughby sailed from Ratcliffe on May 10 (20), 1553

EXPLORATION]

ARCTIC

Richard Chancelor commanded one of the ships, which was separated from the two others in a gale off northern Norway on Aug.

3 (13). Willoughby, after having sighted land in various places, probably Kolguev Island, where they landed, the coast near the Pechora river and Kanin Nos, came on Sept. 14 (24) to a good harbour on the northern coast of the Kola Peninsula. Willoughby resolved to winter there, but he and all his men perished. Chancelor rounded the North Cape, to which he or his sailing-master, Stephen Borough, gave this name.

He reached Vardohus, and fol-

lowed the route of the Norsemen to the White sea and reached

REGIONS

29I

have puzzled both geographers athome mcdia pheers in the field. These islands had also been introdu ced on-—the cha rts of “Mercator

of 1569 and of Ortelius of 1570, mhich wvees proba bly wed by Frobisher. Evidently frightened. by the sighi of the æren t quantities of ice off the Greenland coast, on strip, the “Michal” left him secretly, “and retoumed home wth greaate reporte that he

was cast awaye.” Frobisher ceonti nue «dd hols v~oya-ge tonmattls the north-west. in the “‘Gabriel” alne. On Fuy 2 «(Areg, S) be eighted high land which he called 0 weer E isaMbethm’s Pore laned, “This was

the southern part of Baffin Island

(Reæslautom Islnd)

in about

the Bay of St. Nicholas, with a monastery of this name, near the 62° N. lat. He entered an idet which heco: niGlere dt be the mouth of the Dvina river, where Archangel was built later. Chan- strait of the north-west passage, aned hee g—vei- thi sowm mme (it celor undertook a journey to Moscow, made arrangements for is now Frobisher bay or Bafimissined), Theeland weas called commercial intercourse with Russia, and returned next year with “Meta Incognita.”? Frobisher wvas mt wel prae df o going his ship, which was, however, plundered by the Flemings, but he much farther, and after his boætwrith fives meenkaad disapeared reached London safely with a letter from the tsar. In spite of the he returned home, where, wnfoxtumateMy, Smee “add-firadrs” in disaster of Willoughby and his men this expedition became of London took it into theix heads thata pieceorf daark hen w stone fundamental importance for the development of English trade. brought back contained godd oe. This wsd) get ec itament ; Chancelor’s success and his so-called discovery of the passage to it was now considered mach mozre Smpeora.nt to co Tee this the White sea, which was well known to the Norwegian traders, precious ore than to find the north-west pssug-e,and my «hlarger

proved to people in England the practical utility of polar voyages. expeditions were sent out im the tev £ilcown_gy ars, “As many It led to a charter being granted to the Muscovy Company of as 15 vessels formed the third e-peeiiticnosefis7, anit. vas the

Merchant Adventurers, and gave a fresh impulse to Arctic discovery. Chancelor undertook a new expedition to the White sea and Moscow in 1555; on his way home in the following year

he was wrecked on the coast of Scotland and perished. In 1556 Stephen Borough (Burrough), who had served with

Chancelor, was sent out by the Muscovy Company to try to reach the river Ob, of which rumours had been heard. Novaya Zemlya, Vaigach Island, and the Kara strait were discovered. In

1580 the company fitted out two vessels under Arthur Pet and

Charles Jackman, with orders to sail eastwards north of Russia and Asia to the lands of the emperor of Cathay (China). They penetrated through the Kara strait into the Kara sea; but met with much ice and were compelled to return. Pet reached London on Dec. 26, Jackman wintered with his ship in Norway and sailed

thence in Feb., but was never heard of again. About 1574 the Portuguese probably made an attempt to find the north-west passage under Vasqueanes Corte-Real. They reached “a great entrance,” which may have been Hudson strait, and they “passed above twentie leagues” into it, “without all impediment of ice,” “‘but their victailes fayling them, ... they returned backe agayne with ioy.” Frobishet.—The opening of a profitable trade with Russia, via the White sea, inspired new life in the undertakings of England on the sea, at the same time the power of the Hanseatic merchants, called the Easterlings, was much reduced. It was therefore only natural that the plan of seeking a north-west passage to China and India should again come to the front in England. Sir Martin Frobisher opened that long series of expeditions all of which during 300 years were sent from England in search of the north-west passage. After having attempted in vain for 15 years to find support for his enterprise, he at last obtained assistance from Ambrose Dudley, earl of Warwick, and through him the interest of Queen Elizabeth was also secured. The Muscovy Company was now obliged to give a licence for the voyage in 1574, and the necessary money was found by London merchants. Frobisher sailed, on June 7, 1576, from Deptford with two small

vessels of 20 and 25 tons, called the “Gabriel” and “Michael,”

and a small pinnace of ro tons. On July 8 they lost sight of the pinnace, which was seen no more. On July 11 they sighted a high, rugged land, but could not approach it for ice. This was the east coast of Greenland, but, misled by his charts, Frobisher assumed it to be the fictitious Frisland, which was the fabrication of a Venetian, Niccolo Zeno, who in 1558 published a spurious

narrative and map (which he pretended to have found) as the

work of an ancestor and his brother in the 14th century. The Zeno map was chiefly fabricated on the basis of a map by the

Swede Olaus Magnus of 137 and the map by the Dane Claudius

Clavus of the 15th century. It was accepted at the time as a Work of high authority, and its fictitious names and islands con-

tinued to appear on subsequent maps for at least a century, and

intention to form a colony with iœorma in the gold Lend. but this scheme was given up. Frobisher canait Huden strait, which was at first thought to be Feobwithe=r sitriat arad acharefore called Mistaken strait. There was anope sax towsvarecls wht west, and Frobisher was certain that h ec «ull sasil tchrooughe to the “Mare del Sur” (Pacific Ocara) and “Kahay,” but hs first goal was the ‘‘gold mines,” and thee ve=se¥¥steeturaned hoe-mt with full loads of theore. One of them, -abas «(meal sship) czllecl the

“Emmanuel,” reported that on hem vopgre home she Wal first sighted Frisland on Sept. 8 (18), but fot days latter ste had sighted another land in the Atl antic azmd ssaleed along it: tH the following day; they xeckzoned its ssout hern end Eo be en about 573° N. lat. This land soon fouand its placeo-m naapss and charts south-west of Iceland under the name of Bus.sisJancl, and as it was never seen again it was after 74 =5 ca_lkd_ “the sulkea Land of Buss.” The explanationis that, misled by threnmap-s, Prbisher assumed Greenland to be Frilæni of -the Zero nap» aned Baffin island was afterwards aswumedtobe theeta_stc osm of Greenland. When the buss on her way home sehte: d Gremlind im akoort: 62° N., she therefore thought it to be Friisin- dtou when ssh four aerwiE amd eet dead days later again sighted lancl near Cape F reckoning probably bad carmied hex aboot twro CHlegrees to far south, she naturally considered thcist obeea new Banc, which puzzled geographers and na-vigeetorss foore entries, (Quiz to a similar mistake, not by Frobishex,b utLoyleater cartographers and especially by Davis, it was afterv=ardss as sumzed that Fo nb‘isher strait (and also Mistaken steat) wasn oinp afina Is lanc but on. the east coast of Greenland, whee they r-enamined om tihe rnaps till the 18th century. Davis.—John Davis, who made the nexctatcterapt to discover a north-west passage, was ome of the wmus.t sccientcific seamen of that age. Sailing from Darimeouthor Jum 7 (1 7), 1585, wah two ships, he sighted on July 20 30D "the ros deformed., rocky and mountainous land, that ever he sowe? Een. amed it tihe Land of Desolation, although be undertood th the læd redsuvered “the shore which in ancient time vas cale-d G-remlarad”" It was its east coast. He visited the wet co-ast, whee Frobiss-he had also landed mistaking it for Frislancd, Davaisarmmcbeored in a place called Gilbert’s sound in 64° 10” (near athe pesat Danis thsettlement of Godthaab) and Had much snte-rowme wehthe Edkcimo. He then, crossing the strait which bur shi_sneame , traaceecli por-

tion of its westerra shore soathward sfr-om

aboeut «66° 4o~ Nu lat.

and came into Cumberland soumd, whitch he tthowigh® tow be the strait of the north-west passage. bumt reetur=med homme on acount of contrary winds. In his secondé voryagee (vewith foccar sIhipss) Davis traced the western shore of Daviss trait stal fsatkaer sou. thw ards, and sailed along the coast of Labrideor, In Nbis tchire] voyigge (with three ships) in 1587 headvamcecd fa-r up li. sovvn strait along the west coast of Greenland and reamed aleoity~ 9 anitei slmd in 72° 4 N. lat., wbich he mng Hop Sanmdereson. He monet with

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ARCTIC

ice in the sea west of this place, but reported that there was not

“any yce towards the north, but a great sea, free, large, very salt and blew, and of an unsearcheable depth.” By contrary winds,

however, he was prevented from sailing in that direction. He sailed into Cumberland sound, but now found that there was no passage. He also passed on his way southwards the entrance to Frobisher strait, which he named Lumley inlet, and Hudson strait, without understanding the importance of the latter. The

result of Davis’s discoveries are shown on the Molyneux globe, which is now in the library of the Middle Temple; they are also shown on the “new map” in Hakluyt’s Principal Navigations (1598-1600). Dutch Exploration.—As early as 1565 Dutch merchants formed a settlement in Kola, and in 1578 two Dutch ships anchored in the mouth of the river Dvina, and a Dutch settlement was established where Archangel was built a few years later. The leading man in these undertakings was Olivier Brunel, who is thus the founder of the White sea trade of the Dutch; he was also their first Arctic navigator. He had travelled both overland

and along the coast to Siberia and reached the river Ob; he had

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East India Company sent an expedition under Capt. Way. mouth in 1602 to seek for a passage by the opening seen by Davis, but it had no success.

Hudson.—The best servant of the Muscovy Company in the

work of polar discovery was Henry Hudson. His first Voyage was undertaken in 1607, when he discovered the most northerm

known point of the east coast of Greenland in 73° 30’ N. (Hold

with Hope), and examined the ice between Greenland and Spits. bergen, probably reaching Hakluyt’s headland in 79° so’ N. On his way home he discovered the island now called Jan Mayen, which he named “Hudson’s Tutches.” In his second expedition, during the season of 1608, Hudson examined the edge of the ice between Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya. In his third voyage he was employed by the Dutch East India Company; he again ap. proached Novaya Zemlya, but was compelled to return west. wards, and he explored the coasts of North America, discover.

ing the Hudson river. In 1610 he entered Hudson strait, and

discovered the great bay which bears and immortalizes his name. He was obliged to winter there, undergoing no small hardships. On his way home his crew mutinied and set him, his little son and some sick men, adrift in a boat, and the explorer perished in the seas he had opened up. The voyages of Hudson led immediately to the Spitsbergen whale fishery. English and Dutch whalers in the 17th century added much to the knowledge of Spitsbergen. Poole, Fotherby, Marmaduke, Edge and Carolus were noteworthy. Meanwhile, the merchant adventurers of London continued to

also visited Kostin Shar on Novaya Zemlya. He propounded plans for the discovery of the north-east passage to China, and probably started with one ship in 1582, on the first Arctic expedition which left the Netherlands. Little is known of its fate except that it ended unsuccessfully with the wreck of the ship in the shallow Pechora bay, possibly after a vain attempt to penetrate through the Yugor strait into the Kara sea. The Dutch, however, had begun to see the importance of a push forward the western discovery. Sir Thomas Button, with northern route to China and India, especially as the routes the “Resolution” and “Discovery,” in 1612 entered Hudson bay, through the southern seas were jealously guarded by the Span- crossed to its western shore, and wintered at the mouth of a iards and Portuguese, and after 1584 all trade with Portugal, river in 57°10’ N. which was named Nelson river after the where the Dutch got Indian goods, was forbidden. By Brunel’s master of the ship, who died there. Next year Button explored efforts their attention had been directed towards the north-east the shore of Southampton Island as far as 65° N. An expedition passage, but it was not until 1594 that a new expedition was sent under Captain Gibbons despatched in 1614 to Hudson bay was out, one of the promoters being Peter Plancius, the learned cos- a failure; but in 1615 Robert Bylot and William Baffin in the mographer of Amsterdam. Four ships sailed from Huysdunen on “Discovery” examined the coasts of Hudson strait and to the June 5, 1594. Two of these ships were under the command of north of Hudson bay. In 1616 Bylot and Baffin again set out Willem Barents, who sighted Novaya Zemlya, north of Matochkin in the “Discovery.” Sailing up Davis strait they passed that Shar, on July 4; and from that date until Aug. 1 (11), Barents navigator’s farthest point at Sanderson’s Hope, and sailed round discovered the whole western coast as far as the Great Ice cape, Baffin bay. Baffin named the most northern opening Smith the latitude of which he, with his admirable accuracy, determined sound, after the first governor of the East India Company, and to be 77° N. Having reached the Orange islands, he decided to the promoter of the voyage, Sir Thomas Smith. Lancaster sound return. The two other ships under the command of Cornelis Nay and Jones sound were named after other promoters. The fame had discovered the Vugor strait, through which they sailed into of Baffin mainly rests upon the discovery of a great channel the Kara sea on Aug. xı (11). They reached the west coast of extending north from Davis strait; but it was unjustly dimmed Yamal; finding the sea open, they thought they had found a free for many years, owing to the omission of Purchas to publish passage to Japan and China, and returned home on Aug. 11 (21). the navigator’s tabulated journal and map in his great collection A new expedition the following year, 1595, with seven ships under of voyages. It was 200 years before a new expedition sailed the command of Cornelis Nay and Willem Barents merely made north through Baffin bay. In 1619 Denmark sent out an expeseveral unsuccessful attempts to enter the Kara sea through the dition, under the command of Jens Munk, in search of the northYugor strait. The third expedition was more important. Two west passage, with two ships and 64 men. They reached the vessels sailed from Amsterdam on May to (20), 1596, under the west coast of Hudson bay, where they wintered near Churchill command of Jacob van Heemskerck and Corneliszoon Rijp. river, but all died with the exception of one man, a boy, and Barents accompanied Heemskerck as pilot, and Gerrit de Veer, Munk himself, who managed to sail home in the smallest ship. In 1631 two expeditions were despatched, one by the merthe historian of the voyage, was on board as mate. They sailed northwards, and on June 9 (19) discovered Bear island. Con- chants of London, the other by those of Bristol. In the Lon tinuing on the same course they sighted a mountainous snow-cov- don ship “Charles” Luke Fox explored the western side of Hudered land in about 80° N. lat., soon afterwards being stopped by son bay as far as the place called “Sir Thomas Roe’s Welcome.” pack ice. This important discovery was named Spitsbergen, and In Aug. he encountered Capt. James and the Bristol ship “Maria” was believed to be a part of Greenland. Arriving at Bear island in the middle of Hudson bay, and went north until he reached again on July x, Rijp parted company, while Heemskerck and “North-west Fox his farthest,” in 66° 47’ N. Capt. James had Barents proceeded eastward, intending to pass round the northern to winter off Charlton Island, in James bay, the southern extreme end of Novaya Zemlya. On Aug. 26 (Sept. 5) they reached Ice of Hudson bay, and did not return until October 1632. Hudson’s Bay Company.—The Hudson’s Bay Company was Haven, after rounding the northern extremity of the land. Here they wintered in a house built out of driftwood and planks and in incorporated in 1670, and Prince Rupert sent out Zachariah Gilthe spring made their way in boats to the Lapland coast; but lan, who wintered at Rupert river. A voyage undertaken in 1719 Barents died during the voyage. This was the first time that an by J. Knight, nearly 80 years old, who had been appointed govArctic winter was successfully faced. The voyages of Barents ernor of the factory at Nelson river, was unfortunate, as his two stand in the first rank among the polar enterprises of the 16th ships were lost and the crews perished. A naval expedition under century. Capt. C. Middleton in 1742 discovered Wager river and Repulse The English enterprises were continued by the Muscovy Com- bay. In 1746 Capt. W. Moor explored the Wager inlet. Later pany, and by associations of merchants of London; and even the in the century the Hudson’s Bay Company’s servants made some

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ARCTIC

important land journeys. From 1769 to 1772 Samuel Hearne

descended the Coppermine river to the sea; and in 1789 Alex-

ander Mackenzie of the North Western Company discovered the

mouth of the Mackenzie river. The countrymen of Barents vied with the countrymen of Hud-

son in the whaling which annually brought fleets of ships to the

Spitsbergen seas during the 17th and 18th centuries. Capt. Viamingh, in 1664, advanced as far round the northern end of Novaya Zemlya as the winter quarters of Barents. In 1671 Frederick Martens, a German surgeon, visited Spitsbergen, and wrote the best account of its physical features and natural history that existed previous to the time of Scoresby. In 1707 Capt. Comelis Gilies saw land to the east of Spitsbergen in 80° N.,

which has since been known as Gilies Land. The Dutch geo-

graphical knowledge of Spitsbergen was embodied in the famous chart of Van Keulen (edited by Gilies and Rep), (c. 1710). The Dutch whale fishery continued to flourish until the French Revolution, and formed a splendid nursery for training the seamen of the Netherlands. The most flourishing period of the British fishery in the Spitsbergen and Greenland seas was from 1752 to 1820. In order to encourage discovery £5,000 was offered in 1776 to the first ship that should sail beyond the 89th parallel (16 Geo. III. c. 6). Among the numerous daring and able whaling captains, William Scoresby takes the first rank, alike as a successful whaler and a scientific observer. His admirable Account of the Arctic Regions is still a standard work. In 1806 he succeeded in advancing his ship “Resolution” as far north as 81° 12’ 42”. In 1822 he forced

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293

ages of discovery till, after the peace of 1815, north polar research found a powerful and indefatigable advocate in Sir John Barrow. Through his influence a measure for promoting polar discovery became law in 1818 (58 Geo. III. c. 20), by which a reward of £20,000 was offered for making the north-west passage, and of £5,000 for reaching 89° N., while the commissioners of longitude were empowered to award proportionate sums to those who might achieve certain portions of such discoveries. In 1817 Barrow obtained sanction for the despatch of two expeditions, one to attempt discoveries by way of Spitsbergen and the other by Baffin bay. The vessels for the Spitsbergen route, the “Dorothea” and “Trent,” were commanded by Capt. D. Buchan and Lieut. J. Franklin, and sailed in April 1818. Driven into the pack, both vessels were severely nipped, and had to return to England. The other expedition, consisting of the “Isabella” and “Alexander,” commanded by Capt. J. Ross and Lieut. E. Parry, followed in the wake of Baffin’s voyage of 1616. The voyage vindicated Baffin’s accuracy as a discoverer and showed the way to a lucrative fishery in the “North Water” of Baffin bay, which continued to be frequented by a fleet of whalers every year. Ross thought that the inlets reported by Baffin were merely bays, while the opinion of his second in command was that a wide opening to the westward existed through the Lancaster sound of Baffin. Parry and Franklin.—Parry was selected to command a new expedition in the following year. His two vessels, the “Hecla” and “Griper,” passed through Lancaster sound, the continuation

of which was named Barrow strait, and advanced westward.

He

was stopped by the impenetrable polar pack and obliged to winhis way through the ice on the east coast of Greenland, and sur- ter in a harbour on the south coast of Melville island. Parry’s veyed that coast from 75° down to 69° N. scientific results were valuable. The vessels returned in Oct. The Russians, after the acquisition of Siberia, succeeded in 1820; and a fresh expedition in the “Fury” and “Hecla,” again gradually exploring the whole of the northern shores of that vast under the command of Parry, sailed on May 8, 1821, and passed region. In 1648 a Cossack named Simon Dezhneff equipped a their first winter on the coast of Melville peninsula in 66° 11’ N. boat expedition in the river Kolima, passed through the strait Still persevering, Parry passed his second winter among the since named after Bering, and reached the Gulf of Anadir. In Eskimo at Igloolik in 69° 20’ N., and discovered Fury and Hecla 1738 a voyage was made by two Russian officers from Archangel strait. The expedition returned in the autumn of 1823. Meanto the mouths of the Ob and the Yenisei. In 1735 Lieut. T. time Franklin had been employed in attempts to reach by land Chelyuskin got as far as 77° 25” N. near the cape which bears the northern shores of America, hitherto only touched at two his name; and in 1743 he rounded that most northern point of points by Hearne and Mackenzie. Franklin went out in 18109, Siberia in sledges, in 77° 43’ N. Captain Vitus Bering, a Dane, with Dr. John Richardson, George Back and Robert Hood. They was appointed by Peter the Great to command an expedition in landed at York factory, and proceeded to the Great Slave lake. 1725. Iwo vessels were built at Okhotsk, and in July 1728 Ber- The following summer they descended the Coppermine river, ing ascertained the existence of a strait between Asia and America. and traced the coast from its mouth 550m. eastward to Cape In 1740 Bering sailed from Okhotsk in the “St. Paul,” with Turnagain in 109° 25’ W. G. W. Steller on board as naturalist. Their object was to disIt was thought desirable that an attempt should be made to cover the American side of the strait, and they sighted the peak connect the Cape Turnagain of Franklin with the discoveries named by Bering Mt. St. Elias. The Aleutian islands were also made by Parry during his second voyage. In 1824 three comexplored, but the ship was wrecked on an island named after bined attempts were organized. While Parry again entered by the ill-fated discoverer. Bering died there on Dec. 8, 1741. Lancaster sound and pushed down Prince Regent inlet, Capt. Thirty years after the death of Bering a Russian merchant Beechey was to enter Bering strait, and Franklin was to make a named Lyakhov discovered the New Siberian or Lyakhov islands. second journey by land to the shores of Arctic America. Parry These islands were more fully explored by an officer named was unfortunate, but Beechey entered Bering strait in the Hedenström in 1809, and seekers for fossil ivory annually re- “Blossom” in Aug. 1826, and extended knowledge as far as Point sorted to them. Barrow in 71° 23’ 30” N. lat. Franklin, in 1825-26, descended From 1773 onwards to the end of the roth century the objects the Mackenzie river to its mouth, and explored the coast for of polar exploration were mainly the acquisition of knowledge in 374m. to the westward; while Dr. Richardson discovered the various branches of science. It was on these grounds that Daines shore between the mouths of the Mackenzie and Coppermine, Barrington and the Royal Society induced the British Govern- and sighted land to the northward, named by him Wollaston ment to undertake Arctic exploration once more. The result Land, the dividing channel being called Union and Dolphin strait. was that two vessels, the “Racehorse” and “Carcass,” were com- They returned in the autumn of 1826. missioned, under Capt. J. C. Phipps. The expedition sailed on Work was also being done in the Spitsbergen and Barents seas. June 2, 1773, and was stopped by the ice to the north of Hakluyt From 1821 to 1824 the Russian Capt. Lütke was surveying the headland, the north-western point of Spitsbergen. Phipps reached west coast of Novaya Zemlya as far as Cape Nassau. In May the Seven Islands and discovered Walden island. His highest 1823 the “Griper,” under Capt. D. Clavering, conveyed Capt. E. latitude was 80° 48’ N. Five years afterwards James Cook re- Sabine north to make pendulum observations. Clavering pushed ceived instructions to proceed northward from Kamchatka and through the ice in 75° 30’ N., and reached the east coast of search for a north-east or north-west passage from the Pacific Greenland, where observations were taken on Pendulum island. to the. Atlantic. His ships, the “Resolution” and “Discovery,” He charted the coast-line from 76° to 72° N. arrived at the edge of the ice, after passing Bering strait, in In 1827 Parry attempted to reach the pole from the north coast

70° 41’ N. The farthest point seen on the American side was

named Icy Cape, and on the Asiatic side Cape North.

The wars following the French Revolution put an end to voy-

of Spitsbergen by means of sledge-boats (see Parry). The highest latitude reached was 82° 45’ N., and the attempt was persevered in until it was found that the ice as a whole was drifting

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to the south more rapidly than it was possible to travel over it to the north. In 1829 Capt. W. A. Graah of the Danish navy rounded Cape Farewell in boats. He advanced as far as 65° 16’ N. on the east coast, where he was stopped by ice. He wintered in 63° 22’ N., and returned to the west side of Greenland in 1830. In the year 1829 Capt. J. Ross, with his nephew J. C. Ross, having been furnished with funds by Felix Booth, undertook an expedition in the “Victory.” Ross proceeded down Prince Regent inlet to the Gulf of Boothia, and wintered on the eastern side of a land named by him Boothia Felix. J. C. Ross crossed the land and discovered the position of the north magnetic pole on the western side of it, on June 1, 1831. He also discovered a land to the westward which he named King William Land, and the northern shore of which he examined. The Rosses, unable to get their little vessel out of its winter quarters, passed three winters there, and then fell back on the stores at Fury Beach, where they passed their fourth winter, 1832-33. Eventually they were picked up by a whaler in Barrow strait, and brought home. Great anxiety was naturally felt at their prolonged absence, and in 1833 Sir George Back, with Dr. R. King, set out by land in search of the missing explorers. They left Fort Reliance on June 7, 1834, and descended the Backs (Great Fish) river for 530m. In 1836 Back was sent, at the suggestion of the Royal Geographical Society, to proceed to Repulse bay in the “Terror,” and then to cross an assumed isthmus and examine the coastline thence to the mouth of the Backs river; but the ship was obliged to winter in the drifting pack, and was brought home in a sinking condition. The tracing of the polar shores of America was completed by the Hudson’s Bay Company’s servants. In June 1837 Thomas Simpson and P. W. Dease left Chipewyan, reached the mouth of the Mackenzie, and connected that position with Point Barrow, which had been discovered by the “Blossom” in 1826, In 1839 Simpson passed Cape Turnagain of Franklin, tracing the coast eastward so as to connect with Back’s work at the mouth of Backs river. He landed at Montreal island, and then advanced eastward as far as Castor and Pollux river, On his return he travelled along the south shore of the King Wiliam island. Little remained to do in order to complete the delineation of the northern shores of the American continent, and this task was entrusted to Dr. J. Rae, a Hudson’s Bay factor, in 1846. He went in boats to Repulse bay, where he wintered in a stone hut nearly on the Arctic circle; and there he and his six Orkney men maintained themselves on the deer they shot. During the spring of 1847 Dr. Rae explored on foot the shores of a great gulf having voom. of coast-line. He thus connected the work of Parry, at the mouth of Fury and Hecla strait, with the work of Ross on the coast of Boothia, proving that Boothia was part of the American continent, While British explorers were thus working hard to solve some of the geographical problems relating to Arctic America, the Russians were similarly engaged in Siberia, In 1821 P. F. Anjou made a complete survey of the New Siberian islands, and came to the conclusion that it was not possible to advance far from them in a northerly direction, owing to the thinness of the ice and to open water existing within 20 or 30m. Baron Wrangel in 1820-23 explored the coast between Cape Shelagski and the Kolima, making attempts to extend his journeys to some distance from the land, but he was always stopped by thin ice. In 1843 A. T. Middendorf explored the region around Cape Chelyuskin, The whole Arctic shore of Siberia had now been explored and delineated, but no vessel had yet rounded the extreme northern point.

The Franklin Expedition.—The success of Sir J. Ross’s Antarctic expedition and the completion of the northern coastline of America by the Hudson’s Bay Company’s servants gave rise in 1845 to a fresh attempt to make the passage from Lancaster sound to Bering strait. The story of the unhappy expedition of Sir John Franklin, in the “Erebus” and “Terror,” is told under FRANKLIN; but some geographical details may be given here. On leaving the winter quarters at Beechey island in 1846

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[EXPLORATION

Franklin found a channel leading south, along the west of North Somerset discovered by Parry in 1819. If he could reach the

channel along the Canadian coast, he knew that he would be able to make his way to Bering strait. This channel, now called Peg

sound, pointed directly to the south. He sailed down it towards

King William island, with land on both sides. But directly the southern point of Prince of Wales island was passed and no longer shielded the channel, the great ice stream from the wey was encountered and found impassable. Progress might haye

been made by rounding the eastern side of King William island i but its insularity was then unknown. It was not until 1848 that anxiety began to be felt about the

Franklin expedition. In the spring of that year Sir J. Rog was sent with the “Enterprise” and “Investigator,” by way of Lancaster sound. He made a long sledge journey with Leopold M’Clintock along the northern and western coasts of the North Somerset, but found nothing.

On the return of the Ross expedition without any tidings, the country became thoroughly alarmed. An extensive plan of search was organized—the “Enterprise” and “Investigator” under Cap. tains R. Collinson and R. M’Clure proceeding by Bering strait while the “Assistance” and “Resolute,” with two steam tenders the “Pioneer” and “Intrepid,” sailed on May 3, 1850, to renew the search by Barrow strait, under Capt. Horatio Austin. Two brigs, the “Lady Franklin” and “Sophia,” under William Penny an able whaling captain, were sent by the same route. He had with him Dr. A. Sutherland, a naturalist, who did much valuable scientific work. Austin and Penny entered Barrow strait and Franklin’s winter quarters of 1845-46 were discovered at

Beechey island; but there was no record of any kind indicating the direction taken by the ships. Austin’s expedition wintered (1850-51) in the pack off Griffith island, and Penny found ref.

uge in a harbour on the south coast of Cornwallis island. Penny undertook the search by Wellington channel.

M’Clintock, who

was with Austin, advanced to Melville island, marching over 770m. in 81 days; Captains E. Ommanney and S. Osborn pressed southward and discovered Prince of Wales island. W. H. Brow examined the western shore of Peel sound. The search was exhaustive; but, except the winter quarters at Beechey island, no record was discovered, Austin also examined the entrance of Jones sound on his way home, and returned to England in the autumn of 1851. This was a thoroughly well conducted expe dition, especially as regards the sledge-travelling, which M’Clintock brought to great perfection. In 1851 the “Prince Albert” schooner was sent out by Lady Franklin, under Capt. W. Kennedy, with Lieut. J. Bellot of the French navy as second, They wintered on the east coast of North Somerset, and in the spring of 1852 Bellot, in the course of a long sledging journey, discovered Bellot strait, thus proving that the Boothia coast facing the strait was the northem extremity of the continent of America. The “Enterprise” and “Investigator” sailed from England in Jan. 1850, but accidentally parted company before they reached Bering strait. On May 6, 1851, the “Enterprise” passed the strait, and rounded Point Barrow on the 2sth. Collinson then made his way up the narrow Prince of Wales strait, and reached Princess Royal islands, where

M’Clure had been the previous

year. Returning southwards, the “Enterprise” wintered in a sound in Prince Albert Land in, 71° 35’ N. and 117° 35” W. In the spring of 1852 sledge parties explored the strait and one reached Melville island. In Sept. 1852 the ship was free, and Collinson pressed eastward along the coast of Canada, reaching Cambridge

bay (105° W.), where the second winter was passed, In the spring he examined the shores of Victoria Land as far as 70° 26

N. and 100° 45’ W.; here he was within a few miles of Point Victory, where the fate of Franklin would have been ascertained.

The “Enterprise” again put to sea on Aug, 5, 1853, and returned

westward along the Canadian coast, until she was stopped by ice and obliged to pass a third winter at Camden bay, in 145° ay W. In 1854 Collinson brought the “Enterprise” back to England. Meanwhile M’Clure, in the “Investigator,” had passed the wr

ter of 1850-51 at the Princess Royal islands, only 3om. from

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Barrow strait. In Oct. M’Clure ascended a hill whence he could see the frozen surface of Barrow strait, but it was impossible to reach it on account of heavy ice; so, as soon as he was free in 1851, M’Clure turned southwards, round the southern extreme of Banks island, and forced a passage to the northward. He at length reached a bay on the northern shore of Banks island, which be named the Bay of God’s Mercy. Here the “Investigator” remained, never to move again. After the winter of 1851-2 M’Clure made a journey across the ice to Melville island. In the spring of 1853 M’Clure was preparing to abandon the ship with all hands, and attempt, like Franklin’s crews, to reach the Canadian coast; but succour arrived in time. The Hudson’s Bay Company continued the search for Franklin. In 1848 Sir John Richardson and Dr. Rae examined the Canadian coast from the mouth of the Mackenzie to that of the Coppermine. In 1849 and 1850 Rae continued the search; and by a long sledge journey in the spring of 1851, and a boat voyage in the summer, he examined and mapped the shores of Wollaston and Victoria Lands, which were afterwards explored by Capt. Collinson in the “Enterprise.” In 1852 the British government resolved to despatch another expedition by Lancaster sound. Sir E. Belcher commanded the “Assistance,” and S. Osborn the “Pioneer.” Belcher went up Wellington Channel where he spent two winters. S. Osborn and Com. G. H. Richards made sledge journeys to Melville island, and thus discovered the northern side of the Parry group. Capt. H. Kellett received command of the “Resolute,” with M’Clintock in the “Intrepid.” George S. Nares, leader of the future expedition of 1874-75, was also on board the “Resolute.” Kellett passed the winter of 1852-53 at Melville island. During the autumn G. F. Mecham discovered M’Clure’s record, and the position of the “Investigator” was thus ascertained. Lieut. P. T. Pim made his way to this point early in the folowing spring, and the officers and crew of the “Investigator,” led by M’Clure, arrived safely on board the “Resolute” on June 17, 1853. They reached England in the following year, having not only discovered but traversed a north-west passage, though not in the same ship and partly by travelling over ice. For this great feat M’Clure received the honour of knighthood, and a reward of £10,000 was voted to himself, the other officers, and the crew. Collinson also discovered another N.W. passage. The travelling parties of Kellett’s expedition, led by M’Clintock, Mecham and Vesey Hamilton, completed the discovery of the north and west of Melville island, and the whole outline of Prince Patrick island, farther west. M’Clintock was away from the ship with his sledge party for 105 days, and travelled over 1,328m. Mecham was away 94 days, and travelled over 1,163m. S. Osborn, in 1853, was away 97 days, and travelled over 935m. The “Resolute” was obliged to winter in the pack in 1853-54, and in the spring of 1854 Mecham made a remarkable journey of 1,336m. in 70 days in the hope of obtaining news of Capt. Collinson at the Princess Royal islands. Fearing detention for a third winter, Belcher ordered all the ships to be abandoned in the ice, the officers and crews being taken home in vessels which had come out from England to communicate. They reached home in Oct. 1854. The drift of the “Resolute” was a remarkable proof of. the direction of the current out of Barrow strait. She was abandoned in 74° 41’ N. and 101° 11° W. on May 14, 1854. On Sept. 10, 1855, an American whaler sighted the “Resolute” in 67° N. lat. about 20m. from Cape Mercy, in Davis strait. She had drifted nearly 1,000m., and having been brought into an American port, was purchased by the United States and presented to the British Government. In 1854 Dr. J. Rae after a winter at Repulse bay succeeded in connecting the discoveries of Simpson with those of James Ross, and thus established the fact that King William Land was an island. Rae also brought home the first tidings and relics of Franklin’s expedition gathered from the Eskimo, which decided the Admiralty to award him the £10,000 offered for definite news of Franklin’s fate. Lady Franklin, however, sent out the “Fox”

under the command

of M’Clintock

(see FRANKLIN).

M’Clin-

REGIONS

[EXPLORATION

tock prosecuted an exhaustive search over part of the west coag of Boothia, the whole of the shores of King William island and the mouth of Backs river, and Allen Young completed the dis. covery of the southern side of Prince of Wales island.

The catastrophe of Sir John Franklin’s

expedition led tọ

7,o0om. of coast-line being discovered, and to a vast extent of unknown country being explored, securing very considerable additions to geographical knowledge. The American nation was first led to take an interest in pola research through

sympathy

for Franklin

and his companions

Henry Grinnell of New York sent out in 1850 the “Advance” and “Rescue,” to aid in the search.

They reached Beechey island

but returned without wintering.

In 1853 Dr. E. K. Kane, who

and assisted in the examination of Franklin’s winter quarters

had been with the last expedition, undertook to lead an American expedition up Smith sound. The “Advance” was stopped by ice in 78° 45’ N. only 17m. from the entrance. Kane named his winter quarters Van Rensselaer harbour. A great glacier was discovered with a sea face 45m. long and named the Humbold glacier. Morton crossed the foot of this glacier, and reached a point of land beyond named Cape Constitution. Scurvy attacked the whole party during the second winter. In May 1855 Kane abandoned the brig, and reached the Danish settlement of Uper. nivik on Aug. 5. In July 1860 Dr. I. I. Hayes, who had served with Kane, sailed from Boston for Smith sound, in the schooner “United States”

His object was to follow up the line of research opened by Dr, Kane. He wintered at Port Foulke, in 78° 17’ N., but achieved nothing of importance, and his narrative is not to be depended on,

The American, Charles Hall, in his first journey (1860-63),

discovered remains of a stone house which Sir Martin Frobisher built on the Countess of Warwick island in 1578. In his second expedition (1864~69) Hall reached the line of the retreat of the Franklin survivors, at Todd’s island and Peffer river, on the south coast of King William island. Finally, in 1871 he took the “Polaris” for 250m. up Smith sound through Kane basin to

Robeson channel and wintered in Thank God harbour, 81° 38 N, and here Hall died.

Norwegian and Swedish Explorers.—The Spitsbergen seas were explored during last century by Norwegian fishermen as well as by Swedish and German expeditions and by British yachts. men. In 1827 the Norwegian geologist M. Keilhau made an expedition to Bear island and Spitsbergen. In 1863 E. Carlsen circumnavigated the Spitsbergen group for the first time in the sloop “Jan Mayen.” In 1864 S. Tobiesen sailed round NorthEast Land. In 1872 J. Altmann and Nils Johnsen visited Edge’s Wiche’s Land. In 1869 Carlsen crossed the Kara sea and reached the mouth of the Ob. In 1870 E. H. Johannesen circumnavigated Novaya Zemlya. In 1871 Carlsen succeeded in reaching the winter quarters of Barents in Ice Haven, Novaya Zemlya, the first visitor since 1597, an interval of 274 years. He found the house still standing and full of interesting relics, which are now in the naval museum at The Hague. Between 1858 and 1872 the Swedes sent several expeditions to Spitsbergen. That of 1864 under A. E. Nordenskiöld and N. C. Duner explored the north-east coasts of Spitsbergen. In 1872 an expedition, consisting of the “Polhem” and “Gladen,” commanded by Nordenskiöld and L. Palander, wintered in Mossel bay in the north of Spitsbergen. In the spring an important sledging journey of 6o days’ duration was made over North-East Land. The expedition was in some distress as regards supplies, but in the summer of 1873 they were visited by Mr. Leigh Smith, in his yacht “Diana,” and supplied with fresh provisions. i Dr. A. Petermann of Gotha urged his countrymen to take their share in the work of polar discovery, and at his own risk he fitted out the “Germania,” which sailed in May 1868, under Capi. K. Koldewey who, failing to reach east Greenland, cruised on the east of Spitsbergen. In 1870 Baron von Heuglin with Cowt Zeil explored Stor Fjord. In 1868 a two years’ expedition was

organized under Koldewey, consisting of the “Germania” and

the “Hansa.”

Julius Payer, the future explorer of Franz José

Land, was on board the “Germania.” The expedition sailed from

EXPLORATION]

ARCTIC

Bremen on June 15, 1869, for the east coast of Greenland. In latitude 70° 46 N. the “Hansa” was separated from her consort „nd crushed in the ice. The crew built a house of patent fuel

on the floe. The current carried them to the south, and finally, on June 14, 1870, they arrived safely at the Moravian mission station of Friedriksthal, to the west of Cape Farewell. The “Germania” sailed up the east coast of Greenland

as far as

s° 30’ N., and wintered atthe Pendulum Islands of Clavering

in 74° 30° N. In March 1870 a party under Koldewey and Payer

reached Cape Bismarck, the northern limit of their discoveries.

A deep branching fjord, named Franz Josef fjord, was discovered in 73° 15’ N. The expedition returned to Bremen on Sept. 11, 1870. After examining the edge of the ice and possible routes to the north between Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya in the “Isbjorn” in 1871, Payer and K. Weyprecht organized an Austro-Hungarian

expedition in 1872. They hoped to make the north-east passage.

The “Tegethoff” left Tromsö on July 14, 1872. The vessel was closely beset near Cape Nassau, at the north of Novaya Zemlya, in the end of Aug., and drifted in the direction of the prevailing wind. At length, on Aug. 31, 1873, a mountainous country was sighted about 14m. to the north. In Oct. the vessel was within 3m. of an island lying off the main mass of land. Payer landed on it, and found the latitude to be 79° s4’ N. It was named after Count Wilczek, one of the warmest friends of the expedition. Here the second winter was passed. In 1874 Payer made several long sledge journeys. The whole country was named Franz Josef Land. In May it became necessary to aban-

don the ship and retreat in boats; on Aug. 14 the explorers reached the edge of the pack in 77° 40’ N., and launched the boats. Eventually they were picked up by a Russian schooner and arrived at Vard6 on Sept. 3, 1874.

One of the most interesting problems connected with the physical geography of the polar regions is the actual condition of the elevated ice-covered interior of Greenland. In 1867 Mr. Edward Whymper and Dr. Robert Brown tried to penetrate the interior, but their progress was stopped, after going a short distance over the ice, by the breaking down of the dog-sledges. The expedition brought home geological and natural history collections of value. Dr. H. Rink, for many years royal inspector of South Greenland, also visited the inland ice. An important inland journey was undertaken by A. E. Nordenskiöld in 1870, accompanied by S. Berggren. Nordenskiöld chose for a startingpoint the northern arm of Auleitsivikfjord, and advanced 35m. to a height of 2,200ft, The enterprises of other countries rekindled the zeal of Great Britain for Arctic discovery; and in 1875 the British Government dispatched the “Alert” and “Discovery,” under Capt. G. S. Nares. Com. A. H. Markham, Lieut. Aldrich, and Capt. H. W. Feilden, RA., as naturalist, were also in the “Alert.” The “Discovery” was commanded by Capt. H. F. Stephenson, with Lieut. L. A. Beaumont as first lieutenant. The expedition entered Smith sound in the last days of July. Lady Franklin bay was reached in 81° 44’ N., where the “Discovery” was established in winter quarters, The “Alert” pressed onwards, and reached the edge of the heavy ice named by Nares the palaeocrystic sea, the ice-floes being from 80 to rooft. in thickness, Leaving Robeson channel, the vessel made progress and passed the winter off the open coast and facing the great polar pack, in 82° 27’ N. Sledge parties started on April 3, 1876. Markham with Lieut. A. A. C. Parr advanced over the pack to 83° 20’ N., at the time a record northern latitude. Aldrich explored the coast-line to the westward for a distance of 220m. Beaumont made discoveries of great interest along the northern coast of Greenland. The parties were attacked by scurvy, which increased the difficulty and hardships

of the work a hundredfold. The expedition returned to England

In Oct. 1876. The “Alert” reached a higher latitude and wintered farther north than any ship had ever done before.

iui the same year 1875 Sir A. Voung in his steam yacht the

Pandora” entered Peel sound, reached a latitude of 72° 14’ N.,

and sighted Cape Bird.

But here he was obliged to retrace his

track, returning to England. In 1876 Sir A. Young made another Voyage in the “Pandora” to the entrance of Smith sound.

REGIONS

297

Koolemans Beynen, a young Dutch officer, who had shared Young’s two polar voyages, on his return successfully endeavoured to interest his countrymen in polar discovery. It was wisely determined that the first expeditions of Holland should be summer reconnaissances on a small scale. The schooner “Willem Barents” was commanded by Lieut. A. de Bruyne, with Beynen as second, and sailed from Holland on May 6, 1878. Her instructions were to examine the ice in the Barents and Spitsbergen seas, take deep-sea soundings, and make natural history collections. She was also to erect memorials to early Dutch polar worthies at certain points. These instructions were ably carried out. Beynen died in the following year, but the work he initiated was carried on, the “Willem Barents’ continuing to make annual

polar cruises for many years. In 1879 Sir Henry Gore-Booth and Captain A. H. Markham, in the “Isbjérn” sailed along the west coast of Novaya Zemlya

to its most northern point, passed through the Matochkin to the east coast, and examined the ice in the direction of Josef Land as far as 78° 24’ N. In 1880 Mr. B. Leigh Smith, who had previously made voyages to Spitsbergen, reached Franz Josef Land in the yacht “Eira.” The “Eira” sailed along the south side of

Shar Franz three steam Franz

Josef Land to the westward and discovered trom. of coast-line of a new island named Alexandra Land, until the coast trended

north-west. In the following year Leigh Smith sailed again for: Franz Josef Land and continued his work to the west. But in Aug. the ship was caught in the ice and sank. A hut was built on shore in which Leigh Smith and his crew passed the winter of 1881-82, their health being well maintained, thanks to the exertions of Dr. W. H. Neale. On June 21, 1882, they started in four boats to reach some vessels on the Novaya Zemlya coast. They were seen and welcomed by the “Willem Barents” on Aug. 2, and soon afterwards were taken on board the “Hope,” a whaler which had come out to search for them under the command of Sir A. Young. Nordenskiéld

and the North-East

Passage—A.

E. Nor-

denskidld in 1875 turned his attention to the possibility of navigating the seas along the northern coast of Siberia. Capt. Joseph Wiggins of Sunderland was a pioneer of this route and his voyages In 1874, 1875 and 1876 led the way for a trade between . the ports of Europe and the mouth of the Yenisei river. In June 1875 Nordenskiöld sailed from Tromsö in the “Proven,” reached the Yenisei by way of the Kara sea, and discovered a harbour on the eastern side of its mouth, which was named Port Dickson, in honour of Baron Oscar Dickson of Gothenburg. Nordenskiöld undertook a voyage in the following year in the “Ymer,” which was equally successful and convinced him that the achievement of the north-east passage was feasible. The king of Sweden, Baron Oscar Dickson, and M. Sibiriakoff, a wealthy Siberian proprietor, supplied the funds, and the steamer “Vega” was purchased. Nordenskiöld was leader of the expedition, Lieut. A. L. Palander was appointed commander of the ship, and there was an efficient staff of officers and naturalists, including Lieut. A. P. Hovgaard of the Danish and Lieut. G. Bove of the Italian navy. The “Lena” was to keep company with the “Vega” as far as the mouth of the Lena, and they sailed from Gothenburg on July 4, 1878. On Aug. 19 they reached the most northern point of Siberia, Cape Chelyuskin, in 77° 43’ N. A week later the mouth of the river Lena was passed, and the “Vega” parted company with the “Lena,” continuing her course eastward. Nordenskiöld very nearly made the north-east passage in one season; but towards the end of Sept. the “Vega” was frozen in off the shore of a low plain in 67° 7’ N. and 173° 20’ W. near the settlements of the Chukchees. On July 18, 1879, the “Vega” again proceeded on her voyage and passed Bering strait on the 2oth. After a lapse of 326 years of intermittent effort, the north-east passage had at length been accomplished without the loss of a

single life and without damage to the vessel. The “Vega” arrived at Yokohama on Sept. 2, 1879. In 1879 an enterprise was undertaken in the United States, with the object of throwing further light on the fate of Franklin’s expedition, by examining the west coast of King William

208

ARCTIC

REGIONS

island in the summer, when the snow is off the ground. The party consisted of Lieut. F. Schwatka of the United States army and three others. Wintering near the entrance of Chesterfield Inlet in Hudson bay, they set out overland for the estuary of Backs island river on April 1, 1879, and crossed over to King William far in June. They examined the western shore of the island as by Nov. in ed commenc was journey return The as Cape Felix. over ascending Backs river for some distance and then marching the intervening region to Hudson bay. Some graves were found, as well as a medal belonging to Lieut. Irving of H.M.S. “Terror.” Mr. Gordon Bennett, the proprietor of the New York Herald, at his having resolved to despatch an expedition of discovery purown expense by way of Bering strait, the “Pandora” was te.” “Jeannet the ened rechrist and Young chased from Sir A. Lieut. de Long of the United States navy was appointed to command, and it was made a national undertaking by special act on of Congress. The “Jeannette” sailed from San Francisco island Wrangel towards steaming seen last was and 1879, 8, July but on Sept. 3. The “Jeannette” was provisioned for three years, as no tidings had been received of her by 1881, two steamers ,” were sent up Bering strait in search. One of these, the “Rodgers under Lieut. R. M. Berry, explored Wrangel island. No news was obtained of the “Jeannette,” but soon afterwards melancholy tidings arrived from Siberia. After having been beset in heavy ‘pack ice for 22 months, the “J eannette” was crushed and sunk on June 13, 1882, in 77° 15° N. lat., and 155° E. long. The officers and men dragged their boats over the ice to an island which was named Bennett Island, where they landed on July 29. They reached one of the New Siberian islands on Sept. 10, and on the rath they set out for the mouth of the Lena. But in the same evening the three boats were separated in a gale of wind. A boat’s crew with G. W. Melville, the engineer, reached the Lena delta and searching for the other parties found the ship’s books on Nov. 14, and the dead bodies of De Long and two of his crew on March 23, 1882. Three survivors of De Long’s party had succeeded in making their way to a Siberian village; but the

third boat’s crew was lost. The Danes have been very active in prosecuting discoveries

and scientific investigations in Greenland, since the journey of Nordenskiöld in 1870. Lieut. J. A. D. Jensen made an attempt to penetrate the inland ice in 1878 In 1879 Captain L, A. Mourier, of the Danish “Ingolf,” sighted the E. coast and was enabled to delineate it from 68° 10’ N. to 65° 55° N., this being the gap left between the discoveries of Scoresby in 1822 and those of Graah in 1829. Nansen sighted part of the same coast

in 1882. Lieut. Hovgaard planned an expedition to ascertain if land existed to the north of Cape Chelyuskin. He fitted out “Dymphna” and sailed in July 1882, but was unfortunately

beset and obliged to winter in the Kara sea. In 1883 A. E. Nordenskiéld undertook another journey over the inland ice of Greenland. Starting from Auleitsivikfjord his party penetrated 84m. eastward, to an altitude of s,ooeft. The Laplanders who

[EXPLORATION

vations should be taken for a year from Aug. 1882. This fine project was successfully carried into execution. The stations arranged for in the North polar region were at the following localities :—

Norwegians: Bossekop, Alten fjord, Norway (M. Aksel S. Steen), Swedes: Ice fjord, Spitsbergen (Professor N. Ekholm).

Dutch: Port Dickson, mouth of Yenisei, Siberia (Dr. M. Snellen),

Russians: Sagastyr island, mouth of Lena, Siberia (Lieut. N. D. Jürgens). Novaya Zemlya, 72° 23’ N. (Lieut. C. Andreiev).

Finns: Sodankyla, Finland (Professor S. Lemström). Americans: Point Barrow, Alaska (Lieut. P. H. Ray, U.S.A.).

Lady Franklin Bay, 81° 44’ N. (Lieut. A. W. Greely, U.S.A), British: Great Slave Lake, Canada (Lieut. H. P. Dawson). Germans: Cumberland Bay, Baffin island (Dr. W. Giese).

Danes: Godthaab, Greenland (Dr. A. Paulsen). Austrians: Jan Mayen (Lieut. E. V. Wohlgemuth). The whole scheme was successfully accomplished with the | exception of the part assigned to the Dutch at Port Dickson | They started in the “Varna” but were beset in the Kara sea and obliged to winter there. The “Varna” was lost, and the crew took refuge on board Hovgaard’s vessel, which was also forced to winter in the pack during 1882-83. The scientific observa tions were kept up on both vessels during the time they were drifting with the ice. The American stations commenced work in 1882 and one of these furnished a rare example of heroic devotion to duty in face of difficulties due to the fault of those who should have brought relief at the appointed time. Lieut. A. W. Greely’s party con sisted of two other lieutenants, 20 sergeants and privates of the United States army, and Dr. O. Pavy. On Aug. 11, 1881, the “Proteus” conveyed Greely and his party to Lady Franklin bay during an exceptionally favourable season; a house was built at the “Discovery’s” winter quarters, and they were left with two years’ provisions. Two winters were passed without accident. Lieut. J. B. Lockwood with 12 men made a journey along the north coast of Greenland and reached Lockwood island in 83° 24 N. and 40° 45’ W., the highest latitude reached up to that time. A promontory of Greenland seen to the north-east was named Cape Washington. The party returned to Fort Conger on June ro, 1882, after an absence of 59 days. Greely made two jour

neys westward into the interior of Grinnell Land following up the northern branch of Chandler fjord to Hazen Jake. In the spring of 1883 Lockwood made still more extensive journeys, crossing Grinnell Land to Greely fjord. The central depression of Grinnell Land abounded in musk oxen and was free from ice, though

the higher land to north and south lay under permanent ice-caps. Important as these geographical discoveries were, the main object of the expedition was the series of scientific observations at the Danish expeditions under Lieut. G. Holm explored the east headquarters, and these were carried out during the whole period ship came in coast of Greenland from Cape Farewell northwards between with the most scrupulous exactness. As no relief 1883 and 1885, and at Angmagsalik they encountered a tribe 1882, nor in 1883, Greely started from Lady Franklin bay with of Eskimo who had never seen white men before. Lieuts, C. H. his men in a steam launch and three boats on Aug. 9, expecting Ryder and T. V. Garde continued the exploration of East Green- to find a vessel in Smith sound. The boats had to be abandoned, the party reaching the shore acrass the ice with great difficulty. land, and Ryder explored Scoresby fjord. Circumpolar Stations.—On Sept. 18, 1875, C. Weyprecht, On Oct. 21, 1883, they were obliged to winter at Cape Sabine. one of the discoverers of Franz Josef Land, urged the importance A few depots were found, which had been left by Sir George were exhausted before of establishing some several stations within or near the Arctic Nares and W. M. Beebe, but all supplies Circle, and also a ring of stations as near as possible to the Ant- the spring. Then came a time of great misery and suffering; measarctic Circle, in order to record complete series of synchronous some of the party proved insubordinate and the sternest the When discipline. military meteorological and magnetic observations. Weyprecht did nat ures were required to maintain live to see his suggestions carried into execution, but they bore sun returned in 1884 the men began to die of actual starvafruit in due time. The various nations of Europe were repre- tion; but it was not until June 22, 1884, that the relieving steamsented at an international polar conference held at Hamburg ers “Thetis” and “Bear” reached Cape Sabine. Greely and si their in 1879 under the presidency of Dr. Georg Neumayer, and at suffering companions were found just alive, but with all another at Berne in 1880; and it was decided that each nation scientific records, their instruments in order, and the great col should establish one or more stations where synchronous obser- lections of specimens intact. The failure of the relief expeditions

were of the party were sent farther on snow-shoes, travelling to a height of 6,6ooft.

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to overcome difficulties which were child’s play to what Greely and his companions had come through only enhances the courage and determination of the heroic survivors.

In July 1886 Lieut. Robert E. Peary, civil engineer, U.S. Navy,

accompanied by the Dane Christian Maigaard, made a journey on the inland ice of Greenland eastward from Disco bay. They reached a height of 7,500 it., room. from the coast, and then returned. Dr. Fridtjof Nansen with Otto Sverdrup and five

other companions, after overcoming great difficulties in pene-

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islands, and the great drift commenced. As anticipated, she rose to the pressure of the ice and was borne on an even keel high above the water for the whole duration of the drift. The movement of the ice was irregular, but on the whole north-westward, until Nov. 15, 1895, when the highest latitude of the ship was attained, 85° 55’ N. in 66° 31’ E.; then it was westward and finally southward until the ice was broken by blasting round the ship in June in 83° N. lJat.; and after being afloat, though unable to make much progress until the middle of July, the “Fram” broke out of the ice off the north coast of Spitsbergen on Aug. 13, 1896. No ship before or since has reached so high a latitude. In all her drift the “Fram” came in sight of no new land, but the sound-

trating the ice-floes, succeeded in landing on the east coast of Greenland in Aug. 1888 in 64° 23’ N. and reached a height of 8.q20ft. on the inland ice, which was crossed on ski in about two weeks to the west coast. On Sept. 26 they reached the head ings made through the ice proved that the Arctic sea was of of the Ameralik fjord in 64° 12’ N., having traversed 260m. of great depth, increasing towards the Pole, the greatest depth glacier. An important principle acted on for the first time in exceeding 2,000 fathoms. The ship’s company all returned in Arctic travel on this journey was that of starting from the less perfect health. After the second winter on the “Fram” at a time accessible side and pushing straight through with no possibility when the northward movement of the drift seemed to be checked, of turning back, and thus with no necessity for forming a base Nansen, accompanied by Lieut. H. Johansen, left the ship in order or traversing the same route twice over. to explore the regions towards the Pole by travelling on ski Peary spent the winter of 1891-92 at Inglefield gulf on the with dog sledges carrying kayaks. It was obviously hopeless to north-west coast of Greenland, Mrs. Peary, Dr. F. A. Cook, attempt to find the drifting ship on their return, and Nansen Eivind Astrup and a coloured servant Matthew Henson being in intended to make for Spitsbergen in the hope of meeting one his party, and a large number of the Etah Eskimo in the vicinity. of the tourist steamers there. A more daring plan was never In April 1892 he set out for a journey across the inland ice to formed, and it was justified by success. Leaving the ship on the north-eastward in the hope of reaching the east coast and March 14, 1895, in 84° N. 102° E., they made a fairly rapid also the northern extremity of the land. The highest part of the march northward, reaching a latitude of 86° 5’ N. on April 8, the inland ice was found to be about 5,700ft. Great hardships were nearest approach to the Pole so far achieved. Turning southexperienced, but on July 4, having left the ice and reached bare westwards they travelled with much difficulty, sometimes on the land in 81° 37’ N., where musk oxen and other game were found, ice, sometimes in kayaks in the open lanes of water, incurring Peary was rewarded by a glimpse of the sea to the north-eastward, great danger from the attacks of bears and walrus, but at length and named it from the date Independence bay. He also traced reaching Franz Josef Land. They travelled westward through a channel to the north beyond which lay a new land largely this archipelago until Aug. 28, when they built a small stone free from snow, no doubt the southern part of the land along hut roofed with their light silk tent, in which they passed the the north of which Markham and Lockwood had travelled to winter on Jackson island. There they lived like Eskimo on bear their farthest north. Peary returned to northern Greenland in and walrus meat cooked over a blubber lamp. The journey 1893; on the shore of Inglefield gulf he wintered with a party southward was resumed in the spring of 1896, and on June 15 of 13, including Mrs. Peary, and there their daughter was born. they met Mr. F. G. Jackson, in whose relief ship, the “WindA series of accidents prevented much exploration the first sum- ward,” they returned to Norway. Nansen and Johansen reached mer, but in spite of scanty stores, Peary with two of his party, Vardé on Aug. 13, 1896, full of anxiety for the fate of their H. J. Lee and M. Henson, remained at Inglefield gulf for another old comrades, when by a coincidence unparalleled in the history winter, and on April 1, 1895, set out for Independence bay. The of exploration, the “Fram” was on that very day breaking out journey there and back added little to knowledge, but the experi- of the ice off Spitsbergen and the original party of 13 was reence of ice-travel and of Eskimo nature gained in the four years’ united at Tromsö the following week and returned together to almost continuous residence in northern Greenland were, however, Christiania. On this remarkable expedition no life was lost, and destined to bear rich fruit. ` the ship came back undamaged under the skilled guidance of Crossing Greenland.—The ice-sheet has since been crossed Sverdrup with a great harvest of scientific results, on several occasions: by K. Rasmussen from Inglefield gulf to Mr. F. G. Jackson planned an exploring expedition to attain Denmark fjord and back in 1912; by A. de Quervain from Disco a high latitude by the Franz Josef Land route and was supported bay to Angmagsalik the same year; by J. P. Koch from Louise financially by Mr. A. C. Harmsworth (Lord Northcliffe). He Land south-westward to near Proven in 1913; and by L. Koch was accompanied by Lieut. Albert Armitage, as second in comalong its northern edge in 1921 (see GREENLAND). mand, and six scientific men, including Dr. R. Koettlitz; Dr. Nansen: Drift of the “Fram.”—Dr. F. Nansen, after making W. S. Bruce and D. W. Wilton joined in the second year. an exhaustive study of the winds and currents of the Arctic sea, The Jackson-Harmsworth expedition sailed in 1894, and was and influenced largely by the occurrence of driftwood on the landed at Cape Flora, where log houses were built. In the spring shores past which the ice-laden waters flowed southward between of 1895 Jackson made a journey northward to 81° 19’ N. In Greenland and Spitsbergen, satisfied himself that there was a this and other journeys by land and in boats, he surveyed a congeneral drift across the polar basin and perhaps across the Pole. siderable portion of the group. The expedition returned in 1897. _He planned an expedition to take advantage of this drift on Franz Josef Land was visited by the American explorer W. the principle which guided his crossing of Greenland, that of Wellman in 1898 and 1900, and his companion E. Baldwin in the entering at the least accessible point and not turning back, thus former year made the discovery of several islands in the east having no line of retreat and making a relief expedition impos- of the archipelago. A wealthy American, W. Zeigler, also sent sible. He planned a ship, the “Fram,” which was immensely out expeditions to Franz Josef Land in rọor and between 1903 strong, to resist crushing, and of such a section that if nipped and 1905, in the course of which A. Fiala reached the high latiin the ice the opposing ice-masses would pass under her and tude of 82° 4’ N. in the “America,” but the ship was afterwards lift her on to the surface. The plan of the expedition was based lost in Teplitz bay. on scientific reasoning, but the methods were totally at variance The Italian expedition under the command of H.R.H. Prince with those of previous explorers.

Otto Sverdrup, who had been

one of Nansen’s party in crossing Greénland, was captain of

the “Fram,” and the party included rz others. The “Fram” left Christiania in the summer of 1893 and made her way through the Kara sea and along the north coast of Asia, until on Sept. 20 she was run into the ice in 77° 30’ N. off the New Siberian

Luigi, duke of the Abruzzi, was the most successful of all those which have attempted to reach high latitudes by way of Franz Josef Land. Sailing in 1899 in the “Stella Polare” the expedition wintered in Teplitz bay in Rudolf island. In the spring of 1900 an effort was made to reach the North Pole by sledging over

the sea-ice. The duke of the Abruzzi having been disabled by

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frost-bite, the leadership of the northern party devolved upon and Capt. Cagni, who started on March 10, 1900, with ten men men three island Rudolf of sight losing Before dogs. nearly 100 forming the first supporting party started to return, but they never reached winter quarters and all must have perished. The second party returned safely from latitude 83° ro’ N. Cagni pushed on with three companions, and on April 25, 1900, succeeded in reaching 86° 34’ N. in 65° 20 E. Diminishing food supplies made it necessary to turn at this point, and although he had reached it in 45 days it took Cagni 60 days to return. At the farthest north no land was visible. Franz Josef Land was to be the base of a march to the Pole by the Russian, G. L. Sedoff, but on his death near Rudolf island in 1913 the journey was abandoned and the “Phoca” (later the “Suvorin”) returned to Archangel. G. L. Brusilov sailed in 1912 in the “Santa Anna” to attempt the north-east passage. The ship was caught in the ice of the Kara sea and in a year and a half drifted to 83° N., long. 63° E., north of Franz Josef Land, where 11 men left the ship. Two of them were found by the “Phoca” at Cape Flora; the others perished on the way. Nothing is known of the fate of the ship and the remainder of the crew. As early as 1895 a scheme for an exploring expedition in a balloon was put forward seriously, and in 1897 the Swedish aeronaut S. A. Andrée carried it out. He had brought a balloon to Danes island, Spitsbergen, the previous year, but the weather was unpropitious and the ascent had to be postponed. On July 11, 1897, he started in a new and larger balloon with about five tons of supplies and two companions. It was hoped that the balloon could be steered to some extent by the use of heavy guide ropes dragging over the ice, and Andrée had already made successful flights in this way. Rising at 2.30 P.M. the balloon was out of sight of Danes island in an hour. At 10 P.M.

Andrée threw out a buoy containing a message which was recov-

ered, and this stated that the balloon was in 82° N. 25° E., moving towards the north-east at an altitude of 800ft. above a rugged ice-field. This was the last news received, and in spite of many rumours, nothing further has ever been ascertained. In 1897 and subsequent years Sir Martin Conway explored the interior of Spitsbergen. Dr. A. G. Nathorst explored the

eastern coast and off-lying islands, including Gilies land.

In

[EXPLORATION

Melville islands were discovered and mapped, and a great deal

of valuable work was accomplished.

Stefansson and Macmillan.—The western part of the (a. nadian Arctic archipelago was extensively explored by V. Stef. ansson in several expeditions from 1906 to 1918. Stefanssoy always lived in Eskimo fashion, hunting as he went, and so could travel light and avoid the need of falling back on a base for supplies. He added much to the survey of the Parry Islands islands to the west of Axel Heiberg islands, and Banks island, The southern branch of his expedition of 1914-18 under R. M. Anderson conducted researches in Victoria island and the main. land of Arctic Canada. The “Karluk,” under R. A. Bartlett was caught in the ice north of Alaska and drifted to destruction in 72° N, 173° 50° W., but all except four men, including J. Murray, Forbes McKay and H. Beuchat were eventually saved by the exertions of Bartlett. Sledge journeys and soundings of this expedition, one of E. Mikkelsen in 1907 and of D. B. Macmillan in 1914 towards Peary’s hypothetical Crocker Land prac-

tically proved the absence of any further land in the Beaufort

sea. Further work in Ellesmere Land including a westward jour ney to 82° 30’ N., 108° 22’ 30” W. ina vain search for Crocker Land was carried out by D. B. Macmillan, W. E. Ekblaw and

others of an American expedition which had its base at Etah on Smith sound from 1913-17. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police, who maintain several ports in Baffin and Ellesmere islands and elsewhere in the Canadian Arctic, are annually surveying and exploring these islands. Toll and Vilkitski.—Russian surveyors and explorers continued to map portions of the Siberian coast, and in 1886 Dr. A. Bunge and Baron E. von Toll visited the New Siberian islands, Baron Toll continued this work in 1893. He set out once more in 1901 in the “Zarya,” hoping to reach Sannikov island, a land reported to the north of the New Siberian group. In Aug. 1902 he reached Bennett island with the astronomer Seeberg and two men, and remained there until Nov. Nothing more was heard of the expedition, and a relief expedition in 1904, under Lieuts. M. P. Brusneff and A. V. Kolchak, failed to find any trace of the explorers beyond a record left on Bennett island, which gave a summary of their movements up to the time of leaving the island. Between 1912 and 1915 the Russian ice-breakers “Taimir” and “Vaigach,” under the command of B. A. Vilkitski, were employed in surveys of the Arctic coast of Siberia. Besides much accurate charting of the coasts, and oceanographical work, they discovered in 1913 Nicholas Land (Northern Land) and two small islands north-west of Cape Chelyuskin and made partial surveys of them in 1914. The northern limits of Nicholas Land are unknown Bennett island was also explored, Jokhov and Vilkitski islands discovered to the south-east of it and Sannikov land practically disproved. Amundsen.—In 1901 Captain Roald Amundsen, a Norwegiar, who had been mate on the “Belgica” in her Antarctic voyage, planned an expedition to the area of the north magnetic pole visited by Sir J. Ross in 1831, in order to re-locate it, and as a secondary object he had in view the accomplishment of the north-west passage by water for the first time. A small sealing sloop, the “Gjéa,” was fitted with a petroleum motor and strengthened to withstand ice-pressure. She left Christiania on June 17, 1903, with a total company of six men, second in com-

1899 Nathorst visited the north-east coast of Greenland, mapped Franz Josef fjord, and discovered the great King Oscar fjord. In 1899 Admiral S. O. Makaroff of the Russian navy arranged for the trial trip of the great ice-breaker “Yermak,” which he designed, to the sea-ice off Spitsbergen. Though no high latitude was attained on this occasion he formed the opinion that a vessel of sufficient size and power could force a passage even to the Pole. The Russian-Japanese War put an end to the polar projects of this gifted man of science. In subsequent years valuable surveys and scientific observations were made by the Prince of Monaco in his yacht “Princesse Alice,” by Dr. W. S. Bruce, notably on Prince Charles foreland, and by others. Spitsbergen Surveys—Much detailed work has been done in Spitsbergen in recent years by Norwegians, British and Swedes. Norwegian government surveys of the western part of the mainland have been completed by G. Isachsen, A. Staxrud, A. Hoel and the survey ship “Fram.” The opening of coal mines has been responsible for other surveys. In 1912 a German exploring expedition under Lieut. Schroeder-Stranz came to grief and almost mand being Lieut. G. Hansen of the Danish navy. She passed total loss on the north coast, but in the same area in 1924 an through Lancaster sound down the west side of Boothia Felix, Oxford university expedition under G. Binney did useful work and took up winter quarters in Gjéa harbour in Petersen bay, in North-East Land and adjacent coasts. An expedition under King William island. Here the vessel remained for two years F. A. Worsley in the “Island” did some oceanographical work while observations were carried out, and sledging excursions wert made to the magnetic pole and along the coasts of Victoria island, east of Spitsbergen in 1925. Otto Sverdrup planned an Arctic voyage for the circumnavi- which was charted up to 72° N. In August 1905 the “Gjöa” was frozen M gation of Greenland in the “Fram.” G. I. Isachsen was the sur- proceeded westward along the Canadian coast, but veyor. Starting in 1899, he was obliged to abandon the attempt off King Point for a third winter. On July 11, 1906, she go to get northward through Smith sound, and making his way free, reached Bering strait and entered the Pacific, the first ship westward into Jones sound he spent three years in exploring to pass from ocean to ocean north of Patagonia. Between 1918-21 Amundsen made the north-east passage 0 islands to the north of the field of the Franklin search expeditions. Axel Heiberg and other islands between Ellesmere and the “Maud,” wintering three times on the Siberian coast on his

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way to Alaska. The voyage was preliminary to a journey across the Arctic Ocean on the lines of Nansen’s drift in the “Fram.” Unfavourable ice-conditions delayed the successful start of the drift until 1922. Amundsen returned to Europe to prepare for his polar flight and O. Wisting commanded the “Maud.” H. U.

Cyerdrup was the scientific leader.

From Wrangel island the

ship drifted for two years south of and parallel to the track of the “Jeannette” to the north of the New Siberian islands. Then after another winter at the Bear islands near the Kolima mouth the “Maud” returned to Nome. Greenland.—Danish explorers have continued to concentrate

their attention on Greenland. of expeditions between

Lieut. G. D. Amdrup, inaseries

1898 and r900, charted the east coast

as far north as 70° 15’ N. The duke of Orleans in the “Belgica,”

under the command of Captain Gerlache in 1905 cruised along the coast between “6° and 78° N., and fixed the general outline of the land. This expedition did a large amount of work in oceanography. L. Mylius-Erichsen sailed in the “Danmark” in June 1906 and found winter quarters in Danmarkhaven, 75° 43’ N., where the ship remained for two years, while systematic observations were kept up at the base and the work of exploring to the northward was carried on by sledge. The coast was found to curve much farther to the north-eastward than had been anticipated.

Having left the winter quarters on March 28,

1907, Mylius-Erichsen, with Capts. J. P. Koch, N. P. Hagen, an

educated Eskimo, Brénlund and two others, reached north-east foreland, the eastern extremity of Greenland (81° 20’ N., 11° 1 g

W.) charting the coast as they went. Here they divided; Koch

with A. Berthelsen and the Eskimo Tobias went north-westward to explore the east coast of Peary Land, and succeeded in reaching Cape Bridgman in 83° 20’ N., thus linking up with Peary’s work in 1900. From this great journey he returned in safety to winter quarters. Meanwhile Mylius-Erichsen, with Hagen and Brénlund, followed the coast westward into what was believed to be the Independence bay seen from a distance by Peary; this turned out to be a deep inlet now named Danmark fjord. Keeping to the coast, they entered Independence bay and pushed on to Cape Glacier in 82° N. and 35° W. by June 14, 1907, within sight of Navy Cliff, which had been Peary’s farthest coming from the west side. Here the softness of the snow kept them all summer. When they could travel, more than a fortnight was wasted adrift on a floe in the effort to cross Danmark fjord. Here the sun left them, while they were without food, almost worn out and more than soom. from the ship. It was impossible to attempt the long journey round the coast, and the only chance of safety, and that a very slender one, was to make a way southward over the inland ice and so cut off the eastern horn of Greenland which the expedition had discovered. Under the most terrible difficulties they accomplished the feat of marching 16om. in 26 days, and reached the east coast again in 79° N. Hagen died on the way; Mylius-Erichsen himself struggled on until he nearly reached the provisions left on Lambert island on the northern journey; but he too perished, and only Bronlund reached the supplies. He was unable to proceed further, and after recording the journey in his diary, he died also alone in the Arctic night. His records were discovered in the following year by Koch, and Erichsen’s in 1910 by E. Mikkelsen. Using as a base the Eskimo trading station of Thule in North Star bay on Smith sound, K. Rasmussen, L. Koch and other Danes have carefully explored the north of Greenland, and in 1921-24 Rasmussen, P. Freuchen and K. Birket-Smith continued their researches in Eskimo culture by visiting, between them, all the tribes from Greenland to Alaska. They also surveyed

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a way to the Pole. He made some long sledge journeys in the winter of 1898-99, having his feet badly frost-bitten and losing

eight toes, and wintered amongst the Etah Eskimo in 1899-1900.

Next spring he made a successful journey to the north of Greenland, and pushed north over the sea-ice for 20m. farther, reaching 83° s4’ N. Peary wintered again at Fort Conger in 1900-1, and for the fourth year in succession he went through the Arctic winter, 1901-2, at Payer harbour. In the spring of 1902 he made a great journey to Cape Hecla in the north of Grant Land and thence northward over the frozen sea to 84° 17’ N. in 70° W. Frequent open leads of water and the moving of the icefloes made further advance impossible, and after an unparalleled sojourn in the farthest north, Peary returned to the United States. The Peary Arctic Club of New York, formed to support this indomitable explorer, provided funds for a new expedition and a ship named the “Roosevelt.” In her he proceeded in the summer of 1905 through Smith sound to Cape Sheridan on the north coast of Grant Land, Capt. R. A. Bartlett being in command of the ship. From this point he advanced by sledge to Cape Hecla, whence he made a most strenuous attempt to reach the North Pole. Organizing his large following of trained Eskimo, whose confidence in him had been won by many years of friendship, and his few white companions in separate parties, he set off at the end of February 1906. A very broad lead of open water was encountered in 84° 38’ N., and as the party did not carry kayaks much time was lost in getting across. The floes had a marked eastward drift and it was difficult to make progress northward; however, Peary struggled on by forced marches to 87° 6 N., which he reached on April 21, 1906, the most northerly point so far attained. His return journey was the most dangerous in his experience; many leads had to be crossed, sometimes

on ice so thin that it bent beneath the weight of the explorers, provisions were exhausted and the men were reduced to eating their dogs before they made land at Cape Neumayer in the north

of Greenland. Returning to America, Peary prepared for a last attempt. Leaving New York in July 1908 the “Roosevelt,” again under the command of R. Bartlett, brought the party, with the Eskimo who were picked up on the way, to Cape Sheridan by Sept. 5. During the winter all supplies were transported to Cape Columbia, farther west on the coast of Grant Land. Here there were ready to start in the first light of the Arctic day seven explorers, 17 picked Eskimo and 133 of the best dogs in Greenland, with 19 sledges. As the outcome of all Peary’s experience the expedition was arranged to consist of a lightly equipped advance party to select the route and make the trail by clearing a way through rough ice, and a main party composed of units of four men each with sledges containing all their requirements marching one day behind the pioneer party. From this unit parties were to return southward at intervals with the empty sledges, leaving the diminished main party to push on fully provisioned. The “big lead,” said to mark the edge of the continental shelf in 84° N., was crossed after some delay and here the sun appeared for the first time on March 5, 1999. D. B. Macmillan with three Eskimo and three sledges returned along the outward trail after

March 7 from 84° 29’ N. A sounding at this point showed the depth of the sea to be 825 fathoms. After five mere marches G. Borup turned back in 85° 23’ with three Eskimo and three sledges, the best Eskimo and dogs remaining with the main party. From this point the advance was regular; the pioneer party started from the snow-houses they had built and slept in when the main party arrived, and while the latter slept the pioneers marched, selected a camp, built new snow-houses, and slept till parts of Baffin island (Cockburn Land). Eskimo stations on the main party came up. At 86° 38’ N. R. G. Marvin turned Scoresby sound, east Greenland, founded 1925-26, have been back, as usual with the three worst Eskimo and the worst dogs. the base of other work by L. Koch. In 1926 a Cambridge expe- His party reached the ship, but he himself was drowned in redition under J. M. Wordie did some survey on the east between crossing the “big lead,” the only casualty of the expedition. At 88° N. Bartlett turned back on April 1 in accordance with the 72° and 75° N. Peary: Journey to the North Pole.—After the return of the system with two Eskimo, one sledge and 18 dogs. Up to this Jackson-Harmsworth expedition, Lord Northcliffe presented point Peary had saved himself as much as possible, leaving the the “Windward” to Peary, who resumed in 1898 his systematic path-finding and the observations to his very competent colexplorations of the Smith Sound region in the hope of finding leagues; but now he put forth all his strength for the arduous

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140m. which separated him from the Pole. He was accompanied by Henson and four Eskimo. The ice improved as he went on, and it was possible to do 25m. in a daily march of ro hours, and on one occasion 30m. in 12 hours. On April 6 an observation gave 89° 57’ N., and here a camp was made and observations taken throughout 24 hours to fix the position, as well as excursions a few miles farther on and a few miles to right and left so as to be sure of actually reaching the Pole. No land was to be seen, and a sounding through the ice gave a depth of 1,500 fathoms with no bottom. The American flag was hoisted; the goal of all the ages of exploration had been reached. The return journey was quick and easy. The tracks kept open by the passage of the various return parties were distinct, the snow-houses stood ready, and a northerly gale kept the ice pressed well together and the leads closed. On April 23 Cape Columbia was reached and soon after the party was safe on board the “Roosevelt.” Success was due to the accumulated experience of 23 years’ constant Arctic work, and to the thorough acquaintance with the Eskimo and their dogs, which enabled the best work to be got out of them. Dr. F. A. Cook spent two years in the Arctic regions, 1907-9, and claimed to have reached the Pole by sledging alone with two Eskimo a year before Peary. He submitted the evidence for this achievement to the university of Copenhagen, which failed to find it satisfactory, and Dr. Cook did not appear to challenge this decision. Polar Flights——Three flights were made to the North Pole in 1926-28. On May 9, 1926, Commander R. E. Byrd of the U.S. navy, flew from Spitsbergen to the pole and back in 16 hours; two days later Roald Amundsen, who had failed with an aeroplane in 1925, started from the same base with L. Ellsworth and Umberto Nobile in the Italian built dirigible “Norge,” crossed the pole and reached Teller, Alaska, a distance of 3,391m., in 72 hours. No land was seen on the way, but at times mist obscured the view. General Nobile, starting from the Spitsbergen base in May, 1928, in the dirigible “Italia,” first made a survey eastward over Franz Josef Land, and then turned due north, reaching the pole on May 24. On his return, the “Ttalia” was wrecked on North East Land, east of Spitsbergen, but Nobile and most of his crew were saved after six weeks on the ice. Amundsen, who had joined in the search for Nobile’s party in an aeroplane, was lost. Leaving Point Barrow, Alaska, on April 15, 1928, Captain George H. Wilkins and Lieut. Eielson flew across the Arctic ocean, reaching Spitsbergen in 204 hours, and covering 2,200 miles. Wilkins was knighted on his return.

Fyture Exploration.—There is little likelihood of new land

except a few islands in groups already known being discovered in the Arctic, but the successful exploration of the polar basin has yet to be undertaken. Detailed topographical and geological surveys are required in many Arctic lands. Geodetic measurements and gravity determinations with modern instruments of precision are much needed. Investigations of terrestrial magnetism are of great importance. The study of Arctic meteorology cannot fail to throw light on the atmospheric circulation in the northern hemisphere and on the origin and course of cyclones. Statistical data are fairly numerous, but there is urgent need of using modern methods of research on the spot. A study of ice formation and currents, apart from its own interest and its bearing on possible climatic changes will probably be found to have bearings on the weather of Europe. Lastly, there are numerous problems in biology and the conditions of life in polar regions, apart from mere collecting, that can only be studied on the spot.

Exploration of the future requires not so much travelling expeditions as fixed stations operating for a year or more. THE ARCTIC OCEAN

The broad outlines of the physical geography of Arctic regions are known, although much has to be done in filling in details. The landlocked Arctic sea or ocean, lying eccentric to the North Pole includes, with the Greenland and Norwegian seas, about 5,400,000sq.m. A feature of the Arctic sea is its wide continental shelf on which lie numerous groups of islands, Greenland, Spits-

[ARCTIC OCEAN

bergen, Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, the Canadian Arctic islands, etc. (g.v.). No islands are known in the deep polar basin and there is little likelihood of any existing. The tidal observa. tions of the “Maud” discourage the probability of any exten. sive land in the Beaufort sea, which is the one large unexplored

area in which land has been suggested. Depths.—The wide continental shelf is marked by several depressions below 100 fathoms. Baffin bay falls to depths of over 1,000 fathoms; the Greenland sea, including its south-eastern part which is sometimes called the Norwegian sea, falls to 2,000 fathoms, and the Barents sea, which is really a gulf of the Greenland sea, reaches over 300 fathoms in the west. The Kara sea is a shallow sea scarcely over 100 fathoms in depth between

Novaya Zemlya and the Yamal peninsula. The name Beaufort sea applies to that part of the ocean between Alaska and the Parry islands. The Bering sea lies between Bering strait and the Aleutian islands.

The deep polar basin has not been accurately

charted since its surface is generally ice-covered.

The deepest

soundings are 2,100 fathoms in 81° N., 130’ E.; 2,020 fathoms in 84° 30’ N., 75° E.; 2,050 fathoms in 87° 43’ N., 10° 20’ W.: and 3,076 fathoms in 77° 45’ N., 175° W. The last is an echo sounding. A sounding of 2,561 fathoms in 72° N. 147° W. sug. gests the need of confirmation; it was probably only about 1,383

fathoms. Peary found 1,500 fathoms within five miles of the Pole. The basin of the Greenland sea is cut off from the polar basin by a ridge at about 800 fathoms between Greenland and

Spitsbergen. This ridge has not been accurately defined. The Faeroe-Icelandic and Wyville Thompson ridge at less than 300 fathoms separates the deep Greenland sea from the depths of the Atlantic basin. Other connections of the Arctic waters and the great ocean basins are by the many shallow channels among the Canadian Arctic islands and the narrow Bering strait which is only 30 fathoms deep. The origin of the polar basin is not clear, but there is some evidence that it is a relatively recent feature of the earth’s surface and did not exist in Palaeozoic times. The wide continental shelf

is probably a plain of marine abrasion in which the disintegrating power of frost, an active agent of destruction in the Arctic, has helped the action of the waves. If this explanation is true there

must have been a change in the relative level of land and sea; either a sinking of the land or a rising of the sea. The lowering of sea-level during the Pleistocene ice age owing to the abstraction of water from the oceans offers a partial explanation, but wave and frost action needed a larger period of time than the duration of the ice age. Since its formation began the shelf has been undergoing depression by the weight of land waste accumulating on its floor, and at the same time denudation, by decreasing the weight of the land, is causing the coastal region to rise. The strandflat, a rocky platform at 60 to rooft. above sea-level, is another significant feature of many Arctic and sub-Arctic lands. Nansen sees in it another plain of marine abrasion formed when the ocean water stood higher owing to feeble glaciation.

Deposits.—Bottom deposits in high latitudes contain little or-

ganic matter and only 1 to 4% of CaCO,. Between Spitsbergen and Greenland the amount of lime increases to over 20 or even 30% owing to foraminifera. Diatoms which are abundant in surface waters do not, among the rock waste, form a high enough proportion to justify the name of diatom-ooze for any Arctic deposit. Circulation.—Arctic surface waters in spite of being cold are relatively light on account of their low salinity, due both to lack of evaporation and steady inflow of great volumes of fresh water

from the Eurasian and American rivers. The tendency of the light surface layers is to spread outwards, a movement which is helped by the prevailing winds, and the overflow necessary from a constricted basin to which inflow of river water is considerable and where evaporation is slight. Within the polar basin the surface waters are sweeping across from Alaska and Siberia towards Spitsbergen and Greenland on the Asiatic side of the Arctic sea. Most of this water and the ice it carries finds its way southwards into the Barents and Greenland seas by the east Spitsbergen and east Greenland currents which flow southward along these coasts

ARCTIC OCEAN]

ARCTIC

REGIONS

and tend to block them with streams of pack-ice. Some of the

polar water finds its way out through Smith sound and other channels west of Greenland and feeds the Labrador current along

303

rafted ice mixed with floe-bergs from glaciers but was not more than four or five years old. There is some surface melting by solar radiation in summer, but it is only by drifting into warmer

the west of Davis straits and the coast of Labrador. Lastly some

waters that much ice is destroyed. Apart from actual melting under those conditions the floes become soft and friable and easily disintegrate under wave action. All polar ice is in motion even in

fows southward on the western side of Bering strait. The Labrador current is dissipated by the Gulf Stream on the Newfoundland hanks. The east Greenland current splits, sending one branch

oo oes.

of the water finds its way westward through the Beaufort sea and merges again in the great transpolar drift except a little which

and lanes and pools frequently appear between the

Marine Life.—Those parts of the ocean continually covered

eastward to the north of Iceland and the Faeroes, eventually to

with ice have a poor development of surface plant life, due probpoor development of be lost in the north Atlantic drift, and another round Cape Fare- ably to a lack of light, and a consequent well and northward into Davis strait. In opposition to these cold animal life. The deeper strata are also poor in individuals though is more open plant life teems outflowing currents there are northward setting drifts due to fairly rich in species. Where the sea diatoms sometimes prevalent winds. The most noteworthy is the north Atlantic drift. in the surface waters to such an extent that tinge the sea bright green. This abundant phytoplankton is due main four has and Norway and Britain of This washes the coasts pranches: (1) the North Cape drift along the Murman coast into to a combination of conditions. Warmer deep layers of water in set free by animal metabolism the Barents sea; (2) the Spitsbergen drift northward past Bear which nitrates and carbon dioxide afford food for pelagic plants, and seas polar in northsurface the to rise current, Irminger the island and western Spitsbergen; (3) of westward along the south and west coasts of Iceland into Den- while the low temperature of the waters retards the actions in but abundant, less is plankton Animal strait, bacteria. Davis denitrifying into stream terly north-wes mark strait; (4) another fauna. The occurwashing the coasts of south-west Greenland. A small current sets all shallow seas there is an abundant bottom ofalittoral northward along the eastern side of Bering strait. All these cur- rence and erosive action of ice impedes the growth including a numerous, are Fishes coasts. many on causes flora and fauna ultimate The rents vary in intensity from year to year. species of sea char or salmon, cod and halibut. Seals are abunof the variation between inflow and outflow are not clear. Temperature and Salinity.—In the polar basin the vertical dant, especially along the margins of the drifting packs. Whales still occur distribution of temperature and salinity vary little in all places have been much reduced in number by hunting, but is scarce life mammalian seas ice-covered the In pack. below the is outside temperature fathoms roo to surface the examined. From wanderfew a and narwhal occasional an seals, few or a for 28-6° except of the freezing point of fresh water with a minimum 28-7° (—1-9°C. or —1-8°C.) at 30 fathoms. Salinity increases from ing polar bears, but the Arctic is not a lifeless desert. 29 or 30 per mille at the surface to nearly 35 at 100 fathoms, and ARCTIC LANDS below that depth it seems to remain constant. Temperature rises Geology.—The northern parts of Europe, Asia and America at 160 or 200 fathoms to 32-5° (0-3°C.) or even 33-8° (1°C.) Arctic mainlands lie and then falls to a second minimum of 30-5° (—o-8°C.) at 1,400 almost encircle the Arctic sea. Beyond these on the continental shelf. All groups island and islands various degree a of tenths few a rises it which below to 1,600 fathoms, land areas and most of them towards the bottom. There is little variation in these figures in these are relics of more extensive the nearest continental land. summer and winter, except near the surface, where a relatively show geological continuity with and the De Long islands, fresh layer of 5 to 6ft. may occur owing to melting snow on pack- Some of them, such as Nicholas Land a geological standpoint. In ice. Near the Siberian coast there is in summer a layer of warm have been inadequately explored from can only be inferred surface water from the Siberian rivers which helps to keep those ice-covered lands the geological structure lands does the snowArctic few in and rocks, marginal the from Norwecoasts free from ice at that season. In the Greenland and for a few weeks in summer. gian seas the water below about 400 fathoms has a uniform salinity fall allow geological exploration except Canadian Arctic and of nearly 35 per mille and a temperature at that depth slightly be- While Archaean rocks predominate in the ages are found exclulow 32°, falling to 29-8° (—1-2°C.) at the bottom. This is the Greenland, rocks of palaeozoic and later For details see GREENLAND, same water that fills the polar basin. The lower temperature at sively in the Eurasian Arctic islands. is rare. Beerenberg activity volcanic Present etc. SPITSBERGEN, the bottom of the Greenland sea than in the polar basin confirms springs occur in Wood Warm volcano. active an is Mayen Jan in Spitsand Greenland between ridge submarine a of the existence activity is notable in the Tertiary bergen which cuts off the colder bottom water of the Greenland bay, Spitsbergen. Past volcanic Land and the New sea. In the Spitsbergen current from the south, maximum surface basalts of Greenland, Spitsbergen, Franz Josef of a warmer evidence geological clear is There Islands. Siberian per 35 of salinity maximum temperatures of 41° at 42-8° and a the Pleistocene mille occur west of Spitsbergen. It is this Atlantic water which Arctic climate during tertiary times, but during and probably ice age climate was more severe than at present forms the warmer layer already referred to. Arctic islands, was ice In the Barents sea the Atlantic drift waters have a salinity of most Arctic land, except the Canadian

nearly 35 per mille and a temperature of 41° to 43° (5° to 6°C.). ' covered.

Most Arctic hills are edged by slopes or scree of coarse or fine debris from the weathering of the rocks above. This loose material freezes together in winter, and though loose on the surface bottom temperature falls below 30-2° (—1°C.). water, except where The Kara sea, with much river water, has a low salinity of 29 in summer is not carried away by running the solid rock and hide screes These it. across cut gullies deep intermedian has basin polar the like to 34 per mille. Baffin bay are of frequent beaches Raised difficult. work geological make ate warm layer between cold surface and bottom layers. Pack-ice.—Two-thirds of the Arctic sea is covered by drifting occurrence and deltaic lands are forming im many fjords. Native Population—The original people of the north of pack-ice which is formed by the freezing of surface layers during autumn, winter and spring. A small part of the ice comes from Europe are the nomadic Lapps who live by fishing and reindeer glaciers. This berg ice is distinguished easily by size and structure breeding, and further east in Russia and western Siberia the from sea-ice. It comes principally from Greenland with some Samoyedes who follow the same mode of life. They also have from Franz Josef Land, Spitsbergen, Novaya Zemlya and Elles- small settlements on Novaya Zemlya. In eastern Siberia the chief mere island, but large icebergs, except in west Greenland waters, Arctic people are the Chukchee, reindeer herders, between the are rare in the Arctic. Pack-ice seldom grows thicker than 6 to Kolima mouth and Bering strait, but other tribes touch or occaIndians wander north 7it. in one year, but by yearly accretions it may attain Isft. or sionally visit the northern coast. American more. Floes are generally covered with sufficient weight of snow of the Arctic Circle in Alaska and Canada. Eskimo (q.v.) extend and Green-~ to depress the actual surface of the ice to sea-level. Pressure due from eastern Siberia and Alaska to Ungava, Labrador in civilization with contact by out dying be to to currents and wind may cause piled or rafted hummocks 40 to land. They appear govSoft. above sea-level. Nares’ palaeocrystic ice was probably spite of the protective measures of the Canadian and Danish

The bottom temperature in the west and south-west is above oa:

In the eastern part salinity and temperature are lower and the

ARCTIC

304

REGIONS

ernments. Practically all the Eskimo of west Greenland, except the Polar Eskimo or Arctic Highlanders north of Melville bay, have Danish blood in their veins.

There has never been a na-

tive population in Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land and the New

Siberian Islands. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—For very full references to polar exploration see A. W. Greely, Handbook of Polar Discoveries (4th ed., 1910), and for

[CLIMATE

The Coldest Region.—The coldest known region of the north. ern hemisphere is the province of Yakutsk, in the vicinity of the Arctic Circle, where temperatures colder than 90° F below zero

have been reliably recorded—and that on the edge of cereg| farming, for the great Russian atlas issued just before the World

War indicates that wheat, barley, oats and rye are cultivated if not at the very cold pole of the Northern Hemisphere, atleast a nearly complete bibliography of earlier polar literature see J. Cha- within a comparatively short distance from it, where the temperature frequently drops lower than 80° below zero. This is vanne and others, The Literature of the Polar Regions (1878) ; F. Nan; sen, In Northern Mists (1911) for exploration up to the 16th century colder than any known region in Arctic Alaska or Arctic Canada, jor Etats-Ma des Liste 1800: depuis Polaires ns Expéditio J. Demicé, Les We may conclude, then, that winter cold does not frighten away of Account An Scoresby, W. Antarctic; and Arctic both (1911) covers the Arctic Regions (1820) ; M’Clintock, A Narrative of the Discovery Europeans through its mere disagreeableness nor render it imof the Fate of Sir John Franklin, etc. (1859) ; G. S. Nares, Voyage to possible for them to make aliving. the Polar Sea, 1875-76 (1878) ; A. H. Markham, The Great Frozen Sea No records apparently authentic of temperatures colder than (1878, etc.) ; J. Richardson, The Polar Regions (1861) ; numerous pa60° F below zero are available from any of the Arctic islands R. Markham, pers in Petermanns Mitteilungen from 1870 onwards; The Threshold of the Unknown Region (1873); Die zweite deutsche Nordpolfahrt unter Fiihrung des Capt. K. Koldewey (1873-74) ; Manual of the Natural History, Geology, and Physics of Greenland and the neighbouring Regions, published by the Admiralty (1875); J. Payer, New Lands within the Arctic Circle (1876) ; E. Bessels, Sczentific Results of the U.S. Arctic Expedition, C. F. Hall commanding, vol. i, (1874); Die amerikanische Nordpol-Expedition (1879); The Norwegian North Atlantic Expedition, 1876—78, especially: H. Mohn, “The North Ocean: its Depths, Temperature and Circulation” (1887) ; A. E. Nordenskjöld, Tke Voyage of the “Vega” (1881) ; several reports on the six voyages of the “Willem Barents” in the summers of 1878 to 1883, published in Dutch (1879-87); De Long, The Voyage of the

ĉ&Teanneite” (1883); Otto Pettersson, “Contributions to the Hydrography of the Siberian Sea,” in Vega-Expeditionens vetenskapliga Iakttagelser, vol. ii. (1883); A. W. Greely, Three Years of Arctic Service (1886); C. Ryder, “Den Ostgrénlandske Expedition,” Meddelelser om Grénland, pt. xvii. (1895); Isforholdene i de Arktiske Have, with charts (annual); The Danish Ingolf Expedition; see especially M. Knudsen, “Hydrography,” in vol. i. (1899) ; F. Nansen, Farthest North (1897); The Norwegian North Polar Expedition, 1893-96: Scientific Results; Duke of the Abruzzi, On the Polar Star (1903) ; O. Sverdrup, New Land (1904); Axel Hamberg, “Hydrographische Arbeiten der von A. G. Nathorst geleiteten schwedischen Polarexpedition 1898,” Kongl. svenska vet.-akad. Handlingar, vol. xli. No. ı (1906) ; F. Nansen, “Northern Waters,” Videnskabs Selskabets Skrifter, No. 3 (1906) ; “Spitsbergen Waters,” ditto No. 2 (x915); B. Helland-Hansen and F. Nansen, “The Norwegian Sea,” Report on Norwegian Fishery and Marine Investigations, vol. ii. No. 2 (1909); Duc d'Orléans, Croisière océanographique dans la Mer du Grönland en 1905 (1909); J. M. Hulth, “Swedish Arctic and Antarctic Explorations, 1758-1910, Bibliography,” K. Svenska Vetens Arsbok roro (Uppsala, 1910) ; R. F. Peary, The North Pole (1910); R. Amundsen, The North-West Passage (1909) and The First Flight Across the Arctic Ocean (1927); R. A. Bartlett and R. T. Hale, The Last Voyage of the Karluk (1916); V. Stefansson, My Life with the Eskimo (1913), The Friendly Arctic (1921) and The Northward Course of Empire (1922); K. Rasmussen, Greenland by the Polar Sea (1921) and Across Arctic America (1927) 5 Reports of the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-18 (1919, with valuable bibliographies), especially T. Holm, “Morphology, Synonymy and Distribution of Arctic Plants” (V.B. 1922) and J. J. O'Neill, “Geology of the Arctic Coast of Canada” (XI. A. 1924) ; D. B. Macmillan, Four Years in the White North (1925); F. Nansen, Hunting and Adventure in the Arctic (1925) ; W. H. Hobbs, The Glacial Anticyclones (1926), with bibliography of Arctic meteorology; O. Nordenskjéld, Nord-und Siidpolarlinder (1926); R. N. Rudmose Brown, The Polar Regions (1927): H. V. Sverdrup, Tre Aar i Isen med Maud (Oslo, 1927); Byrd, Commander Richard E., Skyward (1928) ; Wilkins, Sir George (R. N. R. B.) Hubert, Flying the Arctic (1928).

CLIMATIC

CONDITIONS

It is a commonplace of modern geography that there are two main kinds of climate, continental and insular, with the seacoasts of continents partaking somewhat of the insular qualities. In continental climates there are greater extremes of heat and cold than on islands. It follows that the most intense cold in the Arctic is nowhere near either the mathematical centre, called the North Pole, or the sea-ice centre, called the Pole of Inaccessibility (84° N. lat., 160° W. long.). In Arctic Alaska, the coldest weather is, so far as we know, in the Yukon basin; in Canada

it is in Yukon Territory; and in Siberia it is in the province of Yakutsk. All these places have been inhabited for a quarter of a century or more by Europeans who are not known to have been materially discouraged in their work by the mere disagreeable-

ness of the climate, although they have been handicapped by the frozen ground and in other things that result directly from the cold.

and it is almost certain that they do not occur.

The coldest

spells that do occur come when the wind blows from the interiors of the islands. It seems unlikely, therefore, that the tempera-

ture ever drops as low as 55° below zero at the North Pole, the Pole of Inaccessibility, or, indeed, at any point on the Arctic sea. Summer Temperatures.—There is probably no spot on a lowland in the continental Arctic, whether in Asia or America, that does not occasionally have a summer temperature warmer than

80° F in the shade. Or, if there is such a place, it must be ona peninsula, or on a narrow coastal strip between ice-covered mountains and the sea. Many places in the continental Arctic have occasional temperatures above 85° in the shade, and at least one Arctic weather bureau station, that of the U.S. Government at Ft. Yukon, Alaska, has a record of 100° in the shade.

The slowness of the public to realize that there is such great summer heat in the Arctic is due partly to the prevalence of the ancient view that all the Arctic is always cold, and partly to the reports of travellers whose entire Arctic experience has been on the ocean or on a sea-coast. The reason for the great mid-summer heat on Arctic lowlands is, of course, that the sun delivers an adequate number of heat units per day to account for it. The ordinarily accepted figures are 3 or 4% more at the North Pole than at the equator for the top of the atmosphere and 3 or 4% less for sea-level. This means that you would have “tropical” heat at any place in the Arctic where the sun's rays strike a dark surface and where

there is no local reservoir of “cold” to neutralize it. The places,

therefore, that do show a “tropical” heat are on lowlands that are sheltered from ocean breezes and from winds that come from ice-covered mountains. If the length of summer is measured by the season during which streams flow unfrozen and during which certain insects are alive and more or less active, the Arctic summer would range from a maximum of about five and a half months in such places as the north shore of Great Bear lake, to perhaps two months in places like Borden island.

But an important thing to remember is that there is a direct dependence of animals on plant life and that plants measure

their summer not by the calendar but by the number of hours of sunlight. At Ft. Yukon, Alaska, for instance, on a day that varies from, let us say, 65° at the coldest to 95° at the warmest (in the shade), there would be approximately as much growing time as in two ordinary days in the humid tropics. This is why some plants grow so much more rapidly in certain parts of the Arctic than the same plants do in any part of the tropics or temperate zone. An interesting, and to most botanists an wexpected, corollary is that some plants also grow to far greater size in the Arctic than in the temperate zone or tropics, as cab-

bages, for instance.

This may possibly be because they lose

speed in the temperate zone where they have to stop and start again to conform with alternation of day and night, but can maintain a continuous and fairly uniform rate of growth in the Arctic where the daylight is continuous.

Arctic Weather.—Dr. Fridtjof Nansen announced as one of

the outstanding conclusions of his great scientific expedition of 1893-96, that the Arctic is, on the average, one of the least stormy

large regions of the world.

Stefansson’s observations as a result

ARCTIC REGIONS

—

ef 11 years spent north of the Arctic Circle and the studies of

other observers have tended to confirm Nansen. In many parts

have not yet been violent gales are quite absent, or at least

observed by scientific men. Gales are common only where an open ocean is faced by high mountains or a plateau. snowfall.—tIt is difficult to measure Arctic snowfall because

the snow is usually very dry and fluffy and is driven about a

great deal by even the lightest winds. There is no doubt that,

It is however, on the average, Arctic precipitation is very light.

estimated that, if the snow of winter be added to the rain of cersummer, the result would be about eight inches of water,

tainly not more than ten, on most parts of the Arctic lowlands

of Canada and Alaska.

The

Siberian

lowlands

may be even

drier, We have, therefore, the apparent paradox that the average snowfall of the Arctic is much less than that of Scotland or of Illinois, for instance. Glaciers.—It is now well established that there is no permanent snow or ice on any land in the Arctic unless it be mountainous. The required height of mountains varies roughly with

the varying precipitation. The highest mountains of Melville island, for Instance, are probably not more than 4,000 feet. This is not enough for the formation of any real glaciers. E. de K. Lefingwell, in his studies of Arctic Alaska, found that in the frst coast range south of Flaxman island, the altitude of 6,cooft. was not enough for the formation of glaciers. But in the second range, a little farther south, which runs up towards 10,oo0ft., there were some glaciers. So far as we yet know, there is no evidence of ancient glaciation on the great low plains of Arctic Alaska. This must have been because they were then as now a region of very light snowfall. Fogs.—Since fogs are caused by the meeting of air currents of differing humidity and temperature, it is obvious that the

insular Arctic and the coast lands must be regions of frequent fogs. In summer, for instance, with a lowland steaming under a sun that creates an 80° temperature in the shade, and just in front of it an ocean the surface of which is around 30° F, any breeze blowing from the land would be suddenly cooled, producing a'sea fog. Similarly, any breeze coming from the ocean would produce a fog over the superheated land. Such fogs would be thickest and most frequent where the sea and land meet. We gradually work out of the land fogs when we travel inland and out of the sea fogs when we steam away from land. From the flying point of view, it is important that these fogs have been found by experience to be very low on the average. They are often thick on the decks of whaling ships, but so thin at the masthead that the captains in the crow’s-nests can see each other plainly while the men on the decks have no visual evidence that other ships are near. Summing up, the Arctic winters are longer than those of most extremely cold places now inhabited by prosperous and contented Europeans, such as Dakota and Manitoba, for instance. They are also a little colder. But they are, on the other hand, less stormy and with a lighter snowfall. The summers, although shorter, are in some places almost or quite as hot. It would

seem, then, that the same sort of people might be willing to live in the Arctic who are willing to live in Dakota and Manitoba. It will undoubtedly be difficult to get people to colonize the Arctic, but in the opinion of many this will not be any special Arctic problem but rather a general frontier one. For the tend-

305

quality, of course, have been reported by most Arctic explorers. Stefansson, for instance, found coal in all but two of the islands north of western Canada. In these, Victoria island and Meighen island, further exploration may show coal. Coal of quality said to be equal to the best Welsh has been mined for several decades in Spitsbergen, some soo or 600m. N. of the Arctic Circle, and these mines should eventually supply a great part of northern Scandinavia and of northern Russia. In Alaska, a coal mine at Cape Lisburne, well north of the Arctic Circle, was worked to supply the whaling fleet even before 1885, and fell into disuse only with the abandonment of the whaling industry. The natives of the north coast of Alaska mine coal at Wainwright for their own use and to sell locally to missionaries, government schools, traders, etc. The members of Stefansson’s expedition, living by hunting on Melville island, maintained two winter camps, one in Liddon gulf and the other on the north coast near Cape Grassy. They burned bituminous shale in the southern camp, but in the northern they burned lignite of good quality, some of it saturated with oil. Oil.—Indications of oil have been found in many parts of the Arctic. The Imperial Oil Company of Canada, a branch of the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, has wells on the Mackenzie river just south of the Arctic Circle, and the same oil-fields are known to extend beyond the circle. About 500m. N. from these wells and, therefore, about soom. N. of the Arctic Circie, Stefansson found oil on northern Melville island. The U.S. navy has recently set aside a vast oil reserve in Arctic Alaska, and both private prospectors and representatives of large oil companies have staked claims east of the government reserve. These claims are near Cape Simpson which, but for Barrow, is the most northerly cape in Alaska. Iron and Copper.—Hardly less fundamental than oil and coal are iron and copper. No large Arctic deposits of iron ore are known. There are iron “prospects,” however, in many places. But the copper fields that lie between Bear lake and the centre of Victoria island in a district roughly 200m.sq., give great promise—if the world’s need of copper increases, or if the spread of settlements to that country make mining more feasible. There are copper prospects in other parts of the Arctic, and gold, silver, platinum and tin have been found. Vegetation.—A more fundamental resource than even the oil

and coal is the vegetation of the Arctic that makes food-production possible. The coniferous forest extends beyond the Arctic Circle, in Canada in certain river valleys as much as room., and even farther in Siberia. Trees rooft. high are found well north of the Arctic Circle. They make the Arctic more homelike to those who are used to forests, and they are doubtless valuable. But many consider that the same land would be more immediately valuable if the trees were absent, for then it would be

eovered with grass, like most of the rest of the Arctic, whether

continental or insular. It is one of the exploded beliefs that Arctic vegetation is mainly mosses and lichens. In 1909 Sir Clements Markham published the statement that the Arctic

possesses 28 species of ferns, 250 lichens, 332 mosses and 762 flowering plants. Many species have been discovered since then, and many others will be discovered hereafter. There will probably

be little disagreement with the estimate that we have in the Arctic at least ten times as many tons of flowering plants as of non-flowering. There are a few small portions of the Arctic where cereals can be profitably cultivated, and still others where garden

vegetables will be of some value. But, so far as can be seen at present, the chief thing to do with the Arctic soil is to permit Londoners who are out of work to migrate to sub-tropical Aus- that vegetation to continue growing which grows there already tralia as to sub-Arctic Canada. The weakening or dying out of and to make an economic use of it by converting it into meat, the frontier spirit is one of the conspicuous social phenomena of hides and other animal products. Reindeer.—There is one suitable animal, the reindeer, domestic our time. in the Old World since prehistoric times. No one knows how

ency which brings American farmers to the cities, increasing the percentage of urban population, makes it as difficult to induce

NATURAL RESOURCES

Since the climate, as such, will not prevent Arctic colonization, the ascertained resources may be enumerated. _Coal—It is now known that coal is almost, if not quite, as

likely to be found in the Arctic as in tropical or temperate lands. t is not surprising, therefore, thal seams of coal, of varying

many of these there may be in Arctic Siberia, where single owners often have from 5,000 to 10,000 head. But there are definite figures for the entire period of reindeer domestication in Alaska. The U.S. Government commenced by importing 16 head from Siberia in 1892. Up to 1902, when importation ceased because of an embargo imposed by the tsar’s government, 1,280 animals

306

ARCTICS—ARCUEIL

were brought from Siberia. These have never failed to double every three years since importation, so that by the spring of 1928 there were 800,000 head. The U.S. department of agriculture estimates that the grazing resources of Arctic and sub-Arctic Alaska will be adequate for 3,000,000 to 4,000,000. Since the climate and vegetation of Arctic Canada are, for reindeer purposes, the same as those of Arctic Alaska, with an area ten times greater, we can say, roughly, that Canada will support from 30,000,000 to 40,000,000 head. Undoubtedly the reindeer area in Asia and northern Europe is twice as large as the Alaskan and Canadian together, which would make total world figures between 100,000,000 and 125,000,000. This estimate is probably low. No animal now domestic can be profitable in the Arctic except the reindeer. Cattle, sheep, horses and goats can, of course, be raised in many parts, but under present costs and prices they would not pay. The reindeer pays handsomely because it needs no barn for shelter,

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—V. Stefansson, The Friendly Arctic (1921) ang The Northward Course of Empire (1922); reports of the Territoriaj Government of Alaska; annual reports of the U.S. bureau of educa. tion since 1892; reports of various departments of the Government of Canada; report of the royal commission to investigate the pos. sibilities of the reindeer and musk ox industries in the Arctic ang sub-arctic regions of Canada, published 1922, department of the interior, Ottawa, Canada. Material on arctic resources is contained

in: V. Stefansson, My Life with the Eskimo (1913), Hunters of ihe Great North

(1922), The Adventure

of Wrangel Island (1925): K

Rasmussen, Fra Groenland til StiNehavet (1926)

(Eng.-lang. abridge.

ment, 1927, Across Arctic America) ; G. H. Wilkins, Flying the Arctic (1928) ; W. H. Hobbs, North Pole of the Winds (1930); John Rae Narrative of an Expedition to the Shores of the Arctic Sea in 1846-7,

(1850); J. Richardson, Arctic Searching Expedition

(1851), Polar

Regions (1861); R. N. R. Brown, The Polar Regions (1927); A. W

Greely, The Polar Regions in the Twentieth Century (1928); G. W. De Long, The Voyage of the Jeannette (1883). (VS)

ARCTICS, the term commonly applied to overshoes of rubber or rubberized fabric, worn over the ordinary shoes in stormy no hay for feed, nor any protection from wind or weather. Domestication of Ovibos.—There was a project under dis- weather. They fasten up the leg with buttons, latches or by an cussion in 1928 of domesticating the ovibos (musk ox) because it interlocking mechanism known in the United States as the zipper. eats certain Arctic vegetation that reindeer do not eat and be- The original arctic was of black waterproofed material, fleececause the reindeer produces only meat and hides while the ovibos lined and constructed for utility rather than for style. It became produces wool in addition. Ovibos beef is indistinguishable from popular with young people, particularly college students, but since ordinary domestic beef in colour, flavour, texture and odour. The the great vogue among women for dainty shoes and light-coloured wool, as determined by the textiles department of the Univer- hosiery arctics have been generally adopted by them only for sity of Leeds (Prof. Aldred F. Barker), has good heat-retaining warmth and protection during winter weather. They have become and wearing qualities, is easy to bleach and dye, is softer than an important factor in shoe manufacture and every effort is made cashmere, and will not shrink—in other words, is one of the to offer a dainty and stylish article to the fastidious patron. In finest of known wools. With the ovibos domesticated, the poten- large cities where heavy traffic keeps the streets in a muddy state tialities of the Arctic will be greater. But with only the reindeer, over a long winter season the arctic has supplanted the oldthere is no doubt that the Arctic grasslands (which means all fashioned “rubber” or low overshoe which is clumsy and offers no lands in the Arctic not so high and mountainous as to be snow- protection except to the sole and lower part of the shoe. ARCTINUS, of Miletus, author, according to Proclus in the covered) will be colonized unless, indeed, the world movement of population from the country to the cities entirely stops further Chrestomathy, of two poems of the epic cycle, the Azthiopis, which colonization. In most cases mining will develop after the ranch- took up the narrative from the close of the Jiiad, beginning with men have occupied the grazing lands. But in some cases, notably the famous deeds and death of the Amazon Penthesileia, and endwith oil, the mining will precede colonization. That gold mining ing with the death and burial of Achilles and the dispute for his will precede colonization seems for the moment unlikely, although arms, and the Sack of Troy (Iliou Persis), which gave the story that is the one kind of mining that has hitherto taken people to of the wooden horse and ended with the departure of the Greeks the Arctic. But the rise in the cost of living is only another ex- after the outrage of Cassandra. (Of this poem r2 lines are extant.) pression for a drop in the value of gold, so that the gold deposits, The Little Iliad of Lesches formed the transition between the two. which paid fabulously in Alaska 20 years ago, are not so paying The poems are attributed to other authors by the Tabula Ihaca, Athenaeus and Pausanias. now even where production remains uniform. Breriocraruy.—Kinkel, Epicorum Graecorum Fragmenta (1817}; Site-value.—Finally we must point out a resource of the Arctic Der epische Cyclus; Mueller, History ‘of the Literature of that has nothing to do with climate, minerals or the like, but is Welcker, Greece; Lang, Homer and the Epic (1893) ; Monro, Journal Ancient due entirely to position. The history of civilization as we know of Hellenic Studiés (1883); T. W. Allen in Classical Quarterly, April it is essentially the history of the Northern Hemisphere. Gen- 1908, p. 82 et seq.; G. Murray, Rise of the Greek Epic, appendix H erally speaking, civilization seems to have started in the sub- and references there given (1924). tropics—Yucatan for the New World; Egypt, Asia Minor, etc., ARCTURUS, one of the three brightest stars in the northern for the Old World. As civilization has been spreading northward hemisphere, situated in the constellation Boötes (g.v.) in an almost during historic time, it has really been spreading toward the direct line with the tail (¢ and n} of the constellation Ursa Major (great bear); hence its derivation from the Gr. d&pxros, “bear,” centre of a circle. That centre is the Arctic. It was an Elizabethan ideal to find a sea-way north from Europe obpos, “guard.” In the Hebrew Bible, the Vulgate reads Arcturus to the Indies. No practical route was ever found, because of the for stars mentioned in Job ix. 9, xxxvii. 9, xxviii. 31, and Amos floating ice in the Arctic sea. So, perforce, we have gone round- v. 8. According to a Greek legend Arcas, son of Lycaon, king about. But now ships of the air are opening up the roads of the of Arcadia, was killed by his father and his flesh was served air which lie straight in any desired direction. As the Elizabethans up in a banquet to Zeus, who was indignant at the crime knew, China is north of Europe. But Peking is also north of New and restored him to life. Subsequently Arcas, when hunting, York, and the wheat-fields that are spreading over central Siberia chanced to pursue his mother Callisto, who had been transformed are north of the growing wheat-fields of central Canada. The into a bear, as far as the temple of Lycaean Zeus; to prevent the cities springing up in those wheat lands will be far from each crime of matricide, Zeus transported them both to the heavens other east and west, but not half so far north and south. (Ovid, Metam., ii. 410), where Callisto became the constellation Air Routes.—The world is developing an increasing speed Ursa Major, and Arcas the star Arcturus (see Lycaon and mania, both for messages and for passengers. The flying condi- CALLISTO). tions of the Arctic are probably, on the average, as good as those ARCUEIL, a town in France, department of Seine, on the ef any other equally large area of the world. It follows, there- Bièvre, 24m. N.E. of Sceaux. Pop. (1926) 12,395. The tow fore, that the centre of the circle of civilization, which is the takes its name from a Roman aqueduct, the Arcus Iulian (At Arctic, will be the flying crossroads of the world. This will neces- culi), traces of which still remain. In 1613-24 a bridge-aqueduct sitate the establishment of way stations here and there. Of it- over 1,300ft. long was constructed to convey water from the self, that will to a small extent require colonization. It will have spring of Rungis, 4m. S. of Arcueil, across the Bièvre to the a vastly greater indirect effect by spreading accurate knowledge Luxembourg palace in Paris. In 1868-72 another aqueduct, still longer, was superimposed of the Arctic throughout the world. Thereupon will follow such to help convey water from the river Vanne to Paris. The two colonization as the real climate and actual resources justify.

ARCULF—ARDASHIR together reach a height of about 135{t. Bleaching, and the manufacture of bottle capsules, patent leather and other articles are carried on at Arcueil; and there are important stone-quarries.

ARCULF, 2 Frankish bishop and pilgrim-traveller, who vis-

traveller ited the Levant about 680, and was the earliest Christian rise

397

inscriptions he calls himself Artaxares, and the same form occurs in Agathias ii. 25, iv. 24), became the founder of the NewPersian or Sassanian empire. Of his reign we have only very scanty information, as the Greek and Roman authors mention only his victory over the Parthians and his wars with Rome. A trustworthy tradition about the origin of his power, from Per-

and observer of any importance in the Nearer East after the of Islam. On his return he was driven by contrary winds to sian sources, has been preserved by the Arabic historian Tabari

Britain, and so came to Iona, where he related his experiences to his host, Adamnan Abbot of Jona, 679 to 704. The narrative of his

journey, as written by Adamnan, was presented to Aldfrith the

Wise, last of the great Northumbrian kings, at York about 7or, and came to the knowledge of Bede, who inserted a brief summary

of it in his Ecclesiastical History o f the English Nation, and also

drew up a separate and longer digest which obtained great popularity throughout the middle ages as a standard guide-book (the so-called Libellus de locis sanctis) to the holy places of Syria. For bibliography see ADAMNAN.

ARDABIL, chief town of one of the administrative districts

of the province of Azerbaijan, in north-western Persia, 48° 21’ E.

and 38° 14’ N., 38m. from the Caspian sea and 25m. from the

Araxes. The town stands on an almost circular plateau 4,940ft. above the sea-level surrounded on all sides by mountains, the most

prominent peak being Savalan (15,792ft.) on the west. No trees or shrubs are visible for many miles round and the white chalk

soil can be made fruitful only by artificial irrigation. The climate of the town, owing to its high situation, is inclement but is regarded as healthy.

The vine, oranges and melons do not grow,

but pears and apples are produced in abundance.

Near the town

are found warm mineral springs, on account of which, and the

healthy air, Ardabil was formerly a favourite residence of the

Persian court. Ardabil is an important road centre: to Astara on the coast, to Tabriz, and to other places. Trade, unimportant compared with former times and mostly in the hands of Armenians, is mainly a

transit trade between Russia and Persia through the Caspian port

of Astara, where, in 1925-26, 10,000 tons of merchandise were landed and 5,700 tons shipped. The chief articles produced in the

district for export are dried fruits, carpets and rugs. The town, which is of great antiquity though it contains no ancient buildings of note, covers a large area surrounded by a ruinous mud wall flanked by towers, while 500 yards to the east is a mud fort constructed by Gardanne (a French general in Persian employ) in the early years of the roth century, now also in ruins, In the first half of the 8th century Ardabil was the residence of Shaikh Safi-ud-Din who died here: his shrine is an object of general veneration and is much visited by many Persians. The sanctuary also contains the tomb of the Shah Ismail (died 1524) founder of the Safavi dynasty. The building suffered considerably in the sack of the town by the Russians in 1827, and the famous library of Shaikh Safi, once the greatest in all Persia, was sent to St. Petersburg in 1827 and became part of the Imperial Library. The European travellers Olearius (1637) and Chardin (1671) describe Ardabil as the most flourishing Persian town of the time, but Morier, in 1813, counted only 4,000 inhabitants. has now an estimated population of 16,000-20,000. See F. Sarre, Denkmäler Persischer Baukunst (1901).

ARDAN,

The town

a small independent linguistic stock of South

American Indians, so called from the Ardas, the most important of its tribes. The Ardan tribes lived west of Iquitos in north-

easten Peru, on the upper Mazan and Nanay rivers, tributaries of the lower Napo. They were of simple culture, and beyond

the fact that their language (now extinct) seems to be quite unrelated to any other, little or nothing is known of them.

(Th. Néldeke, Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden, aus der arabischen Chronik des Tabari, 1879). He

was the second son of Papak (Babek), the offspring of Sassan (Sadsan), after whom the dynasty is named. Papak had made himself king of the district of Istakhr (in the neighbourhood of Persepolis, which had fallen to ruins). After the death of Papak and his oldest son Shapur (Shahpuhr, Sapores), Ardashir made himself king (probably a.p. 212), put his other brothers to death and began war against the neighbouring dynasts of Persis. When he had conquered a great part of Persis and Carmania, the Parthian king Artabanus IV. interfered.

But he was

defeated in

three battles and at last killed (A.D. 226). Ardashir now considered himself sovereign of the whole empire of the Parthians and called himself “King of Kings of the Iranians.” But his aspirations went farther. In Persis the traditions of the Achaemenian empire had always been alive, as the name of Ardashir

himself shows, and with them, the national religion of Zoroaster. Ardashir, who was a zealous worshipper of Ahuramazda and in intimate connection with the magian priests, established the orthodox Zoroastrian creed as the official religion of his new kingdom,

persecuted the infidels, and tried to restore the old Persian empire, which under the Achaemenids had extended over Asia from the Aegean Sea to the Indus. At the same time he put down the local dynasts and tried to create a strong concentrated power. His empire is thus quite different in character from the Parthian kingdom of the Arsacids, which had no national and religious basis but leant towards Hellenism, and whose organization had always been very loose. Ardashir extirpated the whole race of the Arsacids, with the exception of those princes who had found refuge in Armenia, and in many wars, in which, however, as the Persian tradition shows, he occasionally suffered heavy defeats, he succeeded in subjugating the greater part of Iran, Susiana and Babylonia. The Parthian capital Ctesiphon (g.v.) remained the principal residence of the Sassanian kingdom, by the side of the national metropolis Istakhr, which was too far out of the way to become the centre of administration. Opposite to Ctesiphon, on the right bank of the Tigris, Ardashir restored Seleucia under the name of Weh-Ardashir. The attempt to conquer Mesopotamia, Armenia and Cappadocia led to a war with Rome, in which he was repelled by Alexander Severus (A.D. 233). Before his death (ap. 241) Ardashir associated with himself on the throne his son Shapur, who successfully continued his work. Under the tombs of Darius I, at Persepolis, on the surface of the rock, Ardashir has sculptured his image and that of the god Ahuramazda (Ormuzd or Ormazd). Both are on horseback; the god is giving the diadem to the king. Under the horse of the king lies a defeated enemy, the Parthian king Artaban; under the horse of Ormuzd, the devil Abriman, with two snakes rising from his head. In the bilingual inscription (Greek and Pehlevi), Ardashir I. calls himself “the Mazdayasnian (i.e. “worshipper of Ahuramazda”) god Artaxares, king of the kings of the Arianes (Iranians), of godly origin, son of the god Papak the king” (see Sir R. Ker Porter, Travels (1821-22), i. 548 foll.; Flandin et Coste, Voyage en Perse, iv. 182; F. Stolze and J. C. Andreas, Persepolis, pl. 116; Marcel Dieulafoy, L’Art antique de la Perse, 1884-89, v. pl. 14). A similar inscription and sculpture is on a

rock near Gur (Firuzabad) in Persia, On his coins he has the same titles (in Pehlevi). Like his father and his successors, he worshipped as a god, probably as an incarnation of a seconwas ARDASHIR, the modern form of the Persian royal name dary deity of the Persian creed. Artaxerxes (g.v.), “he whose empire is excellent.” After the Like the history of the founder of the Achaemenian empire, three Achaemenian kings of this name, it occurs in Armenia, in of Ardashir has from the beginning been overgrown with that the shortened form Artaxias (Armenian, Artashes or Artaxes), See A. F. Chamberlain, “Sur quelques familles linguistiques,” etc. (Journal Soc. Americanistes de Paris Ín.s.], vol. vii., pp. 179-202).

and among the dynasts of Persia who maintained their indepen-

dence during the Parthian period (see Persis). One of these, (1) Artaxerxes or ARDASHIR I. (in his Greek

legends; like Cyrus he is the son of a shepherd, his future greatness is predicted by dreams and visions, and by the calculations of astronomers he becomes a servant at the court of king Arta-

308

ARDEA—ARDENNES

banus and then flies to Persia and begins the rebellion; he fights with the great dragon, the enemy of god, etc. A Pehlevi text, which contains this legend, has been translated by Ndoldeke (Geschichte des Artachshir i Pépakin, 1879). On the same tradition the account of Firdusi in the Shahnameh is based; it occurs also, with some variations, in Agathias ii. 26 seg. Another work, which contained religious and moral admonitions which were put into the mouth of the king, has not come down to us. On the other hand the genealogy of Ardashir has of course been connected with the Achaemenids, on whose behalf he exacts vengeance from the Parthians, and with the legendary kings of old Iran. (2) ArpasHir II. (379-383). Under the reign of his brother Shapur II. he had been governor (king) of Adiabene, where he persecuted the Christians. After Shapur’s death, he was raised to the throne by the magnates, although more than 70 years old. Having tried to make himself independent from the court, and having executed some of the grandees, he was deposed after a reign of four years. (3) ArpasHir III. (628-630), son of Kavadh II., was raised to the throne as a boy of seven years, but was killed two years (Ep. M.) afterwards by his general, Shahrbaraz.

ARDEA, a town of the Rutuli, Latium, 3m. from the south-

west coast, where its harbour (Castrum Inui) lay, at the mouth of the Fosso dell’ Incastro, and 23m. S. of Rome by the Via Ardeatina. Its legendary founder was a son of Odysseus and Circe, or Danae, mother of Perseus. It was one of the oldest coast cities of Latium and the capital of Turnus, the opponent of Aeneas. In the treaty with Carthage 509 B.c. it was Roman but was later one of the 30 cities of the Latin league. It had the charge of the shrine of Venus in Lavinium. In imperial times the unhealthiness of the place led to its rapid decline. In the forests of the neighbourhood the imperial elephants were kept. A road, the Via Ardeatina, led to Ardea direct from Rome. The primitive site, later the citadel, holds the modern village; it is at the end of a long plateau between two valleys, and has perpendicular tufa cliffs some 6oft. high on all sides except the north-east, where it joins the plateau. Here it is defended by a fine wall of rectangular blocks of volcanic stone (tufa). The area of the place was apparently twice extended, a further portion of the narrow plateau, which now bears the name of Cittavecchia, being each time taken in and defended by mound and ditch; the nearer and better-preserved is about $m. from the city and measures some 2,000ft. long, 133ft. wide and 66ft. high, the ditch being some Soft. wide. The second, 4m. farther north-east, is smaller. “Rt nunc magnum manet Ardea nomen: sed fortuna fuit”—*Ardea is still a mighty name: but its star has set”—as Virgil says. See O. Richter, in Annali del? Instituto (1884), 90; J. H. Parker in Archaeologia, xlix. 169 (1885) ; A. Pasqui, in Notizie degli scavi (1900), 53-

department are famous for white wines.

Chestnut, walnut ang

mulberry, the last for silkworms, are widely grown.

The rocky

hills are useful for goats as well as for sheep and their sking promote a glove-making industry. There are also paper factories at Annonay. Hydraulic lime is produced from quarries at Le Teil and there are supplies of coal, iron, lead and zinc. Medicinal]

springs are numerous and some are hot; the chief are at Val les Bains (cold), St. Laurent les Bains, Celles, Neyrac, etc. Ardéche is served by the P.L.M. railway and has 43 miles of

navigable river. The towns of Privas, Largentiére (capital of the department) and Tournon give their names to the three arrondisge. ments; there are 31 cantons and 342 communes. The depart. ment forms the diocese of Viviers in the archbishopric of Ayig. non; it is in the region of the 15th Army Corps, in the académie (educational area) of Grenoble, and under the court of appeal at Nîmes.

Privas was destroyed in the 17th century religious quarrels, so

it has little that is older, but there are many interesting Romanesque churches in the department (Bourg St. Andéol, Thines,

Mélas, Cruas), while Mazan has a large church once part of a great abbey. Viviers cathedral is set on a rock above the town,

ARDEE, town, Co. Louth, Ireland, on the river Dee, 48m,

N.W. from Dublin, on a branch of the Great Northern railway, Pop. (1926) 1,730. The town is of high antiquity, and its name (Ather-dee) is taken to signify the ford of the Dee, a point of strategic importance.

A large rath, or encampment, with remains

of fortifications, stands to the south of the town. A castle of the

lords of the manor was built early in the 14th century and re. mains, as does another adjacent fortified building of the same period. Roger de Peppart, lord of the manor early in the 13th century, founded the church (the present Protestant church) anda house of Crutched Friars. There was also a house of Carmelite Friars, but neither of these remains. Ardee received its first recorded charter in 1377. It was sacked by Edward Bruce (1315) and by O’Neill (1538); it was taken by the Irish and recaptured by the English in the wars of 1641, and was occupied later by the forces of James II. and of William ITI.

aeeie iene a ee

ARDEN, FOREST OF, a well marked physical area of north

Warwickshire, England, the “woodland” as opposed to the “fel den” or “fielden”’; i.¢., open country, in the south, the river Avon separating the two. Originally part of a forest tract of far wider extent than that within the confines of the county, it is stil, though lacking the true character of a forest, well-wooded. The undulating surface is from 250 to 500 ft. high. Wide lands in this district were held, in Edward the Confessor’s day, by Alwin, whose son, Thurkill of Warwick, or “of Arden,” founded the family of the Warwickshire Ardens who, in Queen Elizabeth’s time,

still held several of the manors. Shakespeare, whose mother, Mary Arden claimed to be of this family, knew the district well, and i inspired his pictures of forest life in As You Like Ii. probably of edge Cevenol the ARDECHE, a department of France at Arden and Hampton-inthe Plateau Central bounded, east, by the river Rhône, south by The name is preserved in Henley-inetc. Arden, and Loire Haute by north-west, Gard, south-west by Lozére, ancient ARDENNES, a district covering some portion of the the Loire. Area 2,145sq. miles. Pop. (1926), 289,263, marking a conBelthe greater part of over g extendin and , Ardenne 1790 of in formed forest was It century. 20th the during decline siderable the and duchy, grand the of part urg, Luxembo of marked province country hill gian from the Vivarais district of Languedoc. It is a a from is on derivati One s. Ardenne by valleys most of which run either north-west-south-east or south- French department of a Silva, Arduenn as Latin into turned forest,” “the meaning stretches word Coirons the of mass west-north-east. The high volcanic ardu (dark, obscure). Another south-east-north-west to the eastern part of the larger volcanic and derived from the Celtic word , Breton for tke, or among ar-Tann or ar-Denn from is on volcanic a derivati itself (5,75sft.), Mézenc Mt. where area of Vélay, forest of oaks. A. Carnoy, be would Ardenne whence oaks, mass, forms the culminating point of the department; thence the the, form for high-land, Mts. du Vivarais stretch north-eastward with the departmental a recent worker, derives it from a Celtic = high. The arduos ropean Indo-Eu the from being na westArdu-en t stretches boundary along their heights. The departmen Gaul, and of forest e extensiv most the ward to the uppermost Loire and the Allier forms a good deal Arduenna Silva was g from extendin as it s describe ap.29) lib.vi.c Gallico, (Bello Caesar mostly are rivers The of its boundary over against Lozére. of the limits the to Treviri the of confines the the Rhine and torrential, with sudden floods and much of the scenery is wild. of Charlemagne between In the south near the Rhône the climate is warm, but on the Nervii. At the division of the empire ire, under the pact of Verdun higher land winter is long and severe and even in summer sudden the three sons of Louis the Débonna the district pagus Arbecome cold may occur. Grain (wheat and rye) and potatoes are culti- in 843, the Ardenne forest had and charters of 843 share, s Lothair’ of part was It duensis. vated, also the vine and olive near the Rhône in the south, the roth century the disthe In pagus. this in as department’s southern and more open lands marking the northern specify certain towns powerful count of limit of cultivation of the olive in the Rhéne valley. The vine- trict had become a comitatus, subject to the of Ardenne. count of that to style his changed yards of St. Péray near the Rhone in the northern part of the Verdun, who

ARDENNES—ARDROSSAN The geographical region of the Ardenne extends from France

through Belgium to the Rhineland and the duchy of Luxembourg south and east of a line through Couvin, Rochefort, Marche, Durbry, Spa and Eupen, and its southern frontier is the Semois valley. Its geological boundary is that of the lower Devonian. It forms a broad low arch gently inclined north and south, the denuded base

of a mountain chain once as high as the Alps, and then worn down to a peneplain. It consists of schists, sandstones and quartz-phylhtes, with hardly any calcareous rock. The rivers in the up-

lifted peneplain cut gorges in the hard

rocks, ¢.g., Les fonds de Quarreux on the

letter, in 1592; there is a copy of this edition in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. The plot is founded on the story of Thomas Arden, mayor of Faversham (1548), who was murdered by his wife, her lover and accomplices in 1552. The style is dignified and restrained and it has been suggested that the play was, at any rate, revised by Shakespeare. There is, however, no internal evidence to support or refute this theory, and it is more probable that the author was Thomas Kyd (g.v.) or one of his school. The play was acted in 1592, and not again until it was produced in London in 1897 and at Cambridge, England (by the Marlowe Dramatic Society) in 1921. See Arden of Feversham, intro. by A. H. Bullen (1887); J. A. Symonds, Shakespeare’s Predecessors (1900); The Lameniable and ae nee of M. Arden of Feversham, intro. by A. F. Hopkinson

Ambléve, but have wider valleys where the

rocks are softer. The picturesquely wooded ravines are less truly characteristic than the great flat tops, naked wastes In many cases, which account for most of the area. Decomposition of Cambrian schists has

1907).

ARDERNE, JOHN (c. 1306-c. 1390), English surgeon, practised first at Newark and then in London, and also in the army in France. He introduced certain new operations and was a bold and skilful surgeon and a good writer on his subject. See D’Arcy

produced a waterproof clay soil in which

sphagnum bogs grow, with their character: istic accumulation of basal peat. The irona kuyay

399

ae

Hautes Fagnes on the Baraque Michel pla- A PEASANT WOMAN

OF

teau is the largest of these bogs. The peat ARDENNES ON THE WAY

Power: Treatises of Fistula in Ano, etc. (1910); “The Lesser aes of John Arderne,” XVIIth Inter. Con. Med. Sec. XXIII. IQI4).

ARDGLASS (“Green Height”), County Down, Ireland, 32m.

was long used for fuel. On the more sili- TO MARKET

S. by E. of Belfast on a branch of the Belfast and County Down

the woods of St. Hubert, the woods round La Roche, and those of

became a busy port, a fact attested by the remains of no fewer than five castles in close proximity. There is an ancient church crowning the eastern hill and a curious fortified warehouse (called

ceous lands, farms have been established but woods cover large areas and are among the most beautiful in Europe. They include

the Amerois, Herbeumont and Chiny on the Semois. In the grand duchy the forest has almost ertirely disappeared, but owing to the compulsory law of replanting in Belgium this fate does not seem likely to attend the Belgian Ardennes. There is still an immense quantity of wild game to be found in the Ardennes, including red and roe deer, wild boar, etc. Shooting is preserved either by the few great landed proprietors left in the country, or by the communes, who let the rights to individuals.

ARDENNES, department, northern frontier, France, composed of the south-west side of the Ardennes towards the Paris basin, and of parts of the Meuse valley. Area 2,028sq.m.; pop. (1926) 297,448. After a long course nearly south to north between edges of secondary rocks, the Meuse turns west as it approaches the Ardennes. These are remnants of ancient mountains, planed down, and then slowly tilted up from the south-east, allowing the river time to cut its way down while the uplift went on. It thus happens that just below Méziéres-Charleville the river enters a deep trench between moorland hills, and some of its entrenched meanders have given sites for isolated little towns like Revin. Méziéres also is on the peninsula of a meander. Northwards

towards Givet the country opens out again and that old fortress town is an outpost of France, which owns the Meuse trench but not the flanking highland, standing on limestone rock that gives the district a much drier character than has the Ardennes. The Meuse is small in volume for its length and has lost several tributaries, the now almost streamless valleys of which have been re for canals e.g., that in this department between Meuse and sne. In the south-west lowlands, with a fairly mild climate and often less than 800mm. of rain, general agriculture goes on, but among the higher lands (up to 1,640ft.) the winter is cold and the rain-

fall may exceed 1,000mm. Here there are riverside pastures, but the people depend partly on quarries of slates (Fumay) and building stone and also work in iron. There is also naturally a

railway.

Pop. (1921) 498. Soon after the Norman invasion it

the New Works), dating probably from the 14th century, when a trading company was established here under,a grant from Henry

IV. Ardglass was a royal burgh and sent a representative to the Irish parliament. The chief industry is the herring fishery. Ardglass is a resort of visitors.

ARDITI,

LUIGI

(1822-1903), Italian musical composer

and conductor, who, about the middle of the last century, was a prominent figure in London musical life, as conductor of the opera at Her Majesty’s Theatre and in other capacities. He paid frequent visits also to America, conducting the opera in New York, where he produced his La Spia in 1856. His vocal waltz Il Bacio was sung by Patti and enjoyed much popularity.

ARDMORE, a city in the southern part of Oklahoma, U.S.A.,

gom. S. by E. of Oklahoma City, 80o0ft. above sea-level; the county seat of Carter county. It is on Federal highways 7o and 77, and is served by the Rock Island, the Frisco and the Santa Fe railways. The area is 8 sq. miles. The population was 14,181 in 1920, of whom 2,008 were negroes; and was 15,741 in 1930 by Federal census. Ardmore is the market town and shipping point for a rich farming and grazing region, which produces fine crops of cotton. There are asphalt and coal mines near the city, and within the county are deposits of zinc and fields of gas and oil. A daily paper in the interests of the petroleum industry is published here. The city has oil refineries, wholesale houses, cotton gins and compresses, a cotton-seed oil mill, and a house which deals in purebred cotton-seed, and several miscellaneous factories, including one that makes pecan-cracking machines. The Southern Oklahoma State fair is held here. Among the educational institutions is a Federal school for Indian girls. Ardmore was founded in 1887, incorporated in 1898, and adopted a commission-manager form of government in 1921.

ARDRES, ancient small town of northern France, in the de-

woollen industry centring at Sedan, and Méziéres-Charleville is partment of Pas-de-Calais, rom. south-south-east of Calais. Pop. important as a railway junction. Mézières, Rethel and the tiny (1926) 1,254. It was occupied by Francis I. at the time of his Vouziers give their names to arrondissements. The department historic meeting with Henry VIII. in 1520, at the “Field of the Is m Reims ecclesiastical province, Lille educational province Cloth of Gold” at Balinghem, 24m. to the west. Ardres has a 14th (académie), Nancy appeal-court area and 2nd army corps prov- century church and an important cattle market. Ince. The department was entirely occupied by the invaders ARDROSSAN, seaport, municipal and police burgh, Ayr1914-18, but the defenders had just reached Sedan and Méziéres shire, Scotland, 294m. S.W. from Glasgow by the L.M.S.R. at the end of the war. (For an account of the battles waged here Pop. (1931) 6.888. Hugh, rath Earl of Eglinton, began the m the World War see FRONTIER, BATTLES OF THE.) harbour and town in 1806, intending to connect it with Glasgow ARDEN OF FEVERSHAM (FaversHam), the title of an by canal; his successor completed the scheme on a reduced scale. anonymous play, the first quarto of which was printed, in black The docks have since been extended. The exports are coal and

AREA—AREOPAGUS

310

ARENDAL,

2 seaport of southern Norway, in Aust-Agder

d; and the iron from collieries and iron-works in the neighbourhoo and fishilding Shipbu goods. general imports ores, timber, and and council. eries are carried on. The town is under provost

fylke (county), at the mouth of the river Nid, 46m. NE, of Christiansand. Estimated pop. (1926) 10,100. It has a good

and a popula imity to Ardrossan and Stevenston.

1723, is built. At one time (1879) Arendal was second only to Oslo (then Christiania) as a ship-owning port, but it lagged

police burgh SarrcoaTs (pop. 10,173), a mile to the south, is a proxr seaside resort, with a brisk trade, due to its

AREA,

oor, 2 Latin word, originally meaning a threshing-fl

to the wind; namely a raised space in a field exposed on all sides a strucwhich on d groun of plot a to (1) now applied in English space in the front ture is to be erected, (2) to the court or sunk covered by a or rear of a building, (3) to the superficial space building, district, country, etc.

the north coast ARECIBO, an important town situated onitself was 10,039, town the of Rico. The population

of Porto census 1920; 1930, 12,863; and that of the municipal district in 1930 was 56,525. The port has not been improved, but a survey a port will has been made and the development of the city as

cane, follow. The district tributary to the city is rich in sugarcity The grown. also are bles coffee and fruits. Cotton and vegeta ant port and import an Juan, San , capital the with ted connec +s

west and distributing station, by a railway which extends also ays also south and almost around the island. First-class highw main two by d tappe is or interi the while west, extend east and roads across the island. The Several industrial establishments are located in the town. the and le, admirab is Atlantic the of situation on a beautiful bay electric town has well paved streets, an independent water system, other lights, telephone communication, hospitals, theatres and and public improvements. Arecibo has a superior school system,

religious, charitable and social institutions abound.

harbour protected from the open waters of the Skagerrak by a series of islands, on some of which the town itself, founded in

behind when steam-boats replaced sailing vessels, and now ranks about tenth among Norwegian ports. It is a port of call for many

steamship

The

chief exports

are timber, wood-pulp

ARENSKY,

ANTON

STEPHANOVICH

(1861-1906),

Russian musical composer, was born at Novgorod, July 31, 1861, and after studying with various teachers finally became a pupil of Rimsky-Korsakov at the conservatoire of St. Petersburg. In 1882 he became a professor at the Moscow conservatoire, and from 1894 to 1gor was director of music in the imperial chapel at St. Petersburg. He composed much chamber music, including the well-known trio and many songs, besides several operas, the chief of which are The Dream on the Volga (1890); Raphael (1894), and Nala and Damayanti (1899). He died at Terioki, Finland, Feb. 25, 1906.

There are

many attractive residences and the stores and shops are modern oldest and business conditions satisfactory. Arecibo is one of the tion corpora al municip The island. the of municipalities and towns was authorized as early as 1537 by a royal decree of the Spanish Crown. The town itself was founded in 1616 by Felipe de Beaumont, who gave it the name of San Felipe de Arecibo. (H. M. T.)

AREMBERG

lines.

aluminium, ferro-alloys, quartz and felspar. There are tir smelting works in the neighbourhood (at Eydehavn) and quarries sawmills, a wood-pulp factory and a shipbuilding yard. The vie cinity is remarkable for its variety of minerals. A railway runs to Treitsund in Telemark.

or ARENBERG, formerly a German duchy

te, of the Holy Roman Empire in the circle of the Rhine Palatina the at is rg Arembe of hamlet The . Cologne between Jiilich and foot of a basalt hill 2,067ft. high, on the summit of which are the ruins of the original castle of the family of Aremberg. The lords of Aremberg first appear early in the r2th century, but had died out in the male line by 1279. From the marriage

of the heiress Mathilda (1282-99) with Engelbert II., count of

AREOI (Areortt), a secret society which originated in Tahiti

and later extended its influence to other South Pacific islands. To its ranks both sexes were admitted. The society was primarily of a religious character. Members styled themselves descendants of Oro-Tetifa, the Polynesian god, and were divided into seven or more grades, each having its characteristic tattooing. Chiefs were at once qualified for the highest grade, but ordinary members attained promotion only through initiatory rites. The Areois enjoyed great privileges, and were considered as depositaries of knowledge and as mediators between God and man. They were feared, too, as ministers of the taboo and were entitled to pronounce a kind of excommunication for offences against its rules. The chief purpose of the society was the worship of the generative powers of nature, and the ritual and ceremonies of initiation were grossly licentious. The women members were common property; the period of cohabitation was limited to three days, and the female Areois were bound by oath to strangle at birth any child born to them. If the infant was allowed to survive half an hour only, it was spared; but to have the right of keeping it the mother must find a male Areoi willing to adopt it. The Areois travelled about, devoting their whole time to feasting, dancing (the chief dance of the women being the grossly indecent Timorodee mentioned by Captain Cook), and debauchery, varied by elaborate realistic stage presentments of the lives and loves of gods and

La Marck (d. 1328), sprang two sons. The second of these, Engelbert III. (d. 1387), inherited the lordship of Aremberg which remained in his family till 1547, when it passed, by his marriage with Margaret, sister of the childless Robert III., to John of Barbancon, of the great house of Ligne, who assumed the name legendary heroes. and arms of Aremberg, and was created a count of the Empire of Central See R. W. Williamson, Social and Political Systems while a for and Friesland, of governor was He by Charles V. a (1924). Polynesi commanded the Spanish and Catholic forces against the “beggars,” of AREOPAGUS, abare, rocky hill, 370ft. high, north-west as falling at the battle of Heiligerlee in 1568. His son Charles (d. name the reted interp s ancient The . is of Athens 1618) greatly increased the possessions of the house by his the acropol but Ares was not worshipped on the Areopagus. marriage with Ann of Croy, heiress of Croy and of Chimay- “Hill of Ares,” connects the name with arai, “Curses,” ation explan Aerschot, and in 1576 was made prince of the Empire by Mazi- Another Semnai, “awful goddesses,” whose shrine was a cave at milian II. His grandson, Philip Francis, was made duke in 1644 known as the hill, of which they were the guardian deities. of foot the by the emperor Ferdinand III. of the Areopagus (Ñ & ’Apew Máy Bovih), is to council The by 1810 in possessions Duke Prosper Louis who had lost his the council of elders which we find among with d an act of Napoleon, regained them in 1815 at the Congress of be compare the kings of Athens it must have reUnder peoples. e primitiv them. Vienna, which, however, mediatized described by Homer; it was the elders of council the sembled the ARENA, the central area of an amphitheatre on which ming the kingship into an transfor of work gladiatorial displays took place, its name being derived from the chief factor in the 2) attributes to it for the viii. Pol., (Ath. Aristotle cy. aristocra is word sand (Lat. karena) with which it was covered. The all offices, the chief work to ment appoint the acy applied sometimes to any level open space on which spectacles period of aristocr to punish in cases, not only 0 right the and ration, administ of take place. of immorality. This evidence is col

or SANDWORT, a genus of plants of the violation of laws, but alsos of political power left to it in later remnant family Caryophyllaceae, usually with small flowers. Almost all are roborated by the designation boulé, which indicates that the body herbaceous, either annuals or perennials and the majority in- time, and by the ARENARIA

habit sandy soil in temperate, arctic or alpine regions. There are about 150 species.

was once a State council. In addition to its political functions, ion in certain the council from the time of Draco exercised jurisdict

AREQUIPA cases of homicide. We may suppose that the name “Boulé of the Areopagus” developed from the simple term boulé, in order to

AREQUIPA,

311 a coast department of southern Peru, sur-

rounded by the departments of Ica, Ayacucho, Apurimac, Cusco, Puno and Moquehua (area 21,952 sq.m.; estimated pop. 229,007). Four of Council or (q.v.), Boulé new the distinguish it from Hundred. The reforms of Solon (594 B.c.) tended practically to The department includes an arid coastal zone traversed by deeply mit the council of the Areopagus, though constitutionally it re- entrenched rivers, and a barren, mountainous region including a tained all its earlier powers augmented by the right to try persons series of great volcanoes with spurs projecting toward the coast, accused of conspiracy against the state. It had power to inhibit in between which are numerous fertile valleys watered by mountain the Four Hundred or in the Ecclesia, (g.v.) any measure which it streams. Crops include cotton, rice, sugar-cane, wheat, alfalfa, judged unconstitutional or prejudicial to the State, and in the levy maize, barley, potatoes; also fruits and wine. Live stock is of Anes for violation of law or moral usage it remained irresponsi- raised in the upper valleys. The mountains are rich in minerals, ble. The tyrants (g.v.) left to the council its cognizance of murder largely unexploited, and valuable deposits of borax are located at cases (560-510 B.C.), and the nominal enjoyment of its preroga- Salinas about 50m. N. of the capital. The chief port is Mollendo, tives, The council seems to have suffered no direct abridgment of a partially-sheltered, artificial cove. In spite of primitive living power from the reforms of Cleisthenes (g.v.). In 487 B.c., how- conditions, there are 7,000 to 8,000 inhabitants, mostly employés ever, the introduction of the lot in filling the archonship (see of importing and exporting houses, commission merchants, shipArcuon) began to undermine its position through affecting the ping agents, etc. The Southern railway runs, via Arequipa, to ability of its members. This deterioration was necessarily slow; Puno on Lake Titicaca, a distance of 7,326m., connecting there in 480 B.C., on the eve of the battle of Salamis, the council of the by steamer with a railway to La Paz, Bolivia. Mollendo is second Areopagus succeeded in manning the fleet, thereby regaining the only to Callao in imports, one-third of which go to Bolivia. The confidence and respect of the people. The patriotic action of the greatest need of the department is roads, of which there are council enabled it to recover considerable administrative control, 6oom. already finished and 300m. under construction. AREQUIPA, the second city of Peru, capital of the departwhich it exercised for the next 18 years, although its deterioration in ability, as well as the rapid rise of democratic ideas, prevented ment of the same name, is located at an altitude of 7,60oft. about it from re-establishing its supremacy. Ephialtes (462 ».c.), room. north of its seaport, Mollendo. It lies in a valley on both Archestratus and Pericles (g.v.), carried measures for the transfer banks of the Rio Chili at the foot of the extinct volcano El Misti of most of its functions to the Boulé, the Ecclesia, and the (19,029ft.). Although it has been quiescent for two or three cenpopular courts of law. Among these functions were jurisdiction turies, emitting only vapours from time to time, El Misti is in cases of impiety, the supervision of magistrates and the censor- regarded with veneration, connected as it is felt to be with periadic ship of the morals of citizens, and the inhibition of unconstitu- earthquakes, the last of which (1868) practically destroyed the tional resolutions in the Boulé and the Ecclesia. It retained juris- city. Other great peaks, Chachani and Pichu-pichu fill one-third diction in cases of homicide and.the care of sacred olive trees. of the horizon. Arequipa is famed for its beauty, a white city of From this time (462 B.c.) to the establishment of the “Thirty a Spanish colonial type, surrounded by orchards, fields, marketTyrants” (404 B.c.), the Areopagitic council, degraded still gardens and eucalyptus avenues in the midst of a lofty, barren further by the absolute use of the lot, was a political nullity. After plateau rising toward snow-capped peaks. The climate is the surrender of Athens and the appointment of the “Thirty,” dry, the air pure and invigorating. There is a summer rainfall the appeal of the laws of Ephialtes and Archestratus prepared of 5 to 6in., and during that season the sky is overcast much of the way for the rehabilitation of the council as guardian of the the time. The city has about 48,000 inhabitants and is the centre constitution. The Areopagites could not hope to recover their full of the intellectual, religious and commercial activities of southern supremacy, but they did exercise considerable political influence, Peru. The rectangular Plaza Mayor is surrounded by arcades. especially in crises. In the time of Demosthenes, accordingly, we The houses are massively built to resist earthquakes, the material find them annulling the election of individuals to offices for which used (sillar) is a white porous volcanic stone which hardens with they were unfit, exercising during a crisis a disciplinary power ex- age. There is a cathedral, many beautiful churches, monasteries, tending to life and death over all the Athenians “in conformity hospitals, a chamber of commerce, city hall and other public with ancestral law,” procuring the banishment of one, the racking buildings, such as the prefecture and III. Army Division headof another, and the infliction of capital punishment on several of quarters. The city, the seat of a bishopric, is noted for its relithe citizens. This authority seems to have been delegated to gious fervour as well as for its intellectual activity. The Unithem by the Ecclesia, Lycurgus claims that by their action during versidad del Gran Padre Augustin was founded in 1821 (four the crisis after Chaeroneia (q.v., see also Purr IL), they saved faculties, Philosophy, History and Letters, Natural Science, Pothe State. Under Roman supremacy they had jurisdiction in cases litical Science and Jurisprudence). There are several colleges, a of forgery and tampering with the standard measures; also the normal school for girls and elementary schools. Arequipa is a supervision of buildings, and the care of religion and of education. distributing centre for mountain products. Wool is washed and From the overthrow of the “Thirty” to the end of their history prepared far export, and there are several large wholesale. import and export houses, foreign and Peruvian, woollen and cotton (c. aD. 400), they held a reputation for ability and integrity. The jurisdiction of the council in cases of homicide was as textile mills, chocolate and biscuit factories, four mills, founfollows :—accusations were brought by relatives; on receiving the dries and machine shops for the Southern railway, and other accusation the king-archon made three investigations of the case smaller industries, also branches of many of the larger banks of i the three successive months. After the examination he assigned Lima. The Sociedad Eléctrica de Arequipa, Ltd., furnishes power thecase to the proper court and presided over it during the trial from its plant about rom. from the city. A new water system was which took place in the open air, that the judges and the accuser under construction in 1928 with storage reservoirs, three of which

might not be palluted by being brought under the same room with will have a capacity of approximately 2,260,000 litres, and new the offender. The accuser and the accused, standing on two pipe-lines in the cobblestone streets, 68km. in all. By means of

white stones termed “Relentlessness” (Anaideia) and “Qutrage”

(Hubris) respectively, bound themselves to the truth by solemn oaths. Each was allowed two speeches, and the trial lasted three

days. After the first speech the accused, unless charged with

these pipes, 175 litres per second per day will be provided for the city. Street-paving is to progress as water-supply and sewers are

completed. All this work is in charge of a North American firm.

parricide, was at liberty to withdraw into exile. If condemned, he lost his life, and his property was confiscated. A tie vote acquitted. (Aeschylus, Eumenides 735.) (See Greek Law.) c Bwrrocrarny.—Among other works may be mentioned G. Gilbert,

Connection with the outside world is by means of the Southern railway, 107m. to Mollendo, 238m. to Puno on Lake Titicaca. Telephone and telegraph lines connect with cable at Mollendo. There are paved highways to nearby resorts, such as the poetic Vale of Tiabaya. The favourite promenade is along the shady left

Cauer, “Aischylos und der Areopag.,” in Rhein. Mus. (1895); L. Whibley, Companion to Greek Studies (3rd ed., 1916) with useful bibliography. See also CLEISTHENES, PERICLES and ATHENS.

bank of the Rio Chili to the springs of Tingo. The district of Arequipa is famous for its hot and cold springs, especially those of Yura and Jesús, the waters of which are bottled and used

onsistutional Antiquities of Athens and Sparta (Eng. trans., 1895) ;

Q12

ARES—ARETHUSA

d col- as a vigorous youth, beardless, with curly hair, broad head, ang throughout the country. The Boyden station of the Harvar in stalwart shoulders and wearing helmet and chlamys. In the was located 1891, in founded lege observatory (U.S.A.) Villa Ludovisi statue (after the style of Lysippus) he appears Africa. South Arequipa until 1927, when it was transferred to seated in an attitude of thought; his arms are laid aside, ang the by goes, legend the so ed, discover was The site of Arequipa Eros peeps out at his feet. In the Borghese Ares (also taken for there. settle to families Inca Mayna Capac, who sent 3,000 Achilles) he is standing, his only armour being the helmet on 1537, in Chile from return his on it visited o Almagr Diego de his head. He also appears in many other groups, with Aphrodite, since has It 1540. in Pizarro by and the present city was founded of Peru in marble and on engraved gems of Roman times. But before history the in nce importa of events of scene the been this grouping had recommended itself to the Romans, with their (g.v.) and the birthplace of many famous men. war, or legend of Mars and Rhea Silvia, the Greek Ares had again be. of god the ogy, mythol Greek ancient in ARES, god, come under Macedonian influence a bearded, armed, and power. rather of battle, son of Zeus and Hera. (For the Roman , ful god. Athena with ted contras As identified with Ares, see Mars.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. —-H. W. Stoll, Uber die ursprüngliche Bedeutung s of goddes the being of that tes attribu other her to who added des A. und der Athene (1881); C. Tiimpel, Ares, and Aphrodite brute skilfully conducted military operations, he personifies and strength and the wild rage of conflict. His delight is in war the takes and sake, g’s fightin for g fightin bloodshed: he loves ess side of the one or the other combatant indifferently, regardl of the justice of the cause. Splendidly armed, he goes to battle, by sometimes on foot, sometimes in the war chariot made ready

his sons Deimos and Phobos (“Panic” and “Fear”), his usual

s of companions. In his train also are found Enyo, the goddes war (cf. the Roman Bellona), who delights in bloodshed and the destruction of cities: his sister, Eris, goddess of fighting and strife, and the Kéres, goddesses of death, whose function it is especially to roam the battle-field, carrying off the dead to Hades. The primitive character of Ares has been much discussed. He

is a god of storms; a god of light or a solar god; a chthonian god, one of the deities of the subterranean world, who could bring prosperity as well as ruin upon men. In this last aspect he was one of the chief gods of the Thracians, amongst whom his home was placed even in the time of Homer. In Scythia an old iron sword served as the symbol of the god, to which yearly sacrifices of cattle and horses were made, and in earlier times (as apparently also at Sparta) human victims, selected from prisoners of war, were offered. Thus Ares developed into the god of war, in which character he made his way into Greece.

The story of his imprisonment for 13 months (Ziad, v. 385) by the Aloidae (q.v.) points to the conquest of this chthonian destroyer of the fields by the arts of peace, especially agriculture. In the Odyssey (viii.) Ares is the lover of Aphrodite, the wife of Hephaestus, who catches them together in a net and holds them up to the ridicule of the gods. In what appears to be a very early development of her character, Aphrodite also was a war-goddess, known under the name of Areia; and in Thebes, the most important seat of the worship of Ares, she was his wife. His worship was not so widely spread over Greece as that of other gods, although he was honoured here and there with festivals and sacrifices. At Sparta young dogs were offered to him under the name of Thēreitas. At Athens he had a temple at the foot of the Areopagus, where he was tried and acquitted by the gods for the murder of Halirrhothius, who had violated his daughter.

The figure of Ares appears in various stories of ancient mythology. Thus he engages in combat with Heracles on two occasions to avenge the death of his son Cycnus; once Zeus separates the combatants by a flash of lightning, but in the second encounter Ares is severely wounded by his adversary, who has the active support of Athena; maddened by jealousy, he changes himself into the boar which slew Adonis, the favourite of Aphrodite; and stirs up the war between the Lapithae and Centaurs (q.v.). His attributes were the spear and the burning torch, symbolical of the devastation caused by war (in ancient times the hurling of a torch was the signal for the commencement of hostilities). The dog and the vulture were sacred to him. The worship of Ares being less general throughout Greece than that of the gods of peace, the number of statues of him is small; those of Ares-Mars, among the Romans, are more frequent. Previous to the 5th century B.c., he was represented as full bearded, grim featured and in full armour. From that time, apparently under the influence of Athenian sculptors, he was conceived as the ideal of a youthful warrior. He then appears

(1880) ; Preller-Robert, Griechische M ythologie (1887); A. Fairbanks

of Greece and Rome

The Mythology

Farnell, Cults of the Greek

States

(New York, 1907); L. R.

(v., 1909); articles in Pauly-

Wissowa’s Realencyklopädie; Roscher’s Lexikon der Mythologie; Daremberg’s Dictionnaire des Antiquités (s.v. Mars); O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte (ii. 1906); J. E,

Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (1922). For Ares in Art see A. Furtwängler, Meisterwerke der griechischen Plastik

(trans. E. Sellers, 1895) ; M. Collignon, Manual of Mythology (trans, and enlarged by J. E. Harrison, 1890), and his Histoire de la Sculp-

ture grecque (1892—97).

ARETAEUS,

of Cappadocia, a Greek physician, who lived

their Treatment.

His work was founded on that of Archigenes;

at Rome in the second half of the 2nd century A.D. We possess two treatises by him, each in four books, in the Ionic dialect: On the Causes and Indications of Acute and Chronic Diseases, and On

like him, he belonged to the eclectic school, but did not ignore the

theories of the “Pneumatics,” who made the heart the seat of life and of the soul. Brrocraray.—Editions by Kuehn (1828), Ermerius (1848). English translations: Wigan (1723); Moffat (1786); Reynolds (1837); Adams (1856). See Locher, Aretaeus aus Kappadocien (1847).

ARETAS, the Greek form of a name borne by kings of the

Nabataeans resident at Petra in Arabia (Arab, Haritha).

(1) A

king in the time of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (II. Macc. v. 8). (2) The father-in-law of Herod Antipas (Jos. Ant. xviii. 5. I, 3). In IL Cor. xi. 32 he is described as ruler of Damascus (g.v.) at the time of Paul’s conversion. Herod Antipas had married a daughter of Aretas, but afterwards discarded her in favour of Herodias. This led to a war with Aretas in which Antipas was defeated.

An Aretas is mentioned in I. Macc. xv. 22, but the true reading is probably Ariarathes (king of Cappadocia). (See NABATAEANS.)

ARETE,

a ridge or sharp edge (O.Fr, areste, Lat. aristo,

ear of corn, fish bone or spine), a French term used in Switzerland to denote any sharp bayonet-like ridge of precipitous rock; e.g., the Weisshorn is formed of three great sharp ridges which meet in a pyramidal point. Arête now denotes any sharp mow-

tain edge denuded by frost action above the snowline, where the consequent angular ridges give “house-roof” form. and ARETHAS (c. 860-940), Byzantine theological writer scholar, archbishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, was born at

Patrae. He was a pupil of Photius, and was the author of a Greek of commentary on the Apocalypse avowedly based upon that Andrew, the previous archbishop. He annotated the margins of his classical texts with numerous scholia (many of which are preserved), and had several mss. copied at his own expense, amongst them the Codex Clarkianus of Plato (brought to England from of the monastery of St. John in Patmos), and the Dorvillian ms. Euclid (now at Oxford). in which Most divergent opinions have been held as to the time be found Arethas lived; the reasons for the dates given above will succinctly stated in the article “Aretas,” by A. Jülicher in PaulyWissowa’s

Co

Realencyklopädie

der

klassischen

Aliertumswissenschaft

The text of the commentary is given in Migne, Patrologia

raeca, cvi.

North AmeriARETHUSA (Arethusa bulbosa), a common swampy regions and bogs in found , family orchis the can plant of Caroto North during May and June from Newfoundland south

lina and west to Indiana and Minnesota. The flowers are magentaridges, white of crimson, having a crest formed of three hairy

ARETHUSA—ARGELANDER

313

They Holy Cross. The Renaissance churches of S. Maria delle Grazie yellow in colour, and with a lower lip spotted with magenta. appear and the Santissima Annunziata may be noted. The most famous leaves The height. in rom. to sin. stalks ow on single natives are the Benedictine monk Guido of Arezzo, inventor of root The single. and narrow long, are and open after the flowers pink. the modern system of musical notation (d. c. 1050), the poet Indian is arethusa for name is bulbous. A common Petrarch, Pietro Aretino, the satirist (1492-1557), and Vasari, her gave who nymph a ARETHUSA, in Greek mythology, famous for his lives of Italian painters. It was the seat of a Ortygia of island the in another to name to a spring in Elis and , school of civil law and is important as the outlet for the wool of near Syracuse. The river-god Alpheus fell in love with Arethusa the Casentino. (See ARNO.) she where Ortygia, to fied Arethusa Artemis; of one of the retinue See C. Signorini, Arezzo, Citta e Provincia, Guida illustrata (Arezzo, the was changed into a spring; Alpheus made his way beneath sea, and united his waters with those of the spring. In Ovid

(Metam. V. 572 et seq.), Arethusa, while bathing in the Alpheus,

was seen and pursued by the river-god in human form; Artemis

changed her into a spring, which, flowing underground, emerged at Ortygia. In an earlier form of the legend, it is Artemis, not Arethusa, who is the object of the god’s affections, and who

escapes by smearing her face with mire, so that he fails to recog-

nize her.

originated from the fact that

The story probably

1904); G. Franciosi, Arezzo (Arti Grafiche, Bergamo, 1909).

ARGALI (ahr’gé-l), the Tartar name of the great wild sheep,

Ovis ammon, of the Altai and other parts of Siberia. Standing as

high as a large donkey, the argali is the finest of all the wild sheep. There are several related central Asian species, such as O. sairensis and O. littledalez. See SHEEP.

ARGAND BURNER, the first scientifically constructed oil-

burner, was invented by A. Argand of Geneva in 1784. It consisted of a cylindrical wick confined between two concentric

Artemis Alpheiaia was worshipped in both Elis and Ortygia, and tubes; this device gave a circular flame with a current of air also that the Alpheus in its upper part runs underground, as is brought to play upon its inner surface. A glass chimney increased confirmed by modern explorers. In Virgil (Ecl., x.1) Arethusa is addressed as a divinity of poetical inspiration, like one of the

Muses, who were themselves originally nymphs of springs.

For Arethusa on Syracusan coins, see B. V. Head, Historia Numorum (I9I1).

the draught and improved the illumination. Nearly a century later, Murdock, the pioneer of gas-lighting, adapted the Argand idea of two concentric circular pipes in the designing of gasburners (see LIGHTING).

ARGAO, a municipality (with administrative centre and 36 barrios or districts), on Bohol strait, 36m. S.S.W. of the municipality of Cebu, the capital of the province of Cebu, Philippine islands. a satirical sonnet against indulgences, he made his way to Rome, Population (1918) 39,121, of whom 18,627 were males; there composition, the until X., Leo Pope with where he found favour 1918), 37-6%. in 1523, of his obscene “Sonnetti Lussuriosi.” He then left Rome, were 12 whites: literacy (based on ro years and up, vicinity, and rice and the in produced is cacao excellent the Much At Medici. de’ Giovanni of court the to and was attached of cotton is death of Giovanni de’ Medici he withdrew to Venice, where, living corn are other important products. A small amountIn 1918 there on the gifts of nobles and princes who feared his satire, he spent raised and woven, and some sinamay is exported. were seven manufacturing establishments of all kinds and 18 his time in writing licentious sonnets, dialogues, and comedies. Legazpi, the first governor of the Philippines, assigned The dialogues and sonnets have been translated into French, under schools. encomienda in 1571. The Augustinians and later the in Argao biography, a written has Hutton E. Dames. des Académie of the title (1922). portrait a with carried on mission work in the early municipality. Jesuits Princes, of Scourge the Avetino, Pietro

ARETINO, PIETRO (1492-1556), Italian author, born April 20 1492. Banished from Arezzo, his birthplace, for writing

AREZZO (anc. Arretium), town and episcopal see, Tuscany, Italy, capital of province of Arezzo, 54m. S.E. of Florence by rail.

ARGAUM, a village of British India in the Akola district

of the Central Provinces, 32m. north of Akola. The village is memorable for an action which took place on Nov. 28, 1803, between the British army, commanded by Maj.-Gen. Wellesley (afterwards duke of Wellington), and the Mahrattas under Sindhia and the raja of Berar, in which the latter were defeated with great loss. A medal struck in England in 1851 commemorates the victory.

ARGE]I (ahr-ga’-é), the name given by the ancient Romans to

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THE PIAZZA GRANDE, AREZZO, SHOWING THE PALAZZO DELLA FRATERNITA AND THE 11TH CENTURY APSE OF THE CHURCH OF S. MARIA DELLA PIEVE

Pop. (1921) town, 17,398; commune, 51,862. It is attractively situated on a hill 840 to g7oft. above sea-level, in a fertile district. Its walls were erected in 1320 by Guido Tarlati di Pietramala, its warlike bishop, and reconstructed by Cosimo J. de’ Medici between 1541 and 1568, on which occasion the bronze statues of Pallas and the Chimaera, now at Florence, were discovered. The streets

radiate fanwise from the citadel (1502). The cathedral, close : ; j alo iosTE Gothic CZ) 4th-century sculptures. S. :

a number of rush puppets (24 or 27), resembling men tied hand and foot, which were taken down to the ancient bridge over the Tiber (pons sublicius) on May 14 by the pontifices and magistrates, with the wife of the Flamen Dialis in mourning guise, and there thrown into the Tiber by the Vestal virgins. There were also in various parts of the four Servian regions of the city a number of sacella Argeorum (chapels), round which a procession seems to have taken place on March 17, and where the puppets were probably kept until the second procession. The Romans had no historical explanation of these curious rites, and the theory of the common people that the puppets were substitutes for old men who used at one time to be sacrificed to the river, is not generally

accepted.

W. Mannhardt, comparing numerous examples of similar customs among other European peoples, concluded that the rite was of extreme antiquity, of dramatic rather than sacrificial character, and that its object was possibly to procure rain; while Wissowa, who refuses to date it farther back than the latter half of the 3rd century B.c., sees in it the yearly representation of an original sacrifice of 27 captive Greeks (taking Argei as a Latin form of Gr. Argeioi) by drowning in the Tiber.

BreriocrapHy.—See W. W. Fowler, Roman Festivals (1899); W. i Mannhardt, Wald- und Feldkulte (1904-05) ae Marquardt, Eas sara oe and ne und Kultus der ane GRSA leve nas cam- | Staatsverwaltung (iii. 1885); G. Wissowa, Religion ta the Study of Greek

panile and facade of 1216. In the cloisters of S. Bernardo, | Rémer (1912); J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena on the site of the ancient amphitheatre, is a remarkable view of | Religion (1922).

mediaeval Rome.

S, Francesco contains famous frescoes by

j

ARGELANDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST

on March Piero de’ Franceschi, representing sçenes from the legend of the | (1799-1875), German astronomer, was born at Memel

314.

ARGENS—ARGENTAN

22, 1799, and studied at Königsberg. His treatise on the path of made the great comet of 1811 appeared in 1822; he was, in 1823, director of the observatory at Abo; and he exchanged it for a the similar charge at Helsingfors in 1832. His investigation of sun’s motion in space was published in 1837; and in the same year of he was appointed professor of astronomy in the university Obserd publishe also He 1875. 17, Bonn, where he died Feb. m vationes Astronomicae Aboae Factae (1830-32); DLX Stellaru

Fixarum Positiones Mediae (1835); and the first seven volumes

of justice, police and finance in Hainaut he was employed in pro. visioning the troops, who were suffering from the economic cop. fusion resulting from Law’s system. He returned to the court jn 1724 to exercise his functions as councillor of state. He was the friend of Voltaire, and frequented the Club de l’Entresol, the his. tory of which he wrote in his memoirs. In May 1744 he was ap.

pointed member of the council of finance, and in November secre. taty of state for foreign affairs, his brother, the comte d’Argenson being at the same time secretary of state for war. France was

then engaged in the War of the Austrian Succession, and the of Astronomische Beobachtungen auf der Sternwarte gzu Bonn government was virtualy in the hands of the two brothers. The southern and northern of ions observat his ng (1846-69), containi marquis d’Argenson dreamed of a “European Republic,” and star-zones, and his great Durchmusterung (vols. iii.-v., 1859-62) wished to establish arbitration between nations. But the generals correof 324,198 stars, from the north pole to —2° Dec. The in negotiated in opposition to his instructions; his colleagues laid sponding atlas was issued in 1863. His observations (begun the blame on him; the intrigues of the courtiers passed unnoticed vol. in d 1838) and discussions of variable stars were embodie by him; and the secret diplomacy of the king neutralized his vii. of the same series. Gesell- initiative. He concluded the marriage of the dauphin to the See E. Schonfeld in Vierteljahrsschrift der Astronomischen daughter of Augustus IL., king of Poland, but was unable to preschaft, X. pp. 150-178. vent the election of the grand duke of Tuscany as emperor in s Marqui R, BOYE ARGENS, JEAN BAPTISTE DE 1704 1745. In 1747 he retired and spent the rest of his life in working p’ (1704-1771), was born at Aix in Provence on June 24, presiand at the Académie des Inscriptions, of which he was appointed ted dissipa a After and died at Toulon on Jan. 11, 1771. by Voltaire his dent and revising Mémoires. the king 1747, in in he adventurous youth, he settled for a time at Amsterdam, where es declared him to be “the best citizen that had ever tasted the began his Lettres juives (The Hague, 1738-42), Lettres chinois ; ministry.” (1760) ed. (The Hague, 1739-42), and Lettres cabalistiques, 2nd. BIBtioGRAPHY.—His son, Antoine René, published his Considérations 48), (1743lettres des que républi la de secrets also the Mémoires sur le gouvernement de France (Amsterdam, 1764), and Essais dans le humain Vesprit de e afterwards revised and augmented as Histoir goût de ceux de Montaigne (ib. 1785), republished as Loisirs d'un sinistre d'état (1787). There are two important editions of the (1765-68). He was invited by Prince Frederick (afterwards s at Mémoires, the first with some letters not elsewhere published, by the Frederick the Great) to Potsdam, and received high honour d’Argenson, his great-grand-nephew (1887, et seg.); the court; but Frederick was bitterly offended by his marrying a marquis second, more correct, but less complete, published by J. B. Rathery, Berlin actress, Mile. Cochois. for the Société de l'Histoire de France 1859, et seg.). See Sainte-Beuve, (vols. xii. and xiv.); Levasseur, “Le Marquis ARGENSOLA, LUPERCIO LEONARDO DE (1559- Causeries du lundi Mémoires de Académie des Sciences Morales e d’Argenson” in the 1613), Spanish dramatist and poet, was baptized at Barbastro on Politiques (vol. Ixxxvii. 1868) ; and, especially, E. Zevort, Le Margus in Aragon of r ographe histori ed appoint was Dec. 14, 1559. He d’Argenson et le ministère des afaires étrangères (1880). See also 1599, and in 1610 accompanied the count de Lemos to Naples, G. de R. de Flassan, Histoire de la diplomatie française (2nd ed, secrète inédite de Louis XY. where he died in March, 1613. His tragedies—Filis, Isabela, and 1811); E. Boutaric, Correspondance d’Argenson,” in the Révolution (1866); E. Champion, “Le Marquis Alejandra—are said by Cervantes to have “filled all who heard francaise (vol. xxxvi. 1899); Arthur Ogle, The Marquis d’Argenson and lost is Filis ”; interest and delight, ion, admirat with them (1893); A. Alem, D’Argenson économiste (1899). Isabela and Alejandra, which were not printed till 1772, are ponOther noted members of the family were: Marc PIERRE DE ed publish derous imitations of Seneca. Argensola’s poems were DE Pautmy, Comte d’Argenson (1696-1764), younger Vover transt excellen of consist they 1634; in with those of his brother of the preceding, who, as secretary of state for war, began brother lations from the Latin poets, and of original satires. of the new armies constituted after the War of the His brother, BARTOLOMÉ LEONARDO DE ARGENSOLA (1562- the reform his nephew Marc ANTOINE RENE DE VOvER Succession; Austrian on Barbastro at baptized 1631), Spanish poet and historian, was being employed as ambassador to Poland after who (1722-87) Aug. 26, 1562. He was attached to the suite of the count de (1766-70) devoted his time to history, Venice at and (1762—64) as brother his succeeded and Lemos, viceroy of Naples in 1610, d'une grande bibliothèque, 65 vols. tirés Mélanges published and Feb. historiographer of Aragon in 1613. He died at Saragossa on de Voyer (1721-82), who marquis Rent, Marc 4, 1631. His principal prose works are the Conquista de las Islas (1779-88); and in the Seven Succession Austrian the of War the in fought Aragón, de Molucas (1609), and a supplement to Zurita’s Anales (1471d’Argenson marquis René, Marc son his and War; Vears which was published in 1630. ry cause, and later, as an

ARGENSON, the name of a French family, derived from an

old hamlet in what is now the department of Indre-et-Loire. Marc RENE bE Vover, marquis de Paulmy and marquis d’Argenson (16g2-1721) held various legal offices at the French court, and in 1697 was appointed lieutenant-general of police. He held this post for 21 years, during which he was a party to every state secret, and a familiar friend of Louis XIV.; in 1709 he directed the destruction of the Jansenist monastery of Port Royal. In 1718 he became keeper of the seals and president of the council of finance; he was appointed by the regent to suppress the resistance of the parlements and to reorganize the finances, and was blamed for the failure of the schemes of John Law. He resigned in 1720 and died on May 8, 1721. See the contemporary memoirs, especially those of Saint-Simon (de Boislisle’s ed.), Dangeau and Math. Marais; Barbier’s Journal; “Correspondance administrative sous Louis XIV.” in Coll. des doc. inéd. sur Vhistoire de France, ed. G. B. Depping (1850-55); Correspondance des contréleurs-Généraux des finances, pub. by de Boislisle (1873-1900); Correspondance de M. de Marville avec M. de Maurepas (189697); Rapports de police de René d’Argenson, pub. by P. Cottin (undated); P. Clément, La police sous Louis XIV. (1873). René Louis pE Vover DE Pautmy, marquis d’Argenson (16941757), eldest son of the preceding, was also a lawyer. As intendant

1842), who embraced the revolutiona adherent of Napoleon, helped to repel the English invasion of South Beveland and Walcheren (1809). 5. of ARGENTA, province of Ferrara, Emilia, Italy, 25m.

Ravenna by rail, 13ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1921) town, 3,079; and Renaiscommune, 23,166. It has some interesting mediaeval gallery. picture good a and s, churche and gs sance buildin See A. Beltramelli, Da Grafiche, 1905).

Comacchio

ad Argenta

(Bergamo, Arti

ARGENTAN, capital of an arrondissement in the department

of Orne, N.W. France, 27m. N.N.W. of Alençon by rail. Pop. (1926) 6,035. It is situated on the slope of a hill on the right Argentan was bank of the Orne at its confluence with the Ure. was often taken a viscounty from the rrth century onwards; it to

ed attached and pillaged. During the Religious Wars it remain court, dates law a as used now , château The Party. c the Catholi (15th century) from the rsth century. The church of St. Martin a 1 sth-centuy has good stained glass; that of St. Germain has

fect, has & sculptured porch. Argentan is the seat of a sub-pre a commum tribunal of first instance and of commerce, and

stained-glass college. Leather-working and the manufacture of ne m the limesto of s are leading industries. There are quarrie vicinity.

ARGENTEUIL—ARGENTINA

315

ARGENTEUIL, a town of northern France, in the depart- nating with plain. The general elevation of the Gran Chaco varies

from 600 feet to 800 feet above sea-level. As the slope to the east is very slight the rivers are commonly obstructed by sand bars, „ monastery (A.D. 656), which Charlemagne changed into a nun- floating trees and vegetation and large areas are regularly flooded nery; it was afterwards famous for its connection with Héloise during the rainy season. A large part of the Gran Chaco region is wooded; in the south and south-west there are large grassy plains (see ABÉLARD), and on her expulsion in 1129 was again turned into amonastery. Itis a residential area related to Paris, having mar- and large areas covered with salt pans. The Argentine “Mesopoket gardens and vineyards. The Féte des Vendanges held in au- tamia,” the area lying between the Parana and Uruguay rivers, tumn is well known. Machine and chemical industries are carried belongs naturally to the Gran Chaco region. It is wooded, flat and swampy in the north but higher and undulating in the south. on and articles de luxe are made. The central or pampa region of Argentina is the most productive ARGENTINA or the Argentine Republic (officially Repuband has within its area or on its margin the bulk of the population countries the of population and area in lica Argentina) is second and all the large cities of the country. It comprises the area from of South America. It has the shape of a wedge with the point towards the south and occupies the greater part of the southern the Gran Chaco south to the Rio Negro, stretching through about extremity of the continent. The length of Argentine territory 10 degrees of latitude. It is a treeless, grassy plain, apparently lying on a dead level but in reality rising gradually from the from north to south is approximately 2,070m. and its greatest Atlantic westward at an average rate of about 3 feet to the mile. The miles. square 1,078,278 is area The width about 860 miles. countries adjoining Argentina on the north and north-east are This uniform level is broken along its southern margin, in the Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil and Uruguay, the greater part of their south of the province of Buenos Aires, by the small Tandil and in the boundaries with Argentina being formed by the Pilcomayo, Para- Ventana Sierras and by ranges of hills and low mountains guay, Paraná and Uruguay rivers. Argentina is bounded on the southern and eastern part of the territory of La Pampa. Extenwest throughout its entire length by Chile; on the east and sive depressions are found, some of them subject to inundations, south-east, through approximately two-thirds of its length, by the as along the lower Rio Salado in Buenos Aires. In a straight line Atlantic ocean; on the south by the converging lines of Chile and west the elevation of the pampa varies from 65 feet at Buenos Aires to 1,250 feet at a point 400 miles west. the Atlantic. Physical Geography.—The Andean mountain chain which | Contrasting with the fertile pampa the southern region known extends the entire length of South America forms a natural as Patagonia is made up principally of arid steppes. Patagonia division between Argentina and Chile, as the boundary line is includes the area from the Rio Negro to the southern extremity of marked in large part by the highest peaks of the Andes which the continent. Except for a narrow coastal plain of varying width form the watershed for streams flowing in the general directions the surface of Patagonia is formed by a series of high plateaux at of the Atlantic and of the Pacific. In the north the Andean ranges elevations varying from 300 to 1,600 feet, with the general aspect extend east through approximately one-third of Argentine terri- of a great plain sloping from the west to the east. The surface of tory but farther south the width of the mountainous border the plateaux is very uneven with outcroppings of stone and this diminishes sharply. All of the Argentine territory to the east of region is crossed from east to west by deep and broad valleys the Andes, comprising by far the greater part of the country, has between high cliffs. In the west the plateau is separated from the the character of a plain rising from sea-level at the Atlantic coast Cordilleras by a longitudinal depression or belt, within which conditions of climate and soil are more favourable than in any other to the Andean foothills. The northern part of the Argentine plain is known as the Gran part of Patagonia. This longitudinal belt is not continuous but is Chaco and is in part wooded and swampy. The treeless, grassy broken into sections, one of which, in the south, is 200 miles long. pampa, the fertile agricultural and grazing territory which has This belt has fertile lands and wooded sections and offers most made the wealth of Argentina, occupies the central portion. inducements to colonists. The island of Tierra del Fuego adjoins the continent at the From the Rio Negro south the country is known as Patagonia and south. Its eastern section belongs to Argentina and the west to is composed principally of cold, arid steppes. From the Bolivian border south to the Rio Negro (approxi- Chile. In character it is similar to Patagonia. In the north the mately one-half the length of the country) the Andean mountain surface is undulating prairie and in the south wooded hills with zone extends east through one-third to one-fourth of the terri- glaciers and numerous rivers and lakes. Rivers and Lakes.—The three great rivers that form the Plata tory and comprises the elevated cordilleras and their plateaux, with flanking ranges and spurs towards the east. In the north system—the Paraguay, the Parana and the Uruguay—with the elevated plateaux and the valleys are semi-arid and are covered their tributaries, drain the northern part of Argentina, The rivers with extensive saline deposits. Along the Chilean border lies an of this mighty system have a total length of 2,330 miles and are extensive region of elevated desert land and mountain, without navigable throughout 1,997 miles. The Paraguay, Parana and drainage, known as the Puna de Atacama. In the province of Uruguay have their source in the highlands of Brazil and flow Cordoba are three short parallel ranges belonging to another and south. Each forms a part of the boundaries of Argentina with older formation than the Andes. North of the Cordoba Sierras the countries to the north. The largest tributaries of the Plata lies a great saline depression known as “salinas grandes” 643 feet system are the Pilcomayo, which rises in Bolivia and forms the above sea-level while to the north-east is another extensive saline north-eastern boundary of Argentina for about 400 miles and basin enclosing the “Mar Chiquita” (Small Sea) and the morasses joins the Paraguay; the Bermejo, which rises on the northern into which the waters of the Rio Saladillo disappear. The frontier and flows southeast into the Paraguay; and the Salado highest elevations in the Argentine Andes occur north of the Rio del Norte (called the Rio del Juramento in its upper course) which Negro. Of these the most important are Mercedario, 22,315 feet, rises on the slopes of the Andes in the province of Salta and flows known as the Mesopotamia, Tupungato, 21,550 feet and Aconcagua, 23,080 feet, the latter southeast into the Parana. The area included between the Parana and the Uruguay, is watered by a being the highest mountain of South America. The Patagonian Andes, extending from the latitude of the Rio number of small streams which flow into the Parana and the Negro to the southern extremity of the continent, differ in char- Uruguay. The Rio de la Plata is in reality an enormous estuary and forms acter from the northern Andes. They are much lower and dimin-

ment of Seine-et-Oise, on the Seine, 5m. north-west of the forti-

gcations of Paris. Pop. (1926) 44,118. Argenteuil grew up round

ish in height towards the south, the greatest elevation in Rio Negro being 11,155 feet and in Chubut and Santa Cruz, 6,988 and

7,090 feet respectively.

an ample gulf. It is about roo miles long and 23 miles wide at the confluence of the Parana and the Uruguay. Measured at its widest

point, which is slightly west of Montevideo in Uruguay, the Plata

The region known as the Gran Chaco comprises that part of the is about 56 miles wide. The port of Buenos Aires has been conArgentine plain extending from the Rio Pilcomayo on the northern structed on the banks of the Plata. The central part of the pampa region, including a considerable border south to the Rio Salado del Norte. Its northern extremity

lies within the torrid zone and is made up of tropical forest alter- part of the province of Buenos Aires and La Pampa territory, is

almost entirely without running streams though it is not in any sense arid. On the eastern and southern pampa there are a number of small streams flowing into the Plata estuary and the Atlantic. Of these the only important one is the Salado del Sur, 360 miles long. Many of the rivers of Argentina are brackish or saline in character, as implied by their names (Salado and Saladillo). On the southern margin of the pampa flow the Colorado and Negro rivers, crossing the entire Republic from the Andes to the Atlantic. Both are navigable. The Rio 7.9

Negro is nearly 400 miles long and after pig ytin “ag.

the large tributaries of the Plata is the |-ri; eee. ait largest river in Argentina.

[DESCRIPTION

ARGENTINA

316

Its waters are

used for irrigating a large area. The Patagonian region has a number of rivers which rise in the foothills of the Andes and flow in an easterly direction to the Atlantic. Of these the largest is the Rio Chubut which has an important tributary, the Rio Chico. There are many large snow-fed lakes in Patagonia set in the Andean foothills of which the largest are Lago Viedma, Lago Buenos Aires, Lago Argentina and Lago Nahuel-Huapi. The scenery in the lake region of Patagonia with its rugged snow mountains, forests and glaciers is magnificent. The lakes of Argentina are exceptionally numerous though, except in Patagonia, few

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river, 260 miles inland from Buenos Aires, is the second port of

the Republic in commercial importance.

It receives nearly the

whole of the shipping traffic of the higher Parana and Paraguay rivers and can be reached by overseas steamers drawing up to

21 feet of water. The port of Santa Fe on the Rio Parana, 369

miles from Buenos Aires, is also accessible to overseas steamers There are many other river ports with a traffic of relative im.

portance scattered along the banks of the Parana, the Paraguay and the Uruguay.

(R. U. L.)

Geology.—The older sedimentary rocks in Argentina are ex.

posed in the Cordillera of the Andes, which borders the country

on the west and constitutes the “backbone” of South America The Andes are of geologically recent origin, having been uplifted in Tertiary time. The uplift was accompanied or followed by vul canism, which produced extensive areas of rugged volcanic rock, mainly andesite, trachyte and basalt. Plastic igneous material intruded into the older rocks formed on cooling bodies of granite

syenite and diorite, and uplifted, folded and faulted the sedi mentary Palaeozoic beds that lay along or near the axis of the

range. The Cordillera is paralleled on the east and in places joined by the Sierras, lower ranges in which also intrusive rocks, Palaeozoic sedimentary beds and volcanic rocks are exposed. In areas somewhat farther east the older Palaeozoic rocks are overlain by beds of sandstone containing thin seams of coal and the remains of

i A COWBOY OR "GAUCHO" OF THE PAMPAS OF THE

of them are large enough to be shown on ARGENTINE REPUBLIC

an ordinary map. The province of Buenos Aires has more than 600 Jakes, mostly small and some brackish, and La Pampa territory also is dotted with small lakes. The large saline body of water, Mar Chiquita, in Cérdoba, is fed from the Cérdoba Sierras and has no outlet, which is characteristic of many of the lakes in this region.

Ocean and River Ports.—Argentina has a coast on the Atlantic 1,610 miles long including the estuary of the Plata, but there are few natural harbours. The two ports most frequented by ocean going vessels are those of Buenos Aires and Ensenada (La Plata) both in the Plata estuary, and both constructed by the National Government at great expense. The best natural harbour of the Republic is probably that of Bahia Blanca on the Atlantic coast in the southern part of Buenos Aires province, 534 miles by sea from Buenos Aires. Here there is a large bay of good depth, sheltered by islands. The port is known as Puerto Belgrano or Puerto Militar, as there is a naval base there. It is under the jurisdiction of the National Government. With a little dredging the harbour is kept accessible to the largest ocean going vessels. There are ample port works and equipment. Within a few miles of Bahia Blanca are two other small ports known as Ingeniero White and Puerto Galvan. There are several small ports on the coast of Patagonia, visited only by coast line steamers. These include San Antonio in Rio Negro; Comodoro Rivadavia (the centre of the Argentine petro-

plants. Among the latter are some that belong to the Glossopteris

or Gangamopteris flora, which thrived in India, Australia and South Africa in Permian time, when glaciers appear to have existed

in South America. The occurrence of these fossil plants in Argen-

tina favours the view, held by some, that a great land area, which has been called Gondwanaland, once extended from India to South America. The fossil plants of the Glossopteris flora were found at Bajo de Velis, in the province of San Luis. Fossil plants found elsewhere in Argentina belong to a higher geologic horizon—the upper Triassic, equivalent to the Rhanetic of Europe. Jurassic beds are seen in the Cordillera. Some Cretaceous freshwater beds are found in the western part of the country. The early Tertiary deposits consist largely of beds of reddish sandstone, which are exposed in the Cordillera and the Sierras, where they reach, at some places, a height of 100,000ft., and where they were folded by the Andean uplift. The marine deposits of late Tertiary time are confined to the neighbourhood of the coast and were probably laid down after the Andes had been uplifted, but freshwater deposits of about the same age are found in inland areas, especially in Patagonia. The fauna of middle Tertiary and Quaternary time includes the remains of a gigantic wingless bird (Phororhacus), a huge

armadillo-like animal (Glyptodon), giant ground sloths (Mego therium and Mylodon), a horse (Hippidion), and a bear-like ani-

mal (Arctotherium). Some of these have been found in the Pleistocene beds of the pampas, which consist mainly of rather loose deposits of very fine sand and clay. Large areas of glacial deposits show that masses of ice covered the slopes of the Andes in glacial time. Ores of gold, silver, lead and copper are found in the neighbourhood of the eruptive rocks in the hilly regions near the Andes.

leum industry) and Puerto Madryn in Chubut; Santa Cruz, San Julian and Puerto Deseado in Santa Cruz. Ushuaia on the Beagle (G. McL. Wo.) Channel is the port of Tierra del Fuego. Climate and Rainfall.—With the exception of the small area The port of Buenos Aires is situated on the Plata river at a in the Torrid Zone, point where it is approximately 24 miles wide. After New York it which lies north of the Tropic of Capricorn central or pampa The Zone. Temperate South the in lies Argentina has a larger movement of traffic than any other American port. The harbour is made up of four sections known respectively as district including the most populous provinces has a temperate, Riachuelo Port, Port Madero, New Port and South Dock. There healthful climate, enjoying a large amount of sunshine and, as 4 is an aggregate of 6 miles of quay served by hydraulic and electric whole, adequate rainfall. All over the Republic January is the cranes. The Government warehouses in the port area have floor warmest month and the coolest season June and July. There is little variation of climate over the pampa region conspace of more than 10g acres and there are about 75 miles of railway lines. There are five grain elevators with an aggregate sidering its great extent, nearly ten degrees of latitude. It includes capacity of 167,000 tons. In 1926 this port was entered by 3,404 the provinces of Buenos Aires, southern Santa Fé, the eastem trans-Atlantic steamers of a total tonnage of 9,929,465 and 241 part of Córdoba and La Pampa territory. In the capital of Córdoba, on the northern margin of the pampa, the annual aversailing vessels with a tonnage of 67,791. Argentina has within and adjacent to its territories several age temperature is 62-4° F. The average temperature for Jar: navigable rivers. This fact has been of importance in the develop- uary is 77 degrees and 49-6 degrees for June. In the city of

DESCRIPTION]

ARGENTINA

Buenos Aires the average annual temperature is 61-1 degrees

Fahrenheit; for January 73-7° and for July 49-2° F. There is thus little difference in temperature between Buenos Aires and Córdoba but there 1s a marked difference in rainfall. In Buenos Ajres the rainfall reaches 37-9in., well distributed throughout the

year, while Cordoba has 28 inches. Light frosts are sometimes

experienced in Buenos Aires during the cold months but the vege-

tation is never frozen. The city of Bahia Blanca in the southern rt of Buenos Aires province is on the southern margin of the mpa. It has an average annual temperature of 60° F, 70-4° F for the month of January and 46-7° for the coldest month, July, with

an average annual rainfall of 21-5 inches.

Due to the length of Argentine territory, which extends through

33 degrees of latitude, and the great variations in altitude in its

range from the Atlantic coast level to the peaks of the Andes,

there is necessarily great variation of climate. The climate is further modified by prevailing winds and mountain barriers. Southern Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, although they correspond in latitude to Labrador, are made habitable and an excellent sheep raising country by the southern equatorial current along the continental coast. The Torrid Zone area in the exlreme north extends through about 14 degrees and is about 30,720 sq.m. in area. The eastern part of this area is the low, wooded plain of the Gran Chaco where the mean annual temperature is 73° F and the annual rainfall 63 inches. The western extremity is the arid plateau of the Puna where the annual average temperature falls below 57°

and the rainfall to 2 inches. The region comprising the provinces of San Luis, Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan, Mendoza, western Cordoba and south-western Santiago del Estero has a scant rainfall and irrigation is necessary for agriculture. The climate is hotter than on the pampa. In Santiago del Estero the temperature sometimes reaches 118° F. The climate in the Mesopotamian district does not present great variation of temperature. The Gran Chaco region has the heaviest rainfall of any part of the Republic. Tucumán has ample rainfall with a hot summer in the lower sections. Salta and Jujuy are arid in part but have moisture in the lower valleys. The winter months (May to August) are the dryest in all parts of the Republic north of the Rio Negro. In the northern Andean region there is a well marked dry and rainy season. In general in Patagonia the temperature falls progressing southward though Santa Cruz is colder than Tierra del Fuego. The climate is everywhere healthy. The coldest part of the Republic in winter is a point in the western part of Santa Cruz where the mean temperature is 32°. Flora.—Each of the different climatic zones of Argentina has its own characteristic flora—the tropical and subtropical regions of the north, the arid plateaux of the west and north-west, the pampa and the desert steppes of Patagonia. The territory within and bordering on the Torrid Zone has a vegetation of tropical luxuriance. In the forests the palm predominates in the extreme north, intermingled south of the Rio Bermejo with heavy

growths of native hardwoods distinguished by the evenness and clearness of their grain and colour. In the elevated, dry and saline regions of the north-west and west where the rainfall is

slight, the vegetation is sparse and of the desert type. There are large thickets of thorny bushes of scant foliage and cacti, some of great size, are characteristic of this region. The pampa, covering so large a part of the Republic, has no native trees whatever. The only trees on the pampa have been planted by men, often about their habitations. The pampa, except where the land is under crops, is covered with grasses edible for

cattle, divided into two main classes: pasto duro (hard grass) and

317

The greater part of Patagonia is barren and there is no arboreal growth except in the well watered valleys of the Andean foothills. Here there are regions of good, cultivable land, pasture land and timber. The water courses and depressions of the steppes afford pasturage sufficient for sheep. In places the steppes have a thorny shrub growth. In Tierra del Fuego there is much moisture and an Antarctic vegetation is found. There are rich pastures and the forest growth is vigorous. The forests of Tierra del Fuego and of the Andean foothill region of Patagonia include pine, cypress, cedar, fir and Antarctic beech. The total forest region of Argentina is 289,000 sq. miles. The provinces having the largest forest area are Salta, Santiago del Estero, Santa Fé and La Rioja and El Chaco territory. The native varieties include choice hardwoods suitable for cabinet making and a very important collection of woods for tanning, dyeing, textile and medicinal purposes. Many of the trees are indigenous and are identified only by their Indian names. The better known varieties found in the forests of northern Argentina include the algarrobo, the jacaranda, the laurel, the white and red quebracho, the lignum vitae, rosewood, walnut and orangewood. The most valuable single item produced by the forests of Argentina is the quebracho, used in tanning. The red quebracho is also a particularly valuable hardwood for railway sleepers, bridge piles, fence posts, paving blocks, etc. The variety of plants suitable for tanning and dyes is particularly large, the Mesopotamian region alone having 23 species of dye plants. With the exception of quebracho this is a source of wealth as yet little exploited. Yerba maté or Paraguayan tea is a native shrub which grows in the forests along the Upper Parana and is now being extensively cultivated in Formosa. The advent of European civilization in Argentina created an extraordinary change in the Argentine flora, as it now includes useful trees and plants from every part of the world, including the

cereals, alfalfa and new grasses for the plains and all varieties of fruits. The Australian eucalyptus has been planted in many places and thrives on the pampa. Other varieties which have been planted extensively in the pampa region include the acacia, the sycamore, the paraiso and a variety of evergreens. Fauna.—Comparatively few species of animals exist on the steppes of Patagonia. In the northern provinces of Jujuy and Salta the wildcat and chinchilla are found. The guanaco, a wild species similar to the llama, the alpaca, vicufia and the vizcacha, a native variety of rodent, inhabit the cordillera. In the tropical region of the north and on its borders are found several species of monkey, the puma, the jaguar, ferret, racoon, vizcacha, anteater and rabbit as well as other species usual to the South American jungle. On the pampa are found the fox, skunk, martin, deer and armadillo. The hare is found everywhere and the Patagonian hare on the pampa and in Patagonia. The carpincho, a wild pig, and the nutria are found in many provinces. Among the fauna of Patagonia are the fox, martin, guanaco, puma, deer, rabbit and armadillo. The vizcacha is found in Rio Negro territory. In the lagoons of the Mesopotamia are two species of cayman, popularly known as yacuarés. Frogs and toads are found on the pampa. Argentina has a great variety of bird life. The condor inhabits the Andes and the Cérdoba Sierras. Among those that inhabit the pampa are hawks, falcons, owls, herons, storks, swans, partridge, plovers, ducks, chajas and many others known by native names. Parrots and similar tropical birds are found in the extreme north. There is a variety of rhea in Patagonia and on the pampa. Penguins occur in Tierra del Fuego. The coast waters and the Plata and interior rivers have an abundance of fish. The common varieties of shell fish are repre-

pasto blando (soft grass). The pasto duro is the native grass sented. Among fresh water fish are trout, salmon, eels and the which Is coarse and of strong growth. This has been replaced in pejerrey, considered a great delicacy. a steadily growing area by pasto blando or cultivated pastures, GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION grown from imported seed. This substitution is an important Population.—There have been three census takings in Argengain from the economic point of view. The natural fertility of the tina since the Republic, with result as follows: pampa and the amount of rainfall over most of its area make it . 1869—1,830,214 od 2. First Census

se adaptable to every kind of cultivation suitable to this ate.

Second Census

Third Census

. 1898—3,954,911

- 1914—7,885,237

318

[GOVERNMENT

ARGENTINA

At the end of 1927 the population was officially estimated at 10,500,000. Recent estimates of the population of the principal cities of the country are: Buenos Aires, 2,000,000; Rosario (Santa Fé), 410,000; Cérdoba, 216,800; La Plata (Buenos Aires), 161,000; Avellaneda (Buenos Aires), 150,000; Santa Fé, 130,-

ooo; Tucumán, 100,000; Bahia Blanca (Buenos Aires), 70,000; Mendoza, 70,000. The 1914 census showed a population of 1,575,814 in the Federal District. The returns for the provinces were as follows: Buenos Aires, 2,066,165; Santa Fé, 899,640; Cordoba, 735,472; Entre Rios, 425,373; Corrientes, 347,055; Tucuman, 332,933; Mendoza, 277,535; Santiago del Estero, 261,678; Salta, 140,927; San Juan, 119,252; San Luis, 116,266; Catamarca, 100,391; La es Rioja, 79,754; Jujuy, 76,631. Returns for the national territori were: La Pampa, 101,338; Misiones, 53,563; El Chaco, 46,274; Rio Negro, 42,242; Neuquén, 28,866; Chubut, 23,065; Formosa, 19,281; Santa Cruz, 9,948; Tierra del Fuego, 2,504; Los Andes, 2,487. Martin Garcia Island had 783. During the first half of the 19th century civil wars and despotic but government seriously restricted the growth of the population d increase has it 1860, in republic the of ation since the consolid rapidly. Attracted by the good climate and opportunities, will European immigrants arrived in ever increasing numbers. It period the in doubled mately approxi be noted that the population of 26 years intervening between the first census and the second and again in the period of 19 years intervening between the second census and the third. During the years of the World War the number of those who left the country exceeded the number who entered by 214,959 and during this period growth was only from the natural increase. From Jan. 1, 1919, to the end of 1926 the 4 total increase of population was 2,462,963 of which 1,848,81

resulted from the surplus of births over deaths and 614,149 was the surplus of immigration over emigration. Vital Statistics—For the five years 1920 to 1924 inclusive births averaged 33 per thousand for the Republic and deaths 14-9 per thousand. The natural increase was 18-1 per thousand, one of the highest in the world. The birth rate was highest in San Juan, Tucumán and Mendoza and lowest in the Federal Capital. In the Federal District the death rate was 12-5 per thousand and 11-59 in the province of Buenos Aires. The Race.—As in the United States, a new type has developed in Argentina as the result of a mixture of European races. There is less admixture of native Indian blood than in any other nation of South America with the possible exception of Uruguay. The

co-operate with the Government in colonizing along their respet tive lines. They will sell small land holdings to settlers on lie term payments, without profit on the sale of land, and in othe; ways assist settlers. A Jewish colonization enterprise owns large

holdings of land in the pampa provinces. For many years ea been a great movement of immigration. During recent years the trend of feeling in the country has been toward its closer regula.

tion and selection. Early in the history of the migratory movement a counter movement was set up of people returning to their native countries because of being dissatisfied or for other reasons, alsy because a percentage of those who entered were merely transitory workers who returned home after harvests. In 1860 there were 5,656 immigrants and the number increased each year to 39,967 in 1870. Thereafter years that established ney records of entries were: 1873—~-76,332; 1885—108,722; 188— 260,000; 1906—302,000; 1908—303,000. From r9r0 to 1914 the migratory movement was very heavy. In 1910 345,275 entered

and 136,405 left, with a net gain to the country of 208,870; in

1913 364,878 entered and 219,519 left, net gain 145,359. The aie prevented workers from leaving Europe in the same numbers as previously and the number who returned to their countries was

greater than those incoming, resulting in a net loss of 153,930 in the years 1914 to 1918 inclusive. In 1919 the movement was about

balanced and by 1923 it was restored to its pre-war proportions, During the years 1857 to 1924 inclusive the total number of immigrants was 5,481,280 and of emigrants in the same period 2,562,790, leaving a net gain to the country of 2,918,490. Divided

by nationalities immigrants from 1857 to 1924 inclusive were: Italians, 2,604,029; Spanish, 1,780,295; French, 226,894; Russians, 169,257; Ottomans, 157,185; Austro-Hungarians, 91,869; Germans, 100,699; English, 64,426; Swiss, 37,017; Portuguese, 38,096; Belgians, 24,142; Swedes, 2,664; Danes, 12,896; Hol. landers, 8,751; Poles, 24,714; North Americans, 9,028; Yugoslavs, 9,250; other nations, 119,968.

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A S EER WEnative Indian races have almost died out, the total number of i AVAT Nearly saua 53,000. as given A being ` members of the indigenous races all of these live in the national territories of the north, Los Andes, Formosa, Chaco and Misiones. There are less than a thousand in La Pampa territory and a few hundreds in Patagonia, in Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego. In the thinly settled northern provinces of La Rioja, Catamarca, Salta and Jujuy there is a considerable percentage of people of mixed Indian blood. In the more ALTHOUGH BUENOS AIRES IS SITUATED ON THE SHALLOW populous provinces there is little if any admixture of Indian blood. OPEN FOR THE LA PLATA, CONSTANT DREDGING KEEPS THE CHANNEL The number of negroes in the country is negligible. LIVESTOCK, WOOL AND WHEAT ARE SHIPPED OCEAN-GOING VESSELS. |. was immigration of bulk the Spain of During the domination ELEVATORS ALONG FROM HERE, THE WHEAT BEING STORED IN THE GRAIN Spanish so that the stock on which the Republic was built was THE WATER-FRONT mainly Spanish creole. An indication of the relative importance of Government.—The Argentine Republic consists of 14 provthe various European strains in the Argentine race at present is ones) and a federal distnd. the totals of immigration from the different countries since 1857 inces, xo territories (called gobernaci 15, 1853, with modifsMay dated is on Constituti composed National Italians that The show which given under “Immigration,” closely on the Const modeled is It 1898. and about 47% of the total, Spaniards 33% and 63 other nations tions in 1860, 1866 t is simili governmen of form The States. United the populous of most three tution the in that showed census 20%. The 1914 that m being difference principal the States, United the were to that of provinces, Buenos Aires, Santa Fé and Córdoba, Italians national the in d centralize more somewhat is power Spaniards and Argentina population foreign the among numerous most can intervene in the R

mier

next.

Migration.—Argentina has used every means to attract immigration. The Immigration Law passed in 1876 includes provisions that immigrants shall be lodged and boarded for a limited time, and transported to their destination within the country at the expense of the Government; shall be assisted in finding work and allowed to import their goods duty free. During the Alvear administration a group of the principal private railroad companies organized to

anai

government, which, under certain conditions,

administration of the provinces. The legislative power is veste in a Congress of two chambers, the Senate composed of 30 mem-

composed of 158 membets bers, and the Chamber of Deputies, the fet There are two senators from each province and two from eral district. The Constitution provides that there shall be one

deputy for every 33,000 inhabitants.

Senators must have been

citizens of the country for six years and deputies for four yeals

GOVERNMENT]

ARGENTINA

in Senators are elected by the legislatures of the provinces and

319

cost of national primary instruction in 1926 was pesos 81,000,000

of and provincial primary instruction pesos 50,000,000, total pesos the federal district by a special body of electors, for a term

131,000,000. Secondary or preparatory instruction is given in 48 national me colleges with 2,160 teachers and 18,900 pupils in 1926 of whom Aires, the national capital. The President of the Republic is elected by electors voted for 2,800 were females. There were 70 private colleges with 716 by the people. His term is six years and he can not succeed teachers and 4,477 pupils. Since 1889 there has been a normal himself. The President must be native born and of the Roman school for teachers, with a four year course, in each province. Catholic faith. He is commander-in-chief of the army and navy There are 84 national normal schools and 52 incorporated normal and appoints all civil, military, naval and judicial officers. The schools, the latter nearly all of a religious character. There are, principally in Buenos Aires, facilities for professional Vice-President is elected in the same way as the President and is

nine years, and deputies are elected by direct popular vote. The two chambers meet annually from May 1 to Sept. 30 in Buenos

the presiding officer of the senate. The President in his executive

capacity is assisted by a cabinet of eight ministers, appointed by

him, who are Ministers of the Interior, Foreign Affairs and Wor-

ship, Treasury, Justice and Public Instruction, War, Navy, Agriculture and Public Works. There is universal male suffrage. In

igi2 the electoral laws were modified and the secret ballot system substituted for open voting. The benefits resulting from this

reform have been very important. Local Governments.—Each province has its own constitution and elects its governor, legislators and provincial functionaries. Fach has its own judicial system and enacts laws relating to the

administration of justice, the distribution and imposition of taxes and all other local affairs. All the public acts and judicial decisions of one province have full legal effect and authority in all the others. Under certain conditions the national government has the right to intervene in the administration of any province by the appointment of an interventor who becomes the executive head of the province and fills the other provincial offices with his own ap-

pointees. This right of intervention has been invoked from time to time. The territories are under the direct control of the national government. The city of Buenos Aires is a federal district and is not

a part of the province of Buenos Aires. It has a municipal coun-

cil of 22 members elected by the taxpayers. The executive head is the Intendente Municipal or mayor, who is appointed by the President of the Republic.

Justice—The judicial system is made up of federal courts and provincial courts. The Supreme Court of the Nation in Buenos Aires has five members. There are five federal courts of appeal, each composed of five members, located in the federal district and at La Plata, Córdoba, Parana and Rosario. There are also federal district judges, one at least in each province. The provinces each have their own judicial organization headed by a supreme court, with minor courts. ‘There is also a system of local courts in the city of Buenos Aires. The federal courts deal with cases of national character, or in which different provinces or in-

education too numerous to describe.

These include commercial,

professional and technical education, and instruction in the arts and crafts, languages, accounting, mining, agriculture, arts, music, dramatic art, dressmaking, etc.

The three census takings since the establishment of the republic have shown the following proportion of illiterates: Census, 1869 Men, per thousand Women, per thousand

Census, 1895 | Census, 1914

748

508

349

817

585

419

These figures show the progress accomplished by the educational system in the reduction of illiteracy. The great numbers of illiterate adults who have constantly arrived from abroad over a long period should be taken into consideration in connection with the figures of illiteracy, also the fact that the development of Argentina on anything like its present basis is comparatively recent. In 1913 illiteracy was lowest in the province of Buenos Aires, where it was 308 per thousand, and highest in the provinces of Jujuy and Los Andes, which had 674 and 667 per thousand, respectively.

Universities—The Argentine universities are five in number and are those of Cérdoba, founded in the Colonial period, Buenos Aires, founded in 1821, La Plata founded in 1906, the Littoral (divided between Rosario, Santa Fé, Parana and Corrientes) and Tucuman, the last two founded in 1918. The relative importance of the different universities as indicated by amounts spent for their maintenance in 1925 was: Buenos Aires, pesos 8,825,105; La Plata, pesos 3,683,910; Córdoba, pesos 2,503,122; Littoral, pesos 3,513,554; Tucumán, pesos 741,450. The par value of the peso paper is $0.4245 U.S. currency. The University of Buenos Aires is the most important and attracts students from other South American countries. It comprises six faculties, law and social sciences, medical sciences, philosophy and letters, economic sciences, agronomy and veterinary science.

In 1926 there were 20,746 students enrolled in all

the universities with 1,893 teachers. The cost of university instruction is approximately 20,000,000 pesos annually. The total

habitants of different provinces are parties. The judges of the federal supreme court and courts of appeal and the district judges annual expenditures of the Nation and provinces on education are are appointed by the President of the Nation for life, with the pesos 236,000,000, or about one-fifth of the aggregate revenues of the Nation, provinces and municipalities. approval of the Senate. The Press.—The 1914 census showed 518 periodical publicaEducational System.—Argentina has very complete and advanced legislation governing education. The Constitution pro- tions in the country, 491 in Spanish, 5 in German, 5 in English, vides for free and compulsory primary education and the laws 4 in Italian. Of these 369 were of general interest, including the apply this to children from 6 to 14. The present school law dates daily papers. The others covered all branches of intellectual and from 1884. Public instruction includes no religious instruction. economic activity, including commerce and finance, industry, staElementary education is under the control of the provincial gov- tistics, legislation, politics, religion, art and literature. The two emments in the provinces. In the federal district and the national great dailies of Buenos Aires “La Prensa” and “La Nacion,” were territories it is under the direction of the National Council of established within a few years after the consolidation of the ReEducation appointed by the President. The Nation subsidizes pri- public in 1860. There are other well-known news sheets. The mary education in the provinces. Furthermore, to combat illit- principal dailies issue large illustrated Sunday editions with litereracy, a law was passed in 1906 providing for the establishment of ary supplements and similar special features. Museums.—The most important museum is at La Plata, capital national primary schools in certain provinces. These are known as the Lainez schools, of which there were in 1926 about 3,004, of Buenos Aires province. It has a large collection of specimens

for the most part in isolated rural districts. Except in the most

of the plant, animal and insect life of Argentina and South Amer-

advanced provinces, Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Entre Rios and ica and departments of geology, anthropology and mineralogy. Santa Fé, the Lainez infant and primary schools outnumber the The National Art Gallery (Museo de Bellas Artes) at Buenos local official schools. In 1926 there were in the country 10,600 Aires is small and has the nucleus of a collection of works of Primary schools of the Nation and provinces with 1,300,000 European painters, modern and old, as well as a number of works scholars and 35,000 teachers. There were 1,118 private schools, by contemporary Argentines and some interesting specimens of mostly sectarian, with 232,000 scholars and 6,000 teachers. All American Colonial art. The National History Museum, the Mitre Primary and private school teachers are normal graduates. The Museum and Library, the Fernandez Blanco Museum and the

ARGENTINA

320

Municipal Museum, all in Buenos Aires, are small collections of objects connected with Argentine history. The Natural History Museum and the National Library are also in Buenos Aires. Religion.—The Constitution provides that the State shall support the Roman Catholic Church but that there shall be liberty for all cults. The President of the Republic must be a Roman Catholic. The great majority of the population profess this religion and there is no other religious movement that includes any important proportion of the population. The bulk of the immigration has been Catholic. There are several small churches of Protestant denominations in Buenos Aires, attended mostly by foreigners. While the Argentines as a race are strongly Roman Catholic, the Church confines itself to its function of spiritual guidance, especially in the more populous districts, and religious considerations enter very little into political issues. Instruction in the national and provincial schools is without religious bias. The President of the Republic has the right of presentation to Bishoprics and approves the bulls of the Pope in accord with the Supreme Court. They require a law when they contain general and permanent provisions.

[FINANCE

consular fees and lights and buoys. The “Public Enterprise” are the ports and docks (figuring with pesos 36,400,000) the Sanitary Work of the Nation and the State lands. Under the heading “Sundries” come the State banks and provincial debts The budget of ordinary expenditures totaling pesos 588,109,508 as adopted for 1923, was continued for 1924, 1925 and 1926 with slight changes, the principal one being that the estimated ou.

lay for the service of the public debt which was pesos 125,146.87 in 1923 was increased to pesos 134,178,427 In 1924 and 1925 and

FINANCE

While the national expenditures have increased rapidly to keep

pace with the needs of a growing country the opinion of competent authorities is that they have not been excessive in view of the national resources. The financial situation of the Argentine Government is generally regarded as strong.

pesos 165,755,623 in 1926.

In the administration, expenditures

were kept below estimates and after 1923 revenues exceeded the

amounts estimated, a surplus for each of the four years resulting The main classifications of expenditure as shown in the 1926 budget, are as follows: pesos Service of the Public Debt

. 165,755,623

Justice and Education Ministry of Interior .

i 135,321,710 . 109,664,818

Army

-

Navy . . . . Ministry of Public Works

Ministry of Finance

.

28,249,763

Ministry of Agriculture

20,740,500

Ministry of Foreign Affairs

6,907,353

National Congress Pensions .

:

Supplementary credits and service of floating debt

-

Total Expenditures

66,593,963

47,198,427 22,030,288

2

5,914,420 26,000,000

15,000,000

. 650,276,863

With this total must be included the payment of subsidies, for which

special revenues

are provided

to the amount

of pesos

total of budgeted revenues to pesos Revenues.—From 1913 to 1926 the revenues of the Govern- 24,639,473, increasing the 650,531,252. 674,916,338. pesos to 403,428,978 ment increased from pesos The earnings and expenses of the State railroads are not inPrior to 1923 the government accounts showed a regular cluded in the budget. Their receipts for 1926 were gold pesos from amount in varying years of period long a over annual deficit 22,610,500 (the gold peso is equal to $0.9648 United States Curpesos 1,314,141 in 1920 to pesos 169,677,699 in 1915. The excess and for 1927 gold pesos 23,912,700. Operating expenses rency) but causes, various to due was revenues over of expenditures have been published. not additional sufficient provide mainly to the failure of Congress to Foreign Investment.—Like the United States in an earlier revenues to meet increasing public expenditures. A part of the period, the economic development of Argentina has been financed deficits was caused by public works expenditures which, while capital, either in the form of loans to the properly capital items, are not segregated from general expendi- principally by foreign public works, or foreign capital invested for used governments can amount their of statement definite no tures and therefore utilities, and to some extent industries. The public railroads, in be made. still exists and ‘will exist for many years Since 1923 the budgetary situation has changed in that each need for foreign capital of capital has been Great Britain. source chief The come. to expendiover revenues of year including 1926 showed a surplus money markets were closed = European the War World the During tures amounting to pesos 10,986,443 in 1923, pesos 135,996,000 tion was secured in the » accommoda necessary the and Argentina to 1926. in 5,847,296 pesos and 1925 in in 1924, pesos 119,523,993 has continued to States United the 1918 Since States. United This favourable state of affairs has probably resulted from the The investments of the various capital. of source principal the be of expenditures and revenues of budget the 1923 fact that after were estimated, in 1924, in United that year was extended from year to year and the Government Foreign countries in Argentina therefore did not embark on large new programs of expenditures. The totals of revenue and expenditure given out by the Government for each year and ordinarily published include extraordinary items of revenue, such as loan proceeds, and extra-budgetary items of expenditure, principally public works appropriations. The budget of ordinary revenues, which are the permanently recurring items, for the year 1923 also was applied for 1924,

1925 and 1926. In this the main classifications of revenue and

their amounts are: Customs Revenues, pesos 267,170,000; Internal Revenue Taxes, pesos 108,150,000; Direct Taxes, pesos 66,000,000; Public Services, pesos 46,900,000; Public Enterprises, pesos 46,557,893; Sundries, pesos 17,103,699; making a total of pesos 551,881,592. There is also, carried separately, an item of

pesos 14,000,000 from State lotteries and the tax on perfume, which is allocated to fixed subsidies. This increases the total

ordinary revenues to pesos 565,881,592. In the foregoing general classifications “Customs Revenues” includes import and export duties. The import customs, the largest single item of revenue of the Government, is included with pesos 237,170,000, or slightly over 40% of the total ordinary revenues. Export duties figure with pesos 30,000,000. “Internal Revenue Taxes” are taxes on tobacco, alcohol and alcoholic beverages, perfume, matches, insurance and playing cards. The largest of these items is the tax on tobacco included with pesos 53,000,000. The “Public Services” are the post office and telegraph. Under this heading are also included the statistical tax,

States

currency,

as

France, $425,000,000; $350,000,000;

follows:

Holland,

Spain, $60,000,000;

Great

Germany,

$150,000,000;

Norway

Britain,

$375,000,000; Belgium,

and Sweden,

$1 ,900,000,000;

United States, $135,000,000;

$25,000,000; Italy,

$25,000,000; other countries, $15,000,000. The investment of the United States in Argentina is constantly increasing through the issue of public loans and the extension of American industrial enterprises. In 1926 it was estimated at $450,000,000. As with the United States, the economic situation of Argentina was greatly consolidated during the World War, which created

an unlimited demand for all Argentine products at prices without precedent. The large trade balances in favour of the country durincreased ing the years of the war and those immediately following the national wealth and the gold stock. Public Debt—Due to economic progress, the satisfactory

condition of the currency and the public finances, the securities

of the Argentine Government command a higher price in world

. markets than those of any other South American Government interest 6% a at issued been have ns obligatio its years In recent

rate and have been quoted very near to par. The last issue in the |

United States in April, 1927, was offered to the public at 99.

4 Argentine securities have been known in European markets for hundred years and the bonds are now highly esteemed among I vestors in the United States.

The outstanding issues of the National Government have been

including made almost entirely for the construction of public works

PLATE I

ARGENTINA

PHOTOGRAPHS

(1, 3, 4, 6) EWING

GALLOWAY,

(2, 5) PUBLISHERS

RIVER

AND

PHOTO SERVICE

MOUNTAIN

1. Snow shed of the Trans-Andean railway at Portillo, in the Andes, which was completed

in 1909

2. View of the Lujan or Mendoza river, which supplies the water used for the irrigating system of the plains near the foot of the Sierra de los Paramillos 3. The San Roque dam at Cordoba, Purposes in Argentina

one of several

built for irrigation

SCENERY

IN

ARGENTINA

4. The cataracts of Iguazu Falls, South America’s greatest natural wonder, on the borderland between Argentina and Brazil 5. Trans-Andean

railway train making a stop in the Argentine Andes

6. A small raft navigating the Iguazu river on a trip to Iguazu Falls. The raft is roofed with evergreen brush to protect the white travellers from the sun

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railroads, port works and works of sanitation and irrigation which are in part revenue producing and practically all promote the welfare and productivity of the country. A part of the financing

of recent years has been for funding of floating debt resulting from accumulated deficits over a term of years, but these deficits in turn have largely resulted from public works expenditure.

The floating debt, which at the end of 1913 amounted to pesos

68,640,020, had increased to pesos 711,255,000 at the end of 1918. It reached its maximum figure, pesos 892,824,000, at the end of

1922. The floating debt has been carried principally in the shape

of short term renewable advances from the local banks (generally at lower interest rates than those prevailing in foreign markets

for long term loans), in large part discounted in the Bank of the

Nation. The Alvear administration started a policy of funding the

foating debt through long term issues.

By Aug. 31, 1927, the

floating debt had been reduced to pesos 441,668,200 and further

funding operations are contemplated.

At the end of 1913 the total funded debt of the nation was

pesos 1,238,004,130. At the end of 1918 it had not greatly increased, the total being pesos 1,314,147,700.

(The floating debt

inthis period, however, increased pesos 642,614,980.) On Aug. 31, 1927, the total funded debt was pesos 2,038,153,900, an increase of pesos 724,006,200 over 1918. The total funded debt as on Aug. 31, 1927, was made up: external, pesos 1,015,640,200; internal, pesos 1,022,513,700. This relation of internal and external debt, each representing approximately half of the total, was approximately the same in 1918.

321

ARGENTINA

FINANCE]

In 1913 the external debt was

approximately 30% greater than the internal funded debt. The total indebtedness of the Government on Aug. 31, 1927, including both funded and floating debt, was pesos 2,479,822,100 or $1,052,684,481 U.S. currency at par of exchange. The annual average percentage of the national revenues required for the debt service (interest and amortization) for the last ten years has been

conversion fund, gave a gold guarantee of 83-69%, making a very strong currency. The par value of the gold peso is $0.9648 USS. currency and of the paper peso $0.4245 U.S. currency. The £ sterling equals 5-04 pesos gold.

Banking.—A census of banking in 1925 showed that at the end

of that year capital and reserves of all the banking institutions stood at pesos 1,033,946,000 and advances at pesos 4,984,014,000. There were in the Republic 91 deposit and discount banks, of which 78 were national and 13 foreign. Of the total of 91 banks, 18 operated in the Federal capital and in the interior through a system of branch offices, and of the remaining 73, 22 belonged exclusively to the federal capital and 5x to the interior. The gt banks had capital and reserves aggregating pesos 710,228,000. In this total the Bank of the Nation figured with pesos 214,193,-

000, or 30-2%. There were 15 mortgage banks with capital and reserves totaling pesos 310,264,000, with loans totaling pesos 1,407,099,000. Of the capital and reserves of the mortgage banks, the National Mortgage represented pesos 139,562,000, or 45%. There were 6 pawnbroking banks. Total deposits in savings banks were pesos 2,167,648,000. The clearing house movement in the city of Buenos Aires for the year 1926 amounted to the total

of pesos 36,904,549,958.

The Bank of the Nation (Banco de la Nacion) has 230 branches

and agencies staffed by 6,000 employees. On Dec. 31, 1926, this bank carried deposits of pesos 1,528,846,000, nearly 50% of the total deposits of Buenos Aires banks. Established in 1891 to assist in Argentine rehabilitation after the financial crisis of 1890, the Bank of the Nation has played a most important rôle in Increasing production and helping to tide over in times of stress. The National Mortgage Bank (Banco Hipotecario Nacional) was established by the Government in 1886 to make loans on real estate secured by first mortgages on income producing property. Loans are repaid by a one per cent cumulative annual sinking fund

which may be increased by the borrower. The bank obtains funds to loan by the issue of its bonds, known as cedulas, secured by amounted to pesos 397,059,000. The issues of the National Mort- the mortgages taken. They are also the direct obligation of the gage Bank, which on Dec. 31, 1927, amounted to a total of pesos bank and are further guaranteed, principal and interest, by the 1,344,127,1§0, are guaranteed by the National Government but National Government. The cedulas have long been a popular inthere is small likelihood that this will ever become aliability of vestment in Argentina and are favourably known in Europe and the United States. On Dec. 31, 1927, the total issue of cedulas the nation. As an offset to this debt the National Government owns proper- of the National Mortgage Bank amounted to pesos 1,344,127,150.

27-66%. The above total of indebtedness does not include the floating debt of the State railroads, which at the end of 1927

_ties valued in the 1914 census at $1,125,000,000 U.S. currency, including revenue producing properties valued at $530,000,000 U.S. currency. The capital value of the State-owned railroads and their equipment was gold pesos 203,127,000 at the end of 1926. Monetary System.—The monetary system of Argentina is based on the gold peso of 1-6129 grams of a standard of ,® fine gold. The gold peso is divided into roo centavos. Subsequent to

DEFENCE

Army.—Military service is obligatory for all citizens 20 years of age and lasts one year. After that the conscripts pass to the reserves. From 21 to 29 years of age they belong to the standing army, between 30 and 39 to the national guard and between 4o and 45 to the territorial guard. It is estimated that there are approxithe establishment of the gold peso in 1881 the notes representing mately 600,000 ex-conscripts in the three reserves. Students who it depreciated greatly and the country suffered the evils of a fluc- can comply with certain conditions serve only three months. The tuating currency. The Conversion law was enacted in 1899, cre- permanent army numbers about 25,000 combatants, enlisted men ating the Caja de Conversion to convert the paper currency into and officers. The military college at San Martin near the national gold at the rate of 44 centavos gold to the paper peso. Thus in capital prepares all future officers. In 1926 it had 598 cadets. practice a new monetary unit, the paper peso, was created for There is a Superior War Training school for higher training of internal transactions. There is little gold in circulation, the gold officers. Expenses of the army were included in the 1926 budget peso being principally a standard of accounting, and daily trans- in the figure of pesos 66,593,963 and the navy pesos 47,198,427, actions are done in paper. In addition to the paper currency, which ranges in denomination from 50 centavos to 1,000 pesos, there are nickel 5, 10 and 20 centavo pieces. The Caja de Conversion issues notes against gold at the rate of 1 paper peso to 44 centavos gold or pays out gold for notes at

the same rate. When it started it took over the existing paper arculation amounting to 293,018,233 pesos, against which a gold

reserve was to be built up from various sources. This reserve for the original currency issue is known as the Conversion fund and was eventually accumulated to the amount of gold pesos

30,000,000. When war broke out in 1914 the delivery of gold against paper money was suspended and was not resumed until

or a total of pesos 113,792,390 for national defence, amounting to

19% of the total budgeted ordinary expenditures. This does not include expenditures from loan proceeds for the purchase of naval equipment, etc. The army air service conducts a school at El Palomar where military pilots are trained. From there they pass to a secondary course known as Group No. x, where they are given experience in military flights and manoeuvres. (R. U. L.) Navy.—Disputes with Chile in the closing years of the roth century induced the Argentine Government to build up an appreci-

able navy, but a treaty between the two countries contracted in 1902 provided for the restriction of further armaments for the

Aug. 27, 1917. The issue of currency is limited to the Caja de following four years. Warships under construction were sold. In “aversion. ‘On Dec. 31, 1927, the stock of gold was pesos 1906, however, the naval activities of Brazil caused:both countries 477,582,406, against which it had a currency circulation of pesos to place large orders in Europe for new vessels and since that time 1378,432,790, This, with the 30,000,000 gold pesos of the modern types have been added periodically to the fleet. In 1928

B22

ARGENTINA

the Argentine navy consisted of two fairly modern battleships. the “Rivadavia” and the ‘“‘Noreno” of about 30,000 tons, armed with 12 12 in. and 12 6 in. guns and having a designed full speed of about 23 knots; four old armoured cruisers of 6,840 tons, three armed with two ro in. and 14 6 in. guns and the fourth with two to in., ten 6 in. and six 4-7 in. guns; a smaller old cruiser of 4,780 tons; two modern flotilla leaders; seven rather old destroyers and a certain number of gunboats, despatch vessels and auxiliaries. In the previous year, however, Congress voted $75,000,000 gold currency for the navy, of which roughly one-third was to be devoted to new construction, the whole quota being spread over a period of ten years. This was to provide for three cruisers, six flotilla leaders, six submarines, one aircraft-tender and two surveying vessels. The new cruisers are to be vessels of 6,800 tons displacement, armed with six 7-5 in. and 12 4 in. guns, together with six above-water 21 in. torpedo tubes. The designed full speed is 32 knots. The first two named “Almirante Brown” and “Veintecinco de Mayo” were laid down in Italy in 1927. Two flotilla leaders, the “Churruca” and “Alcala Galiano” were purchased from Spain. Three of the destroyers were being built by J. S. White and company, and the two small surveying ships by Hawthorn Leslie and company, both British firms; orders for the submarines were due to be placed in France. The personnel of the navy amounts to about 9,500 all ranks, with a reserve of about 8,000, and a special reserve of 10,000. The main arsenals are Buenos Aires, with two good-sized drydocks, Puerto Belgrano with two large dry-docks and Rio Santiago with one large dry dock and two small floating docks.

[COMMERCE

Estero 70,000 hectares; Tucuman 120,000 hectares; Catamarca 30,000 hectares; La Rioja 15,000 hectares; Salta 50,000 hectares. Jujuy 40,000 hectares ;Neuquén 6,000 hectares; Rio Negro 29000

hectares; Chubut 10,000 hectares.

i

Agricultural lands in Argentina are for the most part held in large tracts,.the small farmer being a comparatively insignificant factor in the total production. Fields of a thousand acres or more

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Brassey’s Naval and Shipping Annual; F. T. Jane, (E. A.) Fighting Skips (1898).

PRODUCTION AND TRADE Argentina is a producer of agricultural and pastoral products on a vast scale for export, purchasing the bulk of requirements of manufactured goods abroad. During the first quarter of the 20th century the republic progressed from a comparatively obscure position to one of considerable importance among the nations of the world, and to a place in the first rank of food producing countries. This rapid progress is the result of the great colonization movement which transformed the pampa. It can be said that the entire country lives from the pampa as the industries of the outlying districts have been developed primarily to supply the pampa, notably, the sugar industry of Tucumán and the wine industry of Mendoza. The pampa in turn lives on export. Its development has been made possible by the growth in population and the industrialization of the European countries, especially England. Depending so largely on export trade Argentine prosperity reacts quickly to changes in the economic situation of the European countries, which are its principal customers, and suffers during times of depression in those countries.

of wheat are common.

Army officers commonly received grants

exceeding 50,000 acres after wars in the last century. As time goes on the original holdings are being sub-divided but this move. ment is slow. Leasing of farms is a common practice and land is often turned over to farmers on the share system.

Wheat.—Wheat is the leading crop constituting In some years about 4 of the total value of exports. Argentina has in recent years been the second wheat exporting country after Canada. The development of wheat production on a large scale has been com.

paratively recent as in 1890 Argentina had only about 1% of the total world production.

In the five years prior to 1927 Argentine

wheat production averaged about 6% of the world total and Ar.

gentine exports about 18% of the international wheat trade, Ninety-five per cent of the wheat crop is produced in the provinces of Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Santa Fé and Entre Rios and La Pampa territory.

The extension of the present wheat belt is limited because of the fact that the area to the south and west of it has an average rainfall less than xgin., insufficient for wheat, but the introduction of dry farming and irrigation will eventually permit extension, Weather conditions at times diminish the crop, principally droughts, late frosts and hail. In less degree rust and grasshoppers are a menace. The average yield per acre in Argentina is not high, 12 bushels against 17 for Canada and 30 for England. The yield per acre has already been increased and will be further increased with the development of more intensive methods. The total area sown to wheat increased from 3,379,000 hectares in 1900 to 7,978,000 hectares in 1927. Exports were 2,993,423 metric tons in 1925 and 2,034,773 in 1926. In 1927 wheat exports reached their maximum figure, 4,392,000 metric tons. Other Crops.—In point of exports maize is the second crop in value. Argentina has second place as a maize growing country after the United States and is the first exporter of maize. The best corn belt lies in the north-east section of Buenos Aires province where 50% of the entire crop is produced. In 1925 exports of maize were 2,935,965 metric tons, in 1926 4,911,161 and in 1927 8,340,900 tons. The area planted with maize in 1927 was 4,289,000 hectares. Linseed comes after wheat and maize in importance as an ex port commodity. This crop is cultivated for its seed as little progress has been made locally in exploiting the textile fibre of the plant. Argentina is the first producer, with over half of the

world’s production. Linseed is produced mainly in Santa Fe, Cérdoba, Entre Rios and Buenos Aires. The area sown with this crop in 1927 was 2,855,000 hectares. The maximum exportation of reached 1,885,900 metric tons in 1927. Exports in 1925 were bulk the maintain wine, and sugar meat, of as the elaboration of 960,707 metric tons and in 1926 1,673,081. articles are the population. Practically all items of production The three remaining crops constituting export items of imporg amounts. increasin in need will world the which necessity prime in are oats, barley and potatoes. The area sown with oats tance full the ent developm Although agriculture has had such a great Buenos in was rths three-fou which of hectares, 1,279,000 possibilities of the country have by no means been realized. It 1927 was in 1925 were 433,010 metric tons; in is estimated that the total land area is 279,271,300 hectares of Aires province. Exports 603,600 tons. In 1927 there were 1927, in tons; 539,698 0 1926, which 175,526,900 hectares are cultivable land and 74,740,00 principally in Buenos Aires. barley, hectares are covered by woods and forests and 29,004,400 hectares 396,000 hectares sown with tons in 1925; 173,289 metric 59,376 was barley of ion ive Exportat unproduct other by swamps, lakes and lagoons, mountains and Potatoes are grown principally i area, (The hectare is equivalent to 2-471 acres.) The area under tons in 1926; 297,000 in 1927.

Agriculture.—Argentina is essentially an agricultural country, there being no other industries comparable in any way with crop farming and cattle raising, which, with their allied industries such

cultivation, approximately 24,000,000 hectares (60,000,000 acres), represents only a small part of the cultivable area. Even in Buenos Aires, the most highly developed province, there is still

much room for growth. This will come with the extension of irrigation and transportation and the growth of the population.

While on the pampa the rainfall is sufficient in general, in the provinces of the west and north-west nearly all farming is done by irrigation. The total area under irrigation in 1926 was 1,475,000 hectares: Mendoza 600,000 hectares; San Juan 200,000 hectares; San Luis 65,000 hectares; Cérdoba 240,000 hectares; Santiago del

the south-east region of Buenos Aires, in Santa Fé and Entre Riosm Alfalfa, hay, beans, tobacco and cotton are also exported comparatively small amounts. are Four important crops principally for domestic consumption d cultivate is Alfalfa maté. yerba and alfalfa, sugar cane, grapes

in an area second only to the wheat area in practically all part of the country.

No other crop has had such a rapid extension

Sugar cane is grown principally in Tucumán, Jujuy and Chaco: The total area under sugar in 1927 was 140,270 hectares. Thi crop is elaborated locally. (See “Sugar Industry” under “Maau

COMMERCE]

ARGENTINA

factures.”) The grape and wine industry is centered in Mendoza and makes the prosperity of that province. It is also carried on area to a less extent in the province of San Juan. The vineyard

in 1924 Was 75,906 hectares in Mendoza and 28,197 hectares in

323

the hands of foreign interests and that they have themselves no influence in the price paid for cattle. The packing industry also claims to have operated during some of the recent years at a heavy loss and that the price they can pay depends on the price

obtained for meat abroad. It is obvious that the purchasing n. a maté or Paraguayan tea, the leaf of a shrub, is consumedin power of the principal markets, which are England and the Continent of Europe, has been adversely affected by various circumin great quantity in Argentina. It was formerly imported but recent years the industry has been developed in Formosa where in 1927 there were 10,000,000 trees planted. In 1924 the production was 20,000,000 pounds. o fruit Culture.—The longitudinal extension of Argentina is so great that it has the climate necessary to produce any variety of

fruit, For many years fruit has been exported to Uruguay and Brazil and the shipment of fruit to North America and Europe

has been inaugurated more recently.

In 1925 fruit exports were

10,966,666 pounds of which over 70% was taken by Uruguay

and Brazil. 2,959,788 pounds of fruit went to the United States.

Grapes and honey-dew melons are shipped to the United States.

The fruit exportation is still in the stage of experiment as to varieties, methods of packing, shipping, etc. It can be extended to include plums, peaches and pears. Fruit is grown in nearly all

the provinces and national territories.

Cattle Industry.—Cattle raising is the oldest and most char-

acteristic of the Argentine industries. From the beginning the economic structure of the country has been built up around it. Crop farming, which requires a higher degree of economic development, early in this century became more important in value of output

stances in the years of adjustment since 1918. Also, the scale of costs in Argentina, which increased so greatly during the war, has never been materially reduced. The market of the United States is practically closed to Argentine meat by the existing tariffs. The bulk of the meat is shipped chilled or frozen. Chilled meat must be consumed within 40 days after slaughtering. England takes principally chilled meat and the Continent frozen meat, for which the lower grades of cattle are used. Exports of chilled and frozen meat during recent years have been as follows: 1923 eS

1924 | ae

EES |

LARS

|Sr

ES

SRY

RR

ety

Carcasses frozen mutton |3,527,600 | 3,530,200 | 3,839,000 | 2,294,300 | 3,603,800 Quarters frozen 2,568,000 | 4,664,600 | 3,679,000 | 2,293,800 | 2,579,900 beef Quarters chilled beef 4,235,800 | 4,770,300 | 4,618,000 | 4,918,500 | 6,131,200

For value of meat exports see “‘Foreign Trade.”

Cattle raising is carried on principally in the provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fé, Entre Rios, Corrientes and Córdoba and industry. The gaucho or Argentine cowboy is still regarded as La Pampa territory, but to a lesser degree in all parts of the the typical son of the pampa although his setting has changed in Republic. The cattle census of 1922 showed 37,064,900 horned modern times. The large cattle breeders formed the first aristoc- cattle, 9,432,400 horses, 623,400 mules, 289,400 asses, 36,209,000 racy and many of them are still of high economic and social posi- sheep, 4,819,800 goats and 1,436,600 swine. The value of the tion. Hides and tallow were the first trade articles. Live cattle cattle in the country was officially calculated in 1914 census at have always been exported to the neighbouring countries and in $1,360,000,000 U.S. currency. Wool and Hides.—Argentina is second to Australia in exports the latter part of the 19th century, England began to import cattle from Argentina. To cater to the British trade it was neces- of wool. The number of sheep has fallen off since 1907 when the sary to improve the native or “criollo” race. The more progres- herds numbered 67,000,000. In 1914 the sheep census showed sive breeders began to import pedigreed stock, bulls, cattle, sheep 43,225,500 and in 1922 36,200,000, these figures showing a proand swine, from abroad, mostly from England. English breeders gressive decrease. Formerly sheep herding was carried on in the also went into the business in Argentina. Since that time every most productive provinces where it is being replaced by more effort has been made to improve the Argentine race. The best profitable enterprises. It is extending in Patagonia and it is bebreeding animals have been bought abroad and the highest prices lieved that in future sheep raising will have the greatest developpaid, There are rural associations devoted to this end and the ment in the south. The 1922 cattle census showed 3,260,000 sheep in Rio Negro and 4,803,701 in Santa Cruz. Tierra del numerous cattle shows attract great interest. Meat Packing.—Frozen meat was first exported from Argen- Fuego had 818,170 sheep. Exports of wool were 113,298 metric tina in 1877. Previously meat was exported, dried, principally to tons in 1925, 145,600 in 1926 and 157,400 In 1927. Hides, which were one of the first trade articles of the country, Brazil and Cuba. An English concern in Argentina built the first freezing plant in 1883. Two other large meat preparing plants still form an export item of value. Exports of dry and salted ox were established soon after. The number has increased steadily hides, horse hides and sheep and goat skins in 1925 aggregated until the industry now represents a vast investment and fills a 189,952 metric tons, in 1926 189,700 and in 1927 198,800.

but that did not hinder the continued development of the cattle

Mining Industry.—Apart from building materials the only mineral production of importance in value is petroleum. Gold, gregate daily slaughtering capacity of 17,080 cattle, 47,580 sheep silver, lead, zinc, copper, wolfram, tin, vanadium, asphalt, sulphur, and 5,710 swine. The exports of the meat industry comprise asbestos, mica and talc are mined in a small way in different parts about 17% of the total value of exports. Its products include of the republic, mostly in very old workings, but the aggregate chilled and frozen meat, salted and canned meat, meat extract value of the output is not great. Salt is worked in various deposits and a large number of by-products such as tallow, margarine, for domestic consumption. Deposits of low grade coal and lignite bones, etc. The packing companies of Argentina are for the have been located in various parts of the Republic, the best most part controlled by foreign interests, principally American quality being found in the province of Mendoza. Practically all the and English. At times there has been a pool in which all the coal consumed however is imported, mostly from England. Coal packing interests were combined, at other times there has been imports in 1925 were 3,147,546 tons. Marble and onyx are quarkeen competition between the principal factions. The interests ried in different regions and there are deposits of semi-precious centered in this industry are so widespread and important that stones. It is claimed that iron and manganese have been found in changes in the meat situation react strongly on the general eco- large quantities in the provinces of Cérdoba, Santiago del Estero homic situation. The cattle industry has had periods of great and Tucuman. There is no mineral export of any importance and Prosperity but from about 1922 up to the beginning of 1928 it practically all the metals consumed in the country are imported. Petroleum Production.—Petroleum was discovered in 1907 has been in a period of depression, because of the prices paid for cattle, which, it is generally claimed, have been too low to permit in the vicinity of Comodoro Rivadavia in Chubut (Patagonia). any profit to the cattle breeders and at times have meant an actual This oil region, which extends into the northern part of Santa Cruz, loss, As the meat packing industry is in the main under foreign is still the principal producing field of Argentina. The Plaza control, is financed largely by foreign banks, and the exports Huancal district in the national territory of Neuquen is productransported in foreign ships, the Argentines feel that they are in ing though still in the stage of development. Extensive explora-

very important place in the economic life of the country. There are 17 freezing plants representing a vast investment with an ag-

ARGENTINA

324

tions have been carried on in the province of Jujuy without the

general consumption is as follows (these figures obviously in-

promresult anticipated. The Tartagal Zone in Salta is considered developm petroleu in lead the taken has ising. The Government from ment and considerably over half of the national production is ia Rivadav o Comodor at reserves fiscal The wells. State-owned comprise 5,000 hectares. They are surrounded by the holdings d of private companies. Production started in 1907 and increase metres. cubic 81,580 of 1915 in slowly to a total for the country Since then it has increased each year, reaching 5,817,610 barrels in 1925. In 1926 production was 1,232.288 cubic metres and in 1927 8,616,300 barrels. Of MILLIONS OF BBLS this total in 1927 State workings OF 42 U.S. GALS. and produced 5,106,900 barrels private workings 3,509,409 barrels. The State opened a refinery in La Plata (Buenos Aires province) in 1926 heating daily 2,300 tons of crude oil from the State wells at Comodoro Rivadavia. It is estimated that Argentine production of petroleum in 1926 accounted for only 26 per cent. of the country’s total fuel consumption of petroleum, coal and GRAPH SHOWING THE PRODUCTION wood. In a statement made to OF CRUDE PETROLEUM IN ARGENCongress by the existing private TINA FROM 1907-1927 oil companies it was said that of 27 companies originally organized only 13 remained and of these only 3 have a production of importance. Forests.—The forest area and timber resources are given under “Flora.” Forest products comprise one of the three main classifications of Argentine exports but this is made up entirely of quebracho extract and logs, with a negligible item of firewood. No other forest products enter the export trade and apart from quebracho the lumber industry supplies only home consumption. It is carried on principally in north Santa Fé, Santiago del Estero, Salta and Jujuy provinces and the national territories of Formosa, El Chaco and Misiones. Pine and spruce timber are imported in large quantities, also hardwoods from North America. Fisheries.—Argentina has abundant resources of fish in the Uruguay, Parana, Plata and other rivers and along the Atlantic coast but this source of wealth has been neglected as the fishing industry is little organized. Not only is a limited amount of fish taken from the fresh and salt waters but fish in considerable quantity is imported fresh or frozen from Montevideo and in less quantity from Brazil and Chile, also the United States, England and Spain. The annual catch of fresh water fish is estimated at 3,600 to 6,000 metric tons and of salt water fish from 12,000 to 18,000 metric tons. Imports of fresh fish from Montevideo in 1925 were about 3,000 tons. Imports of preserved fish constitute an important item which has increased year by year.

Manufactures.—The

clude small shops supplying local trade): clothing trades, 7,08; establishments with 57,564 workers; furniture trades, 4,441 establishments with 29,007 workers; construction trades, 8,582 es. tablishments with 87,310 workers; arts and crafts, 996 establish. ments 4,297 workers; metal trades, 3,275 establishments with

29,327 workers; chemical products, 567 establishments with 9,986 workers; graphic arts, 1,439 establishments with 13,286 workers, The 1913 census showed a total of 48,779 industrial establishments, including the food and textile industries giving employment to 410,201 workers with an annual production of pesos 1,861,789,710 and a consumption of raw material to a value of pesos 1,086,779,606. Of the raw materials consumed 75% were of domestic origin. A prominent Argentine statistician compiled new statistics based on independent investigations for the year 1925 which showed a total capital employed in industry of pesos 2,467,000,000 and a total annual product of pesos 2,886,000,000, These results include allowance for the higher scale of values and costs in 1925 over 1913 as well as new plant. A more conservative

principal manufacturing industries of

Argentina are those elaborating food stuffs. There is also a considerable production of manufactured articles of ordinary use, principally textiles. These are principally of the lower grades, nearly all high grade goods being imported. A very good grade of shoes is produced. Apart from food products there is no exportation of manufactured goods from Argentina as the manufactures in other lines cannot compete in foreign countries with the products of the great industrial countries. The World War gave an impetus to home industries because of the scarcity of foreign manufactured goods at that time and brought about an increase in plant and production. However, the extent to which the country is still dependent on foreign manufactured goods can be judged by a study of the items that make up the volume of imports and their values. Statistics prepared by one of the government departments show that in metallurgical products and textiles the country imports respectively 66.8% and 77-4% of its total consumption. In food products the country is nearly self sustaining, imports amounting only to 9-4% of the consumption.

The last complete industrial census was taken for the year

1913.

[COMMERCE

The showing for those industries supplying articles of

authority estimates the investment in industry in 1927 at pesos 2,000,000,000.

The principal centres of manufacturing in order

of importance

are the Federal

District

and

the provinces of

Buenos Aires, Santa Fé and Cordoba.

Textile Industry—The Government published data relating

to the textile industries for the year 1923 which show that there

were in that year 162 establishments in the industry classified as follows: 4 cotton and 23 wool spinning establishments and

6 spinning other fibres; 31 cotton cloth and wool textile factories; 98 knitting establishments. The number of spindles

was 115,796 and of looms 3,332; workers, 16,585. The total capi-

tal employed in these 162 establishments was pesos 111,693,963;

value of buildings and land, pesos 28,977,500; value of machinery and implements, pesos 28,765,492. The total sales of these factories in 1923 amounted to pesos 97,632,122. Their manufactures included products of silk, jute, “pita fibre” and “cahamo.” Food Products: Sugar Industry.—The principal food products elaborated are sugar, wine, dairy products and flour. Of these industries the most important in all respects is the cane sugar industry. This is located in the north of Argentina, principally in the provinces of Tucumán, Salta and Jujuy. The total national production of sugar in 1927 was 420,300 metric tons, distributed as follows: Tucumán, 324,200 tons; Salta, 25,400 tons; Jujuy, 61,100 tons; Santa Fé, 3,000 tons; Corrientes, 1,100 tons; Chaco territory, 5,500 tons. The industry began in Tucuman where it has been carried on over a hundred years. Tucumán, which is the most densely populated of the Argentine provinces, has developed entirely around this industry. However, as Tucumán is sub-tropical sugar production there is very expensive as compared with tropical countries like Cuba and Java. There are also other parts of Argentina better suited to sugar production. The sugar industry has always been protected, there being an import tariff on foreign sugars of about 7 cents gold per kilo. The industry formerly was on a more or less precarious basis because the native cane stock was degenerated and was sensitive to frosts and pests. In the years 1916-17 and 1917-18 the plantations were re-established almost entirely with new stock, known as the Java cane, which has given much better results. Since then the area planted to sugar has steadily increased as well as the investment in mills so that in 1925, 1926 and 1927 Argentina, for the first time in this century, produced more sugar than the country could consume. At the beginning of 1927 there was a stock carried over from the preceding year of 349,572 tons and 1928 started with a stock of 367,082 tons, while the total consumption 1s

only 330,000 tons.

)

The great amount of capital immobilized in carrying these

enormous sugar stocks and low prices prevailing in 1925 and 1926

have created a situation of grave difficulty for the industry. The of Tucumán has passed legislation tending to force the province seen how export of the surplus production, but it remains to be

successful this expedient will prove as exports of sugar during

recent years have been negligible. The Tucuman Experiment Station, founded in 1909 by the

COMMERCE]

ARGENTINA

325

g U.S. currency.) l Government, has done very important work in testin For a long period previous to 1914 Argentina had a favourable e trade balance (surplus in the value of exports over supermerchandis of ons functi s variou fulfils It use. l stock now in genera In 1913 the total value of exports was 519,000,000 imports). ry. indust yision 10 connection with the sugar gold pesos, Grape and Wine Industry.—This industry is located in the gold pesos and the value of imports 496,000,000

rovincia new varieties of cane and demonstrating the value of the Java

favourable trade balance 23,000,000 gold pesos. After 1914 prices obtained for Argentine commodities increased and the value of total exports increased each year until 1920 when the total was remark- 1,044,000,000 gold pesos, the highest value for Argentine exports perous regions of Argentina. The grapes produced are of a ever reached. In 1913 the volume of exports was 11,800,000 metric showed 1924 for census cial provin able size and flavour. A tons. Volume fell off greatly in the years following, the increased izacapital a with za vineyard area of 75,906 hectares in Mendo 0,000 values of exports over 1913 being due to higher prices, but 1920 tion of pesos 265,000,000 in vineyards and pesos 185,00 a record year in volume as well as value, the volume in that was za Mendo of tion produc wine in warehouses, machinery, etc. The reaching 12,900,000 metric tons. The year 1921 was one of 59 year litres, for 1925, the year of maximum production, was 5,047,0 depression in nearly all commodities and in Argentina in world-wide frost a of e becaus litres 000 In 1927 production fell to 2,100, The volume of exports in 1921 fell to 8,000,000 turned. tide 28,197 the was 1924 in Nov. 1926. In San Juan the area of vineyards and the value to 671,000,000 gold pesos. In 1922 tons metric and rds vineya in ,000 99,000 pesos of ization hectares with a capital to 10,100,000 metric tons, but the value pesos 51,000,000 in warehouses and machinery. The production the volume increased gold pesos (little more than in 1921) 000 676,000,000 only 1,820, was of San Juan in 1925 WaS 1,170,457 litres and in 1927 1924 conditions were again favourable In prices. lower to due litres. 4 803,49 were litres, Wine exports in 1925 in volume of exports which reached created was record new a and which Dairy Industry.—A subsidiary of the cattle industry with a value of 1,011,000,000 gold pesos, tons metric which 14,400,000 industry dairy the is item export contributes an important little less than the record figure which was attained in has had its development on a large scale entirely within the pres- or very ent century. Its products are butter, cheese and casein. Exports the boom year 1920. The figures of foreign trade for the four years ending Dec. of butter, which amounted in 1905 to 4,649 metric tons, had 31, 1927, are as follows: and increased to 26,890 metric toms in 1925; 29,100 in 1926 Imports Trade in tons metric 19,500 were casein of Exports 1927. in 21,200 (actual value) Exports balance formerly were 1926 and 14,200 in 1927. Cheese exports, which gold pesos gold pesos gold pesos large, reaching 10,100 metric tons in 1920, have fallen off greatly. —+182,684,589 1,011,394,582 . 828,709,993 1924 8,917,784 — They amounted to 600 metric tons in 1927. The butter is prac867,929,882 . 876,847,666 1925: . — 30,318,000 792,178,500 822,496,500 . tically all taken by England. (The litre is equivalent to -908 1926 -+151,600,000 1,008,200,000 . 856,600,000 1927 uart.) official estimates i Flour Milling.—Flour milling is carried on in nearly all the are discussion this in used Figures of imports provinces but principally in the Federal District and the provinces of actual value as against nominal values based on tariff valuaof Santa Fé, Córdoba, Buenos Aires and Entre Rios. There are tions. The main classifications of imports in 1926 and their value 312 flour mills with a capacity of 8,300 tons daily. In 1925 the are: alimentary products, gold pesos 92,809,864; textile matotal production was 1,155,200 metric tons and in 1926, 1,021,573 terials and manufactures, gold pesos 183,266,510; oils and fats, tons, Exports of flour were 137,350 tons in 1925 and 142,177 including petroleum and petroleum products, gold pesos 63,569,tons in 1926. Brazil is the chief foreign market. 494; chemicals and drugs, gold pesos 31,934,383; wood and Quebracho Extraction Industry—The most valuable single manufactures, gold pesos 49,495,869; iron and steel and manuproduct of the Argentine forests is quebracho extract for tanning factures, gold pesos 147,090,434; other metals and manufactures, leather. This industry is carried on in the national territories of gold pesos 22,931,033; agricultural machinery and implements, Formosa and Chaco. Formerly the trunks of the quebracho tree gold pesos 30,172,300; stone, earth, glass and ceramic products, were exported but since 1911 exports in this form have steadily including coal, gold pesos 61,106,301; electrical machinery and diminished while exports of extract have increased. Three and materials, gold pesos 23,374,555; Paper and manufactures, gold one-half tons of logs are required to produce one ton of extract pesos 24,065,810. so that shipping in the latter form produces a great saving in The value of the four principal classifications of exports in transportation. This industry is also carried on in Paraguay. The 1925 was: gold pesos investment in Argentina alone is estimated at £10,000,000. The 386,385,023 . largest single enterprise in the industry is a British company. . products Live stock . 444,666,437 Agricultural products The process consists of chipping the quebracho logs to sawdust, 21,628,639 Forestal products which is treated with steam and water under pressure. Quebracho 15,249,783 . . Other articles forms the largest single item of export after cereals and meat. cent. of the per 44 comprised industry cattle the of Products exported, were extract ih 1925 214,183 metric tons of quebracho The principal items were: frozen, in 1926 212,100 metric tons and in 1927 198,700 metric tons. total exportation in 1925. pesos 138,831,004; hides and skins gold meat, salted and chilled 1925, in tons metric 131,520 were logs Exports of quebracho ; wool, gold pesos, 71,650,1335 77,898,113 pesos gold kinds, all of 81,200 in 1926 and £20,100 in 1927. ; butter, gold pesos 20,16,536,263 pesos gold Foreign Trade.—Under the Spanish regime trade was a preserved meat, and 18,750,332. pesos gold fat, melted tallow 523,716; . prohibited monopoly and free trading with foreign countries cent. of the total exper 51 d constitute products al Agricultur There was therefore little incentive to increase production. The oats, gold pesos were: items principal The 1925. in ports late as which hides and fat tallow, first trade articles were wool, gold pesos linseed, 2,910,018; pesos gold barley, ; as 187s still constituted nearly the entire exportation. During the 16,717,448 pesos 116,152,212; potatoes, gold (maize), corn 150,188; 87 averaged articles these of exports last part of the roth century gold about 60,000,000 gold pesos annually; from i1g00 to 1920 gold pesos 1,619,925; wheat, gold pesos 192,065,477; flour, 109,995. pesos gold about 80,000,000 gold pesos and in 1925 168,298,578 gold pesos. pesos 12,637,900; wine, Forest products comprised 24 per cent. of the total exports in In 1875 exportation of cereals amounted to only 100,000 gold constituted gold pesos pesos, in 1885 to 11,000,000 gold pesos and in 1895 to 40,000,000 1925. The value of extract of quebracho The only other 2,737,006. pesos gold log, quebracho ; 18,049,725 the reached had exports gold pesos, In 1926 the value of cereal gold pesos only of value a with firewood, is class this in vast total of 376,000,000 gold pesos. Meat contributed 7,000,000 item east of the rovinces OfMendoza and San Juan. Mendoza, lying Cordillera of the Andes, is flat and arid in the eastern part and the most proselevated in the west. Irrigation has made it one of

gold pesos in 1888; in 1898 11,000,000 gold pesos; in 1905, 33,000,000 gold pesos; in 1912, 56,000,000 gold pesos; in 1926, 139,000,000 gold pesos. (The par value of the gold peso is $0-9648

94,510.

COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSPORT

Railroads.—The

first railroad in Argentina, 6m. long, was

326 opened to traffic in 1857.

ARGENTINA This was the nucleus of the line now

known as the Western. In 1854 a concession was obtained by William Wheelwright, an American, for a railway from Rosario to Cérdoba, which he finally constructed with the aid of British capital. The first section was opened in 1864 and now forms part of the Central Argentine system. The first railroads in Argentina were constructed under interest guarantees or cash subsidies from the Government. The interest guarantees were later discontinued, the Government granting rescission bonds in settlement. Railroad construction progressed rapidly and the mileage increased steadily up to 1914. The largest and most important lines, representing an investment of approximately $1,000,000,000 U.S. currency, are British owned. The total mileage at the end of 1927 was 22,834, of which 18,433 miles were privately owned and 4,401 miles State owned. Of the privately owned railroads the British lines constituted a mileage of 14,830. The railroads nearly all radiate outward from the port of Buenos Aires and the province of Buenos Aires is covered by a network so close that no point within the province is over 25 miles distant from a railroad. The provinces of Santa Fé and Cérdoba come after Buenos Aires in length of railroad mileage. With the exception of Mendoza and Tucuman there is little railroad development within any of the other provinces but practically all the provinces and national territories north of Chubut have railroad connection with Buenos Aires. There are three different widths of gauge in the Argentine railroads, wide, standard and metre, but no great inconvenience results because of well organized grouping of the different gauges. The principal railroad systems are: Buenos Aires Great Southern (British) 3,948 miles; Buenos Aires and Pacific (British) 3,362 miles; North Central Argentine (State) 3,055 miles; Central Argentine (British) 3,305 miles; Western (British) 1,882 miles; Province of Santa Fé (French) 1,118 miles. The administration of the State-owned railroads is organized as a body separate from the national railroad administration. While the foreign owned railroads centre in Buenos Aires and the other principal ports the State has constructed its railroads in the extreme south and the extreme north with the object of opening up new territory. The two international railroads of Argentina are State owned. These are the Argéntine Transandine Railway through Mendoza which connects with the Chile Transandine Railway on the Chilean frontier, and the North Central Argentine Railway which connects with a Bolivian railroad near La Quiaca on the frontier of Bolivia. The Government also owns a railroad in each of the territories of Patagonia running inland from the port of Comodoro Rivadavia in Rio Negro (124 miles); from Puerto Madryn in Chubut (78 miles); from Puerto Deseado in Santa Cruz (178 miles). The State-owned Argentine North Eastern railway has connection by ferry with the Central Paraguay railway and there is connection by ferry with the railroads of Uruguay. Foreign Steamship Lines.—The Argentine ports have regular steamship service to the principal ports of Europe, North America and Brazil, South Africa, Japan, etc., and are visited regularly by French, British, Italian, Dutch, Spanish, German, Swedish, Danish, Austrian, Brazilian, Greek, Japanese and North American steamers. The European passenger service includes some of the largest transatlantic steamers. The number of foreign lines maintaining regular service to Argentine ports is 53. In addition to the service on the interior waterways there are four domestic companies in coast service between Argentine ports, including those of Patagonia, and one of these companies serves the port of Rio Grande in Brazil. Commercial aviation has made little progress in Argentina. Since 1922 a passenger service has been maintained at times between Buenos Aires and Montevideo. The length of roads was officially stated in 1925 as 15,525 miles, only å of the railroad mileage of the country. One of the reasons for the lack of roads has been the lack of stone on the pampa with which to build them. Produce in the past has largely been transported in the high wheeled Argentine carts, suitable vehicles for

[HISTORY

bad roads, but the increasing number of motor vehicles in use j,

creating the demand for good roads. A program for national road construction, presented to Congress in 1925, is still being studied Several provinces are also actively studying ways and means for

road construction, notably Buenos Aires, Santa Fé, Córdoba and Mendoza. More progress in this respect has been Aires than in any other province. At the end of 240,000 motor vehicles in the country, of which ported in that year. The railroads are paying an

made in Buenos 1926 there were

45,643 were imannual contribu-

tion to a road fund created under the Mitre Law, which amounted

to about $25,000,000 U.S. currency at the end of 1926. Posts, Telegraphs and Telephones.—The postal service is

well organized and reliable. From July 1, 1927, the Argentine Goyernment put into force the provisions of the Pan-American Postal

Convention signed in Mexico under which internal postal rates are extended to correspondence, printed matter, commercial papers and samples exchanged between the subscribing countries. There is regular aerial postal service between Buenos Aires and Montevideo. An arrangement was entered by the Government in June, 1927, for the establishment of an aerial postal service with Europe. At the beginning of 1928 the only part of this service in operation was between Buenos Aires and Puerto Natal in Brazil. The internal telegraph service is operated by the State in conjunction with the postal system. The length of the system in 192s was, 43,358km. with 111,308km. of line. The Government service covers the whole country.

There are other telegraph systems be-

longing to provincial governments or railroads. International cable companies established in Argentina are the

Western Telegraph Co., the All America Cables Inc., the Compañia Telegrafico-Telefonica del Plata and the Italcable. Transradio Internacional, S.A., an Argentine company, operates wireless service with foreign countries and with ships over 1,o0okm. (621m,) away from Buenos Aires. Under Argentine law all traffic with ships within 1,oookm. of Buenos Aires is reserved for the Argentine naval stations. Telephone service is for the most part carried on by private companies. At the end of 1925 there were 757 urban systems, the length of the system was 35,620 miles with 417,355 miles of line. There were 201,336 instruments in use. These statistics do not include lines owned by the railroads and privately. (R. U. L.) | HISTORY Argentine republic is a happy latinization of the silver part of the name Provincias Unidas del Rio de la Plata, United Provinces of the Silver River, as they called themselves on breaking away from Spain in 1816. The Rio de la Plata is not a river nor is there silver in the region. It is the vast estuary into which the great Paraná and Uruguay rivers pour their turbid waters. The muddy, yellow water is what catches the eye as one rounds Cape Santa Marta on the Uruguayan coast, if one happens to arrive in daylight. No doubt it caught the eye of the Spanish pilot Juan Diaz de Solis in 1515. He must have tasted it forthwith for he reported his discovery of a sea of fresh water. It went by that name, Mar Dulce, for a dozen years after him. The present name of Silver river came later when Sebastian Cabot sent home to Spain a quantity of rude silver ornaments obtained from the Indians (1526). This was a dozen years before Pizarro’s dazzling conquest of Peru, at a time when persistent

rumours filled all Spain of a land with vast treasures of gold and silver somewhere in the interior of the continent. seemed to locate this Eldorado.

Cabot’s silver ,

Cabot, like Solis, had been chosen for his skill in navigation to

carry exploration into the Pacific. He had no errand in the Parana but was attracted up the river by the greater abundance of food there, his supplies having run out. He built a fort which he called

Sancti Spiritu above the present city of Rosario.

It was the first

settlement in what is now Argentine territory. From there Cabot went up the Paraná into what is now Paraguay, but he met opposition; he had no resources nor authorization to explore and settle here, so after two years he went back to Spain discouraged. Within two years after Cabot’s return Pizarro had conquered Peru and its gold and silver began to flow towards Spain. Imme-

HISTORY]

ARGENTINA

diately the kingdom was deluged with offers from individuals er to fit out expeditions at their own expense to conquer new

principalities for themselves and for Spain in the New World.

Among them was Pedro de Mendoza who came out with a force of „000 men and r00 horses. It was through his efforts that Buenos Aires was first settled in 1535. Cortez in Mexico and Pizarro in Peru had found Indians living in settled communities with con-

siderable knowledge of agriculture, and able to furnish supplies of food in quantities. That was how Mendoza expected to sustain his

men in the River Plata. Here, however, conditions were different. The Indians lived in scattered bands, uncivilized nomads picking up a precarious living by hunting small birds and animals. They had little knowledge of agriculture and no stores of food beyond dried fish and meal made from them. The capture of one small band of savages only increased the hostility of the rest. Food

supplies gave out, famine was followed by sickness and Mendoza

had to abandon his newly founded city and push up the Paraná for food to save the lives of his men, but starvation and trouble followed him. Finally Mendoza, too, became discouraged and left the expedition in the hands of his lieutenant, Juan de Ayolas disappointed to find so little trace of precious metals. Ayolas again led his diminished force up the river, built a fort at Asunción, at the junction of the Paraguay with the Pilcomayo, and went on. They had followed the Paraguay as leading more toward Bolivia. Near the 20th parallel they found swamps which

made the country almost impassable, and the main body flung up

earthworks while 200 picked men under Ayolas went on to find Peru and the mines, only to be slaughtered by ambushed Indians on the eve of rejoining their comrades as they were returning with treasure. The 600 left behind under Domingo de Irala waited out the six months agreed upon and then returned to Asuncion. The

country here was better and the Indians had gone further in agriculture than any Indians farther south and it proved possible here to establish encomiendas of enslaved Indians to win the products of the soil for Spanish masters, much as in Mexico and Peru, except that there were no mines of gold or silver. Irala encouraged marriage with the native women, for the Spaniards had brought few women with them and the Guarani women are attractive. Thus began the first Spanish colony of the La Plata basin, and thus was founded the race of modern Paraguay. But the hope to get at the wealth of Peru from this side was slow to die. Other expeditions were sent out from Spain. In 1542 Cabeza de Vaca, of Florida fame, came with a great force across southern Brazil to Asunción, but he soon tired of the hardships, and withdrew, leaving affairs once more in Irala’s hands. By 1573 the colony controlled the territory between the Paraguay and

Parana rivers and had completely broken the resistance of the Indians to Spanish seizure of their lands. The country abounded in grasses and had only the mildest of winters.

The few horses,

cattle, sheep and goats which the Spaniards brought with them needed no care to make them multiply until their numbers were beyond computation. In a few years they had spread across the Parana into the pampa, completely transforming the economic possibilities of the country and laying the foundations of the present wealth of the Argentine people. It was a band of these creoles of Paraguay that in 1573 drove the Indians—now on horseback like themselves—away from the site of Santa Fé and made there the first permanent settlement in the Argentine. All the younger men in this band must have been born in Paraguay, doubtless of Indian mothers. Their leader was a Basque veteran of the conquest of Peru, Juan de Garay. In that same year another current of colonization had flowed down from Peru, and Córdoba was founded about 200m. W. of Santa Fé across scrubby pampa. By

Panama they had come into the Pacific, up over the Andes of Peru, across the plateaux of Bolivia and thence to settle Santiago

del Estero in 1553 and Tucumán in 1 564. Within a few years the currents met and the trail to Peru from the Plata was established

by way of Córdoba and Tucumán.

But the peak of Argentine interest in Paraguay came in 1581

When Garay succeeded in planting the first lasting colony at

eee Aires. With flocks, herds and crude instruments of hus-

andry they had migrated like the patriarchs of old from the

347

Paraguayan settlements of Asunción. There was no thought of conquest now, nor of Indians to be enslaved that their masters might enjoy the results. Garay came prepared to divide the land and till the soil, The new colony was to live by its own labour. Spain regarded her colonies as the personal territory of the sovereign, to be exploited solely for his benefit. All South America was under the viceroy of Peru. Under him were captains general. Governing councils called audiencias exercised judicial and administrative control under the captains general, or in cases like Bolivia (Upper Peru), where there was no captain general, constituted the complete government. The Argentine was under the Audiencia of Charcas in Bolivia. Each city had a cabildo of not more than 12 men appointed for life who exercised local judicial and administrative

functions.

On

these

cabildos

occasionally

creoles could serve; this was their only participation in the govern-

ment. The settlements at Córdoba, Tucumán and Salta on the side of Bolivia were at watercourses in dry country, where cattle, mules and fodder could be raised for the mining lands of Peru. They were expected to supply themselves with European wares from Peru which in turn was to get them from the ships that came from Spain to Porto Bello on the Atlantic side of the Isthmus of Panama. Spanish interest in the new world was in the precious metals. The Treasury’s fifth was not safe unless the entire output could be made to flow through one channel. Exportation of precious metals through Buenos Aires was stringently forbidden; for that matter even tallow and hides and hair might not be sold there to English and Dutch ships. Everything the Buenos Aires creole had to sell must go overland to Panama. Everything he needed from Europe must be bought at Panama. Even Spanish ships were almost completely barred from the Rio de la Plata. The creoles of America could not fail to see that Spain conceded them no rights and made it her policy to hinder their increase of wealth and comfort in every way. Such a system could have but one result. Illicit trade grew apace in spite of the severity of penalties. The Dutch and English could furnish goods with profit at a sixth the price of those coming via Panama, and were glad to take in return hides and hair and such silver as had been smuggled down from Bolivia. The royal governors themselves connived at the trade. The people broke the laws at every chance.

Still prices were exorbitant and life primitive. In 1618 permission

was given to load two small ships at Cadiz with goods for Buenos Aires and attempts were made to keep these goods from getting into the interior and keep gold and silver from coming out in return, but all the interest of the people of the country was in evading the law. For a long period a Portuguese settlement, Colonia, just across the river from Buenos Aires, afforded much opportunity for smuggling. The boundary between Portuguese and Spanish settlements was long indefinite. With its story is involved the terminating of the encomiendas in Paraguay in 1610, putting the Indians in the care of the Jesuits, the Jesuit missions, their invasion by the Paulistas from Brazil in 1632, the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 and the bargains between Spain and Portugal for territory. When the viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata was formed in 1776, the Portuguese were at once driven out of Colonia, the south-west boundary of what is now Brazil was fixed about as now and the Indians from the Jesuit missions took refuge in Spanish territory in Entre Rios or Uruguay. The new viceroyalty included the present republics of Uruguay, Paraguay and Bolivia as well as the Argentine. At this period the great bulk of the population was still in the northern provinces while Buenos Aires was a town of 20,000 people, the resort of smuggling merchants. With the creation of the viceroyalty it was given the privilege of free commerce with Spain. At once the fact that the city was the only practicable outlet for the products of a large region began to bear fruit. The city grew rapidly in wealth and population. At the end of the century it had 40,000 white people. On the pampa between there had grown up among the teeming cattle and horses a new race, the gauchos. Spanish mainly of race, horsemen and cattle hunters by occupation, loyal followers of any man who was bolder and a better horseman than his fellows, almost exclusively meat-eaters, contemptuous of city people and city ways

328

ARGENTINA

their incessant and violent quarrels with each other. In the decade of life, recognizing no boundaries on unfenced pampa, no right following 1810 these disputes among the creoles would haye Edible ns. revolutio of material but force, they were the natural enabled Spain to re-establish herself but for the singular steadgrass in every month of the year and horses more numerous than fastness of the creole general, San Martin. Resigning a colonelcy more Cattle mobility. inary extraord people gave these gauchos in the Spanish armies, he returned to Buenos Aires in 1812, Cop. numerous than the horses gave them self-transporting food. The vinced that no colony could be free until the Spanish were driven introduction of Spanish cattle and horses into a prairie land which out of Bolivia and Peru, he set himself to drilling an army in had been of no value at all when the Spaniards came was the most Mendoza with which to invade Chile. Stubbornly refusing every important outcome of the conquest of Peru. Indians of the pampa summons from his friends to take part in civil wars, no matter how had soon learned to avail themselves of the herds and fiocks and desperate their need, he persisted in his preparations, training and had been transformed from wretched savages into well-fed formi- equipping his 4,000 “horse grenadiers” till in 1817 he was able to dable raiders. take them, artillery and all, over the high passes of the Andes The Buenos Aires people were prosperous and had increasing above 12,000ft., and put an end to Spanish power in Chile by the to went promise of men Young culture. n Europea with contacts battles of Chacabuco and Maipú. When the Spanish fileet had Europe for education or training in government and war. The been dispersed by the Irish dare-devil seaman, William Brown writings of Rousseau, Voltaire and Montesquieu were familiar in San Martin was able to transport his army to Peru and effect a the city. The revolt of the English Colonies in North America and junction with Bolivar that ended Spanish rule on the continent, events of the French Revolution were followed with sympathy But the dissensions among the creoles went on. Buenos Aires and interest. A traditional resistance to Spanish misrule was had by this time become preponderant in numbers as well as in oppress to right no had Spain giving place to a recognition that wealth and culture and expected to rule the upland provinces in them. This began to find articulate expression. Then the British place of Spain, but this was by no means acceptable to the interior Aires Buenos off appeared ships British came. In 1806 a fleet of provinces. Agriculture and industry in the country were at so low The Popham. with a landing force of 1,600 men under Sir Home an ebb that taxation was almost impossible. The only considerable the when 24 June that theatre the at was nte viceroy Sobremo source of income was the custom-house. But the custom-house news came that the fleet was in sight. He took refuge at once in was at Buenos Aires and the province of Buenos Aires possessed next treasury the from could he money what gathered citadel, the it and used the revenue. It took many decades to force it to give day and fled to Cérdoba. He made no defence and the British up this income to the nation. Presently it appeared that there were marched in. two main parties in national affairs, Unitarlans and Federalists, Sullenly resentful of their viceroy’s incompetence and cowardice Unitarians were strongest at Buenos Aires among people of The e. resistanc for organize to the people of Buenos Aires at once began and culture, the Federalists were characteristic rather of wealth They: had the help of Liniers, a capable French soldier long in the the gaucho party under local caudillos or chiefs. provinces, the Alzaga, Martin merchant Spanish Spanish service, and the wealthy saw a constituent assembly in Unitarian control 1826 year The e assistanc who provided funds for equipment, as well as the bodily president and put out a Unitarian constiRivadavia elected which invaders the drove they 12 Aug. On citizens. of many Spanish-born Aires control over all the interior provBuenos giving really tution year next the out of the city. A larger British force that came important works like schools, immimany began Rivadavia inces. was also defeated and compelled to retire. The citizens distinof faults in government and the correction and banking gration, streets and houses the guished themselves in this fighting to which theoretical and impractical seemed which justice, of administration of the city were well suited, and the creoles especially were elated. the government was rejected by the interior and people many to g governin Spanish the though but exploit, They felt it was their provinces, civil war breaking out more violently than ever. body failed them, Spanish-born citizens co-operated in every way We may say that the unification of the republic was brought and Liniers was no creole. When the poor viceroy came creeping finally by Juan Manuel Rosas, dictator, despot and tyrant about from city the back won down from Córdoba, just after they had series of years. He ended disorders by putting to death long a for the British, they insisted on his instant removal from office. After into exile any one who ventured to oppose him in the driving or for departed he eo Montevid before e a further display of ineptitud Rosas had become the idol of the gauchos of degree. slightest Europe. by almost incredible feats of horsemanship Aires In Europe Spain fared perhaps worse, for Napoleon had seized southern Buenos born and brought up in Buenos Aires. though daring, personal and from free was Spain for his brother Joseph. A corner of Spain military force of devoted gaucho formidable a up built enemy soldiers and a committee at Seville claimed to rule the Having in the service of the provineffectively so it applied he followers, assumed it Further monarchs. kingdom in the name of the captive followed Rivadavia that that disorders the during government cial authority over the colonies abroad. The main feeling in the New the province. Together for campaña de comandante World was an outburst of patriotic fervour. Funds were raised to he was made on a much-needed carried he provinces other from armies five with assist the home people against the invader. It will be understood resulted in which south the of Indians the against that the creoles were often lukewarm in this. No one talked of campaign for many years and made raids Indian of danger all of removal creoles the that growing independence of Spain but the feeling was with powerful caudillos in other provinces, like must have a more adequate part in ruling themselves. On May him acquainted He was a Federalist and working together with 28, 1810, a great assembly of people in arms in the public square Quiroga and Lopez. years that followed he was able to speak for the in caudillos other viceroy of Buenos Aires insisted on the resignation of the Spanish Argentine confederation merely by effecan them and his cabildo and the substitution of a junta of creoles, Bel- them and call to do his will. At first he controlled the them getting in tiveness LarAlberti, grano, Saavedra, Moreno, Castelli, Passo, Azcuénaga, from without, keeping his military Aires Buenos of rea and Matheu. Though this junta professed to govern in the government p of the province. Finally governorshi the declining always but post Argentine new the raised they Spain, name of the captive king of governor 1830-33, and him make to legislature the allowed he flag of light blue and white. Formal independence of Spain was This time he insisted 1835. refusals—in not declared till July 9, 1816, when deputies from all the provinces again—after repeated or he would nol powers y extraordinar offered be must he that 1810 May of met in assembly at Tucumán. But since the meeting governorship first his used have to seems He office. the no representative of Spain has ever governed in Buenos Aires. undertake n of his influence and consolidatio the for experience military and strong were Spaniards Up in the silver country of Bolivia the and failures of the men about him. He and there fierce conflicts broke out between creoles and Spaniards. the study of the success because their followers failed them 0 War was waged with the utmost savagery, each side shooting its saw men failing always to have come to the conclusion thai appears He them. betrayed prisoners. Among those thus summarily executed by the creoles if necessary from the world firs and office were Liniers, hero of the reconquest, and Martin Alzaga, the he must remove from

wealthy Spaniard who supplied the defenders of Buenos Aires with funds. At last under the leadership of Belgrano the patriot armies won. But the greatest difficulty the creoles had to overcome was

those who opposed him and then those who did not accept hi extraor plans with enthusiasm. He began his governorship “with

dinary powers? by removing from office of any sort all Uni

ARGENTINA jarians an d later all who were

suspected of lukewarmness

in

following him. From that he entered on a career of steadily «ncreasing persecution and bloodshed.

We have mentioned that

; sition leaders in revolt or civil war were often shot. Rosas

to cut the throats of 1,500 surrendered men at

329

and encouraged immigration that had hitherto been impossible, prevented at first by Spanish prohibition and later by universal civil war. In Urquiza’s day immigrants from Switzerland, Germany and Italy began to come into the almost worthless lands of Santa Fé and to transform them almost as magically as Spanish

ordered bis men once. For half of his career a census was made of 15,000 killed horses and cattle had done three centuries before. In Rosas’s day

hides, hair, wool and tallow were almost the only resources of the land. Except in Buenos Aires no one ate bread and the bread for Buenos Aires was made in part from imported wheat. The country no had he that did not raise enough for its own needs. ble proba is It years. and succeeded for 18 Sarmiento was elected to succeed Mitre in 1868 without disception of government by law. Unitarians must be killed, driven order. He called himself the schoolmaster president and was an the of life rred the prefe have to d. said is He idate away Or intim enthusiastic believer in the need of popular education to maintain gauchos to that of the city, but it is probable the gaucho life was real prosperity in the country. He had studied schools in New „most the only one that he knew. Civilization and the things of e and England, and he founded teacher-training schools in the republic Europe meant nothing to him. He defied England and Franc ed all with teachers brought from the United States. He founded too the brought on a long blockade of the country. Finally he arous ked his astronomical observatory at Córdoba. The country was prosprovo he When st him. ies again our countr the neighb perous. Sarmiento’s measures could not hope to be generally former lieutenant, Urquiza, whom he had made governor of Entre coun- popular, however. All knew that the cost was high. His nominathese of ships the use to able was za Urqui , Rios, to revolt had ever trod tion of Avellaneda to succeed him as president caused some riottries to take across the Parana the largest army that Argentine soil and destroy Rosas’s power forever in the battle of ing, put down by young Col. Julio A. Roca of Salta. Avellaneda was inaugurated in 1874. He made Roca his mino Caseros in 1852. Urquiza called together a convention in Santa Fé which in 1853 ister of war. Then came Roca’s final reduction of the Indians on adopted a constitution much like that of the United States. What the pampa. They had come back on the fall of Rosas but now they turned out important for political considerations was that the Re- were destroyed or captured and placed in servile capacities in the public was to have the custom-house revenues, which Buenos Aires cities of the land. Buenos Aires felt a grievance when the new was now collecting, and that internal customs were abolished, lands were divided among several provinces instead of coming inwhich destroyed the main revenue of the interior provinces. For tact to her. The city put up a candidate for president but Avellafurther discomfiture of the Buenos Aires people that city was to neda controlled the election and Roca was easily elected in 1880, he made federal and separated from its province. As Buenos Aires the sixth of the constitutional presidents. He was the first president declined to come into the confederation on those terms the national to dispose of a really effective army of federal troops. He made the capital was temporarily loaned the city of Parana, capital of the city of Buenos Aires a federal district, founding the new city of province of Entre Rios, for headquarters. Urquiza had been elected La Plata as provincial capital, thus solving the most difficult probpresident by the convention, which was fortunate, for the nation lem of the republic. His administration was a period of great had no money as yet and no military force and Urquiza had both, material expansion. Immigration attained 40,000 a year and was as landowner and caudillo of Entre Rios. Presently Buenos Aires increasing rapidly at the conclusion of his term. Production was in rebellion and Urquiza had to go down and defeat General increased, railway mileage was doubled and in 1884 the country Bartolomé Mitre’s army in the battle of Cepeda. Then he marched was for many months on a gold basis, a thing almost unheard of into Buenos Aires which agreed to come into the confederation in South America. Roca’s brother-in-law, Juarez Celman, took in 1886 but proved unequal to the task. In and give up part of the customs duties for the next five years. over the succession Urquiza’s six years ended in 1860 and Derqui became president 1890, after a period of disastrous extravagance and dishonesty, he after him, the constitution forbidding the president to succeed was obliged to resign and the vice president, Carlos Pellegrini, himself. Urquiza was now merely general of the national army, became president. In 1892 Luis Saenz Peña became president, fol(M. Je.; C. Pr.). which did not exist. Derqui had no province, no resources. lowed in 1898 by Roca on a second term. The Twentieth Century.—With the turn of the century there Urquiza seemed lukewarm in his support and wanted Parana for his own provincial capital. Disorders broke out in the impover- was a recurrence of border quarrels with Chile, in two regions— ished interior provinces; Derqui intervened and restored order, in the Puna de Atacama in the north and Patagonia in the south. The former was settled in 1899 by arbitration of the American minister some cases by summary executions. The president’s obvious weakness encouraged Buenos Aires in Buenos Aires, but without appeasing popular agitation in under Mitre to further resistance culminating in the battle of either country. Three years later, the king of England, who had Pavón, Sept. 17, 1861, in which Mitre’s troops decisively defeated been asked to arbitrate the dispute in Patagonia, announced his the national forces. The main fighting for the federals was done award, which was a virtual division of the contested area. Thus by an army Derqui had raised in Cérdoba. Urquiza was present was ended a controversy that had lasted more than a half century at the battle with 4,000 men from Entre Rios, but hardly took part (1847-1902). In commemoration of this settlement the two naand as soon as things went against Derqui, withdrew his troops to tions later joined in erecting on their common boundary above Entre Rios. On Nov. 5 Derqui resigned from the presidency and the tunnel of the Transandine railway the famous statue known went to Montevideo. In May 1862 a new convention met and as the “Christ of the Andes.” In 1904, Roca was succeeded in Mitre was elected president of the republic, arranging that Buenos office by Manuel Quintana who served only two years of his sixAires should remain the capital of the province but should enter- year term before dying in office. The presidency then passed tain the federal government and give up the revenues from the to José Figueroa Alcorta who, in Oct. 1910, was followed by the regularly elected president, Dr. Rogue Sáenz Peña. In Igro custom-house. Mitre took office Oct. 12, 1862, as president of the republic. In the republic celebrated the centenary of her first bid for indea way he was the last of the caudillos, but a very different type pendence, commemorating with a successful international exhibiof man from most of them. His varied accomplishments would tion the events of May 25, 1810, when the residents of Buenos have won him recognition in any land. His histories of Belgrano Aires ejected from office the Spanish-controlled municipal council ad San Martin are classic works that have gone to many editions, and deposed the viceroy Cisneros. After too years of recurrent political disturbances, a new era ad after completing his active military and political career he founded the newspaper La Nación in Buenos Aires which won him for Argentina had opened. The newly installed president gave. the honour wherever it was known. He was governor of Buenos Aires closest attention to reforms designed to foster and strengthen by his orders and 7,000 killed in battle opposing him, besides

ated the popula9.000 more driven into exile. He literally decim yalty impossible dislo make to out set He tine. Argen the of Hoh con-

when Mendoza was destroyed by an earthquake in March 1861 and won gratitude by the promptness of his province’s generosity.

president he made treaties, opened the Parana to navigation

public respect for and confidence in the institutions of the coun-

try. The first step in this direction was the reformed electoral law which instituted the secret ballot. This was the outstanding and

339

ARGENTINE—ARGHOUL

In Oct. 1922, Dr. Irigoyen was succeeded as president by Dr most valuable of his official actions, and incidentally it is worth Marcelo T. de Alvear, whose candidature was supported by the ial president next the at reform, the noting that the first effect of retiring president as head of the Radical Party. During the firy election in 1916, was the defeat of the Conservative Party to few months of his administration the president and his cabin which the author of the new law belonged, and which had enwere faced with rather difficult economic conditions owing to the joyed political control of the country for over a quarter of a century. Early in 1914 President Pena was too ill to fulfil his heavy fall of cattle values, upon which so much of the prosperity duties, and the presidential mandate was assumed by the vice of the country depends. However, values for cattle began to rise and the crisis was soon past. During the last four years of Alvear’s president, Dr. Victorino de la Plaza. administration the country enjoyed unprecedented prosperity Dr. , successor his to leaving thus President Pefia died in 1914, The balance of trade was, on the whole, favourable, and the na. de la Plaza, the difficult task of directing the affairs of the nation tional revenues exceeded the expenditures. Argentina returned with country a In War. World the of through the early years to the gold standard in Aug. 1927 by presidential decree, and in such a cosmopolitan population the sudden disruption of inter1928 the republic was one of the largest gold holding countries All ion. repercuss e immediat an had ly necessari national relations in the world. In April 1928 Dr. Hipólito Irigoyen was again important contracts involving shipping, the exportation of grain and meat and the importation of manufactures, were cancelled elected to the presidency and on Oct. 12 entered upon his second and something like a business panic was imminent. It was averted though non-consecutive, term of six years. His party was well in trenched in power, thus leaving the new administration time to only by the declaration of a moratorium. The strict neutrality tackle problems relative to social conditions and industrial ex. rethe that ed recogniz soon was It ed. of Argentina was proclaim public would play an important part in the provisioning of pansion. ARGENTINE, formerly a city of Wyandotte county, Kan, Europe, and out of a moment of threatened panic, the country U.S.A.; since 1910 a part of Kansas City, Kansas. emerged in a spirit of confidence that at least it could not be adARGENTITE, a mineral consisting of silver sulphide (Ag.S), versely affected by the war. So far as the shortage of manufacIt is occasionally found as uneven cubes and octahedra, but more source al substanti a found a tured goods was concerned Argentin of supply in the United States. The national wealth increased often as dendritic or earthy masses, with a blackish lead-grey substantially during the war, the high prices obtained for food- colour and metallic lustre. The mineral is perfectly sectile and stuffs more than compensating for any loss the country suffered has a shining streak; hardness 2-5, specific gravity 7-3. It occurs by the adverse effect of the war in retarding the normal develop- in mineral veins, and when found in large masses, as in Mexico ment programme. The production of most cereals was enormously and in the Comstock lode in Nevada, it is an important ore of increased and the pastoral industry became more prosperous than silver. Silver sulphide is, however, cubic in crystallization only at temperatures above 91° C.; the cubic crystals found in nature it had ever been before. Radical Administration—The presidential election in 1916 are really paramorphs, consisting of an intricate lamellar aggremodification of withdrew all attention from the war to domestic politics. For gate of orthorhombic crystals. The orthorhombic acanthite. mineral the is C. 91° below stable sulphide silver secret the the first time the elections were to be “free” under flank of the n north-wester the on town a , es ARGENTON Conservativ The Pefia. President by introduced voting system of department the in Creuse, the on France, of Central Plateau had who Radicals The confidently nominated Senor Rojas-Seru. old houses line the river. been out of power for 30 years, put forward Dr. Hipólito Irigoyen, Indre. Pop. (1926), 4,907. Picturesque are numerous tanneries. and the result was a sensational victory for the latter. Dr. Iri- Linen goods are made and there ORATUS, the name of ARGENT or UM 25 ARGENTORAT goyen was comparatively unknown to the new generation, but present Strasbourg (¢.u). the of site the on settlement Roman the “caudillos,” vigorous most the of one been years earlier he had ), Ruma(1871NTIN CONSTA IANU, for exile ARGETO or political “bosses” in the country, and had suffered He studied law and medicine Craiova. at born was statesman, nian 1893. of revolution the in Alem N. Leandro with association his service from 1907 to 1913. When in the early part of 1917 the United States entered the in Paris and was in the diplomatic became Minister of Justice and Senator a elected was war and President Wilson appealed to the Latin American coun- In 1914 he Together with Averescu 1918. in Cabinet Averescu’s Gen. in bear to brought were influences strong tries to follow her lead, League, which became People’s the formed he ne Cantacuze to change the official attitude of Argentina, but President Iri- and on, owing to dissensions, he Later 1920. in party People’s the neuproclaimed country’s the from departure no goyen permitted and joined the Nationtrality. The conclusion of the war was as entirely unexpected in left the party with a number of followers presidency of Prof. Jorga. This Argentina as its outbreak. The country was enjoying great pros- alist-Democratic party under the Transylvanian party under Jules perity, suffering only to a limited extent from shortages of coal group having coalesced with the member of the new prominent a became and certain manufactures. Immediately the armistice was signed Maniu, Argetoianu party. Rumanian National the called is which formation, the of condition the regards as especially there was confusion, Hazara cour the in rising river Afghan an B, ARGHANDA primary industries engaged in supplying war contracts. Economic south-westward into the Helflowing and Ghazni of est north-w try disturblabour frequent by accompanied in ts set readjustmen upper course is said to be shallow ances. Industrial troubles endured until after the end of Irigoyen’s mand, 20m. below Girishk. Its is very rapid and difficult to ford it but term of office. The president, however, was sympathetic toward and almost dry in summer, a good population on its lower in results on Irrigati times. other at had cabinet his of the “proletariat,” and much of the energies to be slightly brackish. It 1s said is water the here been devoted to legislation designed to ameliorate the conditions course, but the Tarnak, 20om. long, dist, confluen chief its and long, 2som. emto related passed acts principal of the labouring masses. The name Arachotus. The ruins ancient the to right the it with ployers’ liability; compensation for injured workers and those putes ia, are in the Tamak Arachos of city d incapacitated by disease contracted at their work; the early closing at Ulan Robat, the suppose dah, the supposed

of shops and business establishments; restriction of Sunday labour; official control of sweated industries; and the provision of cheap homes for workers. Argentina was one of the first of the Latin American States to give its adhesion to the League of Nations, which it joined on July 16, 1919. The nation, however, withdrew its representatives in 1920 after the first Assembly had rejected Argentina’s proposal

for the inclusion of Germany and all sovereign States within the League on a basis of absolute equality, and for submitting dis-

putes to an international judicial court. Relations were not again resumed until 1927, but, in 1925, Congress approved of the nation meeting its obligation in regard to dues.

the east of which lies Lake Ab-Ista

basin to the high road Lake Arachotus. The Tarnak valley is used by thinking it the from Kabul to Kandahar, another reason for Arachotus. ARGHOUL, ARGHOOL

or ARGHUL (in the Egypt and Arab woodhieroglyphs, As or As-1r), an ancient Egyptian reed pipes of two of consists wind instrument, still in use. It mouthpieces le two the that so together bound lengths unequal side by side, and can be taken by the performer into his mouth having a at the same time. The mouthpiece consists of a reed forms which slit nal longitudi a of means by small tongue detached

the beating reed, as in the clarinet mouthpiece. An Egyptian

ARGILETUM—ARGON

331

arghoul, presented by the Khedive to the Victoria and Albert a oi aia the Density of Nitrogen Gas,” Proc. Roy. Soc., 1894. Museum, measures 4ft. 83 inches. QuiriAt this stage it became clear that the complication depended ARGILETUM, a district in ancient Rome, south of the

nal hill, occupied chiefly by mechanics and booksellers. Through it upon some hitherto unknown body, and probability inclined to the existence of a gas in the atmosphere heavier than nitrogen, o. ran the street Subura. the oxygen ARGINUSAE, the name of certain islands off the coast of and remaining unacted upon during the removal ofRayleigh and Lord by established fully scene the afterwards and conclusion Lesbos, —a of end southern the opposite Asia Minor, The question which now pressed was as to (Aug. Ramsay. William War Sir ian Peloponnes the in victory Athenian last of the of the evidence for the universally accepted view 406 B.C.) The Athenian admiral Conon, having been pinned by the character nitrogen of the atmosphere was all of one kind, so-called the that ruthless superior Spartan forces in Mitylene, the Athenians by the air was the same as the nitrogen of nitre. of nitrogen the that a raised wealth, and men of conscription of their last resources showed that he had already raised this Cavendish to Reference after them fresh fleet which engaged the Spartans and defeated the question in the most distinct manner, and indeed, to a certain exand tely immedia rose storm A sunk. been had vessels eight generals in charge of the Athenian fleet retired to shelter tent, resolved it. In his memoir of 1785 he writes:— extend, we “As far as the experiments hitherto published without attempting to rescue the Athenian sailors on the 12 know more of the phlogisticated part of our atmosphere scarcely returned who them of those this, triremes that were sinking. For it is not diminished by lime-water, caustic alkalies or that than ion distinct to Athens were executed, sharing with Houchard the fire or maintain life in aniof being the only generals executed for incompetence after a nitrous air; that it is unfit to support specific gravity is not much less than that of its that and mals; yictory. being united to ARGO, the large Ptolemaic constellation (¢.v.) of the south- common air; so that, though the nitrous acid, by properties, and these of possessed air into converted is phlogiston, John Sir by subdivided was which ship), ern hemisphere (argo, a that part at suppose, to reasonable was it though consequently, Herschel (g.v.) into Vela (sails), Puppis (poop), and Carina least of the phlogisticated air of the atmosphere consists of this one as it to refer still however writers Some (gg.v.). (keel) 7 Carinae is also called acid united to phlogiston, yet it may fairly be doubted whether complete constellation, e.g., the variable star the whole is of this kind, or whether there are not in reality many Argus. different substances confounded together by us under the name of a is It (g.v.). tartar crude of iARGOL, the commercial name air. I therefore made an experiment to determine phlogisticated semi-crystalline deposit which forms on wine vats, and is generally whether the whole of a given portion of the phlogisticated air of y or red in colour. whether there ARGON, a gaseous constituent of atmospheric air. For more the atmosphere could be reduced to nitrous acid, or nature to the rest which would refuse than 100 years before 1894 it had been supposed that the com- was not a part of a different experiments indeed, in some position of the atmosphere was thoroughly known. Beyond vari- to undergo that change. The foregoing the greatest part of air let much as point, this decided measure, able quantities of moisture and traces of carbonic acid, hydrogen, as some remained unabyet, elasticity; its lost tube the into up and nitrogen were recognized ammonia, etc., the only constituents that was of the same whether certain for appear not did it sorbed, the oxygen. The analysis of‘ air was conducted by determining For this purpose I diminished a similar not. or rest the as nature be to remainder the assuming and present oxygen of amount and common air, in the nitrogen. Since the time of Henry Cavendish no one seemed even mixture of dephlogisticated [oxygen] sparks over alkali], till it was reduced to have asked the question whether the residue was, in truth, all same manner as before [by to a small part of its original bulk. I then, in order to decompound capable of conversion into nitric acid. [nitrogen] which reDiscovery of Inert Gas in Air.—The manner in which this as much as I could of the phlogisticated air air to it and condephlogisticated some added tube, the in mained inis disturbed be to came ignorance complacent of condition place. Having took diminution further no until spark the tinued of interest the structive. Observations undertaken mainly in as I could of the phlogisticated Prout’s law, and extending over many years, had been conducted by these means condensed as much of sulphur to absorb the deto determine afresh the densities of the principal gases—hydrogen, air, I let up some solution of liver small bubble of air remained a only which after air; phlogisticated oxygen and nitrogen. In the latter case, the first preparations were than 74, of the bulk of more not was certainly which unabsorbed, Harcourt, Vernon by devised method convenient according to the so that, if there be tube; the into up let air dephlogisticated the copper. inwhich air charged with ammonia is passed over red-hot our atmosphere which difUnder the influence of the heat the atmospheric oxygen unites any part of the dephlogisticated air of to nitrous acid, we may with the hydrogen of the ammonia, and when the excess of the fers from the rest, and cannot be reduced part of the whole.” 4y than more not is it that latter is removed with sulphuric acid, the gas properly desiccated safely conclude with his resatisfied was Cavendish natural, was as Although, but ammonia, the from part in derived nitrogen, should be pure genuine, was residue small the whether decide not does and sult, of principally from the air. A few concordant determinations density having been effected, the question was at first regarded it is probable that his residue was really of a different kind from as disposed of, until the thought occurred that it might be desir- the main bulk of the “phlogisticated air,” and contained the gas able to try also the more usual method of preparation in which afterwards named argon. The announcement to the British Assothe oxygen is removed by actual oxidation of copper without ciation in 1894 by Rayleigh and Ramsay of a new gas in the atthe aid of ammonia. Determinations made thus were equally con- mosphere was received with a good deal of scepticism. Some cordant among themselves, but the resulting density was about doubted the discovery of a new gas altogether, while others denied Yet there was nothing inthy part greater than that found by Harcourt’s method (Ray- that it was present in the atmosphere. fact in the asserted ascertained previously any leigh, 1892). Subsequently when oxygen was substituted for air consistent with again in the first method, so that all (instead of about 4 part) of the presence of 1% of a non-oxidizable gas about half as heavy bethe in lay difficulty a to approach nearest The nitrogen was derived from ammonia, the difference rose to 3%. as nitrogen. Further experiment only brought out more clearly the diversity haviour of liquid air, from which it was supposed, as the event of the gases hitherto assumed to be identical. Whatever were the proved erroneously, that such a constituent would separate itself means employed to rid air of accompanying oxygen, a uniform in the solid form. The evidence of the existence of a new gas å- privavalue of the density was arrived at, and this value was $% greater (named Argon on account of its chemical inertness, Gr. properties, its of many of statement a and work), than that appertaining to nitrogen extracted from compounds such tive and &pyov, as nitrous oxide, ammonia and ammonium nitrate. No impurity were communicated to the Royal Society by the discoverers in January 1895. consisting of ány known. substance could be discovered capable of Isolation of Argon.—The isolation of the new substance by in deficiency a or case one the in explaining an excessive weight of nitrogen from air was effected by two distinct methods. removal the other. Storage for eight months did not disturb the density of the first is merely a-development of that of Cavendish. these Of discharge electric silent the had nor gas, extracted the chemically were contained in a test-tube (fig. 1) standing over gases The any influence upon either quality. (“On an Anomaly encountered

ARGON

332

a large quantity of weak alkali, and the current was conveyed in wires insulated by U-shaped glass tubes passing through the liquid and round the mouth of the test-tube. The inner platinum ends of the wire may be sealed into the glass insulating tubes, but reliance should not be placed upon these sealings. In order to secure tightness in spite of cracks, mercury was placed in the bends. With a battery of five Grove cells and a Rubmkorif coil of medium size, a somewhat short spark, or arc, of about 5mm. was found to be more favourable than a longer one. When the mixed gases were in the right proportion, the rate of absorption was about 30c.c. per hour, about

30 times as fast as Cavendish

a

‘PES could work with the electrical machine of his day. A convenient NSl adjunct to this apparatus is a small voltameter, with the aid of which oxygen or hydrogen can be introduced at pleasure. The gradual elimination of the nitrogen is tested at a moment’s notice with a miniature spectroscope. For this purpose a small Leyden jar is connected as usual to the secondary terminals, and if necessary the force of the discharge is FIG. 1.—-FIRST METHOD OF ISOLATING ARGON FROM AIR moderated by the insertion of Into a mixture of air and oxygen resistance in the primary circuit. standing in a test tube over a weak soda solution, wires, insulated When with a fairly wide slit the caustic by U-shaped glass tubes, are passed. yellow line is no longer visible, The nitrogen Is oxidised and absorbed. the residual nitrogen may be con- After removing the excess of oxygen, sidered to have fallen below 2 or argon remains as a residue 3%. During this stage the oxygen should be in considerable excess. When the yellow line of nitrogen has disappeared, and no further contraction seems to be in progress, the oxygen may be removed by cautious introduction of hydrogen.

The development of Cavendish’s method upon a large scale involves arrangements different from what would at first be expected. The transformer working from a public supply should

give about 6,000 volts on open circuit, although when the electric flame is established the voltage on the platinums is only from 1,600 to 2,000. No sufficient advantage is attained by raising the pressure of the gases above atmosphere, but a capacious vessel is necessary. This may consist of a glass sphere of 50 litres’ capacity, into the neck of which, presented downwards, the necessary tubes are fitted. The whole of the interior surface is washed with a fountain of alkali, kept in circulation by means of a small centrifugal pump. In this apparatus, and with about one horse-power utilized at the transformer, the absorption of gas is 21 litres per

hour. (“The Oxidation of Nitrogen Gas,” Trans. Chem. Soc., 1897.) In one experiment, specially undertaken for the sake of measurement, the total air employed was 9,250c.c., and the oxygen consumed, manipulated with the aid of partially deaérated

water, amounted to 10,820c.c. The oxygen contained in the air would be 1,942¢.c.; so that the quantities of atmospheric nitrogen and of total oxygen which enter into combination would be 7,308c.c. and 12,762c.c. respectively. This corresponds to

N-+-1-750, the oxygen being decidedly in excess of the proportion required to form nitrous acid. The argon ultimately found was 7s.0C.c., or a little more than 1% of the atmospheric nitrogen

used. The other method by which nitrogen may be absorbed on a considerable scale is by the aid of magnesium. The metal in the form of thin turnings is charged into hard glass or iron tubes

heated to a full red in a combustion furnace. Into this air, previously deprived of oxygen by red-hot copper and thoroughly

dried, is led in a continuous stream.

At this temperature the

may be regarded as obsolete. Argon is now produced on a com mercial scale by processes depending on the liquefaction of ait

The separation of argon is a more difficult problem than that of oxygen or nitrogen, as the boiling point is intermediate between those of the main constituents of air. Effective methods have beg developed by Linde, Claude and others. In Claude’s method, a jet of the mixture is partially liquefied by passing through a cooled vertical tube. The most volatile constituent, nitrogen, is got rid of and blows off above, while the liquid falls back and is treated ina

rectifying column for the separation of oxygen and argon. An residual oxygen may be burnt out with hydrogen. : It is not, in general, practicable to get rid of the last traces of nitrogen by these methods. For some purposes, however, e.g., the use in incandescent lamps, this is not necessary, and a few aM % of nitrogen may, without serious detriment, be allowed to re. main. On the other hand, for experiments on the physical proper. ties of argon, and on its behaviour under the electric discharge

high purity is necessary.

On a small scale this is conveniently

attained by purification with heated turnings of metallic calcium which absorb nitrogen far more readily than the magnesium originally used, and have the advantage of absorbing a moderate quantity of other likely impurities as well. For larger-scale puri-

fication, heated calcium carbide may be used as an absorbent of the residual nitrogen, but, though cheaper, it is not so convenient in use as calcium. A demonstration experiment may here be described by which

the presence of argon in atmospheric air can be shown very quickly and simply. A vacuum discharge tube (fig. 2) is used consisting of two elongated electrode bulbs united by a capillary tube of, say,

1-smm. internal diameter. The bulbs each contain a pool of the liquid alloy of sodium and potassium, introduced with a pipette before the glass work is sealed together. This tube is excited by an induction coil, the current being passed during continued exhavstion by a high-vacuum pump until the alloy ceases to give of bydrogen. A small dose of air, say o-1c.c., is then introduced by means of the small space included between the stop-cocks. The alloy is, of course, avid of oxygen, but it also rapidly removes atmospheric nitrogen under the influence of the discharge, and the well-known band spectrum of the latter disappears, giving place

to a line spectrum characteristic of argon. A further dose of air is then introduced, and similarly

ys

apmasion | treated. If the tube is initially in the proper condition, enough argon to show the spectrum strongly can be separated in this way in a minute or two. Spectrum.—As a rule, the spectrum of argon does not intrude itself upon the spectroscopist. The reason for this is now seen to lie in the high excitation potential of the usual argon lines, which exceeds by several

FIG.

2.—APPARATUS

FOR

RAPID

volts that of the red nitrogen

bands. The result is that unless OF ARGON IN AIR the argon atoms are present in The electric discharge is passed several they times through successive doses of high relative concentration, rarefied air, between two pools of have little chance of being esodium-potassium alloy. The oxygen cited, for the available energy of and nitrogen are rapidly absorbed and the lines of the argon spectrum come an impinging electron is almost out strongly certain to be taken up in exciting a nitrogen molecule before it has reached the value necessary fot DEMONSTRATION

OF THE

PRESENCE

excitation of the visible argon lines. The case contrasts with that

of the yellow sodium lines, which have a much lower excitation potential than, e.g., the gases in a fame, and are therefore excited to the exclusion of the latter.

The spectrum of argon, when isolated, is somewhat complicated,

and consists of numerous lines extending over the whole visual

intensity, and the intenitrogen combines with the magnesium, and thus the argon is spectrum. None of these is of outstanding rather pale red colour, a cf is discharge vacuum a in effect grated concentrated. of nitroPreparation, Modern Methods.—In some respects the easily distinguished by an accustomed eye from the red the argon of presence the recognizing For neon. or hydrogen gas gen, the method of one of the discoverers of argon for preparing

ARGONAUTA—ARGONAUTS

339

dinary temperature, a very rapid rotation of so small a fly-wheel the y be needed. But Bohr’s frequency condition, which has a will cuousl conspi conveniently made use of. Argon shows very the weight of varied evidence behind it, only allows a certain limited um, spectr spark a to rum spect arc an from abrupt change sed series of rotational energies at a given frequency; and, with the light changing from a red to a steely-blue colour when a conden due to rapid rotation indicated, even the lowest of the admissible enerbe to known now is rum spect blue The discharge is used. gies is considerably too large to meet the requirements; so that the 5,558-7, 5,495-9, is oup of green lines: 5,650-7, 5,607-8, 5,572-6,

ionized atom. I erties —Argon is soluble in water at 12° C. to about 4.0%, he

alternative of no rotational energy remains.

sity of argon, 16 scale. The volSir William Ramsay to be 19-941 on the O = le operume actually weighed was 163c.c. Subsequently large-sca principal the for used been had as s apparatu same the ations with prepared

be confirmed from other lines of evidence.

This “explanation”

than nitrogen. The den- is, of course, incomplete in the same measure as all explanations that is, it is about 23 times more solublemagnesi um, was found by in terms of the quantum theory. prepared and purified by

argon gases gave an almost identical result (19-940) for

d proporwith oxygen. We should thus expect to find it in increase

has contion in the dissolved gases of rain-water. Experiment argon and armed this anticipation. The weight of. a mixture of nitrogen prepared from the dissolved gases showed an excess of aamg. over the weight of true nitrogen, the corresponding excess d, for the atmospheric mixture being only rrmg. Argon is containe special in not but springs, thermal in the gases liberated by many quantity. The gas collected from the King’s Spring at Bath gave

The conclusion then holds that argon is monatomic.

This can

Thus, the wave-length

of the K-absorption edge in the X-ray spectrum of argon fixes the atomic number as 18, since it falls between chlorine (17) and potassium (19). The atomic weight must, therefore, be about double 18, and this leaves us no doubt that 40 must be taken, which is equal to the molecular weight, rather than 20, which would be half

the molecular weight. Thus the atom and the molecule are identical. If we consider the periodic law (g.v.), and take the known X-ray spectra of the allied gases krypton and xenon into account, no room for doubt remains, and it is not necessary to enter on yet further evidence which might be cited. Importance of Argon.—The discovery of argon was the startof ity refractiv The n. proportio ric atmosphe the half 2.€., only $%, point of many of the recent developments of physics. It led ing to referred 1-21 is argon is 0-961 times that of air. The viscosity to the discovery of the other inert gases, helium (g.v.), directly air, somewhat higher than that of oxygen, which stands at the and xenon (see ATMOSPHERE), and thus filled up a krypton neon, argon of r behaviou The head of the list for the principal gases. our systematic knowledge of the fundamental in Jacuna large folat low temperatures was investigated by K. S. Olszewski. The Through the discovery of helium, it led to furmatter. of forms him:— by given table the from lowing results are extracted Argon has commercial importance discoveries. far-reaching ther | Freezing Boiling Critical Critical as constituting the atmosphere in “gas filled” incandescent lamps. point point press. temp. Name —214°C_ | Its chemical inertness makes it much preferable to nitrogen for —194°C 35-9atmos. | —146-0°C Nitrogen this purpose. —189-6° —187 506 Argon . . —I2I-0 Oxygen

.

.

—II80

50:8

—182-7

?

The smallness of the interval between the boiling points and freezing points is noteworthy. From the manner of preparation, it was clear from the first that argon would not combine with magnesium or calcium at a red heat, nor with oxygen, hydrogen or nitrogen under the influence of the electric discharge. Numerous other attempts to induce combination also failed; nor have observations on positive rays given evidence of even temporary association of argon atoms with one another, or with atoms of another element. The positive-ray investigations of F. W. Aston indicate that argon consists in the main of one isotope, A“, of exact atomic weight 39-971. A small quantity of A®, amounting perhaps to 1% of the whole, is present in addition. The most remarkable physical property of argon relates to the constant known as the ratio of specific heats. When a gas is warmed one degree, the heat which must be supplied depends upon whether the operation is conducted at a constant volume or at a constant pressure, being greater in the latter case. The ratio of specific heats of the principal gases is 1-4, which, according to the kinetic theory, is an indication that an important fraction of the

energy absorbed is devoted to rotation or vibration. If the whole

energy is translatory, the ratio of specific heats must be 1-67. This is precisely the number found from the velocity of sound in argon as determined by Kundt’s method, and it leaves no room for any sensible energy of rotatory or vibrational motion. The same value had previously been found for mercury vapour by Kundt and Warburg, and had been regarded as confirmatory of the monatomic

BrsriocrapHy.—The fullest account of the discovery of argon will be found in the Life of Lord Rayleigh, by his son, the present Lord Rayleigh (1924). For a full account of the present state of the subject and a complete bibliography, see Gmelin’s Handbuch der

Anorganischen Chemie (1926).

(R.; Ra.)

ARGONAUTA, the paper nautilus, common in the Mediterranean. The female secretes a white beautifully fluted shell from two of her arms and carries her eggs therein. (See CEPHALOPODA, NAUTILUS.) ARGONAUTS, in Greek legend, a band of heroes who went with Jason (q.v.) to fetch the golden fleece in the ship “Argo” (Gr. ’Apyovatrat, sailors of the “Argo”). This task had been imposed on Jason by his uncle Pelias (q.v.), who had usurped the

throne of Iolcus in Thessaly, which rightfully belonged to Jason’s father Aeson. The story of the fleece follows: Jason’s uncle Athamas had two children, Phrixus and Helle, by his wife Nephele, the cloud goddess. But after a time he became enamoured of Ino, the daughter of Cadmus, and neglected Nephele, who disappeared in anger. Ino, who hated the children of Nephele, persuaded Athamas, by means of a false oracle, to offer Phrixus as a sacrifice,

as the only means of alleviating a famine which she herself had caused by ordering the grain to be secretly roasted before it was sown. But before the sacrifice, the shade of Nephele appeared to Phrixus, bringing a ram with a golden fleece on which he and his sister Helle endeavoured to escape over the sea. Helle fell off and was drowned in the strait, which after her was called the Hellespont. Phrixus, however, reached the other side in safety, and

proceeding by Jand to Aea in Colchis on the farther shore of the

Euxine Sea, sacrificed the ram, and hung up its fleece in the grove of Ares, where it was guarded bya sleepless dragon. Jason, having undertaken the quest of the fleece, called upon determine the atomicity, but the discoverers regarded it as monthe noblest heroes of Greece to take part in the expedition. Acatomic on the grounds above stated. story, the crew consisted of the chief Atomicity of Argon.—It was difficult to give any reason on cording to the original race, the Minyae. But when the legend own Jason’s of the classical theory of atom mechanics why a single atom should members be devoid of rotational energy, so at that time the evidence for became common property, other and better-known heroes were of 50, the monatomicity of argon did not rest on a very secure founda- added to their number. The crew was supposed to consist tion. The view now taken is as follows:—A very small moment of agreeing in number with the 50 oars of the “Argo,” so called inertia results from the estimated minute dimehsions of the atomic from its builder Argos, or from Gr. dpyés (swift). It was the first nucleus, in which the atomic mass is chiefly concentrated. If the ship, or the first war-galley, ever built. Athena herself superinserted in the prow a piece of oak energy of rotation is to be made large enough to be sensible in intended its construction, and with the power of speaking endowed was which comparison with the known energy of translation at, ¢.g., the or- from Dodona,

character attributed on chemical grounds to the mercury molecule.

In the case of argon we have no chemical evidence to go upon to

334

ARGONNE—ARGOS

ARGONNE, a wooded plateau of north-east France, formi and delivering oracles. The Argonauts arrived at Lemnos, which was occupied only by women, who had put to death their fathers, a natural barrier between Lorraine and Champagne, gna includ husbands and brothers. Here they remained some months. It is ing portions of the departments of Ardennes, Meuse, and Mam i known from Herodotus (iv. 145) that the Minyae had formed The Argonne, S.S.E. to N.N.W., is 44m. long with an aver : settlements at Lemnos at a very early date. Proceeding up the breadth of rom. and an average height of 1,150ft. It condea (k Hellespont, they sailed to the country of the Doliones, by whose plateaus of the Haute Marne and the Ardennes. The valleys of king, Cyzicus, they were hospitably received. After their de- the Aire and other rivers traverse it longitudinally, a fact to Which parture, being driven back to the same place by storm, they were its importance as a bulwark of north-east France is largely due attacked by the Doliones, who did not recognize them, and in On the east the plateau forms a line of rocky bluffs overlooking a battle which took place Cyzicus was killed by Jason. After the plain of the Barre and the Aire gorge, but westwards it slopes Cyzicus had been duly mourned and buried, the Argonauts pro- gently towards the Aisne. The chief forest, the “Argonne.” ez. ceeded along the coast of Mysia, where occurred the incident of tends for 25m. See MEuUSE-ARGONNE OPERATIONS. ARGOS, the name of several ancient Greek cities or districts Hercules and Hylas (q.v.). On reaching the country of the Bebryces, they again landed to get water, and were challenged by Most important was the chief town in eastern Peloponnese, whence the king, Amycus, to match him with a boxer. Polydeuces accepted the peninsula of Argolis derives its name. The Argeia, or Argos the challenge, and beat him. At the entrance to the Euxine, at proper, is a shelving plain at the head of the Argive gulf, well Salmydessus, on the coast of Thrace, they met Phineus, the blind watered and fertile, with easy communications towards the Corin. and aged king whose food was being constantly polluted by the thian isthmus, and passes westward into Arcadia. Greek legends Harpies. He knew the course to Colchis, and offered to tell it, if indicate its high antiquity and its early intercourse with Egypt the Argonauts would free him from the Harpies. He was freed by Lycia and other countries. Though eclipsed in the Homeric age the winged sons of Boreas, and Phineus now told them their when it was the realm of Diomedes, by the later foundation of course, and how to pass through the Symplegades or Cyanean Mycenae, it regained its predominance after the invasion of the rocks—two cliffs which moved on their bases and crushed what- Dorians (q.v.), and was probably for some centuries the leading ever sought to pass. His advice was successfully followed, and the power in Peloponnesus. Under Pheidon Argos ruled all eastern “Argo” made the passage unscathed, except for trifling damage Peloponnesus (8th or 7th century B.c.). Argos was organized, like Sparta, in three Dorian tribes, with a to the stern. From that time the rocks became fixed and never closed again. After sundry minor adventures, they reached Col- class of Perioeci (neighbouring dependents), and one of serfs chis; but the king, Aeetes, would not give up the fleece until nevertheless the two cities were enemies from the 8th century. Jason should yoke his bulls, given him by Hephaestus, and which In spite of a victory at Hysiae (apparently in 669 B.c.) the Argives snorted fire and had hoofs of bronze, to a plough, and with them plough the field of Ares. That done, the field was to be sown with the dragon’s teeth, from which armed men were to spring. Helped by Aeetes’s daughter, the sorceress Medea, who had fallen in love with him, Jason accomplished these tasks and carried off the fleece. He then fled with Medea, Aeetes meanwhile pursuing them. To delay him and thus obtain escape, Medea dismembered her young brother Absyrtus, whom she had ‘taken with her, and cast his limbs about in the sea for his father to pick up. In another account Absyrtus had grown to manhood then, and met his death in an encounter with Jason, in pursuit of whom he had been sent. Of the homeward course various accounts are given. In the oldest (Pindar), the “Argo” sailed along the river Phasis into the eastern Oceanus, round Asia to the south coast of Libya, thence to the mythical lake Tritonis, after being carried 12 days overland through Libya and thence again to Iolcus. Hecataeus of Miletus (Schol. Appollon. Rhod. iv. 259) suggested that from the Oceanus it may have sailed into the Nile, and so to the Mediterranean. Others, like Sophocles, described the return voyage as differing from the outward course only in taking the northern instead of the southern shore of the Euxine. Some (pseudo-Orpheus) supposed that the Argonauts had sailed up the river Tanais, passed into another river, and by it reached the North Sea, returning to the Mediterranean by the Pillars of Hercules. Again, others (Appollonius Rhodius) laid down the course as up the Danube (Ister), from it into the Adriatic by a supposed mouth of that river, and on to Corcyra. Then follow wanderings, partly based on those of Odysseus (q.v.), partly on the older Argonautic routes. Finally, they reached Iolcus, and the “Argo” was placed in a grove sacred to Poseidon on the isthmus of Corinth. ; The story of the expedition of the Argonauts is very old. Homer was acquainted with it and speaks of the “Argo” as well known to all men; the wanderings of Odysseus may have been partly founded on its voyage. Pindar, in the fourth Pythian ode, gives the oldest detailed account of it. In ancient times, the expedition was regarded as a historical fact, an incident in the opening up of the Euxine to Greek commerce and colonization, and so it probably is, but with a great accretion of fabulous details of many kinds. See Miss J. R. Bacon, The Voyage of the Argonauts 1925), for further discussion and bibliography.

(London,

were forced back. By 550 B.c. they had lost the whole coast strip of Cynuria and were so weakened in about 495, through defeat by Cleomenes I., that they had to open the franchise to their Perioeci.

Argos (c. 470 B.C.) with the Arcadians fought Sparta again, but only destroyed their revolted dependencies of Mycenae and Tiryns

in 468 or 464; they became allies of Athens in 461, renewing a link made by Peisistratus, but they had to make a truce with Sparta in 451. During the early years of the Peloponnesian War Argos remained neutral; after the peace of Nicias (421) the alliance of this State, with its unimpaired resources and flourishing commerce, was courted on all sides. By throwing in her lot with the Peloponnesian democracies and Athens, Argos seriously endangered Sparta’s supremacy, but the defeat of Mantineia (418) and a successful rising of the Argive oligarchs spoilt this chance. Though speedily restored the democracy gave Athens no further help except occasional mercenaries (see PELOPONNESIAN Wak).

In the early ath century, Argos, in population and resources equalling Athens, was prominent in the Corinthian League against Sparta. Argives helped to garrison Corinth (394), and seem to have annexed it for a while. But the peace of Antalcidas (g.v.) barred Argive pretensions to control all Argolis. After the battle

of Leuctra the oligarchs attempted a revalution but were put

down vindictively (370). The democracy consistently supported the victorious Thebans against Sparta, and sent a large contingent

to the decisive field of Mantineia (362). When 'pressed in tum by their old foes, the Argives were among the first to call in Philip of Macedon, who reinstated them in Cynuria after becoming master of Greece. In the Lamian War Argos sided with the patriots against Macedonia; after its capture by Cassander from Polysperchon (317) it fell in 303 into the hands of Demetrius Poliorcetes. In 272 the Argives joined Sparta in resisting Pyrrhus of Epirus, who was killed in an unsuccessful night attack upon the city. They passed instead into the power of Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia. Aratus (g.v.) contrived to win Argos for the

Achaean League (229), in which it remained save during a brief occupation by the Spartans Cleomenes III. (g.v.) and Nabis (224 and 196). The Roman conquest helped Argos by removing the trade competition of Corinth.

Under the Empire, Argos was the head-

quarters of the Achaean synod and a resort of merchants, Though

plundered by the Goths in A.D. 267 and 395 it retained some of its commerce and culture in Byzantine days. The town was cap

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HERAEUM”

OF THE OLDEST SACRED SITES IN GREEK LANDS PLAN OF THE HERAEUM AT ARGOS, THE SANCTUARY OF THE GODDESS HERA, AND ONE vases, bronzes, engraved stones, etc., point to organized worship on Below the floor level of the older temple (1) deposits of early figurines, (V) illustrates Grecian architecture of the 5th century B.C., and this site many generations before Mycenae was built. The later temple

contained some of the works of the sculptor Polycleitus

tured by the Franks in 1210; after 1246 it was held in fief by the rulers of Athens. In 1397 and 1500 the Turks massacred the population at Argos in conflicts with the Venetians. Repeopled with Albanians, Argos was chosen as seat of the Greek national assembly in the wars of independence, was courageously defended by the patriots (1822), and was burnt to the ground by Tbrahim Pasha (1825). The present town of 10,000 inhabitants is purely agricultural. The Argive plain, though not yet sufficiently reclaimed, yields good crops of corn, rice and tobacco. The early Argives were known for their musical talent. Their school of bronze sculpture, whose first famous exponent was Ageladas (Hagelaidas), the reputed master of Pheidias, reached its climax towards the end of the sth century in Polyclitus (g.v.) and his pupils, To this period also belongs the new Heraeum (see below), one of the most splendid temples of Greece. The Argive Heraeum.—This temple was the most important centre of Hera worship in the ancient world; it always remained the chief sanctuary of the Argive district, and was one of the earliest sites in the country. It lies on the foothills east of the Argive plain, about sm. from Argos, 3m. from Mycenae and Miden, and 6m. from Tiryns, and was maintained jointly by Argos and Mycenae till the destruction of the latter in 468. According to tradition the Heraeum was founded by Phoroneus at least thir-

teen generations before Agamemnon, ż.e., about 1750 B.C. This is in general agreement with the archaeological evidence for the earliest Minoan exploitation of the district. That the site was occu-

pied at least as early as this is shown by rude walls and pottery of successive styles, beneath the later sanctuary; and close at hand there isa fine “‘bee-hive” tomb like those of Mycenae (g.v.). In the period of invaders in the rth century, in spite of the new

culture which was introduced by the Dorians the Heraeum main-

tained its importance; it was here that the succession of priestesses

served as a chronological standard for the Argive people, and even farbeyond their borders; and it was here that Pheidon deposited

the discarded ingot-currency, d8eAloxKo., when he introduced coinage into Greece. When the old temple was burnt down in the year

423 B.c., through the negligence of the priestess Chryseis, the Argives erected a splendid new temple, built by Eupolemos, in which was placed the great gold and ivory statue of Hera, by the

sculptor Polyclitus, contemporary and rival of Pheidias, which was one of the most perfect works of sculpture in antiquity. Pausanias describes the temple and its contents (ii. 17), and also saw the ruins of the older burnt temple. In 1854 A. R. Rhangabé made tentative excavations on this site, and it was completely explored by the American Archaeological Institute and School of Athens in 1892—95, showing that the sanctuary, instead of consisting of but one temple with the ruins of the older one above it, contained at least 11 separate buildings, occupying an area of about 975 by 325 feet. In the centre of the second terrace stands the substructure of the great second temple together with so much of the architectural members that it has been possible to design a complete restoration. On the north side of this terrace, between the second temple and the Cyclopean supporting wall, a long colonnade running from east to west ends in a well-house and waterworks. At the east end chambers were erected against the hill, in front of which were placed statues and inscriptions, and a large hall containing three rows of columns, with a porch and entrance facing the temple. Below the second terrace a large complicated building, earlier than the second temple, may have served as gymnasium or sanatorium. A ruder building north of this is probably much earlier. At the foot of the elevation on which this temple stands, and thus facing the city of Argos, a splendid stoa or colonnade, to which large flights of steps lead, was erected about the time of the building of the second temple, to give worthy access from the city of Argos. At the west extremity of the whole site lies a huge stoa running round two sides of a square and an extensive house of Roman times. The masses of votive offerings and other small objects illustrate a continuous succession of styles from the Middle Minoan to Roman; and are of exceptional interest for the period of transition from Minoan to Hellenic. Commonest dedications were small clay figures of the goddess, and bronze dress-pins prov-

ARGOSTOLI—ARGYLL

336

ARGUS, in Greek mythology, the son of Inachus, Agenor or ing the popularity of the cult among the women, always the special Arestor, or, according to others, an earthborn hero (autochthan j care of this goddess. The excavations in the second temple revealed the outlines of From the number of eyes in his head or all over his body, he the base upon which the great statue of Hera stood, but no trace was called Panoptes (all-seeing). He was appointed by Hera to of the statue itself. From Pausanias we learn that “the image of watch the cow into which Io (g.v.) had been transformed, but Hera is seated and is of colossal size.” Like the Olympian Zeus of was slain by Hermes, who stoned him to death, or put him to sleep Pheidias, Hera was seated on a decorated throne, holding in her by playing on the flute and then cut off his head. His eyes were left hand a sceptre, surmounted by a cuckoo (as that of Zeus had transferred by Hera to the tail of the peacock. Argus with his an eagle), and in her right, instead of a figure of Victory (such as countless eyes originally denoted the starry heavens. (Aeschylus l the Athena Parthenos and the Olympian Zeus held), simply a Prometheus Vinctus 569, Ovid, Metam. i. 264.) Another Arcus, the old dog of Odysseus, who recognized his pomegranate. The crown was adorned with figures of graces and the seasons. From the dimensions of the temple it is computed master on his return to Ithaca, figures in one of the best-known that the total height including the base would be about 26ft., the incidents in Homer’s Odyssey (xvii. 291-326). ARGYLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The rise of this seated figure about 18ft. The temple was decorated with ““sculptures over the columns, representing some the birth of Zeus and family of Scottish peers, originally the Campbells of Lochow the battle of the gods and giants, others the Trojan War and the and first ennobled as Barons Campbell, is referred to in the taking of Ilium.” Besides numerous fragments a very beautiful article ARGYLLSHIRE. ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL, sth earl of Argyll (1530—73), was the head, probably Hera, and a draped female torso belonging to the pediments, have been discovered. Of the metopes two are almost elder son of Archibald, 4th earl of Argyll (d. 1558), and a complete, and among many fragments ten heads are well pre- grandson of Colin, the 3rd earl (d. 1530). His great-grandfather was the 2nd earl, Archibald, who was killed at Flodden in 1513 served.

and whose father was Colin, Lord Campbell (d. 1493), founder BrsriocRAPHY.—Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Plutarch, Pyrrof the greatness of the Campbell family, created earl of Argyll hus, 30-34; Strabo, pp. 373-374; Pausanias, ii. 15-24; W. M. Leake, in 1457. With Lord James Stuart, afterwards the regent Murray, Travels in the Morea, ii. ch. 19-22 (1835); E. Curtius, Peloponnesos, ii. 350-364 (Gotha, 1851); H. F. Tozer, Geography of Greece, pp. the sth earl of Argyll became an adherent of John Knox about 292—294 (1873); J. K. Kophiniotis, “Ioropia rod “Apyyous (1892—1893) ; 1556. As one of the “lords of the congregation” he was one of W. Vollgraff, in Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique (1904, pp.

364-399; 1906, DP. I-45; 1907, Pp. 139-184).

i

See also C. Waldstein, The Argive Heraeum (vol. i. Boston and New York, 1902); vol. ii. the Vases by J. C. Hoppin, the Bronzes by H. F. de Cosa, 1905); Excavations of the American School of Athens at the Heraion of Argos (1892), and numerous reports and articles in the American Archaeological Journal since 1892. M. C.; C. Wa.; J. L. Mz.)

ARGOSTOLI, the capital of Cephalonia, one of the Ionian

islands, and seat of a bishop of the Greek Church. Pop. 11,500. It possesses an excellent harbour, a quay a mile in length, and a fine bridge. Shipbuilding and silk-spinning are carried on. West of the harbour there is a curious stream, flowing from the sea, and employed to drive mills before losing itself in caverns inland. The

James Stuart’s principal lieutenants during the warfare between the reformers and the regent, Mary of Lorraine;

later he was

separated from Knox’s party by his friendship with Mary, Queen of Scots. Though he disapproved of her marriage with Darnley

he took her part after Elizabeth’s refusal to help Murray in 1565. Argyll was probably an accomplice in the murder of Rizzio; he was certainly a consenting party to that of Darnley; then separat-

ing from Murray he commanded Mary’s soldiers after her escape from Lochleven. Soon afterwards he made his peace with Murray, but it is possible that he was accessory to the regent’s murder

(Lat.

in 1570. In 1572 Argyll became lord high chancellor of Scotland, and he died Sept. 12 1573. His first wife was an illegitimate daughter of James V., and he was thus half-brother-in-law to Mary and to Murray. ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL, 1st marquis and 8th earl of Argyl (1607—61), eldest son of Archibald, yth earl, by his first wife, Lady Anne Douglas, daughter of William, rst earl of Morton, was born in 1607 (the date of 1598, previously accepted, is shown by Willcock to be incorrect), and educated at St. Andrews University. When his father renounced Protestantism in 1619 he took over the management of the estates. According to Baillie, “by far the most powerful subject in the kingdom,” he had been made a privy councillor in 1628, and in 1638 Charles I. summoned him to London; but he refused to be won over and openly warned Charles against his despotic ecclesiastical policy. In consequence a secret commission was given to the earl of Antrim to invade Argyllshire and stir up the Macdonalds against the Campbells, a wild and foolish project which completely miscarried. Argyll, who inherited the title by the death of his father in 1638, now definitely took the side of the Covenanters in defence of the national religion and liberties. In 1639, in a statement to Laud, he defended the abolition of episcopacy by the Assembly, which continued to sit after its dissolution by Hamilton. After the pacification of Berwick he carried a motion, m opposition to Montrose, by which the estates secured to them-

arguere, to make clear, from a root meaning bright, appearing in Greek dpy7s, white). From its primary sense are derived such applications of the word as a chain of reasoning, a fact or reason given to support a proposition, a discussion of the evidence or reasons for or against some theory. “Argument” means a synopsis of the contents of a book, the outline of a novel, play, etc. In logic it is used for the middle term in a syllogism, and for many species of fallacies (see FaLLacy). In mathematics (g.v.) the term has received special meanings; in mathematical tables the “argument” is the quantity upon which the other quantities in the table are made to depend. The term is also used in astronomy (g.v.).

been nominated by the king, and on the prorogation of the Parliament by Charles, in May 1640, Argyll moved that it should continue its sittings and that the Government and safety of the Kingdom should be secured by a committee of the estates. In June he carried out a commission against the royalists in Atholl and Angus with some cruelty. It was on this occasion that took place the burning of “the bonnie house of Airlie.” n By this time the personal rivalry and difference in opimon between Montrose and Argyll had led to an open breach. The former arranged that on the occasion of Charles’s approaching

fine ancient fortifications of Cranii are nearby.

See C. Fellows, Journal of an Excursion in Asia Minor in 1838, and Wiebel Die Insel Kephalonia und die Meermühlen von Argostoli (Hamburg, 1873); see also IONIAN ISLANDS.

ARGOSY,

the term originally for a carrack or merchant

ship from Ragusa and other Adriatic ports, now used poetically of any vessel carrying rich merchandise. In English writings of the 16th century the seaport named is variously spelt Ragusa, Aragouse or Aragosa, and ships coming thence were named Ragusyes, Arguzes and Argosies; the last form surviving and passing into literature. The incorrect derivation from Jason’s

ship, the “Argo,” is of modern origin. ARGUIN, an island (identified by some writers with Hanno’s Cerne), off the west coast of Africa, immediately south-east of Cape Blanco, in 20° 25’ N., 16° 37” W. It is some 4m. long by 24 broad, produces gum-arabic, and is the seat of a lucrative turtle-fishery. Off the island, which was discovered by the Portuguese in the rsth century, are extensive and dangerous reefs. Arguin was occupied in turn by Portuguese, Dutch, English and finally French. Aridity and bad anchorage prevent permanent settlement; the fishing is mostly done from the Canary Isles.

ARGUMENT,

a word meaning “proof,” “evidence.”

selves the election of the lords of the articles, who had formerly

ARGYLL

337

isit to Scotland, Argyll should be accused of high treason in the Son (1661; reprinted in 1689 and 1743). Some of his speeches, ;

plot, however, was The pe,

disclosed, and Montrose :

Parliament. with others was imprisoned. When the king arrived he was conforced to make a series of concessions. He transferred the trol over judicial and political appointments to the Parliament, created Argyll a marquis (1641) with a pension of £1,000 a year.

Argyll was mainly instrumental at this crisis in keeping the

national party faithful to what was to him evidently the common

cause, and in accomplishing the alliance with the Long Parliament in 1643. In Jan. 1644 he accompanied the Scottish army into England as a member of the committee of both kingdoms and in command of a troop of horse, but was compelled to return in

including the one delivered on the scaffold, were published and are printed in the Harleian Miscellany. He married Lady Margaret Douglas, daughter of William, 2nd earl of Morton, and had two sons and four daughters. See also the Life and Times of Archibald, Marquis of Argyll (1903), by John Willcock, who prints for the first time the six incriminating letters to Monk; Eng. Hist. Review, xviii. 369 and 624; Scottish History Society, vol. xvii. (1894); Charles II. and Scotland in 1650, ed. by S. R. Gardiner, and vol. xviii. (1895); History of Scotland, by A. Lang, vol. iti. (1904). l

ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL, oth earl of Argyll (1629-85), eldest son of the 8th earl, studied abroad, and returned to Scotland with March to suppress royalist movements in the north and to defend Prince Charles in 1650. The marquis of Lorne (by which title nis own territories. He compelled Huntly to retreat in April, he was known until his accession to the earldom) fought at and in July advanced to meet the Irish troops now landed in Dunbar (Sept. 3 1650), and after the battle of Worcester joined Argyllshire and acting in conjunction with Montrose, who was at Glencairn in the Highlands. Lorne fell under the displeasure of the head of the royalist forces in Scotland. An indecisive cam- both parties. He was imprisoned in 1657 for refusing to renounce aign followed in the north. Argyll then threw up his commission, allegiance to the Stuarts, and he was imprisoned (1663) after and retired to Inveraray Castle. Thither Montrose unexpectedly the Restoration for incautious attacks on the Government of followed him in December, compelled him to fiee to Roseneath Charles II. His staunch Protestantism, his opposition to the and devastated his territories. On Feb. 2 1645, when following repressive measures against the Covenanters and his great terriMontrose northwards, Argyll was surprised and defeated by him torial influence made him obnoxious to James, duke of York, at Inverlochy, and was present at Montrose’s further great when he came to Scotland as high commissioner. He was acvictory on Aug. 15 at Kilsyth. He was at last delivered from his cused of treason, without any real evidence, in 1681, and formidable antagonist by Montrose’s final defeat at Philiphaugh sentenced to death. He escaped to Holland where he joined the on Sept. 13. In 1646 he was sent to negotiate with the king at conspiracy to set the duke of Monmouth on the throne. He then Newcastle after his surrender to the Scottish army, when he led an unsuccessful invasion of Scotland (1685), was taken endeavoured to moderate the demands of the Parliament. On prisoner at Inchinnan (June 18) and beheaded (June 29) by July 7 1646, he was appointed a member of the Assembly of order of James II. on the old charge of 1681. His head was exposed on the west side of the Tolbooth, where his father’s Divines. Up to this point the statesmanship of Argyll had been highly and Montrose’s had also been exhibited. See Argyll Papers (1834); Letters from Archibald, 9th Earl of successful. The national liberties and religion of Scotland had to the Duke of Lauderdale (1829); Hist. MSS. Comm., vi. been defended and still further secured by the alliance with the Argyle, Rep. 606; Life of Mr. Donald Cargile, by P. Walker, pp. 45 et seq.; English opposition, and by the triumph of the Parliament and The 3rd Part of the Protestant Plot ... and a Brief Account of the Presbyterianism in England. Charles himself was a prisoner. Case of the Earl of Argyle (1682); Sir George Mackenzie’s Hist. of ene p. 70; and J. Willcock, A Scots Earl in Covenanting Times But Argyll’s influence could not survive the rupture of the alliI907)ance between the two nations on which his whole policy was ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL, 1st duke of Argyll (?1651-1703), was constructed. He opposed in vain the secret treaty now concluded between the King and the Scots against the Parliament, and the eldest son of the oth earl. He tried to obtain the reversal of while Hamilton was defeated by Cromwell at Preston, Argyll his father’s attainder by seeking the king’s favour, but being joined the Whiggamores, a body of Covenanters at Edinburgh; unsuccessful he went over to The Hague and joined William of and established a new Government, which welcomed Cromwell Orange. In spite of the attainder, he was admitted in 1689 to the on Oct. 4. This alliance, however, was at once destroyed by the convention of the Scottish estates, and in 1690 an act was passed execution of Charles I., which excited universal horror in Scot- restoring his title and estates. The refusal of the Macdonalds land. In the series of tangled incidents which followed, Argyll of Glencoe to join in the submission to him led him to organize lost control of the national policy. He supported the invitation the terrible massacre which has made his name notorious. His from the Covenanters to Prince Charles to land in Scotland. political services were rewarded in 1701 by his being created When Charles came to Scotland, having signed the Covenant and duke of Argyll. Jonn CAMPBELL, 2nd duke of Argyll and duke of Greenwich repudiated Montrose, Argyll remained at the head of the ad(1678-1743), son of the preceding, was born Oct. 10 1678. In ministration. After the defeat of Dunbar, Charles retained his support by the return for his services in promoting the Union, he was created promise of a dukedom and the Garter, and Argyll attempted to (1705) a peer of England, with the titles of baron of Chatham marry the King to his daughter. On Jan. xı 1651, he placed the and earl of Greenwich. He served at the battle of Oudenarde crown on Charles’s head at Scone. But his power had now passed (1708) and at the sieges of Lille, Ghent, Bruges and Tournay, to the Hamilton party. He strongly opposed, but was unable to doing remarkable service at the battle of Malplaquet in 1709. prevent, the expedition into England, and in the subsequent re- He was very popular with the troops, and his rivalry with Marlduction of Scotland, after having held out in Inveraray Castle borough on this account may have been the cause of their later for nearly a year, was at last surprised in Aug. 1652, and sub- enmity. In 1712 he was sent to take command in Spain; but mitted to the Commonwealth. His ruin was then complete. His being seized with a violent fever at Barcelona, and disappointed policy had failed, his power had vanished, and he was hopelessly of supplies from home, he returned to England. In the House m debt. In Richard Cromwell’s Parliament of 1659 Argyll sat of Lords he censured the measures of the ministry with such as member for Aberdeenshire. At the Restoration he presented freedom that all his places were disposed of to other noblemen; himself at Whitehall, but was at once arrested by order of but at the accession of George I. he recovered his influence. In Charles and placed in the Tower (1660), being sent to Edinburgh the rebellion of 1715 he was appointed commander-in-chief of tostand his trial for high treason. He was acquitted of complicity the forces in north Britain, and effected the total extinction of in the death of Charles I., and his escape from the whole charge the rebellion in Scotland without much bloodshed. He arrived seemed imminent, but the arrival of a packet of letters written in London early in March 1716, and at first stood high in the by Argyll to Monk showed conclusively his collaboration with favour of the King, but in a few months was stripped of his Cromwell’s government, particularly in the suppression of Glen- offices. He supported the bill for the impeachment of Bishop “ulm'sroyalist rising in 1652. He was immediately sentenced to Atterbury, and opposed the bill for punishing the city of Edindeath and was beheaded May 27 1661. burgh for the Porteous riot. In the beginning of the year 1719

While imprisoned in the Tower he wrote Instructions to a he was again admitted into favour, created Duke of Greenwich;

338

ARGYLL ROOMS—ARGYLLSHIRE

antiquities of Iona, patronage in the Church of Scotland, ang he held various offices in succession, and in 1735 was made a field many other subjects. The duke (to whose Scottish title Was marshal. He continued in the administration till after the acces- added a dukedom of the United Kingdom in 1892) died April » sion of George II., when, in April 1740, a violent speech against 1900. He was thrice married: first (1844) to a daughter of the the government led again to his dismissal from office. Restored 2nd duke of Sutherland (d. 1878); secondly (1881) to a daughter of measures the ving disappro but ministry, the of on a change of Bishop Claughton of St. Albans (d. 1894); and thirdly (1895) the new administration, he shortly resigned all his posts, and to Ina Erskine M’Neill. spent the rest of his life in retirement. He died Oct. 4 1743. A He was succeeded as gth duke by his eldest son JoHN Dovctas monument by Roubillac was erected to his memory in WestSUTHERLAND CAMPBELL (1845-1914), Whose marriage in 1891 minster Abbey. to H.R.H. Princess Louise, daughter of Queen Victoria, gaye ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL, 3rd duke of Argyll (1682-1 “61), him a special prominence in English public life. As marquis of for served He 1682. brother of the preceding, was born in June Lorne he was governor-general of Canada from 1878 to 1883. was he 1705 In ugh. Marlboro of Duke the under time a short Member of Parliament for South Manchester, in the Unionist appointed treasurer of Scotland, and in the following year was interest, 1895 to 1900; and he also became known asa writer one of the commissioners for treating of the Union. Having both in prose and verse. In 1907 he published his reminiscences been raised to the peerage of Scotland as earl of Islay, he was Pages from the Past. He died May 2 1914. chosen one of the 16 peers for Scotland in the first Parliament and council, privy See the Autobiography and Memoirs of the 8th duke, edited by his the to called was he 1711 In of Great Britain. ae (1906), which is full of interesting historical and personal commanded the Royal Army at the battle of Sheriffmuir in 1715. etail. He was appointed keeper of the privy seal in 1721, and was affairs Scottish of nt ARGYLL ROOMS, famous London entertainment resort manageme the afterwards entrusted with to an extent which caused him to be called “king of Scotland.” in the earlier part of the nineteenth century and one of the headIn 1733 he was made keeper of the great seal. Argyll was promi- quarters of the best public music in London for many years. They nently connected (with Duncan Forbes of Culloden) with the were situated near Ozford Circus in Argyll street (whence the movement for consolidating Scottish loyalty by the formation name), on a site now occupied by 246 Regent street. Here the of locally recruited Highland regiments. He collected one of the Philharmonic Society gave their first concerts, in the course of most valuable private libraries in Great Britain. He died sud- which Spohr, Moscheles, Liszt and Mendelssohn among others all made their first appearance in England. The premises were denly April 15 1761, without legitimate issue. The succession now passed to the descendants of the younger destroyed by fire in 1830 and though afterwards rebuilt never son of the oth earl, the Campbells of Mamore; the 4th duke died recovered their popularity. ARGYLLSHIRE, a county on the west coast of Scotland, in 1770, and was succeeded by his son Jony, the sth duke (17231806). He fought at Dettingen and Culloden. In the House of the second largest in the country, embracing a large tract on the Commons he represented Glasgow from 1744 to 1761, and mainland and a number of the Inner Hebrides including Col, Dover, till 1766, when he was created an English peer as Baron Tiree, Mull, Iona, Colonsay, Jura, Islay, Gigha, etc. The mainSundridge, the title by which till 1892 the dukes of Argyll sat in land portion is bounded on the north by Inverness-shire; on the the House of Lords. In 1759 he had married the widowed duchess east by Perth and Dumbarton, Loch Long and the Firth of Clyde; of Hamilton (the beautiful Elizabeth Gunning), by whom he had on the south by the North Channel (Irish sea); and on the west two sons and two daughters. The eldest of his sons, George (d. by the Atlantic. Area 1,990,472 acres (land) and 35,311 acres 1841), became 6th duke, and on his death was succeeded as (water), total 3,165 square miles. It is for the most part “th duke by his brother John (1777-1847), who from 1799-1822 mountainous and deeply indented by sea-lochs and fringed with sat in Parliament as member for Argyllshire. He was thrice islands; it has torrential rivers and many inland lochs and much married, and by his second wife, Joan Glassell (d. 1828), had of the finest scenery of western Scotland. In the north a penintwo sons, the elder of whom (b. 1821) died in 1837, and two sular portion of the mainland is defined by lochs Sheil, Eil and Linnhe. This portion is divided by Loch Sunart between the disdaughters, the second of whom died in infancy. the tricts of Ardnamurchan and Morven, with Ardgour to the north(1823-1900), duke 8th GEORGE Jonn DoucLAs CAMPBELL, island of second son of the 7th duke, was born April 30 1823, and suc- east, and is separated by the Sound of Mull from the The feet. 3,185 of height a reaches More some Ben written which in already Mull, had He 1847. April in ceeded his father the of series metamorphic the to principally belong and rocks Scotland, mainland pamphlets against the disruption of the Church of contain he rapidly became prominent on the Liberal side in Parliamentary Scottish Highlands; late and sedimentary rocks, such as but among intrupolitics. He was an eloquent speaker in the House of Lords, and exposures of Jurassic age, cover only small areas, which apsat as lord privy seal (1852) and postmaster-general (1855) in sive rocks there should be noticed the Tertiary gabbro of the extension western-most (the Point Mr. In Ardnamurchan in Palmerston. pears Lord and Aberdeen the cabinets of Lord the beyond north farther islands in and Scotland), Gladstone’s cabinet of 1868 he was secretary of state for India. mainland of basalts, interbedded of mainly consists Mull to boundary. Government, county Indian the of advice the against refusal, His older gneissic rocks promise the Amir of Afghanistan support against Russian ag- and the outlying islands, Coll and Tiree, of islands lie west of gression, threw the Amir into the arms of Russia and was fol- characteristic of the Hebrides. Many small historic and scenic of (qg.v.) Staffa and Iona them among marquis the Mull; son, his 1871 In War. lowed by the second Afghan land, and to Glen the into far access gives of Lorne, married Princess Louise, the 4th daughter of Queen fame. Loch Linnhe across the Highlands to strikes which Glen, Great of the legislation More, land Irish the to assent to inability His Victoria. part of Argyllshire 1881 led him to resign the office of lord privy seal which he held Moray Firth on the east coast. The mainland districts by the under Gladstone’s administration of 1880. Detached from party east of Loch Linnhe may be demarcated into south from the and south-west west, radiating valleys questions greater on Times The to politics the duke wrote many letters of mowgroups and ranges by separated and which included the rights of landowners; but he opposed the Home western Grampians, Loch Leven contain Argyllshire of part this in valleys The disagreepolitical tains. this of spite In vigour. equal Rule Bill with Loch Long, ment his personal relations with Gladstone, based on common (an arm of Loch Linnhe), Loch Etive, Loch Fyne and loch in the county). intellectual interests, remained unchanged. His chief preoccu- sea-lochs, and Loch Awe (the largest inland through a narrow channel pation was the reconciliation of the dogma of Christianity with Loch Etive connects with Loch Linnhe Connel, more properly of Falls the which the progress of scientific discovery. His books—he published at Connel Ferry, near tide over a rocky ebbing the of rush the by carried are of Unity rapids, The (1869), Man Primeval The Reign of Law (1866), bar. Ossian called them the Falls of Lora. Nature (1884), The Unseen Foundations of Society (1893), and Some district-names in this part of the county are well know! other essays—found a wide public, and had a considerable inhistory and literature. Appin borders Loch Linnhe in the north; Eastern in fluence on Victorian thought. He also wrote on the and Loch Etive. Lome question, with especial reference to India, the history and Benderloch lies between Loch Creran

ARGYLLSHIRE southward from Loch Etive, gives the title of marquess to the Campbells. Argyll, the district from which the shire takes name, is between lochs Awe and Fyne; it contains Inveraray castle and gives the titles of earl and duke to the Campbells. Cowall is beween Loch Fyne and the Firth of Forth; Knapdale between Loch

Fyne and the Sound of Jura. Southward from the last district extends the peninsula of Kintyre, almost isolated by West Loch Tarbert, and at its southern point, the Mull of Kintyre, reaching

339

In 1222 Argyll was reduced by Alexander II., the Scottish king, to a sheriffdom, and was henceforth regarded as an integral part

of Scotland. The Campbells of Loch Awe, a branch of the clan McArthur, now began to come to the fore, though the MacDougals owned most of the mainland. The house of Somerled were now feudatories of the king of Norway for the isles and of the king of Scotland for Argyll and they often kept a masterly

neutrality. During the expedition of Alexander II. to the Western Isles in 1249, Ewan (Eoghan), lord of Argyll, refused to fight against the Norwegians; in 1263 the same Ewan refused to join Haakon of Norway in attacking Alexander III. Forty years later the clansmen of Argyll, mainly MacDougals, were warring on the side of Edward of England against Robert Bruce, by whom they were defeated on Loch Awe in 1309. The clansmen of the house of Somerled in the isles, on the other hand, the MacDonalds, remained loyal to Scotland in spite of the persuasions of John of Argyll, appointed admiral of Edward II.’s western fleet; and, under their chief Angus Og, they contributed much to the victory

of Bannockburn. AAN

ae SENT

me

A

aa

ed

SBD ORTTACEit bdo Fe:

THE CHURCH AT IONA, ARGYLLSHIRE, A REMINDER OF THE TIME WHEN qHIs ISLAND WAS THE CENTRE OF CELTIC CHRISTIANITY. MANY MONASric RUINS ARE STILL EXTANT AND THE CHURCHYARD ON THE RIGHT HAS BEEN CALLED ‘‘THE BURIAL-PLACE OF KINGS” within 13m. of the Irish coast, across the North Channel. The

county includes the islands of Jura, Islay, Colonsay and others, westward of Knapdale and Kintyre. The mountains of the mainland culminate in Ben Cruachan

(3,689ft.), close above Loch Etive, where the upper part of that inlet penetrates deeply into an extensive mass of intrusive granite. Some of the very fine glens are famous in history, e.g. Glen

Croe, Glen Etive, Glendaruel, Glen Lochy (“the wearisome glen” —some rom. of bare hills and boulders—between Tyndrum and

Dalmally), Glen Strae, Hell’s Glen (off Loch Goil) and Glencoe, the scene of the massacre in 1692. The two principal rivers are the Orchy and the Awe. The Orchy flows from Loch Tulla through Glen Orchy, and falls into the north-eastern end of Loch Awe; and the Awe drains the loch at its north-west. The metamorphic rocks already mentioned are associated with hands of epidiorite which have shared in the folding (north-east and south-west) and metamorphism of the region. Lower Old Red Sandstone, chiefly lavas and tuffs, rests unconformably upon the metamorphic series over a wide area in Lorne, in the high mountains on both sides of Glencoe, and elsewhere. Similarly the upper Old Red Sandstone forms isolated patches resting unconformably on all older rocks, on the west coast of Kintyre, etc. But the metamorphic series predominates generally in the county and nearly all its subdivisions (see SCOTLAND, Geology) are represented, A striking geological feature of the county is the number of dolerite and basalt dykes trending in a north-west direction and referred to the Tertiary period. Another group of dolerite dykes running east and west near Dunoon and elsewhere are cut by the former and are probably older. Histoty.—The early history of Argyll (Airer gaidheal) is obscure. At the close of the sth century Fergus, son of Erc, a descendant of Conor II., airdrigh or high king of Ireland, came over with a band of Irish Scots and established himself in Argyll

and Kintyre. Nothing more is known till, in the days of Conall

I, the descendant of Fergus in the fourth generation, St. Columba appears. Conall died in 574, and Columba was mainly instru-

mental in establishing his first cousin, Aidan, founder of the Dalnad kingdom and ancestor of the royal house of Scotland, in power. In the 8th century the islands of Scotland and Man

fellto the Norsemen who also fought and at times ruled on the mainland of Argyll until, in the r2th century, Somerled (or Somhairlie), a descendant of Colla-Uais, airdrigh of Ireland

(327-

331), established his authority as thane of Argyll and in Kintyre

and the Western Islands. Somerled died in 1164 and his descendants maintained some measure of rule in Argyll and the islands,

tween the conflicting claims of the kings of Scotland, Norway and Man, until the end of the rsth century.

The alliance of John, earl of Ross and lord of

the Isles, with Edward IV. of England in 1461 led to the breaking of the power of the house of Somerled, and in 1478 John was forced to resign Ross to the crown and, two years later, his lordships of Knapdale and Kintyre: as well. In Argyll itself Colin, grandson of Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochow, first Lord Camp-

bell, had married Isabel Stewart, eldest of the three co-heiresses of John, third lord of Lorne. He bought the greater part of the lands of the other sisters and got the lordship of Lorne from Walter their uncle, the heir in tail male, in exchange for lands in Perthshire. In 1457 he was created, by James II., earl of Argyll. He died on May ro, 1493. From him dates the greatness of the house of the earls and dukes of Argyll (g.v.), whose history belongs to that of Scotland. The house of Somerled survives in two main branches—that of Macdonald of the Isles, Alexander Macdonald (d. 1795) having been raised to the peerage in 1776, and that of the Macdonnells, earls of Antrim in Ireland. The principal clans in Argyll, besides those already mentioned, were the Macleans, the Stewarts of Appin, the Macquarries and the Macdonalds of Glencoe, and the Macfarlanes of Glencoe. The Campbells are still very numerous in the county. Argyllshire men have made few contributions to English literature. For long the natives spoke Gaelic only and their bards sang in Gaelic (see CELTIC LITERATURE, Scottish). Near Inistrynich on the north-east shore of Loch Awe stands the cairn in honour of Duncan Ban McIntyre (1724-1812), the most popular of modern Gaelic bards. But the beauty of the country has made it a favourite setting for the themes of many poets and story-tellers, from Ossian and Sir Walter Scott to Robert Louis Stevenson. The antiquities comprise monoliths, circles of standing stones, crannogs and cairns. In almost all the burying-grounds—as at Campbeltown, Keil, Soroby, Kilchousland, Kilmun—there are examples of sculptured crosses and slabs. Besides the famous eccle'siastical remains at Iona (g.v.), there are ruins of a Cistercian priory in Oronsay, and of an abbey founded in the 12th century by Somerled, thane of Argyll, at Saddell. Among castles may be mentioned Dunstaffnage, Ardtornish, Skipness, Kilchurn (beloved of painters), Ardchonnel, Dunolly, Stalker, Dunderaw and Carrick. Population and Government.—Owing to emigration, chiefly to Canada, the population declined, almost without a break, from 1831, when it was 100,973, to 70,902 in rg1z. In 1921 it was 76,862, perhaps because taken in the tourist season. In 1931 it was 63,014. In that year the number of Gaelic-speaking persons was 20,913 (a decrease of nearly 4,000 since 1921), of whom 335 spoke Gaelic only. The chief.towns are Campbeltown, Dunoon, Oban, with Ardrishaig, Ballachulish, Lochgilphead and Tarbert as smaller centres. It is in such places as these, and especially in those developed as holiday resorts and residential outposts from Glasgow, that the recent increase of population is found. The county returns a member to parliament. Argyllshire is a sheriffdom, and there are resident sheriffs-substitute at Campbeltown, Fort William and Oban; courts are held also at Dunoon and Bowmore in Islay. Both Presbyterian bodies are strongly represented;

ARGYRASPIDS—ARIA

340

there are Roman Catholic and Anglican Episcopal bishops of Argyll and the Isles, and there is a Roman Catholic pro-cathedral at Oban. Agriculture.—Argyllshire was formerly partly covered with natural forests, and oak, ash, pine and birch are still visible in the mosses; but, owing to the clearance for sheep, and to past neglect of planting, the country is lacking in wood, except near Inveraray and a few other places. Nearly three-quarters of the county consists of mountain and moor, but many districts afford fine pasturage for sheep; and some of the valleys such as Glendaruel are fertile. The chief crops are oats and hay and there is a little barley. The crofting system exists, but is by no means universal: it is predominant in Tiree and the western district the of the mainland, but elsewhere farms of moderate size are rule. The cattle, though small, are good and are marketed in large numbers in the south. Dairy farming is carried on to some extent, especially in Kintyre, where there is a large proportion of arable land. In the higher tracts sheep have taken the place of cattle. The black-faced sheep is the species most generally reared by farmers in this county. Industries——Whisky is manufactured at Campbeltown, in Islay and at Oban. Gunpowder is made at Kames (Kyles of Bute) and Melfort. Coarse woollens are made for home use; but fishing is the most important industry and Loch Fyne is famous for its herrings, while fishing is carried on at one or other of the ports all the year round. Communications.—Owing to paucity of industries and to the greatly indented coast-line (no place more than 12m. from the sea) the railway mileage in the country is very small. The Tyndrum to Oban section of the L.M.S. railway company’s system is within the county limits; a small portion of the L.N.E. company’s line to Mallaig skirts the extreme west of the shire, and the L.M.S. line from Oban to Ballachulish serves the north coast of the mainland. A cantilever bridge crosses the Falls of Lora with a span of sooft., at a height of rasit. above the waterway. The chief means of communication is by steamers, between

ARGYROKASTRO

of Albania was established in 1913. At the close of the Balkan Wars (1912-13) the town was unsuccessfully claimed by Greece It has been identified both with the ancient Hadrianopolis and Antigonea. There is an important cheese industry; carpets and woollen materials are woven.

ARGYROPULUS

JOHN (14:6-

teaching in Padua in 1434, being subsequently made rector of the university. About 1441 he returned to Constantinople, but after its capture by the Turks, again took refuge in Italy. About 1456 he was invited to Florence by Cosimo de’ Medici, and was there appointed professor of Greek in the university. In 1471, on the outbreak of the plague, he removed to Rome, where he continued to act as a teacher of Greek till his death. Among his scholars

(1793-1801) gives a short circuit for Kintyre. Before the railways the shire contained many famous coaching routes, now used by motor traffic, and in some directions in process of extension. In few other areas is the position of the main roads so closely controlled by physical conditions as it is in Argyllshire. Here they follow the lochs and the coast but an important one goes through the highlands from the head of Glen Falloch in Perthshire past the heads of Glen Lochy and Glen Orchy, along the west of Rannoch Moor past the top of Glen Etive to Glencoe, through which it descends to Loch Leven.

“silver shields” a corps of Macedonian

shield-bearers (hypaspists) which, after the death of Alexander, and still more after the death of Antipater (319) played an important part, under their general Antigenes, in the division of the empire. They consisted of 3,000 veterans. They were the sole body of Macedonian troops which had kept together as a unit, and they were in charge of the huge royal treasure at Cyinda. Popular opinion regarded them as invincible; their adhesion to Eumenes for two years was the basis of his power. In 317, in his war with Antigonus, they were for long his chief support, but after a defeat at Gabiene, they mutinied and handed Eumenes over to Antigonus, who executed him and burnt Antigenes alive. Antigonus then broke up the corps and distributed it among the forces of various frontier satraps.

ARGYRODITE, a mineral which is of interest as being that

or ARGYROPULO,

1486), Greek humanist, a very active promoter of the revival of learning in the West, was born in Constantinople, and be. came a teacher there, Constantine Lascaris being his pupil. He was

Glasgow and various parts of the coast. The Crinan Canal (q.v.)

ARGYRASPIDS,

(Albanian Egir Castri), a town of

southern Albania. Pop. (1924) 14,000, of whom nearly 75%, are Muslims and the remainder Greek-speaking Orthodox Chris. tians. It was practically depopulated by the plague in 1814. } is situated 1,060 ft. above sea-level on the Aoroceraunian moun. tains and possesses the ruins of a big fort, formerly the head. quarters of the local Muslim aristocracy. Argyrokastro was captured by the Turks in 1420 and held by them till the independence

in which the element germanium was discovered. It is a silver sulpho-germanate, AgsGeSz, and crystallizes in the cubic system. The botryoidal crusts of small indistinct crystals first found in a silver mine at Freiberg in Saxony were originally thought to be monoclinic, but were afterwards proved to be identical with the more distinctly developed crystals found in Bolivia. The colour is iron-black with a purplish tinge, and the lustre metallic. Hardness 24, specific gravity 6-2. Isomorphous with argyrodite is the corresponding tin compound AgsSnSs, also found in Bolivia as cubic crystals, and known by the name canfieldite.

were Angelus Politianus and Johann Reuchlin. His principal works

were translations of the following portions of Aristotle —Caie. goriae, De Interpretatione, Analytica Posteriora, Physica, De Caelo, De Anima, Metaphysica, Ethica Nicomachea, Politica; and

an Expositio Ethicorum Aristotelis. still in manuscript.

Several of his writings exist

See Humphrey Hody, De Graecis Illustribus, 1742, and Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, s.v. Joannes.

ARIA, a musical term, equivalent to the English “air,” signi-

fying a melody apart from the harmony, but especially a musical composition for a single voice or instrument, with an accompaniment of other voices or instruments. The classical aria developed from the expansion of asingle vocal melody, generally on the lines of what is known as binary form (see Sonata and Sonata Forms). Accordingly, while the germs of aria form may be traceable in advanced examples of folk-song, the aria as a definite art-form could not exist before the the middle of the 17th century; because the polyphony of for melody of ent developm the for room no left century 16th

melody’s sake. When at the beginning of the 17th century the the Monodists (see Harmony and MonTEverbE) dimly conceived

enormous possibilities Jatent in their new art of accompanying years single voices by instruments, it was natural that for many should ts experimen their of variety and eness the mere suggestiv of consuffice, without coherent forms, to retain the attention novel most the outset, the at even But, listeners. y temporar enough not were rhetoric, poignant most harmonies used with the e’s in themselves to satisfy the pioneers. Accordingly, Monteverd early many of one is Ariadne deserted the of famous lament making examples that appeal to a rudimentary sense of form by first. the with identical the last phrase of key As instrumental music grew, and the classical sense Scardro became strong and consistent (in the hands of Alessan sense of latti, q.v.) composers were driven to appeal to that in folk-music harmonically-solid melody which had asserted itself to have begun. before the history of harmonic music may be said that an er shed establi ghly By Scarlatti’s time it was thorou

t after tended melody should normally modulate to the dominan ons modulati uent subseq the that and establishing its own key, Introshould work through other related keys back to the tonic. gist duce the voice by an instrumental ritornello, containing the

of the melody and recurring, in part or in whole, at every$0f35 | close; and you have a form which can expand a melody any accomp to give arhple scope both to the singer and to the

' players. The aria became the prototype of the CoNcERTO (gv). the

The addition of a middle section with a da capo results in

of universal 18th century da capo form of aria. The possibilities The . suggest might tion descrip the than greater variety are

ARIADNE—ARICIA yoice may enter with a different theme from that of the ritornello;

the ritornello may be stated in separate portions; the ritornello

may have its own contrast between solo and tutti instruments; the vocal material may combine with it contrapuntally, etc., etc.

Ali the arias and duets in Bach’s B minor Mass and Christmas oratorio differ in these matters, and the differences well repay words. analysis, being often subtly suggested by the sense of the

The middle section generally contributes no new element, except that it avoids the tonic. Gluck, who swept away the whole method „s inherently anti-dramatıc, points out, in the preface to Alceste, that the middle section 1s generally perfunctory, and that the sole object of the da capo 1s to enable the singer to display new

is a ornaments. Nevertheless, the classical (or Neapolitan) aria

composition of considerable length, in a form which cannot fail

to be effective and coherent; and there is little cause for wonder

in the extent to which it dominated 18-century music.

The aria forms are prof oundly influenced by the difference

between the sonata style and the style of Bach and Handel. But the scale of the form is inevitably small, and in any opera an aria

is hardly possible except in a situation which is a tableau rather than an action. Consequently there is no such difference between

the form of the classical operatic aria of Mozart and that of the

Handelian type as there is between sonata and suite music. The scale, however, has become too large for the da capo, which was in

any case too rigid to survive in music designed to intensify a

dramatic situation instead of to distract attention from it. The necessary change of style was so successfully achieved that, until Wagner succeeded in devising music that moved absolutely pari passu with his drama, the aria remained as the central formal principle in dramatic music; and few things in artistic evolution are more interesting than the extent to which Mozart’s predecessor, the great dramatic reformer Gluck, profited by the essential resources of his pet aversion the aria style, when he had not only

purged it of what had become the stereotyped ideas of ritornellos and vocal flourishes, but animated it by the new sense of dramatic

climax to which the sonafa style appealed. In modern opera the aria is almost always out of place, and the forms in which definite melodies nowadays appear are rather

those of the song in its limited sense as that of a poem in formal

stanzas all set to the same music. In other words, a song in a modern opera tends to be something that would be sung even if the drama had to be performed as a play without music; whereas a classical aria would in non-musical drama be a soliloquy. In the later works of Wagner those passages in which we can successfully detach complete melodies from their context have, one and all, dramatically the aspect of songs and not of soliloquies. Siegmund sings the song of Spring to his sister-bride; Mime teaches Siegfried lessons of gratitude in nursery rhymes; and the whole story of the Meistersinger is a series of opportunities for song-singing. The distinctions and gradations between aria and song are of great aesthetic importance, but their history would carry us too far. The main distinction is obviously of the same importance as that between dramatic and lyric poetry. The term aria form is applied, generally most inaccurately, to all kinds of slow cantabile instrumental music of which the general

design can be traced to the operatic aria. Mozart, for example,

is very fond of slow movements in large binary form without development, and this is constantly called aria-form, though the term ought certainly to be restricted to such examples as have

some traits of the aria style, such as the first slow movement in

341

slain the monster Theseus carried her off, but, according to Homer (Odyssey, xi. 322), she was slain by Artemis at the request of Dionysus in the island of Dia, near Knossos, before she could reach Athens with Theseus. In the later legend, while asleep on the island of Naxos, she was abandoned by Theseus. She was discovered by Dionysus on his return from India, who, enchanted with her beauty, married her when she awoke. She received a crown as a bridal gift, which was placed amongst the stars, while she herself was honoured as a goddess. (Ovid, Metam. viii. 152, Fasti, iii. 459). The name probably means “very holy” (dpu, ayv7). Ariadne, originally a goddess of vegetation, is the personification of spring. Hence her festivals at Naxos present a double character; the one, full of mourning and sadness, represents her death or abandonment by Theseus, the other full of joy and revelry, celebrates her awakening from sleep and marriage with Dionysus. Thus nature sleeps and dies during winter, to awake in spring time to a life of renewed luxuriance. With this may be compared the festivals of Adonis and Osiris and the myth of Persephone. The story of Dionysus and Ariadne was a favourite subject for reliefs and wall-paintings. Most commonly Ariadne is represented asleep on the shore of Naxos, while Dionysus, attended by satyrs and bacchanals, gazes admiringly upon her; sometimes they are seated side by side under a spreading vine. The scene where she is holding the clue to Theseus occurs on a very early vase in the British Museum.

ARIANISM: see Artus. ARIANO DI PUGLIA, town and episcopal see, now in the province of Avellino, Campania, Italy, 1,509ft. above sea-level, on the railway between Benevento and Foggia, 24m. E. of the former by rail. Pop. (1921) 8,438 (town); 20,474 (commune). It lies in the centre of a fertile district, but has often been devastated by earthquakes; a considerable part of the population still dwells in caves. It occupies the supposed site of Aequum Tuticum, an ancient Samnite town, a Roman post-station on the Via Traiana; but this was probably at S. Eleuterio, 54m. north.

ARIAS MONTANO, BENITO

(1527-98), Spanish orien-

talist and editor of the Antwerp Polyglot, was born at Frejenal de la Sierra, in Estremadura. In 1562 he was appointed consulting theologian to the Council of Trent. He retired to Pefia de Aracena in 1564, wrote his commentary on the minor prophets (1571), and was sent in 1568 to Antwerp by Philip IT. to edit the polyglot Bible projected by Christopher Plantin. The work appeared in eight volumes folio, between 1568 and 1573. The last years of his life were spent in seclusion in Seville. He is the subject of an Elogio histórico by Tomás Gonzalez Carvajal in the Memorias de la Real Academia de la Historia, vol. vii. (1832).

ARICA

(San Marcos pve Arica), a town and port of the

Chilean-governed province of Tacna, situated in 18° 28’ 08” S. and 70° 20’ 46” W. Pop. (1920 census), 9,015. It is the port for Tacna, the capital of the province, 38m. distant, with which it is connected by rail. The great earthquake of 1868, followed by a tidal wave, nearly destroyed the town and shipping. Arica was captured, looted and burned by the Chileans in 1880, and in accordance with the terms of the treaty of Ancon (1883) should have been returned to Peru in 1894, but this was not done. Late in 1906 the town again suffered severely from an earthquake. See TACNA-ARICA QUESTION.

ARICIA

(mod. Ariccia), an ancient city in Latium, on the

Via Appia, 16m. S.E. of Rome. The nucleus of the old town, now the modern, Jay high (1,350ft. above sea-level) above the well to avoid it and its cognate version, Lied-form, altogether circular Valle Aricciana, probably an extinct volcanic crater; remains of its walls are traceable. The lower town was situated In speaking of instrumental music. The air or aria in Bach’s suites is a short binary movement in on the north edge of the valley, close to the Via Appia, which a flowing rhythm in not very slow common or duple time. descended into the valley from the modern Albano and reascended partly upon very fine substructions of opus quadratum, (D. F. T.) ARIADNE, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Minos, some 2soyds. in length, to the modern Genzano. There are reking of Crete, and Pasiphae, the daughter of Helios the Sun-god. mains of the walls of the lower town, of the cella of a temple When Theseus landed on the island to slay the Minotaur (q.v.), of the 2nd century B.C. and also of later buildings connected

the great serenade in B flat. At all events, until writers. on music have agreed to give the term some more accurate use, it is as

Atiadne fell in love with him and gave him a clue of thread to with the post-station and baths. Aricia, one of the oldest cities

| i i

guide him through the mazes of the Labyrinth. After he had

of Latium, appears as a serious opponent of Rome at the transi-

ARICINI—ARIOBARZANES

342

tion from kings to republic. In 338 B.C. it was conquered by C. Maenius, but was soon given full civic rights. Its vegetables and wine were famous, and the district is still fertile. See G. Florescu in Ephemeris Dacico-Romana, iii. (Rome, 192 $);

ARICINI, the ancient inhabitants of Aricia (q.v.), the form of the name ranking them with the Sidicini, Marrucini (q.v.),

her son a ram with a golden fleece.

To avoid the evil designs oj

Hera, their stepmother, Phrixus and Helle fied on the back gf the ram, and reaching the sea, attempted to cross. Helle fell from the ram and was drowned (hence the Hellespont); Phrixys having arrived in Colchis, sacrificed the ram to Zeus, who placed it in the heavens as the constellation. The “first point of Aries,” which is now far away from the constellation and is situated in Pisces, is the zero from which the right ascensions and longitudes of the stars are measured. It is at the crossing point of the equator and ecliptic on the celestial sphere.

etc., as one of the communities belonging probably to the earlier or Volscian stratum of population on the west side of Italy, who were absorbed by the Sabine or Latin immigrants. Special interest attaches to this trace of their earlier origin because of the famous cult of Diana Nemorensis, whose temple in the forest ARIETTA (Ital.), diminutive of aria, an air, and hence close by Aricia, beside the lacus Nemorensis, was served by “the signifying, in music, an aria of a shorter and simpler kind than is that slain”; be himself shall and slayer, the priest who slew one fully developed. (See ARIA.) to say, the priest, who was called rex N emorensis, held office only ARIKARA, a semi-sedentary Plains tribe of Indians, the This rival. stronger any from himself defend could he as so long northernmost offshoot of the Caddoans, combining maize farming the in d describe quely pictures is cult, which is unique in Italy, with bison hunting. Traditionally and by speech they are a branch opening chapter of Sir James Frazer’s Golden Bough (3rd ed.) of the Pawnee. During the 19th century they were affiliated with where full references will be found. The old-world custom was the Siouan Mandan and Hidatsa, the three groups living in per. dying out in the 1st century A.D. It is a reasonable conjecture that manent settlements of earth-covered lodges on the Missouri river this extraordinary relic of barbarism was characteristic of the in North Dakota, and being known as “Village Indians” in distinc. themcalled bly presuma who on, earlier stratum of the populati tion from the surrounding nomadic hunting tribes. The population selves Arici. , e 1907). |

J. G. Frazer, Studies in the Early History

of Kingship

ARIÈGE, a department in southern France, bounded on the

south by Spain, west and north by Haute Garonne, north-east and east by Aude, south-east by Pyrénées Orientales. Area 1,803 sq.m. Pop. (1926) 167,498. The south includes the old folded

rocks of the Pyrenean axis with snow peaks (P. de Montcalm, 10,s12ft.) and several high passes, and the crestline is the international boundary but not a true economic one, for there are many communications between the hill pastures on both sides when the passes are open. The pass or col de Puymorens was specially important and a pilgrim way to Monserrat, and control of it was a basis of the power of the countship of Foix, which remained distinct till the Revolution of 1789, and now, with parts of Languedoc and Gascony, forms the department in the basin of the Ariége river. The hills furnish summer pasture and trackways for animals and muleteers who avoid the forested ravines; many flocks are driven down to the plains for wintering. The M. de Tabe and M. de Plantaurel are parallel ranges north of the main one: the steep slope down to the open lowland of tertiary rocks northwards has mainly calcareous rocks with gorges, caves and river tunnels. Tuc d’Audoubert and Trois Fréres among caves and Mas d’Azil among tunnels are famed archaeologically. The average temperature (sea level) in summer is 70°F .—72°F., in winter about 43°F., rainfall generally above 30in., over 40 in nearly all the highland, and over 60 on many heights. Stock-raising is intensive in parts of the Ariége valley and small holdings abound, wheat, maize and potatoes being grown, with vines near Pamiers, etc. Minerals include iron, lead, copper, manganese, gypsum, talc, phosphates, salt (region of the River Salat), grindstones and building stones. Warm springs occur at Ax, Aulus, and Ussat. Iron foundries and forges exist at Pamiers, which is also the seat of a bishopric in the province of the archbishop of Toulouse.

Mirepoix, an old bishop’s seat, has a cathe-

dral (rs~16th cent.) with a fine spire. Foix is the capital and

St. Girons capital of arrondissement. The department is in the educational division and under the court of appeal of Toulouse, and in the territory of the XVII. Army Corps.

ARIEL,

has shrunk from two or three thousand to a few hundred. Maize

rituals, mound burial, house type, organization on a village instead

of band basis, indicate Arikara culture as basically of the type prevalent about the lower Mississippi, subsequently remodelled on the Plains. In fact, it may have been their example that led the Mandan and Hidatsa to adopt settled life. ARIMASPIY, an ancient people in the extreme north-east of Scythia (g.v.), probably the eastern Altai. All accounts of them go back to a poem by Aristeas of Proconnesus, from whom Herodotus (ili. 116, iv. 27) drew his information. They were supposed to be one eyed and to steal gold from the griffins that guarded it (the district is auriferous). In art they are

usually represented as richly dressed Asiatics, picturesquely grouped with their griffin foes; the subject is often described by poets from Aeschylus to Milton. They are so nearly mythical

that it is impossible to insist on the usual identification with the ancestors of the Huns.

ARIMINUM

the entrance to the latter the senate erected, in his honour, a tri-

umphal arch which is still extant—a fine simple monument with a single opening. At the other end of the main street (3,000 Roman ft. in length) is a fine five-arched bridge over the Ariminus (modern Marecchia) built under Augustus and Tiberius. The present Piazza Giulio Cesare marks the site of the ancient forum, and the streets still follow the ancient lines. There are remains of

the name of a Moabite mentioned in the Old the amphitheatre.

Testament (II. Sam. 23; I. Chron. ii. R.V.). In Shakespeare’s comedy The Tempest the spirit of the air delivered from captivity by Prospero, and henceforward his devoted familiar, is called Ariel. Milton used the name for one of the fallen angels in his Paradise Lost. The word is generally interpreted as “lion (or altar) of God,” and, although of Hebrew origin, the name has become familiar in English fairy-tale and folklore. ' ARIES (the “Ram”), in astronomy, the first sign of the zodiac, denoted by the sign T, in imitation of a ram’s head. According to a Greek myth, Nephele, mother of Phrixus and Helle, gave

(modern Rimini), a city of Aemilia, NE,

Italy, 69m. S.E. of Bononia. Founded by Umbrians, in 268 B.c. it became a Roman colony. It was reached from Rome by the Vie Flaminia, constructed 220 B.C., and became the bulwark of the Roman power in Cisalpine Gaul, to which province it even gave its name. Its harbour was of some importance, but is now silted up, the sea having receded. The construction of the Vie Aemilia (187 B.c.) and the Via Popilia (132 B.C.) made it a road centre, In 82 B.c., having been held by the partisans of Marius, it was plundered by those of Sulla and a military colony settled there. Caesar occupied it in 49 B.c. after crossing the Rubicon. In 27 Bc. Augustus divided the city into seven vici, or quarters, after the model of Rome, from which the names of the vici were borrowed. He also restored the Via Flaminia from Rome to Ariminum. At

In a.

69 the town was attacked by the

partisans of Vespasian and was besieged for five months by the Goths in 538. It was one of the five seaports which remained

Byzantine until the time of Pippin. (See RIMINI.) See A. Tonini, Storia della Citta di Rimini (Rimini, 1848-62).

ARIOBARZANES,

the name of three ancient kings 0r

satraps of Pontus, and of three kings of Cappadocia.

Of the

Pontic kings the most famous is Ariobarzanes I. He succeeded his father Mithridates in the satrapy in 363 B.C., revolted from Artaxerxes in 362, and founded the independent kingdom of Pontus.

He and his three sons were made Athenian citizens. Of the Cappe docian kings, 1. (Philo-Romaeus) reigned from 93-63 B.C., being

ARION—ARIOSTO frequently driven out by Mithridates and restored by the Romans. He was finally established by Pompey, and soon after (c. 63) abdicated in favour of his son. 2. (Eusebes, Philo-Romaeus), ndson of the above, succeeded c. 51 B.c. He was friendly with

Cicero during Cicero’s proconsulate in Cilicia, and fought for

Pompey in the Civil War. Caesar confirmed him in his kingdom, and protected him from Pharnaces of Pontus. In 42 B.C. Cassius accused him of conspiracy and put him to death.

ARION, (1) of Methymna, in Lesbos, a semi-legendary poet and musician, friend of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. He flourished about 625 B.C. He is said to have invented the dithyramb,

je. probably he gave it literary form. The name Cycleus given to his father indicates the connection of the son with the “cyclic” or circular chorus of the dithyramb.

No genuine work of his

survives. Of his life, only the following story in Herodotus (i. 23)

and subsequent writers has come down. After a successful “tour” in Sicily and Magna Graecia he embarked at Taras (Tarentum) in a Corinthian vessel. The sight of his treasure roused the

343

Ariosto to accompany him. The poet excused himself, pleading ill health, his love of study, the care of his private affairs and the age of his mother, whom it would have been disgraceful to leave. His excuses were not received, and even an interview was denied him. Ariosto then boldly said, that if his eminence thought to have bought a slave by assigning him the scanty pension of 75 crowns a year, he was mistaken and might withdraw his boon—which it seems the cardinal did. The cardinal’s brother, Alphonso, duke of Ferrara, now took the poet under his patronage. This was but an act of simple justice, Ariosto having already distinguished himself as a diplomatist, chiefly on the occasion of two visits to Rome as ambas-

sador to Pope Julius II. The fatigue of one of these hurried journeys brought on a complaint from which he never recovered; and on his second mission he was nearly killed by order of the violent pope, who happened at the time to be much incensed against the duke of Ferrara. On account of the war, his salary

of only 84 crowns a year was suspended, and it was withdrawn cupidity of the sailors, who resolved to possess themselves of it altogether after the peace; in consequence of which Ariosto asked by putting him to death. Arion, as a last favour, begged permis- the duke either to provide for him, or to allow him to seek sion to sing a parting song. The sailors, desirous of hearing so employment elsewhere. A province, situated on the wildest famous a musician, consented, and the poet, standing on the deck heights of the Apennines, being then without a governor, Ariosto of the ship, in full minstrel’s attire, sang a dirge accompanied by received the appointment, which he held for three years. The his lyre. He then threw himself overboard; but instead of perish- province was distracted by factions and banditti, yet it is said ing, he was miraculously borne up in safety by a dolphin, sup- that Ariosto’s government satisfied both the sovereign and the posed to have been charmed by the music. Thus he was con- people confided to his care; and a story is added of his having veyed to Taenarum, whence he proceeded to Corinth, arriving be- been captured by a party of banditti, whose chief, on discovering fore the ship. Periander, at first incredulous, eventually learned that his captive was the author of Orlando Furioso, humbly the truth by a stratagem. Summoning the sailors, he demanded apologized for not having immediately shown him the respect what had become of the poet. They affirmed that he had re- which was due to his rank. Although he had little reason to be mained behind at Tarentum; upon which they were suddenly satisfied with his office, he refused an embassy to Pope Clement confronted by Arion himself, arrayed in the same garments in VII. offered to him by the secretary of the duke, and spent the which he had leapt overboard. The sailors confessed their guilt remainder of his life at Ferrara, writing comedies, superintending and were punished. Arion’s lyre and the dolphin were translated their performance as well as the construction of a theatre, and to the stars. Herodotus and Pausanias (iii. 25, 7) both refer to correcting his Orlando Furioso, of which the complete edition a bronze figure at Taenarum which was supposed to represent was published only a year before his death. Ariosto was honoured and respected by the first men of his Arion seated on the dolphin’s back. But tbis is quite as likely to be, ¢.g., Phalanthus, the founder (oixlorys) of Tarentum, on his age, yet he lived and died poor. The epigram which he wrote over the entrance of his house, saying that, although small, it dolphin. See Pausanias, x. 13, I0. (2) Arron or AREION, a wonderful horse, offspring of Po- was suited to his needs and bought with his own money, serves seidon and Demeter Erinys (see Demeter), which belonged to to show the incorrectness of the assertion of flatterers, followed by Tiraboschi, that the duke of Ferrara built that house for him. Adrastus (see OEDIPUS). ARIOSO (Ital.), a musical term denoting a piece or passage The only man who seems to have given anything to Ariosto as of a melodious and song-like character, but lacking the design and a reward for his poetical talent was the marquess del Vasto, who assigned him an annuity of roo crowns on the revenues of form of a regular aria or air. ARIOSTI, ATTILIO (c. 1660), operatic composer, was Casteleone in Lombardy; but it was only paid, if ever, from the born at Bologna and brought out his first opera Dafne at Venice end of 1531. That he was crowned as poet by Charles V. seems in 1686. Later he went to Germany and was Hofkapellmeister at untrue, although a diploma may have been issued to that effect Berlin in 1698. Subsequently he passed many years in London, by the emperor. The character of Ariosto seems to have been fully and justly producing there a number of operas, and becoming in 1720, with Handel and Bononcini, one of the first three joint directors of delineated by Gabriele, his brother, who in some lines to his the London Academy of Music. He died in obscurity abroad, memory speaks of his piety and kindness, his humility and freedom from ambition. neither the date nor the place of his death being known. see Alfred Ebert, Attilio Ariosti in Berlin (Leipzig, 1905).

ARIOSTO, LODOVICO

(1474-1533), Italian poet, was

bom at Reggio, in Lombardy, where his father was commander of the citadel. He showed a strong inclination to poetry, but was obliged by his father to study the law—a pursuit in which

helost five of the best years of his life.

Allowed at last to follow

his inclination, he applied himself to the study of the classics under Gregorio da Spoleto; but the early removal of his tutor

to France deprived him of the opportunity of learning Greek,

ashe intended. His father dying soon after, he was compelled to forego his literary occupations to provide for his nine brothers

and sisters, one of whom was a cripple. He wrote, however, about this time, some comedies in prose and a few lyrics, which attracted the notice of the cardinal Ippolito d’Este, who took

the young poet under his patronage.

This prince usurped the

character of a patron of literature, whilst the only reward which

the poet received for having dedicated to him the Orlando Furioso, was the question, “Where did you find so many stories, Master

Ludovic?” The cardinal went to Hungary in 1518, and wished

In reading his satires, we are struck with the noble independence

of the poet, who loved liberty with a most jealous fondness, and hence would never bind himself, either by going into orders or by marrying, till towards the end of his life, when he espoused Alessandra, widow of Tito Strozzi. His Latin poems do not perhaps deserve to be noticed; in the age of Flaminio, Vida, Fracastoro and Sannazaro, better things were due from a poet like Ariosto. His lyrical compositions show the poet, although they do not seem worthy of his powers. His comedies, of which he wrote four, besides one which he left

unfinished, are avowedly imitated from Plautus and Terence; and although native critics may admire in them the elegance of the diction, the liveliness of the dialogue and the novelty of some scenes, few will feel interest either in the subject or in the characters.

The most solid monument of his fame is the Orlando Furioso. An earlier poem on the same theme, Orlando Innamorato, by Boiardo (q.v.), had been left unfinished; many poets undertook the difficult task of its completion, but it was reserved for Ariosto

344

ARIOVISTUS—ARISTARCHUS

to provide a sequel that surpassed its model. He began to write subjects are borrowed from the erotic elegies of Alexandrian writers, and the language is a patchwork of phrases from Plato his great poem about 1503, and after having consulted the first , Lucian, Alciphron and others. 40 only in 1516, in it men of the age of Leo X. he published Gragg hi Epistolograp Hercher, (1822), Boissonade text for See: cantos (extended afterwards to 46); and up to the moment of (1873). English translations: Boyer (1701); Thomas Brown (141). 12a his death, he never ceased to correct and improve both the sub- R. B. Sheridan and Halked (1771 and later). ject and the style. It is the magnificent style of this poem which ARISTAEUS, a divinity whose worship was widely spread won for him the name of Divino Lodovico. Even when he jests, throughout ancient Greece, but concerning whom the myths are he never compromises his dignity; and in pathetic description his somewhat obscure. The name is derived from the Greek äpioros or narrative he excites the reader’s deepest feelings. In “best.” According to the generally received account, Apollo carbut fancy; of vivacity e remarkabl machinery he displays a ried off the nymph Cyrene from Mount Pelion in Thessaly, and he never lets his fancy carry him so far as to omit to employ, conveyed her to Libya, where she gave birth to Aristaeus. Having pencil natural and simple those himself, to with an art peculiar strokes which, by imparting to the most extraordinary feats been brought up by the Qpar or by the centaur Cheiron, he left a colour of reality, satisfy the reason without disenchanting Libya and went to Thebes. Here he received instruction from the Muses in the arts of healing and prophecy and became the the imagination. The death of Zerbino, the complaints of Isason-in-law of Cadmus and the father of Actaeon (q.v.). He is bella, the effects of discord among the Saracens, the flight of said to have visited Ceos, where, by erecting a temple to Zeus madOrlando’s causes which passion the moon, Astolfo to the Ikmaios (the giver of moisture), he freed the inhabitants from a ness, teem with beauties of every variety. The supposition that the poem is not connected throughout is wholly unfounded; there is a connection which, with a little attention, will become evident. The love of Ruggero and Bradamante forms the main subject of the Furioso; every part of it, except some episodes, depend upon this subject; and the poem ends with their marriage. The immediate popularity of Ariosto’s greatest work outside Italy is proved by the fact that about a dozen French translations of it appeared within 50 years of his death, not to speak of the Spanish version of Ieronymo de Urrea (1549), which was often reprinted and is quoted in Don Quixote. Men as different as Voltaire and Goethe have been fascinated by Ariosto; and in England his name will always be connected with that of Spenser, whose Faerie Queene was avowedly written to surpass the Orlando Furioso in its own style. Scott—‘“the Ariosto of the north,” as Byron called him—learnt Italian as a boy, in order to read it; and Byron himself owed much to the poet whom he praises so

highly in his Prophecy of Dante (iii. IIO-I1Q).

BrsriocrarHy.—The first complete edition of the Orlando Furioso was published at Ferrara, in 1532, as noted above. The edition of Papini (Florence, 1903) gives a good text with useful notes. Of editions published in England, those of Baskerville (Birmingham, 1773) and Panizzi (1834) are the most important. The translations into English are all indifferent in quality. See also E. Gardner, Ariosto, the Prince of Court Poets (1906); J. S. Nicholson, Life and Genius of Ariosto (1914); and Benedetto Croce, Ariosto, Shakespeare and Corneille (Eng. tr. 1920).

ARIOVISTUS, a German chief who commanded the mixed

force of German tribes which entered Gaul at the invitation of the Arverni and Sequani in 71 B.c. After years of warfare he defeated the Aedui at Admetobriga on the middle Rhine in 61, and reduced them to a client kingdom. His relations with Rome were at first friendly, the Romans apparently not appreciating the danger.

By 58 Ariovistus had settled some 120,000 Germans on

terrible drought. After travelling extensively, Aristaeus reached Thrace where he finally disappeared near Mount Haemus. While in Thrace he is said to have caused the death of Eurydice, who was bitten by a snake while fleeing from him. Aristaeus was essentially a benevolent diety; he introduced the cultivation of bees (Virgil, Georg. iv., 315-558) and the vine and

olive; he was the protector of herdsmen and hunters; he warded off the evil effects of the dog-star, and possessed the arts of heal-

ing and prophecy. He was often identified with Zeus, Apollo and Dionysus. In ancient sculptures and on coins he is represented as a young man, dressed like a shepherd, and sometimes carrying a sheep on his shoulders.

ARISTAGORAS

(d. 407 B.c.), brother-in-law and cousin of

Histiaeus, tyrant of Miletus. He acted as regent while Histiaeus was detained at the court of Darius. In 500 B.c. he persuaded the Persians to join him in an attack upon Naxos, but he quarrelled with Megabates, the Persian commander, who, according to Herodotus, warned the Naxians, and the expedition failed.

Finding himself bankrupt and out of favour with Persia, Aristagoras, instigated by a message from Histiaeus, raised Ionia mn revolt (see IontA). He then went to Greece to secure help, and induced the Athenians to send the force which helped to bum Sardis. It was their intervention which led to Darius’ invasion of Greece in 480. After the failure of the revolt, Aristagoras emigrated to Myrcinus in Thrace, where he fell, in an attack on Ennea Hodat

(later Amphipolis), which belonged to a Thracian tribe.

See Herodotus, v. 30-51, 97-126; Thucydides iv. 102; Diodorus xii. 68; see also G. B. Grundy, Great Persian War (1901).

ARISTANDER, of Telmessus in Lycia, the favourite sooth-

sayer of Alexander the Great.

See Philopatris, 21; Arrian, Anabasis, li. 26, iii. 2, iv. 4; Plutarch, Alexander; Curtius iv. 2, 6, 15, Vil. 7.

the left bank of the Rhine; the burden of the invaders was so heavy that in the spring of 58, when Caesar took over the Gallic provinces, a diet of the tribes of central Gaul decided to ask him for help. Caesar sent a courteous message to Ariovistus asking him to return the hostages of the Aedui, and bring no more Germans into Gaul. Ariovistus refused, and hostilities followed the same year. Caesar occupied Vesontio (Besancon), in the territory of the Aedui, and a campaign opened in which he had rather the worse of the preliminary manoeuvring. Ariovistus managed to split Caesar’s army and attack one division of it, somewhere near Mulhouse. But a general engagement followed, doubtful at first, which was decided by the Roman reserve under P. Crassus. Ariovistus fled over the Rhine, and is not heard of again. Caesar seems to have left Ariovistus’ settlements on the Rhine undisturbed.

grammarian and critic. He settled early in Alexandria, where he studied under Aristophanes of Byzantium, whom he succeeded as librarian of the museum. On the accession of Euergetes II. he found his life in danger and withdrew to Cyprus, where he died. Aristarchus founded a school of philologists, called after him “Aristarcheans,” which long flourished in Alexandria and afterwards at Rome. He is said to have written 800 commentaries alone, without reckoning special treatises. He edited Hesiod, Pindar, Aeschylus, Sophocles and other

See Caesar B.G., I., 31-53. Dio Cas., XXXVIII., 34-50. For the topography of the battle, A von Göler, Caesars Gallische Krieg,

these two writers in the Venetian scholia to the Jiiad give an idea

(1880) ; T. R. Holmes, Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul (1911).

ARISTARCHUS,

of Samothrace (c. 220-143 3.c.), Greek

ediauthors; but his chief fame rests on his critical and exegetical

tion of Homer, practically the foundation of our present text. In Aristothe time of Augustus, two Aristarcheans, Didymus and

nicus, undertook the revision of his work, and the extracts from

of Aristarchus’s Homeric labours. He arranged the Jiad and the

ARISTAENETUS, Greek letter-writer, flourished in the 5th Odyssey in 24 books as we now have them.

or 6th century A.D. He was formerly identified with Aristaenetus of Nicaea, who perished in an earthquake at Nicomedia, A.D. 358, but internal evidence points to a much later date. Under his name two books of love stories, in the form of letters, are extant; the

Ludwich, See Lehrs, De Aristarchi Stud. Homericis (3rd ed., 1882) ; of Class. Schol. (ed. 1921), vol. i. with authorities; see ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL.

Hist. Aristarchs homerische Textcritik (1884) ; and especially Sandys, also Homm;

ARISTARCHUS

OF SAMOS—ARISTEIDES

345

ARISTARCHUS OF SAMOS, Greek astronomer, flourished

mand of the Athenian squadron off Byzantium, and the Ionian

about 270 B.C. He is famous for having been the first to maintain

allies, after revolting from the Spartan admiral Pausanias, offered

shat the earth revolves round the sun. On this ground Cleanthes the Stoic declared that he ought to be indicted for impiety. His

him the chief command and left him with absolute discretion in fixing the contributions of the newly formed confederacy (see only extant work is a short treatise On the Sizes and Distances of DeELIAN LeacuE). His assessment was universally accepted as the Sun and Moon; here he obtains, by elegant and rigorous equitable, and continued as the basis of taxation for the greater geometry, certain. results as regards sizes and distances which are part of the league’s duration; it was probably from this that he only vitiated by the incorrectness of the assumptions, due to the won the title of “the Just.” Aristeides soon left the command of imperfect state of knowledge at the time. The heliocentric hypoth- the fleet to his friend Cimon (q.v.), but continued to hold a preesis does not appear in the treatise, but a quotation in the Are- dominant position in Athens. At first he seems to have remained narius of Archimedes from another work of Aristarchus proves on good terms with Themistocles, whom he is said to have helped that he anticipated the great discovery of Copernicus. Moreover, in outwitting the Spartans over the rebuilding of the walls of Copernicus himself was clearly aware of the achievement of Aris- Athens. But in spite of statements in which ancient authors have tarchus, for he mentioned it in a passage which he afterwards represented Aristeides as a democratic reformer, it is certain that suppressed (see De revolutionibus caelestibus, ed. Thorun., 1873, the period following the Persian wars during which he shaped p. 34 note). Aristarchus added ~g4-5 of a day to Callippus’ esti- Athenian policy was one of conservative reaction. His estate mate of 3654 days for the length of the solar year. He is also seems to have suffered severely from the Persian invasions, for apparently he did not leave enough money to defray the expenses said to have invented a hemispherical sun-dial (scaphe). The Greek text of the extant treatise was first edited by Wallis of his burial, and it is known that his descendants even in the 4th (1688); for a new Greek text with English translation and notes century received State pensions. See ATHENS; THEMISTOCLES. se T. L. Heath, Aristarchus of Samos (1913). BrsriocraPHy.—Herodotus viii. 79-81, 95, ix. 28; “Constitution of

ARISTEAS, a mythical personage in ancient Greece, said to have lived in the time of Cyrus and Croesus, or according to some c. 6go B.C. His poem Arimaspeia describes his travels in countries N. and E. of the Euxine; he visited the Hyperboreans, Issedonians

and Arimaspians, who fought against the gold-guarding griffins. An important historical fact which seems to be indicated in his

Athens” (Ath. Pol.), 22-24, 41; Plutarch, Avistzdes; Cornelius Nepos, Vita Aristidis. See also E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums (Stuttgart,

1901), iii. p. 481, 492. In the absence of positive information the 4th century writers (on whom Plutarch and Nepos mainly rely) wove round his surname of “Just” a number of anecdotes. Herodotus is practically our only trustworthy authority. (M.

ARISTEIDES, of Miletus, generally regarded as the father

poem is the rush of barbarian hordes towards Europe under pressure from their neighbours. Twelve lines of the poem are preserved in Tzetzes and Longinus. According to Suidas, Aristeas also wrote a prose theogony. The genuineness of his works is disputed by Dionysius of Halicarnassus.

of Greek prose romance (c. 150—100 B.c.). He wrote six books of erotic Milesian Tales (MiAnowwxe) which enjoyed great popularity, and were translated into Latin by Cornelius Sisenna (11967 B.c.). They are lost, with the exception of a few fragments, but the story of the Ephesian matron in Petronius gives an idea of their nature.

See Tournier, De Arisiea Proconneso (1863) ; Macan, Herodotus iv., 13, 14 (note), 15.

See Plutarch, Crassus, 32; Ovid, Tristia, ii. 413, 443; Müller, Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, iv.

ARISTEAS, the pseudonymous author of a famous Letter

in which is described, in legendary form, the origin of the Greek

translation of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint (q.v.). Aristeas represents himself as a Gentile Greek, but was really an Alexandrian Jew who lived under one of the later Ptolemies. Though the Letter is unauthentic, it is now recognized as a useful source of information concerning both Egyptian and Palestinian affairs in the 2nd and -possibly in the 3rd century B.C. See modern editions of the Greek by H. St. J. Thackeray Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, Cambridge, by P. Wendland (Leipzig, 1900) ; and H. St. J. Thackeray, of P (1917), translation with critical introduction ography.

(in Swete’s 1900), and The Letter and bibli-

ARISTEIDES (c. 530-468 B.c.), Athenian statesman called “the Just,” was the son of Lysimachus, and a member of a family of moderate fortune. Of his early life we are told merely that he became a follower of the statesman Cleisthenes and sided with the aristocratic party in Athenian politics. He first comes into notice as strategus in command of his native tribe Antiochis at Marathon, and it was no doubt in consequence of the distinction which he then achieved that he was elected chief archon for the

ensuing year (489-488 3.c.). In pursuance of his conservative policy, which aimed at maintaining Athens as a land power, he was one of the chief opponents of the naval policy of Themistocles (q.v.). The conflict between the two leaders ended in the ostracism

ARISTEIDES, AELIUS, surnamed Theodorus, Greek rhetorician and sophist (a.p. 117, or perhaps 129-189). After studying at Pergamum and Athens, he lived at Smyrna. In 178, when it was destroyed by an earthquake, he wrote an account of the disaster to Aurelius, and induced him to rebuild the city. His extant works consist of two small rhetorical treatises on political and simple speech, with Demosthenes and Xenophon as models (Spengel, Rhetores Graeci) and 55 declamations, of which only the Panathenascus and the Encomium of Rome were actually delivered. Of the others, The Sacred Discourses deal with his illness and with miraculous cures, and the rest are panegyrics or treat subjects from Greek history. Though they lack living interest, their style is correct, and they became school books and the subject of commentaries. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Editio princeps (s2 declamations only) (1517); Dindorf (1829); Keil (1899); Schmid’ (1926). See Sandys, Hist. of

Classical Scholarship, vol. i. (ed. 1920) and references there given.

ARISTEIDES, APOLOGY OF, Until 1878 our knowledge of the early Christian writer Aristeides was confined to the statement of Eusebius that he was an Athenian philosopher, who presented an apology “concerning the faith? to the emperor Hadrian. In that year, however, the Mechitharists of S. Lazzaro

at Venice published a fragment in Armenian from the beginning of the Apology; and in 1889 Dr. Rendel Harris found the whole of it in a Syriac version on Mt. Sinai. While his edition was

of Aristeides, at a date variously given between 485 and 482 B.C. Karly in 480 B.c. Aristeides profited by the decree recalling the passing through the press, it was observed by Dr. J. Armitage post-Marathonian exiles to help in the defence of Athens against Robinson that all the while the work had been extant in

infantry on the island of Psyttaleia and annihilating the Persian

Greek, though in a slightly abbreviated form, as it had been embedded as a speech in a religious novel written about the 6th century, and entitled “The Life of Barlaam and Josaphat.” Eusebius and the Armenian version quote its dedication to Antoni-

samson stationed there (see SALAMIS). In 479 he was re-elected

nus Pius who reigned 138-161. The Syriac version quotes a dedi-

the army and to have played a prominent part in arranging for the

came into the world; and having beheld the heaven, and the earth, and the sea, the sun and moon, and all besides, I marvelled at

the Persian invaders, and was elected strategus for the year 480479 B,C. In the campaign of Salamis he rendered loyal support to

Themistocles, and crowned

the victory by landing Athenian

Strategus, and invested with special powers as commander of the cation which confuses the names of Antoninus Pius and his Athenian contingent at Plataea; he is also said to have judiciously predecessor Hadrian. The Apology opens thus: “I, O king, by the providence of God Suppressed a conspiracy among some oligarchic malcontents in celebration of the victory. In 478 or 477 Aristeides was in com-

346

ARISTIDES—ARISTOBULUS

up their own lives: all things in spirit. They are ready for Christ’s sake to give their orderly disposition; and seeing the world and living holily and keep, securely they ments command His for that He it, that it is moved by compulsion, I understood that hath commandeg God their Lord the as g accordin ly, moveth is righteous moveth and governeth it is God. For whatsoever their food anq all over hours, governeth them, giving thanks to Him at all stronger than that which is moved, and whatsoever things.” good their of rest the and drink, spoken of is stronger than that which is governed.” Having briefly The style of the Apology is exceedingly simple. It is curiously phy, Aristeides the divine nature in the terms of Greek philoso en misdescribed by Jerome, who never can have seen it, as “Apolo. partak all at have men of races the all of which ask proceeds to Its attempt at a geticum pro Christianis contextum philosophorum sententiis.” of the truth about God. Here we have the first heathenism old the of helplessness the of recognition its are merits of s purpose systematic comparison of ancient religions. For the n into idolaters, to satisfy human aspiration after the divine, and the impressive his enquiry he adopts an obvious threefold divisio terms them simplicity with which it presents the unfailing argument of the Jews, and Christians. Idolaters, or, as he more gently what among you lives of Christians. in addressing the emperor, “those who worship R See The Apology of Aristides, Syriac text and translation (J.an great worldthree the are said to be gods,” he subdivides into containing the Greek text, Texts appendix an with Harris), this He chooses civilizations Chaldeans, Greeks, and Egyptians. Studies, i. r (1891). There is an English tr. by Walford, 1909. and absurdity in order so as to work up to a climax of error ARISTIDES, QUINTILIANUS, the author of a treatise the Chaldeans heathen worship. The direct nature worship of According to of the Creator, on music, who lived probably in the 3rd century A.D. is shown to be false because its objects are works M usicae Auc. Septem (Antig. collection whose in , Meibomius no have and laws fashioned for the use of men. They obey fixed is challenged one 1652) this work is printed, it contains everything on music that power over themselves. The gods of Olympus are (See Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyk, ii. 894.) antiquity. in found be to once. at both or , helpless by one, and shown to be either vile or ARISTIPPUS (c. 435-356 B.C.), Greek philosopher, the a reasonable A heaven of quarrelling divinities cannot inspire came from can they be founder of the Cyrenaic school. At an early age he worship. These gods are not even respectable; how After Socrates. of pupil the became he and Athens, to Cyrene ; nations the all adorable? “The Egyptians have erred worse than his founded he cities, Grecian of number a through ng travelli Chaldeans and for they were not content with the worships of the Starting from the two cs). Cyrenat (see Cyrene at school of beasts brute Greeks, but introduced, moreover, as gods even emphasized the herbs... .” Socratic principles of virtue and happiness, he the dry land and of the waters, and plants and the criterion of life. That he held to pleasure made and second, common strong is there Throughout the whole of the argument pursuance of us humour. be good which gives the maximum of pleasure. In sense and a stern severity unrelieved by conscio five letters The luxury. external of forms all in indulged he blows, and this Aristeides is engaged in a real contest; he strikes hard daughter Arete, and her son His . spurious are him to ed attribut a see, t gives no quarter. He cannot see, as Justin and Clemen ), carried on the religions, Aristippus (unrpodldaxros, “pupil of his mother” empiricism striving after truth, a feeling after God, in the older modern to near very comes patience with school after his death. He or even in the philosophies of Greece. He has no school. t Hedonis modern the to ly especial and gods. “Do attempts to find a.deeper meaning in the stories of the See Aberweg’s Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie, vol. i., Sec. forms? Then they say that one nature underlies these diverse 38 and Bibliography (1915). tion the say that why does god hate god, or god kill god? Do they ARISTO, of Pella, a Jewish Christian writer of the middlea myths, and histories are mythical? Then the gods themselves are of the 2nd century, who like Hegesippus (q.v.) represents and nothing more.” school of thought more liberal than that of the Pharisaic The Jews are briefly treated. After a reference to their descent Essene Ebionites. He is cited by Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. iv. 6, 3) them but is best known from Abraham and their sojourn in Egypt, Aristeides praises but for a decree of Hadrian respecting the Jews, ; Creator y Almight the God, one the of prophecy to Jesus for their worship of witness the on e Dialogu a of ths and as the writer blames them as worshipping angels, and observing ‘“‘sabba against the reproaches of Origen by d defende was which Christ, and fast, new moons, and the unleavened bread, and the great to the Celsus. n Literature, circumcision, and cleanness of meats.” He then proceeds The literature is cited in G. Kriiger’s Early Christia which, nt stateme a with begins He ns. Christia the of ion descript pp. 104 seq. forms in a Stoic phiwhen purged of glosses by a comparison of the three ARISTO or ARISTON, of Chios (c. 250 B.C.), more closely their which it survives, reads thus: “Now the Christians reckon he approximated though Zeno, of pupil and er losoph the worthy of study, race from the Lord Jesus Christ; and He is confessed to be to the Cynic school. He considered only ethics Son of God Most High. Having by the Holy Spirit come down and in that only general and theoretical questions. He rejected from heaven, and having been born of a Hebrew virgin, He took Zeno’s doctrine of desirable things, intermediate between virtue flesh and appeared unto men, to call them back from their error and vice. There is only one virtue—an intelligent, healthy state tion, of many gods; and having completed His wonderful dispensa ntly confounded with Ariston and of mind (hygeia). Aristo is freque revived He days three after and Peripatetics about 230 B.C. He was pierced by the Jews, the of rch schola e of Iulis, who becam went up to Heaven. And the glory of His coming thou canst See STOICS. historian, acon learn, O king, from that which is called among them the evangelic ARISTOBULUS, of Cassandreia, Greek scripture, if thou wilt read it. He had 12 disciples, who after His panied Alexander the Great on his campaigns, of which he wrote ascent into heaven went forth into the provinces of the world and an account, mainly geographical and ethnological. His work was taught His greatness; whence they who at this day believe their largely used by Arrian. Graecorum Fragment; preaching are called Christians.” This passage contains striking BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Mueller, Historicorum correspondences with the second section of the Apostles’ Creed. Schoene, De Rerum Alexandri M agni Scriptoribus (1870). The attribution of the Crucifixion to the Jews appears in several B.C.), a Jewish philosARISTOBULUS, of Paneas (c. 160 s him in the time and century documents; Justin actually uses the words “He was place e Gerck . school c ateti opher of the Perip ry), Anatolius m centu pierced by you” in his dialogue with Trypho the Jew. znd of of Ptolemy X. Philometor (end e of the 2nd cet “These are they,” he proceeds, “who beyond all the nations of middl the but us; delph Phila II. my that of Ptole st of the Jewish earlie the earth have found the truth: for they know God as Creator the g amon tury is more probable. He was cile Greek phil recon and Maker of all things, and they worship no other god beside to was aim whose rs sophe philo n Alexandria few fragments A on. Him; for they have His commandments graven on their hearts, religi h Jewis the with osophical conceptions Writings of and these they keep in expectation of the world to come... . the on of his work, apparently entitled Commentaries theological other and Whatsoever they would not should be done unto them, they do ius Euseb nt, Cleme by d

not to another... . He that hath supplieth him that hath not

without grudging: if they see a stranger they bring him under their roof, and rejoice over him, as over a brother indeed, for they call not one another brethren after the flesh, but after the

Moses, are quote philosophers had borwriters. He tried to prove that early Greek quoted were obvious ges passa the but ture, Scrip from rowed forgeries.

ARISTOCRACY—ARISTOPHANES

347

prniocraPHY.—See Schiirer, History of the Jewish People (Eng. | his chief source the prose history of Myron of Priene, an untrust1), ii. 237 E.seg.; article ALEXANDRIAN ScHOOL: Philosophy

ta EP opalus in Jewish Encyclopedia (Paul Wendland). oe, ARISTOCRACY, a form of government variously defined at different times and by different authorities (Gr. äpioros, “hest”; KpåTOS; “power”).

In Greek political philosophy, aris-

worthy writer, probably of the 2nd century B.c.; hence, a good deal of his story must be regarded as fanciful, though we cannot distinguish accurately between the true and the fictitious.

ARISTOGEITON: see Harmontivs.

ARISTOLOCHIA, a genus of shrubs or herbs of the family

Aristolochiaceae, often with climbing stems, found chiefly in the tropics. The flower forms a tube inflated at the base. The name ment by those who are superior both morally and intellectually, (Gr. &proros, best; Noxela, child-birth) alludes to its repute in aiding parturition. The birthwort (A. Clematitis) is a central and and, therefore, govern. directly in the interests of the governed, as a good doctor works for the good of his patient. Aristotle south European species, found sometimes in England, apparently dassified good governments under three heads—monarchy, aris- wild, on ruins and similar places, but not native. In the United tocracy and commonwealth (zro\rela), to which he opposed the States it has become naturalized along roadsides and in thickets from New York to Maryland. The Dutchman’s pipe or pipe vine three perverted forms—tyranny or absolutism, oligarchy and (A. macrophylla), native to rich woods in the eastern United democracy or mob-rule. The distinction between aristocracy and States from Pennsylvania to Minnesota and south to Georgia and oligarchy, which are both necessarily the rule of the few, is that Kansas, is a vigorous climber widely planted in Europe and the whereas the few G&puoroe will govern unselfishly, the oligarchs, United States as a porch-vine. The flower is of an odd shape and being the few wealthy (“plutocracy” in modern terminology), bent like a pipe. Some ro other species are native to the United will allow their personal interests to predominate. States. Among the best known of these are the Virginia snakeHistorically, aristocracy develops from primitive monarchy by root (A. Serpentaria), called also sangree-root and serpentary, the gradual progressive limitation of the regal authority. This found in dry woods from Connecticut to Michigan and southward process is effected primarily by the nobles who have hitherto to Florida and Louisiana, and valued medicinally for its aromaticformed the council of the king (for an excellent example in stimulant root; the woolly pipe vine (A. tomentosa), native to Athenian politics, see ARCHON), whose triple prerogative—re- woods from North Carolina to Missouri and southward; and the ligious, military and judicial—is vested, ¢.g., in a magistracy of western Dutchman’s pipe (A. californica), native to California. three. These are either members of the royal house or the heads Among the various species grown in greenhouses are the remarkof noble families, and are elected for life or periodically by their able pelican-flower (A. grandiflora), a native of tropical America, peers, 4.¢., by the old royal council (cf. the Areopagus at Athens, some varieties of which bear immense flowers often 20 in. across the Senate at Rome [qq.v.]), now the sovereign power. From with a tail-like appendage 3 ft. or more long; and the showy calthe earliest time, aristocracy became synonymous with oligarchy ico-flower (A. elegans), native to Brazil, a graceful, free-blooming and the opposite of democracy. climber with solitary flowers having a yellow-green tube 14 in. The aristocracy of which we know most in ancient Greece long and a purple and white blotched limb 3 in. across. was that of Athens prior to the reforms of Cleisthenes (q.v.), ARISTOMENES of Andania, the semi-legendary hero of the but all the Greek city-states passed through a period of aristo- second Messenian war. He was a member of the Aepytid family, cratic or oligarchic government. Rome, between the regal and the the son of Nicomedes (or, according to another version, of imperial periods, was always more or less under the aristocratic Pyrrhus) and Nicoteleia, and took a prominent part in stirring up government of the senate, in spite of the gradual growth of the revolt against Sparta and securing the co-operation of Argos democratic institutions (the Lat. optimates is the equivalent of and Arcadia. Under his leadership the Messenians won a victory porot). The relations existing between his slaves and the apioror at “the Boar’s Barrow,” but in the following year were defeated set up a philosophic doctrine, held even by Aristotle, that there and had to retire to the mountain stronghold of Eira. When this were peoples who were inferior by nature (dicex dodAor) and was betrayed to the Spartans (668 B.c. according to Pausanias) adapted to submission; such people had no “virtue” in the Aristomenes took refuge in Arcadia. Thence he went to Rhodes, technical civic sense, and were properly occupied in performing where he died. Though there seems to be no conclusive reason for the menial functions of society, under the control of the &pucroe. doubting the existence of Aristomenes, his history, as related by Thus, combined with the criteria of descent, civic status and the Pausanias, following mainly the Messeniaca of the Cretan epic ownership of the land, there was the further idea of intellectual poet Rhianus (about 230 B.c.), is evidently largely interwoven and social superiority. These qualifications were naturally, in with fictions. These probably arose after the foundation of Mescourse of time, shared by an increasingly large number of the sene in 369 B.c. Aristomenes’ statue was set up in the stadium lower class who broke down the barriers of wealth and education. there: his bones were fetched from Rhodes and placed in a tomb From this stage the transition is easy to the aristocracy of wealth, surmounted by a column (Paus. iv. 32. 3, 6); and more than five such as we find at Carthage and later at Venice, in periods when centuries later we still find heroic honours paid to him, and his the importance of commerce was paramount and mercantile pur- exploits a popular subject of song (ibid. iv. 14, 7; 16, 6). suits had cast off the stigma of inferiority (in Gr. Bavavcia): Breriocrapuy.—For further details see Pausanias iv.; Polyaenus ii. At the present day the sovereign power of a state no longer 31; G. Grote, History of Greece, pt. ii. chap. vii.; M. Duncker, History resides in an aristocracy, and the word has acquired a social of Greece, Eng. trans., book iv. chap. viii.; A. Holm, History of Greece, rather than a political sense, being practically equivalent to Eng. trans., vol. i. chap. xvi. tocracy is the government of those who most nearly attain to the ideal of human perfection. Aristocracy is thus the govern-

“nobility.” ARISTODEMUS (8th century z.c.), semi-legendary ruler

ARISTONICUS

of Alexandria,

Greek grammarian, lived

during the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. His chief work was

of Messenia in the time of the first Messenian war. In the 13th Tlept Zyuciwy ’Ounpov, in which he gave an account of the year of the war, the Messenian king died childless, and Aristo- “critical marks” inserted by Aristarchus in his recension of the demus was chosen as his successor. As a ruler he was mild and Iliad and Odyssey. Important fragments are preserved in the conciliatory. He was victorious in the pitched battle fought at scholia of the Venetian Codex A of the Tliad.

thefoot of Ithome in the fifth year of his reign, when the Messemans, reinforced by the entire Arcadian levy and picked contin-

gents from Argos and Sicyon, defeated the combined Spartan and

Corinthian forces. Shortly afterwards, however, led by unfavour-

ARISTOPHANES (c. 448-385 B.c.!), the great comic dram-

isdated 731-724 B.c. by Pausanias, and this may be taken as

atist and poet of Athens. His birth-year is uncertain. He is known to have been about the same age as Eupolis, and is said to have been “almost a boy” when his first comedy (The Banqueters) was brought out in 427 B.c. His father Philippus

Pausanias iv, 9-13 is practically our only authority. He followed as

1The dates in the text, as given by Jebb, are retained. According to R. G. Kent (Classical Review, April 1905, April 1906), Aristophanes was born in 455, and died in 375 B.c.

able omens to despair of final success, he killed himself.

Aristo-

uemus may fairly be regarded as a historical character. His reign approximately correct, though Duncker (History of Greece, Eng. trans., i. p. 69) inclines to place it eight years later.

|

Friedlander, Aristonici Dept Enuelwv Trrddos reliquiae (1853); Carnuth, Aristonici Mepl Znuelwv ’Odvecelas reliquiae (1869).

348

ARISTOPHANES

was a landowner in Aegina. Aristophanes was an Athenian citizen of the tribe Pandionis, and the deme Cydathene. The stories

(3) 423 B.c. The Clouds (the first edition; a second edition

was brought out in 422 B.C.).—This play would be correctly de.

scribed as an attack on the new spirit of intellectual inquiry which made him a native of Camirus in Rhodes, or of the Egyp- and culture rather than on a school or class. Two classes of think. inan than tian Naucratis, had probably no other foundation ers, or teachers, are, however, specially satirized under the genera] dictment for usurpation of civic rights (fevias ypaon) which name of “Sophist” (v. 331)——-1. The Physical Philosophers— Cleon. by him against appears to have been more than once laid indicated by allusions to the doctrines of Anaxagoras, Heracleitys The Old Comedy which lasted ¢. 470-390 B.C. was possible only and Diogenes of Apollonia. 2. The professed teachers of rhetoric ip, censorsh satirical a was for a thorough democracy. Its essence belles lettres, etc., such as Protagoras and Prodicus. Socrates unsparing in personalities, of public and of private life, of every- is taken as the type of the entire tendency. A youth named amuse could which or city the for thing which had an interest Pheidippides (obviously meant for Alcibiades) is sent by his the citizens. At Athens the poet of the Old Comedy had an in- father to Socrates to be cured of his dissolute propensities. Under fluence analogous, perhaps, rather to that of the journalist than the discipline of Socrates the youth becomes accomplished in to that of the modern dramatist. But the established type of dishonesty and impiety. The conclusion of the play shows the Dionysiac comedy gave him an instrument such as no public indignant father preparing to burn up the philosopher and his satirist has ever wielded. The wildest flights of extravagance were hall of contemplation. s permitted to him. Nothing bound him to a dangerous emphasi (4) 422 B.c. The Wasps.—This comedy, which suggested Les or thrust, keenest the deal could He e. insistenc or a wearisome Plaideurs to Racine, is a satire on the Athenian love of litigation, the vary moment next the make the most earnest appeal, and at The strength of demagogy, while it lay chiefly in the ecclesia, lay rable incompa an short, in had, He e. burlesqu by strain serious partly also in the paid dicasteries. From this point of view The scope for trenchant satire directed by sure tact. Wasps may be regarded as supplementing The Knights. PhilocComedy. Aristophanes is for us the representative of the Old leon (admirer of Cleon), an old man, has a passion for lawsuits of genius the ds transcen also includes, it But his genius, while —a passion to which his son, Bdelycleon (detester of Cleon) the Old Comedy. He can denounce the frauds of a Cleon, he can fails to check, until he hits upon the device of turning the house with allies, her to and herself to Athens of duty the vindicate into a law-court, and paying his father for absence from the a stinging scorn and a force of patriotic indignation which makes public suits. The house-dog steals a Sicilian cheese; the old s the poet almost forgotten in the citizen. He can banter Euripide man is enabled to gratify his taste by trying the case, and, by “with an ingenuity of light mockery which makes it seem for the an oversight, acquits the defendant. In the second half of the seeing of art the time as if the leading Aristophanic trait was play a change comes over the dream of Philocleon; from litigation all things from their prosaic side. Yet his truest and highest he turns to literature and music, and is congratulated by the in writing lyric of bits l faculty is revealed by those wonderfu chorus on his happy conversion. which he soars above everything that can move laughter or tears, (z) 421 Bc. The Peace——In its advocacy of peace with free, as song a of notes the with and makes the clear air thrill this play, acted at the Great Dionysia shortly before the Sparta, his by as musical and as wild as that of the nightingale invoked of the treaty, continues the purpose of The Acharnians, conclusion own chorus in The Birds. The speech of Dikaios Logos in The distressed Athenian, soars to the sky on a beetle’s a Trygaeus, in serenade the Peace, Clouds, the praises of country life in The he finds the gods engaged in pounding the Greek There back. The Ecclesiazusae, the songs of the Spartan and Athenian maidens In order to stop this, he frees the goddess mortar. a in States Frogs, The in chorus the perhaps, all, in the Lysistrata, above which she is imprisoned. The pestle and in well a from Peace as such the beautiful chant of the Initiated—these passages, and the gods, and Trygaeus marries one of by aside laid are mortar these, are the true glories of Aristophanes. the handmaids of Peace. Fortynes. Aristopha Fifty-four! comedies were ascribed to Il. Second Period—(6) 414 B.c. The Birds.—Peisthetaerus, three of these are allowed as genuine by Bergk. Eleven only are enterprising Athenian, and his friend Euelpides persuade the an and outer the on ry commenta extant. These 11 form a running to build a city—Cloud-Cuckoo-borough”—in mid-air, so birds under inner life of Athens during 36 years. They may be ranged to cut off the gods from men. The plan succeeds; the gods three periods. The first, extending to 420 B.C., includes those as envoys to treat with the birds; and Peisthetaerus marries send freeed unrestrain plays in which Aristophanes used an absolutely daughter of Zeus. Some have found in The Birds a comdom of political satire. The second ends with the year 405 B.C. Basileia, allegory of the Sicilian expedition; others a general historical plete time earlier the of those from Its productions are distinguished at Athens of headstrong caprice over prevalence the on satire by a certain degree of reticence and caution. The third period, an aspiration towards a new and merely others, and order; down to 388 B.c., comprises two plays in which the transition to law the poet had turned from his which to dream Athens—a purified merely not the character of the Middle Comedy is well marked, past. In another view, the the of Athens the of revival a for hope by disuse of the parabasis, but by general self-restraint. fanaticism which religious the a protest against lL. First Period—(1) 425 B.c. The Acharnians.—Since the piece is mainly forth. called had Hermae the of incident the defeat in Boeotia the peace party at Athens had gained ground, dur(7) arr B.c. The Lysistrata.—This play was brought out and in this play Aristophanes sought to strengthen their hands. led to the revolution which es intrigu those of stages earlier the ing peace Dicaeopolis, an honest countryman, is determined to make Hundred. It appeared shortly before Peisander had with Sparta on his own account, not deterred by the angry men of the Four in Athens from the camp at Samos for the purpose af of Acharnae, who crave vengeance for the devastation of their arrived the oligarchic policy. The Lysistrata expresses the ing organiz vineyards. He sends to Sparta for samples of peace; and he is desire for peace at any cost. As the men can do nothing, so much pleased with the flavour of the Thirty Years’ sample popular take the question into their own hands, occupy the women the that he at once concludes a treaty for himself and his family. and bring the citizens to surrender. All the blessings of life descend upon him; while Lamachus, the citadel, B.c. The Thesmophoriazusae (priestesses of Demeter). 411 (8) wounds. and leader of the war party, is smarting from cold, snow out three months later than the Lysistrata, during came (2) 424 B.c. The Knights—Three years before, in his Baby- —This terror established by the oligarchic conspirators, but lonians, Aristophanes had assailed Cleon as the typical demagogue. the reign of blow had been struck. The political meaning of the their before In this play he continues the attack. The Demos, or State, is in the absence of political allusion. Fear silences evel represented by an old man who has put himself and his household play lies Only women and Euripides are satirized. Euripides comedy. and into the hands of a rascally Paphlagonian steward. Nicias and condemned at the female festival of the ThesmoDemosthenes, slaves of Demos, contrive that the Paphlagonian is accused ; shall be supplanted in their master’s favour by a sausage seller. phoria. just out brought was piece This Frogs— The B.C. 405 (9) No sooner has Demos been thus rescued than his youthfulness the Peloponnesian War, when Athens had made her last effort in and his good sense return together. trans., p. 275). (Eng. iii. Greece, of 1See E. Curtius, Hist. lOr “44” (reading wd’ for vd’ in Suidas).

ARISTOPHANES—ARISTOTLE

349

eight months before the battle of Aegospotami and about 15 teacher for Athens. His rooted antipathy to intellectual progress before the taking of Athens by Lysander. It may be considered as an attempt to distract men’s minds from public affairs. It is a literary criticism. Aeschylus and Euripides were

must lower his intellectual rank. But as a mocker—to use the word which seems most closely to describe him on this side—he is incomparable for the union of subtlety with riot of the comic

down to Hades to bring back a poet. Aeschylus and Euripides contend in the under-world for the throne of tragedy; and the victory is at last awarded to Aeschylus.

poets, he has it for his distinctive characteristic that he is inspired less by that Greek genius which never allows fancy to escape from the control of defining, though spiritualizing, reason, than by such ethereal rapture of the unfettered fancy as lifts Shakespeare or Shelley above it—

months

both lately dead. Athens is beggared of poets; and Dionysus goes

IUL Third Period.—(10) 393 B.c.1 The Ecclesiazusae (women

in parliament).—The ecclesia, and succeed time the demagogue is in fact, a satire on

women, disguised as men, steal into the in decreeing a new constitution. At this Agyrrhius led the assembly; and the play

the general demoralization of public life.

'(a1) 388 B.c. The Plutus (Wealth) —The first edition of the ay had appeared in 408 B.C., being a symbolical representation

of the fact that the victories won by Alcibiades in the Hellespont had brought back the god of wealth to the treasure-chamber of the Parthenon. In its extant form the Plutus is simply a moral allegory. Chremylus, a worthy but poor man, falls in with a blind and aged wanderer, who proves to be the god of wealth.

Asclepios restores eyesight to Plutus; whereupon all the just are made rich and all the unjust are reduced to poverty. Among the lost plays, the following are the chief of which anything is known:

1. The Banqueters (Aaradets), 427 B.C——A satire on young Athens. A father has two sons; one is brought up in the good old school, another in the tricky subtleties of the new; and the contrast of the results is the chief theme. 2, The Babylonians, 426 B.c—Under this name the subjectallies of Athens are represented as ‘“‘Babylonians”—barbarian slaves, employed to grind in the mill. The oppression of the allies by the demagogues—a topic often touched elsewhere—was,

then, the main subject of the piece, in which Aristophanes is said to have attacked especially the system of appointing to offices by lot. The comedy is memorable as opening that Aristophanic

war upon Cleon which was continued in The Knights and The Wasps. The Merchantmen, The Farmers, The Preliminary Contest (Proagon) and possibly the Old Age (Geras), belonged to the First Period. The Geras is assigned by Stivern to 422 B.C., and

imagination. As a poet, he is immortal.

And, among Athenian

Pouring his full heart In profuse strains of unpremeditated art. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Editio princeps (Aldine, Venice, 1498), by Marcus Musurus (not including the Lysistrata and Thesmophoriazusae); S. Bergler (ed. P. Burmann, 1760) ; Invernizi-Beck-Dindorf (1794-1834) ; I. Bekker (1829); H. A. Holden (expurgated text, 1868), with Onomasticon (new ed., 1902); F. H. M. Blaydes (1880-93), and critical edition (1886); J. van Leeuwen (1893 foll.); F. W. Hall and E. M. Geldart (text, 2nd ed. 1906-07), with the fragment (Oxyrhynchus papyri) of a dialogue between two women concerning a leathern phallus, perhaps from Aristophanes, T. Bergk (1913). There is a complete edition of the valuable scholia by F. Diibner (1842, Didot series), with the anonymous biographies of the poet; of the Ravenna ms. by A. Martin (1883), and W. G. Rutherford (1896-1905). Among English

translations mention may be made of those of W. J. Hickie (prose, in Bohn’s Classical Library); (verse) J. Hookham Frere, five plays; T Mitchell, four plays; and, above all, B. B. Rogers, a brilliant work (now included in the Loeb series}. There is a concordance to the plays and fragments by H. Dunbar (1883). On Aristophanes generally see H. Miiller-Striibing, Aristophanes und die historische Kritik (1873); the article by G. Kaibel in Pauly-Wissowa’s Realencyklopddie, ii. 1 (1896) ; A. Couat, Avistophane et lancienne comédie attique (1889); E. Deschanel, Études sur Aristophane (3rd. ed., 1892); G. Dantu, Opinions et critiques d’ Aristophane sur le mouvement politique et intellectuel @ Athénes (1907). For the numerous editions and translations of separate plays in English and other languages see the introductions to Blaydes’s edition, and, for the literature, the introduction to W. J. M. Starkie’s edition of The Wasps (1897) ; W. Engelmann, Scriptores Graeci (1880); and “Bericht tiber die Literatur der griechischen Komödie aus den Jahren 1892-1901” in C. Bursian’s Jahresbericht über die Fortschritte der classischen Altertumswissenschapt, cxvi. (1904) ; M. Croiset, Aristophanes and Political Parties at Athens, Eng. trans., J. Loeb (1909); L. E. Lord, Aristophanes, his Plays and Influence (1925). (R. C. J., X.)

ARISTOPHANES,

of Byzantium, Greek critic and gram-

marian, was born about 257 B.C. Early in life he removed is supposed to have been a picture of dotage similar to that in to Alexandria, where he studied under Zenodotus and Calthe Knights. A comedy called The Island is conjectured to have lmachus. At the age of 6o he was appointed chief librarian of dealt with the sufferings imposed by the war on the insular the museum. He died about 185-r80 B.c. Aristophanes produced tributaries. The Triphales was probably a satire on Alcibiades; a text of Homer which was an improvement on that of ZenodThe Storks, on the tragic poet Patrocles. otus. He also edited Hesiod, Alcaeus, Anacreon, Pindar and In the Aeolosicon—produced by his son Araros in 387 B.c.— the great dramatists; arranged Plato’s dialogues in trilogies. Aristophanes probably parodied the Aeolus of Euripides. The His arguments to the plays of Aristophanes and the tragedians Cocalus is thought to have been a parody of the legend, according are in great part preserved. His works on Athenian courtesans, to which a Sicilian king of that name slew Minos. masks and proverbs were the result of his study of Attic A sympathetic reader of Aristophanes can hardly fail to per- comedy. He further commented on the Pinakes (“tablets”) of ceive that, while his political and intellectual tendencies are well Callimachus, a sort of history of Greek literature. As a leximarked, his opinions, in so far as they colour his comedies, are cographer, Aristophanes compiled collections of foreign and too indefinite to reward, or indeed to tolerate, analysis. Aristoph- unusual words and expressions, and special lists (words denotanes was a natural conservative. His ideal was the Athens of ing relationship, modes of address). As a grammarian, he the Persian wars. He disapproved the policy which had made founded a scientific school, and in his Analogy systematically Athenian empire irksome to the allies and formidable to Greece; explained the various forms. He introduced critical signs—exhe detested the vulgarity and the violence of mob-rule; he clave cept the obelus; punctuation, prosodiacal, and accentual marks to the old worship of the gods; he regarded the new ideas of were probably already in use. The foundation of the so-called education as a tissue of imposture and impiety. How far he was Alexandrian “canon” was also due to his impulse. from a clear view of the intellectual revolution which was going

forward, appears from The Clouds, in which thinkers and literary

Workers who had absolutely nothing in common are treated with sweeping ridicule as prophets of a common heresy. Aristophanes is one of the men for whom opinion is mainly a matter of feeling,

See A. Nauck, Aristophanis Byzantii Grammatici Fragmenta (1848) ; Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (3rd ed. 1921, vol. i. ch. viii.).

ARISTOTELIANISM: see ARISTOTLE. ARISTOTLE, philosopher, psychologist, logician, moralist, political thinker, biologist, the founder of literary criticism—was

not of reason. He had a warm love for the traditional glories of born at Stagira, a Greek colonial town on the north-western shores Athens; a horror of what was ugly or ignoble; a keen perception of the Aegaean, in 384 B.c. He was the son of Nicomachus, a of the absurd. The broad preferences and dislikes thus generated doctor, belonging to the guild of the “sons of Aesculapius,” who were enough not only to point the moral of comedy but to make had acted as court physician to Amyntas II., the father of Philip m, m many cases, a really useful censor for the city. The service of Macedon. We may perhaps attribute to this fact the interest which he could render in this way was, however, only negative.

He could hardly be, in any positive sense, a political or a moral 'The date is uncertain; others give 392 and 389.

which

he afterwards

showed

in physiological

and

zoological

studies—though it must be admitted that these studies belong to his later years, and were perhaps due less to heredity than to that

350

ARISTOTLE

general passion for detailed enquiry in every direction which marks the later stages of his development. By race he was an Ionian. Stagira had been largely colonized from the Ionic district of Chalcis in Euboea; his mother was a native of that district; and to it he naturally retired at the end of his life. His Ionic blood has been called in evidence to explain his interest in the facts of nature. It was the Ionian philosophers of Asia Minor who had first investigated “Nature”; and Aristotle, it has been said, “was from first to last an Ionian, an observer of the facts of nature, a man for whom no problem was too detailed to whet

his curiosity.” But racial characteristics are at the best only dubious explanations; and the development of Aristotle’s thought would, perhaps, have equally led him to

between Plato the mathematician and Aristotle the biologist There is a truth in the distinction. Plato’s interest in “ideas” found a natural basis in geometrical forms and the abstract rules

of numbers: Aristotle’s interest in the classification of genera ang species led him naturally towards the world of organic nature.

and the emphasis which he came to lay more and more on devel. opment (yéveors) accentuated that tendency. Yet it may be con. tended that the mathematical knowledge of Plato went litt,

deeper than that of Aristotle; and on the other hand it is easy to exaggerate the importance of the biological element in Aristotle’;

general system of thought. (See W. D. Ross, introduction tg Selections from Aristotle.) What seems to be certain is that there is no proof of any serious division of opinion between Aristotle and Plato during the 20 years of their intercourse.

Aristotle re.

mained one of the circle of “friends” in the Academy throughout

detailed scientific enquiry if he had been born an Athenian or a Theban. Life of Aristotle.—The life of Aristotle falls into three clearly marked periods. There is the period of work in the philosophic school of Plato, in the Academy at Athens, which covers the 20 years from the age of 17 to that of 37 (367-347 B.c.), and only comes to an end with the death of Plato. There is the period of his Wanderjahre—at Assus, in

that period; he joined in its researches and possibly its teaching! and the dialogues which he wrote during those years—dialogues now lost, but celebrated in antiquity alike for their style and their content—were largely modelled on the style of the later series of Platonic dialogues which begins with the Theaetetus. We may admit, indeed, that in his later dialogues, and particularly in that entitled De Philosophia, he diverged from the Platonic doctrine of “ideas” as “separable” from and existing “beyond” individual things; but. there is no reason for thinking that this divergence ever approached the nature of a sharp contention, or was anything more than a friendly difference of opinion. The master and the pupil were undivided when Plato died in 347; and

Lesbos opposite; and at the Macedonian aristorLe, THETHINKER,

the noble words which Aristotle wrote, for an altar of friendship

the south of the Troad; on the island of AFTERA CAST INTHE METROPOL court in Pella, some 80m. to the west of WHOSE PHILOSOPHY HAS Stagira—which covers the dozen years INFLUENCED THE WORLD

from the age of 37 to that of 49 (347-335 FOR 2,000 YEARS B.c.), and ends with the majority and accession of his pupil Alexander. Finally, there is a second period of work in Athens—

a period of work on his own account as the head of the Peripatetic school in the Lyceum—which covers, roughly, another dozen years of his life, from the age of 49 to that of 62 (335-322 B.C.), and ends with his retirement to Chalcis and his death. These periods are not only stages in the external course of a life. They are also — it has been contended by Prof. Jaeger in his work on Aristotle— stages in the internal development of a body of thought. The Aristotle of the first period differs from the Aristotle of the last; and it is thus of the first importance to follow the stages of his life in order to understand the stages, and the progress, of the development of his thought. I. It must have been the greatest and the profoundest of fac-

tors in the life of Aristotle that he worked for 20 years by the side

of Plato. He came as a disciple—a young disciple of 17—to sit at the feet of a master who had attained the age of 61; but in the course of years he must have become a fellow-worker in the studies of the Academy. The Plato of those years—the greyhaired Plato in the evening of a life which reached the age of 81-— was no longer the Plato of the Republic; but he was still, and more than ever, the beloved master of a body of “friends” engaged together in the pursuit of truth and goodness. His school was now in the stage which is marked by the Theaetetus, the Politicus, and the other dialogues of this period: it had left the Socratic stage, and was occupied with the problems of “ideas” and with the division of “ideas,” down and down, until the indivisible (or, as we say, the individual, by which Plato meant the infima species) was eventually reached. Here was the germ from which grew Aristotle’s logic, and from which, again, his metaphysics took its beginning. But the Academy was also engaged in some measure of concrete and scientific study. Mathematics and astronomy were especially cultivated: the Laws of Plato, the work of his old age, presupposes a body of research in legal and constitutional questions; and the study of medicine seems also to have been in some measure pursued. We may guess that Aristotle took his part in these various studies. His sketch of an ideal State in the last two books of the Politics, which may be early, shows a close relation to Plato’s Laws. He hardly shared, indeed, in Plato’s passion for mathematics; and he was perhaps always more interested than

in memory of Plato, attest the depth of the pupil’s feeling even after the master’s death. II. On the death of Plato his nephew Speusippus succeeded him as the head of the Academy. Aristotle and another of Plato’s pupils, Kenocrates, thereupon left Athens, perhaps believing, as Professor Jaeger has said, that Speusippus was the heir not of the spirit, but only of the office of the master, and perhaps desiring to find a new place for the habitation of the spirit. The place they chose was Assus. There were interesting reasons for their choice, Two old pupils of Plato, Erastus and Coriscus, had taken his teaching back to their native town of Scepsis, on the slopes of Mt. Ida. Here they had come in contact with Hermias, a eunuch, who had perhaps been a banker’s clerk, and had thriven suficiently to buy mining property near Mt. Ida and eventually to acquire the title of prince from the Persians and establish himself as “tyrant” in Atarneus, a town to the south-east of Assus. The two Platonists and Hermias had studied together: Plato hat written to them the sixth of his Epistles for their guidance; and Hermias, some time before the death of Plato, had given the town of Assus in gratitude to his two companions in study. To Assus, in this conjuncture of affairs, Aristotle and his fellow-pupil came in order to join the Platonic circle; and here Aristotle set up a school in which he taught for the next three years. Hermias was among his pupils; and Theophrastus came from the neighbouring islands of Lesbos to join the company. Two consequences followed. In the first place, Hermias gave his adopted daughter and niece, Pythias, in marriage to Aristotle. In the second place, perhaps on the suggestion of Theophrastus, Aristotle moved, about 344 B.C., to the island of Lesbos; and here, in what Prof. Wentworth Thompson has called a long honeymoon, he spent two

years (344-342 B.c.) largely in the study of natural history, and

especially in that of marine biology. But politics, as they had been present in his thought, and probably his teaching, from his first coming to Assus and joining the company of Hermias (we may attribute the beginning of the Politics to this date), continued to be present and pressing while he was at work in Lesbos.

Hermias seems to have been negotiating about this time with

Philip of Macedon, who was already thinking of the crusade against Persia, and might naturally desire a poznt d'appui on the south of the Dardanelles in the territory of the “tyrant” of Atarneus. It may have been in this way, and in consequence of

these negotiations, that Aristotle, the son-in-law of Hermias, wis was possibly the subject of his lectures;

and we may

Rhetoric Plato in biological study. Some scholars have drawn a distinction | perhaps date the beginning of the Rhetoric in this period.

ARISTOTLE

351

invited by Philip to come to Pella and continue his teaching there

drama (which supplemented the Poetics); on the other, a record

for the benefit of the young Alexander.

of 158 constitutions (which equally supplemented the Politics), an account of “the customs of barbarians,” and a treatise on “cases of constitutional law.” In the field of natural history the volume of his production was greater still. It included the Historia Animalium, a record of biological facts, in which the material furnished by Alexander’s expedition seems to have been used (as it also seems to have been used in a treatise “on the rising of the Nile”); it included biological treatises based on these

In 342 he accepted the

invitation ; and the next seven years of his life (342-33 5 B.C.) were spent inMacedonia. He had scarcely settled in Pella when

he heard the news that Hermias had been seized by the Persians,

taken to Susa, tortured and crucified, with the final words on his

-e

“Tell my friends and companions that I have done nothing

worthy of philosophy.” The news may have helped to inspire Aristotle (who wrote an ode celebrating Hermias, along with

Achilles, as a follower of true valour) with anti-Persian feeling;

and may have led him to inspire his pupil all the more to follow the way of Achilles! and, as the champion and leader of a united

facts; it included a body of treatises which inaugurated the study of psychology; and it has been suggested that it also included

both a scheme for the history of the sciences (physics—including metaphysics—mathematics and medicine) and researches in medis little evidence which bears on Aristotle’s work and teaching in ical subjects such as anatomy and physiology. Exegit monumenMacedonia. Possibly he hadalittle circle of “friends” (including tum ... Situ pyramidum aliius; and even if some of the steps Theophrastus) with whom he continued his general studies and of the monument are conjectural, we cannot but admire its teaching. We know that he formed a friendship with Antipater; height and its massive plan.

Greece, to lay low the great king of the East. Unfortunately, there

and it is this friendship which is one of the chief factors in the last phase of his life. III. Even before the death of Philip in 336 Alexander was more and more concerned in affairs, and Aristotle must have seen less

and less of his pupil. After the accession of Alexander there was nothing to keep him in Macedonia, and he naturally returned to Athens, the intellectual centre of Greece, consecrated for him by the memory of Plato, where he could hope to work quietly under the protection of Antipater, now acting as regent in Macedonia

and Greece after the departure of Alexander on his eastern cam-

paign. His relations with Alexander were now practically at an end, True, his nephew Callisthenes accompanied Alexander to the

East: true, he received scientific material from the scientific staff which accompanied the eastern expedition: true, again, he wrote a treatise, “Alexander or on Colonies,” which seems to belong to

the period of Alexander’s foundation of colonial cities in Egypt

and Asia. But Callisthenes was done to death by Alexander in

327; and even before that time Alexander had already departed

widely from Aristotle’s teaching, and had deserted anti-Persian feeling and notions of Greek supremacy for the plan of an empire resting on the equal and harmonious co-operation of Persians and Greeks. In any case the Aristotle of the last 13 years (335-322 zc.) is an Aristotle immersed in pure science and investigation. Side by side with the Academy (now under Xenocrates, the fellowpupil of Plato who had once followed him to Assus) he set up his own school in the Lyceum—a school which came to be known as the Peripatetic, from the repiraros in its garden in which he walked and talked with his pupils. The school was a definite organization—a Giacos, somewhat like a college, which formed a society devoted to the cult of the Muses; and like a college it had its regular dinners and even its plate. It was furnished with maps and a library: it had something of a staff, and Theophrastus was among its lecturers. The great body of the extant Aristotelian treatises represents the lectures which Aristotle delivered in his

school at Athens in the evening of his life—not that they were then all composed for the first time (on the contrary, many of them had grown during the years of wandering, and the extant forms still contain traces of earlier versions and earlier views), but that they were now reduced by Aristotle to the form in which we know them. The range of studies was catholic and indeed universal. It is now that Aristotle departs from his master Plato—

not so much in altering his theory of “ideas,” as in shifting the whole balance of his interest, and in turning from “the heavenly things that are the objects of the higher philosophy” to the detaled facts of historical and biological process. He leaves pidooopia, we may say, for foropia, in that wide sense of the word in which it means the sober registering of recorded fact; and here he shows himself more Baconian than the Bacon of the No-

vum Organum. The work of hbis last years is an encyclopaedia—an encyclopaedia of unique value, in that it proceeds from a single

nnd informed by a single set of controlling ideas. In the field of human history he produced, on the one side lists of the victors in the Pythian and Olympic games, and a chronology of the Athenian une of the first acts of Alexander, after crossing the Dardanelles,

as to place a garland on the tomb of Achilles.

In 323, in the midst of all these activities, Aristotle received

the news of the death of Alexander. Antipater had been summoned to the presence of Alexander and was absent from Greece; the nationalist party raised its head in Athens; and Aristotle fled to his mother’s home in Chalcis, on the island of Euboea, where he died in 322 at the age of 62.1 By his marriage with the daughter of Hermias he had a daughter, also called Pythias; by a later union he had a son, called according to Greek custom by the name of his grandfather Nicomachus. His personality is hidden behind his works. Tradition makes him speak with a lisp and pay attention to dress. The busts, which seem to be authentic, show firm lips and intent eyes. He was a man of affairs, versed in the ways of courts; and he had at its height the invincible and insatiable curiosity of the Greek mind. But there was something more in him than the light of a pure intellect. The study of his life leaves the impression of generous humanity. His will shows him concerned for every relative and dependant, and not least for the emancipation of his slaves. And there is a phrase in an Aristotelian fragment, which may come from a letter of his later years, which cannot be forgotten. “The more I find myself by myself and alone, the more I have become a lover of myth.” “Myth” may have meant to Aristotle a little of what revelation has meant to millions in later centuries; and for all his scientific labours he may yet have felt at the last—what indeed he suggests in passages of his own treatises—that there was a supreme consolation in the life of contemplation which might lead, at its highest moments, to visions of the Divine. The Writings

of Aristotle.—The writings of Aristotle fall

into three main kinds. There are literary essays intended for publication, such as the early dialogues (now lost except for fragments); there are the set works of his later years, such as the

Constitution of Athens (one of the 158 Constitutions which was rediscovered over 30 years ago); and above all there are what we may call treatises, intended for use in lectures or for the reading of the students of the Lyceum, of which we possess a large variety.

(1) The dialogues, written with a conscious art and a definite pursuit of style, were modelled on those of Plato; but they are said by ancient writers to have differed from Plato’s dialogues in representing different persons as stating at length their different views on the subject treated. They were famed for their lucidity and the easy flow of their style; they belong to the period of Aristotle’s discipleship in the Academy (367-347 B.c.); almost to the very last they followed the doctrine of Plato; and their 1An archaeological discovery, which may bear on Aristotle, was made about 1890. Near Eretria, in Euboea, in an ancient cemetery in which non-residents as well as residents had been buried, there was exhumed from a rich tomb with marble foundations a number of objects—seven gold diadems, two styluses, a pen, a signet ring and a terra cotta statuette of a man in an attitude like that which Christodorus (Anth. Pal., ii.) ascribes to a statue of Aristotle. On a sepulchral stone in the grave was found the inscription, in lettering of the early 3rd century B.c., [Bliorn [Alpweroredov. The grave may have been connected with the family of Aristotle (though Chalcis ig over a dozen miles away from Eretria); the styluses, pen and statuette may, in that case, be connected with Aristotle himself; and a skull which was also discovered may have been his. (See C.L.G., vol. xii., fasc. ix. under Eretria, where references are given to the literature on the subject.)

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ARISTOTLE

clear and stirring account of Platonic doctrine exercised a large the “progression,” the “motion” and the “reproduction” of ani influence in antiquity down to the days of St. Augustine. The two mals. Whether or no we regard Aristotle as peculiarly biological most famous and considerable of these dialogues were the Protrep- in his general point of view and his general approach to the ticus, an exhortation to the philosophic life, which was a model for problems of knowledge, we must recognize that it was in th Cicero’s Hortensius and was partly incorporated by Iamblichus sphere of biology that he made one of his greatest contributions (as Prof. Bywater first recognized in 1869) in a philosophic text- to the advancement of learning. The remaining heads under which his treatises may be grouped book for beginners, also called the Protrepticus, and the De Philare the metaphysical, the ethical, the political and the literary we as which, in dialogues, the all of latest the perhaps osophia, have already seen, Aristotle first showed signs of a movement Under the head of metaphysics, or “first philosophy,” which ig an away from Plato’s theory of “ideas.” Generally, however, the enquiry into the nature of existence (otcia), and involves a dis. dialogues of Aristotle were purely Platonic in the range and the cussion of the question whether universals exist as substances substance of their thought; and several of them, such as the “separable” from their particulars, we have a composite treatise i Politicus and the Sophistes, bear the same name and perhaps containing different strata put together by later editors, which handled the same theme as Platonic dialogues. If only we could called the Metaphysics. Under the head of ethics we have ty recover the lost dialogue “On Justice,” which appears from its treatises—the Eudemian Ethics (so called from Eudemus, one of title to correspond to Plato's Republic (for the Republic, too, Aristotle’s pupils), and the Nicomachean Ethics (which derives treats of justice, and indeed its alternative title is “On Justice”), its name from his son Nicomachus). It is now held that the forme it would be profoundly interesting to compare Aristotle’s views in is a genuine work of Aristotle, belonging to the middle period of this dialogue both with those of his master and with his own his life, which was subsequently edited by Eudemus, and that the later views on the doctrines of the Republic as they are expressed latter is a statement, edited by his son, of his final views on ethics in the last period of his life. (We may remark, however, that even in the second book of the Politics. (2) Midway between the dialogues and the treatises of Aris- the Nicomachean Ethics is somewhat simple, not to say elementotle come a number of works which, like the dialogues, were set tary, in its psychological foundations, and that it shows little con. compositions in literary form intended for publication, but which, nection with the detailed study of the problems of psychology in like the treatises, were mainly of the nature of scientific compila- the treatises which deal with that subject.) Under the head of tions. Apart from an essay On Monarchy, which may belong to politics we have the treatise called the Politics, which falls into the time of his residence at Pella, these works belong to the third three parts—a philosophical “theory of the State” in Books i-ii., and last period of his life, during which he was occupied in investi- a detailed study (running into practical suggestions) of the “forms gation and teaching in the Lyceum. They include the Alexander, and methods of government’ in Books iv.—vi.; and a torso of a or on Colonies; the accounts of 158 Constitutions; the compila- sketch of an ideal State in Books vii-—vuli. Opinions differ in tions of “the Customs of Barbarians” and of “Cases of Constitu- regard to the dates of the different parts; but it seems reasonable tional Law’; the chronological tables of victors in the Pythian to believe that the last two books, which show a considerable deand Olympic games; and a list of the successful dramas produced pendence on Plato’s Laws, are early, and that the three midde books, which go naturally with the collection of 158 Constitutions, at the festivals of Dionysus at Athens. and suggest in their method the biological studies of Aristotle's begun cases several in were seen, have we as treatises, (3) The in the period of Wanderjahre from 347 to 335, but in the form in last period, are the latest. Finally, we have to count, under the which they have come down to us they belong to the final period head of literary criticism, the three books of the Rhetoric and the between 335 and 322. They were all written by Aristotle in con- short treatise, Poetics. More important than the classification of Aristotle’s treatises is nection with his courses of lectifres—not so much, probably, in the chronology of their composition. Important as it is, it must lectures of delivery the in followed be to the way of “notes,” however, in saying that (the actual lectures may have been more discursive and more of also remain conjectural. We are justified, the nature of discussions or conversations with a class), but more Aristotle seems to have moved from an earlier concern with logic (or, in other in the way of “memoranda,” which may have been written after- and “the higher philosophy of heavenly things” towards a later and wards, to preserve a record of the main results attained in lec- words, from the circle of Platonic interests) more absorbing passion for the study and record of actual facts tures and discussions. political and IitThe treatises may be grouped under some eight main heads, alike in the world of “nature” and in the world of form of a numthough we cannot for a moment say that each of these heads cor- erary “art.” On this basis we may assign the first expanded later been have must true, is it (which, treatises of ber classificathe that or responds to a separate “course” of lectures, tion is the same as Aristotle himself would have made. The first in connection with Aristotle’s later lectures) to the period before Organon, the Physics, the head is what Aristotle calls “analytics,” or, as we should say, 335. Among these we may count the De Anima, the Eudemin the of book general) most (and third logic. ‘Under this head we have some half-dozen treatises (the and probably the Metaphysics, the of part considerable a Ethics, Sophistict the Topics, the Interpretatione, de the Categories, of the Politics three) first the also perhaps (with books two last Elenchi, and the Prior and Posterior Analytics) which came to be known, some centuries afterwards, as the Organon, or “instru- The rest of the treatises we may ascribe to the final period of Arisment” of science and scientific reasoning. The second head we totle’s life. The Philosophy of Aristotle.—It is impossible, within the may call by the name of “physics,” using that term in a wider sense than that in which we use it to-day, and taking it to mean space of a brief article, to give any account of Aristotle’s teaching dealt; the general study of inorganic “nature” (@iovs). Here we have on the many specific branches of knowledge with which he to reckon the treatise on Physics, the De Caelo, the De Genera- and the reader is referred to the articles on subjects such as account of tione et Corruptione and the Meteorologica. The third head may Logic, Ethics and Metaphysics for a more adequate we an Here development. their to made he be termed psychology—of which (as also of logic) Aristotle was . the contribution which the inventor. Under it fall the De Anima and the Parva Naturaha only deal with the general development of Aristotle’s thought, the | —the latter a collection of essays on subjects such as sensation, general views which run through his treatises, and the particular memory, sleep and dreams. The fourth head may be called by the opinions which have influenced subsequent thought most proname of biology. We have seen that Aristotle was already inter- foundly. Starting with a veneration for Plato and an acceptance ested in the study of this subject in his Lesbian days, about 344—- of the Platonic tradition which lasted almost to the death o! 342 B.c., and that he continued his interest and extended his Plato and his own middle age, he followed more and more in the studies in the final period of his life. His biological treatises are last 2 years of his life (347-322 B.c.) a peculiar and distinctive

the Historia Animalium (a record of data corresponding, in the method of his own. Plato had studied reality as a whole, and the sphere of natural history, to the record of 158 constitutions in the reality he had studied had been the super-sensible reality of

“ideas.” Aristotle divided reality into the several spberes af biology, ethics, politics and psychology; and the reality physics, the data of the Historia, which include studies of the “parts,” sphere of politics), and a number of theoretical works, based on

ARISTOTLE ghich he studied in these spheres was the observable facts (ra yra) of actual and: concrete individual substances, The soa of his procedure in each field of “enquiry” was obserwith experiyation of the data (coupled, in biology at any rate, ina

0

mental research in the way of dissection, with a view to determ

ing the data more exactly); and the object of his study was to discover some general theory which, in the Greek phrase, “saved” —or, as WE might say, explained without doing violence to them—

the data which had been observed. (“The course of exposition,”

he lays it down in the De Partibus Animalium, “must be, first, to state the attributes common to whole groups of animals, and then

toattempt to give their explanation.”) Aristotle possessed in a remarkable degree the scientific habit of mind; on the one hand he

have predistinguished the various “sciences” (or, as he would

ferred to Say, “enquiries”), drawing the lines of division between them and attaching to some of them the names they have since

continued to bear; on the other hand he followed a scientific pro-

cedure in each of the subjects he treated, and within the limits of his technique (he had few instruments at his disposal, and he had to discover for himself the rules of reasoning) he observed the permanent canons of scientific enquiry. If the essence of his method

and teaching had been followed, the fruit would have been a great

period of scientific investigation and discovery. No nobler exordium to such a period could be furnished than the great passage in the De Partibus Animalium (642b 22 sqq.), in which he propounds the programme and the justification of a study of Nature. But the essence of his teaching and method was not followed. The reason may partly be that his treatises seem to have been, sub-

merged from the time of his death for over a couple of centuries. According to a tradition of antiquity which may well be accepted,

the library and the treatises of Aristotle passed at his death to Neleus, the son of that Coriscus of Scepsis whom he had left Athens to join in 347 B.c.; and they continued in the hands of the descendants of Neleus, apparently neglected and forgotten, until they were recovered for the learned world from the cellar of a house in Scepsis in the time of Sulla (80 B.c.). Destitute of the master’s treatises, and rapidly forgetting his spirit, the Peripatetic school hardened into a logical tradition of its own; and even when the treatises were recovered, they were treated not as incentives to enquiry and further discovery but as a rounded body of complete knowledge (perhaps the last thing that Aristotle would have claimed for his tentative conclusions), on which commentators might write and lecture as if it contained the final word of perfection. As a spirit and an incentive, Aristotle was dead; he only lived, if indeed it can be called life, as a “master of those who knew” and a corpus scientiae. In this way the great researcher was made the enemy of research; and this continued to be his fate for century on century. The middle ages, as we shall see, inherited the Peripatetic cult of “the master”; they “made his torch,” as Dryden said, “their universal light”; and thus the beginning of modern science in the 16th century took the form of a revolt against Aristotle—one of the most scientific spirits that ever lived. The life of Aristotle after his death has many of the

elements of a tragedy.

_ But we must return to the real Aristotle who lived and worked

in the 4th century B.c. He had a profound respect for given facts, and a deep passion for classifying these facts with a scrupulous respect for their exact character. He was no longer, when he

reached the definitely scientific stage of his development, interested in “ideas” as they were conceived by Plato; but he was profoundly interested in “forms”—in the common attributes which can be observed in the same kind of things, and enable us to

classify such things in terms of genera and species. “The principal object of natural philosophy,” he wrote, “is not the material ele-

353

ory,” and then to “experience,” of the same kind of thing. By making such concepts we make a world we can understand—the world of knowledge; and within that world we can reason and use the methods of valid argument. It is one of the greatest services of Aristotle to knowledge that he laid down, and was the first to lay down, these methods, and that he invented the science of logic. There was reasoning before Aristotle, and the dialogues of Plato abundantly imply its methods and rules. But Aristotle was the first to make them explicit; and the inventor of the syllogism, as he may justly be called, deserves to be celebrated in the annals of human thought. One of the general views which runs through Aristotle’s thought, if it is expressed more particularly in the Physics, is a view which we may call by the name of evolution or -yéveois. Whether this view was due to his study of biology, or his study of biology was a result and an application of a general view which he had formed on general grounds, we cannot pause to inquire. In any case, a pervading conception of growth is what chiefly distinguishes his thought from that of Plato. Plato had been more deeply interested in being than in becoming, which belonged in his view to the deceptive world of fallible sense; and he had tried to interpret true and permanent being in the light of the permanent truths of mathematics, making number the basis of the universe and identifying matter with space. His universe was thus a static universe. The universe of Aristotle is dynamic; his world is engaged in becoming; the “nature” of each thing is a potentiality which moves through a process of development (a process which is also “nature”) to an actuality which is true and final and perfect “nature” —for “nature is the end,” as he writes in the Politics, “and what each thing is when fully developed we call its nature.” There is thus a teleological view behind Aristotle’s conception of the nature of things. The movement which he sees incessantly at work is a movement towards an end immanent from the first in the subject of movement, and determining all its growth; “for the process of evolution is for the sake of the thing finally evolved, and not this for the sake of the process.” This general conception is applied by Aristotle not only to developments in the sphere of organic nature, but also to constructions in the sphere of human art. The activity of man, whether in the building of a house or the making of a statue, in the putting together of a State or the composition of a tragedy, is the activity of realizing a plan or “form,” and of causing a material which has the proper potentiality—be it wood and stone, or marble, or the human trend to association, or the human passion for imitation—to move towards the “form” which is also its “end.” There is thus no distinction between “nature” and “art” in Aristotle’s view. They move on parallel lines; they may co-operate. As he says of the State in the Politics, “by nature there is an impulse in all men towards political association, but he who first put them together (6 mpôros ovornoas) was the cause of the greatest of benefits.” Of all Aristotle’s treatises it is perhaps those on ethics and politics (along with that on logic) which have exercised the deepest and most continuous influence on subsequent thought. There have been many who, like Archbishop Laud (St. Thomas Aquinas and Dante might equally have made the confession), have acknowledged Aristotle as their “master in humanis.” The Nicomachean Ethics is one of the great books of the world. Its application of the doctrine of the mean to the various virtues; its

theory of the relation between external goods and the inward hap-

piness of the among reckon

of the spirit; its doctrine of habits, and of the importance stage of habituation in moral development—all these are the permanent possessions of human thought. We may in the same category what Aristotle says of the life of

contemplation (which is “a laying hold on immortality as far as is possible for men”) and what he writes of the connection beaim ofall science, we may say, is to form an intelligible universe tween “leisure” (an activity to be distinguished alike from “work” bydiscovering the universal in the particulars—particulars which and from “amusement”’) and the contemplative life. The Politics, of the Ethics, has furnished the genate the primary and only substances or existences, but which none if it has not all the qualities theless have no existence independently of the universal which is erations with many of the great axioms of political truth. That their “form” and makes them the class or kind of existence which “the State is by nature” (which does not prevent it from also

ments, but their composition, and the totality of the form.” The

they are. Such universals are concepts formed by the intuitive

reason on the basis of repeated “‘sensations,” which rise to “mem-

being “by art”); that it exists for the good life, if it begins for the sake of life only; that law is the true sovereign of States, and

354

ARISTOTLE

governments are servants of law; that there is a fundamental difference between the lawful monarch and the tyrant who governs by his arbitrary will; that there is a right inherent in the people, in virtue of their capacity of collective judgment, to elect the their rulers and call them to account—these are some of

In the course of the 13th century, between 1200 and 1270 the

general body of the Aristotelian writings other than the Organo (the Physics, the Metaphysics and the De Anima; the Politics and the Ethics) began to be imported into the University of Paris

Here, axioms on which men have argued from century to century.

the University of Oxford, which had arisen at the same time, ang the University of Cambridge, which had arisen a little later It

was from Cordova and Constantinople that the new knowledge of and in this example, we can see a service which Aristatle—schem- the works of Aristotle was derived; and the process of the tran; of teaching the in be might he as atized and glossed and ossified mission of his various writings to the Latin West is one of the the schools—none the less continued to render for generation on curiosities, and one of the romances, of the history of learning. themes —the thought of “topics” great the generation. He supplied Cordova in the 12th century was the great seat of Arabic lear. for discussion and the standard “commonplaces” on these themes; ing. Arabic learning had included, since about 800 A.D., the study thought which of grooves the in ogy terminol a too, and he supplied, of the Aristotelian treatises, and especially of those which dealt could run. When thought had to be rebuilt after the collapse of with physics, metaphysics and psychology, The tradition of Aris. at classical civilization, and while the middle ages were toiling of totle had survived among the Syrians, and the Arabs had acquired the work, it was no small thing that men should have the tools the tradition in Syria when they conquered the country in the jth a terminology and the rules of accepted axioms. The History of Aristotle’s Writings and Philosophy.— The tradition of Aristotle was continued—and forgotten, perhaps, even more than it was continued—in the Peripatetic schoal. But it never affected classical antiquity so deeply as the tradition of Plato, which—whether it was fused, as by Posidonius of Apamea, into an eclectic philosophy which also included Stoic theory, or was exaggerated, as it was by the Neoplatonists, into a sort of mysticism—continued to be a magnet to ancient thought. It is in the thousand years that lie between the collapse of ancient civilization in the sth century and the beginning of the classical Renaissance in the 13th that the influence of Aristotle is strongest and most diffused. It was the logic of Aristotle which for more than half of this period (from 500 to 1200 A.D.) was alone known in the West; and not only so, but down to the beginning of the 12th century it was only the earlier and more elementary parts of the Organon which were known and studied. Even this was only

studied in a Latin translation and commentary made by Boethius; and indeed the study of Aristotle through the whole of the middle ages was the study of Aristotle in a Latin version, and not in the original Greek. But the Latin version of the first half of the Organon was none the less a considerable instrument of education for many centuries. It was the staple of “dialectic,” one of the three subjects of the mediaeval Trivium; and as dialectic was the subject of all others which set students effectively thinking, we may say that Aristotle was in this way the chief influence, outside theology, in the educational system of the early middle ages. His logical treatises were studied, century by century, in the chapter schools attached to cathedrals and in the schools of the Benedictine monasteries; and along with “grammar” and “rhetoric,” the other two subjects of the Trivium, they were the discipline of thousands of students. A new epoch begins in the 12th century. In the first place, the

methods of dialectic, no longer studied merely as a discipline in schools, begin to be applied to prablems of theology; and already

in Berengar of Tours (c. 1070 A.D.) we find Aristotelian logic

brought to bear on the problem of transubstantiation. The application of logic to theology became still more evident when Roscelin, William of Champeaux, and, above all, Abelard began to ventilate theories about the nature of universals and to draw their theories to theological consequences. The old difference between Platonic “ideas” and Aristotelian “forms” re-emerged in the field of theology; and conceptions of the nature of God were made to depend on the difference. In the second place, about 1130, the whole of the Organon became known to the West and began to

be studied there; and before the middle of the r2th century Otto of Freising had come to Paris, as he tells us, to study the subtleties of Aristotelian logic in the later and profounder Analytics as well

as in the earlier treatises of the Organon. Finally, somewhere about 1170, the University of Paris came into existence as an organized body; and with the foundation of the mediaeval university the great cadre was provided in which the whole body of Aristotelian writings might find a place, and in which, as soon as they had found their place, the great attempt might be made— the attempt which we call by the name of scholasticism—to reconcile their tenets and their secular wisdom with the revelation of the

Bible and the divine wisdom of the Fathers of the Church,

century. Great Aristotelian commentators had arisen among the Arabs—especially Ibn-Sina (Avicenna, g.v.), who lived in the East and died at Hamadan in 1037, and Ibn-Roshd (Averroes)

who lived in Arabic Spain and died at Cordova in 1198. The Arabic paraphrases and commentaries began to penetrate into the Latin West towards 1200, partly across the Pyrenees, and partly

by way of Palermo, the half-Arabic capital of Sicily, in which the

emperor Frederic II. was a patron of science and literature. They

came in a curious form—the form of Latin translations (which sometimes sank to the level of transliterations, and sometimes were not even made directly, but only from an intervening Hebrew version) of Arabic exegesis, which itself was not based on the

original Greek, but rested on Arabic versions of Aristotle, whic might rest in turn on Syriac versions of the original text. Not only did they come in a curious form, but they also brought

curious views of Aristotle’s doctrines, which had suffered a change

in the course of their wanderings; and Aristotle would hardly have recognized as his own the idea, which the Arabs had extracted from the De Anima, that the morta] soul of man was re-absorbed

at death into the universal creative soul (volts aounrexds) of the Universe. With their curious form and their dubious views the Aristotelian treatises which the West received from the Arabs

were at first suspect; their study was at one time prohibited by the Papacy, which frowned on the fisica et metafisica; but they won their way, and established their place in study. A school of

“Averroists,” which lasted until the 16th century, drew its inspiration from these writings. Constantinople supplied the West with a more sober and recognizable Aristotle. It had been captured by the Latins during the fourth Crusade (1204); and Latin clergy had settled in the Byzantine empire. They had learned Greek: they had found Greek manuscripts; and two of them (both Dominicans), William of Moerbecke in Flanders and Henry of Brabant, translated, under the impulse of the great Dominican scholar St. ‘Thomas, andin collaboration with him, many of the writings of Aristotle (12601270). It was mainly in this way that St. Thomas learned the Aristotle on whom he wrote commentaries and whose views he sought to co-ordinate with Christian revelation in the great edifice of his Summa. In the writings of St. Thomas, Aristotle the encyclopaedist, 1,600 years after his death, was wrought upon, by another great and massive encyclopaedist, who sought to inform the sum of ancient knowledge with the spirit of Christian faith; and the Pagan scholar, who had built his own great monument, wis incorporated by a Christian thinker into another of the great and enduring monuments of human knowledge. By 1300 Aristotle is the acknowledged “master of those who know.” He is “the philosopher” of Dante, whose views mm through the De Monarchia, appear in the exegesis of the poems 0

the Vita Nuova, and are part of the texture and framework of

two the Divina Commedia. The empire of Aristotle lasted for Plawas which ce, Renaissan Italian the with passed It centuries.

tonic rather than Aristotelian; it passed with the German Refor-

mation, which, by the mouth totelianism” of the schoolmen; modern science, which, seeking and dogma, in which Aristotle

of Luther, denounced the “Ars it passed with the beginnings of to escape from mediaeval tradition had been incorporated, left Ans

ARISTOTLE’S

LANTERN—ARITHMETIC

his totle aside, and neglected the deep and genuine science of ritings because it had been yoked with what they sought to

r ape. Only in the later roth century, with the development of

355

(Music) and art. “Greek 1904). See Perzieatetics, PyTHacoras Music” in Grove’s Dict. of Music (1904). For the Oxyrhynchus fragment see Classical Review (Jan. 1898) and C. van Jan in Bursian’s Jahresbericht, civ. (1901).

iological study, has Aristotle the scientist—the student of ARISUGAWA, the name of one of the royal families of biology and the prophet of growth—been once more recognized; Japan, going back to the seventh son of the mikado Go-Yozei mind, and the and only in our own day is the development of his (d. 1638). After the revolution of 1868, when the mikado Mutsuunderstood in hito was restored, his uncle, Prince Taruhito Arisugawa (1835—be to ng beginni nature, of hy philosop his f growth 0 p . a 7 ”

“evolution.” terms of his own doctrine of of Aristotle in

94), became commander-in-chief, and in 1875 president of the After his suppression of the Satsuma rebellion he was senate. volumes of the great Berlin edition (1831-70), which includes an and he was chief of the staff in the war field-marshal, a made s treatise various the of editions ellent Index Aristotelicus. There are of brother, Prince Takehito Arisugawa Works younger The His of China. with tion transla Oxford the Teubner series of texts. The in Aristotle ed. J. A. Smith and W. D. Ross, still in progress, includes (b. Feb. 11, 1862), was from 1879 to 1882 in the British navy, in English has serving in the Channel Squadron, and studied at the Naval Cola great number of the treatises. A volume of Selections The Greek heen published by W. D. Ross (Oxford Univ. Press, 1927). 23 volumes, lege, Greenwich. In the Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95 he was in Berlin at ed publish been commentaries on Aristotle havementum Aristotelicum, 1882—1909. Edi- in command of a cruiser, and subsequently became admiralvolumes of Supple BrBLIOGRAPHY-—Lhe works

Greek are in the five

with three tions by modern scholars — of separate treatises are the following: (Leipzig, T, Waitz, Organon, (Leipzig, .1844—46) ; J. Prantl, Physics , 1922) ; 1854) ; H. H. Joachim, De Generatione et Corruptione (Oxford W. Ogle, De Partibus Animalium (London, 1882)3 R. D. Hicks, De Anima (Cambridge, 1907); W. D. Ross, Metaphysics (Oxford, 1924) ; (Oxford, J. Burnet, Ethics (London, 1906); W. L. Newman, Politics (London, Athens 1887-1902); J. E. Sandys, The Constitution c of(Cambri dge, 1887) ; 1912); E. M. Cope and J. E. Sandys, Rhetori I, Bywater, Poetics (Oxford, 1909). | The most modern works on Aristotle generally are W. Jaeger, Aristoteles (Berlin, 1923) and W. D. Ross, Aristotle (London, 1923). Among other general works may be mentioned: T. Case, the article on Aristotle in the t1th ed. of the Encyclopedia Britannica, a long, thorough and scholarly article; R. Eucken, Die Methode der Aristotelischen Forschung (Berlin, 1872) ; T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, Eng. trans, vol. iv. (London, 1912); G. Grote, Aristotle (London, 1883);

superintendent at Yokosuka.

Prince Arisugawa represented Japan

in England together with Marquis Ito at the Diamond Jubilee (1897), and in 1905 was again received there as the king’s guest. He died July 10, 1913.

ARITHMETIC, originally the science or theory of numbers;

at present, as commonly understood in the English language, the art of computation and the applications of this art (Gr. dpebunrinn from åpıĝuós number). In certain other languages the word still retains some of its early meaning and applies not only to a certain amount of theoretical work with numbers, but to the study of the fundamental operations with polynomials, such words as

Rechnung (German) and calcul (French) being used for calculation and its simple applications. In this article the word will an Aristoteli the be used with the common Anglo-American meaning. The subject C. Piat, Aristote (Paris, 1912); R. Shute, History of Writings (Oxford, 1888); H. Siebeck, Aristoteles (Stuttgart, 1922); will be treated in an elementary way with respect to its bearing

A. E. Taylor, Aristotle (London, 1919); U. von Wilamowitz Moellendorf, Aristoteles und Athen (Berlin, 1893); E. Zeller, Philosophy of the Greeks, Eng. trans. (London, 1897); The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. vi. (Cambridge, 1927). On particular subjects mention may be made of the following: Logic: H. Maier, Syllogisték des Aristoteles (Tübingen, 1896-1900). Natural Science: A. Mansion, Introduction à la Physique Aristotelicienne (Louvain and Paris, 1913); T. E. Jones, Aristotle’s Researches in Natural Science (London, 1912) ; W. D’Arcy Thompson, Essay on Aristotle in The Legacy of Greece, ed. R. W. Livingstone (Oxford, 1921). Metaphysics: W. Jaeger, Studien zur Entstehungsgeschichte der Metaphysik des Aristoteles (Berlin, 1912). Politics: H. von Arnim, Die Politischen Theorien des Altertums (Vienna, 1910); E. Barker, The Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle (London, 1906); W. Oncken, Die Staatslehre des Aristoteles (Leipzig, 1870); M. Poblenz, Stactsgedanke und Staatslehre der Griechen (Leipzig, 1923). On the history of Aristotle’s writings in the middle ages see T. J. de Boer, Geschichte der Philosophie im Islam (Stuttgart, 1901) ; M. Grabmann, Forschungen über die Lateinischen Aristoteles- bersetzungen des XIII. Jahrhunderts (Munster, 1916); E. Rénan, Aver-

roés et L’Averroisme (Paris, 1866).

(E. B.)

ARISTOTLE’S LANTERN, the name applied to the comoe

plex MATA,

apparatus

of sea-urchins.

(See ECHINODER-

ARISTOXENUS of Tarentum (4th century B.c.), a Greek

peripatetic philosopher and writer on music and rhythm. He studied under the Pythagoreans and later under Aristotle, and Wrote on philosophy, ethics and music. The empirical tendency of his thought is shown in his theory that the soul is related to

the body as harmony to the parts of a musical instrument. In

music he held that the notes of the scale are to be judged, not as the Pythagoreans held, by mathematical ratio, but by the ear. The only work of his that has come down to us is the three books of the Elements of Harmony (6v0uiKxa orouxeta), an incomplete musical treatise. Grenfell and Hunt’s Oxyrhynchus Papyrt (vol. 1, 1898), contains a five-column fragment of a treatise on metre,

probably this treatise of Aristoxenus. The best edition is by Paul Marquard, with German translation and

ull commentary, Die harmonischen Fragmente des Aristoxenus (Berlin,

o

The fragments are also given in C. W. Müller, Frag. Hist.

ae

ume 708 vol. edited by F. Saran, Leipzig, 1893). Eng.

Bleni

sqq.; and R. Westphal, M elik und Rhythmik d. klass.

Ay Macran (Oxford, 1902). See "Brili 7 V. L. Mahne, Diatribe de Aristoxeno (Amsterdam, 1793) ;

tegm o

rhythmische und metrische M essungen (1877) ; R West A “Tal p al, Griechische Rhythmik und Harmonik (Leipzig, 1867);

aloy, Aristoxène de Tarente et la musique de Pantiquité (Paris,

upon the school curriculum. The advanced theory will be considered under special topics to which reference is hereinafter made. NUMBER Using the term in the sense already mentioned, arithmetic is little concerned with the genesis of the concept of number, this being a philosophical question. Arithmetic takes number as it is found, dividing it into the general classes of cardinal and ordinal. With regard to the numerical measure of a group, as the result of counting or of computing, the term cardinal number is used, as when we say that there are five persons in a room. With respect to number as designating position in a sequence, the term ordinal number is used, as when we speak of the third page of a book. The cardinal number is that upon which arithmetic turns (Lat.

cardo, a hinge); it is the important type. (See NUMBER.)

Of an assemblage of objects, the number that can be told at a glance is very limited. Unless the eye is aided by having the objects arranged symmetrically in some familiar order or so as to be divided readily into sub-groups, the eye grasp is usually limited to four or five. Similarly in counting, the mind does not easily grasp the significance of more than a few numerical terms. For example, we may count up to ten or twelve, but by that time we find it desirable to combine the names of smaller numbers, as when we say thirteen (three ten), rather than invent a wholly new term. Similarly in writing numbers, the world finds it necessary, by grouping, to make a few selected characters serve to represent any number however large. At first the groups were small, and there are numerous evidences that the “couple,” “pair,” “brace,” “snan,” and the like are relics of early groupings made in part for convenience in counting. Notation.—Peoples who developed independent alphabets also tended to develop independent numerical notations. The spread of Greek culture and commerce, however, carried the Greek numerals of the pre-Christian period into all the leading ports of the Mediterranean sea, and the still more extensive development of the Roman civilization made the Roman numerals dominant in the Occident for many centuries. In the roth century the entry into Europe of the Indo-Arabic numerals, 1, 2,3... 9, together with the zero, was followed by a slow acceptance of the convenient system of place value by which, with only ten numerals but with an indefinite number of “places” (units, tens, hundreds, etc.),

ARITHMETIC

356

any number could conveniently be written. The symbols went by the Latin names characteres and notae, and at a later period similar by the English names figures, numerals and cyphers, and by or on, —notati notatio came nota From s. names in other countrie Greek, the writing of numbers. Thus we have the Egyptian, early Roman, Indian, Arabic and other notations, each of the (See written languages tending to have its own numerals. NUMERALS.) use The grouping of objects for purposes of counting led to the by fives of the same device in the writing of numbers. A grouping scale is called a quinary system and is said to be based upon the on of five, or to have five as the radix. Since man has five fingers g countin natural a has he foot, each on toes five and each hand While twenty. or ten five, of abacus (g.v.) arranged on a scale scales, there are traces of the early use of each of these and other scale— ) decimal (or denary the been the predominant one has of the one with the radix ten. (See NumeEraLs.) A familiar relic score, English the in seen is , example for , grouping by twenties legal as in expressions like “seven score acres” in relatively late 80 for twenty) (four ingts quatre-v French the and ts, documen twenty) and (formerly) other multiples like quinze-vingts (fifteen for 300, as in the Hospice des Quinze-Vingt in Paris, dating from French the 13th century. On this system ninety-six appears in of as quatre-vingt-seize (four-twenty-sixteen). On the pure scale .. three. two, one, follows: as s proceed g countin ten the English nine, ten, oneteen (one and ten), twoteen, thirteen (three and ten) . . . twenty (two tens). The fact that twelve is scientifically a more convenient radix than ten (having its half, third, and fourth easily expressible), seems to have led to the use of “eleven” and “twelve” instead of “oneteen” and “twoteen,” after which the denary scale was followed. The tendency to favour twelve as a radix appears in the number of inches (Lat. unciae, twelfths) in a foot, of lines in an inch, of ounces (also from unciae) in the Roman and Troy pounds, and of pence in a shilling. The scale of twenty seems to have had considerable standing in certain barefoot countries, the native Mexicans counting to “man finished” and then beginning again. One evidence of the tropical origin of the Greenlanders is that their system of counting also uses twenty as a radix. A perfect decimal scale requires ten primary word-forms below “bundred?—‘“one,” “two,” “three,” ... “ten,” the other numbers being named by combining these, as in “fifty-seven” (fiveten-seven). It also requires ten characters, 0, I, 2..- 9. The numbers from 1 to 10 corresponding to the ten fingers, seem to have been called by the early Latins digits (“fingers”), whence our digits. With the coming of the Indo-Arabic numerals, however, it became convenient to use the word to designate the numbers expressed by 1, 2,3... 9, and also to designate the characters

reference will, however, be made to those used in elementa arithmetic. With the child as with the race, the first need for the integer (Lat., “whole”) or whole number in the domain limited by the number of his fingers. He learns tha “three” is the word to be used with a certain group, just as he

learns the names of objects. With a group that is beyond his eye grasp, like six, he learns how to find the number name by memor.

izing a sequence—‘one, two, three, four, five, six,” pointing to each object as he counts. He thus subconsciously combines car. dinal numbers with ordinal numbers, and thenceforth uses each as the need arises, learning the words “first,” “second,” and so on as part of his everyday vocabulary.

His next step leads him to such unit fractions as $ and 4, and he subconsciously learns that 4 has a variety of meanings, as 4 of an object, 4 of a group, 4 of a weight, 3 as large, 4 as light, 4 as loud, 4 as good, and so on, some of which suggest precision, as in the case of an object, while others are merely rhetorical. It isa considerable step from the notion of 4 to that of 4, and the world probably required many centuries in which to take it, and thousands of years to devise a satisfactory symbol for the fraction it-

self. To broaden the concept so as to include among fractions such cases as 4 and 3, and especially such fraction forms as have fractions for numerator or denominator, did not occur to arith-

meticians until modern times. (See FRACTIONS.) The distinction between abstract numbers, like 4, and concrete

numbers, like 4ft., is an inheritance that serves no important purpose. A number that has a label attached to it, indicating the unit of measure to which it refers, is called a denominate

number.

Formerly it included such cases as “3 fourths” (as in

Trenchant’s arithmetic, 1566), but it is now usually limited to such “concrete” numbers as 3ft. and 2 Ib. 3 oz. Numbers with more than a single denomination, such as £3 6s. 4d. and 3yd. 27in, are sometimes called compound numbers. Denominate Numbers.—Denominate numbers in general and compound numbers in particular trace their origin to the difficulty

which the ancients had in developing a satisfactory notation for

either integers or fractions. In the days when one of the ways of writing 7291ft. was MMMMMMMCCLXXXXI pedes, it became convenient to reduce the length of the written number. It was simpler to write this as mi. 2011ft.; and then as Imi. 3fur. arft.; and then as rmi. 3fur. 1rd. 43ft.; and then, to avoid the fraction, to write 44ft. as ryd. rft. 6in. Different trades, modes of life, and languages, brought in different units, and so arithmetic inherited such a variety of units of length as the league, mile, stadium, furlong, rod, fathom, yard, cubit, ell, perch, foot, palm, hand, inch and line. The force of tradition kept all of them in the schools till the latter part of the roth century. In the United States all but four or five have been generally discarded, Britain there is a tendency in the same direction. (xapaxrfpes) (numeral figures) themselves. Since “one” was, by and in Great tables of denominate numbers needed for gerprincipal The m numeroru origo et various early writers, spoken of as the fons in the British empire and the United States, ion informat “source and origin of numbers”), this was often excluded, the eral those needed in special trades and industries, digits being then considered as the eight numbers (or characters) as distinct from and in countries where the metric system is used, are indicated 2,34»...

9.

i

Similarly, a scale of eight would need eight primary word-forms

and eight characters (0, 1,2... 7), and so for other scales. On the scale of 2, the number designated by the English word “eleven” would be represented by rorz, that is, 1 X 23+ 0 X 2°-+1 X 2+ rx, where (in denary symbols) 8 + o+ 2 + 1=11. Evidently, therefore, the smaller the radix the more times the char-

acters must be written to express a given number; the larger the radix the more basic number names must be memorized. Either ten or twelve is a medium radix and tradition is too powerful to admit of change from the former to the latter, even though the duodecimal (Lat. duodecim, two-ten, whence the French douzaine and the English dozen) has a slight advantage over the decimal. Numeration and Classification of Numbers.—The Latin

numeratio

comes

from numerus, a number, and refers to the

names of numbers. These number names have little etymological significance; in fact, their original meaning is quite speculative. The various kinds and properties of numbers are considered elsewhere (see NUMBER; NUMBERS, THEORY oF). A brief

as follow:—length: inch, foot, yard, rod (agriculture chiefly),

ares: furlong (Great Britain), mile, metre (meter), kilometre; acre; ), kilometer meter, mile, yard, foot, (inch, square units ICU. capacity and volume: cubic units (1cu.in., tcu.ft., rcu.yd., second, tzme: litre; bushel, peck, gallon, quart, pint, gill, metre), value: minute, hour, day, week, month, year, decade, century; of the the British and American units, with some knowledge equivalents). mark and the franc (lira, peseta, and other gold weight: ounce, pound (avoirdupois), stone (Great Britain), hundredweight (Great Britain), ton, gramme (gram), kilogramme (kilogram). These tables are constructed upon varying scales;12 follow that that is, although 12 inches make 1 foot, it does not item changes next the fact, feet make the next denomination; in MENSUM:(See yard. 1 make feet 3 that states and scale the TION.) and partly Partly to avoid the inconvenience of a varying scale ts at the scientis French d, standar tional interna an to establish measures, of system decimal a ped close of the 18th century develo the standupon based Itis system. metric the as known this being

ARITHMETIC

357

word “million” appeared in the 13th century but seems not to have been used by mathematicians till about 1340. Its meaning was not confined to 10° till much later, certain writers in the 16th century taking it to be 10%. The word “billion” appeared in the is the length of the standard kept in the Bureau International des tsth century (French, Jehan Adam, c. 1480, and Chuquet, 1484). oud, Saint-Cl de Parc the of e Poids et Mesures at the entranc It was at first taken to mean 10”, and this usage still prevails in Sèyres, near Paris, of which the various civilized countries have Great Britain. By the 17th century certain Dutch and French He onal and Irrational Numbers.—The nature of rational writers used it to designate 10°, the latter taking “milliard” as an equivalent. In the American colonies the usage was the same as in and irrational numbers is discussed in the articles on NUMBER; England, but owing to the French influence in the early roth alto transfer the With . ALcrBra NUMBERS, THEORY OF; and century the word “billion” was afterwards taken to mean LO’, gebra of the theory of and operations with these numbers, there and this usage still prevails. The higher number names have only (evoluroots of topic the only ic arithmet ary was left in element an historical interest. The need for very large or very small numtion), this being limited to square root and cube root. With the bers is confined to scientists, and these depend upon symbols increased use of tables, of logarithms, and of the slide rule and other calculating machines (g.v.), even these two operations have rather than names as in writing 1-8 X 10% or 3 X 10°. Operations.—The operation of addition has made but few recently tended to receive little attention. As a result, cube root changes through the centuries. The Romans could have added States United the in ics arithmet the of most from red has disappea more readily than we do, although the writing of the numbers and square root will probably do the same, the theory of each being given a moderate amount of attention in algebra, and the took longer. This is seen in the following additions :—

disard metre, originally intended to be one ten-millionth of the imposy accurac of degree a pole, the to equator the tance from sible of exact attainment. The legal International metre (meter)

practical finding of roots being dependent upon tables or mechan‘cal aids. In Great Britain there is a similar trend. This leads to

the arithmetical treatment (finding of approximate values) of

irrational numbers in connection with decimal fractions, the

DCCCCLXXXXVIIII | MCC

XX

.

IMI.

999 . 1224

The Roman required the learning of no addition facts; the units (ones, fives, tens, fifties .. . ) were seen at once, and the number theory. only difficulty was that of “carrying.” In pointing to the figures, it is easier to “add up” than to add downwards, and therefore OPERATIONS WITH INTEGRAL NUMBERS certain writers (¢.g., Maximus Planudes, c. 1340) suggested writIt is at present the custom to refer to four fundamental opera- ing the sum at the top. tions with numbers—addition, subtraction, multiplication and Subtraction has been the subject of various experiments. On division. This classification is convenient but arbitrary. Histor- the abacus or with counters (see Apacus) the simplest plan of times, ically, the number was at one time given as nine; at other taking 46 from 423 was to change 423 to 300-+-110+13, after eight; and at others, seven, six or five. It is often asserted, how- which there was no difficulty. This is essentially the plan of borand fundamental, is that ever, that there is only one operation rowing used by most people to-day. With the advent of the Indothat this is counting. To count by two is to add two; to count Arabic numerals other devices were suggested. One of these, the three twos is to multiply two by three; to count backwards by two complementary plan, was known in India in the 12th century. It is to subtract twos; and to count backwards by two, beginning is based upon the identity a~—b=a+(10—b)—10; that is, with 16 and ending with o, is to find how many twos are contained 12—7=12+(10—7) —10=12+3—10=5. It found a worthy use in 16. Amongst those who gave nine fundamental operations was when the modern calculating machine became common, subSacrobosco (c. 1250), who listed numeration, addition, subtractraction being performed by adding the complement of a number, tion, duplation (doubling), mediation (halving), multiplication, 10—7 being the complement of 7. The plan of borrowing 1 from division, progressions and the finding (extraction) of roots. The the tens of the minuend and repaying it by adding 1 to the tens Crafte of Nombrynge (c. 1300, ms. in the British Museum) gave of the subtrahend appears in Borghi’s arithmetic (1484), but was seven, omitting numeration and roots; Glareanus (1538) gave already old in Europe. It seems to have been of Arabic origin, six, omitting roots; most of the 16th century reduced this number for Fibonacci (g.v., 1202), who was much indebted to the Muslim to five, omitting progressions; Gemma Frisius (1540) reduced it “addition method,” seen in “making change” to four, as is now the custom; and Elia Misrachi (c. 1500) gave writers, used it. The and sometimes called the Austrian method, was suggested at least only three. as early as 1559, but did not become widely known till the roth Writing and Reading of Large Numbers.—Since the eye No one of these methods has shown such points of grasp renders it difficult to read a number like 207234698, it is century. in actual practice as to make it generally accepted superiority the custom to separate such sequences of numerals into groups. calculating machines (g.v.)

nature of such numbers

being considered in algebra and the

If the Greeks had known such a number system, these groups

would probably have been of four figures each, the Greeks having used ten thousand (myriad) as the large unit in counting. Since we commonly read numbers by thousands, or thousand thousands

(millions), we usually, as an aid to this reading, separate the

figures into groups of three or of six. The world, however, has no uniform symbol for use in making this separation. Certain writers have used a vertical bar (Gemma Frisius, 1540; Recorde, c. 1542;

and others); others have placed dots over the figures for thousands, millions, and so on; and some have used full stops (periods)

in grouping the figures by threes, or superposed arcs (Fibonacci,

1202) or letters. In Great Britain it is the custom to separate

into groups of six, using a comma; in the United States the separation is also by a comma (written) or by a space (printed), there being three figures in a group. The groups have been called

periods” (Ramus, 1569), “regions” (Santa-Cruz, 1594), and

ternaries” (Recorde, c. 1342). Spanish writers, especially in the 16th century, commonly placed U or a symbol resembling the

Greek 6 after the figure for thousands, and gs (quentos, cuentos) after the one for millions, as in 160U; 462qsoogU621 (e.8., Texeda, 1 546). The naming of large numbers is comparatively recent. The

as the best, and with the coming of

it is not important that it should. The Indian writer, Bhaskara (c. 1150), gave five methods of multiplication, and Pacioli (g.v., 1494) gave eight. To these may be added the ancient one of repeated addition as developed with considerable skill by the Egyptians before 1700 B.C., numerous special methods developed by the Arabs, and the method of

quarter squares (q.v.).

Although the primitive method of dividing may have been that

of repeated subtraction, the earliest one of which we have definite

record is that of duplation and mediation—finding (by doubling and halving) the number of times the divisor must be used to

make the dividend. The only method that was for any length of time a rival to our present plan is the Galley Method here shown. I 5 j4 Bh 1728 (144 1728 (14 1728 (1 {2 a The problem is to divide 1728 by 12. The successive steps are

shown, the last being the only one written in actual practice. It requires, in general, fewer figures than our common method. The

ARIUS

358

form pupils in the elementary schools, this being a fairly measurable latter is of Oriental origin, but was brought to its present constant, at least in selected geographical and racial areas, in the 15th century. Each business application found in a textbook on arithmetic early the , learning of branch any in As with all initial steps represents what is, or was at one time, a need. The problem of laws, certain of work in arithmetic requires the tacit assumption the pipes filling a cistern was a useful one in the days when the m minimu a with d accepte is ons operati the of and the mechanism should be- Romans established public fountains in every important town: of explanation. The prime necessity is that the work possible. The partnership involving time was once as important as any problem come mechanical as soon and as completely as of radix, involving corporations at the present time; the problem of the ance signific the grasp child—who is quite unable to involved couriers was a real one when communication from place to place law scale, place value, associative law and commutative (See depended upon human endurance and fidelity; and the banker's ge. knowled this all assume tacitly in the operation—should draft was known even in Babylonian times. The schools always ComLaws; TIvVE NuMBERS, THEORY OF; ALGEBRA; AssocIA tend to be conservative. Law.) BUTIVE DISTRI MUTATIVE Laws; The study of child psychology, which had its scientific beginning in the latter part of the 19th century, has established certain FRACTIONS rather definite limits as to the nature of the arithmetic offered a consideration from year to year. This study does not concern the nature of The subject of fractions in arithmetic involves concept, the problems so much as it does the pupil’s ability to do the computhe of growth the n, of the primitive notion of fractio the parts and tation and to master the reasoning involved; it relates to the apof names the ism, symbol the ns, fractio of types on FRACTIONS. plied problem to the extent of seeing that its meaning is fairly the operations. These are discussed in the article are three types within the mental grasp of the child. This phase of the subject So far as elementary arithmetic is concerned, there or common is at present attracting more attention than the actual practicto be considered: (1) Vulgar fractions (Great Britain) ns as ability of the applied problems. It has resulted in an improvement fractio such to ng referri fractions (United States), the name ; in the course of study and has assisted in eliminating certain cases ons) fracti er improp being (both 3 and $ n), fractio 2 (a proper powers ten unwrit of computation (as in the division of unusable fractions and with ns fractio (2) Sexagesimal fractions, being meaning decimals) that are beyond the needs and the ready grasp of ele32, 10’ 27° of case the in as , nators denomi as of 60 mentary pupils. The result has not been the standardization of o ° 27° ++ ae and (3) Decimal fractions, generally spoken of topics or of applications, but the fixing of limits of difficulty for on pupils of various degrees of ability. The chief problem of the as decimals. These types will also be considered in the article schools is to find, from the wide range of applications, those that fractions. great majority of people will sometime need to use and that the began s fraction decimal ore Operations with Fractions.—Bef shows are within the mental reach of the pupils at psychology became to be used, in the 16th century, and indeed before this use are introduced. In each of these respects the schools they time the fracwith ns operatio the later, s at all general some two centurie that is definite and is probably as rapid as progress making are diffvery tions having large numerators and denominators were circumstances permit. Among the present applications which have terms, lowest to s fraction such reduce to e cult. It became desirabl divisor replaced those which are now obsolete are the following: personal a process requiring the finding of the greatest common and household accounts, budgeting, household inventory, sales by the so-called Euclidean method of continued division. Even slips, bills and invoices, transportation problems, pay-rolls, comfinding the required ion subtract when this was done, addition and di- munity problems (how money is raised and how it is spent), thrift of the least common denominator, while multiplication and and investments, business graphs, and government income and vision required still more work in the reduction to lowest terms, expenses. teachfor y With the growing use of decimal fractions the necessit Combette, Cours d’Arithmétique (x2th ed. Brerrocrapuy:—E. ing the operations with any but the simplest numerical fractions Didaktik des mathematischen Unterrichts (Leipzig,

disappeared.

1904); A. Höfler, Operations with decimals involve no difficulties if 1910) ; P. Abbott, Exercises in Arithmetic and Mensuration (1913); E. G. T, Buswel, will sometime need in

they are limited to cases which the pupil daily life.

L. Thorndike, The Psychology of Arithmetic (1922); to and C. H. Judd, Summary of Educational Investigations relating J. W. Young and others, The Reorganization of In Great Britain and to a large extent in the entire British Arithmeticcs (192%); in Secondary Education, being the Report of a committee Mathemati Commonwealth of nations and on the Continent of Europe, the of the Mathematical Association of America, (Boston, 1927); D. E. from way School Mathenotion of per cent. is used in a somewhat different Smith and W. D. Reeve, The Teaching of Junior High and H. Rechnen,” hes “Numerisc historical the is Mehmke, usage H. ; 1927) European The (Boston, States. matics United that in the Encyklopädie Meyer, F. W. in k,” Arithmeti der en £6 “Grundlag meaning cent., per Schubert, £6 one, permitting of such an expression as mathematischen Wissenschaften, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1898, etc.). out of (or in) £100. In the United States such an expression is derOlder books: T. Leslie, Philosophy of Arithmetic (1817, and. ed. increase re, expenditu income, of rate practically never used. The 1820); D. Lardner, Treatise on Arithmetic (1834); A. de Morgan, in value or population, and so on is stated abstractly as 6%, 10%, Elements of Arithmetic (sth ed. 1846). ii, (Boston, History: D. E. Smith, History of Mathematics vol. atik, 24%, and the like. Instead of the symbol % being considered to vol. Elemeniar-Mathem der te Geschich Tropfke, J. 1928); 1923, (pounds), mean “in” or “out of” a hundred, as in £6 in a hundred (D. E.S. 1921). ed. (2nd i, it is looked upon as synonymous with “hundredths” (“hundredth,” Early Arithmetics: Cuthbert Tonstall, De arte supputandi (London, “of a hundredth”). This usage has led to looking upon the work 1522); Robert Recorde, The Ground of Artes (London, 1542); , I 544); Gaspard de with per cents. as part of decimals. Since 6% is considered as Michael Stifel, Arithmetica Integra (Nürnberg ca pratica (Valladolid, 1546); Humphrey Arithmeti de Suma any In Texeda, . separately two the of treating in 0-06, there is no object 1568) ; Jean Trenchant, to those Baker, The Well Spring of Sciences (London,

case, however, if the treatment of per cents. is confined

problems which someone is likely to meet sometime, and is not given largely to impractical puzzles and inverse cases, the subject offers no difficulty where measures are decimalized, and but

little where they are not,

APPLICATIONS

Since the applications of arithmetic reach every branch of trade, industry, commercial activity and science, it is evident that an arbitrary limit must be placed upon what the schools can offer. It is also evident that, so far as the subject matter is concerned, this limit must vary with the world’s needs and business customs. A further boundary is fixed by the abilities of the

L’Arithmetique

(Lyons, 1578).

These books are described in Rara

Arithmetica, a catalogue of early Arithmetics, with an account of those in the library of George Arthur Plimpton, New York.

not s0 ARIUS, a name celebrated in ecclesiastical history, “Arian” on account of the personality of its bearer as of the

much controversy which he provoked (Gr. “Apevos). Our knowledge of his birth ot of Arius is scanty, and nothing certain is known in Alex deacon a as him of hear first We training. of his early by presbyter andria. After some controversy he was ordained apparwith duties his d discharge and 311, in Bishop, the Achillas

ent faithfulness and industry under Achillas, and afterwards under which Alexander his successor. The cause of the controversy with but ies personalit any in not lay d associate is the name of Arius

ARIZONA

350

the council of Nicaea, the Arians were by no means subdued. Constantine, while strongly disposed at first to enforce the Nicene decrees, was gradually won to a more conciliatory policy by the influence especially of Eusebius of Caesarea and Eusebius of Nicomedia, the latter of whom returned from exile in 328 and emperor, whom he baptized on his death-bed. dose and permanent union with human nature, so that it has won the ear of the in 335. During his absence Arius rebanished was Athanasius Eternal?” the of actually transfigured ít and raised ít to the plane to Alexandria, but was suddenly taken ill while walking turned of school the in on educati cal theologi his Arius had received

na fundamental difference of doctrine which had far-reaching religious and philosophical implications. “Is the Divine,” says Harnack, “hich appeared on earth and made its presence actively felt, identical with the supremely Divine that rules heaven and earth? Did the Divine which appeared on earth enter into a

the presbyter Lucian of Antioch, a learned man, and distinguished

in the streets, and died in a few moments. His death seems to have exercised no influence worth speaking of on the course of

especially as a biblical scholar. The latter was a follower of Paul events. His theological radicalism had in any case never found of Samosata, bishop of Antioch, who had been excommunicated adherents. It was mainly the opposition to the in 269, but his theology differed from that of his master in a many convinced open to heretical misinterpretation,

Homoousios, as a formula and not borne out by Holy Writ, which kept together the large party known as Semiarians, who carried on the strife against the Nicenes and especially Athanasius. Under the sons of Constantine Christian bishops in numberless synods cursed one d persiste (copia) or Power (Sbvayis). Lucian, on the other hand, another turn by turn. In the western half of the empire Arianhe since But Christ. in man became in holding that the Logos found no foothold, and even the despotic will of Constantius, ism d remaine nothing shared the above-mentioned belief of his master emperor after 351, succeeded only for the moment in subsole God by created essence, second a Logos the in for him but to see the bishops exiled for the sake of their belief. In the duing himupon took and earth before the world, which came down to the other hand, the Semiarians had for long the upper on east, self a human body. In this body the Logos filled the place of the soon split up into different groups, according as They hand. not was then, Christ, Lucian’s e. intellectual or spiritual principl nearer to or farther from the original position stand to came they personal “perfect man,” for that which constituted in him the The actual centre was formed by the Homoii, who only Arius. of the for God,” “perfect he was nor essence; element was a divine spoke generally of a likeness (6uoud7ys) of the Son to the Father; divine essence was a created being. It is this idea which Arius to the left of them were the Anomoii, who, with Arius, held the took up and interpreted. His doctrinal position is explained in Son to be unlike (A4véuo.os) the Father; to the right, the Hoof city imperial the of bishop s, his letters to his patron Eusebiu who, taking as their catchword “likeness of nature” moousians ts Nicomedia, and to Alexander of Alexandria, and in the fragmen

fundamental point. Paul, starting with the conviction that the

One God cannot appear substantially (obawwdés) on earth, and, consequently, that he cannot have become man in Jesus Christ, had taught that God had filled the man Jesus with his Logos

of the poem in which he set forth his dogmas. From these writ-

(duovdrns Kat’ obolav), thought that they could preserve the re-

ligious content of the Nicene formula without having to adopt the formula itself. Since this party in the course of years came and more into sympathy with the representatives of the more surpass may Son the r far simplicity of the eternal God. Howeve party, the Homoousians, and notably with Athanasius, the Nicene other created beings, he remains himself a created being, to whom d formula became more and more popular, till the much-dispute of “out e formed existenc an gave time all the Father before in 381 at Constantinople, under the auspices summoned council his that ious nothing” (2£ obx 3vrwy). Arius was quite unconsc Great, recognized the Nicene doctrine as the the Theodosius of the of that from ished distingu be to hardly was ism monothe own only orthodox one. Arianism, which had lifted up its head again pagan philosophers, and that his Christ was a demi-god. the emperor Valens, was thereby thrust out of the state under For years the controversy may have been fermenting in the It lived to flourish anew among the Germanic tribes at Church. Alexthat relates Sozomen Alexandria. at college of presbyters the great migrations, but here too as a distinctive naof time ‘the leavin ander only interfered after being charged with remissness it perished before the growth of meing Arius so long to disturb the faith of the Church. According tional type of Christianity name of Arian ceased to represent a the and Catholicism, diaeval the to led which to the general supposition, the negotiations within the Church, or a definite doctrine Christian of form definite excommunication of Arius and his followers among the presbyters party outside it. without not was Arius 319. or 318 in and deacons took place See H. M. Gwatkin, Studies of Arianism (and ed., 1900) ; Harnack, adherents, even outside Alexandria. Those bishops who, like him, History of Dogma, Eng. tr., vol. iv.; Hastings, Encyclopaedia of let to inclined not were Lucian of school the through had passed Religion and Ethics, art. “Arianism.” The religious and philosophical him fall without a struggle, as they recognized in the views of aspect of the question is discussed in Mellone, The Price of Progress their fellow-student their own doctrine, only set forth in a some- (1924), ch. iv. ARIZONA, the “Apache State,” is a State situated in the what radical fashion. Eusebius of Nicomedia, a comrade of Arius in the school of Lucian, entered the lists energetically on his southwestern part of the United States of America, between 31° behalf. But Alexander, too, was active; by means of a circular 20’ and 37° N. and 109° 2’ and 114° 45’ W. It is bounded north letter he published abroad the excommunication of his presbyter, by Utah, east by New Mexico, south by Mexico and west by California and Nevada, the Colorado river separating it from and the controversy excited more and more general interest. and in part from Nevada. Of its total area of 113,956 California It reached even the ears of Constantine. Now sole emperor, he saw in the one Catholic Church the best means of counter- sq.m. (water surface, 116sq.m.), approximately 39,000 are less acting the movement in his vast empire towards disintegration; than 3,000ft. above sea-level, 27,000 are from 3,000 to 5,00oft., and he at once realized how dangerous dogmatic strife might and 47,000 are above 5,000 feet. The popular name “Apache prove to its unity. Constantine had no understanding of the State” was given it because it is the home of the most of the questions at issue; and no course was left but to summon a gen- Apache Indians. Physical Features.—Three characteristic physiographic reeral or oecumenical council, which was convened in Nicaea (q.v.) are distinctly marked: first, the great Colorado plateau, gions finally was in 325. After various turns in the controversy, It decided, against Arius, that the Son was “of the same substance” some 45,000Sq.m. in area, in the north part of the State; next, mountain ranges with a southern ({uoobovos) with the Father, and all thought of his being created a broad zone of compacted a region of desert plains, oclastly, and, trend; similar ot even subordinate had to be excluded. Constantine accepted limit of the decision of the council and resolved to uphold it. Alexander cupying the south-western quarter of the State. The plateau is returned to his see triumphant, but died soon after, and was suc- not a plain. It is dominated by high mountains, gashed by superb canyons of rivers, scarred with dry gullies and washes, the ceeded by Athanasius (g.v.), his deacon, with whose indomitable fortitude and strange vicissitudes the further course of the contro- beds of intermittent streams, varied with great shallow basins, sunken deserts, dreary levels, bold buttes, picturesque mesas, forversy is bound up. ests and rare verdant bits of valley. The surface in general is the of known is what It only remains for us here to sketch later career of Arius and the Arians. Although defeated at rolling and drains through the Little Colorado (or Colorado

ings it can even nowadays be seen clearly that the principal object which he had in view was firmly to establish the unity and

ARIZONA

360

Grand Canyon. Chiquito), Rio Puerco and other streams into the able for the remark Desert, d Painte Along the Colorado is the and white—of yellow purple, blue, brown, s—red, colour bright is a petrified its sandstones, shales and clays. Within the desert United States. forest of Mesozoic time, the most remarkable in the ows, are abunThe marks of volcanic action, particularly lava-fl dant and widely scattered. is an abrupt Separating the plateau from the mountain region State. entire the ng crossi , eroded transition slope, often deeply true a is slope the ies In localit escarpment falling 150 and even 2soft. per mile. The mountain region has a width of 70 to 150m. and is filled with short ranges parallel to the plateau escarpment, Many of the mountains are extinct volcanoes. The southeastern corner of Arizona is a region of greatly eroded ranges and gently sloping valleys. This mountain zone has an average Sa elevation of not less than 4,000

ft., while in places its crests are RU 5,000ft. above the plains below. These plains, the third or desert

oe oe

where radiation is most rapid. And of all Arizona it should be said that, owing to the extreme dryness of the air, evaporation from moist surfaces is very rapid, so that the high temperatures are decidedly less oppressive than much lower temperatures jn

a humid atmosphere.

Intense heat prevails in July, August and

September. In lowness of humidity and clarity of atmosphere, southern

Arizona

rivals Upper

Egypt

and other famous arid

health resorts. Fauna and Flora.—Within the borders of Arizona are areas representative of every life zone save the humid tropical. From the summit of the San Francisco mountains one may pass rapidiy

through all these down into the Painted Desert. In the highlands

coyotes are very common; wild cats and mountain lions are fairly plentiful, but animal life in general is rather scant. Jaguars occasionally stray into Arizona from Mexico. Lizards and toads are conspicuous in the more desert areas.

Snakes are not numerous.

The Gila monster, tarantula and scorpion occur in some localities in the rainy season. A narrow belt along the lower Colorado river, with a short arm extending into the valley of the Gila, is so arid that it supports only desert birds and mammals. The general conditions of distribution of the fauna of Arizona are shown even more distinctly by the flora. There are firs and piñon juniper, Sind f spruces on the mountains, pines farther down, and grease-wood and the universally conspicuous sage-brush in the

and the mountain range, a iNO two chief industries, mining and

region of the State, have their agriculture compacted; mountains also, but they are lower, and they are not Gulf of the toward slope the plains near the mountain region ranges, then d isolate by ted separa s valley wide across rnia Califo and finally across broad desert stretches traversed by rocky ridges, there is no obstruction to the slope at all. Climate.—Arizona has a wide variety of local climates. In y. The general it is characterized by clear air and low humidit marked with April, to July from uted distrib is scanty rainfall Decemin m maximu lesser a and excess from July to September of Calber. Very little rain comes from the Pacific or the Gulf the and ins mounta the by hed diminis ifornia, precipitation being l usually desert, as well as the adverse winds. Rain and snowfal wholly come from clouds blown from the Gulf of Mexico and not 2 to 5-5in. dried in Texas. The mean annual rainfall varies from western at various points in the lower gulf valley and on the and border to 25 to 30in. in the mountains. Local thunderstorms limited cloudbursts are a characteristic phenomenon, inundating

centre of the State. In southern and western Arizona the giant cactus grows in groves, attaining a height of 40 and even 50

feet. In many localities the mesquite is the only important native tree. It is easy to exaggerate greatly the barrenness of an arid country. There are fine indigenous grasses that spring up over the mesas after the summer rains, furnishing range for livestock; some of these grasses are -extraordinarily independent of the rainfall. The cliff-dweller country supports a scant vegetation—a few cottonwoods in the washes, a few cedars on the mesas, Continuous forest areas are few. A fair variety of trees—cotton-wood, sycamore, ash, willow, walnut and cherry—grow in thickets in the canyons, and each mountain range is a forest area. Rainfall varying with the altitude, the lower timber line, below which precipitation is insufficient to sustain a growth of trees, is about 7,000ft., and the upper timber line about 11,500 feet. Since 1898 about 86% of the wooded lands have been made reservations, and work has been done also to preserve the forest areas in the mountains in the south-east, from which there are few streams of permanent flow to the enclosing arid valleys. Soils and Irrigation.—The soils in the southern part of Aritorrents areas and transforming dried-up streams into muddy from light loam to heavy the zona are mainly sandy loams, but vary carrying boulders and débris. Often in the plateau country but lack water. For the reserenough rich are They adobe. close the in dry under-air absorbs the rain as it falls; and rarely

Moqui country do flooded gullies “run throug ” to the Little

ast Colorado. The country of the cliff-dwellers in the north-e rain. much catch altitude in high points is desert-like. Only ColMountain snows feed the Gila, the Little Colorado and the the during and June, and May in come floods The orado rivers. wet season the rivers, all with steep beds in their upper courses, wash along detritus that lower down narrows, and on smaller streams almost chokes their courses. These gradients enable the their inconstant streams tributary to the Colorado to carve ble, remarka very ves themsel in are which of canyons, some though insignificant beside the Grand Canyon. From the Gila to the the southern boundary the parched land gives no water to true a through part in runs ry sea, and the international bounda desert. In the hot season there is almost no surface water. Artesian wells are used in places, as in the stock country of the

: Baboquivari valley. The temperature of Arizona is somewhat higher than that of points of equal latitude on the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico

ae

ead —o

BY COURTESY OF THE ATCHISON, TOPEKA AND SANTA FE RAILWAY COMPANY INTO FORMS THAT NATURE HAS CARVED THE ROCK MASSES OF ARIZONA ANCE TO WORKS ENGI. RESEMBL THEIR IN NG STARTLI S, SOMETIME ARE, MONUMENT VALLEY, WITH ITS RIDGE NEERED BY THE HUMAN HAND. THE SCENE OF SUCH A PHENOMENON IS SKYLINE, CITY A SUGGESTING

vation of the water partings, the increase of the forest areas and the creation of reservoirs, much has been done by the nation of Government. A reservoir below the junction of the Tonto and the coasts. In the mountains on the plateau it ranges from that south Salt irrigates more than 1,000,000 acres. An East Indian welt the temperate zone to that of regions of perpetual snow; the Colorado near Yuma and levees on both sides of the mountains it ranges from temperate heats in the foothills dam across

to semi-tropic heat in the lower valleys of the Gila and Colorado. The average annual temperature over the region north of 34° is The about 55°; that of the region south is about 68 degrees. warmest region is the lower Gila valley. The daily variation (not

uncommonly 60°) is of course greatest in the most arid regions,

of the Gila and the Colorado conserve the water supply. The Colorado river problem is the chief one. In 1919 Arizona, adopted unable to solve the a comprehensive code of water laws but was difficulties international, interstate, financial and administrative

of the Colorado river problem. The Colorado River Compact,

PratE i

ARIZONA

ee Sh oT ee ee

amen

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ee

te t

wot on ai

s

BY COURTESY OF (1, 4, 8) THE US. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

(2, 3) ROBERT HOOPER,

MOUNTAIN,

(5, 6) WETHERILE AND COLVILLE, (7) THE US

DESERT AND

l. The “Twin Sisters,” in the Petrified Forest National of Adamana

Monument, south

spanning 2. Rainbow bridge, a natural rock formation, discovered in 1909,miles north

a deep chasm in the Navajo Mountains in Utah, a few of the Arizona border. Striking examples of erosion, similar to this includes bridge, are characteristic of the Navajo region, which

extensive areas in Arizona and Utah View of another natural arch (see fig. 2) in the Navajo Mountains

PY . Oraibi,

one of the seven villages of the Hopi are on the top of a plateau

Indians.

The buildings

URBAN

SCENERY

BUREAU OF RECLAMATION,

r

C

“

>

(9) JOSEPH PEREIRA

IN ARIZONA

5. View across a section of Monument Valley, in the northeastern part of Navajo county, showing, in the distance, rock formations that have

been shaped by erosion into monument-like forms

6. Hopi Indians shown in one of their religious dances. are generally considered the most remarkable Indian pageants

The Hopi festivals of the American

An Indian earth-covered home in Yuma district 8. Lava-capped mountains, looking northeast over Lechuguilla Desert

~

9. Homes in Tucson, in the centre of one of the oldest farming and ranching districts in the State

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361

ARIZONA

The Indians, organized in over 30 tribes, form an ever decreasture in 1923, formed in 1922, Was rejected by the Arizona legisla proportion of the population, representing only 10% in 1920. ing was vetoed and even when revised and accepted by the legislature water to more important are the Hualapaic or Apache-Yumas; the rights The der surren to by the governor, who was disinclined a the Vavapais or Apache-Mohaves; the Yumas, whose 1925 Mohaves; In and power to the other six States in the agreement.

primitive e of the uncom- lesser neighbours on the lower Colorado are the most conference of States interested broke up becaus , who figPapagoes and Pimas the habits; in U.S. the of in Indians ed irrigat acres of r promising attitude taken by all. The numbe 467,565 in ure much in early Arizona history, and who are superior in intelArizona Was 185,000 10 1900, 320,051 In I9IO and were 000aC. 1I,000, Over 1920. GOV. Hunt estimated in 1927 that

in nearly finished irrigathen either under irrigation or included tion projects. first (or Government.—Arizona became a Territory of the therelaw organic Her 1863. in class practically autonomous) the revised statof s section various of ed consist 1910 until after she had a terriutes of the United States. From the beginning of torial legislature. Congress retained ultimately direct control t residen of hands the in being on strati admini all government, n mentio Special Senate. and ent officials appointed by the Presid must be made of the secret police, the Arizona rangers, organized

a

S ee ae

Hta e ee

ea) ai\'

areight hours in any day.” By amendment to the Constitution

ticles were added providing for the recall of judges (1912), for woman suffrage (1912) and for prohibition (1914, 1916). The death penalty, abolished in 1916, was restored in 1918. After

an initiative petition an old-age and mothers’ pensions law was enacted in 1914. Population.—The first census of Arizona was in 1870, when the population was 9,658. The population was 40,440 in 1880;

88,243 in 1890; 122,931 IN 1900; 204,354 in 1910; and 334,162

in 1920. The increase for the decade 1910-20 was 63-5%. By the Federal census, the population in 1930 was 435,573. In 1920 there were 291,449 whites, 32,989 Indians, 8,005 megroes, 1,137

GRAPH SHOWING GROWTH OF THE POPULATION OF ARIZONA, AND THE NUMBER OF MALES AND FEMALES, 1880-1920

1870-1920

Chinese, 550 Japanese, and 32 others. The urban population in-

creasedfrom 9-4% in 1890 to 15-9% in 1900, 31% in 1910 and

352% in 1920, The actual farm population decreased from 90,$60 in 1920 to 71,954 in 1925. In church membership the leading denominations are Roman Catholics, Latter Day Saints, Metho-

dists, Presbyterians and Protestant Episcopalians. The growth in population of the two chief cities is shown in the following table:

i

ep

adr

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trained in 1901 to police the cattle ranges; they are “fearless men, personnel in riding, roping, trailing and shooting,” a force whose d the is not known to the general public. The legislature repeale e juvenil for ed provid and 1907 in law licensing public gambling State ConstituThe n. childre of control ionary probat and courts ndum tion adopted in I19I0 provides for the initiative and refere

and that no child under 16 may work “underground in mines, or in any occupation injurious to health or morals or hazardous to life or limb, nor in any occupation at night, or for more than

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BUREAU

OF

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ENGAGED

IN

DOMESTIC

WORK

OUTSIDE

THEIR

HOMES

mission While quartered on Government reservations and provided with of their schools, many of the Indian tribes still follow the primitive customs forefathers

ligence, adaptability, application and character; the Hopis or Moquis, possessed of the same good qualities and famous for their prehistoric culture (Tusayan); and the Navahos and kindred Apaches, perhaps the most relentless and savage of Indian warriors. The Pimas and Papagoes, converted by the Spaniards, retain a smattering of Christianity, plentifully alloyed with paganism. Apaches, Pimas and Papagoes have been employed by the Federal Government on irrigation works and have proved industrious and faithful. Since 1900 a few hundred Yaquis, because of difficulties with the Mexican Government, have crossed into southern Arizona and settled there. They have rapidly acquired American customs and make good labourers. All Indians of Arizona live on reservations save a few non-tribal Indians taxed and treated as citizens. Finance and Taxation.—The chief source of revenue is the tax on property. The assessed property valuation rose from $38,853,831 in 1901 to $653,163,397 in 1925. In the fiscal year July 1, 1925, to June 30, 1926, the State spent $8,186,249; of this amount $3,646,164 was for education, $2,916,324 for public works, $630,482 for health, charitable and penal institutions, $332,140 for the administration of the laws and $326,332 for the promotion of agriculture. The funds spent for education do not include the heavy disbursements of the counties and school districts. The controversy over the taxation of mining property has been acute since 1900. Arizona SHOWING COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION OF has an elaborate budget system and boasts ARIZONA IN 1920 a credit balance of nearly $3,500,000. The State and the counties is $43,027,083. the of total indebtedness Education.—The public school system was established in 1871. A compulsory attendance law (192 1) applies to children between eight and 16 years of age, but it is not generally obeyed by the Mexican element. In 1924 the percentage of children aged 5-17, inclusive, in the public schools was 71-1. In 1923-24 there were 62,816 pupils in the elementary schools, 9,022 in the high schools and 1,911 in the night schools. The average teacher’s salary in the elementary schools was $1,320 a year for women and $1,480 for men; in the high schools, $1,880 for women and $1,956 for men. Illiteracy was reduced to 15-3% by 1920, over 90% of the illiterates being found among the Indians and the

ARIZONA

362

foreign-born population. There are 20 Indian schools, the largest of which are maintained by the national Government. The first Injuvenile reform school, called the Territorial (now State) dustrial school, was opened in 1903 at Benson and was removed In to Fort Grant ten years later. There are 21 private schools. 1916 a high school of the State was for the first time admitted to the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary

central part of the State and near the junction of the Gila ang San Pedro rivers.

1924 were valued at $100,325,413; Of this, $88,785,514 was the

value of copper (677,752,013 Ib.); $4,878,465, of gold (235,996 troy oz.); and $4,455,015, of silver (6,649,276 troy oz.). More copper was mined in Arizona than in any other State. The ten.

in Schools. In 1927, 35 of the 59 high schools of the State were and the association. The growth of the normal schools at Tempe the Flagstaff has kept pace in enrolment and equipment with State growth of the public schools, and in 1925 they were made ’s teachers’ colleges with four-year courses leading to the bachelor first at d, organize was deaf the for degree. In 1910 a State school but affiliated with the State university and under its direction, Ariof ty Universi The tion. organiza own its later separated, with in zona increased its enrolment from 84 regular college students five of d compose is on instituti The 1926-27. in 1,843 Iglo—11r to colleges on the campus at Tucson: college of agriculture; college of education; college of law; college of letters, arts and sciences; stacollege of mines and engineering. The agricultural experiment tion, the Stewart observatory, the Arizona bureau of mines, the on State pure food laboratory and the State museum are also to the campus. In 1916 the University of Arizona was admitted of member a became it 1919 in ion; Associat Central the North the Association of American Colleges, and in Nov. 1924 the Association of American Universities voted that it should be added to the list of approved institutions.

Agriculture—Farming

Some fine gems of peridot, garnet and ty.

quoise have been found. The mineral products of Arizona for

in Arizona is varied and intensive.

The crops include strawberries, dates, cotton, alfalfa, hay, wheat, sorghum, oranges, olives, sweet potatoes, yams and sugar-beets. Crop follows crop in quick succession, alfalfa producing from

POUNDS 700,000,000

600,000.000 500,000,000 400,000,000 300,000,000

200,000,000 100,000,000

GRAPH

SHOWING

UNREFINED-COPPER

PRODUCED

IN ARIZONA,

1877—1926

Arizona has contributed 31% of the total recorded amount produced în the United States up to 1926. In recent years the proportion has been over 40%

dency during 1910-25 was toward the development of low-grade deposits, but the older companies were still working high-grade (3-64 hay of acre per yield The year. a four to seven cuttings in deposits in 1925. Sacramento hill, near Bisbee, was stripped by 1925 in State; short tons in 1926) is greater than in any other 1920 and has been furnishing since 1923 much ore containing other any in than greater was cotton of acre per the average yield 1-83% of copper. by exceeded was acre State, but in 1926 the yield of 330 lb. per Manufactures—The manufactures of Arizona are based leading a is sing Stock-rai acre. per lb. ia—382 Californ that of upon the minerals in the State. The capital invested inoccupation, but it has probably attained its full development. chiefly from $9,517,573 in 1900 to $123,377,206 in 1919, and the creased public The number of sheep and cattle, pastured mostly on of the products from $20,438,987 in xrgoo to $1 38,781,477 domain, is now limited by the extension of the national forest re- value The product of the principal industry in 1925, the 1925. in enns serves (11,316,232ac. in Arizona in 1926) and the regulatio refining of copper ($106,926,324), represented and forced by the U.S. Government for the preservation of the ranges. smelting total output of all industries. The other manvthe of 77.04% short or long of price Dairy farming varies in extent; when the little importance, the principal ones being relatively of are factures staple cotton is high, as in 1920 or 1924, dairy farming is negproducts ($3,913,793); slaughtering and is grown. From 1917 to 1920 the number of lumber and other timber lected and cotton acres of cotton harvested increased from 41,000 to 230,000; in 1926 it was 167,000. The production of cotton was 41,000 bales in 1917, 103,000 in 1920 and 115,000 in 1926, never amounting to 1% of the total production of the United States. The value of all crops in Arizona declined from $42,481,000 in 1919 to $25,852,oco in 1926, though at the same time increasing slightly to less than 0-003% of the value of all crops in the United States. Minerals.—Mining is the leading industry of Arizona. Contrary to venerable traditions there is no evidence that mining was practised except to a very inconsiderable extent by aborigines, Spanish conquistadores, or Jesuits. In 1738 an extraordinary deposit of silver nuggets, quickly exhausted (1741), was discovered at Arizonac, At the end of the 18th century the Mexicans considerably developed the mines in the south-east. The second half of the roth century witnessed several great finds: first, of gold placers on the lower Gila and Colorado (1858-69); later,

of lodes at Tombstone, which flourished from 1879 to 1886, then decayed, but in 1905 had again become the centre of important mining interests; and still later, of copper at Jerome and around Bisbee.

Several of the Arizona copper mines are

among the greatest of the world. The Copper Queen at Bisbee from 1880-1902 produced 378,047,210 Ib. of crude copper, which was then practically the total output of the Territory, other valu-

able mines having been developed later; the Globe, Morenci and Jerome districts are secondary to Bisbee. Important mines of gold and silver, considerable deposits of wolframite, valuable ores of molybdenum and vanadium, and quarries of onyx marble, are also worked. Low-grade coal deposits occur in the east

meat packing ($3,847,754);

including repairs by cotton-seed oil, meal The Navaho and rugs, and the Pimas

car and general shop construction,

steam railway companies ($3,719,802); and and cake ($2,556,577). Moqui Indians make woollen blankets and make baskets. Onyx marbles of local source

are polished at Phoenix. Railways.—Two trans-continental railway systems, the Southern Pacific and the Santa Fe, were built across Arizona in 1878-

s have 83. They are connected by one line, and various branche 2,409. Was 1924, 1, Jan. been built. The railway mileage on

to History.—The history of the south-west is full of interest has uted distrib widely culture oric the archaeologist. A prehist left abundant traces.

Pueblo ruins are plentiful in the basins

of the Gila and Colorado rivers and their tributaries.

Geograph-

ical conditions and a hard struggle against nature fixed the character of this “aridian”

culture and determined its migrations;

the onslaughts of nomad Indians determined the ization of the cliff-dwellers. A co-operative social denced by the traces of great public works, such miles in length. The pueblos of the Gila valley

sedentary civileconomy is ev as canals many are held to be

older than those of the Colorado. Casa Grande, 15m. S.E, of8

Pacific ralrailway station of the same name on the Southern est, the south-w the in ruins plains of able remark most way, is the the Casa only one of its type in the United States. It resembles d Grande ruin of Chihuahua, Mexico, with its walls of sun-drie by nded surrou plazas, and courts rooms, earth and its area of

a wall. It was already a ruin when discovered in 1694 by the

Jesuit Father Kino.

303

ARIZONA 1889 ConJohn Russell Bartlett described it in 1854, and in ation; reserv nment gover a as cted prote be ess voted that it were s ation Excav . nment Gover in 1892 it was set apart by the

Indians and did something among some tribes for agriculture. Their own farms and settlements, confined to the Santa Cruz

valley, were often plundered and abandoned, save in the immedi-

valleys of ate vicinity of the presidio. From about 1790 to 1822 was a pemade there in 1906-07 by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes. The tive prosperity Verde and Tonto, riod of peace with the Apaches and of compara church at Bac, he Salt river and its affluents, the Agua Fria, fine Indian mission especially important in are strewn with aboriginal remains; but the Little Colorado. was e cultur of the northward migrations lived once in this considerable population must have A ve still undeserted the by y to-da d sente repre bly possi is It valley. s,

The

for church and State.

the long abandoned and neglected, dates from the last decade of

the Moqui habitats of Zuñi (in New Mexico) and Tusayan; survival are in customs and traditions the best after the Zuñis,

of the ancient civilization. d and intermitArizona north of the Gila, save for a very limite tions, was expedi ing explor scant for and tent missionary effort ing

G

the beginn vactically unknown to the whites until well after r, has much howeve , valley Cruz Santa The rule. an

of Americ picturesque contrasts older annals of a past that charms by its the arrival in with the present. Arizona history begins with who, although Vaca, de a Cabez Nufiez Alvar Sonora in 1536 of heard of them, he had not entered Arizona or New Mexico, had

hamberş, S

P

was, in whom the first reconnaissance was entrusted, rs of CoroMembe a. Arizon of limits the rd to enter

of remark Grand Canyon, and after this a succession y. All this has centur the h throug ed heroic explorations follow history of the left traces in still living myths about the early progress had erable consid y centur 17th the in south-west. Early and Moquis. oes Papag heen made in Christianizing the Pimas,

Mexico and Following 1680 came a great Indian revolt in New ndent of indepe ned remai s Moqui Arizona, and thereafter the fitfully by visited gh althou tion, domina ian Christ and Spanish missions rival Jesuits and Franciscans. In 1732 regular Jesuit

of the Gila were founded at Bac and Guevavi. The region south half of the second the In ed. explor edly repeat been had already half dozen some and Tubac at io century there were a presid . Tucson of ment settle Indian the ing includ visita, de pueblos with given credit some and ed correct be A few errors should had any jurisreference to this early period. The Inquisition never by the diction whatever over the Indians; compulsory labour

LO |

Oo

“QHolbrook

explore the unknown and by his stories incited the Spaniards to a Franciscan friar to Niza, de s Marco North in hope of wealth. 1539, the

first Spania y and reached the nado’s expedition explored the Moqui countr able and

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CALIFORN Y

ae

o

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10 G {0 2 30 40 50 MILES

MAP

OF THE MAIN

ROADS

darm

a amm o mep

OF ARIZONA

in 1776 18th century. The establishment of a presidio at Tucson

marks its beginning as a Spanish settlement. the The decay of the military power of the presidios during ds Spaniar loyal of on expulsi the dence, Mexican war of indepen to the tem—notably friars—and the renewal of Apache wars led Tucson. and Tubac except ents settlem all of porary abandonment 1828. about field The church practically forsook the a in the American traders and explorers first penetrated Arizon Mexican the of result a As . century first quarter of the rgth of the war, New Mexico, which then included all Arizona north discovgold rnia Califo States. United the to Gila, was ceded of the Gila, eries drew particular attention to the country south y route. railwa ental contin transa for also wanted which was N, GADSDE (see se” Purcha en “Gadsd This strip, known as the which took James), was bought in 1853 by the United States, to New Mexico. possession in 1856. This portion also was added abandoned 1848, in had, s, The Mexicans, pressed by the Apache and after i, Guevav of visita a first cori, Tamaca and even Tubac interwas ment settle an Americ of ss 1784 a mission. The progre withdrawal of the the caused which War, Civil the by rupted Indian

ged troops and was the occasion for the outbreak of prolon ‘wars. FE RAILWAY COMPANY a delegate to BY COURTESY OF THE ATCHISON, TOPEKA AND SANTA Meanwhile a convention at Tucson in 18 56 sent CIVILIZATION A TRADING POST, THE INDIAN’S CONTACT WITH government. rial territo ndent indepe blankets, Congress and petitioned for Here he brings the products of his handicraft, such as baskets and d by Conignore were ed follow that others and and exchanges them for food and wearing apparel ent This movem on, and questi y slaver l genera the over on to its divisi Indians was never legalized except on the missions, and the gress owingthe belief of northern members that the control of especially

law was little violated; the Indians were never compelled to By act of Feb. Arizona was an object of the pro-slavery party. as the country work mines; of mining by them for precious metals there is no ory Territ a Arizon organized in 1767, after which their 24, 1863, Congress ant government, itiner an ber Decem In evidence; nor by the Jesuits (expelled ude. longit W. 109° missions and other properties were held by the Franciscans), ex- west of complete from Washington, crossed the Arizona line and they sent out l was first cept to a small extent about the presidio of Tubac, although ed a formal organization. The territorial capita did some prospecting. Persistent traditions have greatly exag- effect the State where 1889), (since ix Phoen at tt and finally gerated the former prosperity of the old south-west. The Span- at Presco e among the capital now is. iards probably provoked some intertribal intercours

364

ARJUNA—ARK

for the executive branches. (See also COLORADO RIVER; GRAND There have been boundary difficulties with every contiguous CANYON.) exState or territory. The early period of American rule was BrsLIocrapruy.—For the early history of Arizona see H. H. Banoverland and es discoveri gold ia tremely unsettled. The Californ History of Arizona and New M exico (San Francisco, 1877): croft, For Arizona. A. E. A. de Bandelier in G. P. Winship’s The Coronado Expedition: travel directed many prospecting adventurers to (1892-93), pp. 339-613 some years there was considerable sentiment in favour of filibust- U.S. bureau of ethnology, 14th Annual Report of a Spanish E. of Coues, Trail Pioneer, bibl.; Francisco Garcés On the habit a breeding ering in Sonora, Mexico. The Indian wars, (1900). Comprehensive histories by J. H. McClintock, Arizona: Pre. cattle of elements neous heteroge the and force, on dependence historic, Aboriginal, Pioneer, Modern (1916) ; W. H. Robinson, Story thieves, Sonora cowboys, mine labourers and adventurers led to of Arizona (Phoenix, 1919). Thomas E. Farish, the former State historian, completed 8 vol. of his History of Arizona (Phoenix, 191sone of the worst periods of American border history. 18), giving the history up to 1872 in detail, with plentiful quotations seemed 1872, as early as began which Agitation for statehood, from statements of pioneers and from memoirs, newspapers and on the point of success in 1891, when a Constitution was drafted, documents. For a description of the State, see the bibliographies in submitted to the people of the State and ratified. The U.S. Senate the US. geological survey publications, Bulletins Nos. roo and 174, Agriculture objected to this Constitution because it seemed to repudiate cer- Fauna and flora are described in the DepartmentNo. of7 (1893) and No. 3 (1890), SenFauna, The . American North standard y publication, monetar double a up set and s contract tain publication, No. 10 (1898). Climate and survey biological US. the the until d statehoo for g providin ate continued to reject bills soil are described in various publications of the U.S. Department of State sent up a new Constitution in 1910. Agriculture and in the Bulletins of the Arizona agricultural experiment This Constitution raised a question of national importance station. Statistics of manufacturing can be found in USS. census in the publication of the in the form of a provision for the recall of judges by popular reports. Statistics of minerals can be found survey, in the reports of the bureau of mines on the geological U.S. Congress the and Taft President argument much vote. After Mineral Resources of the United States, and in the Bulletins of the finally agreed on a resolution granting statehood on condition that Arizona bureau of mines, 1915 segg. For information on archaeology the provision for recall be struck out. This was done, and on Feb. consult numerous papers by A. F. A. de Bandelier, especially the the Indians of the South14, 1912, the President signed the proclamation admitting Arizona “Final Report of Investigations among United States” in Papers of the Archaeological Institute of as a State. After admission the people of the State promptly in- Western America, American Series, vol. iii. and iv. (Cambridge, 1890-92), serted by amendment the original provision for the recall of Special topics are treated in the Legislative History of Arizona judges. (Phoenix, 1926), in the Blue Book issued annually by the secretary congress (Phoenix, Another issue of national interest was the Alien Labour law of State; in the Bulletins of the Arizona industrial 1922 seqq.); in A. M. Farlow’s “Arizona’s Admission to Statehood” enacted by the voters of the State in 1914. The act provided in Annual Publications of the Historical Soc. of Southern California that when any corporation, company, partnership or individual (vol. ix., 1914), and in C. Ralph Tupper’s Survey of the Arizona employed more than five workers, 80% of them should be quali- Public School System (Phoenix, 1925). For the recall of judges, see fied electors or native-born citizens. The ambassadors of Great Congressional Record, vol. 47, pt. 1v., Dp. 3,964-66; for the Arizona see 219 Federal and 239 U.S.; for the Bisbee Britain and Italy averred that the law violated existing treaties, Alien Labour lawthecase, on the Bisbee Deportation, U.S. DepartReport see deportation, utional unconstit was law and the Federal courts ruled that the ment of Labour (1918); and for the Colorado river compact, see because it denied equal protection to aliens. Transactions of the Amer. Soc. C.E., vol. 88, pp. 306—427; also and 100, and The election of Nov. 1916 resulted in a situation that aroused G. E. P. Smith, Experiment Station Bulletins Nos. 95 Gov. Hunt to the State legislature of Jan. 8, 1923, high party feeling. Previously Gov. Hunt, supported by a Demo- the messages ofand Jan. 4, 1927. Social life is brilliantly treated in Jan. 12, 1925, cratic assembly, had been elected for two terms. In 1916 he was Mrs. Mary Austin’s Land of Journey’s Ending (1924); her article a candidate for the third time. On the face of the returns, “Arizona, the Land of the Joyous Adventure” in These United States (H. A. H Campbell, the Republican candidate, was elected; but Hunt, after (1923) is a skilful interpretation. being compelled to give up the office to Campbell, was restored ARJUNA, in post-Vedic Hindu mythology son of Indra, a by the State supreme court. The bitter political struggle reflected of the Mahabharata; and the central figure in the part of hero strikes, of number a in a tense industrial situation that culminated called the Bhagavadgita. In modern Hinduism he is epic that the most important of which was the one at Clifton and Morenci, | beginning in Sept. 1915. The Bisbee deportation incident in unimportant. (1915). Strasbourg Mythology, Epic Hopkins, Washburn E. See organizaJuly 1917, when more than a thousand members of the used in is box, or chest a properly meaning ARK, a word tion called the Industrial Workers of the World were deported Hebrew words. different two translate to Bible English the critical more even an summarily to Columbus, N.M., produced (a) Heb. tébah, probably an Egyptian loan-word meaning a situation. President Wilson at once warned the governor of the or coffin. It is used of (1) the reed basket or boat in which box investito committee a appointed and danger of such a precedent was exposed by his mother. This is described as made of Moses adgate and adjust the dispute. The committee found that any rendered waterproof with bitumen. It was justment between employers and labour organizations was im- papyrus stems and or lid, and was clearly intended to protect cover a with provided a n deportatio possible and recommended a law making future animals, especially, perhaps, crocodiles. wild the child against Federal offence. Noah saved himself, his family and which in vessel The (2) problems. In the last decade Arizona has faced two critical (See FLoop, Noam.) In the animals. living all of One of these, the problem of the future supply of water in the specimens have been combined to form which narratives two the of older hydro-electric and irrigation of Colorado river for purposes it is represented as large ), “Yahwist” (the text present our power, is made more serious by the fact that Arizona is at the of every sacrificial animal specimens lower end of the river and by the failure of the State to develop enough to contain seven a window, made by Noah is There rest. the all of each two and on hydro-electric power plants as extensively as the other States to remove, though it able is he which covering a the river. Because of the fear that Arizona would suffer from himself, and ark by Yahweh. The later the on placed be to had it that seems she if projects irrigation lack of sufficient water for future ) gives a number of details, in a manner agreed to let the other States on the river have as much water account (the “priestly” writings. The material is “eopher” priestly the of stic characteri let to agreement any by forced was she as they planned, and if ents and covered all over with compartm into divided is it wood; Mexico have a large supply, the people of the State have been a window in the roof over the with decks solidly behind Gov. Hunt in his fight against the Colorado river bitumen; it has three 45oft. by soft. by 45 roughly are s dimension its and highest, issue compact and the Boulder dam project (1923-27). On this into the ark, for taken is species each of only he was elected for the sixth time in 1926. The other problem feet. One pair to "pe according Flood the after permitted only is food animal the that recognized been is the taxation of mines. It has long for animals “clean” extra of need no therefore, is, assessed valuation of the mines has been too low; but attempts and there sacrifice. have valuation that increase to equalization of the State board of the (b) Heb. ’arén, meaning a box, used in Gen. 1. 26 ofcommet with retaliation in the form of opposition within the dominant more but d, preserve was body Democratic Party. Party or representative government was seri- coffin in which Joseph’s of the Covenant” or “Ark of Testiously handicapped (1924-26) by the reduction of appropriations monly applied to the “Ark

365

ARKADELPHIA—ARKANSAS

battle was “Arise, O Yahweh, and let thine enemies be scattered” mony,” the most sacred religious symbol of early Israel. Though (Num. x. 35, cf. ver. 36). It is true that, when taken into battle ” and “Elohist z is a familiar object in J and E (the “Yahwist” 4 seg.), it was captured by has survived. D (the by Hophni and Phineas (I. Sam. iv. sources) nO account of its construction that this was deliberately shows sequel the but s, Philistine the wood, acacia „Deuteronomist” ) speaks of its material as being temple at Ashdod, it the in Set . Inhabitant its its structure, including permitted by and in P there is an elaborate account of of great power by the treatment of Dagon, of pure gold and included 4 description of the lid, which was wings meeting in the

‘wo cherubs, one at each end, with their nasal

F

W

aon

showed the presence and by the plagues which befell the Philistines.

Most significant

is the story of its return to Israel (I. Sam. vi.). Two cows have their calves removed from them and are harnessed to the cart on which the ark is placed. Then, though no human hand is placed upon them, instead of seeking their calves they take the straight road for Israelite territory, without deviating, though lowing in protest. Clearly they are being driven by a mighty force in the ark itself. Vet later, an accidental desecration is swiftly and terribly avenged (II. Sam. vi. 6), and there are other references which indicate that the ark was venerated as the (T. H. R.) divine dwelling.

ARKADELPHIA, acity of Arkansas, U.S.A.,on the Ouachita

9 airaveh a tavaa,

river, about 65m. S.W. of Little Rock; the county seat of Clark county. It is on federal highway 67, and is served by the Missouri Pacific railroad. The population in 1920 was 3,311, in 1930, 3,380 Federal census. Arkadelphia is picturesquely located among rolling hills. It has one of the largest flour mills in the State, cotton gins, tile plants, sawmills, and a cotton-seed oil-mill. Abundant power is available from the hydro-electric development of the Ouachita. Arkadelphia is the seat of Ouachita college (Baptist; established 1888) and of Henderson-Brown college (Methodist; established 1890), both co-educational institutions. The first settler was John Hemphill, who came in 1811 from South Carolina. He set up a salt works, the first in the State. The manuthe facture of salt was continued until the Civil War, and was city. the of n possessio the cause of fighting for

ARKANSAS

BY COURTESY

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THE ARK OF THE LAW IN THE NEW SYNAGOGUE, GREAT ST. HELEN'S, LONDON, A REPLICA OF WHICH IS IN THE NEW SYNAGOGUE AT STAMFORD, CONNECTICUT

Law, ts the built-in-cupThe actual Ark, which contains the Scrolls of the by the velvet curtain. board in the centre. The doors are partly concealed the Ark

above The Hebrew inscription on the frieze of the Corinthian order means “Know

in Whose

presence thou standest”

middle. This cover was of special importance in the religious thought of Israel, for it was there, on the “mercy-seat,” that Yahweh’s presence might most certainly be found. Whilst some of the details supplied by P may be of later origin, there can be little doubt that the possession of the ark goes far back beyond the conquest of Palestine, and that when Israel entered Canaan it was the centre of the national worship.

Thus the early narratives give it an important place in the cross-

ing of the Jordan and the capture of Jericho. After the settlement it is first found at Shiloh, under the care of Eli, but was

captured by the Philistines at the battle of Aphek. Taken by them into their own territory it proved a dangerous possession, and was eventually returned to Israel. For a time it remained forgotten, or at least unnoticed, but was brought by David to Jerusalem when he made that city his capital. It was placed

(ahr’kin-saw), popularly known as the “wonder

state,” is one of the south-central states of the United States of America. It is situated between 33° and 36° 30’ N. lat. and , 89° 40’ and 94° 42’ W., and its boundaries are north Missouri and ee Tenness from it ng separati river, east the Mississippi Mississippi, south Louisiana, and west Texas and Oklahoma. Its s area is 53,3358q.m., of which 810 are water surface. Arkansa was given the name “wonder state” by an act of the general assembly in 1923, because of its remarkable natural resources. Physical Features.—Arkansas lies in the drainage basin of The the lower Mississippi and has a remarkable river system. other Nine east. to west from state the bisects Arkansas river White large streams drain the state; the Red, the Ouachita, the number a are There . important most the being Francis St. and the of swamps and bayous in the eastern part. any The surface of Arkansas is more diversified than that of upsloping rises, It valley. ppi Mississi central other state in the wards towards the north-west, from an average elevation of less than 300ft. in the south-east to heights of 2,cooft. and more in the north-west. There are four physiographic regions: two of highlands, a region of river valley plain separating the two highland areas, and a region of hills, lowlands and prairie. This fourth region covers the eastern half of the state and is part of the gulf or coastal plain of the United

SEAL OF THE STATE OF ARKANSAS

States. If a line were drawn from

y to the point where the Red river cuts the western boundar the gulf where the Black cuts the northern, east of it would be of it the highlands (over 5ooft.) and the mineral in the temple by Solomon, and probably remained there through- plain and west state. They are divided by the valley of the the of regions not do we red disappea it out the period of the monarchy. When two regions, which are structurally different. into river s Arkansa know, but a late passage in Jeremiah (iii. 16) mentions it in terms north of it South of the river are the Ouachita mountains, and which imply that it has ceased to exist. are characterns mountai a Ouachit The ns. mountai Boston the are The ark is held to be par excellence the home of Yahweh, and and faulting. Their southern edge is covered the earlier references leave no doubt as to the belief that He ized by close folding , and their eastern edge is covered as well deposits us cretaceo with into taken dwelt within it, Thus the formula used when it was

ARKANSAS

366

with the tertiary deposits of the gulf plains. The Arkansas valley is marked by wide and open folding. The Boston mountains are

substantially a continuation of the Ozark dome of Missouri. Their northern border is marked by an escarpment 500 to 7ooft. in height. The trend is from east to west between Batesville (Ark.) and Wagoner (Okla.). The entire region is very much dissected by streams, and the topography is of a terrace and escarpment type. In the highlands north of the Arkansas the country is irregularly broken; south of the river the hills lie, less capriciously, in short, high ranges, with low, fertile valleys between them. The

The soils of Arkansas are of peculiar variety.

poorly fitted for agriculture. The uplands are generally fertil The poor soils are distinctively sandy; the soils of the lowlands

clayey; but sand and clay are found combined in rich loams characterized by the predominance of one or the other constituent The alluvial bottoms are of wonderful richness. Government.—The present constitution, in an amended for, dates from 1874. Few features differentiate it from the usual type of such documents. The governor holds office for two years, Ha

Ouachitas extend 200m., from within Oklahoma (near Atoka) to central Arkansas (near Little Rock). They are characterized by long, low ridges bearing generally west to east with wide, flat valleys. Near the western boundary of the state they attain a maximum altitude of 2,800ft. above the sea and valleys of the Arkansas and Red rivers, falling ward (as westward) to s00-7ooft. Five peaks feet. Magazine and Blue mountains, each of

That of ih.

highlands is mostly but a thin covering, and the larger portion is

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are the highest points in the state. The streams are swift, and in their lower courses flow in gorges 500 to 1,000ft. deep, almost deserving the name of canyons.

The main streams are tortuous,

and their tributaries have cut the region into ridges. Along the upper course of the White river in the Bostons, and in the country about Hot Springs is the most beautiful scenery. The climate of the state is “southern,” owing to the influence of the Gulf of Mexico. The mean temperatures for the different seasons are normally about 41-6°, 61-1°, 78-8° and 61-9° for winter, spring, summer and autumn respectively. The normal mean precipitations are about 11-7, 14-5, 10-5 and ro-2in. for the same seasons. The extreme range of the monthly isotherms crossing the state is from about 35° in winter to about 81° in summer, and the range of annual isotherms from about 54 to about 60 degrees. The variation of mean annual temperatures for different parts of the state is, then, only six degrees. Precipitation varies from 34 to 64in. according to locality. Winter cold is seldom severe, and there is no summer drought. Sheltered valleys in the interior produce spring crops three or four weeks earlier than is usual in this latitude. The climate is generally healthy. The state possesses a rich fauna and flora. The forest lands of the state include one-fourth of its area. with most of it actually covered by standing timber. Valuable trees are of great variety; cotton-wood, poplar, catalpa, red cedar, sweet gum, sassafras, persimmon, ash, elm, sycamore, maple, a variety of pines, pecan, locust, dogwood, hickory, various oaks, beech, walnut and cypress ARKANSAS HAS

1.8% OF THE LAND AREA OF THE U.S., 1.7% OF THE POPULATION (1920) PRODUCED

IN 1925

10.0% OF THE COTTON CROP. 22.6% OF THE RICE, 4.9% OF THE SWEET POTATOES.

4.7% OF THE 7.7% OF THE 4.2% OF THE 10.1% OF THE 3.5% OF THE

20%

PEACHES, STRAWBERRIES (1926), LUMBER, PETROLEUM. AND NATURAL GAS.

15%

. GRAPH SHOWING ARKANSAS

LAND

AREA,

POPULATION

AND

PRODUCTION

OF

are all abundant. There are 129 native species of trees. The yellow pine, the white oak and the cypress are the most valuable growths. The northern woods are mainly hard, the yellow pine is most characteristic of the heavy woods of the south-central counties, and magnificent cypress abounds in the north-east. Hard woods grow even on the alluvial lands. “The hard-wood forests of the state are hardly surpassed in variety and richness, and contain inestimable bodies of the finest oak, walnut, hickory

and ash timber” (U.S. census). The growth on the alluvial bot-

toms and the lower uplands in the east is extraordinarily vigorous. There are two Federal forest reserves (963,287 acres).

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The monument to the women of the Confederacy, in the foreground, suggests the important part Little Rock played as a Confederate centre during the first years of the Civil War

has the pardoning and veto power, but his veto may be over-ridden by a majority of the whole number elected to each house of the legislature. The legislature is bicameral. Senators, 35 in number, hold office for four years; representatives, 100 in number, for two years.

The length of the regular biennial session is limited to 60 days, but by a vote of two-thirds of the members elected to each house the length of any session may be extended 15 days. Special sessions may be called by the governor. A majority of the members elected to each of the two houses suffices to propose a constitutional amendment, which the people may then accept by a mere majority of all votes cast on the measure. Amendments may also be made by the use of the initiative and referendum. The supreme court has seven members elected by the people for eight years; they are

eligible for re-election. The state is divided into x8 judicial or circuit court districts and 13 chancery districts. The population of the state entitles it to seven representatives in the national House of Representatives, and to nine votes in the electoral college. An unusual provision of the constitution is that no law shall “he enacted whereby the right to vote at any election shall be made to depend upon any previous regisiralion of the elector's name.” An amendment of 1893 requires evidence of the payment of a poll-tax by every voter except those “who make satisfactory proof that they have attained the age of 21 years since the time

of assessing taxes next preceding” the election. There is nothing in the constitution or laws of Arkansas with any apparent tendency to disfranchise the negroes, though few vote. There are statutory provisions (1866-67) against intermarriage of the races and constitutional and statutory (1886-87) provisions for separate schools; a “Jim Crow” law (1891) requires railways to provide

separate cars for negroes, and a law (1893) requires separate

railway waiting-rooms. The constitution provides that no county shall consist of less than 600sq.m. of territory and 5,000 inhabi-

tants, Lafayette, Pope and Johnson counties being excepted. New

counties may be formed by the general assembly, provided the

the majority of the voters of the affected territory consent to road distownships, political into divided is county The change.

tricts, school districts and other groupings for administrative pur and con poses. A homestead belonging to the head of a family 0t onecountry, the in if value) to (according taining 80 to r60ac.

or city, fourth to one ac. (according to value) if in town, village se purcha for liens ing except liability for debts,

is exempt from

money, improvements or taxes.

d censuses population.—The population of Arkansas at selecte 1830; 209,897 in 1850; in 30,388 1810; in 1,062 : follows 48

was

211 m

1890; 1,311,564 IN 1900;

is borne by the localities; the state distributes its contribution annually among the counties. There is also a permanent school fund derived wholly from land grants from the national govern-

ment. Before 1909 hardly half the school population attended;

1,574,449

1,128, , OF 11-3%, in 1910; 1,752,204 1D 1920, an increase of 177,755 tion 73% were popula total the Of 1910. of over the population

$02,525 in 1880;

of and in general the rural conditions of the state, the shortness upon primarily schools the of ce dependen the and terms school the local funds made the schools inadequate and of varying excellence. In June rgo6 there were 1,102 school-houses in the state valued

at $100 or less. Amendments adopted in 1906, 1912 and 1926 have made possible large increases in local taxation for schools, and éducation has made rapid progress during recent years. The percentage of total school population enrolled in 1924 was 84-2;

in 1900, 71. Of the total number enrolled, 474,427 were in kindergarten and elementary schools, and 27,331 were in secondary

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ARKANSAS, 1810-1920 GRAPH SHOWING THE GROWTH OF POPULATIONAT OFEACH CENSUS NEGRO AND WHITE OF TION PROPOR AND THE -born. By the foreign were 13,975 white and 27% coloured. Only In 1930 Federal census the population in 1930 was 1,854,482. in total States United the in place fifth twentyArkansas held

population, the same relative position it had in rgoo. The state

as urban is decidedly rural, only 290,497, or 16.6% being classified 35.3 and 1920, in mile square per 33.4 in 1920. The density was

schools. The average number of days attended per year per pupil enrolled had increased from 48-1 in 1900 to 97-9 in 1924. This gave the state the rank of 45th for average number of days attended. Expenditures for public elementary and secondary schools increased from $1,369,000 in 1900 to $9,441,000 in 1924; a per capita (for ages 5 to 17) of $2.93 and $15.84 respectively. The University of Arkansas was opened at Fayetteville in 1872. Four colleges, two schools and the experiment station are situated at Fayetteville, the medical school at Little Rock. A branch normal school, established in 1873 at Pine Bluff, provides courses for coloured students in literary subjects, agriculture, some of the mechanic arts and in teacher training. The university and the normal school are supported by state -appropriations and the Morrill fund (see MORRILL, Justin SMITE), the normal school getting three-elevenths of this fund. The agricultural experiment station, supported by the Hatch, Adams and Purnell funds, dates from 1887. In 1907 the legislature made an appropriation for the establishment of a normal school for white teachers; it was situated at Conway. Four agricultural high schools were provided Magfor in 1911 and they were situated at Jonesboro, Russellville,

nolia and Monticello. In 1925 the legislature raised these schools the and the normal school to the rank of colleges. A school for in 1930. In a dozen or more of the agricultural counties which deaf and one for the blind are maintained at Little Rock, where horder on the Mississippi and lower Arkansas, the negro popula free board and tuition are giver for ten years. Besides the state ion outhumbers the white. Little Rock, the state capital, is the schools there aré about a score of denominational colleges and with largest city, with a population of 81,679 in 1930. Other cities academies, of which half a dozen are for coloured students. 4 population in 1930 of over 10,000 inhabitants were Fort Smith Among the larger of these colleges are Ouachita college, Arkadel(31,429), Pine Bluff (20,760), Hot Springs (20,238), North Little phia; Hendrix-Henderson, college, Conway; Henderson’s State Rock (19,418), Eldorado (16,421), Texarkana (10,764), Jonesboro Teachers college, Arkadelphia; Arkansas college, Batesville; Lit(10,326) and Blytheville (10,098). The great increase in the popLittle Rock; College of the Ozarks, Clarksville; ulation of El Dorado from 3,887 in 1920 to 16,421 in 1930 Was due tothe discovery of oil.

Finance and Taxation.—The two outstanding expenditures

72 in 1926 were for highways and education. Im that year $7,241,6 the were expended on rural highways under the supervision of state highway department, and $13,228,123 on public schools,

t that sum being raised mainly through local taxation. Importan

the state funds are: the general fund, the common school fund, and fund pension ate Confeder the fund, ment highway improve

tle Rock college, Galloway college for Women, Searcy; lege (coloured), Little Rock.

ahd Arkansas Baptist col-

Charities and Houses of Correction.—The penal system of Arkansas is excellent. The state maintains a receiving penitentiary at Little Rock and large penal farms near Tucker and Cummings. An effort is made to prevent convict production from competing with production by free labour. Delinquent boys under the age of 18 are cared for at the industrial school near Pine Bluff. and a There is also ati industrial school for girls near Alexander,

the university fund. General property taxes, motor licences, state farm for women near Jacksonville. Other institutions maingasolene and oil taxes and the severance tax are chief sources of tained by the state are the tuberculosis sanatorium near Boonerevenue. The state budget for 1925~26 amounted to $16,460,034. ville; the hospital for nervous diseases, which cares for the insane, In The total recognized debt was $2,597,166, of which $1,447,166, and the Confederate soldiers’ home, both near Little Rock. The held by the school fund, was considered permanent. A law of separate. kept are whites and negroes ns all the state institutio 1-2 mills 1927 authorized a large bond issue for highway construction, 4 legislature in the 1921 session levied a special tax of 000 $14,000, and schools, building for fund June revolving after $1,500,000 state the of ns institutio charitable the to maintain for Confederate pensions. Each is secured by a special tax. 0, 1923. comIn 1925 there were 396 state and private banks and trust ing Industry, Trade and Transportation.—Agriculture is still amount surplus and capital with panies and 86 national banks, and cotton the chief crop. The variety of $270,25 2,000. Indi- the leading industry, to $24,759,000 and resources amounting to of moderate altitudes and favourable range able consider a soils, vidual deposits amounted to $92,927,000, besides $22,413,000 in a rich diversity g resavings accounts. The increase in the ratio of the bankin sources of the state to those of the nation was exceeded in 1909~

19 only by those of Oklahoma and Nevadaa. public school system Education.—The legal beginnings of

factors of heat and moisture, however, promoté of the whole in agriculture. The farm area of 1900 was 495% 51:9% and Was 000AC.) (17,457, 1920 of that state; the of area

has beet marked the peak of farm acreage. Since that time thereacreage in

a noticeable decline, due to abandonment. The total 1925 waS 15,682,000, OF 46-7% af the state’s area. y was Only white children were regarded by the law before reconstrucThe Civil War wrought a havoc from which full recover coloured children. state the of on evoluti ic tion days. Separate schools are maintained for econom The 1890. by Of the current expense of the common schools, about three-fourths | hardly reached

date from 1843; in 1867 the first tax was imposed for its support.

368

ARKANSAS

since reconstruction, has been in the main that common to all of the old slave states developing from the plantation system, but somewhat diversified and complicated by the special features of a young and border community. The division of the old plantations to meet the new social order greatly increased the number of farms, but brought about a corresponding decrease in their size. This decrease has continued since 1900; in that year the average farm was 93-1ac.; in 1925 it was 70-6 acres. The average value of farm land had increased from MFG. & $6.32 in 1900 to $26.90 in 1925, MECHANICAL a value somewhat lower than the peak for 1920. In 1925 the number of farms worked by tenants AGRICULTURE. ALL OTHER (125,899) exceeded the number FORESTRY AND GAINFUL ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OCCUPATIONS worked by owners (95,479). The 644% 236% percentage of farms worked by tenants increased from 50 in 1910 to 56-7 in 1925. The share system of tenantry is In most common use. In actual numbers the white farmers heavily preGRAPH SHOWING OCCUPATIONS OF dominate; in 1920 native white THE 634,564 PERSONS ENGAGED IN farmers operated 158,273 farms GAINFUL EMPLOYMENT IN ARKANwith a total acreage of 14,606,- SAS IN 1920 ooo; foreign-born whites oper- Only one State has a higher proporated 2,049 farms, or 226,0004aC.; tion in agricultural pursuits and coloured farmers operated 72,282 farms, or 2,625,000 acres. In the cotton counties, which have the densest coloured population, the negro farmer is the least independent. The cotton production for 1924 was 1,098,000 bales, valued at $1 24,743,000; for 1925, 1,603,000 bales, valued at $123,165,000. The cotton-seed crop was 488,000 tons, valued at $16,690,000. Cotton and cotton products account for over half the total value of agricultural crops. The total acreage given to cereals is hardly equal to that devoted to cotton culture. In 1925 the Indian corn crop produced from 2,006,o00ac. was 28,084,o0obu., valued at $27,241,000. The only other cereals of great value are oats, which amounted to 4,176,00obu., valued at $2,422,000; and rice, with a production of 8,039,coobu., valued at $12,058,000. The rice industry has developed rapidly in Arkansas since its introduction in 1904. In 1925 the state ranked next to Louisiana in total production and was surpassed in yield per acre by California only. Potatoes and sweet potatoes had a farm value in 1925 of $7,453,ooo; meadow and wild hay were valued at $9,238,000. Arkansas ranks high as a fruit-growing state. Peaches, apples, pears, plums and grapes are cultivated extensively in the western and northwestern parts of the state. In the production of peaches the state was exceeded in 1925 only by MILLIONS OF BOARD FEET California and Georgia. In 1920 it ranked fourth in the acreage devoted to vineyards, which since that time has been increased. More and more attention is being given to raising pure-bred livestock. The dairy industry, also, is developing. The total value of agricultural crops in 1925 was $224,212,000; of live-stock in

1924, $58,832,400. _In 1927 there were in opera- GRAPH SHOWING LUMBER CUT IN

tion 1,147 manufacturing estab- ARKANSAS IN 1880, 1890, 1900, lishments giving employment to AND EACH YEAR, 1905-1925 40,032 wage-earners and paying an annual wage of $36,288,168. The gross value of the manufactured products was $182,750,871. Lumber and timber products still held first place, with a gross production of about $70,000,000. Other leading industries in the order of their importance were: car and general construction and repair in steam railway shops; cotton-seed products; planing-mill products; printing and publishing; furniture; and smelting and refining. Cotton-seed products had previously held second place. Petroleum, first discovered in paying quantities in 1921, continued in 1925 to be the leading mineral industry. The industry

centres around El Dorado and Smackover.

The production jg

1925 amounted to 74,749,000bbl., giving Arkansas fourth place among the States, and was valued at $70,000,000. The first stro well of natural gas was opened in Crawford county in 1915; a well near El Dorado was opened in 1921. In 1925 wells were jy operation in Crawford, Sebastian, Nevada, Ouachita and Union counties. The output of coal rose rapidly until 1913; since then there has been a decline, due in part to labour troubles. The bauxite industry reached its zenith in 1918 with a production of

532,000 tons. In 1924 the output was 442,451 tons, more than 50% of the total world production.

The state ranks first in the

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Since the discovery of bauxite, an ore of aluminium, in Arkansas in 1887, its production the State

has become

one of the chief industries of the central section of

production of whetstones and antimony ore. The clay found in Saline county is used for the making of pottery of an artistic type, called Niloak. Building stone and granite are found near Batesville. The only known diamond-field in North America is in Arkansas. The rivers afford for light boats (of not over 3ft. draught) about 3,000m. of navigable waters, a river system unequalled in extent by that of any other state. The U.S. Government extended and very greatly improved this system, materially lessening the frequency and havoc of floods along the rich bottom lands through which the rivers plough a tortuous way in the eastern and southern

parts of the state. As a result of these improvements land and timber values rose markedly; but the unprecedented flood in the spring of 1927 destroyed many miles of the levees and left the region a desolate waste. River boats were formerly a means of transport for much of the state’s production of cotton, lumber, coal, stone, hay and miscellaneous freight, but are now little used. On Dec. 31, 1926, there were 74,866m. of roads of all types, of which 731m. were paved, 3,416m. had gravel or other surfacing,

and 2,543m. were improved graded. Most of the roads were built by improvement districts, but many districts went beyond their means, and in 1923 the state took them over and has adopted a state highway system including 8,346m. improved or to be improved. The legislature of 1927 authorized a large bond issue and appropriated over $50,000,000 to be used in taking up the bonds of the improvement districts, to maintain the roads already built, and to build new ones. The revenue is derived from the

motor licences, $3,588,769 from 211,809 vehicles in 1926, and gasolene and oil tax, $4,051,205 in 1926-27. The Federal subvention amounts to about $1,250,000.

Arkansas is well supplied with railway facilities. In 1924 there

were 4,918m. of main line trackage in operation, a decline from the 5,407m. in operation in 1915. The principal trunk Jines operating in the state are: the Missouri Pacific, the Rock Island,

the Cotton Belt, the St. Louis and San Francisco, and the Kansas City Southern. Little Rock is the railway centre of the state. In 1924 there were eight street railway companies, operating electric cars over 125m. of track. Transportation rates and rall-

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ARKANSAS way operations within the state are regulated by a state railroad commission. History.—The Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto and his companions, in 1541, were the first Europeans to see and explore the region now known as the State of Arkansas. After quitting the villages of the Chickasaw Indians on the eastern bank of the Mississippi, de Soto and his party constructed rafts and crossed within the the river into Arkansas. They spent several months

date from this time. It was erected successively into a territory of the first and second class by acts of Congress of March 1, 1819 and April 21, 1820. By act of June 15, 1836 it was admitted into the Union as a slave state. In Feb. 1861 the people of Arkansas voted to hold a convention to consider the state of public affairs. It assembled on March 4. Secession resolutions were defeated, and it was voted to submit

mits of the state, remaining there through the winter. After the death of de Soto the following spring, his companions built rude region boats and departed for the Spanish colonies in Mexico. The when later, was not again visited by Europeans until 131 years the Jesuit missionary Jacques Marquette and the fur trader Louis

Joliet reached the country of the “Arkansea” Indians in June 1673. Nine years later La Salle with a few other adventurers

the visited the same region while they were on their way to of out grew settlement first The mouth of the Mississippi river. a grant of land La Salle gave his trusted lieutenant Henri de Tonti in 1682. In the spring of 1686 de Tonti received orders to meet La Salle at the mouth of the Mississippi; but when after a long wait and careful searching he found no trace of him he returned to the Illinois country. On the return trip de Tonti explored his grant on the Arkansas river, and some of his companions became so impressed with the region that they asked permission to remain

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to open trade with the Indians. This event marked the beginning of Arkansas Post, the first settlement by Europeans in Arkansas.

In 1718 an extensive grant on the Arkansas was made to John

Law, and within the same year a colony was established. More colonists and some negro slaves arrived in 1719; but when the

colonists learned of Law’s failure (1720), they abandoned the

settlement and went down the Mississippi. Their intention was to return to Europe, but many were persuaded to settle in Louisiana.

Early in the 18th century Bernard de la Harpe, acting under

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tained as a trading centre and Jesuit mission, even surviving an unexpected attack by the Chickasaw Indians in 1748. In 1762 the territory passed to Spain; in 1800, back to France; and in

1814. It transacts the business of the surrounding mineral and agricultural interests

placed a regular garrison at Arkansas Post. The post was main-

- 1803, to the United States as a part of the Louisiana purchase. In the last decade of Spanish authority large numbers of Ameri-

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LITTLE ROCK, MAIN STREET, LOOKING EAST FROM MAIN AND CAPITOL AVE. Modern

Little Rock has few reminders

of the original settlement founded

in

to the people the question whether there should be “co-operation” with the other southern states or “secession.” The plan of holding a convention of the border slave states at Frankfort, Kentucky, May 27, to discuss a common policy was endorsed and delegates were elected, but the convention never met. Then came the fall of Ft. Sumter and President Lincoln’s call for troops to put down rebellion. The governor of Arkansas curtly refused its quota. A quick surge of ill-feeling chilled loyalty to the Union. The convention reassembled on the call of its chairman, and on May 6, with only one dissenting vote, passed an ordinance of secession. It then repealed its former vote submitting the question of secession to the people. On May 16-Arkansas became one of the Confederate states of America. In the years of war that followed a large proportion of the able-bodied men of the State served in the armies of the Confederacy; several regiments, four of coloured troops, served the Union. Union sentiment was strongest in the northern part of the state. In 1862 and 1863 various victories threw more than half the state, mainly the north and east, under the Federal arms. Accordingly, under a proclamation of the President, citizens within the conquered districts were invited to renew allegiance to the Union, and a special election was ordered for March 1864 to

BY COURTESY OF THE U.S. NATIONAL PARK SERVICE Hot SPRINGS,

DURING

THE EARLY

ONE OF THE FIRST HOTELS,

AND

DAYS OF EXPANSION.

EARL HOUSE,

THE POST OFFICE

about Arkansas Post, and its importance as a trading station increased. After the United States took formal possession of the

territory in 1804, emigration from the states east of the Mississippi

continued; and when the territory was organized in 1819, the English-speaking inhabitants were in the majority. Arkansas Post, the former residence of the French and Spanish governors, was

the first territorial capital, 1819-20.

From 1804 to 1812 what is now Arkansas was part of the district

(and then the territory) of Louisiana, and from 1812 to 181g

part of the territory of Missouri. Its earliest county organizations

reorganize the state government. Meanwhile a convention of delegates, chosen mainly at polls, opened at the army posts, assembled in Jan. 1864, abolished slavery, repudiated secession

and the secession war debt, and revised in minor details the constitution of 1836, but restricted the suffrage to whites. This new fundamental law was promptly adopted by the people; ż.e., by its friends, who alone voted. But the representatives of Arkansas under this constitution were never admitted to Congress. During 1864 and the early part of 1865 the Federal and Con-

federate forces controlled different parts of the state, and for almost the whole period there were two rival governments; the Confederate capital was at Washington, in Hempstead

while the Union capital was established at Little Rock.

county,

Chaotic

370

ARKANSAS

the present constitution. It provided a broad suffrage, forbade the conditions followed the war. The rsth legislature (April 1864 passage of registration laws, reduced the patronage of the governor laws passed and ent amendm 13th the ratified 1866) Nov. to shortened his term to two years, and allowed only the legislature against “‘bush-whacking,” a term used in the Civil War for guerilla to suspend the writ of habeas corpus—all this in an effort to guard warfare, especially as carried on by pretended neutrals. Local against the evils of the reconstruction régime. The constitutiog militia, protecting none who refused to join in the common dey was ratified by an overwhelming vote Oct. 13. fence, and all serving “not as soldiers but as farmers mutuall While this was going on a congressional committee was investi. pledged to protect each other from the depredations of outlaws gating the claims of Brooks and Baxter. After taking testimony was as order public such who infest the state,” strove to secure in Washington and in Arkansas they reported (March 1873), with necessary to the gathering of crops, so as “to prevent the starvar one dissenting vote, in favour of Baxter. There was considerable tion of the citizens” (governor’s circular, 1865). The governo in these years (1864-68) was Isaac Murphy, a republican, the delegate who cast the single Union vote in the convention of 1861; but the 16th legislature (1866-67) was largely democratic. It passed a law defining the rights of persons of African descent, which led to a few conflicts between the state authorities and officials of the Freedman’s Bureau. The first reconstruction act having declared that “no legal state government or adequate pros tection for life or property” existed in the “rebel states,” Arkansa Conby hed establis districts military the of one in was included gress. A registration of voters, predominantly whites, was at once carried through, and delegates were chosen for another constitutional convention which met at Little Rock in Jan. 1868. The secessionist element was decidedly in the minority. This convention framed the third constitution of the state, which was adopted in March 1868 by a small majority at a popular election marred by various irregularities. By its provisions negroes secured full political rights, and all whites who had been excluded from registration for the election of delegates to the convention were now practically stripped of political privileges. The constitution of Arkansas being now acceptable to Congress, a bill admitting the state to the Union was passed over President Johnson’s veto, and on June 22, 1868 the admission was consummated. Arkansas was under the control of the republicans for several MAP OF THE MAIN ROADS OF ARKANSAS years and suffered considerably from the rule of the “carpetbaggers.” The debt of the state was increased about $9,375,000 but Congress finally adopted the report by a large from 1868 to 1874, largely for railway and levee schemes; much discussion, President Grant acquiesced. Meantime a new gov and majority paythe involving case a in and of the money was misappropriated, had been serving several months under the Garland, H. A. emor, pledging ment of railway aid bonds the action of the legislature in . constitution new supreme state the by nugatory held was state the credit of the Levee construction and drainage operations were undertaken court in 1877 on the ground that, contrary to the constitution, after 1879, when the Arkansas legislature provided for vote. seriously popular to referred legally been never had issue bond the of levee districts. Through the co-operation of diformation vote the popular a by approved ion An amendment to the constitut districts and the Mississippi river commission, levee the of in 1884 provided that the general assembly should “have no power rectors land were brought under cultivation. overflowed of tracts the of large any pay” to tion, appropria any make to levy any tax, or under the control of the democratic continued has state The The 1871. honds issued by legislative action in 1868, 1869 and on was drafted in 1918 but constituti new A 1874. since state the party with n connectio in issued bonds, “Halford” so-called year by a vote of 23,782 for that of election the in rejected was had which of some bank and the real estate bank (law of 1836), suffrage) amendment to (woman gth The against. been sold in violation of the law, were also covered by this and 38,897 the state legislature in by ratified was on constituti of years Federal the the in state the of expenses amendment. The current proposed amendments 39 of out ten only 1924 to Down of 1919. reconstruction were also enormously increased. The climax declared adopted. This was been had 1874 of on constituti the to war. axter Brooks-B so-called the was ction period the reconstru supreme court that, even after the Elisha Baxter (1827-99) was the regular republican candidate due largely to a ruling of the and referendum measure in 1910, initiative for gavernor in 1872. He was opposed by a disaffected republican adoption of the new necessary for adoption. In 1920 was vote total the of the by majority a supported and (1821-77) Brooks faction led by Joseph measure, providing that only a m referendu and initiative democrats. Brooks probably received a majority of the votes, a new measure was necessary for its a but the republican legislature, which passed on returns for gov- majority of the votes cast on the legislature, and providing by acts local all forbidding to adoption, willingness a ernor, declared Baxter elected. He soon showed counties and municipalities, in m referendu rule as a non-partisan, securing the re-enfranchisement of the for the initiative and on it, but not a majority cast votes the of majority a in received year a been had Baxter After whites and opposing corruption. it failed to receive a 1922, in again Submitted vote. total office, Brooks obtained a writ of ouster against him from a circuit of the ts received amendmen three 1924 In judge and got possession of the public buildings (April 1874). As majority of the votes cast. total vote. the of majority a not but cast, votes the of majority now a a result of special elections to fill vacancies the democrats to compel speaker the against sought was controlled the legislature and they rallied to the support of Baxter, A writ of mandamus s wet amendment the all As adopted. these of one declare and to him “regulars” of name the while the Brooks party assumed themselves declared judges court supreme the class, received the support of the “carpet-bag” and negro elements. in the same affected their salaries. Both had armed forces, an ex-Confederate commanding for each. disqualified because one of the measures supreme court, special a appointed ly according Both appealed to President Grant, but he, although favouring The governor only a mr that declared Brooks, directed the Federal troops to prevent fighting while the which reversed the earlier decision and necessary for is was measure a on cast votes the of jority democratic was legislature was being reassembled. As this body and brought to life the new it reaffirmed Baxter’s election and then called a constitutional con- adoption. This was made retroactive which had been declared not measure m referendu and initiative vention, This convention, safely democratic, drew up (July to Oct. 1874) adopted in 1920.

ARKANSAS

CITY—ARKLOW

provision for Important legislation of recent years has included uent women delinq for s school ial industr s, convict a state farm for titutional uncons ed declar since law, and children, a minimum wage

S7e

The shores are sand, clay or loam throughout some 1,300m., with very rare rock ridges or rapids, and the banks rise low

above ordinary water. The waters are constantly rising and falling, and almost never is the discharge at any point uniform. Every rs year there are, normally, two distinct periods of high water; one measures giving women the right to hold office, requiring teache coing an early freshet due mainly to the heavy winter rainfall on the , legaliz ulosis to present certificates of freedom from tuberc and river, when the upper river is still frozen hard; the other use lower wareho a ng creati and tions, associa ing operative market tax ty late spring, due to the setting in of rains along the upper the in proper l genera the reform marketing bureau. All efforts to taxes. new by d secure courses also, and to the melting of the snow in the mountains. have failed, but more revenue has been lowest waters are from August to December. In the summer The Arkansas of history BreviocRaPHY.—The best general and local ii. vols. history; i. are sometimes violent floods due to cloud-bursts. Everythere vol. is the Centennial History of Arkansas (1922: works where along the course of the river there is never-ending transforand iii. biography), edited by D. T. Herndon. Other historical and W. F. mation of the river’s bed and contour. These changes become revoare: F, Hempstead, Pictorial History of Arkansas (1890), popular Pope, Early Days in Arkansas (1895). Similar to the first in cal and lutionary in times of flood. All these characteristics are accentucharacter, vast in bulk and loose in method, are the Biographi (one State ated below Little Rock. The depth of water at this point has been the of sections different the covering

by the U.S. district court, a compulsory education law, and

Pictorial Histories, ly, 1889-91). yol. by J. Hallum, 1887; four others compiled anonymous in

For the reconstruction period see especially the Poland M.report Harrel, House Rep. No. 2, 43 Cong., 2 sess., vol. i. (1874); John The Brooks and Baxter War: A History of tke Reconstruction Period of

known to vary from 27ft. to only $ft. and the discharge to fall

to 1,170 cu. ft. per second.

In many places there are different

channels for high and low water, the latter being partly filled by (1908) each freshet, and recut after each subsidence; and the river meanii, vol. in Johnson S. B. by paper a (1893); in Arkansas ders tortuously through the alluvial bottom in scores of great the Publications of the Arkansas Historical Association; Powell Clayton, The Aftermath of the Civil War in Arkansas (1918); T. 5. bends, loops and cut-offs. It is estimated that the eating and cavStaples, Reconstruction in Arkansas, 1862-74 (1923); D. Y. Thomas, ing of the shore below Little Rock averages 7-64ac. per mile The constituArkansas in War and Reconstruction, 1861—74 (1926). (as against 1-ggac. above Little Rock). By way of compiled tional documents may best be consulted in the latest of state. every year the White river cut-off the Arkansas finds an additional outlet Statutes of the state or the biennial report of the S D. Y. T.) : through the valley of that river in times of high water, and the the current in its natural channel is deadened by the ARKANSAS CITY, a city of Cowley county, Kan., U.S.A., White, when of the Mississippi, finds an outlet by the same cut-off backwaters Arkansas the of „om. S.W. of Kansas City, on the north bank valley of the Arkansas. This backwater, where it river, just above the mouth of the Walnut. It is served by the through the the current of the Arkansas, occasions the prechecks and meets Valley Midland the and Santa Fe, the Frisco, the Missouri Pacific, alluvial deposits and vast quantities of enormous of cipitation railways. It has a municipal aviation field. The population in 1925 along this part of the river and disintegrated are banks The snags. 13,946. census) (Federal 1930 14,003; was (State census) to their original height, in the side opposite the on again up built agrifertile a The valley of the Arkansas and Walnut rivers is or three years, the channel two of time short ily cultural region, and within 50 miles of Arkansas City are many extraordinar mouth of the White, the the At narrow. while the all remaining division a city, The gas. oil-fields and pools, and fields of natural of recurrent floods is 6 level the Mississippi, the and Arkansas headquarters of the Santa Fe, has a large wholesale and jobbing

business, and several large oil refineries. It has flour-mills, foun-

dries, creameries, a sand and gravel plant, overall factories and oilfield machine-shops. The Chillocco Indian school, established by the U.S. Government in 1884, is a few miles south of the city, in Oklahoma. Arkansas City was settled as Creswell in 1870, and incorporated under its present name in 1872. In 1880 the population was 1,012. When, following the Santa Fe, the Frisco (1885) and the Missouri

Pacific (1886) built railway lines to the city, it had a “boom”

which raised the population to 8,341 in 1890; but the opening to settlement of lands in Indian territory, just across the State line, drew away some of this increase, and the census of 1900 showed only 6,140. Since then the development has been more normal. Tn 1910 the population was 7,508; in 1920, 11,253.

_ ARKANSAS, a river of the United States of America, rising

in the mountains of central Colorado, near Leadville, in lat. 39° 20° N., long. 106° 15” W., and emptying into the Mississippi, at Napoleon, Ark., in lat. 33° 4o’ N. Its total length is about 2,000m., and its drainage basin (greater than that of the Upper Mississippi)

about 185,000 sq. miles. It is the greatest western Missouri-Mississippi system. It rises in a pocket at an altitude of 10,40oft. on a sharply sloping which it courses as a mountain torrent, dropping

affluent of the of lofty peaks plateau, down 4,625ft. in 120

miles. Above Canyon City it leaves the Rockies through the Grand Canyon of the Arkansas; then turning eastward, it flows

with steadily lessening gradient and velocity in a broad, meander-

ing bed across the prairies and lowlands of eastern Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma and Arkansas, shifting its direction sharply

to the south-east in central Kansas.

The Arkansas ordinarily

rectives little water from its tributaries save in time of floods. In

topography and characteristics and in the difficulties of its regu-

lation, the Arkansas is in many ways typical of the rivers in the

aridregions of the Western States. The gradient below the moun-

tains averages %-sft. per mile between Canyon City and Wichita,

Kan. (543m.), about 1-sft. between Wichita and Little Rock ay and o-65 of a foot from Little Rock to the mouth

or 8ft. above the timber-bearing soil along the banks, and all

along the lower river the country is liable to overflow; and as the land backward from the stream slopes downward from the banks heaped up by successive flood-deposits, each overflow creates along the river a fringe of swamps. Prior to the great flood of April and May 1927, much of the swamp area along the Arkansas had been reclaimed by means of levees built by local levee districts in co-operation with the U.S. Government. By the middle of May 1927, the whole Arkansas valley, from Ft. Smith to the Mississippi, had been flooded and much of the levees destroyed. Three breaks in the right levee near the mouth of the river, known as the Pendleton breaks, allowed the waters to race through southeastern Arkansas, and to follow the valley of the Boeuf river into Louisiana. The damage caused by the flood, in common with other portions of the lower Mississippi valley, mounted into millions of dollars. U.S. army engineers believe that adequate flood protection will result from the $325,000,000 Mississippi Valley Flood Control act passed by Congress on May 9, 1928. After the advent of railways, traffic on the Arkansas decreased rapidly because of the hazards of navigation—snags, sandbars and the lack of a stable flow. However, traffic in 1920 was 30,568 tons valued at $177,000; in 1926 it was 87,720 tons valued at $367,260.

BrsriocrarHy.—-General descriptions of different portions of the river are indicated in the Index to the Reports of the Chief of

Engineers, U.S. Army (1879 seqg.). See also H. Gannett, “Profiles of Rivers in the U.S.” (U.S. Geolog. Survey, x901) ; Greenleaf, “Western Floods,” in Engin. Mag. xii, 945-958; U.S. Geolog. Survey, Bull. 140; and I. C. Russell, Rivers of North America (1898).

ARKLOW, urban district, Co. Wicklow, Ireland, 49m. 5. of Dublin, by the Great Southern railway. Pop. (1926) 4,526. here are oyster-beds on the coast, but the oysters require to be freed from a peculiar flavour by the purer waters of the Welsh and English coast before they are fit for consumption. Copper and lead from the Vale of Avoca are shipped from the port. There are cordite and explosives works. In 1882 an act provided for improvement of the harbour and appointment of harbour commissioners.

There are slight ruins of an ancient castle of the

Ormondes, demolished in 1649 by Cromwell.

ARKWRIGHT—ARLES

374 ARKWRIGHT,

SIR RICHARD

was opened in 1884, pierces the Arlberg Alp from Langen to $t

(1732-92), English in-

Anton, is over 6m. long, and ascends as high as 4,3o00ft. Itcost

ventor, was born at Preston, in Lancashire, on Dec. 23 1732, of parents in humble circumstances. He was the youngest of 13 children, and established himself as a barber at Bolton about 1750. This business he gave up about 1767 to devote himself to the construction of the spinning frame. The spinning jenny, which was not patented by James Hargreaves (d. 1778), a carpenter of

£1,500,000 to construct, and was electrified in 1923.

ARLES, south-east France, capital of an arrondissement jn the department of Bouches-du-Rhône, 54m. N.W. of Marseille by rail. Pop. (1926) 16,306. A canal unites the town with the harbour of Bouc on the Mediterranean. Arles stands on the left

bank of the Rhône where the river divides to form its delta. A tubular bridge unites it with the suburb of Trinquetaille on the opposite bank. The town is hemmed in on the east by the railway line from Lyons to Marseilles, on the south by the Canal de Craponne. Arelate was important at the time of the invasion of Juliu Caesar. It was pillaged in A.D. 270 but restored and embellished by Constantine, who made it his principal residence, and founded Trinquetaille. Under Honorius it became the seat of the prefecture of the Gauls and one of the foremost cities in the westem empire. Its bishopric, founded by St. Trophimus in the rst century, was in the 5th century the primatial see of Gaul; it was

suppressed in 1790. After the fall of the Roman empire the city passed into the power of the Visigoths, and rapidly declined. It was plundered in 730 by the Saracens, but in the roth century became the capital of the kingdom of Arles (see Artes, Kinopox or). In the r2th century it was a free city, governed bya podesta and consuls after the model of the Italian ‘republics, which it also emulated in commerce and navigation. In 1251 it submitted to Charles I. of Anjou, and from that time onwards followed the fortunes of: Provence. A number of ecclesiastical synods have been held at Arles, as in 314 (see ARLES, SYNOD OF) 354, 452 and 475. Its streets are narrow and irregular. On the

central Place de la République stand the kôtel-de-ville, the museum and the old cathedral of St. Trophime. Founded in the yth century, St. Trophime has been several times rebuilt. Its chief portal, 12th century Romanesque, is a masterpiece. The BY COURTESY OF THE SCIENCE MUSEUM choir opens into a beautiful cloister, two of the galleries of which RICHARD ARKWRIGHT’S YARN SPINNING-FRAME, INFLUENTIAL IN THE are Romanesque, while two are Gothic. The hdtel-de-ville (17th INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION WHICH, IN THE 18TH CENTURY, SUBSTITUTED MACHINE FOR HAND WORK AND WAS THE FOUNDATION OF BRITISH century) contains the library. The museum, occupying an old INDUSTRIAL SUPREMACY Gothic church, is rich in Roman remains and early Christian museum of Provengal arts and crafts Blackburn, Lancashire, until 1770, though he had invented it sarcophagi; there is also a Arles possesses the ruins of an Mistral. poet the by founded threads 30 or 20 spinning of means the gave earlier, some years of containing 25,000 speccapable Arénes), (the amphitheatre spin to with no more labour than had previously been required in which the famous Venus of Arles a single thread. The thread spun by the jenny could not, how- tators; a Roman theatre, ancient obelisk; the ruins of the palace ever, be used except as weft, as it lacked the firmness or hardness was discovered in 1651; an the thermae; and the remains of the forum; the Constantine; required in the longitudinal threads or warp. Arkwright supplied of There is, besides, a Roman aqueducts. of and ramparts Roman which , spinning-frame the of invention this deficiency by the Campi), consisting of (Elysii Alis-camps the as known cemetery spins a vast number of threads of any degree of fineness and an avenue bordered by tombs. The port of Arles is now of little hardness. is a considerable industry in the The precise date of this invention is not known; but in 1767 importance. Sheep-breeding Arkwright employed John Kay, a watchmaker at Warrington, to vicinity. ARLES, Krncvom or, the name given to the kingdom formed assist him in the preparation of the parts of his machine, and he 933 by the union of the old kingdoms of Provence (q.0.) about took out a patent for it in 1769. The first model was set up in e Burgundy, and Burgundy (qg.v.) Transjurane, and Cisjuran or. school grammar free the to belonging house the of the parlour in 1032 by its last sovereign, Rudolph III., to the ed bequeath at Preston. This invention having been brought to a fairly aded the countship of Burgundy vanced stage, Arkwright removed to Nottingham in 1768, accom- emperor Conrad II. It compris is now Switzerland (the dioceses which of part ), e-Comté (Franch erected there and panied by Kay and John Smalley, of Preston, part of that of Basel), the and Sion , Lausanne of Geneva, his first spinning mill, which was worked by horses. by the Alps, But his operations were at first greatly fettered by want of Lyonnais, and the whole of the territory bounded

capital, until Jedediah Strutt (q.v.), having satisfied himself of the value of the machines, entered with his partner, Samuel Need, into partnership with Arkwright and enabled him in 1771 to build a second factory, on a much larger scale, at Cromford in Derbyshire, the machinery of which was turned by a water-wheel. A fresh patent, taken out in 1775, covered several additional improvements in the processes of carding, roving and spinning. As the value of his processes became known, Arkwright began to be troubled with infringements of his patents, and in 1781 he took action in the courts to vindicate his rights. His patent was a source of prolonged litigation, but he was able to consolidate his position as a manufacturer in spite of all difficulties. He died at Cromford on Aug. 3, 1792.

~.ARLBERG

TUNNEL,

part of the Arlberg railway con-

necting the Vorarlberg (g.v.) with Innsbruck in the Tirol,

It

the Mediterranean

and the Rhone;

on the right bank of the

Rhone it further included the Vivarais. It is only after the end of the 12th century that the name “kingdom of Arles” is applied to this district; formerly it was known generally as the kingdom

of Burgundy, but under the Empire the name of Burgundy came to be limited more and more to the countship of Burgundy and the districts lying beyond the Jura. The authority of Rudolph

TTI. over the chief lords of the land, the count of Burgundy and

the count of Maurienne, founder of the house of Savoy, Wa already merely nominal, and the Franconian emperors (1039did not 1125), whose visits to the country were rare and brief, establish their power any more firmly. During the first 50 yeals of the ecclesiof their domination they could rely on the support

astical feudatories, who generally favoured their cause, but theof investiture struggle, in which the prelates of the kingdom

ARLES—ARLINGTON Arles mostly sided with the pope, deprived the Germanic sov-

Ane

even of this support. The emperors, on the other hand,

a grave realized early that their absence from the country was source of weakness; in 1043 Henry III. conferred on Rudolph, the title of count ofRheinfelden (afterwards duke of Swabia),

dux et rector Burgundiae, giving him authority over the barons the of the northern part of the kingdom of Arles. Towards con-

this system, middle of the rath century Lothair II. revived it ferring the rectorate on Conrad of Zähringen, in whose family tive representa last the of death the remained hereditary up to of of the house, Berthold V., 1n 1218; and it was the lords the of cause the defending in foremost Jähringen who were empire against its chief adversaries, the counts of Burgundy. In sovereignty in the time of the Swabian emperors, the Germanic whole period, the kingdom of Arles was again, during almost the of fortuitous ce consequen in only was it and merely nominal, circumstances that certain of the heads of the Empire were able I., by his to exercise a real authority in these parts. Frederick master ed uncontest become had mariage with Beatrix (1156), more of the countship of Burgundy; Frederick II., who was extendwas and been, had ors predecess his than Italy in powerful ing his activities into the countries of the Levant, found Provence relamore accessible to his influence, thanks to the commercial

Italy tions existing between the great cities of this country and and the East. Moreover, the heretics and enemies of the church,

in his gho were numerous in the south, upheld the emperor struggle against the pope. Henry VII. also, thanks to his good

lations with the princes of Savoy, succeeded in exercising a certain influence over a part of the kingdom of Arles. The emperors further tried to make their power more effective by delegating it,first to a viceroy, William of Baux, prince of Orange (1215), then to an imperial vicar, William of Montferrat (1220), who = was succeeded by Henry of Revello and William of Manupello.

In spite of this, the history of the kingdom of Arles in the 13th century, and still more in the 14th, is distinguished particularly by the decline of the imperial authority and the progress of French influence in the country. In 1246 the marriage of Charles, the brother of Saint Louis, with Beatrice, the heiress to the countship of Provence, caused Provence to pass into the hands of the house of Anjou, and many plans were made to win the whole kingdom for a prince of this house. At the beginning of the 14th century the bishops of Lyons and Viviers recognized the suzerainty of the king of France, and in 1343 Humbert IL, dauphin of Viennois, made a compact with the French king Philip VI. that on his death his inheritance should pass to a son or a grandsn of the French king. In 1349, being poor, he agreed to sell his possessions outright, and thus Viennois, or Dauphiné, passed into the harids of Philip’s grandson, afterwards King Charles V. The emperor Charles IV. took an active part in the affairs of the kingdom, but without any consistent policy, and in 1378 he, in turn, ceded the imperial vicariate of the kingdom to the dauphin, afterwards King Charles VI. This date may be taken as marking the end of the history of the kingdom of Arles, considered as an independent territorial area. See Leroux, Recherches critiques sur les relations politiques de la France avec Allemagne de 1292 à 1378 (1882); P. Fournier, Le Royaume d’Arles et de Vienne (1890). For the early history of the kingdom, L. Jacob, Le Royaume de Bourgogne sous les empereurs

jranconiens (1038-1129) (1906). ‘The chief dissertations published concerning the rights of the Empire over the kingdom are indicated in

A. Leroux, Bibliographie des conflits entre la France et die

oe

ARLES, SYNOD OF. The first general council of the West-

em church, summoned in 314 at Arles by the emperor Constantine to settle the dispute between the Catholics and Donatists

(seeDonatists), after an assembly of referees meeting at Rome i 313 had failed to settle the questions at issue. Of these the

een

most important was the eligibility for priestly office of traditores

or those who had delivered up their copies of the Scriptures uder the compulsion of the Diocletian persecution. Thirty-three ishops attended at Arles, three of whom were from Britain. The

anons drawn up by the synod dealt with matters of ecclesiastical discipline, clerical and lay, and included a declaration that ordina-

379

tion was not invalid because performed by a traditor, it otherwise regular, thus condemning the principal contention of the Donatists.

See Smith and Cheetham, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, art.

“Arles”; W. Bright,

Chapters

of Early

English

Church

History

with references to other authorities given.

ARLINGTON, HENRY BENNET, Eart oF (1618-85),

English statesman, son of Sir John Bennet of Dawley, Middlesex,

was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford.

During the civil war he fought for the King, and after the King’s execution, joined the Royal Family abroad. At the Restoration he was made keeper of the privy purse (1661), secretary of State (1662), and one of the postmasters-general in 1667. He was raised to the peerage as Baron Arlington in 1663. On the fall of Clar-

endon (1667), against whom he had intrigued, he became a member of the Cabal ministry, but did not obtain the predominant influence which he had expected, and was extremely jealous of Buckingham. Arlington was in charge of foreign affairs, and sought to undo the triple alliance arranged by Sir William T emple at The Hague, between England, Holland and Sweden, which led to the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle under which Louis XIV. agreed to make no more conquests on the northern frontier of France. In 1670 he and Clifford were the only two ministers to whom Charles confided the terms of the secret Treaty of Dover, concluded with Louis XIV., and he was largely responsible for the deception practised on the council. For his services Charles gave him an earldom and the Garter. But Arlington was guided by personal considerations only, and on the appointment of Clifford to the treasurership, which he had always desired, he changed sides, and, in order to please his new allies, disclosed the terms of the Treaty of Dover to the staunch Protestants, Ormonde and Shaftesbury. But he had lost the confidence of all parties, and on Jan. 15 1674, was impeached by the House of Commons on charges of “popery,” corruption and betrayal of his trust. Buckingham accused him of being the chief instigator of the pro-French and anti-Protestant policy, of responsibility for the Dutch war, and of embezzlement. The bill of impeachment was rejected, but Arlington resigned office and was appointed lord chamberlain. Although he continued to be employed in one capacity or another his influence was gone. He died on July 28 1685, and was buried at Euston, where he had bought a large estate and had carried out extensive building operations. His residence in London was Goring House, on the site of which was built the present Arlington street. Arlington was a typical statesman of the Restoration, possessing outwardly an attractive personality, and according to Sir W. Temple “the greatest skill of court and the best turns of art in particular conversation,” but thoroughly unscrupulous and selfseeking, without a spark of patriotism, faithless even to a bad cause, and regarding public office solely as a means of procuring pleasure and profit. His knowledge of foreign affairs and of foreign languages, gained during his residence abroad, was considerable, but long absence from England had also taught him a cosmopolitan indifference to constitutions and religions, and a careless disregard for English public opinion and the essential interests of the country. According to Clarendon, he “knew no more of the Constitution and laws of England than he did of China, nor had he in truth a care or tenderness for church or

State, but believed France was the best pattern in the world.”

He married Isabella of Beerwaert, daughter of Louis of Nassau, by whom he had one daughter, Isabella, who married Henry,

Duke of Grafton, the natural son of Charles II. and Lady Castlemaine.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Lauderdale Papers (Camden Soc. N.S., vols. xxxiv., R. xxxvi.„ xxxviii.), and MSS. in Brit. Mus.; Original Letters of Sir Fanshaw (1724); Letters from the Secretaries of State to Francis Dom., Parry (1817) ; Add. MSS. Brit. Mus. indexes; Cal. of State Pap.Duke of and Hist. MSS. Comm—MSS. of Marquis of Ormonde, and Buccleugh at Montagu House, il. 49.

ARLINGTON, a township of Middlesex Co., Mass., U.S.A.,

immediately W. NW. of Boston.

of Somerville and Cambridge, and 6-8m. It is traversed by Massachusetts avenue, and

by the Lexington branch of the Boston and Maine railroad, which

~u ~~= ae a *oe Eel ee 2ee

ARLINGTON

374

HOUSE—ARMADA

has stations at the villages of Arlington and Arlington Heights. Its area is s$sq.m. The population was 36,094 according to the Federal census of 1930. It includes Spy pond, one of the prettiest bodies of water in the vicinity of Boston. Market-gardening is an important occupation, and there are factories which make pianocases, boiler finishings, and picture frames. Arlington became a separate town in 1807 under the name of West Cambridge. The present name was adopted in 1867.

and Washington encloses a natural amphitheatre. Copied after | both the theatre of Dionysus at Athens and the Roman theatr l at Orange, France, the proportions and distances convey the d i of an old Greek ruin. Crypts where especially distinguished sol. diers, sailors and marines may be buried are placed under the

an historic mansion situated in

§

See B. and W. R. Cutter, History of the Town of Arlington ... 1637-1879 (Boston, 1880) ; and C. S. Parker, The Town of Arlington, Past and Present (Arlington, 1907).

ARLINGTON

HOUSE,

colonnade, while within the entrance is a reception hall, a chape

and a museum. Covering an area of 34,000 sq.ft. and providin seating capacity for 5,000 people in the tiers of white mar, benches within the theatre proper, the theatre can accommodate several thousand more in its colonnades and on its stage, But the eyes of visitors—who may enter Arlington dail between sunrise and sunset—turn repeatedly to the Fields gf

Virginia, on the heights overlooking the Potomac river, opposite Dead, with their endless lines of plain stones, of the pattem adopted in 1872 for use in all the National Cemeteries, Washington, D.C. The property once belonged to George Wash(J. T.F. began who Custis, Parke son, ington and descended to his adopted ARLON, chief town, province of Luxembourg, oe his residence there in 1802. Later it became the home of Robert Belgium, on a hill (1,240ft.) above the headwaters of the Semoise daughter the married 1831 in who E. Lee, the Confederate general, of Custis. Seized by the Federal forces early in the Civil War, Pop. (1925) 11,415. The Orolaunum of the Romans was a station on the Antoninian way connecting Reims and Tréves, and th but later purchased, the house was occupied as a headquarters by the Union army and the large adjacent estate was used as a camp name is probably Celtic. Extensive views are obtainable from the church of St. Donat, which crowns the hill. Vauban turned for troops. Subsequently the property was made into a national it into a fortress in 1671, damaging the old Roman wall, the fom. of s thousand and generals cemetery in which many distinguished dations of which were practically intact. In the local museum ar soldiers, both Union and Confederate, have been buried. The stately Lee mansion, with its noble portico, is one of the finest many Roman antiquities, including several large sculptural stone, ARM, the human upper limb from the shoulder to the wig, examples of colonial architecture. and the fore limb of an animal. (See ANATOMY: Superficial and ; (1892) Arlington Historic McSween, Angus and See Karl Decker The word is also usd John B. Osborne, The Story of Arlington (1899); and John T. Faris, Artistic, and SKELETON: Appendicular.) Historic Shrines of America (1918). of any projecting limb, as of a crane, or balance, of a branch of

ARLINGTON

NATIONAL

CEMETERY

f

f f

§ :

f §

§ §

§ $

occupies a a tree, and so, in a transferred sense, of the branch of a river or

beautiful site of 408ac. in Virginia on the banks of the Potomac, directly opposite Washington, District of Columbia. The central feature of the cemetery is the mansion, built in 1802 of stuccoed

brick on the estate of 1,100ac. by George Washington Parke Custis, the adopted son of George Washington. The land was part of the original tract of 6,oooac. granted by Sir William Berkeley on October 21, 1669, as a reward of services, to Robert Howsen,

who subsequently sold it for six hogsheads of tobacco. The Lee mansion, as it is now called, is said to have been modelled after

the temple of Theseus in Athens. The great portico, with its eight massive white columns, is a striking landmark, visible from the

city across the river (for illustration see Vol. 22, facing p. 788). The view from the house, which stands on the brow of the hill

a nerve. Arm in military language is a branch of the army whos primary duty is to fight, e.g., infantry, artillery, used in contradistinction to a “service” whose duty is to supply or aid the $ fighting troops.

In the plural, the word is applied to the so- §

dier’s weapons. “Arms” or “armorial bearings” are the heraldic § devices displayed by knights in battle on the defensive armor or embroidered on the surcoat worn over the armour and hence f called “coats of arms.”

These became hereditary and are bome

by families; similar insignia are used by nations, cities, episcopal sees and corporations generally.

ARMADA, THE.

(See HERALDRY.)

The Spanish or Invincible Armada was

the great fleet sent by Philip II. to assist in the attempted invasion of England in 1588. The idea was not a new one, but9 far it had been prevented by the expense of providing an army to l sail on board the fleet all the way from the Peninsula, in addition to the expense of maintaining an army in the Spanish Netherlands,

2ooft. above the Potomac, has been famous for more than a century. Many famous Americans and foreigners, among them Lafayette, have been entertained at the Lee mansion. In the Cruz, the original commander-in-chief, $ drawing room, where visitors now register their names, Mary Ann The Marquis of Santa appointed the Duke of Medina Sidonia, a $ II. Philip died, having the nt in lieutena a then Lee, E. Robert married 1831 Custis in sea experience and Was unwilling to lead United States Army, afterwards commander-in-chief of the Con- nobleman who lacked new plan of campaign, his instructions the By federate Army. When on April 22, 1861, Lee left Arlington to take the expedition. the Channel and to convoy to England up way his fight to were on possessi took soldiers Federal closi troops, command of the Virginia in the Netherlands under the Prince already army Spanish the ters By almost immediately, converting the mansion into a headquar blockaded in Dunkirk and Nieuport | and the grounds into a camp. Later a hospital was established of Parma, at that moment of Nassau. and there and in 1864, other burial-grounds proving insufficient, Arling- by a Dutch squadron under Justinus During the year 1587, Sir Francis Drake had destroyed a mur ton became a military cemetery by order of the Secretary of War. prevented had and Cadiz at shipping fury The first soldier to be buried there was a Confederate who had died great part of the Spanish squadrons; but in the spring in the hospital. For years the title of the property was in dispute, the concentration of the outlying Lisbon and, after many delays, : Spa d at assemble Armada the 1588 of Gen. of son the to ent paid Governm States but in 1883 the United 18. It consisted of 130 vessels, about At Lee $150,000 for the property. Soldier dead from every war in began to sail on May and victuallers, and it was drawn from ts transpor belc which the United States has participated, including a few officers of which were royal Spanish no Empire, there being of the Revolution, are buried there—numbering in all more than all parts of the Spanish p of by some 7,000 sailors and upwards s0 € 25,000. Under a granite sarcophagus lie the bones of 2,000 navy. It was manned squalls, bad water, and bad provisions Heavy . soldiers 17,000 of Firt field the from War Civil the unknown soldiers, gathered after : forced most of the fleet on June 9 to run into Coruña, though g obv Bull Run and the route to the Rappahannock. their course to the Scilly Isles, which was the they The best known memorial in the cemetery is the Tomb of the some maintained It was not till July r2 that the Armada agam us. rendezvo first on Cary Unknown Soldier, which consists of a solid block of marble, off the Lizard on July 109. stre which is inscribed a tribute to all the unidentified American dead set sail, and it was sighted armed and ships Queen’s the The English defence consisted of tem of the World War. Near at hand stands the memorial amphitheaDrake, in all, collected at Plymouth under Trel tre erected, through the efforts of the Grand Army of the Republic meėrchantmen, some ọo r-in-chief, assisted by Sir Jon § Wel in memory of departed heroes, as a fitting place of assembly for who was properly commande er, though Charles Lord Howard Martin Frobish the thousands who attend Memorial Day services in their honour. Hawkins and Sir was at the head of the admiralty administration $ the who gham, Effin of marble white roofless, The 1920. 15, May on It was dedicated this occasion to go to sèa. structure, with its eastern facade overlooking the Potomac river in London, elected on

ARMADILLO—ARMAGEDDON

375

There was also a squadron in the Downs, under Lord Henry

The complete failure of the invasion project was due to the English plan of keeping to windward and fighting at long range,

but many total of 197 English ships took part in the campaign, were so small that they were of little use, the fighting being toalmost comentirely between the big ships of both sides. It is difficult pare the fighting strength of the opposing fleets; the individual onnage of the largest ships on each side was about the same, and the Spaniards possessed more of them, though the English

which was followed throughout; and but for a fortunate change of wind and the failure of the English ammunition supply the whole Armada would certainly have been driven ashore on the

Seymour and Sir William Wynter, co-operating with the Dutch. A

Zealand banks.

Medina Sidonia acted with great courage throughout, but he was unable to control the provincial navies under his command and had neither the personality nor seamanship necessary for were superior in weight, number and distribution of armament. The Armada was organized more like a land army thana fleet, such a task. Philip II. foresaw the English methods of gunfire in and warned him of what to expect, but at the same time he the sailors and navigators occupying a very low status, while the English fleet the sailors far outnumbered the soldiers and entirely failed to realize the difficulty which Medina Sidonia would encounter in trying to bring out Parma’s army in the face of the most of the captains had previous sea experience. The object Dutch blockading flotilla, which could sail closer inshore amongst Sidonia Medina of junction the of the English fleet was to prevent and Parma by getting to windward of the Armada, assuming the shoals than the great ships of Spain. Queen Elizabeth had some difficulty in understanding Drake’s south westerly winds, and so cutting it off from its base and plan of campaign and was greatly concerned that the English driving it up the Channel and past Dunkirk. the Operations.—Owing to bad weather and lack of pro- made no attempt to board the Spanish ships, though the accusations levelled at her of starving the fleet of ammunition and food visions, no proper system of reconnaissance was maintained, and when the Armada appeared off Plymouth on July 20 the English can hardly be substantiated. More fighting took place than was foreseen by either side, and consequently supplies of all kinds were only just able to get to sea and avoid being blockaded. On July 21 the English worked to windward of the Spaniards and proved insufficient. Although many of the Spanish commanders engaged them at long range for two hours, capturing Pedro de had worldwide sea experience, the Armada was greatly handiValdez, the commander of the Andalusian squadron, whose ship capped by its military and provincial organization, while the was damaged. A change of wind gave the Spaniards the weather English fleet was naval and national in character and its personnel gage and on July 23 another action was fought off Portland, all spoke a common language. Moreover, the difficulty of conduring which Frobisher became isolated in a sudden calm and was voying Parma’s army was so great that the Armada had little in danger of being captured by the Spanish galleasses. Next day chance of success, its whole strategic conception being at fault. the English fleet was re-inforced from the shore by fresh ships Its failure checked the naval growth of Spain and assisted the and many volunteers, and was re-organized in four distinct Dutch to secure their independence. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The English side of the Armada campaign can be squadrons under Howard, Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher. The best studied in Sir Julian Corbett’s Drake and the Tudor Navy chase continued up the Channel, and on July 25 another action (1898) and in the State Papers relating to the defeat of the Spanish

took place off the Isle of Wight. So far the Spaniards had kept

better order in a military sense than the English, but they were

then completely demoralized and had lost several of their best

chips. Crossing the Channel, they anchored in Calais roads on July 27. Medina Sidonia then sent a message to Parma vainly asking him to put to sea at once, which was of course impossible owing to the closeness of the blockade. Howard was joined by Seymour and Wynter, and on the night of July 28, after a council of war, fireships were sent against the Spaniards. No Spanish shins were touched, but the panic caused by this dreaded form of attack caused them to cut their cables and put to sea in great, confusion, one large ship running aground. On July 29, while they were straggling up the coast of Gravelines, Drake led the English to the attack and the fiercest batile of the campaign took place, the English doing immense damage by keeping to windward and firing at long range with alternate broadsides, The Spaniards fought with great heroism; but with their poor gunnery and had seamanship they were outmatched and were unable to close and board, which was their only possible chance of success.

Armada, ed. by Sir John Laughton for the Navy Records Society (1894). The Spanish side will be found in La Armada Invencible, by Capt. C. F. Duro (1884). Froude summarized Duro’s work in his Spanish Story of the Armada (1892). A popular account will be found in J, R. Hale, Great Armada (1913). (G. A. R. C.; W. C. B. T.)

- ARMADILLO, a mail-clad mammal (order Edentata,rs. famIts ily Dasypodidae} closely allied to the slotbs and ant-eate armour consists of a bony case, partly composed of solid bucklerlike plates, and partly of movable transverse bands. Armadillos are omnivorous, feeding on roots, insects, worms, reptiles and carrion, and are mostly nocturnal. They are harmless inoffensive creatures, their principal means _ | of escape being the rapidity with |

MMR)

LE

|

; oe

S|

which they burrow in the ground, and the tenacity with which they

retain their hold in their subtertanean retreats. Notwithstanding

ASE: * | the shortness of their limbs they ees run with rapidity. Most of the Sete areaeeee ea Taal species are esteemed good eating =, it AWe Pecans

By the afternoon 16 Spanish ships were cut off and should have been made prizes; but a sudden squall drove them to leeward natives. They are all inand stopped the action, and at the same time the English am- THE NINE-BANDED ARMADILLO by the of the tropical and tems habitant = ee ee munition became completely exhausted. The sea ‘increased in (DASYPUS , iwy during the night, and by the morning of July 30 the po SORY, BUCKLER-LIKE ptares erate parts of South America though a few species range Spaniards were well past Nieuport and in great danger of being nded armadillo being found from Argendriven on a lee shore, as they were unable to rig any spare anchors. farther north, the nine-ba

At the most critical moment in the day, with only six fathoms tina to southern Texas. The largest species is the giant armadillo below them and the English to windward, the wind suddenly (Priodon gigas), nearly a yard long, from Surinam and Brazil. shifted to the south-west and they were able to run north and For the distinctive characters of the genera see EDENTATA,

so escape destruction. The English followed them as far as the . Firth of Forth and then returned—seeing that the enemy were obviously not going back through the Strait of Dover, while they themselves had little food and no ammunition. The Armada be-

ARMAGEDDON,

Rev. xvi. 16 (a.v.}, Har-MacEpon

(r.v.). This is probably the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew

har megiddé (often, but megiddon, Zech. xii. 11), the mountain district of Megiddo, see various readings of the Septuagint (Josh. came distressed through lack of fresh water and soon encountered xvii. 11). The final destruction of the armies of Gog (understood trong westerly winds, which added to its troubles as it at- to mean the forces of Antichrist) was to be on “the mountains defined as near Megiddo, the tempted to sail home round Scotland and the west coast of of Israel” (Ezek. xxxix. 2, 4), here13; II. Ki. xxiii. 29; II. Chron. iv. (Judges battles Ireland. Many ships were wrecked, and in Ireland their crews scene of past of xxxv. 22). Other suggestions are: (1) kar migdo, “his fruitful were massacred; many more sank in the open sea. Only half the ships that left the Tagus returned tọ Spain or Portugal, and mountain” (ze., the mountain land of Palestine); (2) ir Chemdah, “the desirable city”; (3) kar mo’ed, “the mountain where n thase death and sickness were appalling.

ARMAGH—ARMAGNAC

376

the gods meet”—a hint of a myth of the battle of the gods. (See Charles, Revelation, ii. p. so.) Armageddon is often used to-day of a great slaughter or final conflict. The name is revived in the title of Field-Marshal Lord Allenby

of Megiddo (cr. 1919).

ARMAGH,

aYS en 5

;

i

an inland county of Northern Ireland (Act of

swamps covered large portions of the lowlands of Ulster, the drier districts being thickly wooded. The first settlements were, therefore, largely confined to the coasts. In the bronze age colonization of the lowlands developed, and at its end the country immediately south of Lough Neagh had considerable importance. The fortress of Emhain Macha was built c.300 B.c. about 13m. W. of the modern city of Armagh and became in time the religious and political centre of the district. Later, however, ironusing people moved northward and drove some of the previous inhabitants of North Armagh into the mountains of county Antrim and county Down. To consolidate their conquests, they built an earth-work, erroneously known as the Dane’s Cast, which follows approximately the modern boundary between county Armagh and county Down. From this time Emhain Macha declined, the later associations of the district being woven around Armagh (g.v.) near by, which became in the fifth century the ecclesiastical capital of Ireland, partly because of its connections with St. Patrick. Scandinavians sailed up the Bann and established a permanent fleet on Lough Neagh. They also had squadrons on the loughs of Belfast, Strangford and Carlingford. From these centres they raided the interior and during one such expedition they destroyed Armagh but, recognizing the advantages of the site, used it for several years as the Scandinavian capital of North Ireland. The Normans experienced great difficulties when moving against the North and kept to coastal routes and lowlands. They thus had comparatively little influence in Armagh, particularly in the southern hilly portion. The county was made shire ground in 1586. Economic Survey.—The lowlands of the northern half of the county are composed of recent rocks and are very fertile. Around Charlemont there is an area which remains boggy but this is said to be reclaimable. The southern portion of the county is rocky and barren with some bog in the neighbourhood of NewtownHamilton. The climate is temperate and rainfall comparatively

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area but send off no important branches. Along the east of th mountains is the line from Armagh to Newry and Carlingford

f

on the west, the line from Armagh to Castleblayney and Dundak Ẹ The county is divided into five urban districts, three rural dis. 4

1920), bounded north by Lough Neagh, east by County Down, tricts and two Poor Law unions. It returns four members to the south by Louth, and west by Monaghan and Tyrone. The area is parliament of Northern Ireland and one member to the parli 327,704ac. or about 512sq.m. Pop. 120,291. The northern low- ment of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. ARMAGH, urban district and county town, Co. Armagh Ire lying area is made up of Tertiary basalts, Pliocene deposits and sandstones. It is very fertile and may formerly have been cov- land, 894m. N.N.W. of Dublin by Great Northern railway at ered by the waters of Lough Neagh. To the south there is a junction of the Belfast-Clones line. Pop. (1926) 7,356. The city gradual rise to the mountains of Ordovician and Silurian rocks, is of great interest because of its religious associations, some claim. probably extensions of similar formations in the southern uplands ing that it was founded by St. Patrick in the 5th century. It was of Scotland. Farther south, the granite mountain-core is revealed, the seat of a flourishing college and early became the metropolis whilst younger intrusive rocks form Slieve Gullion (1,893ft.). of Ireland, inheriting much of the importance of the old fortress

Historical Survey.—During early neolithic times lakes and

i bee

quarries at Bessbrook. The scattered nature of the population o

of Emain Macha, which was destroyed in the 4th century. As,

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result of Danish incursions and the ravages of the English wars the settlement became much diminished and very dilapidated, its $

bishops moving to Drogheda, where they enjoyed the greater se. $ curity of the coastal plain. With the more settled conditions of the 18th and roth centuries, the fortunes of Armagh revived and it once again became a prosperous and well-built centre. As th $

seat of an archbishop in both the Protestant and Roman organiza. § tions, it possesses two cathedrals and two archiepiscopal palaces,

ARMAGNAC,

formerly a province of France and the most

important fief of Gascony, now wholly comprised in the depart-

$

ment of Gers (q.v.). In the 15th century, when it attained is $ greatest extent, it included, besides Armagnac, the neighbouring $ territories of Fezensac, Fezensaguet, Pardiac, Pays de Gaure, Riviére Basse, Eauzan and Lomagne, and stretched from th § Garonne to the Adour. Armagnac is a region of hills ranging to a height of 1,000ft., watered by the river Gers and other rivers § which descend fanwise from the plateau of Lannemezan. On the § slope of its hills grow the grapes from which the famous Armagnac brandy is made. In Roman Gaul this territory formed part of the diocese of Auch (civitas Ausciorum), which corresponded roughly with the later duchy of Gascony (q.v.). About the end of the oth

century Fezensac (comitatus Fedentiacus), was erected into am $ hereditary countship. This latter was in its turn divided, the south-western portion becoming, about 960, the countship of Armagnac (pagus Armaniacus). The domain of this countship continued steadily to increase, and about 1140 Count Gerald III. calle added the whole of Fezensac to his possessions. Under the English rule the counts of Armagnac were turbulent and untrustworthy § tot pos: vassals; and the administration of the Black Prince, tending to sucl favour the towns of Aquitaine at the expense of the nobles, drove and them to the side of France. goo At the accession of Henry V. Count Bernard VII. was all-povthe erful at the French court; and Charles of Orleans, in order to be sou been had who Orleans, of Louis father, his able to avenge assassinated in 1407 by John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, f cen valı light. Agriculture does not flourish. Oats and potatoes are the married Bonne, Bernard’s daughter. This was the origin of the principal crops, but all grain crops are decreasing, whilst flax, political party known as “the Armagnacs.” With the object of 7 ofj formerly much grown, is now neglected. The numbers of cattle, combating the duke of Burgundy’s preponderant influence, 4 Is | sheep, pigs and poultry are increasing. Fruit cultivation is en- league was formed at Gien, including the duke of Orleans and his app couraged and the orchards of the county are justly famous. The father-in-law, the dukes of Berry, Bourbon, and Brittany, the The nobles. d discontente other the all principal industry is the manufacture of linen. This does not count of Alencon, and net necessitate any unwholesome crowding of people into large towns Peace of Bourges, which was confirmed at Auxerre, put an end iro n Armagnacs the 1413 Aug. in But followed. but can be carried on successfully in villages and farm-houses. to the war which inc The spinning and reeling of the yarn and the bleaching process their turn became masters of the government and of the king, iro can be done after farm work and domestic duties. This develop- and the duke of Burgundy, besieged in. Arras, only obtained peace hel ment of rural industry may account for the relative neglect of the on condition of not returning to Paris. land. Whilst the condition of agriculture might indicate a poor Several months later Henry V. declared war against France; her region, the county is in fact a comparatively rich one and supplies and when, in Aug. 1415, the English landed in Normandy, the tra E wer but them, Armagnacs and Burgundians united against other parts of Ulster with vegetables and fruits. me defeated in the battle of Agincourt (Oct. 25 1415). John the The chief towns are in the northern lowlands. Armagh (g.v.), cu Bernard with its religious associations, is a route centre and market town. Fearless then began negotiations with the English, while who Saint-Pol, of count the of place in constable appointed Both Lurgan and Portadown have considerable manufactures, VII., chiefly connected with linen. The latter is also an important rail- had been killed at Agincourt, returned to defend Paris. However, way centre. The county is poor in minerals though lead veins the excesses committed by the Armagnacs incensed the popula, § Br have been worked spasmodically. There are extensive granite and John the Fearless, who was ravaging the surrounding dis- f

ARMAMENTS—ARMENIA is re-entered the capital on May 29 1418, in consequence of i treason of Perrinet Leclerc.

On June 12 Bernard VII. and the

members of his party were massacred. From this time onward

the Armagnac party, with the dauphin, afterwards King Charles

VIL, at its head, was the national party, while the Burgundians in France continued until mited with the English. This division 1435. the Treaty of Arras, on Sept. 21 In 1444-45 the emperor Frederick ITI. obtained from Charles

ARMAVIR.

377

(1) A province in North Caucasian area of the

Area 21,135 sqkm. Russian S.F.S.R. (1926) Population 926,851; urban 105,396, rural 821.455. It is a fertile black earth plain, but includes a part of the forested mountain slopes in the south. Wheat is the main crop, and rye, oats, barley, millet, maize, tobacco, flax, hemp and potatoes are grown. Vines and

garden fruits are increasingly cultivated.

(2) A town, the centre

of the area, 45° N. and 41° 8’ E., on the Black sea-Caspian rail-

VIL a large army of Armagnac adventurers to enforce his claims ip Switzerland, and the war which ensued took the name of the name of the Armagnac War (Armagnakenkrieg). In Germany the

way with a branch to Tuapse on the Black sea. Pop. (1926) 74,370—a great increase since its foundation in 1848. It is a trading centre and has a grain elevator.

Jakob on the Birs, not far from Basel, was mockingly corrupted into Arme Jacken, Poor Jackets, or Arme Gecken, Poor Fools.

VESSELS.

ship of Armagnac came back to the French crown along with the

Leninakan (162,579), Erivan (175,816), Etchmiadzin (113,930) and Pambak-Loriisk (132,341). Its boundaries are:—North, the

foreigners, Who were completely defeated in the battle of St.

ARMED MERCHANT CRUISER: see FLEET AUXILIARY ARMED

NEUTRALITY:

see NEUTRALITY.

ARMENIA, a Socialist Soviet Republic created in 1918, and On the death of Charles of Armagnac, in 1497, the countship with Azerbaijan and Georgia (Gruzia) in 1922 to form the again united was but VII., Charles King was united to the crown by sian S.F.S. republic with unification of the transport I., Transcauca Francis by bestowed on Charles, the nephew of that count, system. Area 30,948sq.km. Pop. (1926) 879,872, economic and marriage. in Margaret sister his him gave gho at the same time rural 746,214. It is divided for administrative purshe 133,658, urban children, no had she After the death of her husband, by whom districts, of which the most important are nine married Henry of Albret, king of Navarre; and thus the count- poses into other dominions of Henry IV. In 1645 Louis XIV. erected a countship of Armagnac in favour of Henry of Lorraine, count of Harcourt, in whose family it continued till the Revolution. In 1789 Armagnac was a province forming part of the Gou-

vernement-général of Guienne and Gascony; it was divided into two parts, High or White Armagnac, with Auch for capital, and

Low or Black Armagnac. At the Revolution the whole of the original Armagnac was included in the department of Gers.

See E. Wulcker, Urkunden und Schreiben betreffend den Zug der Armagnaken (1873); Rameau, “Guerre des Armagnacs dans le Mâconnas” (1418-35) in the Rév. soc. lit. de Ain (1884) ; Paul Dognon,

“Les Armagnacs et les Bourguignons, le comte de Foix et le dauphin

en Languedoc” (1416-20) in Annales du Midi (1889); Witte, Die Armagnaken im Elsass, 1439-1445 (1889); U. Chevalier, Répertoire des sources hist. du moyen âge, s. Armagnac (1894).

ARMAMENTS:

see

BATTLESHIP; CAVALRY; TORPEDOES.

Am

Forces;

Army;

CRUISER; DESTROYER;

ARTILLERY;

MINES;

Navy;

ARMATOLES, the name given to Greeks who discharged

certain military and police functions under the Turkish government, When the Turks conquered Greece in the 15th century, many of the Greeks fled into the mountainous districts of northem Greece and maintained a guerrilla warfare. These men were

called Klephts (Gr. kħérrns, a brigand): the Turkish pashas came

to terms with some of them, and these men were confirmed in the possession of certain districts, undertaking in return some duties, such as the custody of the highroads. They were called armatoles, and the districts in which they lived armatoliks. They rendered good service, but their power and independence were disliked by the Turks. After the peace of Belgrade the Turkish government sought to weaken their position, and towards the end of the 18th century their numbers were seriously reduced. They afforded valuable assistance to their countrymen during the Greek war

of independence in 1830.

_ ARMATURE, a covering for defence. In zoology the word

Isused of the bony shell of the armadillo.

In architecture it is

applied to the iron stays by which the lead lights are secured in

windows. (See Srancuion and Sappie: Saddle-Bars.) In mag-

netism Dr. William Gilbert applied the term to the piece of soft iron with which he “armed” or capped the lodestone in order to Increase its power. It is also used for the “keeper” or piece of

iron which is placed across the poles of a horse-shoe magnet, and held in place by magnetic attraction, in order to complete the magnetic, circuit and preserve the magnetism of the steel; and hence, in dynamo-electric machinery, for the portion which is attracted by the electro-magnet.

The term is now applied to that

member of an electric generator (q.v.) or motor (g.v.) in which Currents are induced by the action of the field.

Georgian S.S.R., west and south-west, Turkey, south-west, the Nakhichevan A.S.S.R., south, the Arazes river and east, the Azer-

baijan S.S.R. It thus in no sense coincides with the former Ar-

menia, much of which is now in Turkey, though Etchmiadzin, the ancient seat of the Armenian patriarchs, is included in it. It has no seaport and is therefore economically dependent on Georgia and Azerbaijan. It is mainly a plateau region (6,000-8,000ft.), with short ridges and isolated volcanic mountains. Alagoz, 14,440 ft. was active in Tertiary times. Lake Gokcha (540sq.m.) is encircled by volcanic mountains and the neighbourhood of Leninakin is covered with volcanic débris. Leninakin and the surrounding district suffered severely from the earthquake of October 1926. The climate varies with altitude and aspect, but everywhere the winters are severe and the climate extreme and dry. At Leninakin (alt. 5,078ft.) the average temperature is, January, 12°F., July, 65°F.; yearly rainfall, 16-2in. The Aras (Araxes), with its tributary the Zanga river drains the republic and on the latter the Rykov hydro-electric station was opened 1926. The Aras river is a rapid, muddy, dangerous stream when snows melt, but fordable at other times. In its valley cotton, mulberry (for silk), vine, apricots, fruits, rice and tobacco are grown. ‘The vines must be buried during winter frosts. Irrigation is extending under the direction of the Erivan department of agriculture and schemes are being carried out at Leninakan and Etchmiadzin and a tinned fruit (especially peach) industry is springing up, but cotton is the ` chief product. Cattle-rearing and forestry are important in the hilly districts and Lori is developing a dairy industry. Camels are bred and leeches are exported from the swamps. The Katara copper mines are productive and were reopened in 1925. Communications are poor, though a railway from Tiflis to Tabriz in Persia passes through Leninakan and Erivan, and from Leninakan there is a branch to Kars in Turkey. The chief towns are Erivan (q.v.) and Leninakan. The conditions of life are poor in many parts and mud huts are common in the hills. In spite of the destruction of school buildings during the World War, education is increasing, though the schools are mainly primary. New premises are being built and teachers are being trained. A university, a musical academy and trade technical schools have been established. The Armenian tongue is in use. The people are Armenians, Russians and Turco-Tatars. The “Armenoid” type physically is tall, dark, broadheaded, with prominent nose, high head and flattened occiput: but here it is much

(X

modified by intermixture.

HISTORY Modern research has very largely modified the ancient concep-

position of Armenia. The ARMAVIR, ruined capital of Armenia, on the slopes of the tions of the history and the political some part in shaping played country the of features physical by extinct volcano, Ala-Geuz. It was built, according to legend, of the valleys

nais in 1980 B.C., and was the capital of the Armenian kings Until the 2nd century av. A village, Tapadibi, fills the site.

the destinies of the people, for the isolation especially in winter, encouraged a tendency to separation which

ARMENIA

378

showed itself in the middle ages in weakening the central power. The hillsides have always been the home of hardy mountaineers jealous of their independence, and have served as a sanctuary to the lowland people in times of foreign invasions. The country stands as an open doorway between the East and the West. Through its fertile valleys run the roads that connect the Iranian plateau with the harbours of Asia Minor and for its temporary possession nations have contended from the remote past.

Ethnology.—There

is

and Persia, these formed the mili-

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dynasty became essential]

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[1909-10].)

Ultimately the Romans held the Euphrates frontier

claiming “sovereignty” over Armenia and Kurdistan. The ethnical §

and cultural affinities fostered by Persia and Parthia, coupled with f the influence of Zoroastrianism, has so profoundly shaped the out. look of all peoples living between the Caucasus and the Iranian $

plateau, that Hellenism scarcely penetrated beyond the Euphrates. f The Romans considered Armenia as a “buffer State” but the Ar f BY

COURTESY

ARMENIAN

OF

THE

NEAR

EAST

VOLUNTEER

RELIEF

SOLDIERS

Arshakuni (Arsacid) kings (190 B.c.-A4.D. 428) brought also many Jewish and Greek artisans and colonists. In the recesses of Mount Taurus the peasants are tall, handsome, agile and brave. In the valleys of Armenia and Asia Minor they are robust, thick-set and sometimes bearing the characteristics of the proto-Armenians, as depicted on their monuments, with straight black hair and often hooked noses. They are good cultivators of the soil and cattle breeders. Some still live in semi-subterranean houses as their ancestors did in the days of Xenophon. The townsmen have more regular features of the Aryan type. They are skilled artisans and merchants, remarkable for their industry, ' their quick intelligence, their aptitude for business and for their enterprising spirit, which led their ancestors to trade with Scythia, China and India. The upper classes are well-educated. Ancient Kingdom.—tThe early history of Armenia, as recorded by the earliest historians of the country, is confirmed in many important aspects by the native and Assyrian inscriptions. It can now be stated that in the second millennium B.C. the Assyrian monarchs were trying hard to overcome the “‘Nairi” confederation, which consisted of the Armenians, the Kurds and other autochthonous peoples. There is evidence that these Nairi kings were often in alliance with the Hittite empire at Boghaz-Keui. At about goo B.C,, however, the Khaldian kingdom of Van acquired hegemony over all the Nairi lands. Called Ararat by the Bible, Urartu by the Assyrians and Alarodians (’AXapdétor) by Herodotus (iii.94) these proto-Armenian kings became a formidable foe to

menian rulers only at moments of struggle against Persia sough f the friendship of Rome, just as more powerful nations do so even f

to-day. Under the rule of its own Arshakuni kings the Armenian § people kept its complete political entity within the frame of Iran §

until A.D. 303, when King Tirdat (Tiridates) converted by St f Gregory the Illuminator, established Christianity as the religionof § the State and set an example followed later by Constantine. This Ẹ spiritual break-off from Iran produced religious wars with Zoroas- § trian Persia which considerably weakened Armenia during the ath §

and sth centuries. Persia and the Eastern Empire “divided” Ar §

menia into zones of influence in 387, although both Pers-Armenia

f

and further west Arshakuni kings and powerful princes (Nak

harars) governed the country in their own way, bearing titles of $ Marzban (Margrave) and Curopalatii. The establishment of a national Church in 303, followed later | by the discontinuance of the Greek language in the Armenian Holy $ offices and a separation from the Council of Chalcedon; the inven- §

tion of a national alphabet by St. Mesrop resulting in the translation of the Bible and the development of literature; and finally § a “Holy war” led by Prince Vardan Mamionian against Persian A.D. 451 which provided martyrs—these three events combined, in the course of a century and a half, stamped such an indelible national individuality on the Armenian people that it has stood the

test of centuries of trials. The downfall of the Persian Sassanian Empire in 642 opened the way to the Arabs, who for the following two centuries organized occasional marauding expeditions from the Kurdish foothills up to the Caspian Sea. The Bagratuni Kingdom.—The Armenians constantly harassed the few Arab garrisons posted on some of the main roads. In 702 alone the Armenian catholicos (supreme head of the Church)

$ $ § f

f ca J , J

intervened to make peace between the Armenian princes and the l Arab Caliph. Armenian governors (Ostikans) were nominated by the Caliph. Under the leadership of the great Bagratuni (Bag Assyria, until the downfall of both. The last Khaldian king, Rusas ratid) princes the country prospered so greatly that Ashot I III., fought against the Lydians on the Halys, in 585 B.c. as an ally assumed the title of “Prince of Princes” and was recognized both of Cyaxares. Its history and the recent discoveries are dealt with by Basilius I. and the Caliph in 886, who made a treaty offriend: under URARTU. ' ship with King Ashot. The country developed and agriculture at In the Behistun inscription of Darius Hystaspes (521 B.c.) first tained unusual prosperity, The magnificent cathedral of Ani, thet appears the name of Armeniya or Armina. This Persian mon- capital on the Arpa-Chai, innumerable churches, monuments an arch represents Armenia as one of his satrapies, whereas his own irrigation works were built all over the country, the ruins of which records state that he had to send armies year after year to quell

lar 8ar sey a

The Arshakuni Kingdom.—This

§

search has greatly diminished the value of Roman boastings. (Kur l

f

=>

(Artaxata) on the |

Arax and Zareh (Zariades) a descendant of the Erwant dqyhasty of Armenia Minor.

conflict with Lucullus, the Roman commander, who attacked Tyg. $

mated, thus forming the main notorious robbers type of the modern Armenian, except where in isolated districts one or other ethnic element still predominates. The Armenian

ekg, a i

191 B.c. when Artashes (Artaxias) made himself sovereign king Armenia Major with his capital at Artashat

ranocerta.

thesouthernseeof the land. Armeniaespecially tary aristocracy two races soon amalga- tion inhabited by the Kurds, who are

as

ontes, "Apodyvéys) in the south-west, governed the country ow: until ) Persia and then to Seleucids nominal allegiance at first to

country and conquered seventy valleys from Parthia, Northem Syria and Cappadocia, all this territory having been held by the f Khaldians. He built a new capital at Tigranocerta, now identified | by Prof. Lehmann Haupt with the ancient city of Farkin. In def. i ance of Rome he shielded Mithridates the Great, of Pontus his § father-in-law, who had fled to his court. This brought him ints

These

a meee Re

try. These two dynasties, Tiribazus in the north and Erwant (Or. [

Armenian under Tigranes the Great (94-56 B.c.) who unitedty

evi-

dence to assume that about 1500 B.C. Armenia was inhabited by a non-Aryan people, the type of which is called “Armenoid” by modern ethnologists, The Hittites were the representatives of this type. These original inhabitants of Armenia called themselves Khaldini or Khaldians from the name of their chief god Khaldi. At a period not yet ascertained, but presumed to be about 710 B.C., an Indo-European race, either Phrygians from the West or Cimmerians from the Caucasus mountains, invaded the highlands of Armenia and imposed their language on the natives. Later, on the rise of Media

when Xenophon and the Ten Thousand passed through the com |

stand out until to-day as a token of their constructive genius.

rebellions, and that five battles he mentions were fought in Media;

little later Prince Kagig Artsruni, another great Armenian family,

yet Armenia was an almost independent unit in the Persian monarchy, governed by native dynasties, as we see them in 4or B,C.

crowned himself King of Vaspurakan (the province of Van). Armenia failed under these Bagratuni and Artsruni kings to col

ler 2 ad

E

a

ARMENTA

379

approved by the Sultan in 1863 gave the Armenians in solidate itself and become one of the powers of the region it is stitution the status of a self-governing nation in a political sense Turkey Armenthe convert to efforts ne Byzanti rtly due to the constant which, under the sovereignty of Turkey. All real power passed into the an church to orthodoxy, and partly to the Seljuk hordes naPersian Emiriates, hands of lay and clerical councils elected by the people. The after sweeping before them dozens of Arab and 1020 onwards for tional assembly at Constantinople consisted of 140 members repreappeared on the frontiers of Armenia. From of shout 40 years the Armenian kings fought and drove back wave

seized the after wave of Seljuk horsemen. But the Eastern Empire King

portunity to attack Ani and detain at Constantinople

Kagig I., who had gone there to discuss matters.

senting about 24 million Armenians in Turkey. The education the people received a fresh impetus at the hands of the representative councils. Early in the 18th century the Armenian Mekhitarist

$j

Soon the empire

paid the price of its treachery. The Seljuks overran the whole

country and advanced into Greek Asia Minor. They established a

mited Government for Armenia and Kurdistan at Aklat. This Government, however, soon passed into the hands of Kurdish cousin Shah-i-Armens (kings of Armenia) the first of whom was a the Monof the great Salaheddin, the Kurd. From 1240 onwards

gols occupied almost the whole of western Asia.

their During these stormy times many Armenian families left other lands; ne Byzanti and Galicia Poland, homes and went to

dent kingfamilies crossed the Taurus and established an indepen

of the Bagradom in 1080 at Cilicia under Prince Rupen, a scion dealings many had a Armeni Lesser of m tumis of Ani. This kingdo as with the crusaders and made an alliance with the Mongols last the and 1375 until lasted It Egypt. of kes Mamelu the against

King Leon VI. died in Paris and was buried at St. Denis. With the break-up of the rule of the Mongol Ilkhans in 1351, a large number of Kurdish, Armenian and Turkoman independent princi-

ye

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THE RUINS OF THE CATHEDRAL AT ANI, ONE OF THE CHURCHES BUILT UNDER THE PRINCES OF THE HOUSE OF BETWEEN A.D. 702 AND 1060

MANY FINE BAGRATIDES

Fathers had already established printing presses in Venice and

Vienna, and had revived the Armenian and Greco-Roman classics. The more the reforming movement progressed in Turkey, the more the Armenians benefited by it. Russia and the Armenians.—The Russians appeared in Transcaucasia and occupied Georgia in 1801. They gradually octhe Khanates of Shirvan and Sheki and by the war of they were overthrown by the Safavi Shah Ismail of Persia in 1502. cupied also Persia they brought under their rule the whole plain against 1828 the by d This regeneration of Iran was however soon challenge Erivan, including Echmiadzin, the seat of the Armenian cathOttoman Turks, who in 1514-16 defeated Persia and within the of They assisted the Armenian Church to reorganize itself and olicos. In Armenia. over rule next 40 years gradually established their State opened up great possibilities of economic and modern a 1514, Sultan Selim I. entrusted Idris, a Kurdish Mollah “to re- as During 1829-77 the Armenians under the Rusprogress. national counthe found Idris rule. Turkish organize” Armenia under the and prospered considerably and played an imincreased rule sian and try bristling with castles of independent Derebeys of Kurdish the economic development of Transcaucasia. Armenian origin. Idris induced many Kurdish tribes south of portant part in an Armenian or any other question. She recognize not did Russia Sultan the and north, Taurus to settle on Armenian lands in the order, and opened them up for established territories, gave them honours and administrative posts so as to use them conquered enterprise. the country the of ion organizat against Persia. In spite of this “The Armenian Question.”—-When Abd-ul-Hamid came to sympathy of the people always remained with Persia. Turkey in 1876 the conditions of Armenians both in In 1605 Shah Abbas transferred thousands of Armenians to the throne of were much better than they had been for cenRussia and Turkey colony prosperous New Julfa, near Isfahan, where they formed a close of the Russo-Turkish war of 1878 came the with in Central Persia, whence Armenian colonies expanded to India turies. But ” in consequence of British intervention. question an “Armeni the trade. to allowed was and the Far East, long before any European slice of Georgia and Armenia including another occupied Russia The periodic renewal of wars between Persia and Turkey in 1575, and the upper Euphrates valley; Erzerum , 1602 and under Nadir Shah partly devastated the frontier regions; Batum, Kars, Ardahan demanded the evacuation Britain Great war of threat the on but Ottoman the but after the political troubles of the last centuries, leading to India and roads of safety the that alleging , rule accorded the country at least a certain measure of stability. of Erzerum ed. (See British Governendanger being were interests ial commerc the after but anarchy; The people suffered from a chronic Hertslet’s Map of Europe by Treacapture of Constantinople 1453, Mohammed IT. organized the ment Memo of April 1, 1878;

the palities arose all over the country, and the feudal lords of areas. small their over supreme reigned ys) valleys (Derebe Turkish Occupation.—After the death of Timur in 1405, the Turkoman Ak-koyunlus established their rule at Diarbekir until

Christian Communities of the Empire under their own ecclesiastical chiefs to whom he gave absolute authority in civil and relig-

ious matters and in criminal offences that did not come under the Muslim religious law. Under this system the Armenian Bishop Hovakim was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople by the Sultan

and became practically not only the ecclesiastical but also the

political leader of the Armenian nation (Ermeni Milleti) and a recognized officer of the Imperial Government. He was assisted by a council of clergy and was represented in each province by a bishop and his council. This practical self-government secured to the Armenians a recognized position before the law, the free enjoyment of their religion and national traditions, and the right to educate their children and manage their national and municipal affairs. It also encouraged the growth of a community life which eventually gave birth to a longing for national life. The leadership of the clergy, however, was bound to degrade the clergy itself, who

often used unwarrantable methods for promotion to the detriment

of their spiritual functions. After the issue, 1839, of the Hatti-i Sherif of Gulhaneh, the artisans and tradesmen asserted their tights to take part in the management of national affairs, The con-

ties, vol. iv. p. 2,704.) Russia evacuated Erzerum and the upper Euphrates valley and as an alternative Turkey engaged to Russia by the Treaty of San Stephano to carry out reforms in the provinces “inhabited by the Armenians and to guarantee their security attach against the Kurds and the Circassians.” Russia’s aim was to on permanently to her own interests some element in the populati it was but ; evacuate to forced been had she which y territor the of and the a dubious piece of diplomacy to embroil the Armenians time Kurds who had lived and defended themselves together from Powers. n Europea no were there when immemorial inBy the Treaty of Berlin of July 1878, and owing to British was subPowers ry signato six the to ment engage like a , sistence against stituted for that of Russia. The same clause of “protection Great that before But ced. introdu again was etc.” Kurds, the with the SulBritain secretly concluded the convention of Cyprus subjects of the tan for the “protection of the Christians and other defending Porte” in Asia Minor. As a reward to Great Britain for condition on and Russia, the Asiatic frontiers of Turkey against thereafter Asia in Turkey of y integrit the n maintai should that she so long as the Sultan authorized Great Britain to occupy Cyprus

380

ARMENIA

Kars, Ardahan and Batum remained in the hands of Russia. This British undertaking meant the prolongation of the oppressions of those peoples whom the Cyprus convention intended to protect, since Great Britain would not permit Russia to step in, and yet was not in a position to intervene effectively herself. It was generally admitted that this convention placed the Armenians under the special protection of Great Britain. But it seems that Lord Salisbury (Lady Gwendolen Cecil, Life of the Marquess of Salisbury, 1021, vol. ii. p. 321) did not then believe either in “reforms” or in any protection; the primary aim of British policy being to prevent Russia from occupying the Armenian fortresses. During a tour of the European capitals in 1877 Lord Salisbury found that none of the Great Powers took the slightest interest in the extent of the territory in Armenia occupied by Russia; therefore, when in 1880-82 the British Government was urging the Concert of Europe to common action, the Powers paid no attention. Thus the Armenian leaders, unwillingly and helplessly caught in the coils of Anglo-Russian rivalry, did nothing which might be interpreted as a deviation from the traditional loyalty to Turkey. Among the Armenians the common saying was that Turkey was their fatherland, and distinguished bishops and laymen expressed their unreserved mistrust of both Russia and Great Britain. But there were uninitiated Armenian teachers and poets who believed in the “Christendom and humanity” of Europe. The British and Russian ambassadors at Constantinople patronized Armenian charity balls and other social functions. British and Russian agents and press correspondents were interesting themselves greatly in the Armenian people and their conditions. Such courses are natural enough in Western countries, but in Turkey under the psychological conditions of those days, they struck an altogether different note.

Encouraged by these demonstrations, some Armenian teachers formed in 1885 a “revolutionary” society called Hunchak to educate and rouse the self-consciousness of the people. Another society called Daschnak was formed in 1890 in Tiflis with a more active programme, which consisted of writing songs, drilling the people in gymnastics and the use of arms. After the death of Patriarch Varjabedian who was involved in the Berlin Congress, the national assembly at Constantinople elected a new patriarch who declined to have any intercourse with foreign Powers. In Russia, Tsar Alexander II. was dead and the General Loris-Melikov, an Armenian nobleman who had conquered Kars and Erzerum in 1877, had lost his power. In accordance with her traditional policy, Russia after the war with Turkey concentrated her attention on Central Asia. Up to then Russia had been openly and unreservedly a friend to the Armenians, but concluding that the Armenian people in Turkey had been transformed into an instrument of British anti-Russian policy, she became hostile to the Armenians. By stages the use of the Armenian language was prohibited in Armenian schools in Transcaucasia; then the schools and institutions were closed, and finally all church properties were confiscated in 1903. In 1890 Russian frontier guards arrested and exiled to Siberia some 30 Armenians who wished to go to Erzerum to rescue their threatened compatriots. In face of this Russian hostility to Armenia, Great Britain did nothing to fulfil her obligations assumed by the Convention of Cyprus. After the occupation of Egypt in 1882 British interest towards the Armenians fluctuated, according as a political lever was required to bring pressure upon the Sultan. During 1887-88 Lord Salisbury both admitted and denied the British obligations regarding the Armenians. This ambiguity and the British friendship towards Bulgaria in 1886 encouraged the Armenian secret societies to believe that the more noise they made the more attention they would call upon their cause. The Sultan who up to then had still considered the Armenians as the “loyal nation,” started persecutions and arbitrary imprisonments.

The Massacres.—Finally came the massacres. In the mountainous region of Sasun, in the Taurus, hardy Armenian and Kurdish communities had lived and defended themselves together from the days of Assyria. As throughout Armenia they had quarrelled over local matters, often a joint party of both races attacking another

similar party. There had never been any race feeling or hatred,

Some Armenian teachers had visited Sasun in the early gos

were not well received. In 1894 a party of Kurds attacked an of Armenians and after a fight the quarrel seems to haye been tled, when Abd-ul-Hamid fearing “revolutionary” activity =

regular troops to quell the “rebellion.” About 300 Armenians t

murdered and a few villages burnt by Turkish troops. In Nor

1894 a Turkish commission of inquiry was sent to Armenia ai was accompanied by the consular delegates of Great Britain Ris-

sia and France. The latter two Governments had made no ‘acre

of their indifference in the matter, and Russia in particular Was openly hostile. The commission elicited the fact that there had

been no revolt, but did not state that it was merely a family quy.

rel, During the winter of 1894 the British Government with th.

lukewarm support of Russia and France, pressed for adminisin. tive “reforms” in the vilayets of Erzerum, Van, Bitlis, Diarhek

Kharput, and Sivas. In May 1895 the three Powers presented to the Sultan an illusory scheme of “reforms” which was more cal.

lated to broaden the breach between the Porte and its Armenia, subjects than to achieve any results. Misguided young men, aware of the political game of the contending Powers, renewed

their activities in Constantinople in spite of the wise counsels of

responsible Armenian leaders and clergy. Finally, the Sultan a.

cepted the reform schemes in Oct. 1895, under British pressure Simultaneously with the signing of the scheme the Sultan gave the signal for massacres. About 80,000 Armenians perished in the provinces. The American missionaries, who for the past sixty years

had done a great educational work among the Armenians, and the French and Persian Consuls everywhere behaved in a chivalrous manner. In Van and Urfa, the townsmen offered armed resistance

to the Turkish rabble. In Zeitun, in particular, the mountainess held out against a regular Turkish siege, until the Powers inter. vened. Exasperated at the massacres, some 20 Armenians attacked the Ottoman Bank in Constantinople in Aug. 1896. The Europea Ambassadors, however, instead of saving the innocent Armenians of the capital, secured the safety of those desperate “Nihilists” and sent them out of Turkey. In the following two days the organized Turkish mob murdered 6,000 people before the eyes of those Powers responsible for the protection of the Armenians. In the same year the Armenians elected Mgr. Ormanian as pe triarch. With the help of high Armenian officials of the Porte, the new patriarch conciliated the Sultan, who immediately proclaimed a general amnesty for Armenian political prisoners and set upa court to try some of the notorious murderers. Throughout the Ottoman Empire the Armenian element slowly recovered within the next decade and the “Dashnak” party started cultivating the traditional friendship with the Kurds and other neighbours. The proclamation of the Turkish Constitution in 1908 was genuinely hailed by the Armenians as a new era of friendship. Notwithstanding the murders of Adana in 1909 the Young Turk atministration produced noticeable improvement in the conditions of the Armenian people. Political refugees returned home and recovered their properties. Agriculture and trade made unusual progress resulting in great prosperity. Military service in the amy and deputies in the chamber gave the Armenians a new status Turkey. The Armenian people in Transcaucasia under the Russian rule were in a not less favourable condition. Assisted by the Entente Powers Russia prepared a scheme of “reforms” for the Armenian vilayets under the supervision of European inspectors. Just asm 1878, no Armenian demanded reforms from the foreign Powers because in 1914, when the scheme was imposed on Turkey, the people on both sides of the frontier had never been more unt and prosperous.

Armenians in the World War.—When the Turks entered the war, the Armenian leaders assured them of their loyalty. H

Turkish requisitions and ill-treatment of Armenian troops M the Turkish army caused racial friction. Armenian peasants in the wat areas were driven from their homes and murdered. The success!

self-defence of the Armenians of Van in April roz5, and Allied

declarations of war aims induced the Turks to murder the Ame

nian people in Turkey. The scheme was carried out in June-Jul)

ARMENIAN

CHURCH

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ARMENIA Boundary

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THE ANCIENT KINGDOM OF ARMENIA STRETCHED FROM THE BLACK SEA TO THE MAP SHOWING THE FRONTIERS OF SOVIET ARMENIA. THE BOUNDARIES ALOF COURSE ONLY APPROXIMATE. SHORES OF THE CASPIAN. THE AREA GIVEN AS THAT OF ROMAN ARMENIA IS AND THE FRAGMENT ENCLOSED IN HEAVY BORDER IS ALL LOTTED TO ARMENIA UNDER THE VERSAILLES TREATY WERE NEVER OPERATIVE, THAT REMAINS

1915, with unparalleled barbarity: men, women and children were

robbed and murdered indiscriminately and the remainder were deported to the desert to fend for themselves.

This “evacuation”? of the Armenians produced a change in the attitude of the Entente Powers. The Grand Duke Nicholas conquered Armenia early in 1916, and proclaimed “‘the liberation of Armenia from the Turkish yoke”; but he tried to bar the surviving people from returning to their homes, because Russia had planned to colonize with Cossacks the fertile Armenian-Kurdish lands in the Arax and Euphrates valleys. In his Guildhall speech of 1916 the British Premier declared that his Government “was resolved to secure the liberation of this ancient (Armenian) people.” Throughout the War many similar declarations and promises were made by British and partly also by French Premiers. The Independence of Armenia.—After the Russian Revolution of 1917 the Armenians of Transcaucasia proclaimed their independence (with their capital at Erivan) under the auspices of German military leaders then in the Caucasus, and with the help of the Turks. On his accession to power Lenin proclaimed the union and independence of Armenian lands. But under the BrestLitovsk Treaty of March 1918, Soviet Russia ceded the districts of Batum and Kars to the Turks, who advanced to capture them. After the armistice British and French authorities made some efforts to make Cilicia the home of Armenians, but it was abandoned

by France in 1921.

;

At the peace conference at Paris 1919 Boghos Nubar Pasha and M. Aharonian, the Armenian delegates, were induced to demand “a

great Armenia” extending from sea to sea. President Wilson was being urged to accept a mandate which the American senate did not want. Meanwhile, the Armenian delegates concluded an agree-

ment with Kurdish delegates. In the conferences held in London and San Remo in the spring of 1920, the Armenian delegates pleaded their cause.

But the Allied Powers were disingenuous

towards Armenia as they had been before. In May 1920, Soviet

Russia re-appeared in Transcaucasia.

The Armenian delegates in

oscow were offered assistance if Armenia allowed transport of Russian troops over the Kars railway to go to the rescue of the

Turks who were fighting the Greeks in Asia Minor. The Armenian Government rejected the Russian offer. In August, 1920, the Armenian delegates signed the Treaty of Sèvres which recognized the de jure independence of the Armenian republic. Three months later, however, the Turks attacked Armenia and occupied Kars. After the Armenian Government had signed a treaty of peace with the Turks, Russia hurried troops to Erivan led by Armenian Communists and invited the Turks, by telegram, to stop any further advance. S. S. Republic of Armenia.—A Soviet Armenian Government was established in Erivan in Dec. 1920. Since that time the Armenian Communist party, about 1,000 strong, has been governing the country. With the financial support of Soviet Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan, the Armenian Government has established peace and a measure of prosperity. Barren lands and marshes have been reclaimed by a scientific system of irrigation and considerable encouragement is given to cotton and tobacco growing. Copper mines are in process of exploitation and schemes of generating electric power are in progress.

Brstiocrarpuy.—J. A. St. Martin, Mémoires Historiques et Geographiques sur ’Armenie (1818); H. Abich, Geologie d. Armenischen Hochlandes (1882); Karakash, A Critical History of Armenia (Constantinople, 1882) ; J. Lepsius, Armenia and Europe (1897); H. F. B. Lynch, Armenia, Bibl. (1901) ; G. Khalatheants, Armeanski Arsakidz (1903) ; Hiibschmann, Altarmenischen Orisnamen, Bibl. Indo-Germanische Forschungen (1904); C. F. Lehmann-Haupt, Armenien einst und jetzt, Bibl. (x910, etc.) ; A. P. Hacobian, Armenia and the War (1917) ; Mandelstam, Le sort de PEmpire Ottoman, pp. 206-45 (1917); L’ Angleterre et les Armeniens (The Hague, 1918) ; and La Société des Nations et les Puissances devant la probléme Armenien (1925) 5 Armenian Delegation, Memorandum presented to the Peace Conference (1919) ;'Leo, Erivan and other publications of the Armenian Government in Armenia (1919-1926); and Antsialits (1926); F. Von Great Luschan, Vélker, Rassen, Sprachen (1922) ; E. H. Bierstadt, The al Betrayal (New York, 1924); A. J. Toynbee, Survey of Internation

Affairs, 1820-1923, pp. 361-376 (1925).

ARMENIAN

CHURCH.

(A.S.

The earliest notice of an organ-

ized church in Armenia is in Eusebius, H. Æ. vi. 46, to the effect that Dionysius of Alexandria (c. 250) sent a letter to Meruzanes, bishop of the brethren in Armenia. There were many Christians

382

ARMENIAN

in Melitene at the time of the Decian persecution in A.D. 250, and two bishops from Great Armenia were present at the council of Nicæa in 325. King Tiridates (c. A.D. 238-314) had already been baptized some time after 261 by Gregory the Illuminator. The latter was ordained priest and appointed catholicus or exarch of the church of Great Armenia by Leontius, bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. This one fact is certain amidst the fables which soon obscured the history of this great missionary. Thus the church of Great Armenia began as a province of the Cappadocian see. But there was a tradition of a line of bishops earlier than Gregory in Siuniq, a region east of Ararat along the Araxes (Aras), which in early times claimed to be independent of the catholicus. Almost the eariiest document revealing anything of the inner organization and condition of the Armenian church in the Nicene Age is the epistle of Macarius, bishop of Jerusalem, to the Armenian bishop, Verthanes, written between 325 and 335 and preserved in the Armenian language. Its genuineness has been unreasonably suspected. It insists on the erection of fonts; on distinction of grades among the ordained clergy; on not postponing baptism too long; on bishops and priests alone, and not deacons, being allowed to baptize and lay hands on or confirm the baptized; on avoiding communion with Arians; on the use of unleavened bread in the Sacrament, etc. The Armenians must, like the Georgians a little later, have set store by the opinion of the bishop of Jerusalem, or they would not have sent to consult him. It was equally from Jerusalem that they subsequently adopted their lectionary and arrangement of the Christian year; and a oth century copy of this lectionary in the Paris library preserves to us precious details of the liturgical usages of Jerusalem in the 4th century. We can trace the presence of Armenian convents on the Mount of Olives as early as the 5th century. Tradition represents the conversion of Great Armenia under

Gregory and Tiridates as a sort of triumphant march, in which the temples of the demons and their records were destroyed wholesale, and their undefended sites instantly converted into Christian churches. The questions arise: how was the transition from old to new effected? and what was the type of teaching dominant in the new church? Armenian tradition, confirmed by nearly contemporary Greek sources, answers the first question. The old order went on, but under new names. The priestly families, we learn, hearing that the God preached by Gregory needed not sacrifice, sent to the king a deputation and asked how they were to live, if they became Christians; for until then the priests and their families had lived off the portions of the animal victims and other offerings reserved to them by pagan custom. Gregory replied that, if they would join the new religion, not only should the sacrifices continue, but they should have larger perquisites than ever. The priestly families then went over en masse. How far the older sacrificial rules resembled the levitical law we do not know, but in the canons of Sahak (c. 430), the priests already receive the levitical portions of the victims. The earliest Armenian rituals contain ample services for the conduct of an agapé (g.v.) or love feast held in the church off sacrificial meat. In the canons of the catholicus Sahak the priest is represented as eating the sins of the people in these repasts. The mother church of Armenia was established by Gregory at Ashtishat in the province of Taron, on the site of the great temple of Wahagn, whose festival on the 7th of the month Sahmi was reconsecrated to John the Baptist and Athenogenes, an Armenian martyr and Greek hymn writer. The first of Navasard, the Armenian new year’s day, was the feast of a god Vanatur or Wanadur (who answered to Zes évwos) in the holy pilgrim city of Bagawan. His day was reconsecrated to the Baptist, whose relics

were brought to Bagawan. The feast of Anahite, the Armenian Venus and spouse of the chief god Aramazd, was in the same way rededicated to the Virgin Mary, who for long was not very clearly distinguished by the Armenians from the virgin mother church. The old cult of sacred stones and trees by an easy transi-

tion became cross-worship, but a cross was not sacred until the Christ had been, by priestly prayer and invocation, transferred into it. Another survival in the Armenian church was the hereditary

CHURCH priesthood. None but a scion of a priestly family could become a deacon, elder, or bishop. Accordingly (except for an interregnum

of 25 years) the primacy remained in the family of Gregory until

the end of the 4th century, when it was transferred to another family. But by this time the autonomy of the Armenian church

was thoroughly established. The right of saying grace at the royal meals, which was the essence of the catholicate, was trans-

ferred by the king, in despite of the Greeks, to the priestly family of Albianus, and thenceforth no Armenian catholicus went to Caesarea for ordination. The ties with Greek official Christendom were snapped for ever, and in subsequent ages the doctrinal preferences of the Armenians were usually determined more by antagonism to the Greeks than by reflection. If they accepted the Council of Ephesus in 430 and joined in the condemnation of

Nestorius, it was rather because the Sassanid kings of Persia, who thirsted for the reconquest of Armenia, favoured Nestorianism, a form of doctrine current in Persia and rejected in Byzantium,

But later on, about 480, and throughout the following centuries the Armenians rejected the decrees of Chalcedon and held tha}

the assertion of two natures in Christ was a relapse into the heresy of Nestor. From the close of the 5th century the Armenians

have remained monophysite, like the Copts and Abyssinians, and have only broken the record with occasional short interludes of orthodoxy.

Monastic institutions were hardly introduced in Armenia before

the 5th century, though Christian rest-houses had been erected along the high-roads long before. Out of these grew the mon-

asteries. The monks were, strictly speaking, penitents wearing the cowl, and not allowed to take a part in church government. This

belonged to the elders. At first there was no separate episcopal

ordination, and the one rite of elder or priest sufficed. There were also deacons, half-deacons, and readers. Besides these there was a Class of wardapets or teachers, answering to the didascalos of the earliest church, whose province it was to guard the doctrine and for whom no rite of ordination is found in the older rituals,

A few other peculiarities of Armenian church usage or belief deserve notice. In baptism the rubric ordains that the baptized be plunged three times in the font in commemoration of the entombment during three days of the Lord. In the West trine im-

mersion was generally held to be symbolic of the triune name of ‘Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.” This name the Armenians have used, at least since the year 700; before which date their fathers often speak of baptism into the death of Christ as the one essential. As late as about 1300 a traveller hostile to the Armenians reported to the pope that he had witnessed baptisms without any trinitarian invocation in as many as 300 parish churches. There were abortive attempts to unite the Armenian Church with the Byzantine in the oth century under the patriarch Photius, and again late in the 12th under the emperor Manuel Comnenus, when a joint council met at Romkla, near Tarsus, but ended in nothing (A.D. 1179). Neither could the Armenians

keep on good terms even with the Syriac Monophysites. From the age of the crusades on, the Armenians of Cilicia, whose patriarch sat at Sis, improved their acquaintance with Rome; and more than one of their patriarchs adopted the Roman faith, at least in words. Dominican missions went to Armenia, and in 1328, under their auspices, was formed a regular order called the United Brethren, the forerunners of the Uniats of the present day, who have convents at Venice and Vienna, a college in Rome, and a numerous following in Turkey. They retain their Armenian liturgies and rites, pruned to suit the Vatican standards of orthodoxy, and they recognize the pope as head of the church. The recent history of the Armenian Church is inseparable from the history of the Armenian people during and after the World

War, Previous to the World War, and after the settlement (if

such it can be called) following the Balkan War of 1913, the Armenian population of over 3,000,000, between the Euphrates and the Kura, constituted a strong and healthy nationality. But from the year 1915 onwards the greater part of the population of Turkish Armenia was expelled from its territory. Large numbers were massacred or perished in their wanderings on the mou

tains. In 1921, the Armenian Republic of Erivan, in Russan

ARMENIAN

LANGUAGE—ARMENIAN

LITERATURE

383

Transcaucasia, adopted the Soviet régime and became part of guages, Armenian has developed in its own way and is widely the Federated Union of Socialist Soviet Republics.

Hundreds of

thousands of Armenian refugees have fled to Syria, Mesopotamia, Transcaucasia, as well as to Greece and Russia. The disintegration

of national religious customs and traditions, involved in these

events, needs no comment.

See the articles ARMENIA; ARMENIAN Lancuace and ARMENIAN LITERATURE, with the references there given; also (pre-war) articles Ar, ARMENIANS, in Hastings’ Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, yol i, and Conybeare, Rituale Armenorum (Oxford, 1905).

ARMENIAN LANGUAGE. The Armenian language is an independent member of the Indo-European family of languages

(q.v.) which, spoken in a mounNIAN tainous region, has never spread | ARME posIt y. nentl perma or widely

LANGUAGE

sesses great vitality despite many persecutions. It was not reduced

to writing until the spread of Christianity in Armenia when, according to tradition, in the 5th

century, an alphabet was drawn up to suit it. In the language as then written were composed

translations of the Bible and other pious works as well as original compositions such as that by Bishop Eznik. This language is still preserved as the ritual language of the Gregorian or Armenian Church, and up to

the 19th century was the lan-

guage used by Armenian scholars. The spoken language meanwhile evolved independently and in all parts of the country differed widely from the literary language. „Lay writers used the forms current in their region, so that from the time of the Crusades we haye historic texts in the vulgar speech of the Armenian Kingdom in Cilicia as then constituted. When in the 19th century modern literary languages appeared, there was great diversity in form. Some Ar-

menians were then Russian subjects, others under Ottoman rule, yet others under Persia. One literary language developed at Erivan under Russian rule and was used by the numerous Armenians settled at Tiflis. Another was formed at Constanti-

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deliberately eliminated words brought in under Islamic and Turkish domination and replaced them by true Armenian words largely taken from the old written language, and thus in vocabu-

lary both agree in many points,

Pronunciation and grammar have diverged considerably though

true to the general linguistic type. Thus in Erivan Armenian, Jacob is Pronounced Hakob and in Turkish Armenian is Hagop. Mmenian is the continuation of a group of Indo-European

languages intermediate between Indo-Iranian (Aryan) and Greek but distinct from both. As a result of contact with other lan-

removed from the early Indo-European type. The consonantal system coincides largely with that of the southern group of Caucasian languages, represented by Georgian. The so-called occlusive consonants, , t, k, and b, d, g, have under-

gone complete mutation, so that where Indo-European has a d,

there is a ¢, thus the numeral tasm for ten corresponds to the ancient form decem as in Latin, cf. Armenian hayr =father, Gothic fadar and Latin pater. The changes from the original form have been considerable as in the numerals two and three, which in Latin are duo and tre and in Armenian are erku and erekh. ; The grammatical forms are traceable to Indo-European origins but assumed new shapes. Thus grammatical gender had disappeared from Old Armenian. A good number of old words has been preserved, such as kev=cow, showing the mutation of g to k. The old form had a g as in the Sanskrit gav. Words of higher culture are mainly borrowed since Armenian has always been exposed to foreign influence. From the 3rd century B.C. to the 3rd century after Christ the country was ruled by a Parthian aristocracy, so that the language has many Iranian words. The terminology of Christianity came with the spread of the Syrian and Byzantine Churches, and there are Greek words and from the

time of the Crusades French words.

BæLIocrAaray.—H. Hübschmann, “Armenische Grammatik,” I. Tel., Armenische Etymologie (Leipzig, 1897); A. Meillet, Esquisse d’une grammaire comparée de Varménien classique (1903) ; Gerhard Deeters, Armenisch und Sudkaukasisch (Leipzig, 1927); Heinrich Zeller, “Armenisch,” in Geschichte der indogermanischen Sprachwissenschaft, ii, 4, 2 (Berlin-Leipzig, 1927, bibl.). For ancient Armenian: A. Meillet, Altarmenisches Elementarbuch (Heidelberg, 1913, bibl.). For mediaeval Armenian: J. Karst, Historische Grammatik des KilikischArmenischen (Strassburg, 1901). For modern speech: H. Adjarian, Classification des dialectes arméniens (1909 bibl.). (A. ME.)

ARMENIAN LITERATURE.

The Armenians had a tem-

ple literature of their own which was destroyed in the 4th and 5th centuries by the Christian clergy so thoroughly that barely 20 lines of it survive in the history of Moses of Khoren (Chorene).

Their Christian literature begins about A.D. 400 with the inven-

tion of the Armenian alphabet by Mesrop. The alphabet once perfected, the catholicus Sahak formed a school of translators who were sent to Edessa, Athens, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Caesarea in Cappadocia, and elsewhere, to procure codices both in Syriac and Greek and translate them. From Syriac were made the first version of the New Testament, the version of Eusebius’ History and his Life of Constantine (unless this be from the original Greek), the homilies of Aphraates, the Acts of Gurias

and Samuna, the works of Ephrem Syrus (partly published in four volumes by the Mechitharists of Venice). They include the commentaries on the Diatessaron and the Paulines, Laboubna and

History of Addai, the Syriac canons of the Apostles. From the original Greek were rendered in the sth century many authors and works including Eusebius’ Chronicon, and Josephus on the Jewish War.

An asterisk (*) is prefixed to the names of works which have been printed. The Armenians were so busy in this century translating Greek and Syriac fathers that they have left little that is original. Still a number of historical works survive: *Faustus of Byzantium relates the events of the period A.D. 344-302 in a work instinct with life and racy of the soil. It was perhaps first composed in Greek, but it gives a faithful picture of the court of the petty sovereigns of Armenia, of the political organization, of the blood feuds of the clans, of the planting of Christianity. Procopius preserves some fragments of the Greek. The *History of Taron, by Zenobius of Glak, is a somewhat legendary account of Gregory the Illuminator, and may have been written in Syriac in the sth, though it was only Armenized in a later century. *Elisaeus Wardapet wrote a history of Wardan (Vardan), and of the war waged for their faith by the Armenians against the Sassanids. He was an eye-witness of this struggle, and gives a good account of the contemporary Mazdaism which the Persians tried to force on the Armenians. *Lazar of Pharp wrote a history embracing the events of the sth century up to the year 485, as a continuation of the work of Faustus.

384

ARMENOID

*A history of St. Gregory and of the conversion of Armenia by Agathangelus is preserved in Greek, Armenian, and Arabic. The *History of Armenia by Moses of Khoren (Chorene) relates events up to about the year 450. Some critics put down the date of composition as low as about 700, and it was certainly retouched in the late 6th century. *A long volume of rhetorical exercises, based on Aphthonius, is also ascribed to Moses of Khoren, and appears to be of the sth century. The *geography which passes under his name may be-

14th century: *history of Siunik, by Steph en Orbelian, bishop of that province (1287-1304); *Sempat’s chroniclearch ' Lesser Armenia (952-1274), carried on by a contin uator : 1331; *Mechithar of Airivanq, a chronography: *Hethoum’s

count of the Tatars, and chronography of the years 1076-1 e John of Orotn (d. 1388) compiled commentaries on John’s gospel and the Paulines, and wrote homilies

and monophysite a

his disciple Gregory of Dathev (b. 1340) compiled a *Summ a

theologiae called the Book of Questions, in the style of the Summa long to the 7th century. Various homilies of Moses survive, as of Aquinas, which had been translated into Armenian (c. 1330), as also of Elisaeus. were a little later the *Summa of Albertus and works of other Goriun wrote in this century a *Life of Mesrop, and Eznik a schoolmen. *Refutation of the Sects, based largely on antecedent Greek works. 15th century: *History of Tamerlane, by Thomas of Medsoph The sects in question are Paganism, Mazdaism, Greek Philosophy, carried up to 1447. and Manichaeism. ; 17th century: Aragel of Tabriz wrote a *history of the Persian Of the 6th and 7th centuries few works survive. To the late invasions of Armenia i. the years 1602-1661. 7th century belong the *calendarial works of Ananiah of Shirak, 18th century: the catholicus Abraham of Crete wrote the hiswho also has left a *chronicon compiled from Eusebius, Andreas tory of his own times (1734—1736), and his relations with Nadir of Crete, Hippolytus, and other sources. The chief literary mon- shah of Persia, at whose coronation he was an eye-witness. ? ument of the 7th century is the *history of the wars of Heraclius In the above list are not included a number of medical, astroand of the early Mohammedan conquests in Asia Minor, by the logical, calendarial, and philological or lexicographic works, mostly bishop Sebeos, who was an eye-witness. The *history of the written during or since the Cilician or crusading epoch. Since the Albanians of the Caucasus, by Moses Kalankatuatzi, also be- 15th century a certain number of profane poets have arisen, whose longs to the end of this century. To this century also seems to work is less jejune on the whole than that of the hymn and canticle belong the Armenian version of a “history of the Iberians, by writers of an earlier age. Gregory Magistros (d. 1058) abridged Djuansher, a work full of valuable information. the whole of the Old and New Testaments in a *rhyming poem

The early 8th century was a time of great literary activity. Gregory Asheruni wrote an important *commentary on the Jerusalem Lectionary, and his friend *John the catholicus (717—728) commentaries on the other liturgical works of his church; he also collected all existing canon law, Greek or Armenian, respected in his church, wrote *against the Paulicians and Docetae, and composed many beautiful hymns. *Leoncius the priest has left a history of the first caliphs. In the oth century Zachariah, catholicus, the correspondent .of Photius, wrote many eloquent homilies for the various church feasts. Shapuh Bagratuni wrote a history of his age, now lost. Mashtotz, catholicus, collected in one volume the Armenian rituals.

In the roth century (c. 925) the catholicus John VI. issued his *history of Armenia, and Thomas Artsruni a *history of his clan carried up to the year 936. Ananias of Mok (943-965) wrote a great work against the Paulicians, unfortunately lost. Chosroes wrote a *commentary on the eucharistic rites and breviary, *Mes-

rop a history of Nerses the Great; *Stephen of Asolik wrote a history of the world, and a commentary on Jeremiah; *Gregory

and set a fashion to later writers. Such works as *Barlaam and Josaphat, the *History of the Seven Sages, the *Wisdom of Alhtkar, the *Tale of the City of Bronze, were freely turned into verse in the 13th and following centuries. The 16th century saw the first books printed in Armenian. The press which has done most in printing Armenian authors is that

of the Mechitharists of Venice. There in 1836 was issued a mag-

nificent thesaurus of the Armenian language, with the Latin and Greek equivalents of each word. Modern

Armenian

Literature.—About

the middle of the

roth century a modern school of literature came into existence in

the Russian and Turkish districts‘of Armenia. The new literary language was based respectively on the modern dialects of Ararat (q.v.) and Constantinople, differing considerably in grammar, but

not in vocabulary, from ancient classical Armenian, which had been almost unintelligible to the people since the middle ages. The change from the old school to the new naturally did not take place without much struggle and controversy, but the modern school can rightly claim three generations of new writers who have worked in all branches of literature—poetry, novels, drama, satire, etc— and have produced a sufficient number of valuable literary works to justify their cause. In the meantime great efforts have been made on both sides of the boundary to collect and publish Armenian folk-lore which deserves special attention. Journalism has a prominent place in modern Armenian literature, to such an extent that, in spite of the present scattered and unsettled condition of the people, and notwithstanding the great economic and numerical loss during and after the World War, there are more than 70 newspapers and periodicals published in various parts of the world in the modern literary language. (F.C. C.; 8. T.) BrBLIOGRAPHY.—Sukias Somal, Quadro della Storia Letteraria di Armenia (Venice, 1829) ; H. Hiibschmann, Armenische Studien and

of Narek his famous meditations and hymns. In the 11th century John Kozerhn wrote a history, now lost, as well as a work on the Armenian calendar; Stephen Asolik a *history of Armenia up to the year 1004; *Aristaces of Lastiverd a valuable history of the conquest of Armenia by the Seljuk caliphs. The 12th century saw many remarkable writers mostly in Cilician Armenia, viz., Nerses the Graceful (d. 1165), author of an *Elegy on the taking of Edessa, of *voluminous hymns, of long *Pastoral Letters and Synodal orations of value for the historian of eastern churches. *Samuel of Ani composed a chronicle up to 1179. Nerses of Lambron, archbishop of Tarsus, left a *Synodal oration, a *Commentary on the liturgy, etc., and his contemporary Gregory of Tlay an *£legy on the capture of Jerusalem and various *dogmatic works. In this century the *history of Michael Grammatik (Leipzig, 1883 and 1895). Grammars by Petermann (in Porta Orientalium Linguarum series), by Prof. Meillet of Paris, by the Syrian was translated; Ignatius and Sargis cémposed *com- Prof. N. Marr of Petrograd (in Russian), by Joseph Karst (of the mentaries on Luke and *the catholic epistles, and *Matthew of Cilician dialect); Langlois, Collection d’historiens arméniens (1867) ; Edessa a valuable history of the years 952-1136, continued up Dulaurier, Recherches sur les chronologie arménienne (1889) and Histo 1176 by Gregory the priest. Mechithar (Mekhitar) Kosh (d. toriens arméniens des Croisades; H. F. B. Lynch, Armenia, 2 vols. 1207) wrote an elegant *Book of Fables, and compiled a * corpus (1902) ; Brosset, Collection d’historiens arméniens (1874), and numerous other works by the same author; C. F. Neumann, Geschichte der of civil and canon law (partly from Byzantine codes). armenischen Literatur (1836). In the 13th century the following works or authors are to be ARMENOID, a term devised by Deniker to indicate ọne of noticed :—*history of Kiriakos of Ganzak, which contains much the three brunette sub-types of the broad-headed complex of about the Mongols, Georgians, and Albanians: *Malakia the white races. The Armenoid sub-type is very peculiar; it has the monk’s history of the Tatars up to 1272; *Chronicle of Mechithar head abruptly flattened behind, especially in the Ararat mountamof Ani (fragmentary) ; *Vahram’s rhymed chronicle of the kings region peoples. The head is characterized by a very lofty vault of Lesser Armenia; *history of the world, by Vartan, up to 1269. with outward-drooping orbits, and the abrupt flattening of the

ARMENTIERES—ARMINIUS

385

hack of the head has been erroneously ascribed to artificial de- | situated at a height of 3,313ft.—an elevation which, in spite of formation by both ancient and modern writers. the latitude (30° 32’ S.), gives it a cool and bracing climate and ARMENTIERES, a town of France, department of Nord, a sufficient rainfall (mean annual 31-32in.) derived mainly from on the Lys, 13m. W.N.W. of Lille by rail. Pop. (1926) 18,795. the Pacific side. Armidale is the centre of a thriving agricultural Before its complete destruction (1914-1918) it was important and pastoral area. Mining (tin, gold, antimony) is carried on in for spinning and weaving of flax and cotton, bleaching, dyeing the surrounding areas (though the mines are mostly small) and and the manufacture of machinery. Its association with textiles the streams of the south-eastern gorges and valleys (Gara, Chanoes back to the woollen industry of the middle ages. Two miles dler, Okey, Styx) are capable of yielding hydro-electric power, the behind the British lines during most of the war (1914-18), it was development of which is projected. Climate, attractive scenery, lost in the German advance of April 1918. It rapidly recovered and a convenient position on the main Northern line (Sydneyfrom the wartime devastations. There is a board of trade arbi- Brisbane) have helped to make Armidale an educational and trators and a chamber of commerce. ecclesiastical centre. It possesses several fine schools, besides two ARMET,

a form of helmet which was developed out of exist-

ing forms in the latter part of the rsth century (diminutive of Fr. orme). It was round in shape, and often had a narrow ridge or comb along the top. It had a pivoted or hinged vizor and nose-piece, and complete chin, neck and cheek protection, closely connected with the gorget. It was distinguished from the basinet by its roundness, and by the fact that it protected the neck and

chin by strong plates, instead of a “camail” or loose collar of mail; from the salade and heaume by its close fit and skull-cap shape: and from the various forms of vizored burgonets by the absence of the projecting brim. It remained in use until the final abandonment of the complete closed head-piece.

ARMFELT, GUSTAF MAURITZ, Count (1757-1814), son of Charles II.'s general, Carl Gustaf Armfelt, was born in

Finland March 31 1757. Gustavus III. of Sweden employed him in the negotiations with Catherine II. (1783) and with the Danish

Government (1787), and during the Russian war of 1788-90 he was one of the king’s most trusted and active counsellors. He

displayed great valour in the field. In 1788 when the Danes unex-

pectedly invaded Sweden and threatened Gothenburg, it was Armfelt who, under the king’s directions, organized the Dalecarlian levies and led them to victory. He remained absolutely faithful to Gustavus when nearly the whole of the nobility fell away from

him; brilliantly distinguished himself in the later phases of the

Russian war; and was the Swedish plenipotentiary at the conclusion of the Peace of Verela. During the last years of Gustavus III. his influence was paramount, though he protested against his master’s headstrong championship of the Bourbons. `

On his death-bed Gustavus III. (1792) committed the care of his infant son to Armfelt and appointed him a member of the council of regency; but the anti-Gustavian duke-regent Charles sent Armfelt as Swedish ambassador to Naples to get rid of him. From Naples Armfelt communicated with Catherine II., urging her to make a military demonstration in favour of the Gustavians. The plot was discovered by the regent’s spies, and Armfelt only escaped from the man-of-war sent to Naples to seize him with the assistance of Queen Caroline. He now fled to Russia. When Gustavus IV. attained his majority, Armfelt was completely rehabilitated and sent as Swedish ambassador to Vienna (1802), but was obliged to quit that post two years later for sharply attacking the Austrian Government’s attitude towards Bonaparte. From 1805 to 1807 he was commander-in-chief of the Swedish forces in Pomerania, where he retarded the conquest of the duchy as long as It was humanly possible.

Armfelt was the most courageous of the supporters of the crown

prince Gustavus, and was expelled from Sweden. He found refuge

cathedrals (Anglican and Roman Catholic). It has been a municipality since 1863 and has grown steadily in population (1891: 3,826; 1924: 5,480), though the population of the district served is considerably greater.

ARMIGER: see Esque.

ARMILLA or ARMILLARY SPHERE, an astronomical

model representing the great circles of the heavens, including in the complete instruments, the equator, meridian, ecliptic, and tropics. It is.a skeleton celestial globe, with circles divided into degrees for angular measurement. In the 17th and 18th centuries such models, either suspended, rested on a stand, or affixed to a handle, were used to show the difference between the Ptolemaic theory of a central earth, and the Copernican theory of a central sun.

The earliest known complete armillary sphere with nine circles

is believed to have been the meteoroskopion of the Alexandrine Greeks (¢. A.D. 140), but earlier and simpler types of ring instruments were also in general use. Ptolemy in the Almagest, enumerates at least three. The simplest of all was the Egquinoctial Armilla, a ring of bronze fixed in the plane of the equator. At Rhodes and elsewhere the arrival

of the equinoxes was noted by observing when the shadow of the À kL upper half of the ring exactly CANS covered the lower half. Similarly, the Solstitial Armilla, a double ring erected in the plane of the meridian with a rotating inner circle was used for measuring solar altitudes, and probably by AFTER BLUNDERVILLE, “A PLAINE TREATISE Eratosthenes (276—196 B.C.) for » « « OF COSMOGRAPHIE" 1594 measuring the obliquity of the AN ARMILLARY SPHERE ecliptic. Hipparchus (160-125 The earth is equipped with a visible axis, and the imaginary circles of B.C.) is stated to have used a sphere of four rings and in astronomy are represented by metal rings Ptolemy’s instrument astrolabon (A.D. 139) there were diametrically disposed tubes upon the graduated circles, the instrument being kept vertical by a plumb line. The Arabs employed similar instruments with diametric sight rules or alidades, and it is likely that those made and used in the r2th century by Moors in Spain were the prototypes of all later European armillary spheres. One large Chinese armillary sphere in Pekin is said to date from 1274, but another belongs to the period of the Jesuit astronomers in the 17th century. -

Y

BrsriocrapHyY.—Tycho

Brahé, Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica

InRussia, where he obtained great influence over Alexander I. He (1598); N. Bion, L’usage des globes célestes (and ed. 1700); and contributed more than anyone else to the erection of the grand- Traité des instrumens de mathématique (Eng. trans. 1723); J. B. Delambre, Histoire de lastronomie ancienne (1817); J. J. Sedillot, duchy into an autonomous State, and was its first and best gover- Traité des Instruments astronomiques des Arabes (1834); F. Nolte, hor-general. The plan of the Russian defensive campaigns is, Armillarsphäre (Erlangen, 1922), and G. R. Kaye, Hindu Astronomy : (R. T. G.) with great probability, also attributed to him, and he gained Alex- (1924). ander over to the plan of uniting Norway with Sweden. He died ARMINTUS, the Latinized form of the name HERMANN, or more probably Armin (17 B.c.-A.D. 21), the German national at Tsarskoe Selo, Aug. 10, 1814. :PIBLIOGRAPRY.—See Elof Tegner, Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt (Stock- hero. He was a son of Segimer, a prince of the tribe of the Cherusci (g.y.), and in early life served in the Roman armies. Returnom, 1883-87) ; Robert Nisbet Bain, Gustavus III., vol. ii. (1895). ing to find his people chafing under the yoke of the Roman gov„ARMIDALE, a town in Sandon county, is situated on the ernor, Quintilius Varus, he fomented rebellion, and, in the autumn ew England plateau towards the north-east corner of New South Wales. The undulating upland surfaces afford space for of A.D. 9, surprised Varus in the Teutoburger Wald, and utterly destroyed three legions. This disaster caused panic at Rome and settlement, and Armidale is a typical New England town. It is forced the Romans to withdraw their frontier from the Elbe to

286 ve5s _

So Se _ NS TE AE oP ete “th ts sae aera Te

ARMINIUS

the Rhine. Then in A.D. 15, Germanicus Caesar led the Romans against Arminius, and captured his wife, Thusnelda. An indecisive battle was fought in the Teutoburger Wald, where Germanicus narrowly escaped the fate of Varus, and in the following year Arminius was defeated. But the campaigns had been so costly that Germanicus was recalled, and the Romans gave up for ever the idea of the Elbe frontier. The hero’s later years were spent in fighting against Marbod, prince of the Marcomanni, and in disputes with his own people. He was murdered in A.D. 21. In 1875 a great monument to Arminius was completed. This stands on the Grotenburg mountain near Detmold. Klopstock and other poets have used his exploits as material for dramas. Much discussion has taken place with regard to the exact spot in the Teutoburger Wald where the great battle between Arminius and Varus was fought. There is an immense literature on this subject, and the following may be consulted:—T. Mommsen, Die Ortlichkeit der Varusschlacht (1885) ; E. Meyer, Untersuchungen über die Schlacht

ee we

Senne Se ee ht eee oaasween

Bg ee =n

a Mn een eer oo x=

we -

ae >= Ten VANRBAREDeERE Lemna wa

2mea wami =a%

a ed -

-=n oe om a ee ret Daoine errta a

+wees

RN ~ ye ORERE ae Sb ASA Abe

amar e D

LR

a EEE -æ weg

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eam eet rater deinen aE, peer oS ees aber ee Ree twg fee

vers het em

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m

r Eed ghk eae

4 ee! sierec ee ne abl Jota 1) shia kad: aanraai tee ee ele ie

to oie

+
a ¥ ~ eee a tay

that the armourers as such did not exist at that time. It i proof i t ume. Lis not til 1453 that the armourers company received its charter and ab-

sorbed the heaumers.

It is one of the mysteries in the history. f

armour how the crusaders can have fought under the scorchin

STATUE

so cumbersome to take on and off that it must have been worn frequently night and day, and the very nature of the fabric made it almost impossible to move the

sword arm with more than a wide swinging cut. A practical experiment with a thick padded garment or a shirt of mail, or better still with both, will show that the whole weight of the defence is borne by the shoulders alone and that the action of raising a sword collects folds in the bight of the arm and is further hampered by the dragging weight from the waist upwards. One of the principal drawbacks of the 14th century armour must have been that the superimposed small plates of metal were Micon Get a attached to the mail or the fabric by laces EFFIGY AT ASH CHURCH,

S

OF ST. GEORGE,

PRAGUE,

rules. In Greek and Roman 1375 armour we have defences which, being practical, finely constructed and convenient in use, achieve their object in the best possible manner, and indeed after experiments for many centuries the armourer reverted to very similar designs in the middle of the 17th century. With the conquest of Europe by barbarians, however, the armour of the Roman legionary disappeared and the evolution of a practical defence had to begin all over again. At first armour was composed of leather, or quilted fabrics, and, in the case of wealthier fighting men, interlaced chain mail brought from the East. The only details of plate armour were the shield, which as often as not was toughened leather or wood, and the helmet and helm. The Normans adopted a very satisfactory headpiece, conical in shape and provided with a nasal, or nose guard; its shape was practical in the extreme, for it provided that essential quality of all the best armour: a “glancing surface” from which blows from sword or axe would slide. For some unknown reason in the 13th century this helmet gave place to the barrel helm with a flat top which was about as unpractical a defence as it was possible to devise, for not only did it oppose a flat surface to the weapon but it so completely enclosed the head and was so supported by a padded cap which covered the head, that a blow on the side would rroutkes, «rue aRMOURER AND place the wearer hors de combat. HIS CRAFT" (METHUEN)

aN i nP is i a d rae AE NAA

w

.`

to

pany, and these supplied defences of fabric. In 1247 of heaumers, who dealt solely in helms and ee Fa nR

sun of the East in thick quilted garments covered with excessively (W. J. B.) : In considering the history of heavy chain mail for this equipment was

notice should be taken of the armourer on whose skill depended the lives of his patrons and with them often the security of kingdoms and empires, for the early battles were won to a large extent by the prowess of individuals, and a gap in the joints of the harness of a leader might well spell defeat for the whole army. In all craftsmanship there are certain essential rules which must be observed and without which the productions of the craftsman are valueless. These are: (1) suitability, (2) convenience in use, (3) recognition of material, (4) soundness of constructional methods, (5) subservience of ce a decorations

ARMOUR

The padded and quilted defences were ‘3TH CENTURY GARMENT no doubt sufficient defence against the °F BANDED MAIL crude weapons in use in the earlier periods, but, by degrees, piece by piece, small portions of plate were added—first to the knees, then to the shins and then to the arms—until by the year 1400 the knight was encased entirely in plate metal with articulated joints. It is unnecessary to point out that this fabrication of plate armour was only evolved by slow degrees, for it required very considerable skill to forge the various pieces so that, they not only defended the wearer adequately but also gave him as far as possible freedom of movement. In 1300 there was a gild of linen armourers in London, at a later date the merchants Taylor’s Com-

or thongs of leather which if cut laid the KENT. 14TH CENTURY wearer open to attack or hampered his movements very considerably. The complete armour of mail appears definitely at the end of the 13th century though it is probable that it was worn as early as the Norman Conquest. Under the mail was worn a gambeson of leather or quilted fabric and this was added to early in the 14th century when a pourpoint, similar to the gambeson, but

lighter, was worn over the mail and over all a surcoat, known also as the cyclas or jupen. But little of the early 15th century armour survives, for most

of it was remade to suit new fashions, but what there is shows that the material was light and the methods of construction simple, with none of the exaggerations which are such a notable feature of the armour of the later part of the century. At this period the flat-topped helm had been discarded in favour of the conical basinet, from which hung the camail, or mail defence for

the neck. Under the plate defence a shirt of comparatively light mail was worn which protected the parts of the body, not covered by plate, such as the armpits and forebody. In later years the complete shirt was given up in favour of a leather jerkin to which small pieces of mail were attached. Towards the end of the r5th century the armourer began to experiment, taking his cue from the tailor who at this period produced civilian costumes which were extravagant in the ertreme. As an example we may cite the solleret or steel shoe which almost invariably followed the design of the civilian footwear. In the middle of the 15th century sollerets of absurd length were worn, and as it was impossible for the wearer to use them when on foot, the toe was added with a turning pin after he was mounted.

‘

i

AND This form of defence was changed again FrovLkcs, “Tiemena

in the 16th century and the wide-toed sol- PADDED

“HARNISCH-

leret, known as the bear paw was adopted, KAPPE” again copying the civilian fashion. We learn from monumental brasses, e.g., that in Thame church, Oxfordshire, that the elhow cops, or defences for the elbow, were of enormous size and must have made easy movement almost an impossibility; and we also see in the delightful painting of St. George and St. Anthony n the

National Gallery, London, by Pisanello, that the pauldrons,

defences for the shoulder, were equally cumbersome. It 1s more than probable that the fighting man blindly followed fashions m armour precisely as do his descendants of the present day

PLATE I

ARMOUR

AND

ARMS

EEE T

re

aa raa

CET alban |

re

aero

ee ee ee ae

-

Me k

errr or

oN

OE

a COURTESY OF (1) THE SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF LONDON, ONDON

MILITARY

AND

CIVILIAN

(2)

THE

STYLES

WALLACE

OF

COLLECTION,

THE

(3,

5) HIS

MAJESTY

FOURTEENTH

THE

KING

AND

OF

SPAIN,

(4)

THE

SIXTEENTH

OF THE

¥

NATIONAL

CENTURIES

1. The jupon or surcoat of the Black Prince (1330—1376)

4. Portrait of an unknown

2. German armour of the “puffed and slashed” type, about 1520

5. Parade suit of King Sebastian of Portugal, now in the Armeria

3. Pageant armour of Charles the Fifth (1500-1558)

Real, Madrid

nobleman

TRUSTEES

a

by Moroni

(1510—1578)

GALLERY,

Prate II

ARMS

AND

ARMOUR

i 4

:

i

$’

ao

aR Wes AA Ae t

ae pg ee eae eee a SES tae =

a

aa Se EAA WO ira ah a

ie ee eee -—

were Ae,

rae pee pe fey Se wna + replete a OER

ae ne

A R aE

Jee x = pee

ne ea: amarar git =? = Pe:

2

Hh lic Sth

arity

-A

AT D aaike oa Maiei nee er

-

Lae

eee Oe Ene ee eee 4 a-t

e cae EF et cote mye Sari n Giga Apia atele

cheat tre ah Tete awe et gee se ahs wh a

BY

l

COURTESY

OF

(1,

3, 4,

5, 7)

ARMOUR

THE

WALLACE

AND

COLLECTION,

HELMETS

(2)

THE IMPERIAL WAR

WORN

BY

MUSEUM

EUROPEAN

l

1. Heavy armour, often distinguished by large overlapping plates with fluted edges and great elbow-caps as well as by the high standing

i |

collar and loosely fitting cap, worn by the knights in Germany for

a

the Stechzeug, or German

j |

joust

2. The closed helmet or “armet” worn by Sir Henry Lee. This type was provided with a movable visor which could be locked or opened as

desired and was one of the best head defences evolved during the middle ages. It appeared towards the end of the fifteenth century | !

(CROWN

3. A salade belonging to the Negroli family, a style of helmet distinguished by its lightness and graceful lines. This head defence was evolved about the middle of the fifteenth century and was worn very loosely, with the result that it was as easily displaced as the flat topped helmet

COPR.),

(5,

KNIGHTS

6)

KUNSTHISTORISCHES

DURING

MUSEUM,

THE

VIENNA

MIDDLE

FFO HIS

AGES

4. Suit of cuirassier’s armour of the seventeenth century, close fitting and fairly graceful—acting as a protection to all the vital body without hampering its movements unnecessarily

parts of the

“Maximilian” armour, named from the Emperor Maximillan and said to have been invented by the armourer Seusenhofer. The fluted work

distinguished this particular style, which was worn in the early part of the sixteenth century Armour of Count Sigismund of Tirol (1427-1496). The fantastic style of the foot covering, as well as some of the other affectations, IS characteristic of this period, when the armourers are believed to have attempted to follow the lines of the civilian styles

7. Plate armour about 1540, when the skill of the craftsmen had reached its height

AN

LA de: vit for the in:

of

bu

ARMS

AND

civilian dress irrespective of his practical needs; but that the exrt man-at-arms had his own ideas on the subject we may be sure from the fact that the Emperor Maximilian I., in discussing a new suit of armour with his armourer Conrad Seusenhofer, is recorded to have said, “You shall arm me according as I wish, for it is I and not you who have to take part in the tournament.” By

the middle of the 15th century a light and

graceful helmet appeared called the sallade.

This when worn with the chin piece was of certain practical value, but it had the same disadvantages as the flat-topped helm in that it was loose on the wearer’s head and a smart blow would displace it. Towards the end of the 15th and through the 16th century a new helmet appears called the armet or close helm and this in its finest form, about the year 1540, is the best possible defence for the head, for it is provided with a movable visor and face defence, or mezail, which can be locked when in use or opened as required. The later pattern is further fitted with an embossed rim which engages a smaller rim on the gorget, thereby protecting the head and neck entirely and making it impossible for the helmet to be displaced. It has been FFOULKES, “THE ARMOURER AND HIS CRAFT” (METHUEN) found that if all the joints of the movable SIR JOHN DE CREKE parts of the suit, such as elbows and knees, are measured exactly to the wearer, there is little inconvenience

ARMOUR

393

down to that of the slowest footman. At the battle of Nueva Croce iN 1237 it is recorded that 6,000 mail-clad horses were in action, and a wall painting, formerly in the painted chamber, Westminster,

suggests that this mail must have been chain-mail,

which was almost insupportable, even when lined with fabric or leather. In the 16th century horse armour was generally made to match that of his rider, of solid plate reaching to his quarters and often weighing as much as 80 pounds.

Ne

N, g

D

experienced except in the actual weight of the metal, but this is so well distributed that a comparatively heavy suit can be worn without much discomfort. Again referring to the Emperor Maximilian I., it is to him and his armourer Seusenhofer that is credited the invention of the fluted or channelled armour, now commonly known as Maximilian. Here the craftsman had discovered that increased strength and rigidity could be obtained by fluting the metal without adding to the weight, a principle which has been adopted at the present day not only in the case of corrugated iron and girders, but also in cars for racing craft. Another advantage of this fluted armour was that it provided to the fullest extent possible the glancing surface, for wherever the weapon, which in the 16th century was principally the lance, struck the armour it was deflected up or down the fluting until it glanced harmlessly from the wearer’s body. The armour for the joust exemplifies this glancing surface to the fullest possible extent, the wearer being heavily armed on the left side, which was opposed to the lance of the adversary, all the pieces being smooth and curved so that the lance would find but little hold on them. Perhaps the finest suit which was ever designed from a constructional point of view was that made for Henry VIII. as a young man for fighting on foot in the lists, preserved in the Tower armouries. This completely covers the wearer back and front, under the arms, at the back of the legs and every part of his body, with lames or narrow plates

fein wea te

working easily on rivets.

NIS CRAFT” (METHUEN) Armour for Horses.—From the 13th AN UNKNOWN KNIGHT aT to the middle of the 16th centuries the

LAUGHTON horse, like his rider, was overloaded with defences which protected the head, neck and body but left the Vitalparts unprotected. The legs were entirely at the mercy of the

foot soldier, and the added weight of metal appreciably diminished

that mobility which is the essential quality of the mounted man

in action. In the 13th century the horse was covered by a trapper

of heavy fabric, down to his hocks, a useful defence, it is true, ut so inconvenient as to bring the level of efficiency of his rider

FROM FFOULKES, “THE ARMOURER AND HIS CRAFT” (METHUEN) THE EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN WITH HIS ARMOURER

Effects of the Renaissance.—By the middle of the 16th century the craft of the armourer suffered as did all the other crafts,

under that influence generally known as the Renaissance. The craftsman had learned all there was to be known about the practical side of defensive armour; he had defended his patron as perfectly as was possible; he had given him freedom of movement; he had dealt respectfully with his material. Skill, indeed, could go no further, and his reputation was second to none in all the crafts of Europe. His successors, however, were not content merely to carry on these fine traditions and looked for some new way of emphasizing their skill. This being the age of extravagance and personal advertisement

the arts and

crafts began to be debased; decoration was added by degrees to their fine and splendid simplicity. At first it was restrained and did not destroy the utility of the defence, as it consisted of etching, engraving or inlaying with gold, but this afterwards became more extravagant, and such craftsmen as Negroli, Cellini, the Picinini and the mysterious Louvre school were pressed into service and designed richly embossed armour which entirely destroyed the glancFFOULKES, “THE ARMOURER AND ing surface and turned what was once a HIS CRAFT” (METHUEN) THE ‘GLANCING SUR- magnificent example of craftsmanship into FACE” a piece of jewellery. So far did this craze for extravagance go that actually the puffed and slashed civilian dress was copied in steel, even down to minute reproductions of the stitches. These over-elaborated armours are mostly to be found in Germany, Italy and Spain; the English craftsmen, of whom Jacobe Holder of Greenwich, and William Pickering are the chief masters, avoided excessive ornamentation and consistently produced work which though splendid in appearance, had all

394

ARMSTEAD—ARMSTRONG, H. E.

the practical advantages of the earlier examples. But the blight of |Weapons in Europe, 3 vols. (1855-60) ; Sir Guy F. Lakin the Renaissance had done its work and as the craftsman employed himself more and more in decorating his productions so by degrees he lost the constructive skill of his forefathers till in the 17th century the rudiments of construction are lost and armour such as that of Charles I, in the Tower, or of Louis XIV. in the Musée d’Artillerie in Paris are simply arrangements of stove-piping of

little technical value and of no grace whatsoever. By the 17th century fire-arms began to be practical weapons and the armourer who had previously been only concerned with providing a defence against sword,

4

Armour

and Arms

ARMSTEAD,

HENRY

2 7

ae om Nan, agarean Ea=DEES eaha RE ann mm

o ees omgi Re dmpn see

wee

rm

ha j fa

ee eee Oia e sew 4

t tly Ez >2zia mere eR are e herie eagiere $ae ae

=

-a-

wki

alspala

atte ralh Sa iaa Tari NAE e nate iae SE Gaa =eurdas pya arm Mi

aT ae an eifa a eL iwel hn =the Aoe =neve

zaat” Tan sR =

Bat fae ie 3 PEFR ee

ye EA anenai ieie br =

lEnFa eee ee Tee >

Spri a ale

ge a-

er er Se i

world during the roth century.

coe

(1828-1905),

English

“Outram Shield.” His chief decorations of the Colonia] on the southern and easter Memorial, the large fountain

called “Archy,” was a native of Scotland or of Cumberland, and

stealer; afterwards he entered the service of James VI., with whom he became a favourite. When the King succeeded to the BOWL or SKULL

JUGULAR VENTAIL

Still the

armourer held his own for a time and it was only because the weight of his de~ fences was so great that they were eventually discarded. SIR JOHN P'AUBERNOUN, We have noted the graceless forms of SURREY, 1277 the armour of the mounted man of the middle of the 17th century, but the same cannot be said of the armour of the foot soldier, which, following very closely the lines of Greek and Roman armour, defended the vital parts of the body without unduly hampering the movements of the wearer; but in the end the fire-arm was triumphant and piece by piece the metal defences were abandoned. They were entirely discarded until the World War, when the British adopted a helmet of somewhat similar type to the sallade of the rsth century, and the German army produced bullet-proof body armour very similar to that of the pikeman of Oliver Cromwell. Weapons.—The weapons in use from the 13th century were the sword, axe, mace, lance, halberd and long pike. Both axe and mace were essentially practical weapons, especially so when one remembers that their function was to | break up defensive armour of metal, but the sword has ever been of unpractical design. Up to the 15th century it was heavy and badly balanced with merely a crossguard and, though pointed, of little use for the thrust. When the gauntlet was discarded the rapier with complex guard came into favour—a better weapon, but still, on aR account of its length, badly balanced. It was not till modern times that we get the fine cutting sword of the light cavalry, 1784, and the well nigh perfect thrusting Se Re} ol

f A ay

AR f

ee D

sword of the cavalry, 1908, both admirably adapted for the purpose for which they were designed. The lance and pike were practical as thrusting staff weapons, but the inordinate length of the latter in Cromwellian times (18ft.) became a source of THOS. QUARTREMAYNS, grave inconvenience in an organized army ESQUIRE, ABOUT 1469 and it was soon discarded. The halberd with its offshoots, the bill,

gisarmé and glaive, are useful only in their early and simpler forms. The later halberd and the gisarmé with their hooks, and projections must have been seriously inconvenient as weapons for

fighting at close quarters. (See Metat-Workx.)

Ci

according to tradition first distinguished himself as a sheep-

and the race continued between the musketeer and the armourer in precisely the same manner as the contest raged between gun and armour plate in the navies of the

Ea D

HUGH

in the “St. George’s Vase” and the works are the external sculptural Office in Whitehall, the sculptures sides of the podium of the Albert

crease the weight of the metal, for steel

Da mi eiee n Aranmanai dE n e “TT

Seven

sculptor, was frst trained as a silversmith, and achieyed excellence

as we know it to-day was in its infancy, era

Through

(1920-22) ; Catalogues of Windsor and Tower Armouries and Walla Collection. z

at King’s college, Cambridge. He was elected associate of the Royal Academy in 1875 and a full member in 1880. ARMSTRONG, ARCHIBALD (d. 1672), court jester

spear, axe or arrow was called upon to increase the weight of the armour and was obliged to test his material by musket or pistol shot. This he did in a fairly satisfactory manner but as the efficiency of the fire-arm increased he was obliged to in-

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of European

(C. Fr,)

BIBLIoGRAPHY.—A. Demmin, Guide des Amateurs des Armes, (Eng. trans., Weapons of War by C. C, Black, 1870) ; C. J. Ffoulkes, Armour and Weapons (1909) and The Armourer and His Craft, from the Xlth to the XVIih Century (1912); J. Hewitt, Ancient Armour, and

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A COMPLETE SUIT OF EUROPEAN ARMOUR QF THE SECOND HALF OF THE 15TH CENTURY English throne, Archy was appointed court jester. He became presumptuous, insolent and mischievous, excited foolish jealous-

ies between the King and Henry, Prince of Wales, and was much disliked by the members of the court.

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Prince Charles and Buckingham in their adventure into Spain, where he was much caressed and favoured by the Spanish court and, according to his own account, was granted a pension. His conduct here became more intolerable than ever. He rallied the

infanta on the defeat of the Armada and censured the conduct

of the expedition to Buckingham’s face, Buckingham declared

he would have him hanged, to which the jester replied that “dukes had often been hanged for insolence but never fools for talking.” He retained his post on the accession of Charles I, and accumulated a considerable fortune, including the grant by the King of 1,000 ac. in Ireland. After the death of Buckingham in 1628, whom he declared “the greatest enemy of three kings,” the principal object of his dislike and rude jests was

Laud, whom he openly vilified and ridiculed. He died at Ar thuret, Cumberland, 1672, and was buried on April 1. A Baw quet of Jests: A Change of Cheare, published about 1630, a collection chiefly of dull, stale jokes, is attributed to him, and with still less reason probably A choice Banquet of Witty Jests..

Being an addition to Archee’s Jests, taken out of his Closet but

never published in his Lifetime (1660).

ARMSTRONG,

HENRY

EDWARD,

British chemist,

became in 1874 professor of chemistry at South Kensington,

London. In 1876 he was elected F.R.S. and served on the council

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ARMSTRONG of the Royal Society 1888-90, 1900-02 and was vice-president in| 1901-02. He achieved considerable success in his researches on

organic and general chemistry, particularly in his work on the terpenes, the naphthalene and benzene series and on physical hemistry.

ARMSTRONG, JOHN (1758-1843), American soldier,

diplomatist and political leader, born at Carlisle (Pa.) on Nov.

2s, 1758. His father, also named John Armstrong (1725-95), a

native of the north of Ireland, who had emigrated to the Pennsylvania frontier between 1745 and 1748, served as a brigadier gen-

eral and was a member of the Continental Congress in 1779-80 and again in 1787-88. The son studied for a time at the college of New Jersey (now Princeton university), and served as a major in the Revolutionary War. In March 1783, while the continental

army was stationed at Newburgh

(g.v.) (N.Y.), he wrote and

issued, anonymously, the famous “Newburgh Addresses.” In 1784 he led a force of Pennsylvania militia against the Connecticut

settlers in Wyoming valley, and treated them in such a highhanded manner as to incur the disapproval even of the Pennsylyania legislature. In 1789 he married the sister of Chancellor Robert R. Livingston of New York, and removed to New York city, where his own ability and his family connection gave him great political influence.

In 1801-02 and again in 1803-04 he was

a member of the U.S. Senate. From 1804 to 1810 he was the U.S. minister to France, and in March 1806 he was joined with James Bowdoin as a special minister to treat through France with Spain concerning the acquisition of Florida, Spanish spoliations

of American commerce and the “Louisiana” boundary. During the War of 1812, he was a brigadier-general in the United States amy from July 1812 until Jan. 1813, and from then until August 1814 secretary of war in the cabinet of President Madison, when his unpopularity forced him to resign. “In spite of Armstrong’s

See

Samuel

395 Chapman

Armstrong,

a Biographical

Study

York, 1904), by his daughter, Edith Armstrong Talbot. His brother, Wirtram

N. ARMSTRONG,

(New

was attorney general

in the cabinet of the Hawaiian king Kalakaua I. He accompanied that monarch on a prolonged foreign tour in 1881, visiting Japan, China, Siam, India, Europe and the United States, and in 1904 published an amusing account of the journey, called Round the World with a King. ARMSTRONG, WILLIAM GEORGE ARMSTRONG, Baron (1810-1900), British inventor, founder of the Elswick manufacturing works, was born on Nov. 26, 1810, at Newcastle-onTyne, and educated at a school in Bishop Auckland. From 1833 to 1847 he was engaged in active practice as a solicitor in Newcastle. In 1841—43 he published several papers on the electricity of efflu-

ent steam, and the inquiry was followed by the invention of the “hydro-electric” machine, a powerful generator of electricity. The question of the utilization of water-power had engaged his attention even earlier, and in 1839 he invented an improved rotary water motor. Soon afterwards he designed a hydraulic crane, which contained the germ of all the hydraulic machinery for which he and Elswick were subsequently to become famous. The Elswick works were originally founded for the manufacture of this hydraulic machinery, but it was not long before they became the birthplace of a revolution in gunmaking. Modern artillery dates from about 1855, when Armstrong's first gun made its appearance. This weapon embodied all the essential features which distinguish the ordnance of to-day from the cannon of the

middle ages—it was built up of rings of metal shrunk upon an

inner steel barrel; it was loaded at the breech; it was rifled; and

it threw, not a round ball, but an elongated projectile with ogival head. The guns constructed on this principle yielded such excellent results, both in range and accuracy, that they were adopted

’ services, abilities and experience,” says Henry Adams, “some-

by the British Government in 1859. At the same time the Els-

thing in his character always created distrust. He had every advantage of education, social and political connection, ability and self-confidence; . . . but he suffered from the reputation of

wick Ordnance Company was formed to manufacture the guns under the supervision of Armstrong, who, however, had no financial interest in the concern; it was merged in the Elswick Engineering Works four years later. Defects in the breech mechanism led to the abandonment by the British Government of the new gun. For 17 years the government adhered to the older method of loading, in spite of the improvements which experiment and research at Elswick and elsewhere had during that period produced in the mechanism and performance of heavy guns. But at last Armstrong’s results could no longer be ignored and wirewound breech-loading guns were received back into the service in 1880. The use of steel wire for the construction of guns was one of Armstrong’s early ideas. Lord Armstrong, who was raised to the peerage in 1887, was the author of A Visit to Egypt (1873), and Electric Movement in Air and Water (1897), besides many professional papers. He died on Dec. 27, 1900, at Rothbury, Northumberland. His title became extinct, but his grand-nephew and heir, W. H. A. F. Watson-Armstrong (b. 1863), was in 1903 created Baron Armstrong of Bamburgh and Cragside. ARMSTRONG (SIR W. G.) WHITWORTH AND

indolence and intrigue.” Nevertheless, he “introduced into the army an energy wholly new,” an energy the results of which were apparent “for half a century.” He died at Red Hook (N.Y.), April 1, 1843. He published Notices of the War of r8r2 (1836;

new ed., 1840), which is greatly impaired by its partiality. The best account of Armstrong’s career as minister to France and as secretary of war may be found in Henry Adams’s History of the

United States, 1801-1817 (1889-90).

ARMSTRONG,

SAMUEL

CHAPMAN

(1839-1893),

American soldier, philanthropist and educator, was born on Maui, one of the Hawaiian islands, on Jan. 30, 1839, his parents Richard

and Clarissa Armstrong, being American missionaries. He was educated at Oahu college, Honolulu, and at Williams college, Williamstown, Mass., where he graduated in 1862. He served in the Civil War, on the Union side, 1862-65, rising in the volunteer service to the regular rank of colonel and the brevet rank of brigadier general, and, after Dec., 1863, acted as one of the officers of the coloured troops commanded by Gen. William Birney. His

experience as commander of negro troops had added to his interest, always strong, in the negroes of the south, and in March 1866 he became superintendent of the Ninth District of Virginia, under

theFreedman’s bureau, with headquarters near Ft. Monroe. While in this position he became convinced that the only permanent solution of the manifold difficulties which the freedmen encountered

lay in their moral and industrial education.

He remained in the

educational department of the bureau until this work came to an end in 1872; though five years earlier, at Hampton, Va., near Ft.

Monroe, he had founded, with the aid principally of the American Missionary Association, an industrial school for negroes, Hampton

institute, which was formally opened in 1868, and at the head of

Which he remained until his death, there, on May 11, 1893. After 1878 Indians were also admitted to the institute, and during the

last 5 years of his life Armstrong took a deep interest in the Indian question.” Much of his time after 1868 was spent in the

northern and eastern states, whither he went to raise funds for the Institute,

CO., LTD. On Nov. 24, 1845, a solicitor, William George Arm-

strong, afterwards Lord Armstrong, proposed the application of the pressure of water in the street pipes to the working of the cranes upon the quayside, and, in 1846, the Newcastle Cranage Company was formed. In the following year the famous Elswick Works first came into being. The total share capital of the new company was only £22,500. This venture was successful and in 1882 became a public company. A further development led to the formation of the Elswick Ordnance Company. This was the result of Armstrong’s successful experiments with rifled cannon, which culminated in 1858 in the production of an 18-pounder gun and its adoption, after extensive trials, by the British War Office. The Elswick Ordnance Company was formed therefore in 1859; and a year later Captain (afterwards Sir Andrew) Noble joined the firm. In 1862, the re-armament of the services being complete, the Government withdrew from the company which was then amalgamated as Sir W. G. Armstrong and Co., with a capital of £180,000. In 1882 there was further amalgamation and the

396

ARMY

[HISTORY

formation of a new company under the title of Sir W. G. Arm- | tails from Xenophon ) and other writers. To each ; strong Mitchell and Company, Limited, with a capital of allotted a certain number of soldiers as standing province army. Thee £2,000,000. troops, formed originally of native Persians

Soon afterwards a shipyard was started at Elswick. Thenceforward the Elswick Yard concentrated entirely on warship building, and the Walker Yard on mercantile ships. The fast

and heavily armed Elswick cruisers (actually built at Walker) of which the “Esmeralda” was the first and most famous of a long line, attracted world-wide attention. The next important development in the company’s history was the readjustment of the capital account in 1896, followed in 1897 by the purchase of the Whitworth Works at Openshaw in Manchester, where shortly afterwards a large armour-plate plant was installed. The capital by this time was over £4,000,000, and the style of the company became, as it remained, Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth and Company, Limited. For the next 18 years steady progress and expansion continued. The increasing size of battleships led to the construction of the Armstrong naval yard at Walker-on-Tyne. In 1900 Lord Armstrong died, and was succeeded in the chairmanship by Sir Andrew Noble, who continued to act as chairman os te

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until his death in 1915. The subsequent history of the company, though of great interest, is on somewhat different lines. Throughout the War, when the peak of its greatness was reached, its activities were of incalculable value to the Allies, but the conditions under which it worked were changed, and it developed into what amounted to a national arsenal. After 1918 a new set of problems confronted this famous concern, culminating in the sale of the Elswick and Openshaw Works to a new company called Vickers Armstrongs, Limited. However, with its important holding in the new combine, the old company still retains its interest in the works which have been its main property for so many years, though the actual control of the armament side has passed into the hands of the new organization. (See VICKERS LIMITED.) (L. C. M.)

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of this difference through the roth century is vital to an understanding of the military nature of the World War. 36. The Wars of Liberation.—The Prussian defeat at Jena was followed by a national surrender so abject as to prove conclusively the eternal truth: that a divorce of armies from national interests is fatal to national well-being. But the oppression of the victors soon began to produce a spirit of ardent patriotism which, carefully directed by a small band of able soldiers, led in the end to a national uprising of a steadier and more lasting kind than that of the French Revolution. Prussia was compelled, by the rigorous treaty of peace, to keep only a small force under arms, and circumstances thus drove her into the path of military development which she subsequently followed. The stipulation of the treaty was evaded by the Kriimper system, by which men were passed through the ranks as hastily as possible and dismissed to the reserve, their places being taken by recruits. The regimental establishments were therefore mere cadres, and the personnel, recruited by universal service with few exemptions, ever-changing. This system depended on the willingness of the reserves to come up when called upon, and the arrogance of the French was quite sufficient to ensure this. The dénouement of the Napoleonic wars came too swiftly for the full development of the armed strength of Prussia on these lines; and at the outbreak of the Wars of Liberation a newly formed Landwehr and numerous volunteer corps took the field with no more training than the French had had in 1793. Still, the principles of universal service (allgemeine Wehrpflicht) and of the army reserve were, for the first time in modern history, systematically put into action, and military development during the 19th century concerned itself more with the consolidation of the Kriimper system than with the creation of another. The début of the new Prussian army was most unsuccessful, for Napoleon had now attained the highest point of soldierly skill, and managed to inflict heavy defeats on the allies. But the Prussians were not discouraged; like the French in 1793 they took to broken ground, and managed to win combats against all leaders opposed to them except Napoleon himself. The Russian army formed a solid background for the Prussians, and in the end Austria joined the coalition. Reconstituted on modern lines, the Austrian army in 1813, except in the higher leading, was probably the best organized on the Continent. After three desperate campaigns the Napoleonic régime came to an end, and men felt that there would be no such struggle again in their lifetime. Military Europe settled down into grooves along which it ran till 1866. France, exhausted of its manhood, sought a field for military activities in colonial wars waged by long-service troops. The conscription was still in force, but the citizens served most unwillingly, and substitution produced a professional army, which as usual became a dynastic tool. Austria, always menaced with foreign war and internal disorder, maintained the best army in Europe. The British army, though employed far differently, retained substantially the Peninsular system. 37. European and American Armies 1815-70.— The events

of 1815-59 showed that such long-service armies were incomparably the best form of military machine for the purpose of giving expression to a hostile “view” (not “feeling”). Austrian armies triumphed in Italy, French armies in Spain, Belgium, Algeria, Italy and Russia, British in innumerable and exacting colonial wars. Only the Prussian forces retained the characteristics of the levies of 1813, and the enthusiasm which had carried these through Leipzig and the other great battles was hardly to be expected of their sons, ranged on the side of despotism in the troubled times of 1848-50. But the principle was not permitted to die out. The

Bronnzell-Olmütz incident of 1850 (see Seven Weeks’ War) showed that the organization of 1813 was defective, and this was altered in spite of the fiercest opposition of all classes. Soon afterwards, and before the new Prussian army proved itself on a great battlefield, the American Civil War, a fiercer struggle than any of those which followed it in Europe, illustrated the capabilities and the weaknesses of voluntary-service troops. Here the hos-

in North America passed without affecting seriously the War ideas and preparations of Europe. The weakness of the staff work

with which both sides were credited helped further to confirm the

belief of the Prussians in their system, and in this instanc e they

were justifed by the immense superiority of their own general

staf to that of any army in existence. It was in this particul ar that a corps of 1870 differed so essentially from a corps of Ng. poleon’s time. The formal organization had not been altered save as the varying relative importance of the separate arms had dic.

tated.

The almost intangible spirit which animates the members

of a general staff causes them not merely to “think”—that was

always in the quartermaster-general’s department—but to “think alike,” so that a few simple orders called “directives” sufficed to set armies in motion with a definite purpose before them, whereas formerly elaborate and detailed plans of battle had to be devised

and distributed in order to achieve the object in view. A comparison of the number of orders and letters written by a marshal and by his chief of staff in Napoleon’s time with similar docu. ments in 1870 indicates clearly the changed position of the staff, In the Grande Armée and in the French army of 1870 the officers

of the general staff were often absent entirely from the scene of action. In Prussia the new staff system produced a far different result—indeed, the staff, rather than the Prussian military SYS tem, was the actual victor of 1870. Still, the system would probably have conquered in the end in any case, and other nations, con-

vinced’ by events that their departure from the ideal of 1813,

however convenient formerly, was no longer justified, promptly copied Prussia as exactly, and, as a matter of fact, as Slavishly, as they had done after the Seven Years’ War. (C. F. A.)

g

DEVELOPMENTS FROM 1870 TO 1914

38. General Tendencies.—The Franco-German War of 1870-71 marks a very definite stage in the evolution of armies The striking successes of the short-service German army over a professional long-service army, reputed the finest in Europe at the time, ushered in a new era of development, which was to last for nearly~43 years, that is right down to the outbreak of the World War. As a result of the 1870 campaign the armies of Europe at once set out to re-model themselves on the pattern which Prussia had created. The period of reform may be put down as from about 1873 to 1890. For the following 25 years—a time of tense struggle during peace for superiority in the next war—the general pattern of the machine was unchanged, though its power and eficlency were progressively improved. Germany set the pace and other nations had perforce to follow. The elements of the system under which the principal armies of the world—Japan too followed the German model—were developed in this period, its merits and its disadvantages, require some examination.

(39. Principles of the Modern System.—The first principle

was the substitution of universal liability to personal service in place of the methods of conscription formerly practised, which selected by lot a proportion of the manhood of the nation and permitted those on whom the lot had fallen to hire substitutes.

The practical result of the old system was to produce an army composed partly of professional soldiers, each of whom was paid by several successive conscripts to discharge their obligations, and partly of conscripts who had no particular taste for soldiering but who were too poor to procure substitutes. Thus only a comparatively small part of the nation was trained to war and the well-to-do class usually escaped service altogether. Under the Prussian system now adopted by all the principal armies no substitution whatever was allowed. Only rejection by a medical board could relieve a man from his obligation to service between

certain ages. When the numbers of the physically fit in the an

nual contingent reaching military age exceeded those required to fill the complement of the active army, certain classes were chosen for immediate transfer to the reserves without a period of traming in the standing army or navy. Such choice was normally made on the grounds of family circumstances: że., relief was given t0

ARMY

MODERN]

those on whom—as the sole supporters of a family, for example— the burden of active military service in peacetime would press of a cermost hardly. There was one other remission: attainment tain standard of education conferred the privilege of a shortened

period of active service followed by transfer to the reserve as an officer OF non-commissioned officer. The system was, in theory, at Jeast, an entirely democratic one, based on the equal personal

ervice in the military forces of every citizen, irrespective of his

rank or wealth. It was certainly an advance on the former system,

which allowed service by deputy. The second principle was that the period of active service in

the standing army should be as short as was consistent with efficient training, so that the maximum numbers could be instructed

and passed to the reserve with the minimum of cost, and also that the able-bodied strength of the nation should be withdrawn from industry for as brief a time as possible. This period of active service varied in the different armies and at different times, and often also according to the arm of the service. The average

riod in the principal Continental armies at the outbreak of the World War may be taken as three years. Thus in France it was three years for all arms, in Germany and Austria-Hungary three years for cavalry and horse artillery and two years for other arms, in Russia three years for infantry and artillery and four years for

other arms. This period, which was one of hard and intensive training, was followed by a period of from five to seven years in the first class of the reserve, the rôle of which was to bring the

standing army up to war strength on mobilization. From this category men passed for a further five years or so to the second class of the reserve, used in war either to form second-line units or

to replace casualties in the field army.

The reserves were kept

up to date by occasional short periods of training. The remainder of the obligation to military service was usually discharged in an

4.07

their obligation in their own district, close to home. There were certain exceptions to this territorial principle, due often to the presence in a nation of an alien population not yet wholly absorbed in the nation nor fully trusted. Thus in Germany the principle was not extended to Alsace-Lorraine, and in Russia, where the system of recruiting was only partially territorial, Jews, Poles and other non-Russians were distributed throughout the army. The efficient working of the system required a corps of officers who made the army their career for life. The need to train successive contingents of recruits to the complicated business of modern war in a short term imposed on the officers a high standard of professional capacity and an unremitting industry—the latter a quality hardly associated hitherto with the profession of arms in peace. They were compensated for small pay and long hours of work by an exaggerated social status, especially in Germany, where the cult of military power most flourished, To assist the officers in the instruction of the rank and file was a body of long-service non-commissioned officers, selected from those of the

annual contingent who showed an aptitude for military life and volunteered to remain in the active army after their obligatory period of service had expired. They were attracted by increased pay and privileges and by the promise of subsequent civil employment in a Government post. Lastly, the armies produced under this modern system called for a highly educated (in the military sense) staff. The organization in peace, and the movement and supply in the field, of such masses of men became a complex and highly technical business, and made greater demands on the staff than ever before. In all armies the staff system was overhauled,

and great improvements were made in the training of staff officers.

;40. Merits and Disadvantages of the System.—The above is a brief outline of the chief features of the method of raising armies which is often referred to as “The Nation in Arms.” Sọ far as the rank and file were concerned, it aimed at quantity

auxiliary force-—-Landsturm in Germany, Territorial Army in France, Opolehenie in Russia—intended mainly for home defence rather than quality: the “veteran” professional soldier practically or for duties in the area behind the front-line armies. As a gen- vanished from the drill-grounds, the barrack-rooms and the battleeral average it may be taken that a man’s liability to service fields of Europe. On the other hand, those taken for service lasted from the age of 20 to the age of 45, of which term three included the best of the nation’s manhood; and in their three years were spent in the active army, six years in the first reserve, years’ intensive training they had forced into them as much six years in the second reserve, and the remainder in some form military knowledge as the old-type professional soldier absorbed of auxiliary or home-defence force. Thus the standing army and in his many years with the colours. There was naturally bound to its first reserve, which together constituted the first line or field be in armies raised under the compulsory system a certain unreamy in war, comprised the able-bodied manhood of the nation liable element, which would fail under the stresses of war. But in between the ages of 20 and 30. Behind this stood a second line a brave and patriotic nation like the Germans, who invented the of the older men from 30 to 45. The above figures are a generali- system, such element was small and could be coerced by a rigid zation and do not correspond exactly with the organization or discipline. The moral advantage which the volunteer is supposed to hold over the pressed man has little application to armies like terms of service of any one nation. The third principle lay in the elaboration of the arrangements these, which embody the whole manhood of a nation. Financially, for rapid mobilization. in the event of war, As explained above, the system enabled far larger numbers to be kept under arms and the essence of the system lay in a comparatively small short- trained to war than would have been possible under any voluntary service standing army with large reserves of trained men. The ad- system. The pay of the soldier was practically a negligible item, vantage to be gained by the army which could most quickly and and there was not the necessity to study his comfort in the same smoothly expand from a peace footing to a war footing was way as in a voluntary army, which had to attract its recruits. obvious, and was sought by every means that the staff could devise. m Lhus the system was on the whole efficient, economical and just. The gain of eyen a few hours was of tbe utmost value, the gain ‘The ethical arguments against compulsory service—e.g., that it of a day might be decisive. To such a pitch of nicety were the promotes wars and a warlike spirit or that it hampers industrial calculations eventually brought that a nation could hardly afford progress—-are dealt with elsewhere, (See Conscription.) |From to delay even a single hour, once a rival had issued orders to the purely military point of view, however, there were certain demobilize. This was clearly seen in the crisis of July 1914. The fects and difficulties in the Prussian system. The chief of these

order to mobilize became in fact equivalent to an opening of hos- was the effect on the officers of the hard work and almost unvary-

tilities. A corollary to this need for rapid mobilization was the

ing routine which the training of such large masses imposed, The

the reserves required ta complete a formation to war strength

life in the same garrison town, instructing at high pressure successive batches of recruits in the details of military service. Such officers had inevitably a narrow mental outlook and tended to lose initiative and the ability ta improvise, two qualities which the

“territorialization” of the armed forces. Time would be saved if great majority of regimental officers passed their whole military

normally resided in the same area in which the formation was stahoned in peace. Hence arose a system by which each army corps

had a district, allotted to it where it was permanently stationed and recruited and where it mobilized for war,

The army corps

conditions of active service—the march, the bivouac and the

district was usually subdivided into divisional areas, which again

battlefield—continually demand, [Aus Kleine Garnison, a book

had obviously many advantages.

martial and imprisonment a few years before the war, gives a

were parcelled gut into brigade and regimental areas. This system

It was economical of time on

which brought its author, an officer of the German army, court-

drawn from life of the monotony and evils of life in a mobilization and economical of money in peace, since it involved picture in travelling; also it caused the least dis- small garrison town. Kuprin’s Poyedinak (The Duel) gives an expense of minimum the location to those called up for service, who usually discharged even darker impression of a similar garrison in Russia.

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ARMY

The reserve officer, of whom large numbers were required on mobilization to complete the field army and to form second-line units, presented a different problem. The chief source from which they were drawn was the “one-year volunteer”; 7.e., those who, in consideration of having reached a certain educational standard, served for one year only in the ranks and then became officers of the reserve, in which capacity they were called up for short periods of training. This class naturally comprised some of the best of the nation. But their military training was inadequate to make them really efficient officers, while their superior intelligence and education often led them to dislike military life and to despise the professional officer. In Russia, for instance, the intelligenzia class, from which a large proportion of the reserve officers were drawn, was frankly anti-militaristic and served with reluctance. A certain number of commissions in the reserve of officers were given to men who had served long terms as non-commissioned officers in the standing army. This class—the retired sergeant-major—did not usually produce a good type of officer, but was useful for work in depots and in garrison units. The problem of finding sufficient officers to expand these huge national armies in war is obviously one of their principal difficulties, and is inherent in any system which makes numerical strength its main objective. Good non-commissioned officers were also difficult to secure in sufficient numbers, and the low-class tyrannical noncommissioned officer who abused his power constituted one of the most objectionable features of compulsory armies. The difficulty of finding non-commissioned officers was increased when the nation had colonial possessions to be defended. Such oversea possessions had to be garrisoned by forces raised on a professional and voluntary basis, short-service armies of the type described being quite unfitted for garrison work abroad. These colonial forces absorbed many men who took up soldiering as a profession and who would otherwise have been available as non-commissioned officers in the home army. In Russia the difficulties of filling the establishment of non-commissioned officers was especially acute owing to the low standard of education of the nation. To sum up, the difference between the armies thus evolved in Europe at the end of the roth century and those which they replaced can perhaps best be expressed by the terms “machinemade” and “hand-made.” The change was more or less contemporary with the substitution in the industrial world of the machine-made for the hand-made article. Like the machine-made article in commerce, the machine-made soldier had the advantages of cheapness and rapidity of production, but.Jacked some of the finish and polish of the hand-made article.[For a powerful indictment of the objectionable features of the system in Germany, the student may consult a novel published in Germany not long before the war—Jena oder Sedan. He may also read the story

of the “Zabern incident” in 1913.) . Armies up to the World

|

War—}The chief feature of the

quarter of a century from 1890 to 1914, was the contest between the principal European armies for predominance in numbers. Thus Germany, which in 1874 had a peace establishment not much over 400,000, had by 1914 one of 850,000: whereas in 1870 she had put into the field 15 army corps, by 1914 she had ready 25 active corps and nearly as many reserve corps. She had available for war over 4,000,000 trained men. France struggled desperately

[MODERN

500,000 and her war strength 2,000,000.

Russia wit h her almos

inexhaustible resources in men trained a smaller Proportion oj her

population than the other great nations, yet had a a strength of nearly 1,500,000 and about 6,000,000 trained men ae

mately available for war. The smaller armies of Europe were al cast in the same mould, and all trained to arms the greater part

of the able-bodied manhood of their nations. Of all the states which maintained standing armies of any size or power, only Great Britain and the United States maintained the principle of voluntary enlistment. It was the temperament of these peoples that insisted on avoiding compulsion for military service, but it was the fact that sea power, not military power

was their first line of defence that made this insistence possible without immediate

disaster.

For Great Britain, moreover the

in her overseas possessions.

For this a voluntary long-service

principal military problem was, at least up to the beginning of the 2oth century, that of maintaining large garrisons of regular troops army was a better and more

comfortable

instrument than an

army raised on the Continental system. The main trouble about a voluntary army is its expense, since the enlistment of recruits depends on high pay and attractive conditions of service. Thus

the strength of the military forces tends to be governed by finan-

cial considerations rather than by the demands of strategy. Again the hours of duty, the rules of discipline and the circumstances of the soldiers’ life have all to be determined with an eye to the supply of recruits. Hence a voluntary soldier cannot be worked so hard and takes longer to learn his trade. A long period of

colour-service means small reserves, so that a voluntary army has comparatively little capacity of rapid expansion for war. The

British army up to 1870 had had practically no reserves, a sol-

dier’s whole term of service—usually about 12 years, often ex-

tended to 21—was with the colours. Under the Cardwell reforms. which began in 1870, steps were taken to build up a reserve, and the normal term of service was eventually fixed at seven years

with the colours and five in the reserve. The British second-line force was not, like the second line of Continental armies, com. posed of older men who had served in the first line, but of patri-

otic citizens who voluntarily undertook short periods of training

annually, to fit themselves for home defence. g

This second line

was reorganized into the „Territorial Force under Mr. Haldane’

administration in 1908. (See GREAT BRITAIN.) iIn the last ten

years or so before the outbreak of the World War a considerable body of military opinion—of which Field-Marshal Lord Roberts was the protagonist—urged on the British nation the abandonment of the voluntary principle and the adoption of universal service to meet the increasing menace of German militarism in Europe. But the difficulties of combining within the national budget a voluntary army for service abroad with a compulsory force for home service were great, and none of the schemes produced ever had a chance of acceptance by the nation at large,

which has a deep-rooted dislike and mistrust of military service. The two principal wars of the period under review may be said to have had a local rather than a general influence on the development of armies. The experience of the Boer War (1899-1902) was invaluable to the British army, and led up to the reforms

which enabled it to put into the field in r914 an army equal in equipment and organization, and superior in training, to any in to hold the pace set by Germany; with her smaller population Europe. It also brought Dominion forces into the field in support she was in the position of a runner who has to exert every nerve of the mother country for the first time, and thus inaugurated to keep at the shoulder of his rival whom he sees running easily the preparations which made possible the military effort of the within himself. She trained every available man, with very few Dominions 1§ years later. The Russo-Japanese War in Manchuria exemptions, while Germany could still afford to exempt from (1904-05) similarly resulted in great efforts in Russia to bring active service nearly half of the annual contingent passed med- the army up to date. But neither campaign was held by Contiically fit. France’s law of military service of 1913 was practically nental experts to justify any serious modification in organization the last spurt of which she was capable; it increased the period of or theory. The operations in Manchuria were considered a tri-

active service from two years to three and the total liability to service from 25 years to 28. Thus in order to maintain something like equality both in peace and in war strength with Germany, her population was called on to serve one year longer in the active army and two years longer in the reserve—three more years military service in all. Austria-Hungary’s effort was approximately similar to Germany’s; her peace establishment was close on

umph for German methods, on which the Japanese army had formed itself. The warning given by the protracted nature of the

battles, and by the sluggishness of the operations generally, passed unheeded. {42. Developments in Armament and Equipment.—jMeawhile weapons and warlike material were being rapidly improve

by the discoveries of science. The invention of smokeless powdet

ORGANIZATION]

ARMY

4.09

changed the whole appearance of the battlefield; the small-bore |said here to show the general principles involved in assembling magazine rifle more than doubled the volume and accuracy of these parts into an effective whole. An essential problem in organizing an army is to determine the infantry fire; the mitrailleuse of 1870 developed into the modern

machine gun, the deadly power of which was recognized only

proportions which the principal arms should bear to one another.

by a few before the World War; and the artillery increased in These proportions—generally expressed in the terms of so many range, calibre and rapidity of fire. The effects of the petrol (gas- sabres and guns per 1,000 rifles—had undergone comparatively little change since 1870. In the French and German armies the proportions ruling for the field armies in 1914 may be taken roughly as about 120 sabres and 6 guns per 1,000 rifles. The Austrian and Russian armies were stronger in cavalry and weaker in guns, about 200 sabres and 4 guns per 1,000 rifles. The proporover its rivals. But armies tended to cultivate proficiency in one tion of technical troops was increasing with scientific developrticular weapon according to the national traditions and temper- ments and improvements, such as wireless telegraphy, aircrait, ament. Thus the French were justly proud of the technical supe- mechanical transport and searchlights. The administrative servriority of their quick-firing artillery; the Germans had soonest ices, too, gained in size and importance as warlike equipment grew realized the potentialities of the machine gun; the British rifle more complicated and as the demands of the fighting troops for fre was in volume and accuracy far above that of Continental ammunition and technical stores grew heavier. This scientific nations; while the Russians still wistfully quoted the maxim of expansion of the means of war greatly enhanced the advantage of a State with large manufacturing establishments and an indusSuvorov: “The bullet is a fool; the bayonet only is wise.” Such were the armies which the spirit of Prussia—ruthless, trial population on which to draw for the technical corps over eficient but unimaginative—had imposed on Europe when the States such as Russia and Austria, where industrial development World War at last blazed out in a kind of passionate protest was relatively low. But how vital a factor industrial strength was against a system that made peace almost as hard a military to prove in the forthcoming conflict was not yet fully realized, struggle as war. The standard of strength of these armies was since it was believed that wars would be short and sharp and primarily a man-power standard; the aim of each was to place in that the issue would be decided before the reserves of munitions the field the largest possible host of armed men in the shortest accumulated in peace were exhausted. 44. Organization of the Fighting Troops.—tThe first step in time, and to overwhelm the adversary forthwith by sheer weight of numbers. In such a conception of war minute preparation in military organization is to form each arm independently into peace was held to count for more than generalship in the field, units; these units are then combined into what—for want of a since little manoeuvre was possible once the great masses had better word—are termed formations, (in French, grandes unités), been launched to cover every road leading to their objective. The the lower of which usually consist of one arm only, while the midnight oil of the administrator, who by the scrupulous improve- higher include all arms. To take the infantry first: the unit adopted by all armies was ment of mobilization arrangements or by the skilful manipulation of time-tables of railway movement could snatch half-a-day’s ad- in 1914, as it had been for many years, the battalion of about vantage of time, might do more to win victory than any lightning 1,000 men, subdivided into four companies, the company again flash of genius in the battle. It was a theory of brute force against being subdivided into three or four sub-units, each of which conwhich the French military mind revolted. But the question their stituted a subaltern officer’s command (varying from about 50 to strategists put to themselves: ‘What would Napoleon have done?” 75 men). The British army had retained an organization into eight companies up to 1913, when it also adopted the Continental had found no very definite answer when 1914 came. system of four companies. Though the battalion was still spoken of as the unit of infantry, it had long ceased to be so tactically. ARMY ORGANIZATION The definition of a military unit for tactical purposes is the largest wo 43. General——In the foregoing sections the principles on body which can be commanded and controlled on the battlefield "which armies were raised up to the time of the World War have by the voice of one man, and it was as such that the battalion been examined. Before passing on to consider what changes or had originally been constituted at its existing size. Once command modifications the grim needs of a prolonged and deadly war has to be exercised indirectly, by means of a staff conveying mesoccasioned, some outline must be given of the methods on which sages to a number of subordinate commanders, the body ceases to those armies were organized and commanded, how their order of. be a unit in the tactical sense and becomes a formation. Thus it battle was built up, what laws governed their subdivision into had already for some time been recognized that the company had bodies and groups and the composition of those groups. supplanted the battalion as the tactical unit, while many foresaw Military forces may be treated of in three categories: the fight- that the real tactical unit was now the subaltern’s command of ing troops, the auxiliary or administrative troops, and the com- about 50 men. Similarly the functions of the fire unit (i.e., the mand and staff. The three principal fighting arms were still in largest body whose fire could be controlled in action by one man) 1914, aS they had been for some centuries, cavalry, artillery and had descended from the company to the squad or section of infantry. The work of the engineers had increased in importance eight to ten men under a junior non-commissioned officer. The owing to technical developments—signal communication by cable battalion was therefore tactically no longer a unit but a formation. or wireless had, for instance, become one of their most important It was the normal European practice to group three battalions responsibilities—but though they worked in the front line, fighting (in Russia four) into a regiment; two regiments formed an inwas with them only a secondary rôle; machine guns had not yet fantry brigade (six battalions—in Russia eight); and two inbeen developed into a separate arm, but were incorporated into fantry brigades were included in a division. The British grouping the cavalry and infantry; mounted infantry were only an improv- was different and will be referred to later. ization, to which the peculiar circumstances of the Boer War Of cavalry the unit was the regiment, organized into a number gave prominence for a time; and the air force was as yet unarmed. of squadrons. The strength of the squadron (the tactical unit) Infantry remained the predominant partner, to further whose was in all armies standardized at approximately 150, subdivided efforts to close with the enemy was the main task of the other into four troops, commanded by subalterns; but the number of arms. The administrative troops comprised the supply, medical squadrons varied in different armies from three to six (Great olene) engine were only beginning to be suspected when the World War broke out; armies still moved on their feet and were served mainly by horsed transport; the air arm was in its infancy. The principal nations watched each other SO jealously that it was diffcult for any of them to obtain any decided advantage in armament

and veterinary services and so forth. The activities of the fighting

Britain and United States three, France and Germany four, Italy

by the commanders and their staffs. Details of the organization,

five, Russia and Austria six). Thus the strength of the regiment varied from a little over 500 up to 1,000. A cavalry brigade com-

SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT, STAFF. Only enough, however, will be

prised two regiments (in the British army, three); and two or three brigades constituted a cavalry division. The unit of artillery was the battery, normally of six guns

troops and the administrative troops were controlled and directed

tactics and functions of these various component parts will be found under such headings as ARTILLERY, CAVALRY, INFANTRY,

410

(France four, Russia eight). The subaltern’s command was the section of two guns. Three batteries usually constituted a group (illogically named a brigade in the British army); and two or three groups a regiment. As stated above, a subaltern officer’s command was usually about 50 men. Originally the duties of junior officers had been mainly to inspire the men around them by their personal example. But as the range and effectiveness of weapons extended the area of the battlefield, the tactical handling of the combat passed into the hands of the junior leaders, by whose quality the effectiveness of an army was largely measured. The next grade of officer was

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ARMY

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the captain, whose command

(in European armies) was a com-

pany, @ squadron or a battery; then came the major, who commanded a battalion of infantry or a group of artillery. Regiments of all arms were commanded by colonels. In Great Britain batteries were commanded by majors, companies and squadrons by majors or captains; battalions, cavalry regiments and artillery brigades by lieutenant-colonels. The other combatant arms and the administrative services were organized and commanded on similar principles. The army of the United States, it may be noted here, had in peace no higher organization than the regi-

oe

ment.

ae=see a! Wes es a3 ~os

45. The Grouping of Units——Generally speaking, the ber of units grouped in a formation should not be less than nor more than six. In a formation composed of two units the influence of the commander of the formation is small;

numthree only, while

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retain a reserve in hand for a longer time. The higher formations are the brigade, the division, the army corps, and, in war, the army. The brigade is composed of one arm only, the others of all arms. In European armies the infantry

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that can convenieritly be commanded and administered by one headquarters. The student who wishes to make a closer examination of the arguments on this question is referred to the chapter on “Order of Battle” in the second book of Clausewitz’s famous work On War. The normal number of units in a group is three or four, and the relative merits of the “triangle” or “square” as a tactical formation have been widely discussed. The principle of economy of force is often best served by the “triangle,” i.e., two units in front line with a third behind ready to add its weight at the most favourable point; but the “square,” in which the two front-line units have two units behind them, certainly facilitates reliefs in the battle and enables the superior commander to

~ i es oes

brigade in 1914 consisted of two regiments (six battalions) with a total of 6,000 to 7,000 combatants at war strength. The cavalry brigade consisted of two regiments, with a war strength of from 1,500 to 2,000. The artillery brigade comprised two regiments (12 batteries), some 2,500 to 3,000 men. The British infantry brigade of four battalions and the artillery brigade of four batteries corresponded with the Continental regiment of those arms; the cavalry brigade was of three regiments, but, since the regiments were smaller, its war strength was approximately the same as that of the Continental cavalry brigade. The commander of a brigade was on the Continent usually a major-general, in the British army a brigadier-general (but the artillery brigade was a lieutenant-colonel’s command). Divisions were of two kinds. A cavalry division included a staff, two (exceptionally three) brigades of cavalry, some batteries of horse artillery, a detachment of engineers, and occasionally a battalion of light infantry, with a total strength approaching 5,000. An ordinary division (sometimes termed an infantry division) is the smallest body fully organized for the conduct of an operation of war, complete with all arms and with all the necessary administrative services. In all the principal European armies the basis was the same, two brigades of infantry (12 battalions, in Russia 16). The main difference between the divisions of various armies lay in the allotment of artillery. Thus, while the German division had 72 guns, the Russian had 48, the French 36 and the Austrian only 24. These discrepancies did not necessarily mean a much smaller total proportion of artillery; they indicated rather a difference in organization. Thus in the French and Austrian armies a larger portion of the artillery was

[WORLD Wap

left at the disposal of the army corps. Practically all divisions h some cavalry allotted to them, usually a regiment; and al] had

detachment of engineers. The division was self-contained in as ministrative services, and its total strength varied from about 17,000 to 20,000 men. The British division had the same numbe of battalions (12), but they were organized in three brigades i

four battalions each; the number of guns was vo.

i

Some armies—the Japanese, British and Belgian, for instance— had no higher organization than the division. The views of Jomin

and Clausewitz were that this was suitable for armies up a 100,000 men.

But all the larger armies were organized into army

corps both in peace and in war. The normal army corps consisted

of two divisions, a varying

quantity

of artillery and certain

technical and administrative units. The Russian army corps in. cluded a division of cavalry. In numbers, the army corps amount-

ed to something over 40,000 men all told. It was held to represent

the largest body of troops that could march along a single road and come into action in one day. The commander was a lieu-

tenant-general. It will be noticed that the normal European organization—two regiments to a brigade, two brigades to a division, two divisions to an army corps—violated the principle

enunciated at the beginning of this section that a group should consist of not less than three units. The brigade was, tactically an unnecessary link, and the divisional commander could haye handled the four regiments direct. The disadvantages of organizing the corps into two divisions was recognized, but it was held that a corps of three divisions would be too cumbersome a body for open warfare and would necessitate two roads being allotted

to a corps on the march. The development of mechanical trans. port was, however, modifying this view. Finally, the size of the military forces of the Great Powers made necessary a further organization in war, the grouping of army corps into armies. These did not exist in peace and thei composition in war was kept secret. Whereas the other higher formations were uniform in their composition, the composition of an army was variable, dependent on the strategical plan. It might include from three to six corps. The Japanese in Manchuria formed armies of a number of divisions, omitting the army corps link. It may here be mentioned that a uniform organization of divisions and army corps, while greatly facilitating command and staff work, assists the enemy’s intelligence service to compile a correct order of battle. Napoleon for this reason always strictly avoided regularity in the organization of his forces, and his corps varied very widely in strength. = |

ARMIES IN THE, WORLD

WAR

46. Developments in Armament.—Of the developments in the’ constitution of armies during the World War—to be considered under the three headings: armament, personnel and organization—those

in armament

were

the most

considerable.

The progress made in aviation during the years 1914-18 introduced into warfare a completely new factor, as radical in its effects as the invention of gun-powder, but far more rapid and disturbing in its development. {This subject is dealt with in the

articles Arr Forces, Arr Warrare. }Of the weapons already in existence at the outbreak of hostilfties, the machine gun became the “key” weapon of the war. It was the deadliness of the machine

gun in defence, protected by entrenchment and barbed wire, that led to the prolonged stagnation on the Western Front. The Germans were the first to realize the potentialities of the machine gun, and throughout the war used it more effectively than any other combatant. The rapid and accurate rifle fire of the original British Expeditionary Force in the opening engagements had almost the stopping effect of machine gun fire, but subsequent reinforce: ments could not be trained up to this standard and rifle fire declined in value. The light automatic gun, of which the Lewis gu ee further increased is a typel(see INFANTRY AND SMALL the volume of fire delivered by infantry and strengthened the de fence. The problem for which the attackers sought a solution

throughout the war was to subdue the fire of the defenders machine guns and automatic weapons sufficiently to enable the infantry to advance and occupy the position. The first solution

WORLD WAR]

ARMY

AIL

attempted was to crush resistance by weight of artillery fire. The | dustry and invention were mobilized to make munitions; the Press number of field guns was increased, high-explosive shell was largely —after some gropings and perplexities—was enlisted to spread substituted for shrapnel, and great quantities of heavy artillery propaganda; chemistry was recruited to seek new poisons or their with calibres from 6in. to 18in. were brought into the field. The antidotes, and so forth. Women took a great part in many war

lected front of attack was subjected to a prolonged bombard-

activities. For armies which had a compulsory service system in peace advanced. But it was found that this solution, even when suc- the keeping of the ranks filled was a comparatively simple affair, cessful in annihilating the enemy, defeated its own ends by so even though the war wastage was far heavier than had ever been ploughing up the ground as to render any rapid advance or ex- contemplated. Interest for the military student lies rather in the ploitation of success impossible. Weight of material failed even methods adopted by those nations which had to form new armies, as bad weight of man power. The solution eventually found to Great Britain and her Dominions and, later, the United States. the problem was the introduction of an entirely new weapon, the Once again the plain teaching of history, that it is better to extank. The invention of this bullet-proof vehicle, armed with light pand an existing force, than to create an entirely fresh one, was quick-firing guns or machine guns or both, and capable of moving disregarded. Lord Haldane, the creator of the Territorial Force, across country on caterpillar tracks, stands to the credit of the had rightly intended that any expansion of the national forces British. It first appeared on the battlefield in Sept. 1916, but it should be carried out through the agency of the same organization ‘the Territorials; z.e., the County Associations. was not till nearly two years later that its influence became de- that administered cisive.{A full account of this weapon, of its development and of But Lord Kitchener, who became War Minister at the outbreak of war, decided to create an entirely new force. So far as essential its tactical employment, will be found in the article TANKS. 3 The other new weapon to which the World War gave birth was fighting value was concerned, the decision made little difference, poisonous gas (see CHEMICAL WARFARE j frst used by the but many difficulties of administration would have been avoided Germans in April r915 in violation of international law, and sub- had the medium of the County Associations been used. A majority sequently by all the combatants. The gases used were of several of the Territorial Force, which in peace enlisted for home service kinds, asphyxiating, lachrymatory or vesicant, and were dis- only, at once accepted a liability for service abroad. So that the charged by means of cylinders, projectors or shells. Gas added British had three types of units serving in the war: the Regular, many complications to a war already complex. Troops were com- the Territorial, and the New Army. Another axiom in raising large pelled to add to their growing burden of equipment a respirator, forces, that every available trained officer or non-commissioned which they had frequently to wear for long periods, during which officer should be retained to instruct the new levies, was also unspeech and vision were restricted and eating or drinking impos- fulfilled. The engagement of the first seven divisions of the regular sible. A persistent gas, such as mustard gas (the most effective army in the forefront of the fight was of course necessary; and of the war gases), rendered the area over which it was spread the loss of the flower of the nation’s trained men in the first battles untenable without heavy casualties, since it penetrated the cloth- was unavoidable. But in the winter of 1914-15 many priceless lives ing and severely blistered the skin. Another innovation was the were squandered in the mud of the trenches which might have use of smoke projected by shells as a protective screen. The aim been preserved to guide and instruct the new armies. The United States and the British Dominions had similar probwas so to dispose a cloud of smoke as to blind the enemy without hampering the movements of one’s own troops. Smoke was often lems of raising large forces with a very small nucleus of trained an effective weapon, but not an easy one to use. Its introduction instructors. The circumstances of the conflict were singularly further complicated the problem of ammunition supply for field favourable to the birth and upbringing of these new armies. The guns, which at the opening of the war had relied almost entirely deadlock in the main theatre gave time for their training to be on the man-killing projectile, shrapnel, but at the close might be completed, and the sedentary conditions of trench warfare allowed

ment designed to destroy all hostile resistance before the infantry

them to be introduced to their new trade gradually, instead of being thrust at once into the open field, as were the French levies of 1871, for example. When the newly created forces were thus gradually broken in to their work they soon became efficient. It was found that drafts to replace wastage could be incorporated into seasoned units after a very few weeks’ training, but then no high standard of manoeuvre was demanded of the troops on the Western Front. As to compulsion in recruiting, Great Britain passed reluctantly to conscription—via national registration and the Derby Scheme—at the beginning of 1916; Canada clung to the voluntary principle till May 1917, and Australia throughout mimicry, camouflage. Lastly may be mentioned a weapon not the war; the United States passed a compulsory service act on made with hands, aimed at the mind, not at the body, no soldier’s nenentry into the struggle. eat 48. Developments in Organization.—The war period, while weapon but a deadly one, propaganda. Propaganda declaring the high destiny of the nation, the invincibility of her army, the itHecessitated continual modifications, additions and adjustments Justice of any course her ruler set, had been part of the German in detail, produced no organic change in the general framework peace preparation for a war. In the closing stages of the war on which armies were built. The most radical departure was made subversive propaganda, which aimed at convincing the German late in the war by the British, when they decided to separate their air force from the navy and army and to form it into a separate people and German army of the hopelessness_of their positio did much to hasten the collapse of Germany. | (See PROPAGANDA. ) { service. This will be discussed later, since its full significance only came to light when the World War was over. In the proG: [he Man Power Problem.—The assumption under whic the‘nations took-the field in 1914’ was that the conflict would be portion of arms the chief features were the increase in artillery, ashort one and would be decided before the reserves of young which rose to about ten guns per 1,000 rifles, and the decline of trained men had all been drafted into the front line and before the cavalry, which found little scope in the European theatres, though stock of munitions held in peace had all been exhausted. The the campaigns in Palestine and Mesopotamia showed that the Germans did in fact nearly win the war at the outset by virtue of day of the mounted man was by no means over. Infantry rethe superior peace organization which enabled them to place mained in name the principal arm, but it was a lame and overReserve Corps (formed from surplus reservists) in the field at burdened infantry, only able to hobble forward on the crutches once. But their first thrust failed, the expectation of a short war of artillery and tanks, and propped up by machine guns in dewas falsified, and before the end came practically every able- fence. |The platoon, reduced in size to some 30 men, became the bodied citizen of the principal belligerents was engaged on war tactical Unit in battle. The British made their machine gunners Work. War ceased to be an affair of the armed forces alone; in- into a separate corps, as they did also their tank personnel. In called on to fire gas shell, smoke shell, high explosive or shrapnel. There is space only for the merest catalogue of the other military novelties which four years of intensive killing provoked. Some were applications to warlike purposes of recent scientific discoveries, such as the improvements in wireless telegraphy and in mechanical transport, sound-ranging apparatus to locate hostile guns, artillery to fire at aeroplanes, and so forth. Others were expedients dug out of rusty old wars and furbished up for modern use: such -were the grenade, the mortar, the flame-thrower, minIng, and the use of the carrier-pigeon for inter-communication. From the animal world the soldier borrowed the art of protective

412

ARMY

other armies the machine guns remained an integral part of the infantry or cavalry arm. In the artillery the French four-gun battery was almost universally adopted, although the British returned to the six-gun battery before the end of the war owing to the shortage of battery commanders. The proportion of the rearward services to the fighting troops grew abnormally with the static nature of the war. An enormous organization sprang up at the bases and behind the lines to supply the multifarious require-

ments in warlike stores and to minister to the comfort of the

[RECENT

those of the five Powers) train on the assumption that itWill be

used in war, and maintain experimental establishment S to teg new methods of gas warfare and the guards against them.

50. Military Forces in 1928.—The armies of the defeated

nations—Germany, Austria and Bulgaria—have been strictly lim

ited by the terms of the peace treaties. The numbers to betain.

tained in peace are fixed at a low figure (Germany, forinstance is allowed to maintain only 100,000); recruiting must he ona

voluntary basis; the term of service must be for not less than 1)

troops. New and strange units were formed for such tasks as salvage of derelict material, cleaning and disinfecting the clothing of soldiers from the trenches, camouflage, meteorological forecasts and the like. Out of the United States army of a little over

years—to prevent a large reserve being built up as was done by Prussia under Napoleon’s restrictions; aircraft, tanks and hea’

2,000,000 at the time of the Armistice, over 650,000 were employed on the communications; that is, for every two men in the front line there was one on the communications. !The composition and functions of the division, the army corps and the army underwent no greater changes than followed naturally from the stagnancy of the operations. Corps usually consisted of three, sometimes of four, divisions; and the tendency was to group the bulk of the artillery under corps control, giving the divisional artillery only a limited independence. On the whole it may be said that the organization conceived in peace stood the test of war well. The British, who had had no higher organization in peace than the division, adopted a corps organization immedi-

posed are too severe to enable the defeated nations to Contribute

ately on taking the field in 1914,1 ARMIES SINCE THE WAR

149. General Tendencies.—Since the end of the World War

artillery are forbidden. Defeat is a more fertile mother of reforms than victory, but for the present at least the limitations thus in. much to military progress. Great Britain and the United States have returned, like swords

dropping back into their scabbards, to their former systems—a small professional army in first line and a half-trained citizen force

in second line, both recruited on the voluntary pranciple. The French army has become the most powerful in existence, and the model for the armies of the new States—Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. The most noticeable post-war development in these conscript armies has been the shortening of the term of

service. Whereas in 1914 the normal period of active service in the standing army was three years, it is now but a year anda half

and France is even reducing her term to one year. This involves a

corresponding reduction of the effectives maintained in peace, The shortening of the term of colour service will naturally prejudice the efficiency of the first-line forces and will thus lessen

the prospects of a war of movement and manoeuvre, of which in

thé strength and composition of armies have been the result modern conditions only highly trained troops are capable. Thus more of the immediate necessities—of which financial considera- the influence of even a small, but really efficient, professional tions have been most instant—than of constructive vision for the force will be greatly enhanced in a conflict between these shortfuture. So that the armies of to-day differ from those of 1914 in service armies. detail rather than in principle. There has been a great increase fie is of interest to note that the organization by “twos” (see of fire-power, but the power of offensive movement has corre- para. 45 above) has been practically in every case abandoned in spondingly declined. The unarmoured foot-soldier, moving at the favour of an organization by “threes.” Thus the French division foot-soldier’s pace, still remains the corner-stone on which the or- now consists of three regiments, each of three battalions, each

ganization is built, and the aim of post-war development has been of three companies (the brigade link having disappeared). The rather to contrive means of getting him forward in despite of normal army corps is now of three divisions. The artillery of a modern fire-power than to discover any substitute to take his French division numbers 60 guns, and a squadron of aeroplanes, place as the assaulting arm on the battlefield. Tanks have been a company of balloons and a squadron of cavalry are included in developed as a support to the infantry rather than as a separate it. The French have reorganized their cavalry into light divisions, arm with a rôle of their own. One expedient, which has been the which comprise three brigades of cavalry (of two regiments each), subject of much study, has been to devise some form of artillery three squadrons of armoured cars (12 cars each), six batteries of able to follow in close support of the leading infantry and to deal artillery and some cyclists, the whole formation amounting to at short range with hostile resistance. But so far no satisfactory some 10,000 men. The army of the Russian Soviets, while organized generally weapon or means of transport has been found. Another tendency is to reduce the number of men exposed in the firing line, since upon conventional lines, has some peculiar features of its own. lt with automatic weapons fire effect can be obtained with fewer consists of regular forces and territorial forces, corresponding to men, thus offering a smaller target. But the fundamental prob- the same categories in the British army, but recruited by conscriplem of restoring to infantry the power of manoeuvre and mobility tion. A feature of the law of military service is the “pre-conscripwhich was lost during the war has not been hopefully solved by tion training” from the age of 16 to 20. The special body of any existing organization. The proportion of cavalry has been re- troops under the Political Department (Ogpu), intended for the duced in all armies, since aeroplanes and armoured cars have taken quelling of internal revolt and police work, has no counterpart In over a large part of the reconnaissance work formerly done by other armies (except in the Fascist militia of Italy). The Russians mounted men and modern fire-power is held to deny them any make no secret of the importance they attach to chemical wareffective rôle on the battlefield. fare nor of the value they set on propaganda as a substitute for

No other nation except Italy has yet followed Great Britain’s armed force.” lead in making the air arm into a separate service, and the arSpeaking generally, the greatest advance made by nations m rangement has been hotly challenged in Great Britain itself. From warlike preparation since the close of the World War has been the point of view of the older services, the navy and the army, not in the organization of the army so much as in the arrange: it is of course a complication and a hindrance that their essential ments for the mobilization of the nation itself. Industrial mobilirequirements in air co-operation should be controlled by another zation has become a leading feature of all plans to meet the service. The justification for the separate existence of the air emergency of a fresh war. N lzi. The Future of Armies—The possibility of reducing force lies in the conviction held by the majority of those best qualified to judge that independent action by the air arm may armies and armaments to the lowest possible limitations is the be decisive in a future conflict. most discussed international problem of the day. [The subject 18 The weapon of gas occupies an equivocal position in the military dealt with elsewhere (see Leacue or Narions and DISARMA-

world at present. It was officially denounced at the Washington

Conference Kees 1922, and the five Powers there represented agreed to its prohibition. Yet practically all armies (including

MENT), and only a brief reference to some of the inherent dificulties will here be given.) War now involves the whole resources

of a state, some of whith are obviously not limitable, such 4

ARMY

413

ulation, industrial and financial strength, raw material, and so | Chastenet, Viscount de Puységur, Les Mémoires de Messire J. de C.

forth. This leads to the first great cleavage of opinion, between (1690) and Art de la Guerre (1748) ; Maurice de Saxe, Les Réveries, ou Mémoires sur ?Art de la Guerre (La Haye, 1756-59; Eng. trans. those who hold that limitation can only be applied to factors by Sir W. Fawcett, 1757); J. L. A. Colin, Les Campagnes du Maréchal which actually can be limited (such as numbers maintained in de Saxe, 2 pt. (1901-04); Frederick the Great, Des Königs von

the standing army in peace, reserves of trained men and of war material immediately available, and so forth) and those who insist that the ultimate war strength of a nation must be taken into account in calculating the armaments which it is entitled to

maintain in peace. These latter argue that the greater the ultimate resources the less the need for armaments in peace, and vice verso—a questionable line of argument, since a nation might

be utterly ruined by a sudden blow before it had time to develop its resources. Other difficulties lie in finding an agreed standard

of comparison between, say, a long-service volunteer force and a short-service conscript force, or between a battalion of tanks and a regiment of cavalry; in reducing to a common denominator the amounts actually spent by the various nations on their armed forces; and in arranging for any system of supervision and in-

vestigation into each country’s preparations for war. On the whole no general limitation of armies by international agreement is in

sight at present. This brief survey of the evolution of modern armies may fitly

be closed by some mention of a development that holds out hope

of ending stagnation in the battlefield and of restoring to military forces, freed from the dull obsession for mere numbers, full play for manoeuvre in an open field. The adaptation of the petrol engine to war uses at first served no better purpose than to cumber the battlefield with more men and heavier material. Armies were closer bound to their communications than ever, and the areas in rear of the fighting line were crowded with masses of mechanical transport, confined to the roads and very vulnerable to air attack. A realization of the possibilities of mechanical

Preussen Majestat Unterricht von der Kriegskunst an seine Generalen (Frankfurt and Leipzig, 1761; Fr. trans. by M. Faesch as Instruction Militaire, Frankfurt and Leipzig, 1761); Die Kriege Friedrichs des Grossen, Official Publication (Berlin, 1890-1920); Thomas Carlyle, Frederick the Great (1858-65) ; D. A. Milyutin, History of the War of 1799 (St. Petersburg, 1852-57) ; A. T. Petrushefsky, Generalissimus K. Suvorof (St. Petersburg, 1884); G. J. D. von Scharnhorst, Taschenbuch zum Gebrauch im Felde (Hanover, 1794; Fr. trans. by M. A. Fourcy as Trazté sur l’Artillerie, 1840-43), and Scharnhorsts Briefe (ed. K. Linnebach, Munich and Leipzig, 1914) ; Charles, Archduke of Austria, Grundsatze der Kriegskunst (1814), and Militärische Werke (Vienna, 1862; reprinted 1893); A. H. de Jomini, Traité der grandes Operations Militaires, 3 vols. (1806; Eng. trans. by S. B. Holabird, New York, 1865), and Précis de la Guerre (1837-56; Eng. trans. by W. P. Craighill, Philadelphia, 1868); C. von Clausewitz, Vom Kriege (1832-33; Eng. trans. rev. by J. J. Graham, as On War, 3 vols., ed. F. N. Maude, 1908) ; W. von Willisen, Theorie des Grossen Krieges, 4 vols. (1840-68); E. Bonnal, Carnot d’aprés les Archives Nationales (1888) ; L. H. Carnot, Mémoires sur Lazare Carnot, 1753-1824, 2 vols. (1907) ; C. Mathiot, Vie, Opinions et Pensées (1916) ; L. N. M. Carnot, De la Défense des places fortes (1812); H. C. B. von Moltke, FrancoGerman War (London, 1891), Schriften, 3 vols. (1895-1900), and Military Correspondence, First Section (Oxford, 1923); B. E. Palat, La Stratégie de Moltke (1907) ; V. B. Derrécagaix, La Guerre Moderne, 3 pt. (1885; Eng. trans. by C. W. Foster as Modern War, 2 pt., Washington, 1888); L. A. F. von Falkenhausen, Der grosse Krieg der Jetztzeit (1909); H. L. D. Yorck von Wartenburg, Napoleon als Feldherr, 2 vols. (1885-86; Eng. trans. as Napoleon as General in The Wolseley Series, ed. W. H. James, 1902); E. Hamley, Operations of War (1866, new ed. 1923); J. F. Canonge, Histoire et art militaire (Brussels, 1904-

07); C. J. J. Ardant du Picq, Etudes de Combat (1903; Eng. trans.

HI., Histoire de Jules César (1865-66, Eng. trans. by T. Wright 1865-

by J. N. Greeley and R. C. Cotton as Battle Studies, New York, 1921) ; J. L. A. Colin, L’Education Militaire de Napoleon (1900), and Transformations de la Guerre (1911; Eng. trans. by L. H. R. Pope-Hennessey, 1912); L. Maillard, Eléments de la Guerre (1891); C. W. H. von Blume, Strategie (1882), and Die Grundlagen unserer Wehrkraft (1899); W. von Scherff, Von der Kriegfiihrung (1883) ; A. von Boguslawski, Betrachtung über Heerwesen und Kriegsführung (1897); Kraft Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, Strategische Briefe (1887; Eng. trans. in The Wolseley Series, ed. W. H. James, 2 vols., 1897—98) ; Von Schlichting, Taktische und Strategische Grundsätze der Gegenwart, 3 vols. (189799); J. L. Lewal, Stratégie de Marche (1893), Stratégie de Combat (1895), and Plan de Combat (1901); A. A. Grouard, Maximes de Guerre de Napoléon (1897, new ed. 1898), and Les Batailles de Napoleon (1900); C. von der Goltz, Das Volk in Waffen (1883; Eng. trans. by P. A. Ashworth as The Nation in Arms, new ed. 1907), Kriegsfihrung (1895; Eng. trans. by G. F. Leverson as The Conduct of War, 1899), Von Jena bis Pr. Eylau (1907; Eng. trans. by C. F. Atkinson as From Jena to Pr. Eylau in The Wolseley Series, ed. W. H. James, 1913), and Rossbach und Jena (1883); A. Leer, Strategy (in Russian, St. Petersburg, 1869; German trans. by E. Opatit as Positive Strategie, 1871) ; G. A. B. Bonnal, L’Esprit de la guerre moderne (1903, 3rd ed. 1905); F. Foch, Des Principes de la guerre (1903; Eng. trans. by Hilaire Belloc, 1918), and Conduite de la Guerre (1904, 3rd ed. 1915). See also works of Xenophon; Polybius; Aelian; Arrian, Vegetius; Caesar; Plutarch; Le Prestre de Vauban; Anton de Pas, Marquis de Feuquières; J. C. de Folard; C. T. Guischardt; P. G. Joly de Maizeroy; Prince de Ligne; Napoleon, 1. For the present state and problems of armies: C. von der Goltz, The Nation in Arms (Eng. trans. by P. A. Ashworth, new ed. 1907) ; H. Foster, Organization (1911); W. Balck, Development of Tactics, World War (Eng. trans. by H. Bell, 1922). The following have a more general appeal and a more original outlook: J. F. C. Fuller, The Reformation of War (1923); J. B. S.

Caesars Commentarien (Gotha, 1857); F. Guillaume de Vauduncourt, Histoire des campagnes d’Annibal en Italie, 3 vol. (Milan, 1812); J. L. A. Colin, Annibal en Gaule (1904); B. H. Liddell Hart, A Greater

Liddell Hart, Paris: or the future of War (1925), and The Remaking of Modern Armies (1927) ; League of Nations Armaments Year Book (Geneva, 1924, etc.).

de Beaurain, Histoire des dernières Campagnes du Maréchal Turenne en

Sciences Militaires: French, Revue Militaire Francaise; German, Militär Wochenblatt; Austrian, Strefleurs, with which was amalgámated the Organ des Militär Wissenschaft. Vereins. See also biographical headings and articles dealing with the separate arms, etc. See further the section Defence under different countries for an account of their armies. (X.)

movement across country has opened up fresh horizons to the eyes of some. Briefly put, cross-country mechanical movement

reintroduces into warfare two factors which have long been absent—protection by armour, which the bullet had rendered useless several centuries before, and shock action by mounted men as the principal means of decision on the battlefield; for assaults by armoured fighting vehicles are, tactically, merely a revival of the charges of heavy cavalry, which were once the culmination of a pitched battle. Further, cross-country movement confers, to a great degree, independence of a fixed line of communications, so that the way of a mechanized force may be as “the way of a ship in the midst of the sea.” There are of course very many difficulties to be overcome before complete mechanized forces, in

armoured vehicles, become realities of war. But the problem is being closely studied and experiments are being made in several armies. From them may be born a David to slay Goliath. (A. P. W.) x BrstiocraPHY.—A large proportion of the works mentioned below are concerned mainly with the development of strategy and tactics. I. For the past constitution, organization and evolution of armies: F. C. von Lossau, Ideale der Kriegführung (1836-43); Desclaisons, Précis des Histoires d’Alexandre-le-Grand et Jules César, 2 vol.

(1784); F. C. Liskenne and J. B. B. Sauvan, Bibliothèque Historique et Militaire, 7 vol. (1851-53; with atlas, etc., 2 pt., 1862) ; Napoleon

66); H. A. T. Köchly and F. W. Rüstow, Einleitung zu C. Julius

Haldane, Callinicus: a defence of Chemical Warfare (1925); B. H.

The principal general military periodicals are: English, Royal United than Napoleon—Scipio Africanus (1926); C. Oman, A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages (1924) ; Machiavelli, Libro dell’ Arte Service Institution, Journal (1857, etc.) and The Army Quarterly (1920, etc.) ; American, Infantry Journal; Belgian, Bulletin Belge des di Guerra (Florence, 1521; Eng. trans. by P. Whitehorn, 1560-62); J.

1672-75 (1782); C. A. Neuber, Turenne als Kriegstheoretiker und

Feldherr (Vienna, 1869); Maréchal Turenne, Collection des lettres et

mémoires (ed, P. H. de Grimoard, 1782), and Mémoires publ. de la

Société de PHistoire de France

(1909); T. Longueville, Maréchal

Turenne (London, 1907) ; Eugene Francis, Prince of Savoy, Mémozres

(1810; Eng. trans. by W. Mudford, x811), and Militärische Korres-

MORALE IN WAR Modern conditions of war are gradually extending the domain Guibert, Oeuvres Militaires: Essai général de tactique (Liege, 1733; of morale and increasing its influence. For, among belligerent Ene. trans. by Lieut. Douglas, 1781) ; A. F. Fuchs, Briefe an den Feldnations, war affects a greater number of people and does so with marschall Grafen Montecuccolli, Gesellschaft fiir neuere Geschichte Sterreichs Verdffentlichungen, vol. ii. (Vienna, 1910); J. M. P. methods of increasing violence. pondenzg (ed. F. Heller, 1848); T. S. Baldork, Cromwell as a Soldier

(1899); F. Hoenig, Oliver Cromwell, 3 vols. (1887-89); J. A. H. de

ARMY

4.14 I, THE SOLDIER

a spirit which must be imbued with the highest feelings, and

IN THE RANKS

In battle, an enemy’s long-range guns make their effects felt as far back as 5, 10 or 15m., and, as they are capable of rapid firing, their effects become formidable to troops even at distances. Difficulty in seeing their objective does not limit powers, for they are aided by aeroplanes which inform them cerning the situation of their objective and the results of

[MORALE

those their contheir

fire. At lesser distances they are supported by light artillery in large numbers, mobile, and capable of making the most advantageous use of chance features of the ground over the whole of the

area at their command; and further support comes from machineguns, which, of light weight and slender dimensions, can penetrate everywhere to equip in a short time the whole of the terrain. Range of Fire—It follows, then, that the soldier who approaches the battlefield and advances to carry the enemy posi-

tion, finds that, at great range and over an extremely wide extent —that is to say during a long space of time—he is exposed to a

heavy fire, the effects of which are multiplied in severity the farther he advances to the position. Frequently, before being able to advance, he is forced to wait until, thanks to supplies of

matériel, cannon, trench mortars and machine-guns, his army has gained a mastery of the fire, and the destructive capacity of the adversary has been thus reduced. In this time of waiting hours succeed hours, nights follow days, and weeks go by, always under the rain of steel from the enemy. It is under incessant bombardment that the march to victory has to be resumed and continued. Rarely is the battle decided in one day, And the nervous tension, the crisis imposed on the combatant, lasts the same time. During all this wearing period he

must fulfil, automatically and often left to his own resources, his function as soldier, marksman, machine-gunner, pioneer, link in the chain of intelligence, carrier of supplies, and so on. That is to say this function must be part of his own nature, and to fulfil it he must have received a serious training. Interception of Supplies.—Furthermore, bombardment spreads its havoc no less widely on the rear of the battle-front, cuts communications, prevents the arrival of supplies. Not only has the combatant to show a bold face to the danger which

quickened with them, a spirit proved in the crucible of discipline The soldier of our national armies has drawn the spirit of sacrifice, the sentiment of discipline and duty, from love of his country, from attachment to the family as to the race, and from the indispensable military training, which left its strongest impression. Of this he gives proof in action by strict obedience to orders. But let there be no mistake; he conserves and maintains these virtues in lasting fashion only in proportion as the con. manders have won his confidence by the care with which they surround his daily life; only in proportion as they know how ty conserve that life by their vigilant economy of his blood.

As a whole, the war of the present day demands of the soldier a moral greatness and a professional training, both developed in very high degree. The conservation of those forces, a conservation

which alone can assure victory, is incumbent on the commanding officer. And in this way the rôle and responsibility of the officer expand in an exceptional degree, and grow sharply defined

especially in battle.

i

I. THE OFFICER

In the course of any action of necessarily long duration, the officer can conserve the value of his unit, section, company or battalion, only by protecting it from the disasters which are continually menacing it, and by leading it step by step to the goal, to

the final objective which has been assigned to it by the higher command, and the gaining of which constitutes for it the victory, He cannot confine himself to being a daring soldier, superior to his subordinates by his courage and personal example. He must show himself to be constantly dominated and impelled by a double preoccupation: to avoid the destruction of his unit and to bring

it nearer its objective, He is preoccupied to avoid its destruction, because he is in the presence of an armament

capable, by suddenly inflicted

losses, of destroying the unit, or at least of shattering its morale for a long time, if adequate precautions have not been taken in time. Hence springs the necessity that he should be familiar with

threatens him, but he often finds himself reduced to a most pre-

the dispositions appropriate to this continual menace, and that he should be able to order and put readily into practice these dispositions, which by his selection of rendezvous, his tactical forma-

haustion comes to be added to nervous shock, and the severity

tions, by hastily constructed earthworks or by any other procedure, keep the troops halted under cover from the observation, projectiles or poison-gas of the enemy.

carious existence; along with the rigours of nights in the open he has to put up with shortage of supplies. And thus physical exof the ordeal is heightened. Tenacity and Endurance.—In the wars of the past, movement and enthusiasm, the qualities of dash and courage and personal pride, could suffice the soldier in a moment of intoxication to meet, with brilliance, the crisis of collision with the enemy. But to-day, if he is to traverse the long road of the hell which is the modern battle and reach a decision, he must possess an unbreakable tenacity and an energy ready for any sacrifice, and both must be unwavering for long days on end. To what greatness of soul must we not appeal, then, to see the emergence of virtues so solid, so tenacious, so generous? We must leave the

answer to the soldiers of the Marne and Yser, Ypres and Verdun. Further, who can forget the moving spectacle of the British leave-trains returning to the front during the World War? The men were accompanied to the station by a silent throng composed for the most part of women and children. A few handkerchiefs furtively sought the eyes of those who were left behind, especially when the train began to move off. On board the vessel at Dover, the returning men donned their life-saving waistcoats, and stood closely crowded together on deck, imprisoned in, their own thoughts. If, from a group here and there, came a song or a noisy demonstration, it was from young soldiers going out to

the front for the first time. The others remained impassive, silent,

gloomy and their eyes gave token of the cold energy, and the spirit of savage resolve on which they had fallen back. It was to

How many long hours will not troops have to pass in waiting, in preparation, before seeing the moment, for action arrive? How often has not the officer to provide for these secure dispositions? Yet in this situation the slightest negligence is unpardonable. At

that moment will appear all the vigilance and all the power of decision which the officer must bring to the field of action, in addition to the acquired knowledge and the experience, necessarily incom-

plete though this be, of manoeuvres. What is required of him, even at these moments, is the all-embracing eye, the sense of fitting opportunity and the gift of decision. Precision in Attack.—Then, the moment of action having atrived, the operations of the unit must be carried out without hesitation or disturbance, in the presence of an adversary who, flinging all his resources again into action, may be able to regain some of

his preponderance, to restore to his armament its formidable strength. That is to say, the operations must have been directed in all their details by a commanding officer who has previously assured himself of the participation of neighbouring troops, and has gauged as exactly as possible the position of the enemy whic he is approaching. To sum up, together with the feeling of readl-

ness for action called up by the receipt of orders, but before the

moment for action has come, it is by foresight and precision that an officer should be inspired and guided in his procedure. Without

these he steps into imprudence, and he draws his troops along with the cry of “Lusitania!” that they would soon be marching to him. They run the risk of not returning. He, and he alone, 1s to attack. Experience had taught them that mere knowledge of blame. Value of Experience.—Without going into the increased need their duties and a fine, fleeting ardour would not suffice to bear the long and bitter ordeal of the modern battle. They required

for technical knowledge resulting from the employment of ma-

415

ARMY

MORALE]

tériel, at once more various and more potent and also more delicate, the art of bringing troops on to the battlefield has assumed in our day a capital importance. Every officer ought to concern himself with this, and shape himself for it in time of peace as fully as he devotes himself to the instruction of his men, so that he may be able, when the great day comes, to present himself

armed with a certain peace-time experience, and armed above all with faculties well maintained, developed, and turned ever on the alert in the direction of the march toward the objective. He must be ready on that day to resolve the difficulties of this march,

difficulties which only the actual conditions will reveal to him, for peace gives no complete idea of the effects of modern weapons on a body of troops. War will bring him face to face with new problems, and will demand that he possess, over and above his

professional knowledge, the habit of reflection and prompt decision on fresh circumstances.

It is a habit which he will need to

have acquired during peace-time.

It is needless to remark that

these faculties of foresight, of adaptation to new problems, ought to be developed the more fully in an officer the higher his rank and the greater the instruments of control which are in For in this case his orders cover vast spaces, are laden far-reaching consequerices, and are more difficult to their execution. The moral forces and the capacities

his hands. with more

modify in which the

commander must bring to war, if he is to act in such a way that

negligence or imprudence, both always disastrous, may be avoided, have increased in notable proportions—even for the lower ranks. il. THE NATION

But war, to pursue the theme further, does not confine its ma-

terial and moral effects to the battlefields and the invaded regions. It extends them toward the rear, to populations which were formerly kept aloof from it by the barrier of distance. It spreads them

overseas in every direction, even to non-belligerents, and produces

the most complete upheaval. The Non-Combatants.—In the rear, not to speak of refugee populations fleeing before the ravages of invasion and terror sys-

tematically loosed in defiance of the laws of humanity, it is the women, the children and the aged who live in the emotions of the struggle, as a result of the facility and speed of communications; who undergo on occasion the stress of hostile bombardment from the air; who in any case suffer privations of every kind. This means that the field is open, in the heart of the country itself, to the most opposed sentiments and passions, as also to nervous

shock and physical exhaustion.

IV. THE

GOVERNMENT

To maintain and guide this sentiment during the days of the struggle, to exploit it and to extract victory from out of it, such is the task of the Government. In these days the Government must not be simply the representative of the interests of the country, but rather the expression of the passions which are animating it, and to that end the organizer of defence, the creator of the material resources, the arms, munitions, foodstuffs essential to the struggle, and the motive and inspiring power of the forces assembled on the field of operations. It must show itself a “war Government,” with an active and effective policy, taking a wide view of the ends which it is possible to attain, bearing in mind the means at its disposal. And it must be animated by the will always to augment those means to hasten those ends, while still maintaining, in the interior of the country, the spirit which does not disarm. It is obvious, then, that war calls for peculiar qualities in the statesmen who preside over it. Without these, it must inevitably end in impotence, or even defeat. V. CONCLUSION

To sum up, whether we are dealing with the soldier, the high command, the nation or the Government, in each of these divisions war demands an ever-increasing share of the moral forces whose close union and wise combination are alone capable of producing victory. It is to the insufficiency of certain of these forces, or to the lack of cohesion between them, that we must look to grasp and

explain the collapse, in the course of the last war, of certain Great Powers, and likewise of armies of formidable repute, which in so far as they themselves were concerned certainly did not fall short of that repute. (F. F.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Lhe most important works to be consulted are those of Marshal Foch himself: Des Principes de la guerre (1903), with English trans. by Hilaire Belloc (1918); De la conduite de la guerre (3rd ed., 1915); Préceptes et Jugements du Maréchal Foch; extraits de ses oeuvres, précédés dune étude sur la vie militaire du maréchal par A. Gasset (Nancy, 1919), with English trans. by Hilaire Belloc (1919). See also J. R. (ancien éléve de Vécole supérieure de guerre), Foch, Essai de psychologie militaire (1921); Emile Mayer, La psychologie du commandement: Avec plusieurs letires inédites du Maréchal Foch (1924); Ardant du Picq, Etudes sur le combat, Engl. trans. by J. F. C. Fuller, The Reformation of War (1923) and The Foundations

of a Science

of War; C. von der Goltz, The Nation in

Arms (Eng. trans. by P. A. Ashworth, new ed. 1907).

I. Chief Characteristics of the Armies of the Selected Countries

Duration of military

But, despite these difficulties,

service

the interior of the country must hold firm to the end, and, what is more, must maintain in foodstuffs, arms, and munitions, and support in energy of spirit, those who fight at the front. In its

System of recruiting voluntary or compulsory |Service with} of liabilservice the colours | ity to service in

Nature of

the army

united aspects, the country becomes and must remain, by its sentiments and its productive activity, the source of the warring capacity of the armies.

Thus, in the old Europe, each country is perforce the near

. | Permanent army

neighbour of powerful States, sees its warlike resistance measured by the degree of union between the interests and sentiments which

it comprises, by its jealous watch over its independence, by its progress toward that moral unity which is the essence of a nation, and consequently by the depth of its national sentiment. Only in these moral factors is to be found the energy which will resist

concussions of every kind, and will pursue, through ever-increasing sacrifices and through all the vicissitudes of the struggle, the. success of the enterprise which will liberate it, once and for all, from all its anguish. And if, among the States of the New World, where menace is less direct, the immediate danger does not demand the organization of territorial defence, a blow struck against the principles whereby they live will awaken the apprehensions of the peoples and, in community of sentiments, will arm them for the safe-guarding of their free civilization. In short, a sturdy

sentiment which binds the entire people as one, imposing itself upon them by the justice of their cause and the necessity for de-

fending it, is indispensable to the success of a modern war, for that alone is capable of obliging them to the privations and sacrifices which war entails.

Voluntary Compulsory j Voluntary j

Permanent army | Compulsory and militia Great Britain Permanent army Spain . . 5 United States ag

12 years 18 months 18 months 6 years 12 years 2-3-4 years

.

Sj

4

2-9 years 2 years I-3 years 2 years 2 years

Poland . Yugoslavia Czecho-

a %

2 years 18 months

Greece

A

35

K

Belgium

.

14 months 18 months 10-12-13 months 17 months

Japan.

Rumania

.

slovakia .

Portugal

3

Permanent iarmy

Voluntary Compulsory Voluntary Compulsory

and militia

Source: League of Nations Armaments Year-Book (1928).

ARMY-WORM—ARNALDUS

416

Il. Armed Strength of Certain Selected Nations in 1900 establish-

Militia and reserve

ment

forces

691,900 579,990 211,900 265,600 883,100 254,500 86,100 211,500 68,200

4,908,300

Peace

Germany

.

France

Italy . Austria-Hungary Russia Great Britain

Spain Turkey

United States

87,900

Japan

4,422,600

1,834,000 1,498,000

4,590,800

358,000 1,008,000 1,022,700 155,200

314,400

Pokal oak

strength

Germany . France Italy so Austria-Hungary Russia Great Britain Spain Turkey. United States Japan

Peace establish-

Militia and reserve

ment

forces

870,000 720,000* 250,000 390,000 1,290,000 254,500T II5,000 400,000 92,000 250,000

4,430,000 3,280,000 950,000 1,610,000 3,300,000

476,50

235,000 300,000 121,000 950,000

5:473:900 612,500 1,094,100 1,234,200 223,400 402,300

wings, brownish-gray in colour, and having a single small white

1,763,600

Total war

strength 5,300,000

4,000,000 1,200,000 2,000,000 4,590,000

731,000 350,000 700,000 213,000 1,200,000

Germany

.

France Italy .

Austria Hungary . . U.S.S.R. (Russia) Great Britain . Spain. Turkey . . United States . Japan

Militia and reserve

ment

forces

100,000 777,000 250,000

30,000 35,000 1,300,000 182,000 217,000 120,000 146,000 300,000

Total war

strength

3,500,000

205,000 700,000 800,000 227,500 1,700,000

5:177,000

2,600,000 30,000 35,000 4,800,000 387,000 917,000 920,000 373,500 2,000,000

V. Armed Strength of Certain Selected Nations in 1928 Nation

Germany . France Italy Austria Hungary . . U.S.S.R. (Russia) Great Britain . Spain } United States . Japan Rumania . Poland Yugoslavia Czechoslovakia Greece Belgium Portugal Denmark . Finland . Netherlands Norway

Sweden Switzerland Turkey

*Estimated. {1927 figures.

Peace establish-

Militia and reserve

ment

forces

100,000 666,900 346,900 30,000 35,000 698, 100

212,000 218,600T 136,000 210,000 266,000 244,400T 142,000 120,000T 79,600 71,000 34,900 15,355 20,700 18,600 24,405

13,000 170,000 90,000

otai war

strength 100,000

5 ,000,000* 2,995,000 5,425,000 306,000

1,853,000

296,900

2,038,000 750,000

1,200,000 1,509,700 415,000

500,000 372,000 425,000 420,000 700,000

390,500 735,000 432,000 575,000

spot near the centre of the front pair of wings. This moth lays

its eggs on the under side of blades of grass, or grass-like grain preferring marshes and low spots. There the worms hatch and grow rapidly.

The greed and capacity of the full grown worm

for food is most remarkable. When an army is at work ina field the champing of the jaws may be plainly heard as they devou every tender green blade in sight. When the worms have exhausted the food in the vicinity of their breeding place, they mass to. gether and march (hence the name army-worm) in search of new fields. It is usually in this stage that they are first discovered If noticed in their younger stages the army-worm may be destroyed by burning the infested spot or by spraying heavily with a mixture of Paris green in the ratio of 1 lb. to so gal. of water. Spraying poison in their line of march is also useful but a more certain method is to plow around the infested area throwing the earth toward the army so that the worms will have difficulty climbing the opposite and perpendicular side of the

furrow and will crawl along the bottom instead. Here they may

be destroyed by crushing, or by digging post holes about every 20 ft. in the furrow bottom, into which they will fall. Crude coal oil or petroleum can then be poured into the post hole. “The True Army Worm and its Control” (U.S. Dept. of Agri., Farmers

Bulletin No. 731, 1916); H. H. Knight, “The Army-worm in New York”? (Cornell Agri. Exp. Sta., Bulletin No. 376, 1916) ; H. T. Fernald,

“The Army-worm”

100,000

4,400,000 2,350,000

sometimes to forage crops. The fully developed parent of the army-worm is a moth measuring about 14 in. across the expanded

See A. Gibson, “The Army-worm” (Dominion of Canada, Dept. of Agri., Entomological Branch, Bulletin No. 9, 1915); W. R. Walton,

IV. Armed Strength in 1922 Peace establish-

ARMY-WORM (Ciphis unipuncta or Leucania unipunes of the family Noctuidae) is a small striped green. and a naked, caterpillar, found chiefly in the United States and Canady east of the Rocky Mountains, but also in New Mexico, Arizona California and in some parts of South America. From time ?

time it becomes enormously destructive to growing cereals and

*Including colonial forces. +Excluding Indian militia.

Nation

NOVA

5,600,200 5,002,500 2,045,900

III. Armed Strength on the Eve of the World War (1913) Nation

DE VILLA

5,666,900 3:341,900 30,000 35,000 6,123,100 518,000 2,071,600

432,900

2,248,000 1,016,000 244,400 1,342,000 1,629,700

494,600

571,000 406,900 440,300

550,000 719,000

415,000

748,000 602,000 665,000

(Mass. Bd. of Agri., 62nd Ann. Rept., 1915).

ARNAL, ETIENNE (1794-1872), French comedian, was born at Meulan, Seine-et-Oise, on Feb. 1, 1794. After serving in

the army, and working in a button factory, he took to the stage.

His first appearance (1815) was in tragedy, and for some time he was unsuccessful; it was not until 1827 that he showed his real ability in comedy parts, especially in plays by Félix August

Davert (1795-1876) and Augustin Théodore Lauzanne 77), whose Cabinets particuliers (1832), Le Mari de la choeurs (1837), Passé minuet, L’Homme blasé (1843), dans le dos (1848), etc., contained parts written for him. 20 years in vaudeville, and completed at the various

(1805dame de La Clef He was Parisian

theatres a stage career of nearly half a century, retiring in 1863. He was also a charming poet, the author of Epitre a boufe

(1840); Les Gendarmes (1826); Les Acteurs et les Prêtres (1831); and Boutades en vers (1861). He died in Geneva in 1872.

ARNALDUS DE VILLA NOVA, also called Arnaldus de

Villanueva, Arnaldus Villanovanus or Arnaud de Villeneuve (c. 1235—1313), alchemist, astrologer and physician, appears to have been of Spanish origin, and to have studied chemistry, medicine, physics, and also Arabian philosophy. After having lived at the court of Aragon, he went to Paris, where he gained a considerable reputation; but he incurred the enmity of the ecclesiastics and was forced to flee, finally finding an asylum in Sicily. About 1313 he

was summoned to Avignon by Pope Clement V., who was ill, ‘but he died on the voyage. Many alchemical writings, including Thesaurus Thesdurorum or Rosarius Philosophorum, Novum Lumen, Flos Florum, and Speculum Alchimiae, are ascribed to i him, but they are of very doubtful authenticity.

Collected editions of them were published at Lyons in 1504 and

1532 (with a biography of Symphorianus Campegius), at Basel

in 1585, at Frankfort in 1603, and at Lyons in 1686. He isalso

reputed author of medical works including Breviarum Praciicié.

B. Hauréau in the Histoire littéraire de la France (1881);

See J. et ses oeuvre vol. xxviii.; E. Lalande, Arnaud de Villeneuve, sa vie his Bibliotheca (1896). A list of writing is given by J. Ferguson in

Chemica (1906). See also U. Chevalier, Répertoire des sources hist, etc., Bio-bibliographie (1903).

ARNAUD ARNAUD, HENRI (1641-1 721), pastor and general of the Vaudois Or Waldensians of Piedmont, was born at Embrun. About 1650 his family returned to their native valley of Luserna, where Arnaud was educated at La Tour (the chief village), later visiting the college at Basel (1662 and 1668) and the academy

at Geneva (1666). He then returned home, and seems to have heen pastor in several of the Vaudois valleys before attaining

that position at La Tour (168 5). He was thus the natural leader of his co-religionists after Victor Amadeus expelled them (1686)

from their valleys. William of Orange gave him help and money.

Amaud occupied himself with organizing his 3,000 countrymen who had taken refuge in Switzerland, and who twice (1687-88) attempted to regain their homes. The English revolution of 1688, and the election of William to the throne, encouraged the Vaudois to make yet another attempt. Furnished with detailed instructions from the veteran Josué Janavel (prevented by age from taking part in the expedition) Arnaud with about 1,000 fol-

lowers started (Aug. 17 1689) from near Nyon on the Lake of

Ceneva for the glorieuse rentrée. On Aug. 27 the valiant band after many hardships and dangers reached the Valley of St. Martin, having passed by Sallanches and crossed the Col de Very (6,506 ft.), the Enclave de la Fenétre (7,425 ft.), the Col du Bonhomme (8,147 ft.), the Col du Mont Iseran (9,085 ft.), the

Grand Mont Cenis (6,893 ft.), the Petit Mont Cenis (7,166 ft.), the Col de Clapier (8,173 ft.), the Col de Céteplane (7,589 ft.), and the Col du Piz (8,550 ft.). They soon took refuge in the lofty and secure rocky citadel of the Balsille, where they were besieged (Oct. 24 1689 to May 14 1690) by the troops (about

4000 in number) of the king of France and the duke of Savoy.

ARNAULD

AL7

Henri ARNAULD (1597-1692). the second son, became bishop of Angers in 1649 and represented Jansenism on the episcopal Bench for as long as 43 years. The youngest son, ANTOINE, (1612~1694), was the most famous of Jansenist theologians (see below). The second daughter, ANGELIQUE (1591-1661), was abbess and reformer of Port Royal; here she was presently joined by her sister AGNES (1593-1671) and two younger sisters, both of whom died early. Only two of Antoine’s children married—RoBert ARNAULD D’ANDILLY (1588-1674), the eldest son, and CATHERINE LEMAISTRE (1590-1651), the eldest daughter. But both of these ended their lives under the shadow of the abbey. Andilly’s five daughters all took the veil there; the second, ANGELIQUE DE ST. JEAN ARNAULD D’ANDILLY (1624-1684) rose to be abbess, was a writer of no mean repute, and one of the most remarkable figures of the second generation of Jansenists. One of Andilly’s sons became a hermit at Port Royal; the eldest, ANTOINE (1615-1699), Was first a soldier, afterwards a priest. As the Abbé Arnauld, he survives as author of some interesting Memoirs of his time. The second son, Smmon ARNAULD DE PomPpONNE (1616-1699), early entered public life. After holding various embassies, he rose to be foreign secretary to Louis XIV. and was created Marquis de Pomponne. Lastly Madame Lemaistre and two of her sons became identified with Port Royal. On her husband’s death she took the veil there. Her eldest son, ANTOINE LEMAISTRE (1608— 1658), became the first of the solitaires, or hermits, of Port Royal. There he was joined by his younger brother, Isaac LEMAISTRE DE Sacr (1613-1684), who took holy orders and became confessor to the hermits.

They maintained this natural fortress against many fierce attacks

The Arnaulds’ connection with Port Royal (g.v.)—a convent of

and during the whole of a winter. In particular, on May 2, one assault was defeated without the loss of a single man of Arnaud’s small band. But another attack (May 14) was not so successful, so that Arnaud withdrew his force under cover of a thick mist and led them over the hills to the valley of Angrogna, above

Cistercian nuns in the neighbourhood of Versailles—dated back to 1599, when the original Antoine secured the abbess’s chair for his daughter Angélique, then a child of eight. About 1608 she started to reform her convent in the direction of its original Rule; but about 1623 she made the acquaintance of du Vergier (q.v.) and thenceforward began to move in a Jansenist direction. Her later history is entirely bound up with the fortunes of that revival. Angélique’s strength lay chiefly in her character. Her sister and collaborator, Agnes, was also a graceful writer; and her Letters, edited by Prosper Feugére (1858), throw most valuable light on the inner aims and aspirations of the Jansenist movement. The first relation to join their projects of reform was their nephew, Antoine Lemaistre, who threw up brilliant prospects at the bar to settle down at the Abbey gates (1638). Here he was joined by his brother, de Saci and other hermits, who led an austere semi-monastic existence, though without taking any formal vow. In 1646 they were joined by their uncle, Arnauld d’Andilly, hitherto a personage of some importance at court and in the world; he was a special favourite of the queen regent, Anne of Austria, and had held various offices of dignity in the government. Uncle and nephews passed their time partly in ascetic exercises—though Andilly never pretended to vie in austerity with the younger men—partly in managing the convent estates, and partly in translating religious classics. Andilly put Josephus, St. Augustine’s Confessions, and many other works into singularly delicate French. Lemaistre attacked the lives of the saints; in 1654 Saci set to work on a translation of the Bible. His labours were interrupted by the outbreak of persecution. In 1661 he was forced to go into hiding; in 1666 he was arrested, thrown into the Bastille, and kept there more than two years. Meanwhile his friends printed his translation of the New Testament—really in Holland, nominally at Mons in the Spanish Netherlands (1667). Hence it is usually known as the Nouveau Testament de Mons. It found enthusiastic friends and violent detractors. Bossuet approved its orthodoxy, but not its overelaborate style; and it was destructively criticized by Richard Simon, the founder of Biblical criticism in France. On the other hand it undoubtedly did much to popularize the Bible, and was bitterly attacked by the Jesuits on that ground. By far the most distinguished of the family, however, was Antoine—le grand Arnauld, as contemporaries called him—the 2oth and youngest child of the original Antoine. Born in 1612,

La Tour.

|

A month later the Vaudois were received into favour by the

duke of Savoy, who had then abandoned his alliance with France for one with Great Britain and Holland. Hence for the next six years the Vaudois helped Savoy against France, though suffering much from the repeated attacks of the French troops. But by a clause in the treaty of peace of 1696, made public in 1698, Victor Amadeus again became hostile to the Vaudois, about 3,000 of whom, with Arnaud, found shelter in Protestant countries, mainly in Württemberg, where Arnaud became the pastor of Diirrmenz-

Schönenberg, N. W. of Stuttgart (1699). Once again (1704—06) the Vaudois aided the duke against France. Arnaud, however, took no part in the military operations,

though he visited England (1707) to obtain pecuniary aid from Queen Anne. He died at Schönenberg (which was the church hamlet of the parish of Diirrmenz) in 1721. During his retirement he compiled from various documents by other hands his Histoire de la glorieuse rentrée des Vaudois dans leurs vallées, which was published (probably at Cassel) in 1710, with a dedication to Queen Anne. It was translated into English (1827) by

H. Dyke Acland, and has also appeared in German and Dutch versions. A part of the original ms. is preserved in the Royal Library in Berlin. See K. H. Klaiber, Henri Arnaud, ein Lebensbild (Stuttgart, 1880) ; A. de Rochas d’Aiglun, Les Vallées vaudoises (1881) ; various chapters inthe Bulletin du bicentenaire de la glorieuse rentrée (Turin, 1889). (W. A. B. C.)

ARNAULD, the surname of a family of prominent French lawyers, chiefly remembered in connection with the Jansenist troubles of the 17th century. At their head was ANTOINE ARNAULD (1560-1619), a leader of the Paris bar; in this capacity he delivered a famous philippic against the Jesuits in 1594, accusing them of gross disloyalty to the newly converted Henry IV.

This speech was afterwards known as the original sin of the Arnaulds. _ Of his 20 children several grew up to fight the Jesuits on more Important matters. Five gave themselves up wholly to the Church.

418

ARNAULT—ARNDT

he was originally intended for the bar; but decided instead to study theology at the Sorbonne. Here he was brilliantly successful and was on the high-road to preferment, when he came under the influence of du Vergier and was drawn in the direction of Jansenism. His book, De la fréquente Communion (1643), did more than anything else to make the aims and ideals of this movement intelligible to the general public. Its appearance raised a violent storm, and Arnauld eventually withdrew into hiding; for more than 20 years he dared not make a public appearance in Paris. During all that time his pen was busy with innumerable Jansenist pamphlets. In 1655 two very outspoken Lettres à un duc et pair on Jesuit methods in the confessional brought on a motion to expel him from the Sorbonne. This motion was the immediate cause of Pascals Provincial Letters. Pascal, however, failed to save his friend; in Feb. 1656 Arnauld was solemnly degraded. Twelve years later the tide of fortune turned. The so-called peace of Clement IX. put an end to persecution. Arnauld emerged from his retirement, was most graciously received by Louis XIV., and treated almost as a popular hero. He then set to work with Nicole (g.v.) on a great work against the Calvinists: La Perpéiuité de la fot catholique touchant Veucharistie. Ten years later, however, another storm of persecution burst. Arnauld was compelled to fly from France and take refuge in the Netherlands, finally settling down at Brussels. There the last 16 years of his life were spent in incessant controversy with Jesuits, Calvinists, and opponents of all kinds; there he died on Aug. 8, 1694. His inexhaustible energy is best expressed by his famous reply to Nicole, who complained of feeling tired. “Tired!” echoed Arnauld, “when you have all eternity to rest in?” Nor was this energy by any means absorbed by purely theological questions. He was one of the first to adopt the philosophy of Descartes, though with certain orthodox reservations; and between 1683 and 1685 he had a long battle with Malebranche on the relation of theology to metaphysics. On the whole, public opinion leant to Arnauld’s side. When Malebranche complained that his adversary had misunderstood him, Boileau silenced him with the question: “My dear sir, whom do you expect to understand you, if M. Arnauld does not?” And popular regard for Arnauld’s penetration was much increased by his Art de penser, commonly known as the Port-Royal Logic, which has kept its place as an elementary text-book until quite modern times. But a purely controversial writer is seldom attractive to

posterity.

It is to be feared that, but for his connection with

Pascal, Arnauld’s name would be afmost forgotten—or, at most, live only in the famous epitaph Boileau consecrated to his memory— Au pied de cet autel de structure grossiére Git sans pompe, enfermé dans une vile biére Le plus savant mortel qui jamais ait écrit. Full details as to the lives and writings of the Arnaulds will be found in various books mentioned at the close of the article on Port Royal. The most interesting account of Angélique will be found in Mémoires pour servir a Vhistoire de Port Royal (Utrecht, 1742). Three volumes of her correspondence were also published at the same time and place. There are excellent modern lives of her in English by Miss Frances Martin (Angélique Arnauld, 1873) and by A. K. H. (Angélique of Port Royal, 1905). Antoine Arnauld’s complete works were published in 1775-81. No modern biography of him exists; but there is a study of his philosophy in Bouillier, Histoire de la philosophie cartésienne (1868) ; and his mathematical achievements are discussed by Dr. Bopp in the z4th volume of Abhkandlungen sur Geschichte der mathematischen Wissenschaften (Leipzig, 1902.) The memoirs of Arnauld d’Andilly and of his son, the abbé Arnauld, are reprinted both in Petitot’s and Poujoulat’s collections of memoirs illustrative of the tyth century.

perhaps less known now than his Fables (1813, 1815 and 1895 which are written in very graceful verse. Arnault collaborated . a Vie pohtique et militaire de Napoléon (1822), and wrote :

interesting Souvenirs

d’un sexagénaire

(1833), which ness

much out-of-the-way information about the history of the

previous to 1804.

His eldest son, ÉMmILIEN LUCEN

(1787-1863), wrote several

tragedies, the leading rôles in which were interpreted by Talma,

See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. vii. Arnault’s Oeu complètes were published at The Hague and Paris in 1818—19. R

ARNDT, ERNST MORITZ (1769-1860), German poet and patriot, was born on Dec. 26, 1769, at Schoritz in the} z / n the island of Rügen, which at that time belonged to Sweden. He was educated at Stralsund, Greifswald, and Jena, and qualified for the Lutheran ministry. At the age of 28 he renounced the ministry

and for 18 months he led a wandering life, visiting Austria, Hun.

gary, Italy, France, and Belgium. Returning homewards up the Rhine, he was moved by the sight of the ruined castles along its

banks to intense bitterness against France. The impressions of

this journey he later described in Reisen durch einen Theil Deutschlands, Ungarns, Italiens, und Frankreichs in den Jahren 1798 und 1799 (1802—04). In 1800 he settled in Greifswald as

Privatdozent in history, and the same year published Über de

Freiheit der alten Republiken. In 1803 appeared Germanien und Europa, “a fragmentary ebullition,” as he himself called it, of

his views on the French aggression. This was followed by one of the most remarkable of his books, Versuch einer Geschichte der

Leibeigenschaft in Pommern und Rügen (1803), a history of serf-

dom in Pomerania and Rügen, which was so convincing an indictment that King Gustavus Adolphus IV. in 1806 abolished the evil.

In 1806 Arndt was appointed to the chair of history at the univer. sity. In this year he published the first part of his Geist der Zeit, in which he flung down the gauntlet to Napoleon and called on his countrymen to rise and shake off the French yoke. So great

was the excitement it produced that Arndt was compelled to take refuge in Sweden to escape the vengeance of Napoleon. In pamphlets, poems, and songs he communicated his enthusiasm to his countrymen. Schill’s heroic death at Stralsund impelled him to return to Germany and, under the disguise of “Almann, teacher of languages,” he reached Berlin in December 1800. .In 1810 he returned to Greifswald, but only for a few months. He again set out on his adventurous travels, lived in close contact with the first men of his time, such as Bliicher, Gneisenau, and Stein, and in 1812 was summoned by the last named to St. Petersburg to assist in the organization of the final struggle against France, Meanwhile, pamphlet after pamphlet, full of bitter hatred of the French oppressor, came from his pen, and his stirring patriotic songs, such as Was ist das deutsche Vaterland? Der Gott, der Eisen wachsen liess, and Was blasen die Trompeten? were on all lips. When, after the peace, the university of Bọnn was founded in 1818, Arndt was appointed to the chair of modern history. In this year appeared the fourth part of his Geist der Zeit, in which he criticized the reactionary policy of the German powers. The boldness of his demands for reform offended the Prussian government, and in the summer of 1819 he was arrested and his papers

confiscated. Although speedily liberated, he was in the following year arraigned before a specially constituted tribunal. Although not found guilty, he was forbidden to exercise the functions of his professorship, but was allowed to retain the stipend. The next 20 years he passed in retirement and literary activity. In 1840 he was reinstated in his professorship, and in 1841 was chosen rector of the university. The revolutionary outbreak of 1848 rekindled in the venerable patriot his old hopes and energies, and he took his seat as one of the deputies to the National Assembly

ARNAULT, ANTOINE-VINCENT (1766-1834), French dramatist, was born in Paris. His first play, Marius à at Frankfort. He formed one of the deputation that offered the Minturnes (1791), immediately established his reputation. A imperial crown to Frederick William IV., and indignant at the year later he followed up his first success with a second republi- king’s refusal to accept it, he retired with the majority of von can tragedy, Lucréce. He was commissioned by Bonaparte in Gagern’s adherents from public life. He died at Bonn on Jat 1797 to reorganize the Ionian islands, and was nominated to the 20, 1860. Arndt’s untiring labour for his country rightly won for him the Institute and made secretary general of the university. He was title of “the most German of all Germans.” His lyric poems are faithful to his patron through his misfortunes, and after the however, all confined to politics. Many among the Gedichte (1803-1; Hundred Days remained in exile until 1819. His tragedies are complete edition, 1860) are religious pieces of great beauty. Among

ARNDT—ARNHEM :

ks are Reise durch

Schweden

(1

:

e

ts Beschreibung und Geschichte der schotllindieken ae

Orkaden (1820); Dre Frage über die Niederlande (1831); Erinnergen aus dem äusseren Leben, an autobiography, and the most

419

In 1745 he composed his successful pastoral dialogue, Colin

and Phoebe, and in 1746, in connexion with a revival of Shake-

speare’s Tempest at Drury Lane, one of the most delightful of und his songs, Where the bee sucks. In 1760 he transferred his servRhein(1840); life Arndt’s for valuable source of information Akrwanderungen (1846); Wanderungen und Wandlungen mit dem ices to Covent Garden Theatre, where, Nov. 28, he produced his

Reichsfreiherrn von Stein (1858)

and Pro populo Germanico

(1854),

which was originally intended to form the fifth part of the Geist der

zeit. Arndt’s Werke have been edited by H. Rosch and H. Meisner in

Thomas and Sally. Here, too, Feb. 2 1762, he produced his Artaxerxes, an opera in the Italian style with recitative instead

g yols. (not complete) (1892-98). Biographies have been written by E. Langenberg (1869) and Wilhelm Baur, sth ed. (1882). See also H. Meisner and R. Geerds, E. M, Arndt, ein Lebensbild in Briefen

of spoken dialogue, the popularity of which is attested by the fact that it continued to be performed at intervals for upwards of 80

his best known work is Paradzesgartlein aller christlichen Tugen-

say, as long as the English language. If as a writer of glees Arne

years. The libretto, by Arne himself, was a very poor translation of Metastasio’s Artaserse. In 1762 also was produced the his memory at Schoritz, his birthplace, and at Bonn, where he is buried. ballad-opera Love in a Village. His oratorio Judith, of which the ARNDT, JOHANN (1555-1621), German Lutheran the- first performance was Feb. 27 1761, at Drury Lane, was revived glogian, was born at Ballenstadt, in Anhalt, and studied in several at the Chapel of the Lock Hospital, Pimlico, Feb. 29 1764, in miversities. He was at Helmstadt in 1576; at Wittenberg in 1577. which year was also performed his setting of Metastasio’s OlimAt Wittenberg the crypto-Calvinist controversy was then at its piade in the original language at the King’s Theatre in the Hayheight, and he took the side of Melanchthon and the crypto-Cal- market. At a later performance of Judith at Covent Garden, vinists. He became pastor of Badeborn in 1583, but in 1590 he Theatre Feb. 26 1773, Arne for the first time introduced female was deposed for refusing to remove the pictures from his church voices into oratorio choruses. In 1769 he wrote the musical parts and discontinue the use of exorcism in baptism. He found an for Garrick’s ode for the Shakespeare jubilee at Stratford-onasylum in Quedlinburg (1590), and afterwards was transferred to Avon, and in 1770 he gave a mutilated version of Purcell’s Kzng St. Martin’s church at Brunswick (1599). Arthur. One of his last dramatic works was the music to Mason’s Amdt’s fame rests on his writings. These were mainly of a Caractacus, published in 1775. Dr. Arne died March 5 1778, and mystical and devotional kind, and were inspired by St. Bernard, J. was buried at St. Paul’s, Covent Garden. Tauler, and Thomas 4 Kempis. His principal work, Wakres ChrisThough not to be reckoned the equal of his great predecessor tentum (1606-09), which has been translated into most European Purcell, Arne has none the less high claims. There is true inspiralanguages, has served as the foundation of many books of devotion, tion in such airs as Blow, blow, thou winter wind, and Where the both Roman Catholic and Protestant. After Wakres Christentum, bee sucks, while Rule, Britannia! will last, it is hardly too much to (1898), and R. Thiele, E. Af. Arndt (1894). There are monuments to

den, which was published in 1612. Arndt has always been held in very high repute by the German Pietists. A collected edition of his works was published .in Leipzig and

Gorlitz in 1734. A valuable account of Arndt is to be found in C. Aschmann’s Essai sur la vie, etc., de J. Arndt. See further, HerzogHauck, Realencyklopädie.

ARNE, THOMAS AUGUSTINE (1710-1778), English composer, was born in London, being the son of an upholsterer. Intended for the legal profession, he was educated at Eton, and afterwards apprenticed to an attorney for three years. His natural inclination for music, however, proved irresistible, and his father, after strongly opposing his wishes for a time, eventually pro-

vided the means for his training. On March 7 1733, he produced his frst work at Lincoln’s Inn Fields Theatre, a setting of Addison’s Rosamond, the heroine’s part being performed by his sister, Susanna Maria, who afterwards became celebrated as Mrs. Cibber. This, proving a success, was immediately followed by a burletta, entitled The Opera of Operas, based on Fielding’s Tragedy of Tragedies. The part of Tom Thumb was played by Arne’s younger brother, and the opera was produced at the Haymarket Theatre. On Dec, 19 1733, Arne produced at the same theatre the masque Dido and Aeneas, a subject which Purcell had treated more than half a century earlier in such a memorable fashion. Ame’s individuality of style first distinctly asserted itself in the music to Dr. Dalton’s adaptation of Milton’s Comus, which was performed at Drury Lane in 1738, and speedily established his reputation. In 1740 he wrote the music for Thomson and Mallet’s Masque of Alfred, which, if otherwise unnoteworthy, will always be remembered as containing Rule, Britannia! In 1740 he also wrote his beautiful settings of the songs Under the green-

wood tree, Blow, blow, thou winter wind and When daisies pied,

for a performance of Shakespeare’s As you like it. Four years before this, in 1736, he had married Cecilia, the eldest daughter of Charles Young, organist of All Hallows, Barking. She was considered the finest English singer of the day and was frequently engaged by Handel for his performances. In 1742 Arne went with his wife to Dublin, where he remained two years

and produced his oratorio Abel, containing the beautiful melody

known as the Hymn of Eve, and the operas Britannia, Eliza and

omus, and where he also gave a number of successful concerts, On his return to London he was engaged as leader of the d at Drury Lane Theatre (1744), and as composer at Vaux-

hall (1745).

does not take such high rank, he deserves notice as a leader in the revival of that peculiarly English form of composition. It may be added that he was author as well as composer of The Guardian Qutwitted, The Rose, The Contest of Beauty and Virtue, and Phoebe at Court. See the article in Grove’s Dictionary and two interesting papers in the Musical Times, Nov. and Dec. 1901.

ARNETH, ALFRED, Ritter von (1819-1897), Austrian historian, born in Vienna on July 10 1819, was the son of Joseph

Calasanza von Arneth (1791-1863), an historian and archaeologist, who wrote a history of the Austrian empire (Vienna, 1827) and several works on numismatics.

Alfred Arneth studied

law and became an official of the Austrian State archives, of which in 1868 he was appointed keeper. In 1879 he was appointed president of the Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften (Academy of Sciences) in Vienna, and in 1896 succeeded von Syhel as Chairman of the historical commission at Munich. He died July 30 1897. Arneth was an indefatigable worker, and his scientific temper and the special facilities which he enjoyed for drawing from original sources gave to his numerous historical works a special value. Among his publications may be mentioned: Leben des Feldmarschalls Grafen Guido Starhemberg (1863) ; Prinz Eugen von Savoyen (ibid., 1864); Gesch. der Maria Theresa (ibid., 1863—79); Maria Theresa u. Marie Antoinette, ihr Briefwechsel (ibid., 1866); Marie Antoinette, Joseph II. und Leopold I., ihr Briefwechsel (1866); Marie Theresa . und Joseph II., ihre Korrespondenz samt Briefen Josephs an seinen Bruder Leopold (1867) ; Beaumarchais und Sonnenfels (1868) ; Joseph H. und Katharina von Russland, ihr Briefwechsel (1869); Jokann Christian Barthenstein und seine Zeit (1871) ; Joseph II. und Leopold von Toskana, ihr Briefwechsel (1872); Briefe der Kaiserin Maria Theresa an ihre Kinder und Freunde (1881); Marie Antoinette: Correspondance secrète entre Marie-Thérèse et le comte de Mercy-Argenteau (1875), in collaboration with Auguste Geffroy; Graf Philipp Cobenzl und seine Memoiren (1885) ; Correspondance secréte du comte de Mercy-Argenteau avec lempereur Joseph I. et Kaunitz (1889-91), in collaboration with Jules Flammermont; Anion Ritter von Schmerling, Episoden aus seinem Leben 1835, 1848-49 (1895) ; Johann Freiherr von Wessenberg, ein österreichischer Staatsmann des r9. Jakrk. (1898). Arneth also published in 1893 two volumes of early reminiscences under the title of Aus meinem Leben,

ARNHEM or ARNHEIM, capital, province of Gelderland, Holland, on the right bank of the Rhine (here crossed by a pontoon bridge), and a junction 35m. by rail east-south-east of Utrecht. Pop. (1927) 76,303. Tramways connect with Zutphen

and Utrecht, and there is a regular service of steamers to Cologne, Amsterdam, Nijmwegen, Tiel, ’s Hertogenbosch and Rotterdam.

ARNICA—ARNIM

420

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š 3 *

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2

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Arnhem is beautifully situated. It was known in the Middle Ages as Arnoldi Villa and may be the Arenacum of the Romans. It is first mentioned in 893. In 1233 Otto II., count of Gelderland, resided here and conferred municipal rights on the town, and fortified it. Later it entered the Hanseatic league. Charles the Bold of Burgundy captured it in 1473 and Philip, son of Maximilian I., gave it coining rights in 1505. In 1514 Charles of Egmont, duke of Gelderland, took it from the Spaniards; but in 1543 it fell to the emperor Charles V., who made it the seat of the council of Gelderland. It joined the union of Utrecht in 1579, and came finally under the States-General in 1585. In 1586 Sir Philip Sidney died in the town. The French took it in 1672, but left it dismantled in 1674. It was refortified by Coehoorn, in the 18th century. In 1795 it was again stormed by the French and in 1813 was taken from them by the Prussians. Gardens and promenades have now taken the place of the old ramparts. The Groote kerk of St. Eusebius has a chime of forty-five bells. The Roman Catholic church of St. Walburgis is of earlier date, and a new Roman Catholic church dates from 1894. The town hall was built as a palace in the rsth century, and converted to its present use in 1830. The provincial government house occupies the site of the former palace of the dukes of Gelderland. The public library contains many old works, and there is also a museum of antiquities. On account of its proximity to the fertile Betuwe district and its situation near the confluence of the Rhine and Yssel, Arnhem is an important market centre. It makes woollen goods, and tobacco is cultivated in the neighbourhood. Woolcombing and dyeing are also carried on.

ARNICA,

a genus of plants belonging to the family Com-

positae, and containing so species, mostly north-west American, of which the most important is Arnica montana, a perennial herb of the mountains and uplands in northern and central Europe. The root-stock of A. montana is tough, slender, of a dark brown colour and an inch or two in length. It gives off numerous simple roots from its under side, and shows on its upper side the remains of rosettes of leaves. It yields an essential oil in small

quantity, and a resinous matter called arnicin (CuH02), a yellow crystalline substance with an acrid taste. The tincture prepared from it has a popular reputation in the treatment of bruises and sprains. Typical of the various far northern species is (A. angustifolia), with very narrow leaves, is met with in Arctic Asia and America. The heads of flowers are 2 to 2$ in. across, orangeyellow in colour, and borne on the summit of the stem or branches; the outer ray-flowers are an inch in length. The fruit is brown and hairy, and crowned bya tuft of stiffish hairs. The plant was introduced into England in the 18th cent. In North America arnicas are most numerous in the Rocky Mountain region from Colorado northward but there are also many in the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges. Conspicuous species may be observed in Rocky Mountain, Glacier, Yosemite, Mount Rainier and other national parks of the western United States and Canada. Four arnicas occur in the northeastern United

Loeper’s Briefe Goethes an Sophie Laroche und Bettina By tano, nebst dichterischen Beilagen (1879) proved that the Briar wechsel was based on authentic material. But the whole : treated in a romantic and fantastic spirit. Possibly Betting hen

self had so woven the real story into her dreams that she could

no longer disentangle truth from fantasy. Equally fantasti:; her correspondence Die Giinderode (1840), with her unhappy friend, the poet, Karoline von Giinderode (1780-1806), who se mitted suicide, and that with her brother Klemens Brentano,

under the title Klemens Brentanos Frithlingskranz (1844). She

died at Berlin on Jan. 20, 1859.

Part of a design by her for a

colossal statue of Goethe, executed in marble by the sculptor Karl Steinhäuser (1813-78), is in the museum at Weimar.

_ Her collected works (Sdmtliche Schriften) were published in Berlin

in 1853. Goethes Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde was edited by E. Grimm (4th ed., 1890). See also C. Alberti, B. von Arnim (Leipzi 1885); Moritz Carriere, Betiina von Arnim (Breslau, 1887); Briel,

von und an Joseph Joachim (1911; Eng. trans. 1914) ; and the litera.

ture cited under Ludwig von Arnim.

„ARNIM, FRIEDRICH NIM.

ARNIM,

HARRY

SIXT VON: see Sr vo

KARL

KURT

EDUARD

VON

Count (1824-81), German diplomatist, was born in Pomerania Oct. 3 1824, and brought up by his uncle Heinrich von Amim. who was Prussian ambassador at Paris and foreign minister from March to June 1848. After holding other posts in the diplomatic service Arnim was in 1864 appointed Prussian envoy (and in 1867 envoy of the North German Confederation) at the papal court. In 1869 he proposed that the Governments should appoint repre. sentatives to be present at the Vatican council, a suggestion which was rejected by Bismarck, and foretold that the promulgation of papal infallibility would bring serious political difficulties.

After the recall of the French troops from Rome he attempted unsuccessfully to mediate between the pope and the Italian Government. He was appointed in 1871 German commissioner to arrange the final treaty with France, and was afterwards appointed German envoy at Paris, and in 1872 received his definite appointae as ambassador, a post of the greatest difficulty and responsiility. Differences soon arose between him and Bismarck; he wished to support the monarchical party which was trying to overthrow Thiers, while Bismarck ordered him to stand aloof from all French parties; he did not give that explicit obedience to his instructions which Bismarck required. In the beginning of 1874 he was recalled and appointed to the embassy at Constantinople, but this appointment was immediately revoked. A Vienna newspaper published some correspondence on the Vatican council, including

confidential despatches of Arnim’s, with the object of showing that he had exhibited greater foresight than Bismarck. It was then found that a considerable number of papers were missing from the Paris embassy, and on Oct. 4 Arnim was arrested on the charge of embezzling State papers. Arnim avoided imprisonment by leaving the country, and in 1875 published anonymously at Zürich a pamphlet entitled Pro nihilo, in which he attempted to show that the attack on him was caused by Bismarck’s personal States and adjacent Canada, mostly on the higher mountains. ARNIM, ELISABETH (BETTINA) VON (1785-1859), jealousy. For this he was accused of treason, insult to the emGerman authoress, sister of Klemens Brentano, and daughter of peror, and libelling Bismarck, and in his absence condemned to the Maximiliane Brentano, who had been one of the intimates five years’ penal servitude. From his exile in Austria he published of Goethe’s youth, was born at Frankfort-on-Main on April 4, two more pamphlets on the ecclesiastical policy of Prussia, Der 1785. From Goethe’s mother Bettina had heard stories of the Nungius kommt! (Vienna, 1878), and Quid faciamus nos? (ib. poet’s childhood, and she was an ardent admirer of his works 1879). He made repeated attempts, which were supported by his and had corresponded with him before she met him in Weimar family, to be allowed to return to Germany in order to take his in 1807. In that year she paid two visits to Weimar, and poured trial afresh on the charge of treason; his request had just been out her enthusiasm and devotion at Goethe’s feet. He was de- granted when he died, May 1ọ 188r. In 1876 Bismarck carried an amendment to the criminal code lighted with her gaiety and elfin charm, though her demonstrations of affection often wearied him, and she bitterly complained making it an offence punishable with imprisonment or a fine up of his coldness. In 1811 she married Ludwig Achim von Arnim, to £250 for an official of the foreign office to communicate to and in that year again visited Goethe. But a violent scene with others official documents, or for an envoy to act contrary to his Christiane, Goethe’s wife, put an end to the long standing af- instructions. These clauses are commonly spoken of in Germany fection between the poet and Bettina, and Goethe forbade her as the “Arnim paragraphs.”

the house.

In 1831 von Arnim died, and in 1835 Bettina pub-

lished Goethes Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde.

For years it was

regarded as purely fictitious, but the publication of G. von

ARNIM,

LUDWIG

ACHIM

(JOACHIM)

VON

(1781-1831), German poet and novelist, was born in Berlin on $

June 26 1781, and died at Dahme, Prussia, on Jan. 21 1831

ARNIM-BOYTZENBURG—ARNOLD From the earlier writings of Goethe and Herder he learned to

appreciate German legends and folk-songs. He published a col-

lection of these (1806-08), in collaboration with Klemens Brentano (q.v.) under the title Des Knaben Wunderhorn. Arnim’s pest work is to be found in the short stories Fiirst Ganzgott und Singer Halbgott and Der tolle Invalide auf dem Fort Ratonneau

and the unfinished romance Die Kronenwdchter (1817), which romised to develop into one of the finest historical romances of the roth century. Pap

BIBLIOGRAPHY —Arnim’s Sämtliche Werke were edited by his widow and published in Berlin in 1839-40 with an introduction by Wilhelm

Grimm; second edition in 22 vols., 1853-56.

Selections have been

edited by J. Dohmke (1892) ; M. Koch, Arnim, Klemens und Bettina Brentano, Görres (1893). Des Knaben Wunderhorn has been frequently

republished, the best edition being that of A. Birlinger and W. Crecelius (2 vols., 1872-76).

See R. Steig, Achim

von Arnim

und Klemens

Brentano (1894).

ARNIM-BOYTZENBURG, HANS GEORG VON (1581-1641), German general and diplomatist, was born in 1581 at Boytzenburg in Brandenburg. He served in the Swedish army under Gustavus Adolphus, took part in the Russian war, and afterwards fought against the Turks in the service of the king of Poland. In 1626, though a Protestant, he was induced by Wallenstein to join the new imperial army. He quickly rose to the rank of field marshal, and became Wallenstein’s close friend

and faithful ally. This attachment to Wallenstein, and a spirit of religious toleration, were the leading motives of a strange career of military and political inconstancy. After the dismissal

of Wallenstein, Arnim left the imperial service for that of the elector of Saxony, and commanded the Saxon army which fought by the side of the Swedes at Breitenfeld (1631), and indeed the alliance of these two Protestant powers in the cause of their common religion was largely his work. During the Liitzen campaign, Arnim was operating with success at the head of an allied army in Silesia. In the following year he was under the hard necessity of opposing Wallenstein in the field, but little was done by either. In 1634 Wallenstein was assassinated, and Amim began at once more active operations. He won an important victory at Liegnitz in May 1634, but from this time he became more and more estranged from the Swedes. The peace of Prague followed. Soon after this event he refused an offer of high command in the French army and retired from active life. From 1637 to 1638 he was imprisoned in Stockholm, having been seized at Boytzenburg by the Swedes on suspicion of being concerned in various intrigues. He made his escape ultimately, and died suddenly at Dresden in 1641, whilst engaged in raising an amy to free German soil from foreign armies of all kinds (see Turrty YEARS’ War). See K. G. Helbig, “Wallenstein und Arnim” (1850) and “Der Prager Friede,” in Raumer’s Historisches Taschenbuch (1858) ; also E. D. M. Kirchner, Das Schloss Boytzenburg, etc. (1860); and Archiv für die sachsische Geschichte, vol. viii. (1870).

ARNO, ARN

or AQUILA

(750?-821),

421

und Erorterungen sur bayrischen und deutschen Geschichte, Band vil. (Munich, 1856). W. von Giesebrecht suggests that Arno was the author of an early section of Annales Laurissenses maiores, a history of the Frankish

kings

from

741

to 8290

(Monumenta

Germaniae

historica Scriptores, Band i., p. 128-131. G. H. Pertz, Hanover, 1826).

If this supposition be correct, Arno was the first writer whose works are extant to apply the name Deutsch (theodisca) to the German language.

ARNO

(anc. Arnus), river, Italy, rising in Mte. Falterona,

about 25m. E.N.E. of Florence, 4,265ft. above sea. It first runs south-south-east through the beautiful Casentino; near Arezzo it turns west, and at Montevarchi north-north-west; 1om. below it forces a way through limestone rock at Incisa and rom. farther on it is joined by the Sieve. Thence it runs west to Florence and through the gorge of Golfolina to Empoli and Pisa, and falls into the sea 74m. west of Pisa, after a course of 155m. The Serchio (anc. Auser), joining the Arno at Pisa in ancient times, now flows into the sea independently. Barges can go up the Arno to Florence; but it is liable to sudden floods, and so needs careful regulation. Great floods occurred in 1537 and 1740; in 1537 the water rose to 8ft. in the streets of Florence. The valley between Montevarchi and Rignano contains fossil bones of deer, elephant, rhinoceros, mastodon, hippopotamus, bear, tiger, etc., of the middle and upper Pliocene; while S. Giovanni Valdarno, 4m. below the former, is the centre of lignite mines.

ARNOBIUS (called THe Youncer), Christian priest or bishop in Gaul, flourished about 460. He is the author of a mystical and allegorical commentary on the Psalms, first published by Erasmus in 1522, and by him attributed to the elder Arnobius. It has been frequently reprinted, and in the edition of De la Barre, 1580, is accompanied by some notes on the Gospels by the same author. The opinions of Arnobius, as appears from the commentary, are semi-Pelagian.

ARNOBIUS (called Arer, and sometimes Tue Exper), early Christian writer, was a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca Venerea in proconsular Africa during the reign of Diocletian. His great treatise, in seven books, Adversus Gentes (or Nationes), on account of which he takes rank as a Christian apologist, appears to have been occasioned by a desire to answer the complaint then brought against the Christians that the prevalent calamities and disasters were due to their impiety and had come upon men since the establishment of their religion. The work of Arnobius appears to have been written when he was a recent convert, for he does not possess a very extensive knowledge of the Scriptures. He knows nothing of the Old Testament, and only the life of Christ in the New, while he does not quote directly from the Gospels. BrisriocRaPHy.—Editions: Migne, Patr. Lat. iv. 349; A. Reifferscheich in the Vienna Corpus Script. Eccles. Lat. (1875). Translations: A. H. Bryce and H. Campbell in Ante-Nicene Fathers, vi. See H. C. G. Moule in Dict. Chr. Biog. i.; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie; and G. Kruger, Early Chr. Lit. p. 304 (where full bibliographies are given).

ARNOLD, known as “Arnold of Brescia” (d. 1155), one of archbishop of the most ardent adversaries of the temporal power of the popes.

Salzburg and scholar, entered the church at an early age, became abbot of Elnon, or St. Amand, where he made the acquaintance of Alcuin. In 785 he was made bishop of Salzburg, and in 787 was employed by Tassilo III., duke of the Bavarians, as an envoy to Charlemagne at Rome. Through Charlemagne’s influence Salzburg was made in 798 the seat of an archbishopric; and Arno became metropolitan of Bavaria and received the pallium from Pope Leo III. The area of his authority was extended to the east by the conquests of Charlemagne over the Avars, He acted as one of the missi dominici, and spent some time at the court of Charlemagne,

where he was known as Aquila, and his name appears as one of the signatories to the emperor’s will. Soon after the death of Charlemagne in 814, Arno appears to have withdrawn from active life, although he retained his archbishopric until his

death Jan. 24 821. Aided by a deacon named Benedict, Arno drew up about 788 a

catalogue of lands and proprietary rights belonging to the church in avaria, under the title of Indiculus or Congestum Arnonis (ed. F. Keinz, Munich, 1869). Other works produced under the protection of o include a Salzburg consuetudinary (ed. L. Rockinger in Quellen

He was born probably at Brescia, in Italy, towards the end of the rrth century. He studied theology in Paris, but there is no proof that he was a pupil of Abélard. Returning to Italy he became a canon regular. His life was rigidly austere, St. Bernard calling himi homo neque manducans neque bibens. He fought against the corruption of the clergy, and especially against the temporal ambitions of the high dignitaries of the church. During the schism of Anacletus (1131-37) the town of Brescia was torn by the struggles between the partisans of Pope Innocent IH. and the adherents of the anti-pope, and Arnold incited the people to rise against their bishop, and, exiled by Innocent, IT., went to France. St. Bernard accused him of sharing the doctrines of Abélard (see Ep. 189, 195), and procured his condemnation by the council of Sens (1140) at the same time as that of the great scholastic. It seems certain that Arnold professed moral theology in Paris and several times reprimanded St. Bernard, whom he accused of pride and jealousy, St. Bernard persuaded King Louis VII. to take severe measures against Arnold, who took refuge at Ziirich. There he found support with the lay nobility; but, denounced anew by St. Bernard, he turned his steps towards

ARNOLD

422

Rome (1145). Two years previously, in 1143, the Roman commune had rejected the temporal power of the pope. The urban nobles had set up a republic, which, under forms ostensibly modelled on antiquity, concealed but clumsily a purely oligarchical government. Pope Eugenius III. and the cardinals had been driven into exile at Viterbo. Arnold denounced the Roman clergy, and, in particular the Curia, which he stigmatized as a “house of merchandise and den of thieves.” According to Otto

of Freising (Lib. de gestis Friderici, bk. ii. chap. xx.) the whole

brigadier general, remained in Canada until the following Jun being after April in command at Montreal. 6» Some time after the retreat from Canada, charges of miscon duct and dishonesty were brought against him. These charra. arges were tardily investigated by the Board of War, which in a report made on May 23, 1777, declared that his “character and conduct” had been “cruelly and groundlessly aspersed.” Having constructed a flotilla on Lake Champlain, Arnold engaged a greatly superior

British fleet near Valcour Island (Oct. 11, 1776), and after in.

of his teaching, outside the preaching of penitence, was summed flicting severe loss on the enemy, made his escape under cover of up in these maxims:—‘Clerks who have estates, bishops who night. This engagement was the first between British and Amer. hold fiefs, monks who possess property, cannot be saved.” can fleets. Arnold’s brilliant exploits had drawn attention to him Arnold’s was the only vigorous personality which stood out from as one of the most promising of the Continental officers, and had the mass of rebels, and he was the principal victim of the repres- won for him the friendship of Washington. Nevertheless, when in sion that ensued. On July 15, 1148, Eugenius III. anathematized Feb. 1777, Congress created five new major generals, Amold Arnold and his adherents; but when soon afterwards the pope although the ranking brigadier, was passed over, in favour of his entered Rome Arnold remained in the town unmolested, under juniors. At this time it was only Washington’s urgent persuasion the protection of the senate. But Frederick I. (Barbarossa) con- that prevented Arnold from leaving the service. Two months cluded with the pope a treaty of alliance (Oct. 16, 1152); and later while he was at New Haven, Governor Tryon’s descent on when the second successor of Eugenius III., the energetic and Danbury took place; and Arnold attacked the British with such austere Adrian IV. (the Englishman, Nicholas Breakspear), vigour at Ridgefield (April 27, 1777), that they escaped to their placed Rome under an interdict the senate, already rudely shaken, ships with difficulty. submitted and Arnold was forced to fly into Campania (1155). In recognition of this service Arnold was now commissioned He was seized by order of the emperor Frederick, then in Italy, major general. After serving in New Jersey with Washington, he and delivered to the prefect of Rome, by whom he was con- joined General Philip Schuyler in the Northern Department, and demned to death. In June r155 Arnald was hanged, his body in Aug. 1777, proceeded up the Mohawk valley against Colonel St. burnt, and the ashes thrown into the Tiber. It is probable that Leger, and raised the siege of Fort Stanwix (or Schuyler). SubArnold’s adherents became merged in the communities of the sequently, after Gates had superseded Schuyler (Aug. 19), ArLombard Waldenses, who shared their ideas on the corruption of nold commanded the American left wing in the first battle of the clergy. Legend, poetry, drama, and politics have from time Saratoga (Sept. 19, 1777). His ill-treatment at the hands of to time been much occupied with the personality of Arnold of General Gates led to a quarrel which terminated in Arnold being Brescia. He was before everything an ascetic, who denied to the relieved of command. He remained with the army, however, and

church the right of holding property, and who occupied himself only as an accessory with the political and social consequences of his religious principles.

The bibliography of Arnold of Brescia is very vast and of varying

value, The following works will be found useful: W. von Giesebrecht, Arnold von Brescia (Munich, 1873); G. Gaggia, Arnaldo da Brescia

(Brescia, 1882) ; and notices by Vacandard in the Revue des questions historiques (1884), pp. 52-114; by R. Breyer in the Histor. Taschenbuch (Leipzig, 1889), vol. viii. pp. 123-178, and by A. Hausrath in Neue Heidelberg. Jahrb. (1891), Band i. pp. 72-144.

ARNOLD,

BENEDICT

(1741-1801), American

soldier,

was born in Norwich, Conn., on Jan. 14, 1741. He was the greatgrandson of Benedict Arnold (1615-78), thrice colonial governor of Rhode Island between 1663 and 1678; and was the fourth in direct descent to bear the name. He received a fair education but was not studious, and his youth was marked by the same waywardness which characterized his whole career, At 15 he ran away from home and took part in an expedition against the French, but he soon deserted and returned home. In 1762 he settled in New Haven, where he engaged successfully m trade with the West Indies. Immediately after the battle of Lexington, Arnold led the local militia company, of which he was captain, to Cambridge, and on April 29, 1775, proposed to the Massachusetts committee of safety an expedition against Crown Point and Ticonderoga, The offer was accepted, and as a colonel of Massachusetts militia he was directed to enlist the men necessary for the undertaking. He was forestalled, however, by Ethan Allen (g.v.), acting on behalf of some members of the Connecticut assembly. Under him, reluctantly waiving his own claim to command, Arnold served as a volunteer; and soon afterwards, Massachusetts having angered Arnold by sending a committee to make

an inquiry into his conduct, he resigned and returned to Cambridge. He was then ordered to co-operate with Gen, Richard Montgomery in the invasion of Canada. Starting with 1,100 men from Cambridge on Sept. 17, 1775, he reached Gardiner, Me., on

the 2oth, advanced through the Maine woods, and, after suffering terrible hardships, his little force reached Quebec on Nov. 13. The garrison had been forewarned, and Arnold was compelled to await

the coming of Montgomery from Montreal.

The combined at-

tack on Dec. 31, 1775, failed; Montgomery was killed, and Arnold was severely wounded. Arnold, who had been commissioned a

although nominally without command served brilliantly in the second battle of Saratoga (Oct. 7, 1777), during which he was

seriously wounded. For his services he was thanked by Congress, and received a new commission giving him at last his proper

relative rank. In June 1778, Washington placed him in command of Philadelphia. Here he soon came into conflict with the state authorities, In the social life of Philadelphia, largely dominated by families of Loyalist sympathies, Arnold was the most conspicuous figure; he lived extravagantly, entertained lavishly, and in April 1779, took for his second wife, Margaret Shippen (1760-1804), the daughter of Edward Shippen (1729-1806), a moderate Loyalist. Early in Feb. 1779, the executive council of Pennsylvania, presided over by Joseph Reed, one of his most persistent enemies, presented to Congress eight charges of misconduct against Arnold,

In April 1779, Congress, though throwing out four charges, referred the other four to a court-martial. Despite Arnold’s demand for a speedy trial, it was December before the court was convened. It was probably during this period of vexatious delay that Arnold, always sensitive and now incited by a keen sense of injustice, entered into a secret correspondence with Sir Henry Clinton with a view to joining the British service. On Jan. 26, 1780, the court, before which Arnold had ably argued his own case, rendered its verdict, practically acquitting him of all intentional wrong, but directing Washington to reprimand him for two trivial offences. Arnold, who had expected absolute acquittal, was inflamed with a burning anger that even Washington’s kindly

reprimand, couched almost in words of praise, could not subdue. It was now apparently that he first conceived the plan of betraying some important post to the British. With this in view he

sought and obtained from Washington (Aug. 1780) command of

West Point, the key to the Hudson valley. Arnold’s offers now became more explicit, and, in order to perfect the details of the plot, Clinton’s adjutant-general, Major John André, met him near Stony Point on the night of Sept. 21. On the 23rd, while returning by land, André with incriminating papers was captured,

and the officer to whom he was entrusted umsuspectingly sent mformation of his capture to Arnold, who was thus enabled to

escape to the British lines. Arnold, commissioned a brigadier general in the British army, received £6,315 in compensation for

ARNOLD, B. J.—ARNOLD, M. his property losses, and was employed in leading an expedition into Virginia which burned Richmond, and in an attack upon

vew London (q.v.) in September, 1781. In Dec. 1781, he re-

moved to London and was consulted on American affairs by the king and ministry, but could obtain no further employment in the active Service. Disappointed at the failure of his plans and

423

be the founder of Christianity, as the founder of Buddhism had been that of the first. But The Light of the World (1891), in

which this idea took shape, failed to repeat the success attained

embittered by the neglect and scorn which he met in England, he

by The Light of Asia. In bis later years Arnold resided for some time in Japan, and his third wife was a Japanese lady. In Seas and Lands (1891) and Japonica (1892) he gives an interesting study of Japanese life. Sir Edwin Arnold, who had received

spent the years 1787-91 at St. John’s, N.B., once more engaging

the K.C.I.E. in 1888, died March 24 1904.

in the West India trade, but in 1791 he returned to London, and

after war had broken out between Great Britain and France, was active in fitting out privateers. He gradually sank into melancholia, and died in London June 14, ror. BreuiocRapHy.—Jared Sparks’ “Life and Treason of Benedict

Amold” (Boston, 183 5), in his Library of American Biography, is

biased and unfair.

The best general account

is Isaac Newton

Amold’s Life of Benedict Arnold (Chicago, 1880), which, while offering no apologies or defence of his treason, lays perhaps too great

Arnold’s other works include: The Book of Good Counsels, from the Sanskrit of the Hitopadesa (1861); The Indian Song of Songs, from the Sanskrit of the Gita Govinda of Jayadeva (1875); Indian Idylls (1883) and The Song Celestial (1885), both from the Mahabarata; and other translations. He also wrote a History of the Administration of British India under the late Marquis of Dalhousie (1862-64). His poetical works were collected in 8 vols. in 1888.

ARNOLD,

GOTTFRIED

(1666-1714), German Protes-

emphasis on his provocations. Charles Burr Todd’s The Real Benedict

tant divine, was born at Annaberg, in Saxony, where his father was a schoolmaster. His first work, Die erste Liebe zu Christo,

Arnold (1903) is a curious attempt to make

to which in modern times attention was again directed by Leo

responsible for his defection.

Arnold’s wife wholly

Two good accounts of the Canadian

Expedition are Justin H. Smith s Arnold’s March from Cambridge to

Quebec (1903), which contains a reprint of Arnold’s journal of the expedition; and John Codman’s Arnold’s Expedition to Quebec (rgor). Amnold’s Letters on the Expedition to Canada were printed in the Maine Historical Society’s Collections for 1831 (repr. 1865). See also William Abbatt, The Crisis of the Revolution

(1899); The

Northern Invasion of 1780 (Bradford Club Series, No. 6, 1866);

Tolstoy, appeared in 1696. It went through five editions before 1728, and gained the author much reputation.

In 1699 he began

to publish his largest work, Unparteiische Kirchen- und Ketzerhistorie, in which he has been thought by some to show more impartiality towards heresy than towards the Church (cf. Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology, p. 277). See Calwer-Zeller, Theologisches Handwörterbuch, and the account

“The Treason of Benedict Arnold” (letters of Sir Henry Clinton to Lord George Germaine) in Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vol. xxii. (Philadelphia, 1898); and Proceedings of a

Can in Albert Knapp’s new edition of Die erste Liebe zu Christo

General Court Martial for the Trial of Major General Arnold (Phila-

ARNOLD, MATTHEW (1822-1888), English poet, literary

delphia, 1780; reprinted with introduction and notes, 1865). For a short character study see Gamaliel Bradford, “Benedict Arnold” in

I

.

critic, and inspector of schools, was born at Laleham, near Staines, on Dec. 24, 1822. He was the son of the famous Dr. Arnold, ARNOLD, BION JOSEPH (1861), American elec- of Rugby, and was educated at Winchester, Rugby and Balliol coltrical engineer, was born at Casanovia, near Grand Rapids, Mich., lege, Oxford. After a year at Winchester, Matthew Arnold entered on Aug. 14, 1861. He studied at the University of Nebraska in Rugby school in 1837. He early began to write and print verses. 1879-80, graduated from Hillsdale college, Hillsdale, Mich., in His first publication was a Rugby prize poem, Alaric at Rome, 1884, and did graduate work at Cornell university in 1888-80. in 1840. This was followed, in 1843, after he had gone up to Establishing himself in Chicago as an independent consulting engi- Oxford in 1840 as a scholar of Balliol, by his poem Cromwell, neer in 1893, and later in the Arnold Engineering Company, of which won the Newdigate prize. In 1844 he graduated with which he was president, he became widely known as an expert on second-class honours, and in 1845 was elected a fellow of Oriel electric traction. Important undertakings in which he was en- college, where among his colleagues was A. H. Clough, his friendgaged as chief engineer or authoritative adviser include the electri- ship with whom is commemorated in that exquisite elegy Thyrsis. fication of the New York Central Railroad’s terminal in New From 1847 to 1851 he acted as private secretary to Lord LansYork city, the construction of subways in New York and Chicago, downe; and in the latter year, after acting for a short time as and the rebuilding of the Chicago street railway system. He also assistant-master at Rugby, he was appointed to an inspectorship acted at various times as advisory engineer on traction problems of schools, a post which he retained until two years before his for Pittsburgh, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Cincinnati, Toronto Damaged Souls (Boston, 1922).

and many other cities. During the World War he was a member of army and navy consulting boards and in 1917-19 served in the regular army in various engineering activities, especially in

connection with aircraft production. He invented a magnetic clutch, various storage battery improvements and numerous devices and systems for electric railway operation, and was one of the first to make use of alternating current and single-phase electric traction systems.

ARNOLD, SIR EDWIN (1832-1904), British poet, scholar and journalist, was born on June 10 1832, and was educated at the King’s school, Rochester; King’s college, London; and Uni-

versity college, Oxford, where in 1852 he gained the Newdigate prize for a poem on Belshazzar’s feast. Arnold went out to India as the principal of the government Sanskrit college at Poona. Returning to England in 1861 he joined the staff of the Daily Telegraph, with which he continued to be associated for more than 40 years.

He was a brilliant journalist, full of ideas and

of enthusiasm for his work. Nevertheless he was best known to his contemporaries as a poet, author of the Light of Asia, or the Great Renunciation (Mahabhinshkramana) (1879), an Indian

epic. In it the life and teaching of Buddha are expounded with much wealth of local colour and not a little felicity of versificaHon. Oriental scholars complained that it gave a false impression of Buddhist doctrine; on the other hand the suggested analogy

between Sakyamuni and Christ offended the taste of some devout

Christians, The latter criticism probably suggested to Arnold the

idea of a second narrative poem of which the central figure should

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but his impending marriage (June 1851), with Frances Lucy Wightman, made a settled income desirable. Meanwhile, in 1849, appeared The Strayed Reveller, and other Poems, by A, a volume which gained a considerable esoteric reputation. In 1852 he published another volume under the same initial, Empedocles on Etna, and other Poems. Empedocles is as undramatic a poem, perhaps, as was ever written in dramatic form, but studded with lyrical beauties of a very high order. In 1853 Arnold published a volume of Poems under his own name. This consisted partially of poems selected from the two previous volumes. A second series of poems, which contained, however, only two new ones, was

published in 1855. So great was the impression made by these

ARNOLD, MATTHEW

424

in academic circles, that in 1857 Arnold was elected professor of poetry at Oxford, and he held the chair for ten years.

In 1858

he published his classical tragedy, Merope. Nine years afterwards his New Poems. (1867) were published. While he held the Oxford professorship he published several series of lectures, which gave him a high place as a scholar and critic. The essays (edited in 1905 with an introduction by W. H. D. Rouse) On Translating

Homer: Three Lectures given at Oxford, published in 1861, supplemented in 1862 by On Translating Homer: Last Words, a fourth lecture given in reply to F. W. Newman’s Homeric Translation in Theory and Practice (1861) and On the Study of Celtic Literature, published in 1867, were full of subtle and brilliant criticism. So were the two series of Essays in Criticism, the first of which, consisting of articles reprinted from various reviews, appearing in 1865. The essay on “A Persian Passion Play” was added in the editions of 1875; and a second series, edited by Lord Coleridge, appeared in 1888. Arnold’s poetic activity almost ceased after he left the chair of poetry at Oxford. He was several times sent by the Government to make enquiries into the state of education in France, Germany, Holland and other countries; and his reports, with their thorough-going and searching criticism of continental methods, as contrasted with English methods, showed how conscientiously he had devoted some of his best energies to the work. His fame as a poet and a literary critic has somewhat overshadowed the fact that he was, during 35 years of his life (1851-86) employed in the education department as one of H.M. inspectors of schools. The influence he exerted on schools, on the department, and on the primary education of the whole country was very great. His annual reports of which more than 20 were collected (1889) into a volume (new edition, with additional matter and introduction by F. S. Marvin, [1908]) by his

friend and official chief, Sir Francis (afterwards Lord) Sandford

attracted, by reason of their freshness of style and thought, more public attention than is usually accorded to Blue Book literature. In 1859, as foreign assistant commissioner, he prepared for the duke of Newcastle’s commission to enquire into the subject of

elementary education a report (printed 1860) which was afterwards reprinted (1861) in a volume entitled The Popular Education of France, with Notices of that of Holland and Switzerland. In 1865 he was again employed as assistant-commissioner by the Schools enquiry commission under Lord Taunton; and his report on this subject, On Secondary Education in Foreign Countries (1866), was subsequently reprinted under the title Schools and Universities on the Continent (1868). Twenty years later he was sent by the education department to make special enquiries on certain specified points, e.g., free education, the status and training of teachers, and compulsory attendance at schools. The result of this investigation appeared as a parliamentary paper, Special Report on certain points connected with Elementary Education in Germany, Switzerland and France, in 1886. He also contributed the chapter on “Schools” (1837-87) to the second volume of Mrs. Humphrey Ward’s Reign of Queen Victoria. All these reports form substantial contributions to the history and literature of education

in the Victorian age. They have been quoted often, and have exercised marked influence on subsequent changes and controversies. One great purpose underlies them all. It is to bring home to the English people a conviction that education ought to be a national concern. To this theme he constantly recurred in his essays, articles, and official reports. “Porro unum est necessarium.

One thing is needful; organize your secondary education.” Arnold’s critical work includes: Culture and Anarchy (1869); St. Paul and Protestantism . . .; Friendship’s Garland: being the Conversations, Letters and Opinions of the late Arminius Baron von

Thunder-ten-Tronckh

(1871);

Literature

and Dogma:

an

Essay towards a Better Apprehension of thé Bible (1873); God and the Bible: a Review of Objections to Literature and Dogma . (1875); Last Essays on Church and Religion (1877); Mixed

Essays (1879); Irish Essays and Others (1882); Discourses in America (1885). These books startled the public. But, objectionable as Arnold’s rationalizing criticism was to contemporary orthodoxy, and questionable as was his equipment in point of theolog-

ical learning, his spirituality of outlook and ethical purpose were not to be denied. Yet it is not Arnold’s views that have become current coin so much as his literary phrases—his craving for “cul. ture” and “sweetness and light,” his contempt for “the dissidence of Dissent and the Protestantism of the Protestant religion” his classification of “Philistines and barbarians.”

His death at Lives

pool, of heart failure on April 15, 1888, was sudden and quite unexpected. Arnold was a prominent figure in that great galaxy of Victorian poets who were working simultaneously (Tennyson, Browning Rossetti, William Morris and Swinburne), poets between whom there was at least this connecting link, that the quest of all of them was the old-fashioned poetical quest of the beautiful. Beauty was their watchword, as it had been the watchword of their

immediate predecessors—Wordsworth, Coleridge, Keats, Shelley

and Byron. That this group of early roth century poets might be divided into two (those whose primary quest was physical beauty

and those whose primary quest was moral beauty) is no doubt true. Still, in so far as beauty was their quest they were all akin.

And so with the Victorian group to which Arnold belonged. Notwithstanding the exquisite work that Arnold has left behind him some Critics have come to the conclusion that his primary impulse

in expression was that of the poetically-minded prosateur rather than that of the born poet. And this has been said by some who, nevertheless, deeply admire poems like “The Scholar Gypsy,” “Thyrsis,” “The Forsaken Merman,” “Dover Beach,” “Heine's Grave,” “Rugby Chapel,” “The Grande Chartreuse,” “Sohrab and Rustum,” “The Sick KĶing in Bokhara,” “Tristram and Iseult,” Perhaps the place Arnold held and still holds as a critic is due more to his exquisite felicity in expressing his views than to the penetration of his criticism. Nothing can exceed the easy grace

of his prose at its best. It is conversational and yet absolutely exact in the structure of the sentences; and in spite of every vagary, his distinguishing note is urbanity. Keen-edged as his satire could be, his writing for the most part is as urbane as Addison’s

own. His influence on contemporary criticism, and contemporary ideals was considerable and generally wholesome.

His insistence

on the necessity of looking at “the thing in itself,’ and the need for acquainting oneself with “the best that has been thought and said in the world,” gave a new stimulus alike to originality and industry in criticism; and in his own selection of subjects (such as Joubert, or the De Guérins) he opened a new world toa larger class of the better sort of readers, exercising in this respect an awakening influence in his own time akin to that of Walter Pater a few years afterwards. The comparison with Pater might indeed be pressed farther, and yet too far. Both were essentially products of Oxford. But Arnold, whose description of that “home of lost causes, and forsaken beliefs, and unpopular names, and impossible loyalties,” is in itself almost a poem, had a classical austerity in his style that savoured more intimately of Oxford tradition, and an ethical earnestness, even in his most flippant moments, which kept him notably aloof from the more sensuous school of aesthetics. The first collected edition of Arnold’s poems was published in 1869 in two volumes, the first consisting of Narrative and Elegiac Poems, and the second of Dramatic and Lyric Poems. Other editions appeared in 1877, 1881; a library edition (1885) ; a one-volume reprint of the

poems printed in the library edition, with one or two additions (1890); another edition (1926) is edited with an introduction by A. T. Quiller-

Couch and notes by G. St. Quintin. Publications by Matthew Arnold not mentioned in the foregoing article include: England and the

Italian Question (1859) a pamphlet; A French Eton; or, Middle Class

Education and the State (1864); Higher Schools and Universities m Germany (1874), a partial reprint from Schools and Universities

on the Continent (1868); A Bible Reading for Schools; The Great

Prophecy of Israeľs Restoration, an arrangement of Isaiah, chs. xl.Ixvi. (1872), republished with additions and varying titles in 1875

and 1883; an edition of the Six Chief Lives from Johnson’s Lives of

the Poets (1878); editions of the Poems of Wordsworth (1879); and the Poetry of Byron (1881) for the Golden Treasury series, with prefatory essays reprinted in the second series of Essays in Criticism, an edition of Letters, Speeches and Tracts on Irish Affairs by Edmund

Burke

(1881); and many contributions to periodical literature. The

Letters of Matthew Arnold (1848-88) were collected and arranged by

G. W. E. Russell in 1895 (reprinted 1901). Matthew Arnold's Note

Books, with a Preface by the Hon. Mrs. Wodehouse, appeared in 1902

ARNOLD—ARNULF

425

A complete and uniform edition of The Works of Matthew Arnold the letters as edited by Russell. Vol. iii. contains en-os) iteincludes bibliograph y of his works, many of the early editions of which are very valuable, by T. B. Smart, who published a separate bibliography in 1892. A valuable note on the rather complicated subject of Arnold’s bibliography is given by H. Buxton Forman in

what is usually called tact in his dealings either with the juvenile or the adult mind. What gave him his power, and secured for him so deeply the respect and veneration of his pupils and

There are innumerable reprints of Arnold’s different works. It was Arnold’s expressed desire that his biography should not be

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—His Life was written by Dean Stanley (1845). See also Lytton Strachey, Eminent Victorians; and, for a satirical portrait, Samuel Butler, The Way of all Flesh.

Arnold's Poems, Narrative, Elegiac and Lyric (Temple classics, 1900).

written, and before his letters were published they underwent considerable editing at the hands of his family. There are, however, monographs on Matthew Arnold

(1899) in Modern English Writers

by Prof. Saintsbury, and by H. W. Paul (1902), in the English Men

of Letters series. These two works were supplemented by G. W. E. Russell, in a sense, as the editor of Arnold’s letters, the official biographer, in Maithew Arnold (1904, Literary Lives series). There are also studies of Arnold in J. M. Robertson’s Modern Humanists (1891), and in W. H. Hudson’s Studies in Interpretation (1896), Sir J. G.

Fitch's Thomás and Matthew Arnold (1897) ; one by G. K. Chesterton

in the “Everyman” edition of the Essays, and by W. L. Jones in Cambridge History of Modern Literature, vol. xiii. (1916), and a review of some of the works above mentioned in the Quarterly Review (Jan. 1905) by T. H. Warren.

ARNOLD, SAMUEL (1740-1802), English composer, was born in London and educated at the Chapel Royal, though his subsequent activities were mainly associated with the stage. He was indeed little more than 20 when he was appointed official

composer to Covent Garden Theatre, and between 1765 and 1802 he wrote as many

as 43 operas, after-pieces and panto-

mimes. He also composed numerous oratorios and in 1793 became organist of Westminster Abbey, where he was buried. His collection of Cathedral Music, once much esteemed, is now less

highly thought of on account of its serious omissions.

ARNOLD, THOMAS (1795-1842), English clergyman and headmaster of Rugby School, was born at West Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, on June 13 1795. He was the son of William and Martha Arnold. His father was collector of customs at Cowes.

He was educated at Winchester and Corpus Christi College, Oxford; in 1815 he was elected fellow of Oriel College; and there he continued to reside until 1819. This interval was diligently devoted to the pursuit of classical and historical studies, to theology, ecclesiastical polity and social philosophy. For the writings of Thucydides and Aristotle he formed an attachment which remained until the close of his life. He left Oxford in 1819 and settled at Laleham, near Staines, where he took pupils for the university. His spare time was devoted to the prosecution of studies in philology and history, more particularly to the study of Thucydides, and of the new light which had been cast upon Roman history and upon historical method by the researches of Niebuhr. Shortly after he settled at Laleham, he married Mary, youngest daughter of the Rev. John Penrose, rector of Fledborough, Nottinghamshire. After nine years at Laleham, he was elected headmaster of Rugby School in Dec. 1827, and in Aug. 1828 entered on his new office. Under Arnold’s superintendence the school became not merely a place where a certain amount of classical or general learning

was to be obtained, but a sphere of intellectual, moral and relgious discipline, where healthy characters were formed, and men were trained for the duties, struggles and responsibilities of life. His energies were chiefly devoted to the business of the school; but he found time also for much literary work, as well as for an extensive correspondence. Five volumes of sermons, an edition of Thucydides, with English notes and dissertations, a history of Rome in three volumes, besides numerous articles in reviews, journals, newspapers and encyclopaedias, show the untiring activ-

ty of his mind. His interest in public matters also was incessant, especially ecclesiastical questions, and matters that bore upon the social welfare and moral improvement of the masses. In 1841, after 14 years at Rugby, Dr. Arnold was appointed by Lord Melbourne to the chair of modern history at Oxford. On

acquaintances, was the intensely religious character of his whole

life and his severe and lofty estimate of duty.

ARNOTT,

NEIL

(1788-1874),

Scottish physician,

was

born at Arbroath May 15 1788, and died in London on March 2 1874.

He invented the “Arnott water-bed,” the “Arnott venti-

lator,” the “Arnott stove,” etc. He was a strong advocate of scientific, as opposed to purely classical, education; and gave

£2,000 to each of the four universities of Scotland and to the University of London, to promote practical scientific study.

ARNOULD, MADELINE SOPHIE (1740-1802), famous French actress and operatic singer, was born in Paris, where, from her début in 1757 to her retirement in 1778, she enjoyed almost unrivalled popularity. In Gluck’s [phigénie en Aulide and Orphée she created the parts of Iphigénie and Eurydice. She was renowned, incidentally, hardly less for her wit and conversation than for her histrionic powers. BrsLIocrAPagy.—Edmond and Jules de Goncourt, Sophie Arnould @aprés sa correspondance et ses mémoires inédits (1877); L’Augé de Lassus, Sophie Arnould à Luzarches; and R. Douglass, Sophie Arnould.

ARNOULD-PLESSY,

JEANNE

SYLVANIE

(1810-

1897), French actress, was born in Metz, the daughter of a local actor named Plessy. She made her début at the Comédie Française in 1834 in Alexandre Duval’s La Fille d'honneur, and for

the next rr years filled leading rôles there. Suddenly she broke her contract and left for London to marry J. F. Arnould, the

dramatist.

She then played in St. Petersburg for rr years.

In

1855 she returned to the Comédie, where she was especially suc-

cessful in Emile Augier’s Le Fils de Giboyer and Maitre Guérin. ARNSBERG, a town in Westphalia, Germany, built on high ground almost surrounded by the river Ruhr, 44m. S.S.E. of Münster. Pop. (1925) 11,697. Near by. are the ruins of the castle of the counts of Arnsberg. It received its first charter in 1237 and later joined the Hanseatic league. It is the seat of the provincial authorities, and has a chamber of commerce. Paper is made.

ARNSTADT,

a town in Thuringia, Germany, rım. S. of

Erfurt. Pop. (1925) 21,734. It dates from the 8th century and was bought in 1306 by the counts of Schwarzburg, who lived here till 1716. The Liebfrauenkirche is Romanesque (12th and x3th centuries). The town hall dates from 1561. There are copper mines and tepid springs in the neighbourhood. The industries are partly based on the mines, but also include machine making, chemical and dye works. There is trade in wheat, leather, seeds and cattle.

ARNSWALDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, in a marshy district, 20m. S.E. of Stargard on the railway to Posen. Pop. (1925), 10,906. Its industries include spinning and weaving and the manufacture of brushes, bricks, sugar, machinery. Trade is in corn.

ARNULF

(850?-899), Roman emperor, illegitimate son of

Carloman, king of Bavaria and Italy, was made margrave of Carinthia about 876, and on his father’s death in 880 his dignity and possessions were confirmed by the new king of the east Franks, Louis III. He did homage to the emperor Charles the Fat in 882, and spent the next few years in constant warfare with the Slavs and the Northmen. In 887, however, Arnulf identified himself with the disgust felt by the Bavarians and others at the incapacity of Charles the Fat. Gathering a large army, he marched to Tribur; Charles abdicated and in 888 the Germans recognized Arnulf as their king, a proceeding which

Dec. 2 1841, he delivered his inaugural lecture. Seven other lec-

L. von Ranke describes as “the first independent action of the

of 1842. He died on Sunday, June 12 1842. His remains were

far beyond the confines of Bavaria, and he contented himself

tures were delivered during the first three weeks of the Lent term

interred on the following Friday in the chancel of Rugby Chapel,

Immediately under the communion table. Dr. Arnold was not a notable scholar, and he had not much of

German secular world.” Arnulf’s real authority did not extend

with a nominal recognition of his supremacy by the kings who sprang up in various parts of the empire. He continued the

struggle with the Northmen in 891, and gave effective aid to

4.26

AROLSEN—ARRACK

Zvatorpluk, king of Moravia, in his struggle with the nobles. | S. Domenico, on the site of the villa in which Cicero was bor and Invited by Pope Formosus to deliver him from the power of often lived. The painter Giuseppe Cesari (1560-1640 ), More Guido III., duke of Spoleto, who had been crowned emperor, often known as the Cavaliere d’Arpino, was also born here. See O. E. Schmidt, Arpinum, eine topographisch-historische Arnulf went to Italy in 894, but after storming Bergamo and receiving the homage of some of the nobles at Pavia, he was Skizze (Meissen, 1900). ARQUA PETRARCA, village of Venetia, Italy, 3m. sy compelled by desertions from his army to return. In the next three years he succeeded in establishing his illegitimate son, Zwentibold, as king of the district afterwards called Lorraine. The restoration of peace with the Moravians and the death of Guido prepared the way for a more successful expedition in 89s and Arnulf was crowned emperor by Formosus in Feb. 896. He then set out to establish his authority in Spoleto, but on the way was seized with paralysis. He returned to Bavaria, where he died in Dec. 899, and was buried at Regensburg. He left, by his wife Ota, a son Louis surnamed the Child. See “Annales Fuldenses” in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Band i. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826); M. J. L. de Gagern, Arnulfi imperatoris vita (Bonn, 1837); E. Diimmler, De Arnulfo Francorum rege (1852); W. B. Wenck, Die Erhebung Arnulfs und der Zerjall des karolingischen Reiches (Leipzig, 1852) ; E. Mühlbacher, Die Regenten des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolimgern (Innsbruck, 1881); E. Diimmler, Geschichte des ostfrankischen Reichs (Leipzig, 1887-88); O. Dietrich, Beiträge zur Geschichte Arnolfs von Karnthen und Ludwigs des Kindes (1890).

AROLSEN, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of

Waldeck, 25 m. N.W. of Cassel, with which it is connected by rail via Warburg. Pop. 3000. Arolsen is the birthplace of the sculptor C. Rauch, and of the painters Wilhelm and Friedrich von Kaulbach,

of Battaglia. Population (1921) 561 (village), 2,054 (commune),

Petrarch lived his last few years and died here in 1374,

Near Arqua, on the banks of the small Lago della Costa, is the site of a prehistoric lake village.

ARQUATA

SCRIVIA,

village, province of Alessandria

Italy, from which it is 20 miles S.S.E. by rail. Pop. (1921) 1,066 (commune 3,515). It is the junction of the lines to Genoa from Turin and Milan, and was the supply base for British forces i

Italy (1917-1919). Two miles north are the ruins of Libama, a Roman town on the Via Postumia from Genua (Genoa) to Placentia

(Piacenza),

an amphitheatre,

houses have been found.

a theatre, streets and

The town was rectangular, and build.

ings found belong to the 1st or 2nd centuries A.D. For full details see Moretti in Not. Scavi, 1914, 113 sqg.; Barocelli, id. 1922, 362 seq.

ARQUEBUS, also called HARQUEBUS, HACKBUT, etc., a firearm of the 16th century, the immediate predecessor of the musket. The word itself is certainly to be derived from the German Hakenbiihse (mod, Hakenbiichse, cf. Eng. hackbut and hackbush),

“hook gun.” The French arquebuse and Italian arcobugio, archibugio, often and wrongly supposed to indicate the hackbut’s af-

finity with the crossbow (“hollow bow” or “mouthed bow”), are ARONA, a town in Piedmont, Italy, province of Novara, on popular corruptions, the Italian being apparently the earlier of Lake Maggiore, 3m. from its southern extremity, 23m. N. of the two and supplanting the first and purest French form hagueNovara, and 42m. N.W. of Milan by rail on the Simplon line. but, Previous to the French wars in Italy, hand-gun men and Pop. (1921) 4,998 (town), 6,413 (commune). On a hill to the even arbalisters seem to have been called arquebusiers, but in north a colossal bronze statue of S. Carlo Borromeo (born here the course of these wars the arquebus or hackbut came into prom1538) was erected in 1697. inence as a distinct type of weapon. The Spanish arquebusiers,

AROSA, a climatic station of Switzerland, situated at a height

of 6,c00ft. in the high valley of the Plessur, south-east of Chur. Here, among extensive pine forests (remnants of which still shelter the valley), a small village has existed, with varying prosperity, from the 14th century. The extension of the tourist industry and the development of winter sports have made it one of the best-known Alpine resorts.

ARPEGGIO, in music, the playing of the notes of a chord, not simultaneously but in succession, as on a harp.

ARPEGGIONE, a musical instrument whose nature is indi-

cated by its alternative name of guitar violoncello; that is to say, it was shaped like a guitar hut played with a bow, being about the

who used it with the greatest effect in the Italian wars, notably at Bicocca (1522) and Pavia (1525), are the originators of modem infantry fire action. Filippo Strozzi made many improvements in

the arquebus about 1530, and his weapons were effective up to four and five hundred paces. He also standardized the calibres of the arquebuses of the French army, and from this characteristic feature of the improved weapon arose the English term “caliver.” In the latter part of the 16th century (c¢c. 1570) the arquebus began to be displaced by the musket.

ARQUES-LA-BATAILLE, village of northern France, in

the department of Seine-Inférieure, 4m. S.E. of Dieppe by the Western railway. Pop. (1926), 2,201. Arques is situated near the size of a viol da gamba or small violoncello. It was invented by confluence of the rivers Varenne and Bethune; the forest of G. Staufer, of Vienna, in 1823, but was never taken up and is Arques stretches to the north-east. The castle, built in the rth now remembered only by reason of the fact that Schubert wrote century, was regarded as a menace by William the Conqueror, a sonata for it. who besieged and occupied it. It later came into the possession ARPT (Gr. ’Apyépurma), ancient city, Apulia, 20m. W. of of the English, who were expelled in 1449 after an occupation of the coast and 5m. N. of the modern Foggia. Legend attributes thirty years. In 1589 its cannon decided the battle of Arques in its foundation to Diomedes, and the figure of a horse on its coins favour of Henry IV. Since 1869 the castle has been state shows the local importance of horse-breeding in early times. Its property. territory extended to the sea, and Strabo says that from.the exARQUIJO, JUAN DE (c. 1564-1623), Spanish poet, betent of the city walls one could gather that it had been one of the longed to the Italianate school of poetry at Seville. A delicate greatest cities of Italy. As a protection against the Samnites simplicity characterizes his Sonetos (ed. J. Colon y Colon, Seville, Arpi became an ally of Rome and remained faithful until after 1841) and Poesias (ed. A. de Castro, 1854). the battle of Cannae, but Fabius captured it in 213 B.C., and it ARRACK, RACK or RAK, a generic name applied to a never recovered its former importance... variety of spirituous liquors distilled in the Far East. According ARPINO (anc. Arpinum), a town of Lazio, Italy, in the to some authorities the word is derived from the Arabic arak province of Frosinone, 1,475ft. above sea-level; 12m. by rail (perspiration), but according to others (see Morewood’s History N.W. of Roccasecea, a station on the older railway from Naples of Inebriating Liquors, 1834, p. 140) it is derived from the to Rome. Pop. (1921) 2,647 (town), 10,194 (commune). Arpino arecanut, a material from which a variety of arrack was long occupies the lower part of the ancient Volscian town. finally taken manufactured, and is of Indian origin. The liquor to which this from the Samnites by the Romans in 305 B.c. It received full or a similar name is applied is (or was, since the introduction Civic privileges in 188 B.c. with Formiae and Fundi. The finely of European spirits and methods of manufacture is gradually preserved polygonal walls are among the best in Italy, r1ft. high causing the native spirit industries on the old lines to decay) in places and 7ft. wide at the top. A single line of wall, with manufactured in India, Ceylon, Siam, Java, Batavia, China, mediaeval round towers at intervals, runs on the north side from Korea, etc., and its manufacture still constitutes a considerable the present town of Civita Vecchia (2,055ft.), site of the old industry. The term arrack as designating a distilled liquor dots citadel. Below Arpino, in the valley of the Liris, lies the churck of not, however, appear to have been confined to the Far East, a,

ARRAH—ARRAN in Timkowski's Travels, it is stated that a spirit distilled from

koumiss (g.v.) by the Tartars, Mongols and presumably the Cau-

casian races generally, is called arrack, araka or ariki. In Ceylon

arrack is distilled chiefly from palm toddy, which is the fermented ‘ice drawn from the unexpanded flower-spathes of various palms, such as the Palmyra palm (Borassus flabelliformis) and the cocoa palm (Cocos nucifera). At the beginning of the roth century the arrack industry of Ceylon was of considerable dimensions, whole woods being set apart for no other purpose than that of procuring toddy, and the distillation of the spirit took lace at every village round the coast.

On the Indian continent arrack is made from palm toddy, rice and the refuse of the sugar refineries, but mainly from the

fowers of the muohwa or mahua tree (Bassia latifolia). The

mahua flowers are very rich in sugar, and may, according to H. H. Mann, contain as much as 58% of fermentable sugar, calculated

on the total solids. Even in modern times the process of manufacture is very primitive, the fermentation as a rule being carried on in so concentrated a liquid that complete fermentation rarely

takes place. According to Mann, the total sugar in the liquor ready for fermentation may reach 20%. The ferment employed (it is so impure that it can scarcely be called yeast) is obtained from a previous fermentation, and, as the latter is never vigorous,

it is not surprising that the resulting spirit contains, compared with the more scientifically prepared European spirits, a very high proportion of by-products (acid, fusel oil, etc.). The injurious nature of these native spirits has long been known and has been frequently set down to the admixture of drugs, such as hemp (ganga), but investigation appears to show that this is not gen-

erally the case.

The chemical

constitution of these liquors

alone affords sufficient proof of their inferior and deleterious character.

ARRAH, a town of British India, headquarters of Shahabad

district, in the Patna division of Bihar and Orissa. Pop. (1921) 40,769. Arrah is famous for an incident in the Mutiny, when 15 Englishmen and Eurasians, with yo Sikhs, defended a small building against 2,000 Sépoys and a body of armed insurgents,

perhaps four times that number, under Kuav Singh. A British relief force from Dinapur was disastrously repulsed; but they were ultimately rescued, after eight days’ fighting, by a small force under Maj. (afterwards Sir) Vincent Eyre,

ARRAIGNMENT, alaw term, properly denoting the calling of a person to answer in form of law upon an indictment. After a true bill has been found against a prisoner by the grand jury, he is called by name to the bar, the indictment is read over to him, and he is asked whether he be guilty or not of the offence charged. : This is the arraignment. His plea in answer to the charge is then entered, or a plea of not guilty is entered for him if he stands mute of malice and refuses to plead. If a person is mute by the visitation of God, i.¢., deaf and dumb, it will be no bar to an arraignment, provided he is sane and intelligence can be conveyed to him by signs or symbols. The arraignment is complete when the accused has pleaded.

ARRAKHA: see KIRKUK. ARRAN, EARLS OF. The extinct Scottish title of the earls of Arran (not to be confused with the modern Irish earls of Arran

—from the Arran or Aran Islands, Galway—a title created in 1762) was borne by some famous characters in Scottish history. With the exception of the first earl, Thomas Boyd (see ARRAN), and James Stewart, all the holders of this title were members of the Hamilton family. James Hamirton, ist earl (1475?—1529), son of James, rst

Lord Hamilton, and of Mary, daughter of James II. of Scotland,

succeeded to his father’s titles and estates in 1479. In 1503 he

negotiated the marriage of James IV. with Mary Tudor, and was

427

these years Arran supported now one party, now another. The most spectacular encounter was in 1520 when the fierce fight between the Hamiltons and the Douglases known as “Cleanse the Causeway” took place in the streets of Edinburgh in 1520. On the

proscription of Angus and the Douglases (1528) Arran joined the king at Stirling. He died in 1529.

James HA{ĮMILTON, 2nd earl of Arran and duke of Chåtelherault (1515?—75), became heir presumptive to the throne on the death of James V. and the accession of Mary, and was appointed protector of the realm. After arranging for a marriage between Mary

and Prince Edward (afterwards Edward VI. of England), he suddenly joined the French party, repudiated the proposed English marriage and repudiated Protestantism. After a first resistance he agreed to share the regency with Mary of Lorraine. The repudiation of the English alliance brought war with England, and the Scots were defeated at Pinkie. He then agreed to the marriage of Mary with the dauphin of France, and in 1554 resigned office. In 1559, however, he joined the Lords of the Congregation and be-

came oné of the provisional governors of the kingdom. He was in‘ disgrace and exiled from 1564 to 1569, but on her abdication Mary named him one of the regents for her son James VI. and he returned to Scotland to support the queen’s cause. It was not until 1573 that he admitted James’s authority and laid down his arms. He died Jan. 22 1575. James HAMILTON, 3rd earl (1537-1609), was intended by his father to marry Mary, Queen of Scots. Later on Henry VIII. promised the hand of his daughter Elizabeth as the price of the adherence of Hamilton’s father to the English interest. He was immersed in the political factions of the time in Scotland. In 1550 he went to France and received the command of the Scots Guards, but in 1559 was obliged to leave France. On his return to Scotland he became one of the Lords of the Congregation, and was supported by the Protestants as a suitor for Mary’s hand. In 1561 he showed signs of insanity and the rest of his life was spent in

confinement. He died in 1609. During the insanity of the 3rd earl, his honours were claimed, and for a short time enjoyed by James Stewart, his cousin, known as earl of Arran from 1581 to 1586. He was the rival of Lennox for the chief power in the country, but both were deprived of office by the raid of Ruthven Aug. 22 1582, and Arran was imprisoned till September under the charge of the earl of Gowrie. In 1583, however, he assembled a force of 12,000 men against the new government; the Protestant lords escaped over the border, and Arran, returning to power, was made governor of Stirling Castle and in 1584 lord chancellor. The same year Gowrie was captured through Arran’s treachery and executed after the failure of the plot of the Protestant lords against the latter’s government. Castle and in 1584 lord chancellor. The same year Gowrie was made provost of the city and lieutenant-general of the King’s forces. Arran’s tyranny and insolence, however, stirred up a multitude of enemies and caused his rapid fall from power. On account of the murder of Lord Russell on the border in July 1585, of which he was accused by Elizabeth, he was imprisoned at the castle of St. Andrews, and subsequently the banished lords with Elizabeth’s support entered Scotland, seized the government and proclaimed Arran a traitor. He fled in November, and from this time his movements are furtive and uncertain. In 1586 he was ordered to

leave the country, but it is doubtful whether he ever quitted Scotland. He contrived secretly to maintain friendly communication with James, and in 1592 returned to Edinburgh, and contrived to get reinstated in the court and kirk. His unscrupulous and adventurous career was terminated towards the close of 1595 by his assassination near Symontown in Lanarkshire by Sir James Doug-

las (nephew of his victim the earl of Morton), who carried his head in triumph on the point of a spear through the country.

created earl of Arran. Arran was intercepted in England on his

ARRAN, the largest island of the county of Bute, Scotland,

way home from a mission to France in 1507 and was imprisoned

at the mouth of the Firth of Clyde. Its greatest length, from the Cock of Arran to Bennan Head, is about 20m., and the greatest breadth—from Drumadoon Point to King’s Cross Point—is 11m. Area 165sq.m. Pop. (1921) 8,294. The scenery of Arran is very fine, and the geological structure complex. The greatest elevations are found in the north,

for a short time. In 1513 he was entrusted with the command of anaval expedition against England, but failed lamentably. On his

return he found his rival Angus married to the queen dowager and

Supreme at court, and joined the party of Albany, and was president of the council of regency from 1517 to 1520. In the feuds of

ARRANGEMENT —ARRAS

428

where Goatfell reaches 2,866ft. The name of this hil! is said to be a corruption of the Gaelic Goadh Bhein, “Mountain of the Winds.” It belongs to the series of intrusive igneous rocks of Tertiary age—granites—which occupy most of the northern half of the island and form its grandest natural features. These rocks are partly surrounded by an incomplete ring of the oldest rocks in the island—slate, mica-schists, and grits—while in the south the rocks are mainly Triassic, the Sedimentary rocks, however, being metamorphosed or broken at many points by volcanic intrusions.

Many beautiful glens, notably Glen Rosa and Glen Sannox, score the flanks of the mountains, and Loch Ranza, an inlet in the north, is one of the finest sea-lochs in Scotland. The streams or “waters,” as they are called, are generally hill burns, and they and their small mountain-lochs carry trout. Blackcock and grouse are numerous, and there are a few red deer. Cattle and sheep are raised in considerable numbers. The sea fisheries, centring on Loch Ranza, are of some importance. Brodick is the chief village in Arran; most of the dwelling-houses have been built at Inver*cloy close to the pier. Three miles south is Lamlash, on a fine bay so completely sheltered by Holy Island as to form an excellent harbour. Four miles north lies the village of Corrie, taking its name from a rugged hollow in the hill of Am Binnein (2,172ft.) which overshadows it. Daniel Macmillan (1813-1857), the founder of the publishing firm of Macmillan and Co., was a native of Corrie. Steamers from Glasgow and Ardrossan communicate with Brodick, Lamlash, Whiting Bay, Corrie and Loch Ranza, especially in summer when the island recèives many

9

ae

ro omR

=

dee BE

t

ai iagi Cagle é A pea cet z s

the anterior and left posterior segments of the semilunar 2 from the wall of the aorta, where it dilates into the sinuse a Valsalva.

They supply the tissue of the heart.

at

The oesophageal, bronchial and pericardiac branches are suf

ciently described by their names. The branches

7

of the aorta which supply the viscera of the

abdomen arise either singly or in pairs. The single arteries a the coeliac axis, the superior mesenteric, and the inferior mee, teric, which arise from the front of the aorta; the pairs are the capsular, the two renal, and the two spermatic or ovarian, which arise from its sides. The single arteries supply viscera which are either completely or almost completely invested by the peritoneum, and the veins corresponding to them are the roots of the vena portae. The pairs of arteries supply viscera developed behind the peritoneum, and the veins corresponding to them are rootlets of the inferior vena cava. The coeliac axis is a thick, short artery, which almost immed. ately divides into the gastric, hepatic and splenic branches, The superior mesenteric artery gives off an inferior pancre.

atico-duodenal branch to the pancreas and duodenum: aboy twelve intestinal branches to the small intestines, which form in the substance of the mesentery a series of arches before they end in the wall of the intestines; an zleocolic branch to the end

of the ileum, the caecum and beginning of the colon; a right colic branch to the ascending colon; and a middle colic branch to the transverse colon. The inferior mesenteric artery gives off a left colic branch to the descending colon, a sigmoid branch to the iliac and pelvic colon, and ends in the superior haemorrhoidal artery, which supplies the rectum. The capsular arteries, small in size, run outward from the aorta to end in the suprarenal capsules. The renal arteries pass one to each kidney. Additional renal arteries are fairly common. The spermatic arteries are two long slender arteries, which descend, one in each spermatic cord, into the scrotum to supply the testicle. The corresponding ovarian arteries in the female do not leave the abdomen. Parietal Branches.—The branches of the aorta which supply the walls of the thorax, abdomen and pelvis, are the intercostal, the lumbar, the phrenic and the middle sacral. The intercostal arteries arise from the back of the thoracic aorta, and are usually nine pairs. They run round the sides of the vettebral bodies as far as the commencement of the intercostal spaces, where each divides into a dorsal and a proper interTHE

POSTERIOR

OR DORSAL BRANCH

THE AORTA TRANSVERSELY DIVIDED, GIVING OFF AT EACH SIDE AN INTERCOSTAL ARTERY THE ANTERIOR OR PROPER INTERCOSTAL BRANCH A TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH THE INTERNAL MAMMARY ARTERY

FIG.

1.—A

PAIR

OF

INTERCOSTAL

ARTERIES

AND

THEIR

BRANCHES

costal branch; the dorsal branch passes to the back of the thorax to supply the deep muscles of the spine; the proper intercostal branch runs outward in the intercostal space to supply its muscles, and the lower pairs of intercostals also give branches to the

diaphragm and wall of the abdomen.

Below the last rib a sub

costal artery runs.

The lumbar arteries arise from the back of the abdomindl aorta, and are usually four pairs. They run round the sides of the lumbar vertebrae, and divide into a dorsal branch which sup plies the deep muscles of the back of the loins, and an abdoms

ARTERIES branch which runs outward ta supply the wall of the abdomen. The distribution of the lumbar and intercostal arteries exhibits a transversely segmented arrangement of the vascular system,

like the transversely segmented arrangement of the bones, muscles and nerves met with in these localities, but more especially in the thoracic region.

The two phrenic arteries supply the under surface of the diaphragm. ENDOTHELIUM. CONTINUOUS WITH THAT OF CAPILLARIES

td

TUNICA ADVENTITIA

ESTES?

a layer of endothelial cells, which form the free surface over which the blood flows. The arteries are not nourished by the blood which

flows through them, but by minute vessels, vasa vasorum, dis_| tributed in their external, elastic and muscular coats.

AT

MUSCULAR COAT

FIG. 2.—A

453

composed of connective tissue; immediately internal to this is the yellow elastic coat: within this again the muscular coat, formed of involuntary muscular tissue arranged transversely to the long axis of the artery; in the larger arteries the elastic coat is much thicker than the muscular, but in the smaller the muscular coat is relatively strong; the vaso-motor nerves terminate in the muscular coat. In the greater part of the aorta and arteries of the retina there is no muscular coat. Internal to the muscular coat is the elastic fenestrated coat, formed of a smooth elastic membrane perforated by small apertures. Most internal of all is

DIAGRAM

FENESTRATED COAT

SHOWING

LS “SSusSoSS> See (A

NLN

THE

STRUCTURE

OF

AN

ARTERY

The middle sacral artery, as it runs down the front of the sacrum, gives branches to the back of the pelvic wall. The arteries to the pelvis and hind limbs begin at the bifurca-

EMBRYOLOGY The earliest appearance of the blood vessels is dealt with under VASCULAR System. Here will be briefly described the fate of the main vessel which carries the blood away from the truncus arteriosus of the developing heart (g.v.). This ventral aorta, if traced forward, soon divides into two lateral parts, the explanation being that there were originally two vessels, side by side, which fused to form the heart, but continued separate anteriorly. The two parts run for a little distance toward the head of the OO

|

INTERNAL

MAXILLARY

|

tion of the aorta into the two common iliacs.

Iliac System.—The common iliac artery, after a short course, divides into the internal and external iliac arteries. The internal

iliac enters the pelvis and divides into branches for the supply of the pelvic walls and viscera, including the organs of generation, and for the great muscles of the buttock. The external iliac descends behind Poupart’s ligament into the thigh, where it takes the name of femoral artery. The femoral descends along the front and inner surface of the thigh, gives off a profunda or deep branch, which, by its circumflex and perforating branches, supplies the numerous muscles of the thigh; most of these extend

to the back of the limb to carry blood to the muscles situated

there. The femoral artery then runs to the back of the limb in the ham, where it is called popliteal artery. The popliteal divides into two branches, of which one, called anterior tibial, INTERNAL MAXILLARY OPHTHALMIC POSTERIOR AURICULAR- 9

EXTERNAL CAROTID

LEFT INTERNAL CAROTID

RIGHT INTERNAL CAROTID

LEFT VERTEBRAL LEFT EXTERNAL CAROTID LEFT SUBCLAVIAN

RIGHT VERTEBRAL TAS RIGHT SUBCLAVIAN RIGHT EXTERNAL CAROTID

ARCH OF AORTA

DUCT OF BOTALLI RIGHT PULMONARY

DUCTUS ARTERIOSUS INNOMINATE ARTERY

PULMONARY

TRUNK

VENTRAL AORTA

DORSAL AORTA

FIG. 3.—ARRANGEMENT

DORSAL AORTA

OF THE

ARTERIAL

ARCHES

passes between the bones to the front of the leg, and then downward to the upper surface of the foot; the other, posterior tibial,

continues down the back of the leg to the sole of the foot, and divides into the internal and external plantar arteries; branches

Proceed from the external plantar artery to the sides of the toes, and constitute the digital arteries. From the large arterial trunks in the leg many branches proceed, to carry blood to the different structures in the limb. Structure of Arteries.—The wall of an artery consists of

several coats (see fig. 2.). The outermost is the tunica adventitia,

EXTERNAL CAROTID

X j

POSTERIOR AURICULAR

OCCIPITAL

OCCIPITAL

RIGHT COMMON CAROTID

LEFT INTERNAL CAROTID

RIGHT VERTEBRAL AVIAN m RIGHT SUBCE

>

INNOMINATE

LEFT COMMON CAROTID LEFT VERTEBRAL LEFT SUBCLAVIAN

ARCH OF AORTA

PULMONARY BRANCHES ARCH OF AORTA PULMONARY

OCCIPITAL

2

RIGHT INTERNAL CAROTID

POSTERIOR AURICULAR

OCCIPITAL

SUPERFICIAL TEMPORAL

POSTERIOR AURICULAR

INTERNAL MAXILLARY OPHTHALMIC

a

TRUNK

a

ei

j

DUCTUS ARTERIOSUS R BRANCHES

Nad

DORSAL AORTA

FIG. 4.—THE HUMAN AORTA, THE GREAT ARTERY WHICH CARRIES BLOOD FROM THE HEART TO ALL PARTS OF THE BODY EXCEPT LUNGS, AND ITS MAIN BRANCHES

THE THE

embryo, ventral to the alimentary canal, and then turn toward the dorsum, passing one on either side of that tube to form the first aortic arch. Having reached the dorsum they turn backward toward the tail end and form the dorsal aortae. The anterior loop between the ventral and dorsal aortae already described as the first aortic arch is included in the maxillary or first visceral arch of the soft parts (see fig. 3, 1). Later, four other wellmarked aortic arches grow behind this in the more caudal visceral arches, so that there are altogether five arterial arches on each side of the pharynx, through which the blood can pass from the ventral to the dorsal aorta. Of these arches the first soon disappears, but is probably partly represented in the adult by the internal maxillary artery, one branch of which, the znfra-or bital, is enclosed in the upper jaw, while another, the inferior dental, is surrounded by the lower jaw. Possibly the ophthalmic artery also belongs to this arch. The second arch also disappears, but the posterior auricular and occipital arteries probably spring from

it, and at an early period it passed through the stapes as the transitory stapedial artery. The third arch forms the beginning

454

ARTERIES,

of the internal carotid. The fourth arch becomes the arch of the adult aorta, between the origins of the left carotid and left subclavian on the left side, and the first part of the right subclavian artery on the right. The apparent fifth arch on the left side (fig. 3) remains all through foetal life as the ductus arteriosus, and, as the lungs develop, the pulmonary arteries are derived from it. J. E. V. Boas and W. Zimmermann have shown that this arch is in reality the sixth and that there is a very transitory true fifth arch in front of it (fig. 3). The part of the ventral aorta from which this last arch rises is a single median vessel due to the same fusion of the two primitive ventral aortae which precedes the formation of the heart, but a spiral septum has appeared in it which divides it in such a way that while the anterior or cephalic arches communicate with the left ventricle of the heart, the last one communicates with the right (see Heart). The fate of the ventral and dorsal longitudinal vessels must now be followed. The fused part of the two ventral aortae, just in front of the heart, forms the ascending part of the adult aortic arch, and where this trunk divides between the fifth and fourth arches (strictly speaking, the sixth and fifth), the right one forms the innominate (fig. 3) and the left one a very short part of the transverse arch of the aorta until the fourth arch comes off (see fig. 4). From this point to the origin of the third arch is common carotid, and after that, to the head, external carotid on each side. The dorsal longitudinal arteries on the head side of the junction with the third arch form the internal carotids. Between the third and fourth arches they are obliterated, while on the caudal side of this, until the point of fusion is reached on the dorsal side of the heart, the left artery forms the upper part of the dorsal aorta, while the right entirely disappears. Below this point the thoracic and abdominal aortae are formed by the two primitive dorsal aortae which have fused to form a single median vessel. As the limbs are developed, vessels bud out in them. The subclavian for the arm comes from the fourth aortic arch on each side, while in the leg the main artery is a branch of the caudal arch which is curving ventralward to form the umbilical artery. From the convexity of this arch the internal iliac and sciatic at first carry the blood to the limb, as they do permanently in reptiles, but later the external iliac and femoral become developed, and, as they are on the concave side of the bend of the hip, while the sciatic is on the convex, they have a mechanical advantage and become the permanent main channel. For further details see O. Hertwig, Handbuch der vergleichenden und experimentellen Entwickelungslehre der Wirbeltiere

(Jena, 1905).

For the heart and vascular systems in other animals see Heart,

COMPARATIVE

PHysIoLocy

of;

FISH;

AMPHIBIA;

REPTILES;

Brrps; MamMats; CRUSTACEA; INSECTS; MOLLUSCA; ANNELIDA; etc. (F. G. P.)

ARTERIES, DISEASES OF.

Apart from their implica-

tion in neighbouring foci of disease, e.g., abscess or new growth, arteries suffer from certain well-defined morbid processes whereby the character of their walls is affected and changes may be induced in the tissues they normally supply with blood and in the heart which pumps that blood along them. The chief of these processes are atheroma, arterio-sclerosis, syphilitic endarteritis (endarteritis obliterans), embolism and thrombosis. In addition the normal diameter of the arteries may be altered by nervous causes as in shock, various paralytic states, Raynaud’s disease (g.v.) and by surgical or accidental means'as in ligature. In atheroma a local proliferation of endothelial cells takes place in the arterial wall at the junction of the middle and inner coats and later undergoes fatty or caseous degeneration. The degenerated material may ultimately be discharged into the lumen of the vessel, an atheromatous ulcer being formed, or it may become infiltrated with calcium salts when its site is represented by

a calcareous plaque in the wall of the artery. Atheroma is com-

monest in the aorta including the aortic valves and the incidence increases with age; it chiefly affects males and small innocuous patches are present in most men above the age of so. The atheromatous ulcer may become the starting point of an aneurysm (qg.v.) or of embolism from dislodgment of a fragment of fibrin

DISEASES

OF

deposited on the floor of the ulcer by the circulating blood

the atheroma be so extensive that small as well as large a te are involved, the calcareous process is likely to convert $ oe such as the radial or tibial into a rigid tube in which chron

(g.v.) occurs

and leads to local gangrene.

Where athe

>

affects the aortic valves and leads to stenosis or regurgitation th heart reacts to the valvular condition by dilatation and h ;

trophy (g.v.) as in similar non-atheromatous cases. ya: A tensive atheroma of the aorta does not introduce any factor ae fying the work of the left ventricle unless at the same time the orifices of the coronary arteries be narrowed. Under the is mentioned condition nutrition of the cardiac muscle and = docardiac ganglia is impaired, fatty degenerative changes sae

and anginal attacks are probable (see ANGINA Pectoris), Wher

calcareous atheroma affects extensively the smaller arteries the rigidity and diminution of calibre introduce an obstacle inthe peripheral resistance which the heart cannot overcome by in-

creased work. Hence the left ventricle does not hypertroph Indeed the age of the patient and the general conditions are such that the heart in these cases is small, feeble and somewhat dilated In arterio-sclerosis the smaller

arteries throughout the body

become thickened and their lumen narrowed by the formation of an increased amount of fibrous tissue, and possibly of the muscu. lar elements, in the middle coat. In the first instance, at all events

the inner and outer coats are unaffected. The condition leads to hypertrophy of the left ventricle owing to the increased periph-

eral resistance introduced by the narrowed, but still distensible arteries, and the general blood pressure rises. The arterioles of the kidney share in the general change and the organ shows the fibrotic and parenchymatous changes constituting chronic granular kidney (see Krpney, Diszases oF). The clinical symptoms of arterio-sclerosis are therefore those of heightened arterial tension together with those of renal fibrosis, complicated later by the cardiac changes the hypertrophied heart undergoes when compen-

sation fails (see HEART, DISEASES OF). Apart from these changes .the altered blood vessels are, themselves, liable to undergo degenerative processes identical with or resembling those occurring in atheroma, and where relatively unsupported as in the lenticulo-

striate region of the brain, small aneurysms are often formed, one of which may rupture under the force of the ventricular systole and lead to cerebral haemorrhage (see APoPLEXxy). Such so-called miliary or millet seed aneurysms are of pin-head size. Haemorrhage may also occur into the retina, the semi-circular canals and the intestinal mucosa. In the eye they lead to varying degrees

of impaired vision according to their extent and situation and in the ear to Meniére’s disease (qg.v.). One feature of all these haemorrhages is that they are liable to be repeated owing to the

permanent

character

of the underlying

arterial and cardiac

changes. In an autopsy upon a case of fatal cerebral haemorrhage evidence of earlier small haemorrhages into other parts of the brain is often found. In syphilitic endarteritis or endarteritis obliterans the inner coat of the artery is the seat of a localized but often widespread

inflammatory proliferation of endothelial cells with an admixture of lymphocytes. Such foci involve a portion of the circumference of the vessel and thus narrow the lumen and make it irregular in shape. They are avascular, and caseous degeneration early occurs with the result that the superficial endothelium dies and local thrombosis occludes the lumen completely. Affecting the large arteries the condition is highly diagnostic but rarely gives rise to symptoms. In arteries of small calibre, on the contrary, especially those of the brain, it is of grave importance; in young adults symptoms of “apoplexy” almost invariably are due either to syphilitic endarteritis with thrombosis or to embolism. What relation this form of endarteritis bears to atheroma is uncertain. In well-marked instances of syphilitic endarteritis soft flattened excrescences from the smooth inner lining of the arteries occur in numbers and distribution recalling those of widespread calcareous atheroma, and it may be that the latter condi-

tion is a late stage of the former. Indeed many cases of syphilitic endarteritis were described as “soft atheroma” before the Treponema pallidum was discovered.

ARTERIOSCLEROSIS—ARTEVELDE, P. VAN Apart trom rupture with its associated haemorrhage, aneurysm

ith its special pressure effects and liability to rupture, and ar-

reriosclerosis with its associated renal and cardiac changes, disease of an artery 1S important mainly because of the thrombosis it provokes and the nutritive changes that its occlusion may in-

duce in the tissues 1t supplies. As is shown elsewhere (see TrrouBosis) the effects of occlusion depend upon whether the occluded vessel anastomoses freely or not and whether the con-

dition is septic or aseptic. —

l

The treatment of arterial diseases is mainly that of the con-

dition upon which they depend or of the states to which they

give rise. For the arterial condition itself no treatment is available

except in some cases of aneurysm where thrombosis may be induced by ligature of the vessel. In arterio-sclerosis the ill effects

455

pi w

some being reciprocating, worked from a crankshaft at the top, and operating a bucket with flap or lift valves, in conjunction with a foot-valve. As the bucket rises the water is sucked up through the foot-valve, and as it descends the foot-valve shuts,

and those in the bucket open to pass the water upwards. The driving is done by belt, steam-engine, internal-combustion engine, or electric motor. Latterly multi-stage turbine pumps have been installed to an increasing extent, while the compressed-air method, forcing up the water without any moving mechanism below, is much utilized. The turbine pumps are driven in some instances direct by a vertical electric motor on the top end of the shaft, and this goes down through a tube jointed up in sections, with lignum-vitae bearings, which are lubricated by the water itself, as it flows through the tube to the delivery outlet at the top. (See Pumps; Ar Lirt.)

of high arterial tension, renal inadequacy and the excessive work ARTEVELDE, JACOB VAN (c. 1290-1345), Flemish thrown on the heart are combated by eliminating as far as possible the external conditions that. favour the occurrence of these ill statesman, born at Ghent about 1290, sprang from one of the effects. Thus, muscular exertion is reduced, diet is restricted, wealthy commercial families of the city. His brother John, a rich

sleep is encouraged and, in order to relieve the kidneys, adequate action of the skin and intestines 1s promoted. In atheroma where gangrene Occurs the treatment is that of the gangrene combined with such general treatment as is required by the age and cardiac weakness of the patient. See T, McCrae, Osler’s Modern Medicine; Tice, Practice of Medi-

cine; Allbutt and Rolleston, System of Medicine.

(W. S. L.-B.)

ARTERIOSCLEROSIS: see ARTERIES, DISEASES OF. ARTERN, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the Unstrut, at the influx of the Helme, at the junction of railways to Erfurt, Naumburg and Sangerhausen, 8 m. S. of the last named. Pop. 5,438. Its brine springs, known as early as the 15th century, are still frequented.

ARTESIAN WELLS, named after Artois, the ancient Ariesium, a French province, where the method of boring was frst adopted in Europe. A borehole is carried down into waterbearing strata, and the water, in certain formations, rises by hydrostatic pressure, or is pumped up. There is a well within the old Carthusian convent at Lillers which has been flowing since the mth century.

Traces

pelled at Bruges to sign a treaty (June 21 1338) sanctioning the federation of the three towns, Ghent, Bruges and Ypres, henceforth known as the “Three members of Flanders.” This was the

of more

ancient bored wells appear in Lombardy, in Asia Minor, Persia, China, Egypt, Algeria, and in the Sahara desert. Very big yields are often obtained; for instance, a set of eight wells at Camber-

well, London, give a million and a half gallons per day. A large variety of tools is employed in the work of boring, some rotary,

some percussive, and their operation is effected with hand plant, or by power. A derrick is erected

on the spot to suspend the rods

cloth merchant, took a leading part in public affairs during the first decades of the 14th century. Jacob, who according to tradition was a brewer by trade, made his first appearance as a political leader in the year 1337, when the outbreak of hostilities between France and England threatened the industrial welfare of his native town. As the Flemish cities depended upon England for the supply of the wool for their staple industry of weaving, he proposed, at a great meeting at the monastery of Biloke, a scheme for an alliance of the Flemish towns with those of Brabant, Holland and Hainaut, to maintain an armed neutrality in the dynastic struggle between Edward III. and Philip VI. of France. His efforts were successful. Bruges, Ypres and other towns formed a league with Ghent, where Artevelde, with the title of captain-general, henceforth until his death exercised almost dictatorial authority. His first step was to bring about the conclusion of a commercial treaty with England. The efforts of the Count of Flanders to overthrow the power of Artevelde by force of arms completely failed, and he was com-

AN |)

first of a series of treaties, made during the year 1339—40, which gradually brought into the federation many towns and provinces of the Netherlands. The policy of neutrality, however, proved impracticable, and the Flemish towns, under the leadership of Artevelde, openly took the side of the English king, with whom a close alliance was concluded. Artevelde now reached the height of his power, concluding alliances with kings, and publicly associating with them on equal terms. Under his able administration trade flourished, and Ghent rose rapidly in wealth and importance. But the proposal of Artevelde to disown the sovereignty of Louis, count of Flanders, and to recognize in its place that of Edward, Prince of Wales (the Black Prince), gave rise to violent dissatisfaction. A popular insurrection broke out in Ghent, and Artevelde was murdered on

July 24 1345.

See J. Hutton, James and Philip van Artevelde (London, 1882); W. J. Ashley, James and Philip van Artevelde (London, 1883); P. Naméche, Les van Artevelde et leur époque (Louvain, 1887); L. Vanderkindere, Le Siécle des Arteveldes (Brussels, 1879).

from, and carries the winding drum, and, in rotary plants, an ARTEVELDE, PHILIP VAN (c. 1340-1382), youngest engine for turning the rods. The son of Jacob van Artevelde (g.v.), and godson of Queen Philippa, diagram shows a percussive plant, wih the chisel seen well into the DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PROCESS lived in retirement until 1381. The Ghenters had in that year risen water-bearing strata. Changes in OF BORING AN ARTESIAN WELL in revolt against the oppression of the count of Flanders, and tools have to be made according to the strata encountered; in Philip, now 4o years of age, and without any military or political some instances a rotary crown of diamonds, costing thousands of experience, was offered the supreme command. He defeated Louis pounds, has to be used to bore through rock. Lining-tubes, which de Male, count of Flanders, before Bruges, entered that city in range from 3 in. to 24 in. or more in diameter are driven down as triumph, and was soon master of all Flanders. But France took the bore progresses, while permanent lining-tubes are put in for up the cause of the Flemish count, and a splendid French army the passage of the fluid. This is therefore only able to rise from was led across the frontier by the young king Charles VI. in the water-bearing strata, no surface percolations gaining access. person. Artevelde’s burgher army of some 50,000 Flemings was The use of a continuous casing, or pipe, insures this. Depths defeated with terrible loss at Roosebeke near Courtrai (Nov. 27, 1382), Philip himself being among the slain. His career is the teach to as much as 2,5ooft. in some cases. Several kinds of pumps are applied to the duty of raising water, subject of Sir H. Taylor’s drama, Philip van Artevelde.

4.56

ART

GALLERIES—ARTHROPODA

See James Hutton, Jacob and Philip van Arievelde

(1882); W. J.

Ashley, James and Philip van Artevelde (1883).

ART GALLERIES: see Museums, GALLERIES AND COLLECTIONS OF ART.

The possession of a rigid exoskeleton, of which the segment form jointed levers moved by muscles, is associated with a ae

more complicated muscular system than is found in the Annelidy and has rendered possible the development of elaborate mecha

ARTH, a picturesque little town of Switzerland, situated at nisms for carrying on the varied activities of life. The appenda as

the southern end of Lake Zug. Its origin probably goes back to Roman times. Pop. about 5,000.

ARTHRITIS, inflammation of the joints, occurring in acute

and in chronic forms as the result of injury or in the course of other diseases, e.g., gout, rheumatism, gonorrhoea. It may end in

fixation of the joint and sometimes is suppurative. (See JOINTS, SURGERY oF, and JorntTs, DISEASES OF.)

ARTHROPODA,

a phylum of the animal kingdom, com-

prising animals with a segmented body enclosed in a firm integument or exoskeleton, provided with jointed limbs some of which are modified to serve as jaws. The group includes the classes Crustacea, Myriopoda, Insecta and Arachnida, together with several less extensive groups. It corresponds to the class Insecta of Linnaeus, but that name has, by more than a century of usage, been restricted to one of its subdivisions. The Arthropoda have many features in common with the Annelid worms (see ANNELIDA), from some primitive form of which, it can hardly be doubted, they have been derived. They agree with the Annelida in the segmented body, the segments or “somites” of which arise during development in regular order from front to rear, new somites being added in front of an unsegmented terminal region or “telson”; in the structure of the nervous system, consisting of a ventral double chain of segmentally arranged ganglia connected by a pair of cords which encircle the gullet with a pair of ganglia (the “brain”) in front of the mouth; and in having segmental hollow appendages (paraPROSTOMIAL TENTACLE

THE PRosTOMIAL GANGLIA OR PRIMITIVE “ BRAIN”

PROSTOMIUM

are modified in an endless variety of ways for creeping, aa or flying, for catching and killing prey, for biting or grind j food, for the support of sense-organs, for aiding the ieie reproduction or for protecting the eggs and young. Along with these developments, the nervous system and the organs of special sense, in particular the eyes, become correspondingly complex and efficient. The protection which the continuous cuticle affords

to the underlying tissues has facilitated the transition, many times repeated in the evolution of the group, from aquatic tg terrestrial life, in which the insects above all have been cop. spicuously successful. With the body and limbs enclosed in a continuous and ineztensible envelope, growth is only possible if the envelope is peri-

odically shed and renewed, and this process of “moulting” o “ecdysis” is very characteristic of Arthropoda. In some, growth appears to continue at a diminishing rate throughout life, and ecdysis occurs at successively longer intervals. This is probably the case with most of the higher Crustacea. In the winged in. sects, however, growth ceases at the end of the larval stage and the adult insect does not undergo ecdysis. Although the general association of ecdysis with growth is obvious there are exceptions which forbid the assumption that the two phenomena are causally

connected. Thus in certain Decapod Crustacea (prawns) repeated ecdysis may occur without any perceptible increase in

size, and in individuals subjected to starvation there may even be a shrinkage in bulk of the animal. On the other hand, certain

parasitic Crustacea increase enormously in size without ecdysis, the cuticle, which remains thin and membranous, extending apparently by some process of interstitial growth. A remarkable peculiarity, which is all but universal throughout the Arthropoda, is the absence of vibratile cilia from all parts of the body both in the larval and in the adult stages. In this character the Arthropoda differ from all other animals except the Nematode worms. The only Arthropoda known to possess actively moving cilia are certain species of Peripatus (Onychophora) in which the epithelium of the receptaculum seminis is ciliated. The absence of cilia from the external surface of the body is doubtless correlated with the development of a strong cuticle; but it is not clear how this can explain their absence from internal passages such as nephridial and genital ducts. MORPHOLOGY All Arthropoda differ from the Annelida in having some of the anterior somites coalesced to form the “head.” This is doubt-

AFTER GOODRICH FIG. 1.—DIAGRAM OF HEAD AND ANTERIOR WORM. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IS IN BLACK

REGION

PARAPODIUM OR PRIMITIVE LIMB

less associated with the modification of some of the anterior appendages to serve as jaws. Further, there has taken place, as Ray Lankester first showed, a backward shifting of the mouthopening, from its primitive position on the first somite (peristom-

THE BODY-CAVITIES (COELOM) OF THE FIRST THREE SOMITES

ium of Annelida), so that one or more somites which were origi-

OF

AN

ANNELID

podia, limbs) moved by muscles. They differ from the Annelida in having the external cuticle—which in the Annelida is a delicate membrane composed chiefly of a substance known as chitin— thickened and stiffened so as to form an exoskeleton, remaining thin and flexible only at the joints between the segments of the body and limbs; in having one or more pairs of appendages in the neighbourhood of the mouth converted into paired, laterally moving, jaws; and in having the apparent body-cavity (haemocoel) forming part of the blood-system communicating with the contractile dorsal vessel or heart by segmentally arranged valved openings or ostia, the true body-cavity (coelom) being almost

obliterated,

nally postoral come to be situated, with their appendages, in front of the mouth. At the same time the nerve-ganglia belonging to these somites have been moved forward to become incorporated in the “brain.” The evidence for the forward shifting is particularly clear in the case of the antennae of the Crustacea and

their nerve-ganglia (see CRUSTACEA).

The number of somites constituting the head differs in the

classes of the Arthropoda but considerable difficulties are ¢lcountered in attempting to determine the actual numbers, and to compare the various classes with one another in respect of this character. Embryological study has shown that clearly marked somites may be present in the early stages which disappear

in the course of development and that the number of appendages present in the adult does not always correspond to the number of

somites originally present. Even where no such embryonic vés: tiges can be discovered it cannot safely be assumed that the cephalic appendages are serially homologous in widely different types of Arthropoda. The following comparison of the çonsti-

ARTHROPODA

457 pa

tution of the head in the different classes must be understood as ! Tke constitution of the head in the Diplopod Myriopoda | | n Í (sometimes regarded as a class distinct from the Chilopoda) is gubject to this reservation. The structure of the head is simplest in the Onychophora! not clearly ascertained, but for further details reference must (Peripatus) which in this, as in many other respects, occupy a |be made to the articles dealing with the different groups. very primitive and isolated position among existing Arthropoda. The sensory organs of the Arthropoda present numerous and In the early embryo the first pair of mesoblastic somite-rudi- diverse complexities of structure many of which are clearly asments lie, at their first appearance, well behind the mouth, but | sociated with the presence of a hard and often opaque cuticle. With the body and limbs so encased it may be supposed that the RUDIMENTARY FRONTAL PROCESSES PERHAPS sense of touch would be very dull unless it were localized in REPRESENTING THE PROSTOMIAL TENTACLES special organs. These organs are provided by the hairs or “setae” OF THE ANNELID | which are scattered over the surface in all Arthropoda. They are hollow projections of the cuticle containing prolongations of the ANTENNA, REPRESENTING THE LIMB underlying cells of the hypodermis into which nerve-fibrils can OF THE FIRST SOMITE, NOW SHIFTED IN FRONT OF THE MOUTH be traced. At the base, the seta arises from a cup-shaped deFORE-BRAIN, REPRESENTING THE PROSTOMIAL GANGLIA OF THE ANNELID TOGETHER WITH THE GANGLIA OF THE FIRST SOMITE

MANDIBLE

MID-BRAIN, REPRESENTING THE GANGLIA OF THE SECOND SOMITE

OPAL PAPILLA

MOUTH

THE BODY-CAVITIES OF THE FIRST Four SOMITES, THAT OF THE FIRST SOMITE NOW SHIFTED IN FRONT OF THE MOUTH

AFTER GOODRICH FIG. 2—DIAGRAM OF HEAD AND ANTERIOR REGION (PERIPATUS), A PRIMITIVE SPECIES OF ARTHROPODA

OF ONYCHOPHORA

move forwards in the course of development until they are in front of the mouth. From these arise a pair of limb-buds which become the antennae of the adult. From the similar limb-buds on the second pair of somites arise the single pair of jaws and from those on the third somites the “oral papillae” of the adult. In all other Arthropoda there is evidence of more than one preoral segment. Even in the Arachnida, in which only one pair of appendages, the chelicerae, are in front of the mouth, a pair of pre-cheliceral somite-rudiments have been found in the embryo in spiders, In Crustacea there are three preoral somites, a pair of

preantennular somite-rudiments being present in the embryo in front of those that carry the antennulae and antennae of the adult. _In the Chilopoda (Myriopoda) there are also three preoral somites, transitory embryonic rudiments being found in front of and behind the antennae, which are the only preoral appendages of the adult. In insects also a preantennal somite has been demonstrated and there is stated to be some evidence of the existence of another somite in front of it; a transitory somite between antennae and mandibles completes the resemblance to Chilopods and Crustacea. i Subject to the reserves indicated above, the probable homologies of the anterior somites and their appendages in the chief classes of Arthropoda may be tabulated as follows (embryonic somites

are indicated by italics) :—

Antenna

and leg

rst leg and leg

Mandible Maxillula

3rd leg

Maxilla

4th leg 3

Insecta.

Pre-chelic- | Pre-antennu- | Pre-antennal | Pre-antennal eral somite. | lar somite. somite. somite. Chelicera Antennule | Antenna Antenna

Pedipalp

std leg

4th leg

transparent cuticle forming the cornea which covers the eye is divided into a number (often a very large number) of lenticular

|

eve | CHELICERA OR MANDIBLE at"

MouTH#

A

i

a

:

Nae : TD TTT, Steen,

i

P

Se

\

Pre-mandi- | Pre-mandt-

bular somite | bular somite | Mandible | Mandible rst maxilla | Maxillula

and maxilla | rst maxilla

Maxilliped | Maxilliped | 2nd maxilla or rst leg

(Labium)

kA

OSS Ss ~ gree NB {3

FORE-BRAIN. REPRESENTING THE PROSTOMIAL GANGLIA OF TWE

O

GANGLIA OF THE First SOMITE

sper bea

:

.

ANNELID TOGETHER WITH THE

I. —

Jaw . Oral

papilla . Ist leg

and here again the structure seems to be conditioned by the presence of a thick cuticle. Only in Peripatus (Onychophora) are the eyes of a type found in Annelida, consisting of a closed sack or vesicle, folded off from the skin and enclosing a lens that seems to be cuticular in origin. In all other Arthropoda the eyes are developed as pits in the ectoderm, the cav.ty of the pit being filled by a transparent thickening of the cuticle which acts as a lens, concentrating light on the receptive cells beneath. These receptive or retinal cells contain rod-like bodies (rhabdomes) perhaps also cuticular. The simpler types of eye consist each of a single pit with single lens overlying a group of retinular cells, or a number may be grouped together, leading to the remarkably complex “facetted” or “compound” eyes which are especially characteristic of crustaceans and insects. In these the

AFTER GOODRICH FIG. 3.—DIAGRAM

Peripatus. | Arachnida. | Crustacea. | Chilopoda. Antenna.

pression where the cuticle is thinned away to form a more or less movable joint, and movements caused by touching solid bodies will cause afferent impulses to be transmitted to the central nervous system. The finer setae are often furnished with secondary hairs set along their length like the barbs of a feather, and such setae, which are especially common in aquatic Arthropoda, can be seen to respond to movements in the water and even to the delicate vibrations caused by sound waves. Another modification of setae gives rise to organs of taste and smell or, more generally, of chemical sense. In these the cuticle of the setae is exceedingly thin, permitting diffusion of substances from the surrounding medium which thus reach the nerve-endings within. The eyes of Arthropoda are very characteristic of the group,

NOW SHIFTED IN FRONT OF THE MOUTH

ee a

I ATT

OF THE HEAD AND ANTERIOR

REGION OF AN ARACHNID

facets each of which corresponds to a little group of retinular cells and usually an additional refractive body, the “crystalline cone.” While there is considerable diversity in minute details of structure it should be emphasized that the agreement in general plan between the compound eyes of Crustacea and those of insects is remarkably close. Respiration in aquatic Arthropoda is carried on by gills or, in the more minute forms, by the general surface of the body. The gills are plate-like or branching outgrowths from some of the limbs or from the surface of the body. The organs of respiration in air-breathing Arthropoda are more varied. The

ARTHROPODA

4.58

characteristic “lung books” of many Arachnida are plainly detivable from the very similar “gill books” of the aquatic Xiphosura and their allies (see ARACHNIDA). The most common method of aerial respiration, however, is by tracheae. These are delicate tufted or branching tubules, opening to the exterior and filled with air. They are lined by a delicate continuation of the external cuticle, often strengthened by a spiral thickening. In the simpler forms the tracheae penetrate only a little way into FRONTAL PAPILLA

MEDIAN EYE

~

PAIRED EYE FORE-BRAIN

ANTENNULE

ANTENNA

PHYLOGENY

While the number and the importance of the characters which

are common to all the classes composing the Arthropoda are ek as to remove all reasonable doubt that the group is a “natural”

or monophyletic one, it is not possible to say that the phyletj

relations of the classes themselves have been clearly ascertained

No phylogenetic scheme has been suggested that does not involve the independent origin of similar features in different lineages Thus, the possession of tracheae was formerly considered as clear evidence of common descent in the Onychophora, Myrio Insecta, and Arachnida. The demonstration by Ray Lankester however, of the close affinity between the air-breathing Arachnid, and the gill-bearing Xiphosura and Eurypterida involved the conclusion that the tracheae of Arachnida must have arisen independ-

MID-BRAIN

MOUTH

n HIND-BRAIN

MANDIBLE

SIMPLE EYE LIKE THE LATERAL | A SCORPION EYES OF HYPODERMIS (EPIDERMIS) |

i

GE

CELLS SECRETING THE CORNEA VITRELLAR CELLS SECR THE CRYSTALLINE Booy

MAXILLULA

MAXILLA

FROM LANKESTER, “TREATISE ON ZOOLOGY,” BY PERMISSION OF A FIG. 4.—DIAGRAM OF HEAD AND ANTERIOR REGION

CRYSTALLINE Bopy RHABDONE

& C. BLACK OF A CRUSTACEAN

RETINULAR CELLs | SECRETING THE RHABDOME

the body and the blood no doubt acts as intermediary in the respiratory exchange with the tissues. In more highly developed types, especially in insects, the tracheal tubules ramify throughout the whole body, carrying air into direct contact with the cells of the tissues and the respiratory function of the blood is almost or quite superseded. Tracheae are possessed by Onychophora, Myriopoda (Chilopoda and Diplopoda), Insecta, most terrestrial Arachnida, and even by the terrestrial Isopoda among Crustacea. Similar structures are said to occur in certain Coelenterata (Siphonophora) and Mollusca, but with these exceptions they are peculiar to the Arthropoda.

NERVE FIBRES

|

ee

HYPOTHETICAL INTERMEDIATE FORM TO SHOW ORIGIN OF CRYSTALLINE BODY CRYSTALLINE Bopy

CELLS SECRETING THE CORNEA

VITRELLAR CELLS SECRETING THE CRYSTALLINE Boby

RETINULAR CELLS SECRETING THE RHABDOME

The structure of the heart has been already alluded to. In the more primitive forms it is a long dorsal tube running throughout the greater part of the body and lying in a chamber, the pericardium, which contains blood. From the pericardium the blood enters the heart by paired openings or ostia with valvular lips which permit blood to enter but prevent its egress. Typically

RHABDONE NERVE FIBRES

EYE CORNEAL FACET ANTENNA

“sf

‘oe

`

i “he

Si

t»

Ì

pasata

a

J

pee

FORE-BRAIN

CRYSTALLINE Boby

MID-BRAIN

VITRELLAR CELLS SECRETING THE CRYSTALLINE BODY

SINGLE ELEMENT (OMMATIDIUM) FROM THE COMPOUND EYE OF A CRUSTACEAN OR INSECT RETINULAR CELLS

MOUTH

aM

D

ane / gen

CELLS SECRETING THE CORNEA

. a wa

yer mt Z

heb

s

HIND-BRAIN REPRESENTING THE GANGLIA OF THE THIRD SOMITE

SECRETING THE RHABDOME

A TRANSITORY SOMITE FOUND IN THE EMBRYO BUT BEARING NO APPENDAGES

MANDIBLE

RHABDOME NERVE FIBRES

Cc

(FROM LANKEBTER, MODIFIED FROM WATABE)

FIRST MAXILLA

SECOND MAXILLA AFTER

GOODRICH

FIG. 5.—DIAGRAM OF HEAD AND ANTERIOR REGION OF AN INSECT there is a pair of ostia in each somite. The heart is rhythmically contractile and propels the contained blood towards the head where it may be discharged directly into the lacunae of the haemocoel or may pass through one or several arterial vessels before entering the lacunar system. In more specialized forms the heart-

tube is shortened and the number of ostia is reduced and in some of the smaller Crustacea it forms a globular sack with a single pair of ostia. In many minute forms of Crustacea and Arachnida the heart is absent and the blood is simply driven hither and thither by movements of the body, limbs and alimentary canal.

FROM S. WATASE, “ON THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE COMPOUND EYES OF ARTHROPODA" FIG. 6.—DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING STRUCTURE OF EYES IN ARTHROPODA THE CUTICLE AND ITS DERIVATIVES ARE SHOWN IN BLACK

ently of those of the insects. The assumption of a simple phyletic

series leading from the Onychophora through the Myriopoda to the Insecta became untenable when it was shown that the Chilopod the Myriopods and the insects agreed closely with Crustacea segmentation of the head-region and that the similarity in struc ture of the compound eyes of insects and Crustacea was t00 close

to be imagined as arising independently in the two groups. Aga,

the resemblance of the tracheae of terrestrial Isopod Crustactt to those of the other tracheate groups is not disposed of by call ing them “pseudotracheae” and it is not seriously suggested that so specialized a group of Crustacea can have given rise to insects. $ i

ARTHUR—ARTHUR The suggestion that all the existing Arthropoda can have been de-

rived from tracheate air-breathing ancestors, implying, as it does, the existence of a land-fauna in Pre-Cambrian times, cannot be

considered seriously in the present state of our knowledge. The

only conclusion that can be drawn, therefore, is that tracheae

have been acquired at least four times in the evolution of the i Arthropoda.

The fact that convergent evolution must be admitted in the

case of a system of organs so characteristic as the tracheae demands a careful scrutiny of the other structural features on which classification may be based. Some uncertainties with regard to the constitution of the head have already been alluded to. Where there is a Clear correspondence of somite for somite and appendage for appendage, as in the comparison of Xiphosura and Eurypterida

with scorpions, a natural or phyletic relationship may be taken

as proved. On the other hand,while the dismembering of the old

soup Myriopoda may be justified by the wide differences separating the Diplopoda and Chilopoda, it is not clear that the

association of the Symphyla with the former can be sustained

solely because of the anterior position on the genital openings.

The palaeontological record of Arthropoda gives some help towards understanding their phylogeny. Particularly interesting are the Trilobites, some of which are among the earliest known fossils and of which the structure is now known in considerable detail in several genera. It is clear that they are not far removed from a primitive stock which may well have given rise to the Crustacea and it is probable that the Eurypterida, and with them the Arachnida, may have come from the same source by way of

the imperfectly known Cambrian Limulava.

Of the origin of

insects and of the Myriopod groups palaeontology has, as yet, nothing to tell us although Diplopod-like forms and probably À insects occur in the Devonian. The position of the Onychophora with respect to the other Arthropoda is quite obscure except that they must have diverged yery early from the primitive stock and have ‘acquired independently the features which they have in common with the other terrestrial groups such as tracheae and simple clawed limbs. The Pycnogonida are another group which it is impossible, in the present state of knowledge, to link up with any of the larger groups of Arthropoda. Their traditional association with Arachnida encounters difficulties in the interpretation of the appendages and these difficulties have not been diminished by the discovery of genera which have five, instead of the usual four, pairs of legs. The Tardigrada and Pentastomida (Linguatulida, gg.v.), are two small groups whose title to be regarded as Arthropoda is doubtfu. If they are, the simplification of structure and the disap-

III.

459 pt

no other record of the r2 battles, but Gildas (g.v.}, writing in 550, without speaking of Arthur, mentions the battle of Mount Badon as taking place on the day of his birth, which would be c. 516. We may conclude, then, that Arthur was born about the end of the sth century, and that he was the general of royal armies fighting in South Britain. The compiler of the Annales Cambriae (written shortly after 956), and William of Malmesbury in his Gesta Regum (completed 1125), also connect Arthur with the battle of Mount Badon, the former adding that he fell with Medraut (Mordred) at the battle of Camlan (537). William further objects to the fables growing up around his name and shows that it had already been connected with Walwen or Gawain.

(The famous

Round

Table

appears as early as the

Geste des Bretons [1155] of Maistre Wace.)

Geoffrey of Mon-

mouth, whose Historia Britonum, written in 1147, was one of the chief sources for later biographies, definitely introduces the mythical element by relating, among other events, the crowning

of Arthur and his conquests abroad. Caradoc of Llancarfan, in his Vita Gildae (before 1156), has similar elaborations in his description of the quarrel between Arthur and Hueil, the brother of Gildas, and in his account of Arthur as the benefactor of Glastonbury. Glastonbury, as the hero’s resting-place, is first mentioned by Giraldus Cambrensis in the first book of his De Principis Instructione (c. 1195), and the discovery of Arthur’s body is first dated as 1192 by Ralph of Coggeshall in his Chronicon Anglicanum. See W. Lewis Jones, King Arthur in History and Legend (1911); E. K. Chambers, Arthur of Britain (1927), and Camb. Hist. of Eng. Lit., vol. i.

ARTHUR

I. (1187-1203),

duke

of Brittany,

was

the

posthumous son of Geoffrey, the fourth son of Henry II. of England, and Constance, heiress of Conan IV., duke of Brittany. The Bretons hoped that their young prince would uphold their independence, which was threatened by the English. Henry II. tried to seize Brittany, and in 1187 forced Constance to marry one of his favourites, Randulph de Blundevill, earl of Chester (d. 1232). Henry, however, died soon afterwards (1189). The new king of England, Richard Coeur de Lion, claimed the

guardianship of the young Arthur, but in 1190 Richard left for the Crusade. Constance profited by his absence by governing the duchy, and in 1194 she had Arthur proclaimed duke of Brittany by an assembly of barons and bishops. Richard invaded Brittany in 1196, but was defeated in 1197 and became reconciled to Constance. On his death in 1199, the nobles of Anjou, Maine and Touraine refused to recognize John of England, and did homage to Arthur, who declared himself the vassal of Philip Augustus. In pearance of connecting links has entirely obscured their relation- 1202 war was resumed between the king of England and the king of France. The king of France recognized Arthur’s right to ships with the more normal members of the group. It may be mentioned that, in point of size, the Arthropoda have Brittany, Anjou, Maine and Poitou. While Philip Augustus was a wider range than any of the other main groups of the animal invading Normandy, Arthur tried to seize Poitou. But, surprised kingdom. The same minimum of 1/z00 inch (-25 mm.) is reached at Mirebeau, he fell into the hands of John, who sent him prisoner both among Crustacea (Cladocera) and among insects (Coleop- to Falaise. In the following year he was transferred to Rouen, and tera). At the other extreme stands the Giant Japanese Crab disappeared suddenly. It is thought that Jobn killed him with his (Macrocheira or Kaempferia) which can span rft. with its own hand. After this murder John was condemned by the court claws. Some of the extinct Eurypterida, reaching 5ft. in length of peers of France, and stripped of his French fiefs. See Ralph of Coggeshall, “Chronicon Anglicanum,” in the Monuof body, were probably still bulkier. menta Britanniae historica; Dom Lobineau, Histoire de Bretagne See ARACHNIDA,

CRUSTACEA,

PYCNOGONIDA, TRILOBITES.

Insects,

MYRIAPODA,

ONYCHOPHORA,

(W.T. C

ARTHUR, British king, and subject of the romance cycle, Our sources for the

described below, s.v. Arthurian Legend.

historical Arthur are the Historia Britonum

of Nennius,

the

Annales Cambriae, and the Gesta Regum of William of Malmesbury. In Caradoc of Llancarfan and in Geoffrey of Monmouth the myth is already developed.

Nennius (f. 796) represents

Arthur as a Christian warrior leading the kings of Britain against

the Saxon kings of Kent.

He enumerates 12 battles, of which

the eighth battle was on the castle Guinnon, “wherein Arthur

bore the image of St. Mary the ever-virgin upon his shoulder, and the pagans were turned to flight... . The twelfth battle

(1702); Dom Morice, Histoire de Bretagne (1742-56); A. de la Borderie, Histoire de Bretagne, vol. iii. (1899) ; Bémont, “De la condamnation de Jean-sans-Tetre par la Cour des Pairs de France,” in the Revue historique, vol. xxxii, (1886).

ARTHUR III. (1393-1458), earl of Richmond, constable of

France, and afterwards duke of Brittany, was the third son of John IV., duke of Brittany, and Joan of Navarre, afterwards wife of Henry IV. of England. His brother, John V., gave him his earldom of Richmond in England. From 1410 to 1414 he served on the side of the Armagnacs in the civil wars, and afterwards entered the service of Louis the dauphin, whose intimate friend he became. At Agincourt he was wounded and captured, and he remained a prisoner in England from 1415 to 1420. Released on

parole, he persuaded his brother, the duke of Brittany, to conclude the treaty of Troyes, and was rewarded by Henry V. with the countship of Ivry. is There victorious.” alone, and in all the battles he came out was on the Mount of Badon, wherein fell 960 men in one day at a single onset of Arthur; and no one overthrew them but he

460

ARTHUR

In 1423 Arthur married Margaret of Burgundy, widow of the dauphin Louis, and thus became the brother-in-law of the regent, the duke of Bedford. Offended by Bedford’s refusal to give him a high command, he broke with the English, and in March 1425 became constable of France. He now threw himself with ardour into the French cause, and persuaded his brother, John V. of Brittany, to conclude the treaty

of Saumur (Oct. 7 1425) with Charles VII. But he met with a whole series of reverses in the field; and at court, where his rough and overbearing manners made him disliked, his influence was overshadowed by that of a series of incompetent favourites. The peace concluded between the duke of Brittany and the English in Sept. 1427 led to his expulsion from the court. In June 1429 he joined Joan of Arc at Orleans, and fought in several battles under her banner, till the influence of La Trémoille forced his withdrawal from the army. On March 5 1432, Charles VII. concluded with him and with Brittany the treaty of Rennes; but it was not until June of the following year that La Trémoille was overthrown. Richmond now resumed the war against the English, and repressed the plundering bands of soldiers and peasants known as routiers or écorcheurs. On Sept. 20 1435, mainly as a result of his diplomacy, the treaty of Arras was signed between Charles VII. and the duke of Burgundy, to which France owed her salvation. On April 13 1436, Richmond took Paris from the English; but it was not till May 1444 that the armistice of Tours gave him leisure to carry out the reorganization of the army. He now created the compagnies d’ordonnance and endeavoured to organize the militia of the francs archers. This reform had its effect in the

struggles that followed. In alliance with his nephew, the duke of Brittany, he reconquered, during Sept. and Oct. 1449, nearly all the Cotentin; on April 15 1450, he gained over the English the battle of Formigny; and during the year he recovered for France the whole of Normandy, which for the next six or seven years he defended from English attacks. On the death of his nephew Peter II., Sept. 22 1457, he became duke of Brittany. He reigned little more than a year, dying Dec. 26 1458, and was succeeded by his nephew Francis II., son of his brother Richard, count of

New York while in transit between

two slave States were ip

facto free. In another noted case, in 1855, he obtained a decision that negroes were entitled to the same accommodations as Whites on the street railways of New York city. In politics Arthur was actively associated from the outset with the Republican Party. When the Civil War began he held the position of engineer-in-chief on Governor Edwin D. Morgan’s staff and afterwards became successively acting quartermaster general inspector general, and quartermaster general of the State troops 3 which capacities he showed much administrative efficiency. At the

close of Governor Morgan's term, Dec. 31, 1862, Gen. Arthur te. sumed the practice of his profession, remaining active, however. in party politics in New York city.-In Nov. 1871, he was appointed by President U. S. Grant collector of customs for the port of Ney

York. The custom-house had long been conspicuous for the most

flagrant abuses of the “spoils systems”; and though Gen. Arthur admitted that the evils existed and that they rendered efficient ad-

ministration impossible, he made no extensive reforms. In 187

President Rutherford B. Hayes began the reform of the civil sery-

ice with the New York custom-house. A non-partisan commission appointed by Secretary John Sherman, recommended sweeping changes. The president demanded the resignation of Arthur and his two principal subordinates, George H. Sharpe, the surveyor and Alonzo B. Cornell, the naval officer, of the port. Gen. Arthur refused to resign on the ground that to retire “under fire” would be to acknowledge wrong-doing, and claimed that as the abuses were inherent in a widespread system he should not be made to bear the responsibility alone. His cause was espoused by Senator Roscoe Conkling, for a time successfully; but on July 11, 1878, during a recess of the Senate, the collector was removed, and in Jan. 1879, after another severe struggle, this action received the approval of the Senate. His business conduct of the office was not impugned, but, at that period, he was a political manager conspicu-

ously hostile to civil service reform. However, in defence of his management, he issued a statement pointing out that the record of his immediate predecessors in the office showed seven times as many changes in appointments as he had made. In 1880 Gen. Arthur was a delegate at large from New York to Etampes. Duke Arthur was thrice married: (1) to Margaret of Burgundy, the Republican national convention. In common with the rest of duchess of Guienne (d. 1442); (2) to Jeanne d’Albret, daughter the ‘‘Stalwarts,” he worked hard for the nomination of Gen. U. S. of Charles II. of Albret (d. 1444); (3) to Catherine of Luxemburg, Grant for a third term. Upon the triumph of James A. Garfield, daughter of Peter of Luxemburg, count of St. Pol, who survived the necessity of conciliating the defeated faction led to the hasty acceptance of Arthur for the second place on the ticket. His nomihim. He left no legitimate children. BiBLioGRAPHY.—The main source for the life of Duke Arthur III. nation was coldly received by the public; and when, after his elecis the chronicle of Guillaume Gruel (c. 1410-74-82). Gruel entered tion and accession, he actively engaged on behalf of Conkling in the service of the earl of Richmond about 1425, shared in all his the great conflict with Garfield over the New York patronage, the campaigns, and lived with him on intimate terms. The chronicle covers the whole period of the duke’s life, but the earlier part, up to impression was widespread that he was unworthy of his position. 1425, is much less full and important than the later, which is based Upon the death of President Garfield, Sept. 19, 1881, Arthur took on Gruel’s personal knowledge and observation. In spite of a perhaps the oath as his successor. Coming at a period of intense factional exaggerated admiration for his hero, Gruel displays in his work so controversy and following the assassination of Garfield, which had much good faith, insight and originality that he is accepted as a thoroughly trustworthy authority. It was first published at Paris profoundly shocked the public mind, the accession of Arthur to in 1622. Of the numerous later editions, the best is that of Achille le the presidency created apprehensions. The widespread expressions Vavasseur, Chronique d’Arthur de Richemont (Paris, 1890). See also of dismay in the press at the probable outcome of an administraE. Cosneau, Le Connétable de Richemont (Paris, 1886) ; G. du Fresne tion in the hands of so confirmed a factionist and spoilsman as he de Beaucourt, Histoire de Charles VII. (Paris, 1881, et seq.). was reputed to be, are said to have deeply wounded Arthur. But ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830-1886), 21st president his inaugural address was clear, judicious and reassuring, and his of the United States was born in Fairfield, Vt., on Oct. 5, 1830. expressed purpose, from which he never measurably deviated, to His father, William Arthur (1796-1875), when 18 years of age, administer his office in a spirit devoid of factional animosity, estabemigrated from Co. Antrim, Ireland, and, after teaching in various lished the confidence of the nation and won for him the approval places in Vermont and Lower Canada, became a Baptist minister. of many of his severest critics. Contrary to the general expectaWilliam Arthur had married Malvina Stone, an American girl who tion, his appointments as a rule were unexceptionable, and he earlived in Canada at the time of the marriage, and the numerous nestly supported the Pendleton law for the reform of the civil changes of the family residence afforded a basis for allegations in service. His use of the veto in 1882 in the cases of a Chinese 1m1880 that the son Chester was born not in Vermont, but in Canada, migration bill (prohibiting immigration of the Chinese for 20 years and was therefore ineligible for the presidency. Chester entered in contravention of the treaty of 1880) and a river and harbour Union college as a sophomore, and graduated with honour in 1848. bill (appropriating over $18,000,000 some of which was to be exHe then became a schoolmaster, at the same time studying law. In pended on insignificant streams) confirmed the favourable impres1853 he entered a law office in New York city, and in the following sion that had been made. The most important events of his adminyear was admitted to the bar. His reputation as a lawyer began istration were the passage of the Tariff Act of 1883 and of the with his connection with the famous “Lemmon slave case,” in Edmunds law prohibiting polygamy in the territories, and the comwhich, as one of the special counsel for the State, he secured a pletion of three great continental railways—the Southern Pacific, decision from the highest State courts that slaves brought into the Northern Pacific and the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe,

ARTHUR—ARTHURIAN

LEGEND

461

Among enactments made by Congress on recommendation of the historic myth, a hero of romance, and a fairy king, and all these administration were the repeal of the stamp taxes on matches, pro- ; threads are woven together in one fascinating but bewildering web. etary articles, and bank cheques; the reduction of letter postage Thus it is in his mythic character that Arthur slays monsters, the

irom three cents to two cents; the enlargement of fast-mail and

free-celivery systems; and the establishment of special letter deliveries. In 1882 a convention was made for relocating the boundary between Mexico and the United States, and in 1883 a recipro-

cal commercial treaty for fostering trade with Mexico was nego-

fated. In connection with commercial treaties President Arthur

recommended the establishment of a monetary union of American countries to secure the adoption of a uniform Currency basis, and to promote the general remonetization of silver. A treaty was ne-

boar Twrch Trwyth, the Giant of Mont St. Michel, the Demon Cat of Losanne. (André de Coutances tells us that Arthur was

really vanquished and carried off by the Cat, but that one durst not tell that tale before Britons.) He never, it should be noted, rides on purely chivalric adventures such as aiding distressed damsels, seeking the Grail, etc.; his expeditions are, as a rule, military, and the character of successful general clings to him throughout.

As a romantic hero he differs very considerably from the charac-

gotiated with Nicaragua which empowered the United States to ter familiar to us through Tennyson's Idylls of the King. In the

earlier poems he is practically a lay figure; his court is the point of departure and return for the knights whose adventures are rePresident Arthur made an address at the dedication of the Wash- lated in detail, but he himself is a passive spectator. In the prose ington monument, at the national capital, which was brought to romances he is a monarch the splendour of whose court, his riches completion during his term. One of his last official acts was the and generosity, are the admiration of all, but morally he is no whit appointment of Gen. U. S. Grant as general of the army, a special different from the knights who surround him. He has two sons, hill creating this rank having been passed by Congress, March 3, neither of them born in wedlock, one of them, Modred, alike his 188s. In 1884 Arthur permitted his name to be presented for re- son and his nephew. In certain romances, Perlesvaus and Diu nomination at the Republican National convention, but he was Créne, he is a veritable roz fainéant, overcome by sloth and luxury. easily defeated by the supporters of James G. Blaine. Although a As a fairy king not only does Layamon represent three ladies as close friend of Conkling, long an implacable political enemy of appearing at his birth, and prophesying his future greatness, while, Blaine, Arthur supported the latter in the ensuing presidential as we all know, three queens appear at his death to bear him to campaign. At the end of his term he resumed his residence in New the land of Avalon, but in Huon de Bordeaux he is heir to the kingdom of the fairy king Oberon; and in the little-known poem of York City, where he died on the 18th of November, 1886. That Arthur should have retired from the presidency with the Brun de la Montagne, preserved in a unique ms. of the Bibliorespect of the people of the United States is the best testimonial théque Nationale, we are told that all fairy-haunted places, wherto the way in which he had filled the office, especially in view of ever they may be, belong to Arthur— et tous ces eux faés his earlier record. It remains only to be said that, alike in public

construct a canal, railway and telegraph line across Nicaraguan

territory but was not ratified by the Senate. On Feb. 21, 1885,

and private life, his bearing was always dignified without being pompous; that he was easy of approach, genial in conversation and manner, and a man of many and close friends. For an account of his administration see Unirep States: History.

ARTHUR, JOSEPH CHARLES

(1850-

_—+), American

botanist, was born at Lowville, N.Y., on Jan. rr, 1850. He graduated at Iowa State college in 1872, and after various periods of graduate study he received the degree of doctor of science at Cornell university in 1886. Following three years as instructor in botany at the universities of Wisconsin and Minnesota in 1879-82 and a like period as botanist in the New York Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva in 1884-87, he was made professor of botany in Purdue university, where he served until 1915. During his professorship at Purdue he was also professor of vegetable physiology and pathology in the Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station. He conducted researches on plant diseases, especially those caused by fungi, and made numerous contributions regarding the life history of rusts. From 1882 to 1900 he was an editor of the Botanical Gazette. He wrote numerous botanical articles, chiefly mycological, and published a Handbook of Plant Dissec-

” r C. R. Barnes and J. M. Coulter (1886), Living Plants and Their Properties, with D. T. MacDougal (1898), and the section “Uredinales” in the North American Flora (1907—26).

ARTHURIAN LEGEND.

By the “Arthurian Legend” or

Matiére de Bretagne we mean the subject matter of that important body of literature which centres round the picturesque figure of the British hero, Arthur. Did Arthur ever live? Opinion on this

point has been much divided, but, while the idea of a King Arthur whose dominions extended beyond the confines of the British Isles is how very generally rejected, we may probably accept as a fact the existence of a chieftain of mixed Roman and British parentage

sont Artus de Bretagne.

Thus in the diverse aspects of Arthur’s character we have some indication of the perplexing variations of the literature which gathered round his name. So far as the historic element is concerned it is meagre, consisting in the bare statement by Nennius, quoted above, and in the Historia Regum Britanniae of Geoffrey of Monmouth, which might perhaps be more correctly characterized as the most successful work of fiction ever composed. Between these two there is an interval of upwards of 400 years, Nennius dating from the 8th century, Geoffrey writing in the middle of the 12th. Arthurian tradition is a stream which runs underground, starting as a mere trickle, and emerging at the end of its journey as a mighty river. Literature is silent, but popular tradition must have been active. William of Malmesbury, writing just before Geoffrey, refers to Arthur as one of whom the Britons “rave wildly to-day” (“hodie delirant”), and there were certainly many more tales current than Geoffrey found room for in his history. Close upon the appearance of Geoffrey’s work followed the rhymed adaptations of Wace (French) and Layamon (early English), both of which, notably the latter, contain material lacking in the prose work. That stories of Arthur and his knights had, before this, travelled as far afield as Italy is proved by the Arthurian carvings on the north doorway of Modena cathedral (early r2th century) and the fact that Signor Rajna has discovered the names of Arthur and Gawain as witnesses to deeds belonging to the first quarter of the 12th century; it is clear from the character of the documents that the persons attesting could not have been born later than 1080, which would argue a popular knowledge of Arthurian tradition in the 11th century.

The great body of verse romances which constitutes the most

(Witness the Latin names in his pedigree), who had learned the interesting, and from the literary point of view, the most im-

artof war from the Romans and successfully led the forces of the portant, section of Arthurian romance only came into existence in British kings against the Saxon invaders. As Nennius phrases it, the latter half of the 12th century. Its most important monuments tunc Arthur pugnabat cum regibus Britonum, sed ipse dus erat are the works of Chrétien de Troyes (Erec, Yvain, Le Chevalier

bellorum.” He was not a king, but the general of the royal de la Charrette, Perceval, or Le Conte del Graal), and of his trans-

armies. If we add to this the hypothesis that he was betrayed by lator, Hartmann von Aue (Erec, Iwein); and the great Parzival of his wife and a near kinsman, and fell in battle, we have stated all that can be claimed as an historical nucleus for his legend. But mto this shadowy historic figure other elements have entered; he

snot merely a possible historic personality, but a survival of pre-

Wolfram von Eschenbach, the source of which is still a subject of debate, but which has become more familiar to the present generation through Wagner’s music drama Parsifal. To the poetical succęeded the prose versions, headed by the trilogy of Robert de Bor-

462

ARTICHOKE—ARTIFICIAL

ron: Joseph of Arimathea, Merlin and Perceval; and these comparatively short texts were expanded gradually into the enormous body of cyclic romances of which numerous mss. are extant. In its final form the Joseph became the Grand Saint Graal, or Estoire del Saint Graal, probably the last of the romances to be composed; the Merlin received pseudo-historic and romantic additions; the Perceval was replaced by the prose Lancelot, with the Galahad Queste and Mort Artus as concluding sections. In the final stages the prose version of the Tristan story was interpolated into the already unwieldy corpus of romance. BrBti0oGRAPHY.—For the history of Arthur see Nennius, Historia Britonum, with the study by H. Zimmer, Nennius Vindicatus (1893), and Geoffrey of Monmouth, Historia Regum Britanniae. The Brut of Wace was edited by Leroux de Lincey (1835-37) ; that of Layamon

by Sir F. Madden (1847). See also R. H. Fletcher, The Arthurian Material in the Chronicles (vol. x. of Harvard Studies and Notes in

Philology and Literature, 1906); W. Lewis Jones, King Arthur in History and Legend (1911); J. D. Bruce, The Evolution of Arthurian Romance (Gittingen and Baltimore, 1923-24, bibl.). H. Oskar Sommer’s Vulgate Version of the Arthurian Romances (the Carnegie Institution, Washington, 1908-16) includes all the members of the cycle. (J. L. W.)

ARTICHOKE.

SSS

The common artichoke, Cynara Scolymus, is

a plant belonging to the family Compositae, bearing some resemblance to a large thistle. It has long been esteemed as a culinary vegetable, the parts chiefly employed being the immature receptacle or floret disc, with the lower part of the surrounding leaf scales, known as artichoke bottoms. In Italy the dried receptacles of the cultivated plant, Carciofo domestico, and of the wild variety, Carciofo spinoso, are largely used in soups. Its origin has been traced to Asia, but because it grows wild in many parts of southern France it is often called the Paris or French artichoke, although the term “globe” is as frequently used. Commercially the globe artichoke is propagated by sprouts or suckers, usually goo plants to the acre, 6 or 8ft. apart, in rows 6ft. across. Good, rich, well-drained land, with plenty of water and manure, is necessary for its best growth. Extreme heat makes it inedible and it cannot stand frost. A foggy climate is necessary. Most of the plantings in the United States are therefore confined to an area beginning with the limits of San Francisco, Calif., on the north and extending southward half way to Los Angeles, within not more than a mile from the coast for most of the way. For its best flavour the artichoke bud should not be allowed to stay too long on the plant but should be cut before it opens. In spite of the fact that the small, compact sizes are the most tender, the larger sizes seem to be in greater demand commercially. Several hundred tons of artichokes are canned each year in California, one-third of the pack being exported to South America. The first shipment sent east by express occurred in 1907 and amounted to a few thousand boxes; in 1925 this had increased to 1,150 carloads, while the total amount of space devoted to its culture moved up from a few hundred to 12,500 acres. Fondness for this vegetable, which is rich in iron, mineral salts and iodine, is usually the result of an acquired taste. Although delicious when boiled, baked, fried, stuffed or used in soup, the French artichoke is best known in a salad form. Served whole, halved or quartered; hot, with mayonnaise or butter; each leaf pulled off separately, the large end dipped in the sauce and the soft part eaten off, the globe artichoke affords a salad that is unique in appearance and flavour. The Jerusalem artichoke, Helianthus tuberosus or girasole, is a tuber rather than a bud. Originally considered a Brazilian plant, scientific investigation conducted during the decade 1880-90 established it as a native of the United States. The Jerusalem artichoke has been used in the past chiefly as a stock feed, in France for sheep and cattle and in the United States for hogs. Within recent years, however, due to the discovery that it stores its carbohydrates in the form of inulin rather than as starch, it is being used in increasing propor-

tions as a food for persons afflicted with diabetes. At present, too, it is being investigated in Europe as a source of industrial alcohol. Its greatest interest though, lies in the laevulose, an-

other form of inulin, that it contains. The Jerusalem artichoke being a common sunflower, is highly productive and inexpensively cultivated. Each type contains from 10 to 12% of laevulose. One

RESPIRATION

brand, the Mammoth White French Jerusalem artichoke has been known to yield as much as 15 tons per acre—this in contr

to the average yield of three tons of potatoes per acre. Tna

much as two pounds of laevulose are as effective for SWeeėteni

food as three pounds of cane or beet sugar, a wide commercial

development is to be expected from this tuber.

ARTICLE,

a term primarily for that which connects tyo

parts together, and so transferred to the parts thus joined- it is used of the separate clauses or heads in contracts, treaties etc

of a composition in a periodical; or of particular commodities

as in “articles of trade.”

It appears also in the phrase “ip the

article of death,” in articulo mortis.

In grammar the term is used

of the adjectives which describe the number of individuals t

which a name applies, the indefinite article denoting one or an

of a particular class, the definite denoting a particular cael of a class. For Articles of War see MILITARY TERMS.

ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION: see Company. ARTICULATA, an obsolete zoological name, applied to in.

sects, worms, etc., in which the body is jointed or segmented. (See ARTHROPODA; ANNELIDA.)

ARTICULATION, the act of joining together: in anatomy the junction of the bones (see Joints); in botany the point of attachment

and separation of the deciduous parts of a plant

such as a leaf. The word is also used for division into distinct parts, as of human speech by words or syllables.

ARTIFICIAL

RESPIRATION.

When the normal respi-

ratory function in man is arrested by disease or accident, it is frequently possible through external agencies to imitate the nor. mal movements of the thorax and diaphragm and thus induce artificial respiration. The most common occasions for attempting resuscitation are asphyxia from smoke, gas, fumes or surgical anaesthesia, apparent drowning and electric shock. More rarely traumatism or disease may affect the nervous mechanism controlling the movements of respiration, particularly the “respira.

tory centre” situated in the medulla. If the normal ventilation of the lungs is approximated for some time through artificial means, the normal, rhythmic function of nerve centre and of muscles may be resumed. In many instances of impending death the heart continues to beat for some minutes after cessation of respiration. It is accordingly important that resuscitation measures be instituted with all possible promptness. Various mechanical devices have been proposed for the purpose of inducing artificial respiration, but as most of them are almost ineffective or even dangerous they have been generally supplanted by the manual “prone pressure” method devised by E. A. Schäfer

BY COURTESY OF U.S, HEALTH SERVICE FIG. 1.—-FIRST MOVEMENT OF THE

Straddle the patient.

Place your

fingers over the ribs.

Bend

SCHÄFER

PRONE

slightly

forward

PRESSURE

METHOD

palms on the small of his back with the

the body

so that the weight

of the shoulders can be brought into play

of Edinburgh in 1903.

This simple method provides for the

compression of the thorax thus expelling “poor air” from the

lungs and for the sudden release of the chest wall which by is elasticity expands, with the resultant intake of fresh air. As not forced in but is drawn in, as with natural respiration, betwee.

the intervals of compression.

For further particulars of th

Schäfer method see DROWNING AND LIFE SAVING. ; In cases of gas poisoning recovery may be hastened by usm

an air mixture rich in oxygen.

If about 5% of carbon dioxide

(not to be confused with carbon monoxide) is mixed with the

463

ARTILLERY oxygen, a return to normal breathing may be even more rapid ascarbon dioxide acts as a stimulant upon the respiratory centre in the brain. The oxygen displaces the carbon monoxide which,

jn poisoning due to that gas, forms a temporary union with haemoglobin in the blood. There are nOW widely used various forms of inhalers through

which there is supplied either pure oxygen or oxygen mixed with

tions. Mobile artillery is subdivided, again chiefly in respect of its employment, into types adapted to every kind of terrain in which field troops may be employed and work they may have to do. Immobile artillery is used in fixed positions of all kinds, and above all in permanent fortifications; it cannot, therefore. be classified as above, inasmuch as the raison d’être, and consequently

the armament of one fort or battery may be totally distinct from that of another. “Fortress,” “Coast” and “Foot” artillery are the usual names for this branch. The dividing line, indeed, in the case of the heavier weapons, varies with circumstances; guns of position may remain on their ground while elaborate fortifications grow up around them, or the deficiencies of a field army in artillery may be made good from the matériel, more frequently still from the personnel, of the fortress artillery. Thus it may happen that mobile artillery becomes immobile and vice versa. But in normal circumstances the principle of classification indicated is maintained in all organized military forces. HISTORICAL

BY COURTESY

OF U.S.

HEALTH

SERVICE

z

FIG. 2.—SECOND MOVEMENT OF THE SCHAFER PRONE PRESSURE METHOD

While counting “one,” “two,” and with arms held straight, swing forward slowly so that the weight of your body is gradually brought to bear upon the patient

catbon dioxide. This apparatus is used in conjunction with the prone pressure method of resuscitation. It must be remembered that such an inhaler is not a mechanical appliance for the administration of artificial respiration, but rather a device through

BY COURTESY OF U.S. HEALTH SERVICE i FiG, 3.——-THIRD MOVEMENT OF THE SCHAFER PRONE PRESSURE METHOD While counting “three,” swing backward, thus removing all pressure from the subject.

After an interval of 2 seconds return to movement one

which there may be administered gases which accelerate recovery. Inhalation apparatus can usually be obtained from gas companies,

fire headquarters or hospitals. (See DROWNING AND LIFE SAVING.) (W. WR.)

ARTILLERY, a term originally applied to all engines for

discharging missiles, and in this sense used in English in the early 17th century. In a more restricted sense, artillery has come to mean all firearms too heavy or bulky to be carried by hand, and also the personnel and organization which serve and bring into action such weapons. Since the development of machine-guns (see Smart Arms), which are not classed as artillery, a more

SKETCH

1. Early Artillery—Mechanical appliances for throwing projectiles were produced early in the history of organized warfare, and “engines invented by cunning men to shoot arrows and great stones” are mentioned in the Old Testament. These were continually improved, and, under the various names of catapulta, balista, onager, trébuchet, etc., were employed throughout the ancient and mediaeval periods of warfare (see ENGINES OF War). The machines finally produced were very powerful, and, even when gunpowder was discovered and applied, the supersession of the older weapons was not effected suddenly nor without considerable opposition. The date of the first employment of cannon cannot be established with any certainty, but there is good evidence to show that the Germans used guns at the siege of Cividale in Italy (1331). The terms of a commission given (1414) by Henry V. to his magister operationum, ingeniorum, et gunnarum ac aliarum ordinationum, one Nicholas Merbury, show that the organization of artillery establishments was grafted upon that which was already in existence for the service of the old-fashioned machines. Previously to this it is recorded that of some 340 men forming the ordnance establishment of Edward ITI. in 1344 only 12 were artillerymen and gunners, Two years later, at Crécy, it is said, the English brought guns into the open field for the first

time. At the siege of Harfleur (1415) the ordnance establishment included 25 “master gunners” and 5o “servitour gunners.” The “gunner” appears to have been the captain of the gun, with general charge of the guns and stores, and the special duty of laying and firing the piece in action. 2. The Beginnings of Field Artillery.—lIt is clear, from such evidence as we possess, that the chief and almost the only use of guns at this time was to batter the walls of fortifications, and it is not until later in the 15th century that their employment

in the field became general (see also Cavatry). The introduction of field artillery may be attributed to John Zizka, and it was in his Hussite wars (1419-1424) that the Wagenburg, a term of more general application, but taken here as denoting a cart or vehicle armed with several small guns, came into prominence. modern definition would be that “artillery” means all long range This device allowed a relatively high manoeuvring power to be weapons which fire a bursting projectile. But with the advent of attained, and it is found occasionally in European wars two cenarmoured fighting vehicles, manned by other than artillery per- turies later, as for instance at Wimpfen in 1622 and Cropredy sonnel, even this line of demarcation is growing more faint. The Bridge in 1644. In an act of attainder passed by the Lancastrian present article deals with the development and contemporary state party against the Yorkists (1459), it is stated that the latter were

ofthe artillery arm in land warfare, in respect of its organiza-

tion, personnel and employment.

“traiterously ranged in bataill ... their cartes with gonnes set

For the matériel—the guns, before their batailles.” The greatest example was the siege of

their carriages and their ammunition—see ORDNANCE and AmMUNITION. For BALListics see that heading, and for the work of

artillery in combination with the other arms, see also Tactics.

Artillery, as distinct from ordnance, is usually classified in

accordance with the functions it has to perform.

The simplest

division is that into mobile and immobile artillery, the former being concerned with the handling of all weapons so mounted as to be capable of more or less easy movement from place to place,

the latter with that of weapons which are installed in fixed posi-

Constantinople in 1453, at which the Turks used a large force of artillery, and in particular some monster pieces, some of which survived to engage a British squadron in 1807, when a stone shot

weighing some 700 lb. cut the mainmast of Admiral Sir J. T.

Duckworth’s flagship in two, and another killed and wounded 60 men. For siege purposes the new weapon was highly effective, and the castles of rebellious barons were easily knocked to pieces by the prince who owned, or succeeded in borrowing, a few pieces of ordnance. (Cf. Carlyle, Frederick the Great, book iii., chap. i.)

4.64

ARTILLERY

LHISTORICA,

3. The 16th Century.—In the Italian wars waged by Charles | useful field pieces which it was as yet impossible to e XErCISe op the personnel of the heavy artillery. 1S Over 5. Personnel and Classifications—More than after the first employment of ordnance, the men working300the Year; and the transport drives were still civilians. The actyal $

VIII., Louis XII. and Francis I. of France, artillery played a most conspicuous part, both in siege and field warfare. Indeed, cannon did excellent service in the field before hand firearms attained any considerable importance. At Ravenna (1512) and Marignano (1515) field artillery did great execution, and at the second battle “the French artillery played a new and distinguished part, not only by protecting the centre of the army from the charges of the Swiss phalanxes, and causing them excessive loss, but also by rapidly taking up such positions from time to time... as enabled the guns to play upon the flanks of the attacking columns” (Chesney, Observations on Firearms, 1852). In this connection, it must, however, be observed that, when the arquebus and other small arms became really efficient (about 1525), less is heard of this small and handy field artillery, which had hitherto been the only means of breaking up the heavy masses of the hostile pikemen. We have seen that artillery was not ignored in England; but, in view of the splendid and unique efficiency of the archers, there was no great opportunity of developing the new arm. In the time of Henry VIII., the ordnance in use in the feld consisted in the main of heavy culverins and other guns of position, and of lighter field pieces, termed sakers, falcons, etc. It is to be noticed that already the lightest pieces had disappeared, the smallest of the above being a 2-pounder. In the earlier days of field artillery, the artillery train was a miscellaneous congeries of pontoon, supply, baggage and tool wagons, heavy ordnance and light guns in carts. With the development of infantry firearms the use of the last-named weapons died out, and it is largely due to this fact that “artillery” came to imply cumbrous and immobile guns of position. Little is, therefore, heard of smart manoeuvring,

such as that at Marignano, during the latter part of the 16th century. The guns now usually came into action in advance of the troops, but, from their want of mobility, could neither accompany a farther advance nor protect a retreat, and they were generally captured and recaptured with every changing phase of the fight. Great progress was in the meanwhile made in the adaptation of ordnance to the attack and defence of fortresses, and, in particular, vertical fire came into vogue. 4. The Thirty Years’ War.—Such, in its broadest outlines, is the history of artillery work during the first three centuries of its existence. Whilst the material had undergone a very considerable improvement, the organization remained almost unchanged, and the tactical employment of guns had become restricted, owing to their slowness and difficulty of movement on the march and immobility in action. In wars of the type of the War of Dutch Independence and the earlier part of the Thirty Years’ War, this heavy artillery naturally remained useful enough, and the Wagenburg had given place to the musketry initiated by the Spaniards at Bicocca and Pavia, which since 1525 had steadily improved and developed. It is not, therefore, until the appearance of a captain whose secret of success was vigour and mobility that the first serious attempt was made to produce field artillery in the proper sense of the word, that is, a gun of good power, and at the same time so mounted as to be capable of rapid movement. Maurice of Nassau, indeed, helped to develop the field gun, and the French had invented the limber, but Gustavus Adolphus was the first to give artillery its true position on the battlefield. At the first battle of Breitenfeld (1631) Gustavus had 12 heavy and 42 light guns engaged as against Tilly’s heavy 24-pounders, which were naturally far too cumbrous for field work. At the Lech (1632) Gustavus seems to have obtained a local superiority over his opponent owing to the handiness of his field artillery even more than by its fire power. At Lutzen (1632) he had sixty guns to Wallenstein’s 21. His field pieces were not the celebrated “leather” guns (which were an experiment tried in, but abandoned after, Gustavus’s Polish wars), but iron 4-pounders. These were distributed amongst the infantry units, and thus began the system of “battalion guns” which survived in the armies of Europe long after the conditions requiring it had vanished. The object of thus dispersing the guns was doubtless to ensure in the first place more certain co-operation between the two arms, and in the second to exercise a military supervision over the lighter and more

mander of the artillery was indeed, both in Germany and inEng land, usually a soldier, and Lennart’ Torstensson, the commander of Gustavus’s artillery, became a brilliant and successful general

But the transport and the drivers were still hired, and even the

gunners were chiefly concerned for the safety of latter being often the property, not of the king of some “master gunner” whose services he had latter’s apprentices were usually in entire charge

their pieces, the waging war by secured andthe of the material

These civilian “artists,” as they were termed, owed no more duty to the prince than any other employés, and even Gustavus i

would appear, made no great improvement in the matter of the reorganization of artillery trains. Soldiers as drivers do'not appear until 150 years later, and in the meanwhile companies of

“firelocks” and “‘fusiliers” (g.v.) came into existence, as much ty prevent the gunners and drivers from running away as to protect

them from the enemy. A further cause of difficulties, in England at any rate, was the age of the “gunners.” In the reign of Elin. beth, some of the Tower gunners were over go years of age. Complaints as to the inefficiency of these men are frequent in the years

preceding the English Civil War. Gustavus, however, has the merit of being the first to make the broad classification of arti. lery, as mobile or non-mobile, which has since been almost upiversally in force. In his time the 12-pounder was the heaviest

gun classed as mobile, and the “feildpeece” par excellence was the Q-pounder or demi-culverin. After the death of Gustavus a Lutzen (1632), his principles came universally into practice, and

amongst them were those of the employment of field artillery.

6. The English Civil Watr.—Even in the English Civil War (Great Rebellion), in which artillery was hampered by the previ-

ous neglect of a century, its feld work was not often contemptible, and on occasion the arm did excellent service. But in the campaigns of this war, fought out by men whose most ardent desire was to decide the quarrel swiftly, the marching and manoeuvring were unusually rapid. The consequence of this was that the guns were sometimes either late in arriving, as at Edgehill, or absent altogether, as at Preston. The rôle of guns was further reduced by the fact that there were few fortresses to be reduced, and country houses, however strong, rarely required to be battered by a siege train. The New Model army usually sent for siege guns only when they were needed for particular service. On such occasions, indeed, the heavy ordnance did its work so quickly and effectively that the assault often took place one or two days after the guns had opened fire. Cromwell in his sieges made great use of shells, 12-inch, and even larger mortars being employed. The castle of Devizes, which had successfully resisted the Parliamentary battering guns, succumbed at once to vertical fire. 7. Artillery Progress, 1660-1740.—Cromwell’s practice of relegating heavy guns to the rear, except when a serious siege operation was in view, and in very rapid movements leaving even

the feld pieces far behind, was followed to some extent in the campaigns of the age of Louis XIV. The number of ammunition wagons, and above all of horses, required for each gun was fou or five times as great as that required even for a modern quickfirer. In the days of Turenne heavy guns were much employed, as the campaigns of the French were directed as a rule to the methodical conquest of territory and fortified towns. Similarly, Marlborough, working amidst the fortresses of the Netherlands in 1706, had over roo pieces of artillery (of which 60 were mortars) to a force of some 11,000 men, or about g pieces per 1,000

men.

On the other hand, in his celebrated march to the Danube

in 1704, he had but few guns, and the allied armies at Blenheim brought into the field only 1 piece per 1,000 men. At Oudenarde

“from the rapidity of the march . . . the battle was fought with

little aid from artillery on either side.” (Coxe, M arlborough.) There was less need now than ever before for rapid manoeuvre of mobile artillery, since the pike finally disappeared from the scene about 1700, and infantry fire-power had become the deasive

PLATE I

ARTILLERY

BY COURTESY

OF

THE

WAR

OFFICE,

LONDON

TYPES 1. A 14th century wrought shot weighing

OF

EARLY

iron 15-inch bombard, which threw a stone

about 160 pounds

'

2. Peterara, an early breech loader of forged iron, 1461-1463, bars of iron hooped together with iron rings

Rose”

breech-loader,

a wrought

iron

gun

resovered

in 1836

from the wreck of the ‘‘Mary Rose,” which sank off Spithead in 1545 made of

3. Br ass culverin Iveri bastard, of the time i of Henry VII., ., wi With rose s and crown in relief

ARTILLERY 4. “Mary

5. The falconet, a wrought iron field gun of the 17th century, mounted on a swivel carriage of the period 6. French brass field gun of the time of Napoleon III., which was presented

by him to Queen Victoria in 1858

ARTILLERY

PLATE II

`

+

$ Q Lp me eRe

a”

a wa

arem

ga ©

a Cam yf

8.

teal n

10

BY COURTESY OF (2, 4, 9, 1f) THE U S. WAR GALLOWAY, (3, 7) INTERNATIONAL NEWSREEL

DEPARTMENT,

(5,

6,

8)

THE

FIELD

IMPERIAL

AND

WAR

COAST

L. A

16-inch howitzer at Fort Story, Cape Henry, guarding Hampton Roads and Chesapeake Bay. This is the most modern type of seacoast gun mounted by U.S. Coast Artillery

2. A

howitzer camouflaged and mounted portable on standard gauge railways

3. Anti-aircraft gun, mounted

on

a railway

carriage,

trans-

on trailer at Aberdeen, Md.

4. A -inch Stokes trench mortar, an infantry weapon used principally in trench warfare. The sand bags assist in concealing cannon and provide protection for gun crew

5. A German

heavy howitzer, 21 cm.

MUSEUM

(CROWN

COPR

)»

(10)

THE

U.S

SIGNAL

CORPS;

PHOTOGRAPHS,

(1)

EWING

ARTILLERY

6. A German heavy trench mortar, 25 cm. 7. A 16-inch rifle at Aberdeen, Md., mounted on railway carriage, readily transportable for sea-coast defence S. A 14-inch gun on a railway mounting at full elevation 9. An 8-inch howitzer, drawn by a caterpillar tractor, used principally

for destroying trenches, dugouts and hostile batteries 10. Battery of 12-inch disappearing rifles. Gun in background one in foreground has sponged for reloading

been

fired

and

has

recoiled

and

is firing, is being

11. A 16-inch Coast Artillery gun, mounted on a disappearing carriage

HISTORICAL]

ARTILLERY

465

‘actor in battles. In the meantime, artillery was gradually ceasing | in Europe, placed its numerous and powerful ordnance (an “amphitheatre of 400 guns,” as Frederick said) in long lines of field tion as an arm of the military service. In the 17th century when works. The combination of guns and obstacles was almost in-

to be the province of the skilled workman, and assuming its posi-

armies were as a rule raised only “for the war,” and disbanded at variably too formidable to offer the slightest chance of a success-

the conclusion of hostilities, there had been no very pressing need

ful assault.

It was at this stage that Frederick, in 1759, intro-

for the maintenance in peace of an expensive personnel and ma-

duced horse artillery to keep pace with the movements of cavalry,

terial. Gunners therefore remained, as civilians, outside the regu-

a proof, if proof were needed, of the inability of the field artillery

br administration of the forces, until the general adoption of the to manoeuvre. The field howitzer, the weapon par excellence for “standing army” principle in the last years of the century (see the attack of field works, has never perhaps been more extensively Army). From this time steps were taken, in all countries, to employed than it was by the Prussians at that time. At Burkersorganize the artillery as a military force. After various attempts dorf (1762) Frederick placed 45 howitzers in one battery. In those days the mobile artillery was always formed in groups or “batteries” of from 10 to 20 pieces. England was certainly lish artillery did not “begin to assume a military appearance until abreast of other countries in the organization of the field artillery the Flanders campaigns” of the War of the Austrian Succession. arm. About the middle of the 18th century the guns in use conEven in the War of American Independence a dispute arose as to sisted of 24-pounders, 12-pounders, 6-pounders and 3-pounders. whether a general officer, whose regimental service had been in The guns were divided into “brigades” of four, five and six guns the Royal Artillery, was entitled to command troops of all arms, respectively, and began to be separated into “heavy” and “light” and the artillery drivers were not actually soldiers until 1793 at brigades. Each field gun was drawn by four horses, the two leaders the earliest. French artillery officers received military rank only being ridden by artillerymen, and had 100 rounds of shot and 30 rounds of grape. The British artillery distinguished itself in the in 1732. 5 artillery in the Wars of Frederick the Great.—By the latter part of the Seven Years’ War. Foreign critics praised its time of Frederick the Great’s first wars, artillery had thus been lightness, its elegance and the good quality of its materials. At divided into (a) those guns moving with an army in the field, and Marburg (1760) ‘“‘the English artillery could not have been better (b) those which were either wholly stationary or were called upon served; it followed the enemy with such vivacity, and maintained only when a siege was expected. The personnel was gradually be- its fire so well, that it was impossible for the latter to reform,” coming more efficient and more amenable to discipline; the trans- says Tempelhof, the Prussian artillery officer who records the lost port arrangements, however, remained in a backward state. Siege opportunity of Kunersdorf. The merits and the faults of the arand fortress artillery was now organized and employed in accord- tillery had been made clear, and nowhere was the lesson taken ance with the system of the “formal attack” as finally developed to heart more than in France, where General Gribeauval, a French by Vauban. For details of this, as involving the tactical procedure officer who had served in the war with the Austrian artillery, of artillery in the attack and defence of fortresses, the reader is initiated reforms which in the end led to the artillery triumphs referred to FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT, We are concerned of the Napoleonic era. While Frederick had endeavoured to emhere more especially with the progress of field artillery. The part ploy, as profitably as possible, the existing heavy equipments, played by this arm began now to vary according to the circum- Gribeauval sought improvement in other directions. g. Gribeauval’s Reforms.—At the commencement of the stances of each action, and the “moral” support of guns was calculated as a factor in the dispositions. In the early Silesian wars, 18th century, French artillery had made but little progress. The heavy or reserve guns protected the deployment of the army and carriages and wagons were driven by wagoners on foot, and on endeavoured to prepare for the subsequent advance by firing upon the field of battle the guns were dragged about by ropes, or rethe hostile troops; the battalion guns remained close to the in- mained stationary. Towards the middle of the century some imfantry, accompanied its movements and assisted in the fire fight. provements were made. Field guns and carriages were lightened, But the infantry or the cavalry forced the decision. Throughout and the guns separated into brigades. Siege carriages were introthe 18th century, it will be found, when the infantry is equal to its duced. From 1765 onwards, however, Gribeauval strove to build work the guns have only a subordinate part in the fighting of up a complete system both of personnel and matériel for field, pitched battles. At Kunersdorf (1759) the first dashing charge siege, garrison and coast artillery. Alive to the vital importance of the Prussian grenadiers captured 72 guns from the Russian of mobility for field artillery, he dismissed to other branches all army, Later the total of captured ordnance reached 180, yet the pieces of greater calibre than 12-pounders, and reduced the Russians, then almost wholly in flight, were not cut to pieces, for weight of those retained. His reforms were resisted, and for a only a few light guns of the Prussian army could get to the front; time successfully; but in 1776 he became first inspector-general of their heavy pieces, though 12 horses were harnessed to each, never artillery, and was able to put his ideas into force. The field arcame into action. This example will serve to illustrate the differ- tillery of the new system included 4-pounder regimental guns, and ence between the artillery of 1760 and that of 50 years later. Ac- for the reserve 8- and 12-pounders, with 6-inch howitzers. For cording to Tempelhof, who was present, Kunersdorf was the finest siege and garrison service Gribeauval adopted the 16-pounder and had been made, the “Royal Regiment of Artillery” came into

existence in England in 1716. It is, however, stated that the Eng-

12-pounder guns, 8-inch howitzer and 10-inch mortar, 12-, 10- and 8-inch mortars being introduced in 1785.

opportunity for field artillery that he had ever seen. Yet the held artillery of the 18th century was, if anything, more powerful than that of Napoleon’s time; it was the want of mobility alone which prevented the Prussians from turning to good account an

nically improved.

opportunity fully as favourable as that of the German artillery

in file as formerly, but the manner in which the teams were driven

The carriages were constructed on a uniform model and tech-

The horses were harnessed in pairs, instead of

at Sedan. That Frederick made more use of his guns in the later remained much the same. The prolong (a sort of tow-rope) was campaigns of the Seven Years’ War is accounted for by the fact introduced, to unite the trail of the gun and the limber in slow that his infantry and cavalry were no longer capable of forcing a retiring movements. The great step made was in a uniform condecision, and also by changes in the general character of the struction being adopted for all matériel, and in making the parts operations. These were fought in and about broken country, and interchangeable so far as possible. In 1765 the personnel of the entrenched positions, and the mobility of the other arms sank French artillery was reorganized. The corps or reserve artillery to that of the artillery. Thus power came to the front again, and was organized in divisions of eight guns. The battery or division the heavier weapons regained their former supremacy. In a was thus made a unit, with guns, munitions and gunners complete, bataille rangée in the open field the proportion of guns to man the horses and drivers being added at a later date. Horse artillery had been, in 1741, 2 per 1,000. At Leuthen (1757) heavy fortress was introduced into the French army in 1791. The last step was guns were brought to the front for a special purpose. At Kuners- made in 1800, when the establishment of a driver corps of soldiers dorf the proportion was 4 and 5 per 1,000 men, with what degree put an end to the old system of horsing by contract. to. British Artillery, 1793-1815.—Meanwhile the numbers of effectiveness we have seen. In the later campaigns the Austrian of the English artillery had increased to nearly 4,000 men. For best the War, Years’ artillery, which was, throughout the Seven

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ARTILLERY

some five centuries the word “artillery” in England meant entirely garrison artillery; the field artillery only existed in time of war. When war broke out, a train of artillery was organized, consisting of a certain number of field (or siege) guns, manned by garrison gunners; and when peace was proclaimed the train was disbanded, the matériel being returned into store, and the gunners reverting to some fort or stronghold. In 1793 the British artillery was anything but efficient. Guns were still dispersed among the infantry, mobility had declined again since the Seven

Years’ War, and the American war had been fought out by the other arms. The drivers were mere carters on foot with long whips, and the whole field equipment was scarcely able to break from a foot-pace. Prior to the Peninsular War, however, the exertions of an able officer, Major Spearman, had done much to bring about improvement. Horse artillery had been introduced in 1793, and the driver corps established in 1794. Battalion guns were abolished in 1802, and field “brigades of six guns” were formed, horse artillery batteries being styled “troops.” Military drivers were introduced and the horses teamed in pairs. The drivers were mounted on the near horses, the gunners either rode the off horses or were carried on the limbers and wagons. The equipment was lightened, and a new system of manoeuvres introduced. A troop of horse artillery and a field brigade each had five guns and one howitzer. The “driver corps,” raised in 1794, was divided into troops; the addition of one of which to a company of foot artillery converted it into a field brigade. rr. French Revolutionary Wars.—The development of musketry in the 16th century had taken the work of preparing an assault out of the hands of the gunners. Per contra, the decadence of infantry fire-power in the latter part of the Seven Years’ War had reinstated the artillery arm. A similar decadence of the infantry arm was destined to produce, in 1807, artillery predomi-

[HISTORICAL

modificatio ized princi ples . , ns in the method of putting well-recogn ; into action. Infantry fire, however, being more variable in it

effectiveness than that of artillery, the period 181 5-1870 a many changes in the relations of the two arms. In the time of Napoleon, infantry fire never equalled that of the Seven Year’ War, and after the period of the great wars the musket Was less

and less effectively used. Economy was, however, practised to excess in every army of Europe during the period 181 5-1850, and even if there had been great battles at this time, the artillery which was maintained on a minimum strength of guns, men and horses, would not have repeated the exploits of Sénarmont and Drouot in the Napoleonic wars. The principle was well under. stood, but under such conditions the practice was impossible It was at this stage that the general introduction of the rifled musket put an end, once for all, to the artillery tactics, of the smooth.

bore days.

Infantry, armed with a far-ranging rifle, as in the

American Civil War, kept the guns beyond case-shot range, compelling them to use only round shot or common shell. In that war, therefore, attacking infantry met, on reaching close quarters, not regiments already broken by a feu d'enfer, but the full force of the defenders’ artillery and infantry, both arms fresh and un. shaken, and the full volume of their case-shot and musketry, At Fredericksburg the Federal infantry attacked, unsupported by a single field piece; at Gettysburg the Federal artillery general Hunt was able to reserve his ammunition to meet Lee’s assault,

although the infantry of his own side was meanwhile subjected to the fire of 137 Confederate guns. Thus, in both these cases the assault became one of infantry against unshaken infantry and artillery. On many occasions, indeed, the batteries on either side went into close ranges, as the traditions of the old United States

army dictated, but their losses were then totally out of proportion

to their effectiveness.

Indeed, the increased range at which bat-

nance, but this time with an important difference, viz. mobility, tles were now fought, and the ineffectiveness of the projectiles and when mobility is thus achieved we have the first modern field necessarily used by the artillery at these ranges, so far neutralized artillery. The new tactics of the French in the Revolutionary even rifled guns that artillery generals could speak of “idle canwars, forced upon them by circumstances, involved an almost nonades” as the “besetting sin” of some commanders. 14. The Franco-German War, 1870-71.—In the next great complete abandonment of the fire-tactics of Frederick’s day, and the need for artillery was, from the first fight at Valmy onwards, war, that of 1866 (Bohemia), guns were present on both sides in so obvious that its moral support was demanded even in the out- great numbers, the average for both sides being three guns per post line of the new French armies. The cardinal principle of 1,000 men. Artillery, however, played but a small part in the massing batteries was not, indeed, forgotten, notwithstanding the Prussian attacks, this being due to the inadequate training then weakness of raw levies. But though, as we have seen, the matériel afforded, and also to the mixture of rifled guns and smooth-bores had already been greatly improved, and the artillery was less af- in their armament. In Prussia, however, the exertions of Gen. von fected by the Revolution than other arms of the service, circum- Hindersin, the improvement of the matériel, and above all the stances were against it, and we rarely find examples of artillery better tactical training of the batteries, were rewarded four years work in the Revolutionary wars which show any great improve- later by success on the battlefield almost as decisive as Napoleon's. ment upon older methods. The field guns were, however, at last In 1870 the French artillery was invariably defeated by that of the organized in batteries each complete in itself, as mentioned above. Germans, who were then free to turn their attention to the hostile 12. Napoleon’s Artillery Tactics—During the war the infantry. At first, indeed, the German infantry was too impatient French artillery steadily improved in manoeuvring power. But to wait until the victorious artillery had prepared the way for many years elapsed before perfection was attained. Meanwhile, them by disintegrating the opposing line of riflemen. Thus the the infantry, handled without regard to losses in every fight, had attack of the Prussian Guards at St, Privat (August 18, 1870) in consequence deteriorated. The final production of the field ar- melted away before the unbroken fire power of the French, as tillery battle, usually dated as from the battle of Friedland (June had that of the Federals at Fredericksburg and that of the Con14, 1807), therefore saved the situation for the French. Hence- federates at Gettysburg. But such experiences taught the German forward Napoleon’s battles depend for their success on an “ar- infantry commanders the necessity of patience, and at Sedan the tillery preparation,” the like of which had never been seen. Na- French army was enveloped by the fire of nearly 600 guns, which poleon’s own maxim illustrates the typical tactics of 1807-1815. did their work so thoroughly that the Germans annihilated the “When once the mêlée has begun,” he says, “the man who is clever Imperial army at the cost of only 5% of casualties. (C.F. A.) enough to bring up an unexpected force of artillery, without the 15. Results of the Franco-German War.—The tactical les-

enemy knowing it, is sure to carry the day.” The guns no longer “prepared”? the infantry advance by slowly disintegrating the hostile forces. Still less was it their business merely to cover a deployment. On the contrary, they now went in to the closest ranges and, by actually annihilating a portion of the enemy’s line with case-shot fire, “covered” the assault so effectively that col-

umns of cavalry and infantry reached the gap thus created without striking a blow. It is unnecessary to give examples. Every one of Napoleon’s later battles illustrates the principle. 13. Artillery, 1815-1865,—-Henceforward, therefore, the history of artillery becomes the history of its technical effectiveness, particularly in relation to infantry fire, and of improvements or

sons of the war, so far as field artillery was concerned, may be

briefly summarized as (a) employment of great masses of guns; (b) forward position of guns in the order of march, in order to bring them into action as quickly as possible; (c) the so-called “artillery duel,” in which the assailant subdues the enemy's attillery fire; and (d) when this is achieved, and not before, the thorough preparation of all infantry attacks by artillery bombardment. The corollary was that “sufficient time should be given to the artillery, and on no account should the infantry be ordered

to advance until the fire of the guns has produced the desired effect.” The fundamental defect of this procedure lay in the mordinate expenditure of ammunition and time necessary for the

ARTILLERY

HISTORICAL]

4.67

dual disintegration of the enemy’s power of resistance by a the enemy's small-arm fire was demonstrated on many occasions. thorough and lengthy “artillery preparation.” And although There were some interesting examples of the employment of metechnical progress brought great improvements in the rate of fire dium and heavy artillery in the field; at the battle of Liao-yang

and in the effect of the ammunition, they were offset by the coun-

er-development of field entrenchments. 16. Quick-firing Field Guns.—In 1891, a work by Gen.

Wille of the German army (The Field Gun of the Future) and in

1892 another by Colonel Langlois of the French service (Field Artillery with the other Arms) foreshadowed many revolutionary changes in matériel and tactics. The new ideas spread rapidly, and the quick-firing gun came by degrees to be used in every army. The underlying principle was the mechanical absorption of the recoil, by means of brakes, buffers or recuperators.

The absorp-

tion of recoil of itself permits of a higher rate of fire, as the gun

does not require to be run up and relaid after every shot. Formerly such an advantage was illusory (since aim could not be

taken through the thick bank of smoke produced by rapid fire),

but the introduction of smokeless powder removed this objection, Artillerists, no longer handicapped, at once turned their attention to the increase of the rate of fire. At the same time a shield was applied to the gun, for the protection of the detach-

ment. This advantage is solely the result of the non-recoiling carriage. The gunners had formerly to stand clear of the recoil-

ing gun, and a shield was therefore of but slight value.

17, Time Shrapnel.—The power of modern artillery owes even more to the improvement of the projectile than to that of the gun. The French were the first to realize the new significance of the time-fuze and the shrapnel shell. These had been in existence for many years; to the British army are due both the inyention and the development of the shrapnel, which made its

first appearance in European warfare at Vimeiro in 1808, and exercised a greater influence on the battles of the Peninsular and Waterloo campaigns than was generally recognized by conservative military thought. But, up to the introduction of rifled pieces,

the Napoleonic case-shot attack was universally and justly considered the best method of fighting, and in the transition stage of the matériel many soldiers continued to put faith in the old method,—hence the Prussian artillery in 1866 had many smoothbore batteries in the field—and between 1860 and 1870 gunners, now convinced of the superiority of the new equipments, undoubtedly sought to turn to account the minute accuracy of the rifled weapons in unnecessarily fine shooting. Thus, in 1870 the French time-fuze was only graduated for two ranges, and the

the Japanese employed 56 heavy guns and mortars out of a total of 470 guns. It might well have been deduced from the operations of 1904-1905 that the quantities of ammunition required in a future war would be vastly greater than ever before. At Lamuntun, during the battle of the Sha-ho, for instance, 48 Russian guns fired 8,000 rounds in 40 minutes and at Ta-Shih-Chi a battery fired 500 rounds per gun. THE WORLD

WAR

20. Situation in 1914.—The artilleries of the main forces were organized and equipped as follows:— (a) Great Britain—-Each divisional artillery comprised 54 18-pdrs. in three brigades of three batteries, 18 4-5-in. howitzers, in one brigade of three batteries, and four 60-pdrs. There was also a siege train of six 8-in. howitzer batteries. (b) France.—Each first line divisional artillery comprised 36 75-mm. guns in three “groupes” of three batteries. There were also 20 regiments of corps artillery each consisting of four “groupes” of 75-mm. guns, five regiments of heavy artillery, 11 foot fegiments and some mountain artillery. (c) Germany.—Each first line divisional artillery comprised 54 77-mm. guns and 18 1ro0-5-cm. howitzers in two regiments which

were subdivided into three “groupes” of three batteries of guns and one “groupe” of three batteries of howitzers. In addition there was in each corps a battalion of 12 15-cm. howitzers and in each army a number of 21-cm. howitzers. The types of equipment in use by the three Powers did not vary to any marked degree. All proved deficient in range, the British equipment being initially at a particular disadvantage in this respect. The French lack of a field howitzer was due to their belief, later proved erroneous, in the efficacy of the curved trajectory of the 75-mm. gun. It will be seen that there were, however, important differences in the allotment of the artillery as between divisions, corps and armies and in the aggregate proportions of the various types of equipment. The Germans had a marked advantage in the possession of a large number of howitzers capable of assisting in both field and siege operations. Both Britain and Germany had 6-gun batteries whilst the French batteries were of four guns. All three countries had divisional artillery commanders, but France alone had an artillery commander at corps headquarters. Viewed in the light of subsequent experience, it would

Germans used percussion fuzes only. 18. South African War.—The experience of this war, with its seem that both the British and French tactical doctrines of 1914 relatively open fighting, gave a great impetus to the use of unduly emphasized the importance of mobility to the detriment time shrapnel, and created a somewhat excessive faith in the possibility of what Langlois summarized as “transferring to 3,000 yd. the point-blank and case-shot fire of the smooth-bore.” It was Claimed that the Napoleonic method of annihilating by a

rain of bullets had been revived, with the distinction that the shell, and not the gun, fired the bullets close up to the enemy. Pieter’s Hill furnished a notable example of this “covering,”

as distinct from “preparation” of an assault by artillery fire. Amongst other results of this war was the re-introduction of

heavy ordnance into field armies. The field howitzer re-appeared some time before the outbreak of that war, and the British how-

itzers had illustrated their shell-power in the Sudan ees of 1898.

;

19. The Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905.—Owing to the short duration of this war, the full solution of some important problems which emerged was postponed until the World War. In 1870 there had been a marked lack of co-ordination of the

action of artillery with that of other arms. Profiting from observation of this mistake the Japanese developed centralization of control to some extent and artillery units, outside the divi-

sional organization, were placed at the disposal of General and Army Headquarters. The battle of the Sha-ho furnishes an example of the successful concentration of the fire of dispersed

batteries. The necessity for concealment of batteries in action began to be more fully realized and the impracticability of close

support by guns pushed forward into the infantry firing line under

of fire power. The German doctrine appears to have been better balanced in this respect and the Germans also realized more fully the necessity for co-ordination of combined action of the artillery with that of the other arms. All three countries had grossly under-estimated the quantities of ammunition which would be required. The British reserve was calculated upon a basis of a probable expenditure of seven rounds per 18-pdr. per day, but in the World War the expenditure per gun often rose to 500 rounds or more per day. No country had fully appreciated the effect upon artillery power of the development of railways, motor traction, aircraft, telegraphs, telephones, wireless and survey. 21. Evolution of Equipment, 1914-1918.—The British field artillery stood the test of the war well and the minor defects which appeared were easily remedied. The proportion of medium and heavy artillery was vastly increased, the equipments adopted being 60-pdr. and 6-in. guns and 6-in., 8-in., and 9-2-in. howitzers. Super-heavy howitzers, of 12-in. and upwards, and guns on railway mountings of 9-2-in. and upwards, were brought into use. Mortars, which had long been discarded, made their re-appearance for the war of position. The ranges of all weapons were increased, field artillery ranges rising to some 10,000 yd. and even more in the case of French and German equipments; the greatest range viz., 76 miles, was attained by the German 21I-cm. guns used to shell Paris. The British field guns, which had started the war with shrapnel arnmunition only, were supplied with high explosive shell in addition before the battle of Loos. Shrapnel was

468

ARTILLERY

abolished for 4-5-in. howitzers, and in the heavier natures high explosive was almost exclusively used. Smoke shells were introduced for the lighter natures of guns and howitzers in 1916. In July, 1915, the Germans first employed gas shells, and this type of shell came into general use in steadily increasing numbers. It is noteworthy that the supply of gas ammunition never equalled the demand and that the use of gas was still in its infancy at the end of the war. An advance in the control of fire was effected by the development of observation from aircraft. Inter-communication was improved by the more extended use of the field telephone and of wireless. Survey, sound ranging and flash spotting units were provided for co-operation with artillery. The lighter natures of artillery were still generally horse-drawn in 1918 although lorries or trucks were used, especially by the French, to transport a proportion of their field artillery. The heavier natures were drawn by motor tractors of various designs ranging from the four-wheel-drive lorry to the “caterpillar.” 22. Evolution of Organization and Command, 19141918.—A comparison of the development of artillery organization and command in the British, French and German armies shows that, notwithstanding their initial differences and the separate lines of evolution which were followed, all three arrived at similar solutions of fundamental problems. The changes introduce@ may be summarized as follows:—(a) Artillery command was centralized as much as was consistent with effective control. This proved the best means of co-ordinating action, of economizing force and of concentrating fire at the right time and at the right place. Centralization of control was often carried to excess, however, in the Western theatre. This change in the system of artillery command entailed an increase of artillery headquarter staffs. (b) The necessity for a strong reserve, in the hands of the higher command, of both field and heavier natures of artillery led to the creation of large numbers of artillery units outside the organization of formations. In 1914 the proportion of field artillery to infantry in an army was about six guns to 1,000 rifles. By the end of the World War the proportion of all natures was about ro guns and howitzers per 1,000 rifles, roughly 6 field, 2 medium,

1% heavy and 4 super-heavy. (c) The allocation of equipments to formations was based upon their ranging powers and their degrees of mobility. Thus field artillery (in the United States light artillery) was seldom allotted to formations higher than the division; medium and heavy artillery were normally allotted to corps, while super-heavy guns were directly under armies. (d) The corps was recognized as the most suitable formation for the control of counter battery work and special staffs were provided for this task. Numerous minor changes also took place. For example, British field artillery brigade ammunition columns were replaced by divisional ammunition columns; one 4-5-in. howitzer battery was included in each field artillery brigade, field howitzer brigades being abolished; Lewis guns were supplied to batteries for antiaircraft and local ground defence. 23. Evolution

of Tactics,

1914-1918.—The

evolution

of

equipment and organization and the evolution of tactics were, of course, interdependent. It was naturally on the Western front that artillery tactics were most fully developed. During the first operations in 1914 sharp lessons were learnt. It was soon evident that owing to the hitherto unrealized power of small-arms fire in defence, attacks must be well prepared by artillery. Tactical mobility had, in fact, become dependent upon fire power, but neither side had the artillery or the ammunition to provide fire power in adequate measure. At Le Cateau the British learnt the disastrous results of attempting close support of infantry with guns disposed too close to the foremost troops. The early engagements also demonstrated the necessity for distributing guns in depth in defenċe and for concealing them if they were to avoid destruction. The need for increased quantities of medium and heavy artillery was soon apparent, the Allies being at a grave disadvantage in this respect. During the trench warfare of the winter of 1914-18 new developments began to take shape. Attempts were made to engage targets by night and to provide defensive barrages, and observation of fire from aircraft rapidly found favour. The employment

[WORLD Wap

of barbed wire entanglements introduced a new task for artille in the preparation of infantry attacks. 7

The battle of Neuve Chapelle (1915) forms a landmark jp the evolution of artillery tactics. The attack was Prepared by an

intense hurricane bombardment of 45 minutes and it was s ported by subsequent “lifts” of fire in front of the infantry, The lessons of this operation were misapplied to some extent- i the subsequent attacks at Festubert, Givenchy and Loos Surprise was thrown to the winds and lengthy preparatory bombardmenis

of small intensity were hostile defences rather alysing the defenders. “rolling” barrage which

undertaken with the object of destroyin than of temporarily neutralizing and par. Loos marked a development towards the became the usual accompaniment of later

attacks. The French fell into the same error as the British in their

disregard of surprise in their attacks in Champagne and Artois

The operations of 1916 and 1917 were based upon the factthat given sufficient artillery and ammunition, limited advances of

two or three thousand yards at a time could be almost guarantee d Enormous concentrations of artillery supported every attack! Thousands of tons of ammunition were fired daily during an operation on a front of a few miles. Surprise continued to be sacrificed, for the artillery carried out preliminary bombardments often lasting four or five days. Rolling barrages of great depth and heavy counter battery fire were the unvarying accompaniment of the actual advances. Such were the methods of artillery ac.

tion adopted in the battle of the Somme (1916), the French at. tack at Verdun (1916), at Arras (1917), in Nivelle’s attack on

the Aisne (1917), at Messines and in the third battle of Ypres. The Germans, in their attack at Verdun in 1916, had endeavoured to obtain some measure of surprise by reducing the preliminary bombardment to ten hours and, in Allenby’s attack at Gaza, measures were successfully taken to deceive the Turks who might

otherwise have been warned of the British plan by the five days’

preliminary bombardment. But none of the commanders had as yet appreciated the paralysing effect of the brief and intense hurricane bombardment of short duration which was adopted in 1918. It became apparent, however, that a drastic change in tactical methods must be made if decisive success was to be obtained, The defender could, in great measure, counter the form of artillery support then in vogue, heavy as it was, by suitable adjustment of his infantry tactics; the ammunition expenditure entailed proved too great a strain on industrial resources; and the effect of the fire on the ground was such as to create new obstacles for the attackers. In the defence, artillery action had taken the form of “counter preparation” to break up impending attacks of neutralization of hostile artillery and of stationary barrages close to the foremost trenches to repel assaults once they were launched. The advent of tanks had an important bearing on artillery tactics. At the battle of Cambrai it was demonstrated that tanks could carry out tasks which had previously fallen to the artillery. They had a very great demoralizing effect, they could create gaps in barbed wire and they could neutralize small-arm fire. The employment of tanks had a considerable influence in bringing about the abolition of lengthy preliminary bombardments and the consequent simplification of the problem of ammunition supply. The battle of Cambrai further proved that effective artillery support could be given, by means of survey methods, without previous registration. The German successes on the Western front in 1918 were largely due to skilful artillery tactics, for the development of 1At the battle of the Somme—July 1, 1916—there was approximately a gun or howitzer to every 20 yards of front assaulted, the proportion of heavy or medium pieces being one in every three. At the battle of the Scarpe—April 4, 1917—there was a gun of

howitzer to every 10 yards of front, the proportion of heavy and medium pieces being rather more than one in three. ; In the British attack at Amiens—Aug. 8, 1918—the proportion was

again approximately a gun or howitzer to every 10 yards, the heavy

and medium artillery being in the proportion of seven to 12. In the German attack in April 1918, 9,500 pieces were employed on a front of 50 miles, i.e., rather more than one piece to every 10 ya of front. On the decisive sectors of the front the artillery was concentrated to one gun to every five yards of front.

TYPES]

ARTILLERY

4.69

gbich Colonel Briichmuller was chiefly responsible, the element |weighing Jess than 3ocwt. in action. Before the introduction of of surprise being thus safeguarded. Their new tactics had first been mechanical traction the weight was limited to 24cwt. and the range

employed, and with marked success, at the battle of Riga in Sep-

to 6,cooyd. The present limit of approximately zocwt. is due principally to the fact that this weight is as much as a gun-detachtion and other arrangements, each attack was preceded by a short ment of six men can man-handle. All modern field guns are quickhurricane bombardment of a few hours’ duration designed to pro- firing; that is, the gun recoils on the carriage and returns to the duce moral rather than material effects and containing an element firing position, while the carriage remains steady. This saves the of surprise in the repeated withdrawal of fire to the forward de- delay due to running up and relaying the gun after each shot, and tences after it had apparently passed on, gas and smoke shell were increases the rate of fire from two rounds a minute to 25. It also extensively used, counter battery fire was heavy. The advances enables the gun-detachment to remain behind the gun-shield, inwere supported in their initial stages by a form of rolling bar- stead of having to stand clear of it during the recoil of the carriage. rage and the infantry were boldly followed up by field artillery. The field howitzer differs from the field gun in that it throws A counter to the German artillery tactics was eventually de- its shell high into the air, so as to descend at an angle in excess of vised by the French in Champagne. Careful artillery counter-prep- 45°. This enables it to reach targets, such as men in deep trenches, gration was carried out for some time before the German attack protected from the direct fire of guns. As this high-angle fire which the enemy had not been able to keep secret. Troops were requires less effort than direct fire, the field howitzer is able to thinned out in the forward zone, in which the first shock of the fire a shell double the weight of that of the field gun, without attack was to be absorbed, and the main line of defence was or- exceeding the same weight of equipment. Howitzer fire, from ganized in rear, the artillery fire being adjusted to correspond its nature, is local in effect, and at targets of considerable depth with these arrangements. It must be remembered however, that from front to rear, such as advancing infantry, it is inferior to the Germans were in this operation already showing signs of the flat-trajectory fire of guns. In most armies one-fourth of the weariness and of decreasing efficiency. field artillery consists of howitzers, and three-fourths of guns. A “hurricane” bombardment of 15 minutes, followed by a Special natures of field artillery are:—(a) Horse artillery, rolling barrage, was adopted with complete success by Allenby in which can keep pace with cavalry across country. For simplicity his final break through the Turkish lines in September, 1918. of ammunition supply, the gun may be the same as that of the No striking changes in artillery tactics occurred during the ordinary field artillery, but in any case the weight behind the Allied offensive in 1918. This was doubtless due to the rapid team is reduced by mounting the gunners on horses, instead of deterioration of the hostile forces. There was, however, an in- carrying them on the limbers and ammunition wagons (caissons in creasing tendency to reduce the wastage of shell-power which is American usage). (b) Light or Mountain artillery, which is inseparable from the barrage. The number of guns employed to divided into separate loads which can be carried on pack animals fre it was restricted to the minimum required for the protection or transported for short distances by hand. It is used in country of the assaulting troops, and as many field, medium and heavy impassable to wheeled carriages, and has been adapted to serve pieces as could be rendered available were employed on accurate the newly found need for artillery of accompaniment (i.e., the rember, 1917- Secrecy was observed in the preliminary concentra-

fire against important targets in and behind the enemy’s defences

close support of infantry). The provision of a special light gun

and against the hostile artillery. The system of artillery command

or howitzer to accompany the infantry has been a subject of controversy and research since the World War, but it cannot be said that any country has yet found the ideal weapon. Medium Artillery.—This consists of guns and howitzers of greater range and shell-power than field artillery, yet sufficiently

at last admitted of centralization or decentralization according to the varying situation. A return was made to a long preliminary bombardment when the British Fourth Army attacked the Hindenburg Line in September; surprise had then ceased, however, to have great value owing to the extent of the Allied offensive and the disappearance of the enemy’s reserves. When operations ceased the art of tactics was on the threshold of a new era of development which had been ushered in by the renewal of mobility, by the introduction of tanks and by the mechanization of transport. (J. N. K.)

mobile to accompany the infantry advance. The usual types are a gun of approximately sin. firing a shell of about 60 Ib. to a range of 16,oooyd. and a howitzer of about 6-in. firing a shell of about 100 lb. to a range of 12,o00yd. The 60-pdr. gun is designed to

fire upon distant road crossings, railway junctions and other important points which have to be engaged without delay, and before the heavy artillery can come up. The 6-in. howitzer fires a powerTYPES OF ARTILLERY ful shell capable of demolishing buildings and of destroying The function of land artillery is to kill troops at a range beyond entrenchments other than those of a semi-permanent nature. It is that of a hand weapon, and to destroy material, obstacles and the principal weapon used in trench warfare. Both pieces are defences. Various natures of artillery have been developed, suit- available for counter-battery work, that is, for attacking enable to the tasks to be fulfilled. The four main classes are:— trenched guns which have been located by aircraft or by soundfield artillery (of which mountain, infantry-accompanying and ranging. The medium gun is an enlarged edition of the field gun. horse-artillery are lighter varieties); heavy artillery (which is The 6-in. howitzer was formerly a short, handy piece, but owing subdivided according to power of foe and of movement); anti- to the increased range now required of it the length of the modern type is as much as 25 calibres. aircraft artillery; trench artillery or mortars. Heavy Artillery.—This term is applied to pieces heavier than Thus British artillery is classified, in detail, as follows :— Light (in India, Mountain) artillery (2-75-in. guns and 3-7-in. medium artillery including guns up to 8-in. calibre and howitzers up to 9-2-in. calibre. In modern war it is necessary to attack howitzers).

Horse artillery (13-pdr. guns). Field artillery (18-pdr. guns and 4-5-in. howitzers). Medium artillery (60-pdr. guns and 6-in. howitzers).

objectives at least rom. behind the fighting front and accordingly

à piece throwing a shell of from 15 to 18 lb. to a distance of at

road-mobile heavy artillery, which can engage targets beyond the range of medium artillery, has been introduced. The principal gun of this type is the 6in. gun, the latest pattern of which ranges 15m. with roo lb. shell. It can be fired from the ground without the delay entailed by building a platform; wire mats or similar appliances are used to prevent the wheels from sinking. Modern 6-in. guns have split-trail carriages to enable them to be traversed quickly. A howitzer heavier than the 6-in. is required for destroying bridges and semi-permanent entrenchments. The 8-in. howitzer fires a 200-lb. shell and ranges 18,cooyd.; the British 9-2-in. howitzer, known in the war as ‘Mother,’ fires a 290-lb. shell

least 10,000yd., although effective ranges are generally less, and

ranging 12,700yd.; and the new American 240-mm. (9-45-in.) how-

Heavy artillery (6-in. guns, 8-in. and 9-2-in. howitzers). Super-heavy artillery (guns of 9-2 in. and upwards, and howitzers of 12in. and upwards). Anti-aircraft artillery (3-in. guns). Field Artillery.—This is capable of accompanying the advanced fighting line of an army. It consists of light guns and howitzers able to keep pace both on the road and across country

vith the arm it is supporting, and to come into action without

previous preparation of the ground. The field gun is, in all armies

470

ARTILLERY

itzer, a type of gun used also by the French, fires a 356-lb. shell to a range of 25,oo0yd. This piece is accepted as the typical modern heavy howitzer, and is about the largest piece likely to be transported by road in future warfare, as it is considered that heavier natures are better transported by rail. Super-heavy Artillery.—As the size of a shell is increased,

the effect increases in a higher ratio. Much of the destructive effect of a 1,000-lb. shell is due to the blast, not to the local

[TYPES

more efficient than guns for this kind of bombardme nt, as

an

aeroplane can now carry a 2,000-lb. bomb and can dr Op it with far greater accuracy, at such distances, than the gun.

Anti-aircraft Artillery.—The problem of hitting a tar Git og : ‘ ; ; get

moving in three dimensions is a difficult one and the additional complication due to a curved trajectory has to be eliminated ag

far as possible. All A.A. guns are therefore flat-trajectory Weapon ae aie ; g with high muzzle velocities. Ordinary field guns mounted oy lor.

destruction caused by the high-explosive charge. The effect of ries or trucks, as employed in the World War, are of little use Mobile A.A. guns used in the fighting line, are usually on Igy wheeled platforms which can be drawn behind a lorry. On com.

the blast is to bring down walls as much as soyd. from the point of burst, to cause roofs to fall in, and generally to wreck a great building such as a railway station or factory. A single hit from a r2-in. shell might destroy a bridge altogether, whereas ten hits from 6-in. shells, equal to the same weight of ammunition, would only cause easily reparable damage. A further advantage gained by the use of very heavy guns is the greatly increased range. Thus the British 9-2-in. gun throws a 380-lb. shell 14m. while the new U.S. r4-in. gun ranges 22m. with 1,560-lb. armour-piercing shell, and nearly 30m. with a somewhat lighter stream-lined shell. These considerations have led to the extensive employment of super-heavy pieces in land warfare. Gun versus Howitzer.—Formerly a howitzer was a low velocity weapon fired at a high angle of elevation, while a gun was a high velocity piece with a flat trajectory. The howitzer conveyed the shell to the target with a much smaller propelling charge than the gun, and consequently lasted much longer than the gun before it was worn out. At present all guns are mounted so as to fire at high angles of elevation, in order to attain their extreme range, and use reduced charges as well as full charges and supercharges in order to save wear. On the other hand, the range required of howitzers is now greatly increased so that the 1914 pattern, 12 calibres long, has been superseded by howitzers of 25 calibres and over, firing much heavier charges. The distinction between gun and howitzer is therefore tending to disappear. Super-heavy pieces are usually fired from railway mountings or at least are transported by rail. But an invader may find it necessary to bring up large howitzers, for the reduction of fortresses near the frontier, before the captured railways can be

ing into action, the platform is lowered to the ground, and levelled by screw-jacks at each corner, so as to bring the pivot exactly vertical. Semi-mobile guns, used in sedentary warfare, are on heavier platforms which are carried in sections and put together before firing; and non-mobile guns, for the defence of fortresses and cities, are on solid concrete or caisson platforms. The ammunition used with A.A. guns is shrapnel or highexplosive shell; a proportion of the shells are fitted with tracers A tracer is a small firework in the base of the shell, which leaves

a trail of smoke to mark its flight. This is necessary, since an

ordinary shell fired into the air disappears until it bursts, and there is nothing to show whether it has passed close to the target or

otherwise. The shell is fused so as to avoid endangering one's

own troops by the shell falling among them. Fire at aeroplanes is entirely by prediction; the course and speed of the target are measured by optical instruments, and the gun is fired at the point where the aeroplane is expected to he

making due allowance for the time of flight of the shell. If the first shot or salvo misses, the plane will at once begin to dodge,

and it is useless to fire at it until it has again settled down to a

regular course. Trench Artillery.—When two opposing forces are entrenched,

they tend to press forward till their advanced works are within tooyd. or less of each other. The same thing occurs in siege warfare, when the besieger extends his front trench till it is close to the fortress. The need then arises for a weapon capable of throwing a heavy bomb to a short distance, yet which is so small and made available. The difficulty in the way of transporting these light that it can be carried through the trenches. The original pieces by road is the limit of the weight which bridges can carry. piece of this type is the Coehorn mortar used in the sieges of the Even on the great main roads of western Europe this weight is 18th century. The modern type was introduced by the Germans not more than 30 tons, and on country roads it may be as little at the beginning of the World War. The Krupp Minenwerfer was as 5 tons. This implies a special type of howitzer, comparatively a light gun of 2-in. calibre mounted on a short plank. The so-lb. short and light, capable of throwing a heavy shell to a short spherical bomb rested on the muzzle, and had a tubular steel range. The German 42-cm. (16-5-in.) howitzer brought up for the “stick” which extended down the bore of the gun. The piece was siege of Antwerp was only 12 calibres long, and weighed 214 tons, fired at an angle of 45 to 75 degrees of elevation, and its extreme or about 29 tons on its special wagon. It threw shell of 15-7cwt. to range was about 450yd. The 50-lb. bomb, with its high-explosive a range of 10,300yd. It was drawn by three traction engines with charge, was capable of wrecking a “dug-out” or blowing in the a fourth in reserve for hills. The recoil gear, carriage, platform walls of a trench so as to block it. (in two parts) and gear for mounting the howitzer formed sepaAs the weight of the 50-lb. bomb rendered ammunition supply in rate loads, and the piece required 13 traction engines altogether. the front trenches a laborious proceeding, the British introduced The French have a 370-mim. (14-6-in.) howitzer, only 8 calibres the light Stokes trench mortar, firing a 1o-lb. bomb. This is a long, throwing an 8cwt. shell 11,500yd. It is rendered road-mobile weapon of a different type. It is a light steel tube of 3-in. calibre, by being carried on two road trucks, one following the other, with with a spike projecting into the breech end of the bore. The cylinan arched girder between them from which the piece is suspended. drical bomb has a small cartridge and percussion cap fixed to its The United States has an experimental 9-45-in. howitzer on a cater- base; 1t is dropped into the muzzle and slides down till the percuspillar mounting, driven by electricity from a separate vehicle which sion cap strikes the spike, when the cartridge is ignited and the carries the 150h.p. power unit. The total weight of the vehicle bomb blown out. The extreme range is about 1,200yd. This encarrying the howitzer is 13 tons. ables it to be used from a point well back in the trench system Long-range Guns.—During the World War the Germans where it is safer and less likely to draw fire than in the advanced bombarded Paris from a distance of 76m. with specially built works. A 25-lb. Stokes mortar was afterwards introduced, and was long-range guns, throwing 265-lb. shells. This long range was used principally for firing smoke shell. Later on, the bombs were obtained by using a velocity of 5,cooft.sec., and firing at an eleva- fitted with air-vanes to increase their accuracy. The 3-in. Stokes tion of 55 degrees, so that the shell passed through the layer of proved such a handy weapon that it was used in mobile warfare as dense air nearest to the earth, and reached the comparatively an infantry gun, for the reduction of “strong points” encountered thin air at a height of rom. which opposed little resistance to its in the infantry advance. Being a high-angle weapon, it was useless flight. In this case the greatest height of the trajectory was 24m. against moving tanks. Guns of this type cannot fire more than about 30 rounds before Heavy Trench Mortars.—Owing to the difficulty of supply they are worn out. Owing to uncertain weather conditions, the ing heavy ordnance in sufficient quantities trench mortars wer accuracy is poor; while the gun is new the shells may be expected introduced in 1915, capable of throwing a 200-Ib. shell about 1,200 to fall within a space of 2m. long by #m. wide, but as the gun yards. The principal piece of this type was the Gatignolles 240 becomes worn these limits are soon exceeded. Aeroplanes are far mm. (9-45-in.} mortar. This was in two pieces screwed together,

TRANSPORT]

ARTILLERY

and was fired from a mounting fixed on a bed of wooden balks.

The total weight was about a ton, and it was divisible into five

harrow loads. The Allies used this weapon for firing from posi-

tons towards the rear of the trench system, where it could be immed on the front trenches in case the enemy invaded them,

The Germans used, for the same purpose, a rifled 170-mm. (6-69-

in.) trench mortar, firing a shell of rro Ib. to a range of 1,250 yards. TRANSPORT OF ARTILLERY

At the present time the draught horse is in process of being replaced by mechanical transport for all heavier types of artillery. This change is necessarily a gradual one, and its nature and progress in different countries are partly determined by the extent to which the mechanical transport which has replaced the horse in civil life can be rendered available for military purposes.

471

same disadvantages as the tractor. Experiments are now being carried out in a number of countries with six-wheeled motor vehicles which may be adapted as tractors or carriers for the lighter natures of artillery. These vehicles are considerably cheaper to manufacture than most of the tractors which have previously been tried, they are good across country, and it seems likely that they will be suitable for commercial purposes in peace, especially in undeveloped countries. Practice in Other Armies—The French, in 1920, proposed to introduce an agricultural tractor, encouraged by a Government subsidy, which should be available for the transport of artillery.

But it was found that owing to the small size of fields in France there was little demand for the tractor, and no immediate prospect of its superseding the horse. On the other hand, the use of motor lorries is extending rapidly. The French now carry the field artillery, which is required to be highly mobile, on lorries, thus acceptArtillery may be mechanized in several ways. The self-pro- ing the principle of the carrier, not the tractor. These lorries canpelled gun-carriage has the gun-mounting built into it, and is not move off the road, except on favourable ground; therefore preferably of the “‘caterpillar” type. The artillery tractor pulls the each battery carries on its lorries some draught horses or small gun behind it, and carries the detachment and first supply of tractors of the Klectrac or Pavesi type to take the guns into posiammunition, The artillery carrier or transporter carries the gun tion. The French had 83 of these batteries portées at the end of on a platform from which it is dismounted, by a ramp, for firing. the war. From the tactical point of view, the self-propelled gun-carriage is The Italians are tending to a somewhat different solution. No not yet satisfactory, as it is too vulnerable and too large for con- draught horses are bred in Italy; they have to be imported from cealment, and requires an undue amount of labour to entrench. Germany. It is therefore proposed that the divisional field guns The motor is useless while the gun is in action, when, if it were should be drawn by the Pavesi agricultural tractors already deseparable from the gun, it would be most useful in bringing up scribed. The Italian army field artillery, which is required to be ammunition. Against these defects, however, may be put the asset highly mobile, will be carried on low platforms, which have springs of its power to move forward instantly if blinded by a hostile and rubber-tyred wheels, pulled by fast lorries. When the guns smoke cloud. Further it is better suited than other forms of artil- have to leave the roai, they will be taken into position by the lery for the support of a rapidly moving force of armoured divisional Pavesi tractors. fighting vehicles. In the United States the caterpillar tractor, generally of standTractors and Carriers,—The artillery tractor may be a cater- ard commercial type, has been adopted for tractor-drawn artillery. pillar or a vehicle of the lorry type. Both forms are open to the For rapid movement over good roads experiments are being made objection that the complicated mechanism of a Q.-F. gun is dam- of truck transport of light and medium field artillery, both wholly aged by rapid travelling on the road, even if the wheels be pro- by truck and by combined truck and trailer. vided with rubber tyres. This, however, can be obviated by the Heavier Natures of Artillery—Medium guns are usually use of low 2-wheeled travelling platforms, as employed in the tractor-drawn, the gun being shifted to a “travelling” position in Italian artillery for road travel. The caterpillar tractor is good which the weight is divided between the gun wheels and limber across country, but on roads inherently less rapid and less econom- wheels. Heavy guns are transported on special wagons, drawn ical, for its power, than the wheeled vehicle. Various attempts by tractors, which carry the piece itself, while the empty carriage have been made to construct tractors and carriers having both is drawn by a second tractor. road wheels and caterpillar tracks. The American Christy tractor, Super-heavy artillery is transported almost entirely by rail, now no longer in use, travelled normally on road wheels, and had though in 1914 the Germans brought up their siege howitzers, a caterpillar band which was put on round the wheels for cross- divided into separate loads, on special road-wagons. The railway country work. The French St. Chamond carrier-tractor is.a com- mounting consists of a massive platform supported by bogies, on plete caterpillar vehicle, with an extra pair of road wheels on which the gun mounting is built. (See Pl. II-7.) In the English extensions of the chassis at each end, which can be raised well Elswick type the gun is fired while the mounting is “alive” on clear of the ground, allowing the vehicle to rest on the caterpillar its wheels; in other types the central platform is lowered on to tracks. the rails before firing. All-round fire from the truck, without speAnother vehicle, of a different type, is the “4-wheel-drive” cial preparation, is only possible with medium guns; for heavier lorry, in which the wheels are driven independently. This is excel- natures the gun is laid for direction by running the truck up or lent on the road, and is capable of moving over easy country. back along a curved siding. Or, in some railway mountings, the The Pavesi agricultural tractor is a small 4-wheeled vehicle with gun track is supported laterally by heavy “outriggers” sunk in a flexible connection between the fore and hind carriages, which the ground. enables it to adjust itself to irregularities of the surface of the For the heaviest natures the railway is used for transport only, ground, Its four wheels are driven independently and have remov- and the gun is lowered on to a previously built platform. Permaable “spuds” which are put on for cross-country work. It has a nent concrete platforms were used in 1914, but these were super16h.p. engine burning paraffin or petrol. The road speed is about seded by “caisson” platforms consisting of iron boxes bolted five miles an hour, and the machine is therefore unsuited for the together and filled with earth, surmounted by a steel platform plate which carried the mounting. Recent American platforms tapid transport of reserve field artillery. The artillery carrier saves the gun from road strains, but entails dispense with the caissons, and consist of the platform plate only; delay in lowering the gun on to the ground when it comes into this is divided into sections for transport, bolted together on the action, and in hoisting it up again with a ramp and winch. Many spot, and pegged down with a number of steel stakes. These tractors, such as those of the American caterpillar type, can be platforms can be laid in a few hours, this being a great addition to fitted with platforms and used as carriers. It is not practically the value in the field. possible to fire the gun from the carrier, as this would entail a Railway mountings can be used for the transport of artillery

considerable increase of weight and complication. Any commercial

on light railways, and even on trench railways. Additional narrow-

lorry or truck of sufficient capacity can be adapted to carry light artillery. Its movement, however, is generally restricted to hard-

gauge wheels are fitted to the gun track for this purpose. In this

Vehicle, and a cross-country vehicle, the carrier is subject to the

ways on which it may have to be used; this depends principally

surfaced roads. As regards the difficulty of combining a road

case a platform must be used for firing. The limit of the height

and width of a railway mounting is the loading gauge of the rail-

472 on the size of the tunnels. length or weight.

aa a

ARTILLERY Practically there is no limit to the (X.)

ORGANIZATION Artillery, unlike other arms, is not fully committed once it has become engaged with the enemy, but retains, in great measure, its liberty of action. Without change of position, its fire can be concentrated or dispersed at will, at varying degrees of intensity, on widely distributed targets. It can be disengaged from the combat with greater facility than any other arm, and, being capable of manoeuvre within striking distance of the enemy, it can be brought again into action in other parts of the battle-field while the fight is still in progress. These important characteristics govern the organization and distribution of artillery in the field. The system must be elastic in order to permit of centralization or decentralization of control according to the situation; and it must allow of the main strength of the guns being collected at points where decisive blows are to be struck. The Battery.—The smallest unit of artillery is the battery, the composition of which is calculated on the assumption that its guns are normally worked together. A battery of artillery comprises three elements, viz.—matériel—guns, carriages, ammunition and stores; personnel—officers, non-commissioned officers, gunners or cannoneers, drivers and artificers; and transpori— horses or other animals, motor or other mechanical vehicles, or rail. The number of guns in a battery varies in different countries and in different types of artillery between four and eight though some railway batteries have only two guns (howitzers or mortars) ; in the British army horse and field batteries have six guns or howitzers in war, anti-aircraft batteries eight, and all others, except super-heavy batteries, have four. Mixed batteries of howitzers and guns no longer exist. The vehicles of a battery include carts, wagons or lorries for the transport of ammunition, stores, provisions and forage. The organization and interior economy of a battery are much the same in all artillery. In the British army the command is held by a major; the second in command is a captain. The battery is divided into sections of two guns each, each under a subaltern officer. A section consists of two sub-sections each comprising one gun with its transport and men, and at the head of each sub-section is the “No. 1” of the gun detachment, usually a sergeant. In horse-drawn artillery the drivers ride the near horses of their respective pairs, each gun and each wagon being drawn by teams of from four to eight horses. On the march the gunners are usually seated on the battery vehicles. In horse artillery, however, the gun detachments are mounted and in light or mountain artillery, drivers and gunners march on foot. In addition to the gunners and drivers there are men specially trained in signalling, range taking, etc., in all batteries, who are either mounted or provided with some form of independent mechanical transport such as motor bicycles or cars. Higher Organization.—In Great Britain the unit next above the battery is the brigade. In the United States two or three

batteries are combined in a battalion commanded by a major; two or three battalions into a regiment commanded by a colonel: and two, three or four regiments into a brigade commanded by a brigadier general. The higher units in other armies are groups or battalions of three or more batteries, two or more groups or battalions usually forming a regiment. These units are distributed to armies, corps and divisions in the same way as units of other arms. Horse artillery is the artillery which supports the cavalry; in Great Britain one brigade of three batteries is allotted to each cavalry division; in the United States one regiment of six batteries (two battalions) is allotted to a cavalry division at war strength. In Great Britain field and light artillery together form the artillery of the infantry division. The British divisional artillery consists of three field brigades, each of three gun batteries and one howitzer battery, and one light brigade of three batteries. Non-divisional field brigades, called army field brigades, are also provided to form a reserve of field artillery at the disposal of the commander-in-chief. Army field, medium, heavy, super-heavy and anti-aircraft artillery are at the disposal of the commander-

[ORGANIZATION

in-chief. Medium and heavy artillery are normally allotted to corps, super-heavy artillery to armies. Heavy and supe r-heavy

artillery have not usually the complete and permanent organiza. tion that distinguishes the lighter natures of artillery and generally organized, on mobilization, from units of coast artille are (For natures of guns and howitzers in each class of artillery ses

page 469, Types or ARTILLERY.

i

In the United States pack and light field artillery are assigned to the cavalry division; light field artillery to the infantry divi. sion; medium and heavy field artillery to the army corps; light and heavy field artillery to the G.H.Q. artillery. The field army

has no organic field artillery. The approved organization of the division field artillery brigade comprises two regiments of light

guns and one regiment of light howitzers. In the French Army one regiment of 75-mm. guns and One regiment of 155-mm. howitzers is allotted to each division, two

“groupes” of 105-mm. guns and two “groupes” of 15s-mm. guns

to each army corps, and the remainder of the artillery forms a

réserve générale d'artillerie which is commanded by a général de division. The infantry organization includes 37-mm. guns and Stokes mortars for close support. In the United States army

two regiments of field guns (75-mm. or 18-pdr.), forming together

one brigade, are allotted to each infantry division, but there is no

fixed allotment of field howitzers. The infantry organization includes 37-mm. guns as well as mortars for close support. The corps and higher organization is similar to that of the British and

French armies. A comparison of the various organizations outlined above will show that there is considerable variation in the number of field pieces allotted in different countries to an infantry division. Thus 72 are provided per division in the American, 60

in the French and 72 in the British army. On the other hand the number of pieces at the disposal of corps and army commanders generally varies in inverse proportion to the strength of the

divisional artilleries, so that the total numbers available per 100 rifles do not differ greatly. In each British division an artillery officer of the rank of brigadier is in executive command of the artillery of the division, There is also a brigadier in command of the artillery of each corps and under him is a commander of the corps heavy and medium artillery. The corps artillery commander commands the divisional artilleries for special deliberate operations only. Heis provided with a counter-battery staff whose task is to deal with the hostile artillery. At each army headquarters there is a major-general R.A. whose duties are mainly advisory. The system of command in Continental armies is similar. In the United States each brigade is commanded by a brigadier general. In addition to the brigade commander, there is a chief of artillery both in the corps and army. Certain auxiliary organizations are now required by artillery. In the British army artillery survey work is carried out by survey companies which

are also responsible for sound-ranging

and flash-spotting. Signal units are provided by the Royal Corps of Signals down to headquarters of brigades, batteries being responsible for their own signal communications. Searchlight battalions of the Royal Engineers are provided to co-operate with anti-aircraft artillery. In the United States flash and sound ranging are functions of the field artillery, as are signal communications within the field artillery brigade. The organization for the supply of ammunition is described in a separate section. In addition to the normal chain of artillery command provision }s usually made for technical control of the matériel, and a variety of training and experimental establishments, such as schools of gunnery,

are

maintained

by the military

authorities in most

countries. In the British army all the personnel of the artillery arm m the field, as well as of the coast artillery, is provided by the Royal

Regiment of Artillery. Officers and men are transferred from one

class of artillery to another at intervals of a few years in order that their training may be comprehensive. In some armies as, for

example, the army of the United States, the artillery service B

divided into two branches, the field artillery being distinct from the coast artillery corps.

ARTILLERY

TECHNIQUE]

TECHNIQUE

473

the true range and line. A special section in each army corps,

known in the British Army as “Meteor,” keeps the batteries ininto action may be described in a few words. The guns are “un- formed as to atmospheric conditions. The guns must be carefully imbered” at or near the battery position and the gun limbers and “calibrated,” a process which consists in determining the error due reams or tractors sent back under cover. An ammunition wagon to wear at a known range. Survey methods cannot generally be (caisson) or lorry is then placed, as a rule, by the side or in rear used in very mobile operations owing to the time required to carry „f each gun, an arrangement which simplifies the supply of am- out the necessary preliminary work. Sound Ranging.—This is effected by observing the moment munition. According to the British practice a battery in action is thus distributed: first the “firing battery” consisting of the guns, at which the sound of the burst of the shell reaches each of a chain each with its ammunition vehicle; then, under cover in rear, the of recording instruments. It has recently been improved so as to

Occupation of a Position.—The actual process of coming

"frst line of wagons” comprising teams or tractors of the firing battery, the gun limbers and the remaining ammunition vehicles. The non-combatant vehicles form the “second line of wagons.” Choice of a Position.—The nature of the position to be occupied depends primarily upon the task which is to be carried out.

give very accurate results under suitable weather conditions from

a set of instruments occupying as little as 2,500 yd. of front. The setting up of the instruments takes the rather lengthy time of from 24 to 48 hours, which limits the employment of this method in mobile warfare. It is of particular value in trench warfare for Although “open” positions may have to be occupied on occasions, locating hostile guns by means of their reports (see SOUND they are generally to be avoided since guns are quickly silenced in RANGING).

modern war if they come into action in full view of the observing

posts of the hostile artillery. As a rule, therefore, artillery use positions concealed from view behind a ridge or other cover, the elevation and direction necessary to hit the target being signalled by an observer who may be either on the ground or in the air. The choice of the position varies to some extent with the nature of the

equipment; for instance, an elevated position is better adapted

than a low one for high velocity guns on account of their flat

trajectory. Other factors which have to be considered are (a) the desirability of a field of fire immediately in front of the guns for shooting at hostile tanks; (b) concealment from air observation;

(c) avoidance of ground in which pockets of gas might lie; (d) approaches for ammunition supply. It is usually possible, however,

to satisfy only the more important requirements in each particular situation. Cover from hostile fire, as distinct from observation, cannot often be obtained from the configuration of the ground, because, if a gun can shoot over a covering feature, the hostile shells can also clear it. Most of the lighter types of artillery are therefore provided with shields which, with the armoured ammunition wagons (caissons), afford some measure of protection to the guns and detachments. Guns are usually brought into action about 2 to 25 yd. apart, this interval being considered sufficient to minimize the damage which may be done by hostile shell fire. Ranging.—This process serves to determine the elevation at which a gun will hit the target, or, more correctly, the elevation at which the greatest possible number of shells will fall on the target. This elevation is not necessarily that due to the map range, as it is affected by the temperature, height of barometer, strength of the propellant, degree of wear of the gun and other factors. When a number of shells are fired from a gun which is pointed at agiven elevation, they do not fall in the same place, but are distributed over a space which, at medium ranges, may be 100 yd. or more in depth. The centre of this space is termed the “mean point of impact.” The first step in ranging is to determine, by observation of the fall of the shells, two elevations, usually 300400 yd. apart, at the higher of which shells will fall beyond the target, and at the lower of which they will fall short. These two

elevations constitute the “long bracket,” within the limits of which the true elevation must lie. This bracket is then “split” by

fring at the two intermediate hundreds of yards, and observing the results, thus obtaining a closer approximation to the elevation required called the “short bracket.” Finally, corrections of soyd. or less are made until an equal proportion of rounds are observed toburst over and short. Ranging for line, that is, for lateral direclion, is carried out in the same way, and generally simultaneously with ranging for elevation. When time shrapnel is used it is also necessary to determine by observation the length of fuze which will give bursts at the most effective height above the ground.

Ranging by Map or Survey Methods.—It is possible to

open effective fire by surprise without preliminary ranging, if the Tange and line can be obtained by measurement from accurate

Laying.—“Elevation” may be defined as the vertical inclina-

tion of the gun, “direction” as the horizontal inclination to the right or left, necessary to direct the path of the projectile to the object aimed at. In order to lay the gun in the “line of sight,” z.e., the line joining the sights and the point aimed at, the gun has to be “traversed’” right or left so as to point in the proper direction, and also adjusted in the vertical plane. The simplest form of laying is called the “direct” method, which is employed if the point aimed at is the target and can be seen by the layer. He has then merely to look over or through the sights. But the point laid on is rarely the target itself. In war, the target, even if visible, is often indistinct, but in most cases, it cannot be seen at all from the gun position. An “aiming point,” a conspicuous point quite apart and distinct from the target, has then to be employed (“‘in-

direct” method). When the guns are behind cover and no natural aiming point can be seen, an artificial aiming point is often made by placing a line of “aiming posts” in the ground. An alternative to aiming posts is now provided by the “paralleloscope” which is a mirror set up a few feet from the gun. When this device is used the layer keeps the gun in the correct line of fire by laying upon the reflection of the sights in the mirror. Finding the “line” in the case of indirect laying involves the calculation of the angle at which the guns must be laid in order that, when the sights are directed upon the aiming point, the shell will strike the target. When a gun is laid for elevation by the indirect method, two angles to the horizontal plane have to be allowed for, viz., that due to range and that due to the difference in level between the gun and the target. The latter is called “the angle of sight.” When the target is above the level of the gun, the angle of sight has to be added to the elevation due to the range; when the target is below the level of the gun the angle of sight has to be deducted. In all cases the actual elevation of the gun to enable the shell to strike the target is a purely mechanical adjustment, the gun being moved to the required angle with the aid of an elevation indicator or a clinometer. Frequently the battery commander directs the guns from a point at some distance, communication being maintained by signallers or by field telephone. Instruments of precision and careful calculation are, of course, required to fight a battery in this manner, many allowances having to be made for the differences in height, distances and angle between the position of the battery commander and that of the guns. Fire.—In the British service three methods of fire for effect are used within the battery. These are:— Gun fire, in which the guns fire independently at any rate which may be ordered; Battery fire, in which the guns fire in succession throughout the battery; Salvo fire, in which the guns are fired simultaneously on the order of the gun position officer.

The application of fire by batteries acting in combination is dealt with in section on Tactics. Use of Various Natures of Ammunition.—Shrapnel, which is fired by most guns and in some cases by howitzers, is used against troops in the open, for offensive and protective covering

large scale maps or, in the absence of such maps, by “fixing” the Positions of guns and targets by survey methods. For such “predicted” shooting certain meteorological and other information is fire and for general harassing purposes. The forward effect of the necessary to determine the corrections which must be applied to bullets makes it especially effective when fired in enfilade. High

474

ARTILLERY

explosive shells with instantaneous fuzes, wbich are usually fired in addition to shrapnel by all natures of guns as well as by howitzers, are also used against troops in the open and for covering and harassing fire. They are further employed for wire cutting, for engaging troops under light cover and against tanks. High explosive shells with graze and delay fuzes, are used against troops in trenches and for the destruction of buildings and other strong cover. High explosive shells with time fuzes are used against aircraft. Smoke shell are employed for screening effect, to mask hostile fire and to deny observation to an enemy. Star shell are sometimes used for purposes of illumination, but they are not of great value in mobile warfare. (For description of the various types of projectiles see AMMUNITION.)

Signal Communications.—The methods at present employed on the ground are line telephony, using voice or buzzer, and visual signalling. Aircraft communicate with batteries by means of wireless telegraphy and batteries with aircraft by means of wireless telegraph and panels, 7.e., strips of white cloth which are laid out on the ground. Radio telephony is being developed by most countries but it has not yet reached the stage of practical utility in the field. Observation of Fite may be done by the battery commander himself, by a special “observing” party or by an observer in an aeroplane or balloon. The difficulties of observation vary considerably with the ground, etc., for instance, the light may be so bad that the target can hardly be seen, or again, if there be a hollow

[TACTICS

more cumbrous and, by lengthening columns, increases difficulties of manoeuvre and deployment. Formerly the artillery was ham. pered by having to carry the reserve of small arms ammunition for infantry and cavalry, but this is no longer the case. When it js anticipated that the expenditure of ammunition in an Operation will be greater than can be replaced immediately, dumps are

usually placed at the guns or in suitably advanced positions: and in a retreat, ammunition should also be dumped where it canbe picked up by batteries as they withdraw. This latter expedient was used successfully by the British in the retreat from Mons in IQI4. In the army of the United States the field artillery battalion has a combat train which carries reserve ammunition; the field arti. lery brigade has an ammunition train; and the corps and army have ammunition trains. Ammunition supply is normally from

the army to divisions.

In the French Army ammunition is conveyed from railheads (gares de ravitaillement) to delivery centres (centres de livraison) or advanced depots by motor transport units of armies. It is then conveyed to batteries by lorries of the corps artillery park (pare Wartilleries de corps d'armée), transport of the corps heavy groups, horsed and motor vehicles of the divisional artillery park sections and group ammunition columns. The main feature French system is its flexibility, the various transport units forward area usually being under the control of corps for the way best suited to each situation. In the American

of the in the use in army

near the target, a shell may burst in it so far below that the smoke appears thin to a ground observer, the round then being wrongly judged “over” or “short,” or lost altogether. Smoke is often used in ranging with air observation to facilitate picking up the rounds. Observations from the air are signalled to batteries by wireless, some form of code being employed by which the fall of rounds

corps trains of motor transport supply ammunition to brigade ammunition columns which may be mechanized or horsed.

can be plotted on a chart.

within the zone of the enemy’s aimed rifle and machine gun fire, Attacking troops can only continue to advance—(and without ad-

SUPPLY OF AMMUNITION In 1914 it was considered that soo rounds per field gun should be in hand in the theatre of war at the beginning of a campaign, with a reserve of 1,000 rounds per gun in the arsenals. It was found that this allowance was absurdly inadequate even in the more mobile phases of the World War. For great attacks on entrenched positions it was necessary to employ one field gun per royd. on fronts of many miles, and each gun was frequently required to fire 500 rounds or even more in a day. It was therefore essential to increase the scale of manufacture and to revise the methods of supply. The solution of the problem of supply was found in the development of the use of motor transport and, for periods of trench warfare, of light railways and specially laid trench railways. Since 1918 a new system of ammunition supply has been introduced in the British army which will allow of a more abundant and rapid supply of ammunition in mobile warfare than ever before. Maintenance companies, under corps control, carry ammunition from railheads to ammunition companies, under divisional control. These, in turn, deliver to batteries or, alternatively, to horse-drawn divisional ammunition columns. Maintenance and ammunition companies are composed of motor lorries and have respectively a radius of action of 25 m., so that guns can be served over 50 m. from railhead. The divisional ammunition column (horse-drawn) is regarded as a mobile reserve of ammunition for the divisional artillery and is used as a link in the chain of supply only when lorries of the ammunition companies cannot deliver direct to batteries, e.g., when the battery positions are on difficult ground away from roads. Army field brigades and horse artillery brigades have special brigade ammunition columns whose functions are similar to those of the divisional ammunition columns. Some ammunition vehicles, which are usually lightly armoured, are also included in the batteries themselves. The number of

rounds carried by them varies from 100 to about 300 per gun in different types of artillery. The greater the amount of ammunition a battery carries with it, the more independent it is; on the other hand, every additional wagon or lorry makes the battery

TACTICS In modern war it is found that infantry, in face of opposition,

are immobilized and driven to seek cover as soon as they get vancing no decision can be gained)—by enlisting the aid of an arm which is capable of keeping down the enemy’s fire while itself remaining sufficiently immune by reason of the distance from which it can operate, or by armoured protection as in the case of tanks, At present the artillery affords the principal means of

dominating the enemy’s fire. The advent of tanks has, however,

profoundly affected the rôle of artillery in battle and the new tactics have not yet been fully evolved. Tanks are capable of relieving the artillery of various forms of support required by infantry and cavalry, but tanks themselves require artillery support if they are not to suffer heavy casualties. The capabilities of the tank have not yet been completely determined, nor can they be until design has reached a greater degree of finality and further war experience has been gained. Further, the relative position of tanks and artillery is becoming confused since some of the most modern types of armoured artillery on self-propelled carriages are themselves but tanks under a different name. The process of mechanization of artillery transport, which is still in progress, also affects the employment of artillery. Artillery tactics are, therefore, at the present day in the midst of a period of evolution. Many of the statements which this article contains will be subject to considerable modification in the near future. Developments during and since the World War have greatly increased the range, accuracy, fire power and mobility of artillery. A further important advance has been in methods of survey. There are certain limitations to the full development of the power

of artillery, the most serious of which is perhaps the difficulty of

including in mobile formations sufficient artillery to break down

modern defences, and of supplying it with ammunition. Another important limitation which is still engaging the attention of military authorities in all countries is the unsatisfactory nature of the means of signal inter-communication

artillery.

Good

at the disposal of modern

signal communications

between artillery com

manders, their guns, and the troops they are supporting are 0

vital importance. Application of Fire—The principles of surprise, concentre tion and economy of force (i.e., economizing strength while com

pelling dissipation of that of the enemy) are generally held to be

ARTILLERY

475

of special umportance in the application of artillery fire. To ob- of units with whom they are co-operating to be in close proximity. ‘ain surprise it Is necessary first to conceal the concentration of Liaison officers are also used to aid in keeping touch, and artillery

the guns and the occupation of positions. In order to evade de- patrols may be sent forward to supplement personal reconnaistection by hostile aircraft, large movements of artillery are now

sance and the information furnished by artillery observers.

The

cķilíul use of cover is necessary to screen movement from ob-

or on rockets or other special signals for information of the situ-

generally carried out at night. Should they be carried out by day, artillery frequently has to rely on close reconnaissance aeroplanes

servers on the ground. Once the guns are in position, care has to ation of the forward troops. The other arms are trained to supply be taken not to disclose their position by firing prematurely and,

constant information to the artillery as to their movements and

to this end, the survey methods of working out lines of fire and

the obstacles which they encounter; this information is essential

ranges, already alluded to, are of particular value, as the warning

if artillery support is to be effective. Another important aspect of co-operation lies in the co-ordination of the action of the artillery with that of the weapons of the other arms. For example, artillery fire must be directed in such a way as best to supplement the fire of machine guns and the action of tanks.

which used to be given by preliminary registration can be elimi-

nated by their adoption in certain circumstances. There is, further, considerable scope for exploiting the value of surprise after the presence of the guns has been disclosed by the opening of fire.

Stereotyped systems of shooting should be avoided and damage and casualties increased by bringing fire to bear on the enemy at mexpected times and places and in unexpected ways. Concentration of effort is as essential in the employment of artillery as in the case of any other arm. The maximum amount of fre must be directed upon the targets which are of greatest im-

portance, and bombardments should be intense and short rather

than weak and prolonged. The best means of securing concentration is to centralize command, and it is thus a general principle that control should be vested in the highest commander who can exercise it effectively in any given situation. For effective control,

a commander must be in communication with the guns and in touch with the ever-changing situation of the troops he is supporting. When operations are of a deliberate character, inter-communication is comparatively easy to maintain and information is fuller. Control may then be exercised from divisional or even corps headquarters. In very mobile operations, however, artillery bri-

gade or battery commanders will often have to act upon their own initiative, subject to broad instructions from their superior commander. The maintenance of the principle of concentration involves a strict observance of the allied principle of economy of force. Artillery should be economically allotted to its various tasks and where possible a reserve should be formed. The various types should be employed against the targets they are designed to engage. Thus it would be wrong to use a powerful weapon for a task which could be equally well performed by a less powerful one the life of which is longer and its ammunition more easily supplied. Fire should never be opened without a definite object, and the expenditure of ammunition should be proportionate to the tactical importance of the task. Economy is further obtained by accuracy of fre, but occasions arise when some degree of accuracy may have to be sacrificed to save time and to ensure surprise.

Observation.—Whenever possible, artillery fire is directed by observation. Observation may be carried out from the ground or from the air. Ground observation is most suitable for shooting on targets on the immediate front of friendly troops, and observation posts are selected, whenever possible, so that they may overlook the foremost elements of the troops who are being supported as well as the areas in which targets are to be engaged. Observation from air-craft is largely used for counter-battery work, for fire on distant targets and for dealing with vulnerable and fleeting targets which cannot be seen from the ground. In the British army

the requirements of the artillery in air observation are met by army co-operation squadrons of the Royal Air Force. These squadrons also provide photographs of the enemy’s positions and

rear organization which are of great value in the discovery and

selection of targets. Balloons are also used for purposes of observation, but they are handicapped by their vulnerability and the distance from the enemy at which they must operate (see

ATTACK

In the attack the object of the artillery is to assist the other arms to maintain their mobility and offensive power. Its tasks may be summarized as follows:—(i.) artillery preparation, (ii.) covering fire, (iii.) close support, (iv.) counter-battery work, (v.) harassing fire, (vi.) co-operation in pursuit. Approach March.—An army advances against the enemy covered by the advanced guards of its several columns. During the approach march some light, field and possibly some medium artillery will usually be allotted to the advanced guards whose duty it is to drive in the enemy’s protective troops by bold and vigorous action. If the artillery allotted to the advanced guards proves insufficient to overcome the enemy’s resistance it may be reinforced from the main bodies. If the enemy is in strength a stage will be reached when the advanced guards will no longer be able to advance and when the main bodies or portions of them will be deployed. A plan of attack will then be formed by the commander of the force. If the enemy has been met on the move, or found in a hastily occupied position, the situation will call for rapidity of action, as the dominant need will be to prevent him from seizing the initiative or strengthening his defences. If, on the other hand, he is in an organized position strengthened by artificial defences such as wire entanglements, trenches, field works, etc., the attack cannot be launched without deliberate and methodical arrangement and it must be supported by a strong concentration of artillery. Dispositions.—In disposing the artillery, the governing considerations are (i.) concentration of the maximum fire to assist the decisive phases of the attack; and (ii.) ability to support the advance to as great a distance as possible without moving the guns. This last requirement entails siting the guns well forward, the most advanced field guns being as a rule no further behind the leading troops than is necessary to obtain cover and to clear the heads of the infantry. Plan.—The artillery plan comprises the scheme of fire and the arrangements for command, control, communications and movement of artillery in support of the advance. A commander will often have to decide whether it is important or not to use the full power of his artillery in his attack. To develop its full strength the artillery may often require more time for preliminaries than the other arms, and a plan of attack may suit it which does not best suit the other arms. In such a case a commander will generally treat his artillery as the predominant arm if the enemy’s defences are strong. Artillery preparation consists of the bombardment of the enemy’s defences before the attack is launched, its objects being to inflict loss and damage, to cut wire obstacles—if tanks are lacking —and to undermine moral. If the enemy’s positions are not strong or if tanks are available, artillery preparation may be dispensed with and surprise ensured thereby. If it is undertaken it should be as short and heavy as possible.

also under TECHNIQUE). Covering fire may take the form of a barrage (ze., a belt of _ Co-operation with Other Arms.—As the réle of the artillery fire) moving ahead of the assaulting troops; of concentrations retheir by governed is action its arms, other the support to is quirements. The question of co-operation with the other arms is, upon successive localities; of smoke screens; or a combination of therefore, one of special importance. Artillery officers of all ranks any or all of these forms of fire. A barrage has some measure of have to keep themselves informed of the general situation and

destructive and neutralizing effect on all troops on the ground over which it passes. It is the simplest method of giving support when

of ensuring good co-operation is for headquarters of artillery and

the enemy’s positions cannot be located with accuracy—and in

Plans of commanders whom they are supporting. The best means

476

ARTILLERY

modern war this is the normal state of affairs, owing to the difficulty of seeing machine-gun posts, etc. Objections to the barrage are that it is wasteful of ammunition and that the guns available in modern armies permit of this form of support in very inadequate measure. A very thin barrage can be provided by one field gun to 30yd. of front, but even this diluted form of barrage cannot be provided by the divisional artillery for more than a very short time nor over more than a small fraction of the divisional front, e.g., in the case of the British division it could be provided on about one-eighth to one-tenth of the frontage occupied by the deployed infantry, the remainder of the frontage being denuded meanwhile of artillery support. It is therefore obvious that, in face of strong opposition, reliance would have to be placed upon considerable reinforcements of army artillery units or upon tanks to supplement the action of the artillery. In the provision of covering fire, field guns are used as a rule to shoot nearest the assaulting troops, who are trained to move as close to the bursting shells as possible; field howitzers and medium artillery are used to give depth to the fire and to shoot on more distant targets. As a rule covering fire is arranged in its early stages according to a time-table based on the expected rate of advance of the troops, subsequent support being given by observed fire from guns advanced if necessary during the fight. Smoke shells are fired by artillery in conjunction with other types of ammunition or alone. The principal use of smoke is to furnish concealment to attacking troops in order to enable them to move unobserved for the purpose of effecting surprise. By its use an attack can get to close quarters without being seen and smoke clouds can often be so disposed as to enable the assault to be launched from an unexpected direction. Smoke screens may also be used to conceal the movement of reserves. Smoke is also of great value to reduce casualties among the assaulting troops by preventing the enemy’s fire from being aimed or observed, and it should therefore be the object of the attacker to use it in such a way as to blind artillery observation posts and to mask machine gun positions, strongly defended localities, and anti-tank weapons. Smoke screens may also be put down by artillery to protect open flanks, or to prolong a front of attack and so induce the enemy to disperse his‘ fire. Other uses for which smoke shells are sometimes employed are to assist attacking infantry to maintain direction by marking objectives or boundaries between formations, or to signal and co-ordinate the time for the resumption of an advance after a pause on an intermediate objective. The tendency of an enemy, when a smoke cloud is put down, is to pour a heavy fire into it and this fact has to be borne in mind in evolving plans for its employment. The actual production of a smoke screen requires great skill and the wind and weather have to be carefully considered. If smoke is fired indiscriminately it may interfere seriously with observation from both ground and the air, with reconnaissance during battle, with signalling or with operations of troops on the flanks. Close Support.—The prearranged covering fire may not be sufficient to overcome all resistance to the advance and leading units therefore have to be accompanied by some artillery to obviate the delay which would be entailed in signalling to guns at a distance. So much is generally admitted; but the nature, command and organization of the accompanying artillery are matters on which opinions differ. Moreover, the infantry are not satished with guns of accompaniment, but demand a weapon of their own in the actual firing line to deal with tanks. It is impossible to go into the whole controversy in this article. The British gun of accompaniment is at present the 3-7-in. light howitzer, but this weapon is generally considered too large and its shell is so heavy as to present serious difficulties in ammunition supply. Field artillery is also used for close support to replace or reinforce the light howitzers. The French infantry organization includes 37-mm. guns and Stokes mortars, but they also favour the employment of the 75-mm. field gun which may be provided with a special low carriage and taken into action by a small tractor. Other nations have introduced pack guns or special light ‘guns or howitzers which can be drawn as far forward as possible by small tractors and can then be divided into loads and carried up by

[DEFENCE

| hand. Experiments with various kinds of equipment are being carried out in most countries. It will be difficult if not Impossibl e to combine in one weapon the requirements of close support. which call for a comparatively heavy shell and a curved trajectory

and those of an infantry anti-tank gun, which demand a flat tra. jectory, a rapid rate of fire and comparatively small Calibre i therefore seems probable that two weapons will be evolved both mobile, and possibly carried or drawn by small armoured tractors

but one in the nature of a small howitzer for close support and

the other in the nature of a heavy machine-gun capable of stopping tanks up to r,oooyd. or 1,500yd. range.

Counter-battery

Work

comprises the location, neutraliza-

tion and, when possible, destruction of the enemy’s artillery The problem of dealing with the hostile guns is given much greater

attention in all armies than was the case before the World War

It now enters into operations of every kind and in varying degrees lies within the sphere of responsibility of every artillery commander. Special counter-battery staffs are generally provided at corps headquarters. The chief sources of information as to the enemy’s artillery are (i.) observers in aircraft; and Cii.) flash-

spotting and sound-ranging units on the ground. In addition, artilery and infantry observers are trained to send back information, A portion of the attacker’s field and medium artillery isusually allotted the task of engaging the hostile guns before and during an action with the object of keeping down their fire and so facilitat.

ing the advance of the assaulting troops. Harassing Fire—The objects of harassing fire are to wear down the enemy’s fighting spirit, to inflict casualties and damage upon him, to prevent movements of reinforcements and ammunition and generally hinder the conduct of the defence. Harassing fire has to be reduced to a minimum in mobile war owing to the small quantities of ammunition which are available; in deliberate operations or static warfare there is great scope for its development. Pursuit—During an advance artillery is pushed forward to

support the infantry and to assist them in pressing the enemy,

batteries usually being moved alternately within brigades so as to ensure that the covering fire will be continuous. But to obtain decisive results in a pursuit it is necessary to launch against the enemy a special pursuing force, composed of mobile troops. Mechanized artillery is of special value with such a force, and it should be handled with the greatest boldness, risks being accepted which would not be justifiable at other times. DEFENCE

In defence the artillery assists in the protection of the other arms and co-operates with them in repelling the enemy’s assaults. Its tasks may be summarized as follows:—(i.) counter preparation, (ii.) fire to repel assaults, (lii.) anti-tank defence, (iv.) counter battery work, (v.) harassing fire.

Dispositions.—In defence the artillery has to be sited in sucha

way that it will be able to bring the full weight of its fire to bear in front of the line of infantry defences on which the commander intends to stop the enemy. In mobile war the infantry defensive position will generally consist of a chain of defended localities, and it will usually be in front of this line that the artillery will be required to shoot in order to break up an assault. In more deliberate operations, however, time and resources may permit of the defensive position being more highly organized. It may then consist of a lightly held forward zone, intended to absorb the first shock of a heavy attack, and a strongly held main zone in which the battle is to be fought out. In this type of defence the bulk of the artillery has to be sited further back with the object of bringing the main weight of its fire to bear in front of the main zone, small proportion only of guns being allotted to support the troops

in the forward zone. This method of defence was exploited by

Pétain in stopping the final German offensive of July 15, 1918, and it has found much favour in the eyes of soldiers. The bulk of the guns are not sited in such advanced positions in defence as M attack for two reasons, firstly, that they may not be easily neutralized by the attackers’ artillery, and, secondly, that they may not be over-run in the first rush of an assault. A proportion of the guns must be in forward positions, however, for the purpose 0

DEFENCE]

ARTILLERY

477

engaging the enemy’s artillery and rear communications and of can be launched. Once the attack develops, however, it may be hindering arrangements for an attack. The fulfilment of these re-

quirements results in the defender’s artillery being distributed in

preferable to direct the full power of the defending artillery for a time upon the assaulting troops.

discussed below. An essential requirement of defensive positions

necessity for economizing ammunition.

depth. An important factor which must also be considered in disHarassing Fire.—In a defensive action of a temporary nature ing the artillery is the problem of anti-tank defence. This is this form of fre will not generally be developed owing to the When resources permit,

io be occupied by infantry, besides facilities for siting the guns, is however, an enemy’s offensive preparations may be considerably gutability for artillery observation. It is always desirable that hampered by a well devised scheme of harassing fire.

there should be some rising ground from which observation can be

carried out, and such localities should be so far behind the foremost defences that they will not be captured, and the eyes of the defence blinded, by a minor penetration by the enemy. Plan.—The artillery plan of defence comprises, besides the

arrangements for dispositions, which are discussed above, the scheme of defensive fire and the policy which is to govern counterbattery action. Surprise is as important in defence as in attack

and it is therefore important that the fire plan should not be disclosed prematurely.

A favourite device is to keep as many as

possible of the defending guns silent until an attack develops and

Withdtawal.—When

aforce is retiring in face of an enemy,

mobile artillery is of particular value for covering the withdrawal of the other troops. Thus rear guards usually contain a large proportion of guns. Enemy columns should be engaged at long ranges with the object of forcing them to halt and deploy as frequently as possible. Command of the artillery will generally have to be decentralized to infantry brigades or corresponding units in this form of operation, and batteries should retire alternately in order that continuous support may be provided. ANTI-AIRCRAFT

DEFENCE

The problem of anti-aircraft defence enters into all forms of then to engage the enemy with an unexpectedly heavy fire. In order to conceal the battle positions of the defending artillery, action against a well-equipped enemy, and anti-aircraft artillery is guns which are required to be active often shoot from temporary now provided in most armies. Anti-aircraft artillery may act in positions which they vacate before the enemy’s attack is launched. co-operation with fighting aircraft, when its main task will be to It is important to make arrangements to concentrate as much as assist them by breaking up formations of hostile aircraft and by possible of the available artillery fire on any particular portion of indicating their whereabouts by shooting at them. It may also the front which may be attacked by the enemy and to make all act independently; its rôle is then to destroy hostile aeroplanes possible preparations to support counter-attacks. Smoke has to be and to deny them opportunities of bombing and detailed observaused with caution in defence as it is liable to obscure the view of tion. Anti-aircraft artillery will usually be employed for the protection of columns on the march and of forward areas when an the defenders and so to hamper their fire. army has deployed. Owing to the great radius of action of modern Counter-preparation is the term applied to fire which is delivered with the object of breaking up an attack before it can be aircraft, anti-aircraft artillery has also to be provided for the air launched. It is directed against probable forming-up places and defence of bases, headquarters and other important points on the forward communications in order to disorganize the enemy’s troops lines of communication of an army. Searchlights are required in when they are suspected of being about to assault. A plan of rear areas to enable the guns to engage hostile aircraft at night. predicted fire is usually arranged as soon as a defensive position POSITION WARFARE is occupied but, if the enemy’s troops can be seen and signal comMilitary opinion is divided as to the likelihood of a recurrence in munications can be maintained, it is more effective to shoot with the future of periods of position warfare such as were experienced direct observation. in the World War. Modern armies are being trained for mobile Repulse of Assaults.—Once an attack is launched it becomes operations, but in most countries the lessons of siege warfare the aim of the artillery to direct fire on the assaulting troops and which were learnt between 1914 and 1918 are recorded in military reserves. It is desirable that, as in the case of counter-preparation, text-books. A modern entrenched position consists of an elabosuch fire should be controlled by observation, but this is not often rate system of trenches, strong field works and barbed wire enpracticable. Attacks may be launched under cover of smoke or in tanglements and it is arranged in successive zones in great depth the half light of dawn, and signal communications may be cut by so that it cannot be penetrated by a single attack. The work of hostile fire; even when other conditions are favourable, observa- the artillery in routine trench warfare is to exhaust the enemy’s tion will be rendered impossible when there is such a force of artil- strength by harassing and counter-battery fire. The tactics of the lery that observers are unable to distinguish the shells of their own attack on a fortified position are much the same as those of the batteries. It is therefore a rule to detail targets to be engaged by attack on a position in mobile warfare. The main points of differallbatteries with predicted fire. Such targets will generally be the ence are: (a) the details of the defences are definitely known. most probable lines of approach for the enemy and other vulner- from aerial photographs: (b) the obstacles, such as barbed wire, able portions of the front, and the fire of the guns must be care- are more formidable; (c) the defenders will have better cover fully co-ordinated with that of the infantry weapons, especially from fire in their trenches and in deep dug-outs so that the barrage with that of machine guns. The artillery resources of present and bombardment will be less effective. The first point implies armies will not permit of continuous belts of artillery fire being that the bombardment can be concentrated on definite points, placed in front of the infantry positions as was done in the World instead of being more or less spread over the country; the second War, and it is not to be expected that sufficient resources will be requires that field guns and, if possible, tanks, must be pushed forthcoming in the future for the resuscitation of the “standing forward to cut the wire; the third entails the employment of a barrage” unless periods of static warfare recur. strong force of field and heavy artillery. Anti-tank Defence.—A considerable share of the responsibilGenerally speaking, the result of an attack on the grand scale ty for anti-tank defence falls upon the artillery. The anti-tank depends largely on the relative strength of the forces (especially in weapons of the infantry are generally reinforced in the forward artillery and tanks) which the combatants are able to assemble on defences by some light or field pieces which are sited in concealed the front attacked. If the defending commander is able to positions from which they can deliver a sudden fire at short range. reply to the bombardment with an equally effective bombardment, A serious objection, however, to the employment of artillery in and to the barrage with a counter-barrage, the enemy can gain no this task is that guns sited in forward and exposed positions are decisive result—by his infantry at least. Failing these assets, the of little use for general purposes of defence. A second line of defender must give ground without allowing his line to be broken, defence is formed by the main force of the artillery, all battery remembering that every mile of advance increases the difficulties positions being chosen as far as possible so as to provide a field of of the attacker, till the impetus of the attack is exhausted. fre against tanks. In addition, some guns have to be disposed for French and German Tactical Doctrines.—The French docthe protection of headquarters and other important points in rear. trine is based to a great extent upon practical experience gained Counter-battery work is generally carried out by the defenders in the Western theatre during the World War. Special stress is with the object of weakening the hostile artillery before an assault laid in French military publications upon the great fire power of

478

ART

INSTITUTE

modern armament. Two statements in the “Instruction sur l'emploi tactique des grandes unités” will illustrate this important point. “La puissance du feu s’est affrmée écrasante. . . . L’attaque est le feu qui avance, la défense est le feu qui arréte.” In practice this teaching results in a belief that attacks will generally be very costly, if not abortive, unless they are assisted by very heavy artillery support. It is considered that infantry assaults on defensive positions which are at all strong should be made only under barrages on a scale approximating to that adopted in the World War. The German doctrine is based on the dominance of mobility, manoeuvre and surprise, and does not attach such importance to the power of fire as does the French. It is to be borne in mind, however, that the tactics of the German army must of necessity be influenced in this direction by the poverty in artillery and other mechanical arms which is at present imposed upon it by the Treaty of Versailles.

Savage Warfare.—While the general principles outlined in the foregoing sections also govern operations in undeveloped and uncivilized countries, considerable modifications have to be made in the methods of their application. The difficult nature of the country and the absence of roads often make it impossible to use wheeled transport. In mountainous or bush country it is therefore usual for the bulk of the artillery to consist of light guns and

howitzers which can be carried in pack. When field and medium

guns can be employed, however, they the distant bombardment of villages of ammunition supply are generally therefore to be used economically. large scale maps are seldom available

are often of special value for and towers. The difficulties great and the artillery has In savage warfare accurate and reliance has to be placed

chiefly upon fire observed either from the ground or the air. In bush country it is usually necessary to provide escorts for all artillery both on the line of march and in action.

Gas Warfare.—Though all civilized nations have condemned the employment of poison gas in warfare it is considered necessary to take measures for defence against it and to reserve the right to freedom of action in case an enemy refuses to give an undertaking not to use it. The chemical composition and effect of such gases is described under CHEMICAL WARFARE; we are here concerned with their tactical employment by artillery. Gas shell bombardment has, up to the present, been the most usual of the many forms of gas attack. Bombardments in the World War were of various natures according to the object in view. Short concentrated bombardments with non-persistent gas were employed with the object of inflicting casualties by surprise. In such bombardments it was necessary to fire at a rapid rate from a number of batteries simultaneously, in order to produce a strong concentration of gas so quickly that casualties would be caused before respirators could be put on. Bombardments with persistent gas, such as mustard gas, were generally used if it was desired to render certain areas of ground dangerous to occupy for considerable periods of time. A third type of bombardment took the form of harassing fire in short bursts at irregular intervals. This type of fre was employed to interfere with the hostile artillery or to interrupt traffic and generally to reduce the efficiency of troops by compelling them to wear their masks for long intervals. In all types of bombardment high explosive shells were frequently used in combination with gas shells to increase disorgan-

ization as well as to conceal the presence of the gas as long as

possible.

Gas shells require a special range table, as they are lighter than ordinary shell. They may be employed with any calibre of gun or howitzer and usually contain gas in liquid form. They are fired either entirely by map or after preliminary ranging with ordinary shell, as their impact cannot be observed. Hot sunshine causes

volatile gas to disperse quickly, and a strong wind blows it away;

gas is therefore most effective on a cloudy, still day. The shells are pitched to windward of the target so that the breeze will carry the gas in the required direction. In this respect guns are more efficient than gas cylinders, as they are not obliged to await the coming of a favourable wind. The number of gas shells required for

an effective bombardment varies according to the weather, the

OF CHICAGO calibre of the piece, and the nature of the gas used, but it isal.

of shellsAEA is small for their Weigh as the gas content ways large, f got . The difficulty of supplying the ammunition in adequate quantities

therefore, considerably restricts the use of gas shells in mobile warfare. (See AMMUNITION; BALLISTICS; EXPLOSIVES: Opp (J. N.K. NANCE; for naval guns see GUNNERY, NAVAL.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Among the general historical works may be men

tioned Napoleon III. and J. Favé, Etudes sur le passé et Pavenir i lArtillerie, 6 vols. (1846-71) ; Die Beziehung Friedrichs des Grossen zu seiner Artillerie (1865) ; F. Duncan, History of the Royal Artiller 2 vols. (1872, 1873, 3rd ed., 1879). A bibliography and criticism a

the artillery works of the 14th century will be found in M. Jahns

Geschichie der Kriegswissenschafi, in Geschichte der Wissenschaften in Deutschland (Munich, 1889-91). For the early 17th century: Ufano Diego, Tradado de la Artilleria (1613), is a standard treatise. See

also Casimir Siemienowicz, Artis Magnae Artilleriae (Amsterdam 1650, trans. by G. Shelvocke as The Great Art of Artillery, 1729):

M. Mieth, Artilleriae recentiorgspraxis j(Frankfurt and Leipzig. ’ 1684): : ; Dye ce 4); P. Surirey de Saint-Remy, Mémoires d'Artillerie, 2 vols. (1697, 3rd ed

La Haye, 1741). From 1740: For official regulations, etc., see J. J, E

Picard and L. Jonan, L’Artillerie française au XVIIIe siècle publ. de la section historique de Pétat-major de Varmée (1906), and for

general works on the tactical handling of the army, J. A. H. de Guibert, Essai général de tactique

(1773, trans. by Lieut. Douglas

1781), and Defénse du systême de guerre moderne (1779); G. J. D.

von Scharnhorst, Handbuch fir Officiere, 3 bde. (Hanover, 1804-14,

trans. by M. A. Fourcy as Traité sur l’Artillerie, 1840-43). For the

period 1860-1914 see Prince C. A. Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, Uber Artillerie, vol. iii. of Militérische Briefe (1885, trans. by N. L. Walford as Letters on Artillery, Woolwich, 1887, 3rd ed., 1889); J. Leurs,

L Artillerie de Campagne Prussienne de 1864-70 (Brussels and Leipzi 1874); E. Hennebert, Artillerie moderne (1889, 2nd ed., 1890). For quick-firing artillery: H. Langlois, L’Artillerie de campagne en liaison

avec les autres armes (1891—92, new ed., 2 vols., 1908); E. von Hoffbauer, Entwickelung des Massengebrauchs der Feldartillerie

(1900); H. A. Bethell, Modern Guns and Gunnery (Woolwich, r905, 3rd ed. with amendments, 1910-14), and Modern Artillery in the

Field (1911) ; F. Culmann, Tactzque d Artillerie; Le canon à tir rapide dans la bataille (1906, 2nd ed., 1914); P. Azan, Les premiéres mitrailleuse, 1342-1725, publ. de la section historique de ]’état-major

de armée (1907); H. Rohne, Taktik der Feldartillerie (1908, trans, by Capt. Marie as La Tactique de Vartillerie de campagne, 1908); Field Artillery Training, H, M. Stationery Office (1908-09, 4th ed, 1918); J. Challéat, Artillerie de campagne (1909, 2nd ed., 10915); H. W. L. Hime, The Origin of Artillery (1915); D. A. Macalister, Field Gunnery (1915, 4th ed., 1920); F. E. Gascovin, L’Evolution de Partillerie pendant la guerre (1920); Matériels Allemands et Autrichiens à grands puissance (publ. by Bercher-Lavant, Paris, 1921); L. Thouvenin, L’Artillerie nouvelle (1921); G. Bruchmiiller, Die deutsche Artillerie in den Durchbruchschlachten des Weltkrieges (1921) and Die Artillerie beim Angrif im Stellungskrieg (1926); I. R. Campana, Les Progrès de Vartillerie ror4-18 (1923); L. E. Babcock, Elements of Field Artillery (1925); Col. Duchène, Comment

naquit Partillerie de tranchée francaise (1926).

ART INSTITUTE

OF CHICAGO

was incorporated on

May 14, 1879, for the “founding and maintenance of a school of art and design, the formation and exhibition of objects of art, and the cultivation and extension of the arts of design by any appro-

priate means.” The building, of Italian Renaissance design, faces Adams street on the lake front, and houses more than 150 galleries, schoolrooms, studios and offices, the Ryerson art library, the Burn-

ham architectural library, Fullerton Memorial hall and the Kenneth Sawyer Goodman Memorial theatre. The paintings include examples from the Italian, Dutch, French, British and American schools, with notable single collections, as the Ryerson loan collection of primitive and modern paintings, the anonymous collec-

tion of Spanish masters, the Birch-Bartlett collection of paintings by post-impressionists and the Butler gift of paintings by George Inness. The print department contained in 1928 15,000 drawings, lithographs and rare etchings by old and modern masters and 4 library of graphic arts. The Japanese print collection is the second largest in the country, numbering 3,000. Other rooms are given over to sculpture, both originals and casts, collections oforiental and classical objects, historic furniture, ceramics, textiles, a children’s museum and a restaurant. The school of the Art Institutes the largest in the country, having an annual registration of 4,009, and giving instruction in all phases of art, including the theatre, The institute has over 17,500 members, and holds 60 or 70 Cul

rent exhibitions a year. Educational work is carried on through 4 series of lectures, which include co-operation with the city schools

ARTIODACTYLA

479

nd special courses given by the department of museum instruc- all cloven-hoofed (artiodactyl) mammals, and appears to be a tion, extension lectures and the Scammon Lecture Foundation. consequence of the tendency to make the two enlarged central The yearly attendance averages 1,000,000. The museum is open toes do all the work of the foot. The outer bone of the shin every day in the year on payment of a small fee, except on (fibula) is very reduced, so that nearly all the animal's weight Wednesdays, Saturdays, Sundays and holidays, when admission is is transmitted through the tibia to the astragalus; half the weight then passes through the cuboid to the outer of the central toes, free. sais : 4n amended charter (1925) covers exhibitions, libraries, thea- half through the mavicular to the inner toe by way of the ectocuneiform. Stresses are transmitted tres, lectures and lecture halls, workshops, lunchrooms, entertainments, the granting of diplomas, the receiving and administration from the ground upwards by the i same path. In the more advanced of trust property.

ARTIODACTYLA.

a

To some of our domestic animals the

“cloven-hoofed” is commonly applied. These are the cow, the sheep, the goat and the pig. Deer are also “cloven-hoofed” animals, as are giraffes, camels, antelopes and certain other animals less well-known to us. Scientifically speaking, however,

“cloven-hoofed” is not a good term; it suggests that these animals

have, like a horse, a single hoof, and that this hoof is cleft down the middle. If the foot and its skeleton are examined more carefully it will be seen that each half of the so-called “cloven hoof” is really a little hoof in itself, flattened on the side which faces its

fallow and belonging to a different toe. These two toes are equal in size and carry the weight of the animal, which always stands, as it were, on tip-toe, with ankle and wrist raised high off the ground, the terminal hoof-clad joint of the toe alone resting on the latter. Some “cloven-hoofed” animals have only these two toes, but some, such as the pig, have another pair of similar toes outside the central pair, while the hippopotamus has four toes of almost equal breadth, all but one of the ancestral five. In the pig each of the small lateral toes has its full complement of toe bones and a perfect little hoof at the end, but they are much shorter than the central toes and so only come into use when the animal is walking on soft swampy ground—then they help to prevent it from sinking in too far. In the cow and sheep vestiges only of these lateral toes are left, the so-called “dew claws”; in a giraffe they have quite disappeared. Intermediate conditions are found in a peccary, in a chevrotain, and

CALCANEUN

ASTRAGALUS

rangement of the bones in a pig’s hind foot. Of seven small ankle ae

ee 3

Ak Hok CK

the deer and sheep, the underlying plan of the hind foot remains the same, but the ankle is strengthened by fusion of navicular and cuboid, and the central metatarsals are joined to form a “cannon-bone” whose upper end is broadened out to support the whole tarsus. Fossilized astragali of the double-pulley shape have been found in strata of Lower Eocene age associated with teeth of the “tritubercular” pattern common to the primitive members of nearly all mammalian orders. The artiodactyl type of foot symmetry is therefore clearly of very ancient origin. It FIG. 2.—-HIND FOOT OF A PIG SHOWING THE TWO CENTRAL TOES may well have been evolved inWHICH MAKE IT A MEMBER OF THE dependently in more than one ARTIODACTYLA GROUP group of primitive mammals, but so far no astragalus has been found intermediate in shape between the double pulley and the type with a rounded lower end which appears to have been that of the original mammalian stock. Classification~-The ‘“cloven-hoofed” mammals were first grouped together as an independent order by Richard Owen in 1847, mainly on account of the structure of their feet. He termed

them Artiodactyla (Gr. prios, even, and daxrudos, a finger or toe) to distinguish them from those other hoofed mammals, the horses, tapirs and rhinoceroses (PERISSODACTYLA, g.v.) in which a single central toe does the main work of each foot, the other

in deer (see fig. 1). All these forms agree, however, in having the axis of symmetry of the foot passing between the third and fourth toes of the ancestral five, these two forming an equal and symmetrical pair on either side of it. The hind foot fundamentally resembles the forefoot in construction, but the reduction of the lateral toes in the former has generally gone further, since the hind foot is of greater importance in propelling a running animal, while the forefoot is mainly concerned with supporting its weight. Fig. 2 shows the ar-

cloven-hoofed mammals, such as

NAVICULO-CUBOID

toes being smaller and grouped symmetrically on either side of this central one, or reduced to mere vestiges. A conservative classification of the living Artiodactyla is as follows:

I.

KECTOCUNEIFORM

Surna (pig-like animals). 1. Suidae—pigs and peccaries. 2. Hippopotamidae—hippopotami. II. RUMINANTIA (ruminant-like animals). 1. Tylopoda—camels. 2. 3.

CANNON-BONE METATARSALS fil & IV)

FIG. 1.—HIND Instead

of four

Artiodactyla

FOOT OF A DEER toes

like

accustomed

the

pig,

to running

long distances have only two, though S the others remain as useless vestiges

joint,” with the long bones of the shin, while the lower ones support a row of four metatarsals, one to each toe. The metatarsals in their turn each support three phalanges, the lowest of which are

flattened and pointed and covered by the horny hoofs. The inner of the two bones at the ankle joint, the astragalus, is of a very characteristic shape, since it not only has a pulley-shaped surface for articulation with the shin bone or tibia, as in all mammals, butalso a similarly shaped surface at the lower end, almost equally divided between the two small ¢arsal bones beyond it, the navicular and cuboid, An astragalus of this peculiar shape is found in nearly

Tragulina—chevrotains. Pecora (or true ruminants )—deer, giraffes, antelopes, goats, sheep, oxen, etc.

The Ruminantia are a well defined group united by characters of the skull, dentition and stomach, as well as by the structure of their feet. The Suina, on the other hand, except for their foot structure, have almost no important characters in common with the Ruminantia, nor are the Suidae very closely related to the Hippopotamidae. Indeed, before Owen established the order Artiodactyla the Suima were kept apart from the Ruminantia, which constituted an order in themselves. The Suzna shared Cuvier’s old order Pachydermata (‘“thick-skinned” animals) with the rhinoceroses, tapirs and elephants, on no better grounds than that all were thick-skinned, massively built, hoofed mammals, with a number of toes to each foot and of an omnivorous diet. Owen was not a believer in evolution, at any rate in the Darwinian sense, but his rearrangement of the Pachydermata fitted in well with the new way in which people began to look at the problems of classification when once the idea of evolution had taken root in their minds. That one animal had four toes and another only two now seemed no longer a sound reason for putting them in different orders, for

ARTIODACTYLA

480

it was realised that every two-toed animal must once have passed through a four-toed stage and it appeared of much greater importance that in one group of animals there was a tendency to make one central toe do all the work of the foot, while in another group the tendency was to utilize two equally developed central toes. From 1850 onwards discoveries of fossil mammals became more and more numerous. Among these were many new types of Artiodactyla which would not fit into the old subdivisions of that order, some being intermediate while others were entirely novel. The parts of fossil animals most commonly preserved in good condi(PRIMITIVE Pic) tion are the teeth, owing to their hard protective coat of enamel, and so it came about that the many new attempts to subdivide the order were largely based on characters of the teeth alone, especially of the molar teeth. One such classification (see Schlosser in Zittel’s “Grundziige’’) is based on the shape of the cusps of the molar teeth, whether they be all crescentic (selenodont) as in the ruminants,

types

(bunoselenodont)

as

lichen Sdugethiere).

pletely divided into three compartments by folds of which there

are only vestiges in a pig. Peccaries usually associate in very large herds, pigs in smaller groups termed “sounders.” : The first true pigs are known as fossils in the Oligocene of

Europe, the first true peccaries contemporaneous with them in both Europe and North America. At that period they were so alike that it is only just possible to recognize in each the characters that so clearly separate their descendants to-day. In the later Tertiaries of Europe we find only one form that possibly is allied to the peccaries, whereas there is a rich variety of pigs, of all sizes up to

veritable giants, whose true relationships are very difficult to trace

Of living Suinae there are only five genera: Sus, represented by a

number of ill-defined species widely spread over Europe, northem Africa, Asia and the East Indies; Porcula, a pigmy form in the forests at the foot of the Eastern Himalayas; Potamochoerus, the torial Africa; and Babirussa of the Celebes Islands (see Swe Rıver-Hoc, Wart-Hoc, BaBIRUSsSA).

From the later Tertiaries of

North America there are so far known only one or two rather cu. rious genera of peccaries which do not form good intermediate links between the modern genera and the ancestral peccaries of the Oligocene. To-day there are no peccaries in North America, but two genera, each represented by a number of ill-defined species roam in the forests of Central and South America (see PEccary).

of the two

in

some extinct animals (see fig. 3). Another classification, that of Dr. H. G. Stehlin, is based on the number and position of the molar cusps (see Abel’s Die vorzeit-

the lateral toes are much reduced and the metatarsals partialy fused into a “cannon-bone.” The stomach of a peccary is a

African river hog, hardly more than another species of Sus; Phic. ochoerus, Africa wart-hog; Hylochoerus, in the forests of Equa-

all conical (bunodont) as in the pigs, or a mixture

squarer and simpler in pattern than those of pigs, while in the fert

BUNOSELENODONT {ANTHRACOTHERE)

FIG. 3.—GRINDING TEETH OF ARTI-

Each of these classifications ODACTYL ANIMALS shape and pattern of the grinding produces an entirely different The teeth vary according to the animal’s grouping of the Artiodactyla, diet. Some extinct Artiodactyla had indicating that the use of molar teeth of intermediate pattern between characters alone is not sufficient those of the pigs and ruminants to express the inter-relationships of living and extinct animals. The grouping into Suina and Ruminantia given in the present article follows the old division of the living families. In allotting the extinct families to one or the other group attention has been paid to the structure of the skull as well as to the characters of the dentition. The name Ruminantia, suggesting a capacity to

ruminate (“chew the cud”), suffers from the defect that we know

II. Hippopotamidae-—Now found only in Africa, this family

during the later Tertiary had a far wider range to the north. Of its early evolution we know nothing; the hippopotami of the Indian

and European Pliocene were not very different from the modem species. In marked contrast to the pigs, the hippopotamus has a very broad muzzle in which the enlarged, rootless incisor teeth and canines form deadly lacerating weapons. The crowns of its cheek teeth have a distinctive trefoil pattern when partially worn. To help it in swimming, and to support its clumsy form on the soft

ground along the borders of the rivers in which it spends much of its time, four broad toes are retained in each foot. Choeropsis, the pigmy hippopotamus of Liberia, lacks the trefoil pattern on the molar teeth and is allied to a small fossil hippopotamus from the pleistocene of Cyprus.

III. Cebochoeridae——These small animals from the Middle and Upper Eocene of Europe have been regarded as primitive Suidae because their bunodont molar teeth would make so good

nothing about the digestive processes of the extinct forms. SUINA.—The relationship of the pigs and peccaries to the hippopotamus is very remote and no known fossil forms bridge the gulf. The two families appear to be all that has survived of a once much larger assemblage. We know practically nothing of the origin of the group, but find it richly represented in beds of Upper Eocene and Oligocene age by several not very closely related families, each of which had evidently already passed through a long period of evolution along its own particular lines. Most Suina have well developed incisor teeth, powerful canine tusks, a strong mandzble articulating far back on the skull, and no mastoid exposure of the ear bone.

I. Suidae.—The pigs of the Old World (Suinae) and the peccaries of the New World (Tayassuinae, or an older name, Dicotylinae) resemble one another in general appearance. Both have

fleshy discs on the end of their snouts which they use for rooting in the ground. Peccaries are smaller than most species of pig, have shorter snouts and short downwardly directed tusks in the upper jaw, forming efficient biting organs; the tips of their lower

tusks project outwards from the mouth and can be used for ripping an enemy with a quick, upward jerk of the snout. In a pig the upper tusks as well as the lower curl outwards from the mouth; both are much longer than in a peccary and very effective ripping organs. Associated with this difference in the upper tusks are a whole series of small differences in the superficially very similar skulls. Further, the grinding teeth of peccaries are smaller,

FIG. 4.—THE EXTINCT ARTIODACTYL ANOPLOTHERIUM AS RECONSTRUCTED BY CUVIER WHO BELIEVED THAT IT RESEMBLED AN OTTER

an ancestral stage in the evolution of those of a pig. The structure of their skull, however, suggests a nearer relationship to the hippopotamus or anthracotheres. IV. Anthracotheriidae-—A very widespread and important family in the early Tertiary, branching out into a number of differ-

ent lines of evolution adapted (if one can judge by their dentition) to very different kinds of diet. Some became gigantic and retained heavy, crushing, bunodont cheek teeth; others remained of a lighter build but developed a long slender snout and selenodont cheek teeth; apparently chewing their food with a sideways move ment like a ruminant. Some retained five toes in the fore foot,

four in the hind foot; in others the number was reduced.

ARTIODACTYLA

Ms

.

at

Ne

$

AŽ

3

—

gi

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1842 between Great Britain and the United States of America by Lord Ashburton (see ASHBURTON, ALEXANDER BARING) and Daniel Webster. In particular it decided the boundary dispute between Maine and Canada; and the M’Leod case which had brought the two countries to the verge of war. For the questions at issue and the terms of the treaty see WEBSTER, DANIEL.

ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH,

urban district, Leicestershire,

England; on the river Mease, 21m. N.W. of Leicester and 118m. from London by the London Midland and Scottish railway. Population (1931) 5,093. At the time of the Domesday survey Ashby (Essebi) formed part of the estates of Hugh de Grentmaisnel, passing later by female descent to the family of la Zouch, whence it derived the adjunct to its name. In 1219 Roger la Zouch obtained a grant of a weekly market and a two days fair at the feast of St. Helen. The manor was granted in 1461 to Lord Hastings, who obtained royal licence to empark 3,000 acres and to build and fortify a castle. At this castle Mary queen of

Scots was

detained in 1569.

During the Civil War

Colonel

Henry Hastings fortified and held it for the king, and it was visited by Charles in 1645. At the close of the war it was dis-

mantled by order of parliament.

It plays a great part in Sir

Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe. In the 18th century Ashby was one of the best markets for horses, and had prosperous factories for woollen and cotton stockings and for hats. The church of St. Helen, a fine Perpendicular building, contains an old finger-pillory. The Ivanhoe baths, erected in 1826, are frequented for their

saline waters.

The springs are at Moira, three miles west.

To

the south of the town are the remains of Ashby Castle. There are extensive coal-mines in the neighbouring districts; e.g., at Moira, whence the Ashby-de-la-Zouch canal runs south to the Coventry canal.

ASHDOD,

an ancient village in Palestine, pop. c. 4,500,

about 3m. inland from the Mediterranean and about equidistant (18m.) from Gaza and Jaffa. It is now on the railway. It stands close to a large hillock of red sand (137ft.), probably the Mt. Azotus on which Judas Maccabaeus fell (I. Macc. ix., 15f.); this may well have been the acropolis of the ancient city. Behind it extending to the shore cliffs lie dunes of sand under which in all probability are buried the remains of the Ashdod of old. At the southern entrance to the village are the ruins of a mediaeval khan, and amongst the houses and mosques are to be found fragments of ancient columns and walls. History.—Ashdod was the most important of the Philistine Confederation of five towns with a commanding position on the military road between Syria and Egypt and a centre of Dagon worship. In Joshua xv. it is assigned to Judah, but still remained the refuge of the ’Anakim (Josh. xi. 22). It does not appear that Israel ever subdued the city in spite of II. Chr. xxvi. 6. In 711 B.C., Ashdod was besieged by Sargon’s army commander (or Tartan) and captured (Is. xx. 1), the reason being that the city had revolted, set up a ruler of its own choosing in place of the Assyrian nominee, and had allied itself with Philistia, Judah, Edom, Moab and the Pharaoh of Egypt against Assyria. During Assurbanipal’s reign (668-625 B.c.) it was beleaguered for 29 years by Psammetichus (Herod. ii. 157). Its inhabitants showed themselves hostile to the repair of the walls of Jerusalem at the time of the return (Neh. iv. 7), and Nehemiah’s curse on the Jews who had married women of Ashdod and whose children could only speak a mixture of the two languages indicates the conditions prevailing in the city at that time (Neh. xiii. 23ff.). Ashdod was captured and cleared of idols by Judas Maccabaeus (c. 163 B.c.), and later (148) taken by Jonathan, who burned the temple of Dagon. After the Jewish wars it was restored by Gabinius and enfranchised by Pompey. From the 4th to the 6th centuries it was the seat of a bishopric. With the Muslim conquest it gradually sank into insignificance until by crusading times the once mighty city had been transformed into a mean and squalid village.

~

e.

in style and at times his poetic quality is scarcely dig.

A~SHE-HO, a town of Manchuria, China, 125 m. y E of

Kirin, and 30 m. S. of the Sungari. It was governed bya mandarin of the second class, but is now under the administration of the local government. Pop. about 75,000.

“ASHER BEN YEHIEL

(known as Rosk), Jewish Tabby

and codifier, was born in the Rhine district ¢. 12 50, and died in Toledo 1327. Endangered by the persecutions inflicted on the German Jews in the 13th century, ’Asher fled to Spain, where

he was made rabbi of Toledo. A disciple of Meir of Rothenb ‘Asher’s sole interest was in the Talmud. He was a manurgoj

austere piety, profound and narrow. He was a determined ponent of the study of philosophy, and thus was antipathetic

to the Spanish spirit. Compiled between 1307 and 1314, ‘Asher's

Compendium is printed in most editions of the Talmud, and it

differed from previous compendia in greater simplicity and in the deference shown to German authorities. ’Asher’s son Jacob who died at Toledo before 1340, was the author of the four Turim, a very profound and popular codification of rabbinica l

law. This work was the standard code until Joseph Qaro (Kar) directly based on it his widely accepted code of Jewish law, the

Shuthan ‘Arukh.

ASHER, atribe of Israel, called after the son of Jacob and Zilpah, Leah’s maid (Gen. xxx. 12 seg.). The district held by this tribe bordered upon Naphtali, and lay to the north of Issachar and Zebulun, and to the south of Dan. Asher is blamed for taking no part in the fight against Sisera (Judges v. 17), and although it shares with Zebulun and Naphtali in Gideon’s defeat of the Midianites (Judges vi. 35, vii. 23), the incorporation of the name is probably due to a late redactor. It lay in the closest proximity to Phoenicians and Aramaeans, and contained a strong Canaanite element. In the Blessing of Moses it is bidden to defend itself/— evidently against invasion (Deut. xxxiii. 25).

Even in the time of Seti I. and Rameses II. (latter half of 14th

century B.C.) the district to the west of Galilee appears to have been known to the Egyptians as Aser(u), so that it is possible to infer either (e) that Asher was an Israelite tribe which, if it ever went down into Egypt, separated itself from its brethren in Egypt and migrated north; or (b) it was a district which, if never closely bound to Israel, was at least regarded as part of the national kingdom, and treated as Israelite by the genealogical device of making it a “son” of Jacob.

ASHEVILLE, a city of North Carolina, U.S.A., the county seat of Buncombe county; in the southern Appalachian highlands, about 210m. W. of Raleigh, at the junction of the French Broad

and Swannanoa rivers; on a plateau 2,300ft. above sea-levd, which extends from the Blue Ridge on the east to the Greg Smoky mountains on the west. Asheville is served by the South ern railway system, and is on Federal highways 109, 25, 70, 74 aud 176. The climate is dry and equable, with an average annul snowfall of only ro0.3in. and there is magnificent mountain scenery in every direction. The city has a land area of 10.6 sq. miles, The resident population was 28,504 in 1920, of whom 7,145 weit Negroes; and was 50,193 in 1930. Asheville has been a health and all-the-year-round pleasure r-

sort ever since the first wooden hotel was erected about 1830. It hotels now have accommodation for 3,000 guests; there are many boarding-houses and apartments for visitors, and many inns in th surrounding mountains. Recreation facilities include an 18-hok municipal golf-course, planned by Donald Ross, and ‘four belonging to private clubs; a municipal recreation park with a 56 acre lake; municipal swimming-pools and tennis-courts; a city aud torium; a fine baseball park, and a baseball team that Is owned and managed by the city; and a financially successful summe season of grand opera. Within a short drive are the

Cherokee, Nantahala and Unaka national forest preserves; Mi Mitchell (6,711ft.), the highest peak east of the Rockies;

ASHFIELD—ASH

HANDLING

599

the Great Smoky Mountain national park, which eventually will | Rochester and for many local churches. Ashford has agricultural include 700,0008C. of primeval wilderness. There are nearly 100 implemen t works and breweries; and the large locomotive and „mmer camps for boys and girls in the region, and several carriage works of the Southern railway (South-Eastern and religious assemblies have their permanent headquarters in the Chatham section) are here.

vicinity. Sanatoria for the treatment of tuberculosis were estabshed there early, and some of them have a national reputation.

Near the outskirts of the city lies Biltmore, the home of the

late George W. Vanderbilt. The grounds were laid out by Frederick Law Olmsted, and the mansion (375 by rsoft.) was de-

signed after the Chateau de Blois. Originally the estate included

125.000 ac. but part of it was deeded to the Federal Government as the nucleus of the Pisgah national ‘forest, and the Village of

Biltmore has been incorporated as a suburb of Asheville. Since the World War Asheville has made marked industrial

and civic progress. Between 1919 and 10927 the volume of busipess, as indicated by bank debits to individual accounts, was multiplied by three, the assessed valuation of property by four; post

office receipts doubled; and the building permits in the eight years represented a value of over $30,000,000, including a new city

On the south-east outskirts of Ashford is the large village of Willesborough, with a population of 4,748.

ASH HANDLING.

The boilers required for generation of

power in a large electric or industrial plant often burn thousands of tons of coal a day: and since perhaps 10 to 15% of the average coal is incombustible ash, hundreds of tons must be removed each day. The handling of such volumes of waste material deServes careful consideration, as improper methods or apparatus may double or treble the cost. Thus, good ash handling methods and facilities may represent 4 to 1% of the total cost of power

generation, whereas systems improperly applied may raise the cost to I or 14%. In designing an ash-handling system certain precautions should be taken. In the first place all material coming in contact with

the ashes should be of cast iron or other

e-resisting subball and court-house and a beautiful new building for the Pack stances, since most ashes are alkaline and corrosiv highly Memorial library. The value of products manufactured within furthermore important that all ashes should corrosive. It is be thoroughly the city limits increased from $3,149,000 in 1914 to $10,111,216 in quenched before handling, otherwise there is danger from carbon

1927, when the leading industries were wood-working and furniture plants; textile mills; foundries, machine shops and railway repair shops; and a large tannery. Power is available from hydro-

electric plants on the French Broad river, and others are under construction (1927). A city plan was adopted in 19253 a success-

ful method of smoke abatement is in operation; and a water sys-

tem is under construction, which will be adequate for a population af 300,000. Asheville was founded by John Burton, who in 1704 laid out a town at first called Morristown or Buncombe Court House. It was incorporated as Asheville in 1 797; chartered as a city in 1835; and adopted a commission form of government in 1905. It was mmed after Samuel Ashe (1725-1813), chief justice of North Carolina (1777-96), and John Ashe (1720-81), a North Carolina

soldier.

ASHFIELD, ALBERT HENRY STAN LEY, ist Baron

(:874), British business man, was born at Derby Nov. 8 1874. He spent his early years in the United States, and was edutated at American technical schools and colleges. He entered the service of the Detroit City Street Railways and had a successful business career, becoming general manager of the company and subsequently of the Public Service Corporation of New Jersey. In 1907 he returned to England, and became general manage r of the Metropolitan District Railway and soon after chairman and managing director of the traffic combine which included the London Underground Electric Railway companies and the London General Omnibus Company. In 1914 he was knighted. On the formation of Lloyd George’s Government in 1916 Sir Albert Stanley was elected to Parliament asa Coalition Unionist for Ashton-under-Lyne, being included in the Cabinet as president of the board of trade. He was a notable mstance of a minister selected as a “business man” and not for any of the usual political considerations. He resigned from his office in y 1919, and in Jan. 1920 was raised to the peerage .

ASHFORD, urban district, Kent, England, 56 S.E. of london by the Southern railway. Population (1931) m.15,239. It les on a slight hill in the plains under the Downs near the con-

lence of the upper branches of the River Stour, and is a conSderable road and rail centre. Ashford (Esseles ford, Asshatis-

forde, Essheford) was held at the time of Domesday by Hugh de Montfort. A Saturday market and an annual fair were granted lothe lord of the manor in the 13th century, and further

lars were granted by Edward III. and Edward IV. The annual fertility a the pasture land in Romney marsh to the south caused the tattle trade to increase from the latter half of the 28th century,

and a stock market was established in 1784.

The finePerpendicular church (St. Mary’s) has a lofty tower At Bethersden, between Ashad and Tenterden, marble quarries were formerly worked

= many Interesting monuments.

clensively, supplying stone for the cathedrals of Canterbury and

monoxide poisoning and burns. In general two standardized methods of ash handling are now used in most large boiler houses: the hydraulic system and the purely mechanical system. Hydraulic Ash Handling.—In this method ashes are stored in hoppers beneath the furnace for a period of eight to 24 hours, depending upon conditions, Beneath these hoppers a conduit capable of carrying water for removal of the ashes to a centrall y located sump, is installed horizontally and the water is introduced from pressure mains. When the ash hoppers are filled, they are discharged into the conduit at a rate well below the carrying capacity of the flowing water. The ashes may be taken from the ash sump by centrifugal pumps, generally made of manganese steel, in which case (1) the ashes and water may be discharged to low points within half a mile of the boiler house, where the ashes are deposited and the water leaches into the ground; (2) the ashes and water may be pumped into an overhead storage bin, the water being run off the top and returned to the sump: the ashes remaining as a residue, which is dumped into cars. Alternatively, the ashes may be taken directly from the sump by means of a grab bucket or other elevating machinery, and loaded into an overhead storage bin or directly into railroad cars or motor trucks. The hydraulic system of ash removal is applicable where coal is burned as powder. In such cases the ashes are removed either as a molten slag (which is chilled and disintegrated by the stream of water into which it falls) or as a dry powder. In the latter case it is essential to carry this material in an enclosed system, otherwise the ash dust permeates the entire boiler house with results deleterious to moving machinery. Hydraulic systems are also applicable to the continuous discharge type of mechanical stokers such as chain grate stokers or underfeed stokers equipped with mechanical grinders. The water required for a hydraulic ash removal system will vary from 3 to 6lb. of water per ton of ash moved, if the water is allowed to discharge to waste from the sump. If re-circulated, about one-tenth of a pound of water per pound of ash is required for make-up to prevent concentration. The advantages of the hydraulic ash removal systems can be stated as follows: (1) no labour is required other than the opening and closing of the valves controlling the flow of ash and the flow of water; (2) the ashes are handled in a totally enclosed system,—they are always under water and thus no dirt, dust or vapour can escape; (3) no moving machinery in the system comes in contact with the ashes; (4) the cost of running is low, varying from x to 3kw. hours per ton of ash moved; (s) the height of the power house building is generally 2 to roft. less since no cars run beneath the ash hoppers: the saving in building often more than pays the total cost of the ash handling system; (6) where the ashes can be pumped to low outlying property, there is no rehandhing of the material.

510

7-ASHI-—-ASHLAND

Mechanical Ash Handling.—This system is also in common ' use in large boiler houses. The ashes in the hoppers beneath the furnace are dropped into cars, the control generally being maintained by horizontal piston-operated gates. In large plants where the final disposal of ashes is to be made by railroad cars, these are often run directly beneath the ash hoppers. This entails large building expense, as the entire boiler room must be raised sufficiently to allow the railroad cars to run beneath it; however, it obviates the necessity of re-handling the ashes. In smaller plants where this expense is not warranted, industrial cars of small height may be run beneath the ash hoppers. In this case a skip hoist is installed at the end of the building, the industrial cars are dumped into the skip hoist bucket and the ashes lifted into a storage bin, which latter discharges directly into railroad cars or wagons. This system is advantageous where underfeed stokers are used and the ashes are intermittently discharged. Such practice generally results In comparatively large clinker formations, which can best be handled in cars or by skip bucket. There are other systems of ash handling generally applied in special cases and usually in the smaller boiler houses or in densely populated sections of cities, such as in hotels and in office buildings. Steam jets, bucket conveyors and the like are then employed. (See MECHANICAL HANDLING.) These systems, however, usually entail a high maintenance and operating expense and are generally used where it is impossible or impracticable to apply either of the two systems outlined above. (F. B. A.)

"ASHI (352-427), Jewish ’amora, the first editor of the Talmud, was born at Babylon. He was head of the Sura academy, and there began the Babylonian Talmud, spending 30 years of his life at it. He left the work incomplete, and it was finished by

bis disciple Rabina just before A.D. 500. (See TALMUD.) ASHINGTON, urban district, Northumberland, England, 4 m. E. of Morpeth, on the Newbiggin branch of the L.N.E. railway. Population (1931) 29,418. The district, especially along the river Wansbeck, is not without beauty, but there are numerous collieries, mostly to the north-east of the town, from the existence of which springs the modern growth of Ashington. The population is almost entirely composed of miners, though some iron workers are also found. At Bothal on the river (from which parish that of Ashington was formed) is the castle belonging to the Bertram family in the reign of Edward III. The church of St. Andrew here has interesting details from Early English to Perpendicular date, and in the neighbouring woods is a ruined chapel of St. Mary.

ASHKHABAD, formerly Pottoratsx. (1) A district in the Turkmenistan S.S.R. Area 195,000sq.km. Pop. (1926) 237,570. (2) A town, the centre of the district, in 38°N. and 58’ 20°E. Pop. (1926) 54,107. It is situated in the fertile Akkal oasis, watered by hill streams from the Kopet Dagh, which lose themselves in the desert to the north. It is a Russian town dating from 1883 and is well laid out with broad, tree-lined streets, and has cotton, tanning, brick and mineral water factories and is on the Trans-Caspian Railway. An electric power station is under construction. Near it are the sanatoria of Firuza (2,800ft.) and Khay-

rabad (5,800ft.).

Twenty miles E.S.E. is Anau (q.v.), a site

inhabited possibly 3900 B.c. with remains of geometrical pottery. See R. Pumpelly, Explorations in Turkestan (1908).

ASHLAND,

a city of Boyd county, Ky., U.S.A., on the

Ohio river, 115m. S.E. of Cincinnati, and a few miles above the mouth of the Big Sandy, where Ohio, Kentucky, and West

Virginia meet. It is on the Midland trail, is served by the Chesapeake and Ohio railway and (through the station of Coal Grove, across the river) by the Norfolk and Western. A government system of locks and dams gives a 9-ft. stage of water on the Ohio and Big Sandy the year round, and daily packets run from Pittsburgh to Cincinnati. The population in 1920 was 14,720, after annexations of territory, and in 1930, after further annexations of territory, was 29,074 by the Federal census. There are very few negroes, considering the locality (about 3%). The city lies on a plain along the river, rising to hills on the south, There are beautifully shaded residence streets, and in the heart of the city is a 50-acre park, of blue grass and virgin forest. The assessed valuation of property in 1927 was $22,199,-

992 and building permits issued in 1926 represented Values of $1,633,884. Ashland is an important shipping and manufact ur;

town.

The surrounding country is rich in coal, iron, fire cla

sandstone,

asphalt,

limestone,

shales,

oil, gas, and hardwood

timber. The city has a shipyard and drydock ; extensiv e repair shops; rolling mills, by-product coke ovens, tannerie s ini brick works, steel plants, and lumber mills. The output of k 23 manufacturing establishments within the city in 1927 Was valued at $9,276,125. There are 30 wholesale houses ana 2

retail stores. The aggregate annual payroll for all Occupations jg

estimated at $28,000,000. Ashland was settled in 1854 and incorporated as a city in 1870,

ASHLAND, city of Ohio, U.S.A., the county seat ofAshland

county; 55m. south-west of Cleveland, on the Erie Railroad and

an electric railway running from Cleveland to Bucyrus, The population increased from 4,087 in 1900 to 6,795 in IQIO, and to

9,249 in 1920, 97% being native-born white, and was LI,141 jy 1930 by the Federal census. The city has varied manufactures, in. cluding electros, poultry foods, medicines, pumps, hay carriers

bed springs, automobile jacks, toys, furnaces, raincoats, concrete vaults, electric dish washers and aluminum ware. Ashland Coll a co-educational institution established by the Brethren Church in 1878, is here.

ASHLAND, a city of Oregon, U.S.A., on Bear creek, in the southern part of the State. It is on Federal highways 97 and 99,

and is served by the Southern Pacific railway. The population Was 4,283 in 1920, and was 4,544 in 1930 by the Federal census, It lies in a valley 1,900 ft. above sea-level, with peaks of the Siskiyou mountains on every side, and has a number of minenl springs, most of which are owned by the city. Fruit is grown in

the region, and there are gold mines (both placer and quartz)

near by. Ashland is the seat of the Southern Oregon norm school (established 1925). The city was founded about 1852

and was incorporated in 1874.

ASHLAND, a borough of Schuylkill county, Pa, USA,

in the anthracite region, about 40 m. S.W. of Wilkesbarre,

It

is served by the Lehigh Valley and the Reading railways, The population in 1930 was 7,164. The borough is built on the slope

of Locust mountain, about 885 ft. above sea-level.

Coal-mining

is the principal occupation, but there are foundries and machine and car shops. The Miners’ State hospital is here. Ashland was laid out In 1847 and incorporated in 1857.

ASHLAND, a town of Hanover Co., Virginia, U.S.A, ona high plateau 15m. N. of Richmond; on the Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac railroad, and connected with Rich mond by an electric line. The population in 1930 was 1,297. Ashland is the seat of Randolph-Macon college, the oldest member of the Randolph-Macon system of colleges and academics, established under the auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church South to provide secondary and collegiate instruction for both sexes in separate institutions, and owned by one chartered, selfperpetuating board of trustees. The college in Ashland is for men, and has an annual enrolment of about 250. It was chartered in 1830, and opened near the village of Boydton, in Mecklenberg county, in 1832, removing to Ashland in 1868. About 7m. and 15m. respectively from Ashland are the birthplaces of Henry Clay and of Patrick Henry. The town was settled in 1845 and incor porated in 1856. It is at the intersection of the Jefferson Davis and the Thomas Jefferson highways.

ASHLAND,

a city in the northern part of Wisconsin,

U.S.A., on the Chequamegon bay, an arm of Lake Superior; at an altitude of 660 ft., about 60 m. E. by S. of Duluth and Su perior; county seat of Ashland county. It is on Federal high way 2, and is served by the Soo, the Chicago and North Westem, and the Northern Pacific railways, and by lake steamers. The high points in the city command a view of the picturesque

Apostle islands, outside the bay, which were formerly a render vous of the Ojibway Indians. The population of the city in 19%

was 11,334; in 1930 it was 10,622.

eae

The harbour has a controlling depth of 20 ft., and a navigation

season from April 13 to Dec. 7. In 1927 the commerce of the port amounted to 7,917,676 tons of vessel traffic, valued #

ASHLAR—ASHUR

SII

$14,274,326, and 4,200 tons of rafted logs. The bulk of the |“sons of Hashim,” the Prophet's uncle. In India the term is said to include

yessel traffic consisted of shipments of 7,088,863 tons of iron-ore

Muslims of foreign descent from higher Hindu castes

irom the Gogebic range, and receipts of 668,600 tons of coal.

as opposed to the Ajlaf or commonalty and Arzal (almos t= “outcasts”). In Persia, too, the term is vaguely used. In Arabia,

the output of the 23 manufacturing establishments was valued

the Prophet through Hassan, Ali’s elder son.

1907) is established here. Ashland was settled about 1854, Incorporated as a village in 1963, and chartered as a city in 1887.

Lake Erie, at the mouth of the Ashtabula river, 55m. N.E. of

The shipping has more than doubled in tonnage since 1900, but the manufactures and the population have declined. In 1927

at $1.490,370.

Northland

college

(Congregational:

chartered

ASHLAR, also written ASHLER, ASHELERE, in archi-

tecture, squared stone used for facing walls; also as an adjective,

of a wall built of squared stones. Sometimes the word is used

of any stone wall facing which is worked or tooled, whether sared or not, but such work is usually known as “rough” or

“mcoursed” ashlar. An ashlar piece in English carpentry is a vertical timber inserted between the rafters and the wall plate.

(See CARPENTRY.) ASHLEY, SIR WILLIAM JAMES (1860-1927), English

economist, was born in London on Feb. 25 1860, and educated at St. Olave’s grammar school and Balliol College, Oxford. He was successively professor of political economy and constitutional

history in Toronto University (1888), professor of economic history at Harvard University (1892), professor of commerce and finance in Birmingham University (1901) and dean of the faculty of commerce there (1902). Prof. Ashley made most important contributions to the history of English industry and the

Burton limits Sharif (a singular of Ashraf) to descendants of

ASHTABULA, a city of Ashtabula county, O., U.S.A., on

Cleveland. It is on the Yellowstone trail, and is served by the New York Central, the Nickel Plate and the Pennsylvania railways. The population was 22,082 in 1920, and was 23.301 in 1930. The city is 680ft. above sea-level, and is built on the high bank of the river. Ashtabula harbour, 2m. from the city but within the corporate limits, has a controlling depth of 2oft., and a navigation season lasting from April 20 to Dec. 5. Its aggregate commerce in 1927 amounted to 11,004,218 tons, valued at $57,474,741. Large quantities of iron ore (7,869,457 tons in 1927) are received from the north-west and sent on by rail to Youngstown, Pittsburgh, and other iron manufacturing centres. Large quantities of coal come up by rail from the Ohio and Pennsylvania coal-

fields (1,117,792 tons in 1925) for transshipment to other ports

on the Great Lakes. The leading manufacturing industries are steel sheet and shaft factories, machine shops, tool works, shipyards and tanneries. The 43 establishments within the city in 1927 had an aggregate output valued at $12,238,648. The name Ashtabula is an Indian word, meaning “fish river.” economic development of England in general in his Early History The first white settlement was made about zor. The village of the English Woollen Industry (1887) and his Introduction to was incorporated in 1831 and received a city charter in 1891. In English Economic History and Theory in two parts (Part i, “The 1916 the charter was amended to provide for a city manager and Middle Ages,” 1888; Part ii. “The End of the Middle Ages,” proportional representation. In 1926, after ten years 1893). This Introduction is the standard work on the subject with these features, the citizens voted to retain them,of experience and has been translated into German, French and Japanese. He ASHTAROTH or ASHTORETH: see ASTARTE. was foremost among the economists who Supported Joseph ASHTON-IN-MAKERFIELD, urban district, Lancashire, Chamberlain in his campaign for protection for British industry. England, 4m. S. of Wigan, on the London and North-eastern railHis Tariff Problem (1903) was republished in a new and enlarged way. Population (1901) 18,687; (1931) 20,541. It is situated edition in 1920. In addition to his professional and literary work on the Lancashire coalfield and its developm ent has been enSi William Ashley sat on many important public committees tirely due to the mining of coal and iron during the last century. and commissions of inquiry—on coal prices (191 5), food prices Most of the coal is used in the neighbouring cotton mills although (1917), cost of living (z9z8), agriculture (1919-23), tariffs iron goods are manufactured on the spot. (1923), industry and trade (1924). He also did important work ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE, municipal and parliamentary on Wages and prices, and was joint author of the Report of the borough, Lancashire, England, on the river Tame, a tributary of Unionist social reform committee on industrial unrest (1914). the Mersey, 64m. E. of Manchester. Population (1892) 40,486; ASHMOLE, ELIAS (1617-1692), English antiquarian, and (1931) 51.573. It is served by the London Midland and Southern founder of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, was born at Lich- and London and North-eas tern lines. The derivation from the feld, the son of a saddler. In 1638 he became a solicitor, in Saxon aesc (ash) and tun (an enclosed place) accounts for the 1444 Was appointed commissioner of excise, and subsequently earliest orthograp hy, Estun. The addition subter lineam is found obtained a commission as captain of horse. In 1649 he married in ancient deeds because the place is below the line or boundary as his second wife Lady Mainwaring. ‘This marriage enabled of Cheshire, which once formed the frontier between Northhim to devote his whole time to his favourite studies. His inter- umbria and Mercia. The manor was granted to Roger de Poictou et in astrology, aroused by Sir George Wharton and by William by William I., but before the end of his reign came to the Greslets Lilly, seems, in the following years, to have subsided in favour as part of the barony of Manchester. The lord of the manor of heraldry and antiquarian research. Ashmole was in high still holds the ancient court-leet and court-baron half-yearly. A favour at the court of Charles II. He was made successively church or chapel is mentioned here in 1261-62, but the present Windsor herald, commissioner, comptroller and accountant-gen- church of St. Michael is almost entirely modern. One of the eral of excise, commissioner for Surinam and comptroller of the markets dates back to 1436. The ancient industry was woollen, White Office. He afterwards refused the office of Garter king-of- but soon after the invention of the spinning frame the cotton ams in favour of Sir William Dugdale, whose daughter he had trade was introduced mamied after the death of his second wife in 1668. In 1672 he yarn by machinery , and as early as 1769 the weaving of cotton soon became the staple industry, and has published his exhaustive Jnstituttons, Laws and Ceremonies of remained so. Hat-makin the Order of the Garter, the fruit of years of patient antiquarian works are also important,g and iron-founding and machinery and there are large collieries in the research. Five years later he presented to the University of hood. Orford the Ashmolean museum, the first public museum of curi- neighbour Stamford Park, presented by Lord Stamford, is shared by the miles In the kingdom, the larger part of which he inherited towns of Ashton and Stalybridge. The town has a technical fom a friend, John Tradescant. He stipulated that a suitable school, a school of art and free library. Ashton-under-Lyne had building should be erected for its reception, and the collection long enjoyed the name of borough, but it was not until 1847 that Ws not finally installed until 1683. subsequently he made the a charter of incorporation was granted. The parliamentary borfurther gift to the university of his library. ough, which includes the urban district of Hurst, returns one (plural of Arabic skaraf, “noble,” “revered”), a member. Area of municipal borough, 1,345 acres. lem applied throughout the Muslim world to descendants of the ASHUR (Ashshur, modern Kala’at Shergat), the ancient het Mohammed, but more particularly to a small Arab capital of Assyria. The city lay on the west bank of the Tigris in Scattered around Suakin, who call themselves Bani Hashim, 35° 30’ N., 43° 20’ E., half-way between the greater and the lesser

ASH

512

WEDNESDAY—ASIA

Zab, about 200m. north of Baghdad. There was a Sumerian city here in pre-Sargonic times, but no trace of its political position has survived and it cannot be identified on inscriptions; possibly the name was different. The importance of Ashur lay in the fact that it was the chief seat of religious traditions in Assyria, and it is uncertain whether the god was named from the city or the city from the god. The beginnings of the city go back into the traditional period. Ushpia, who is mentioned in inscriptions of Shalmaneser I., is said to have been the founder of E-Kharsag-Kurkura, the temple of Ashur in the city of Ashur, the most ancient and most sacred shrine in Assyria. Although at first tributary to Babylonia the priests of Ashur succeeded in making themselves later independent and founded what ultimately became the Assyrian kingdom. With this increase in the power of the priesthood the city grew in size. A great wall was built by Puzur-Ashir (Ashir is an old form which became obsolete about the 15th century B.c.), and later a deep moat was built round the city. In the northern part most of the town was devoted to ecclesiastical purposes and contained a number of shrines in addition to that of Ashur. The later kings built palaces and Esar-haddon in making repairs declares that Shalmaneser repaired the temple 500 years before his time. Tiglath-Pileser I. changed the capital from Kalakh to Ashur and built temples and palaces, but, even after Nineveh became the capital, Ashur remained important because of the shrine of the god; the kings repaired the temples, and the city remained the religious capital of a country, the political capital of which was elsewhere, even though its position on the Tigris makes the site of Ashur always one of importance when times are suffciently peaceful to allow of down river traffic. See W. Andrae, Anu-Adad-Tempel in Assur (Leipzig, 1909); Die Festungswerke von Assur (Leipzig, 1913); Cambridge Ancient History (bibl.).

ASH WEDNESDAY, in the Western church, the first day

of Lent (g.v.), so-called from the ceremonial use of ashes, as a symbol of penitence, in the service prescribed for the day. The custom is still retained in the Roman Catholic Church, the day being known as dies cinerum (day of ashes). The ashes, obtained by burning the remains of the palms blessed on the previous Palm Sunday, are placed in a vessel on the altar and consecrated before High Mass. The priest then invites those present to approach and, dipping his thumb in the ashes, marks them as they kneel with the sign of the cross on the forehead (or in the case of clerics on the place of tonsure), with the words: Memento, homo, quia pulvis es, et in pulverem reverteris (Remember, man, that thou art dust and unto dust thou shalt return). He himself receives the ashes from the priest of highest dignity present, or puts them on his own head in silence. This ceremony is derived from the custom of public penance in the early Church. At what date the custom was extended to the whole congregation is not known. A passage in Aelfric’s Lives of the Saints (996-997) implies that it was then in common use;

it certainly was so in togr (synod of Beneventum). Of the reformed Churches the Anglican Church alone marks the day by any special service. This is known as the Commination, its distinctive feature being a solemn “denouncing of God’s anger and judgments against sinners.” In the Prayer Book of the American Episcopal Church, the office of Commination is omitted, except the three concluding prayers. The ceremonial of the ashes was not proscribed in England at the Reformation; it was indeed enjoined by proclamation in 1538, and again in 1550, but it had fallen into complete disuse by the beginning of the 17th century. See Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, and Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie (3rd ed.} s. “Aschermittwoch”; L. Duchesne, Christian Worship, trans. by M. L. McClure (London, 1904).

ASHWELL, LENA

(1872-

), English actress, was the

daughter of Commander Pocock, R.N. In 1896 she married the actor Arthur Playfair, whom she divorced in 1908; later in the latter year she married Dr. (later Sir H.) Simson. In 1895 she

played Elaine in Irving’s production of King Arthur at the Lyceum and again acted with him in 1903 in Dante. She made her first striking success, however, on the London stage in Mrs. Dane’s

[GEOGRAPHY

|Defence with Sir Charles Wyndham in 1900, and a few years later

her acting in Lech Kleschna confirmed her position as one of the leading actresses in London.

In 1907 she started under her own

management at the Kingsway theatre. During the war Miss Ash. well formed a company for organizing entertainments for soldiers at the front; after the war she inaugurated a scheme for bring; drama to the doors of the people through the popular pe. formances, in public halls and other places, of the “Lena Ashwejj Players.”

ASIA, the name of one of the great continents of the earth's

surface, embracing the north-east portion of the great land mag constituting the Old World, of which Europe forms the northwest and Africa the south-west region. Much doubt attaches to the origin of the name. The early

Greek geographers divided their known world into two portions only, Europe and Asia, in which last Libya (the Greek name for

Africa) was included. Herodotus ranks Libya as one of the chief divisions of the world, separating it from Asia, but is unable to

explain the origin of the name. It is probable that it has am Assyrian or Hebrew root and was used first of all with a specific or restricted

local application,

having eventually

a more

extended

signification

been given it, though it continued in ue

among the Greeks to denote the country around Ephesus.

GEOGRAPHY

Asia, the great land-mass of the Old World, stretches from well within the Arctic Circle to 13° N. of the Equator in south

Arabia, 6° in Ceylon and within a degree and a half at the tp of the Malay peninsula. On the west the continent reaches the shores of the Mediter-

ranean—Cape Baba in 26° E. being the outpost. The boundary passes thence in one direction through the east Mediterranean and down the Red sea to the south point of Arabia, and in the other direction through the Black sea to the Caucasus, the lower

Volga and the Ural mountains to the Arctic ocean. Asia’s eastem outpost is East cape at the entrance to Bering strait 190° east, The boundary from this point to the Malay peninsula follows the coast of the North Pacific and the China sea. Asia viewed as

a whole (on the globe) forms a great isosceles spherical triangk, having its north-eastern apex at East cape in Bering strait; its two equal sides, in length about a quadrant of the sphere, or 6,s00m., extending on the west to the south point of Araba, and on the east to the extremity of the Malay peninsula; and the base between these points occupying about 60° of the great circle, or 4,500m., and being deeply indented by the Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal on either side of the Indian peninsula. A grest circle, drawn through East cape and the south point of Arabia, passes nearly along the coast line of the Arctic ocean, over the Ural mountains, through the western part of the Caspian and, with the exception of Asia Minor and the north-west half o Arabia, indicates, with fair accuracy, the north-west boundary of Asia. In like manner a great circle through East cape and the extremity of the Malay peninsula passes nearly over the coasts of Manchuria, China and Cochin-China. The series of highlands from Lake Baikal south-westwards te the Hindu Kush and the Elburz have on their northern aad western sides the great Euro-Asiatic lowland that reaches from the Carpathians to the Yenisei and, in the form of the Angar

plateau of moderate height, beyond it to the Lena river and the Verkhoyansk mountains where it abuts upon the Pacific coastal region, widely characterized by land forms arranged in steps, the edges of which are raised. South-east of the highlands from Baikal to Hindu Kush, and west of the Pacific coast region ae

the basins of inland drainage of the high plateaux of east cen Asia, for the most part more than 3,0o00ft. above sea level.

To its south again is the mountain land of Tibet with even valky floors near or above the 12,000ft. level in many places. The above

four regions constitute what zoological geographers all agree to

call the Asiatic portion of the Palaearctic region. Asia south of

the line from the Armenian mountain knot and the Elburz mou

tains to the Himalaya we may divide into four chief regions. first is south-west Asia with the Euphrates lowland between

ASIA

PraTeE Í

«

r i t 1 F 4 m4 ‘

PHOTOGRAPHS, (1, 2, 3, 6) EWING GALLOWAY,

(4) UNDERWOOD AND UNDERWOOD,

(5) PUBLISHERS PHOTO SERVICE,

(7, 8) ORIENT AND OCCIDENT,

(9) BURTON HOLMES FROM EWING

GALLOWAY

ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE l. General view of Urumiah, a city in northern Persia, showing rows of flat-roofed houses. Parts of the walled gardens can be seen 2. Hillside homes which are used for shelter by the people who live in the villages in the Kara Dagh mountains, in Persia Near view of a native home in the Kara Dagh mountains, in Persia A “beehive” Arab village, north of Haran, in Mesopotamia

A Shia settlement Kazemain

near

Baghdad,

showing

the

golden

minarets

of

AND

SCENES

6. A corner of an Arab village in the Tigris valley not far from Baghdad, showing the Arab tent homes and date palm trees

7, A street scene in the old part of Tashkent, a city in Turkistan, in the Turkoman Soviet Socialist republic 8. One of the water-wheels in Hama, a city in Syria. The picture shows water being lifted from the Orontes river for irrigation purposes

9. Stryetenok,

a station on the eastern half of the Trans-Siberian

railway

PLATE II

ASIA

PHOTOGRAPHS, EWING

(1, 3, 9) COPR, È GALLOWAY, (6, 7) ORIENT

M NEWMAN FROM AND OCCIDENT

PUBLISHERS

PHOTO

SERVICE,

`o

(2,

SCENES l. A Korean

house which

has walis of mud and a thatched

2. Houseboat of a river dweller in Canton, China.

8) PUBLISHERS

IN THE

roof

These boats are very

numerous on the Pear! river for three or four miles opposite Canton

3. A Korean village of mud huts surrounded by country that is rolling and largely agricultural 4. A house and yard near Padang, In Sumatra, in which several families live. Community living is common in this section of the country 5. Houses

bullt over

the water

by the natives of Petsanuloke,

Siam

PHOTO

FAR

SERVICE,

(4)

DE COU

FROM

EWING

GALLOWAY,

(5)

BURTON

meea

HOLMES

FRON

EAST

6. Landing place at a village on Lake Toba, in the northwestern

part of

the island of Sumatra

7. A village in the country of the semi-civilized

tribe of Battaks, west

of Lake Toba, on the island of Sumatra &. A thatched house of the Philippine islands raised on piles to prevent its inundation during floods 9. Corner of a town on the Yangtze Kiang river, in China, showing the Pagoda

gpocRAPHY J ‘an

ASIA

block and the mountains ; the next is the series of basins

beween mountain curves complicated by fragments of old blocks wl forming the countries of Persia, Afghanistan and Baluchis-

- the third is India with the old block of the Deccan separated jroo the Himalaya by the Indo-gangetic lowland; in the fourth, ġeIndo- Malayan region, the great mountain

:

folds bend sud-

southward between the old block of the Deccan on the

!pih west and old blocks in south-east China, Cambodia and

|

on the east. These folds are continued as determinants of

' dheland-forms of the East Indian archipelago. Te Buro-Asiatic lowland rarely rises beyond 1,so0oft. over ] and huge expanses are below the 6ooft. contour. The

dainage, especially in the Ob basin, is thus slow and imperfect

gai when snows melt in the south, but ice holds fast farther rth, there are wont to be widespread floods. The Arctic ocean meeives drainage of a larger Asiatic area (4,367,000Sq.m.) than te Pacific (Asiatic drainage area 3,641,000sq.m.) or the Indian an (Asiatic drainage area 2,873,000Sq.m.) and by far the

part of the drainage to the Arctic is via the Ob, Yenisei

ga Lena and lesser rivers, which serve the Euro-Asiatic lowland gd rise on its eastern and south-eastern mountain borders. The 0b basin is one of the world’s most extensive areas of pure wand. The Yenisei, fed from Lake Baikal and the Sayan geniains, is also the collector of the drainage of the western edge dihe Angara plateau. The Lena drains the east of that plateau, wi the arc of highland (Verkhoyansk, etc.) which bounds our yegion on the east. The Lena’s length is estimated at 2,860m., the Yenisei is as long and the Ob longer still. South of the rather beher zone of Semipalatinsk (one area above the 3,o0oft. con-

513

To the west, the Gobi plateau descends westward to the northem steppe-lowland of Turkistan by the historic Dzungarian gate,

bounded on the south by the Tien Shan range, a sharp-featured, ridged range of great length and height (Khan Tengri 23,60oft.), contrasting very markedly with the older mountains north-east of the Dzungarian gate. Between the Tien Shan and the Altyn Tagh, the northernmost of the Tibetan mountain arcs, lies the Tarim basin with the Yarkand Daria and Tarim rivers draining into a northerly depression, and with the lake-swamp of Lob Nor occupying an easterly depression. Feeders of the Yarkand Daria come down from the pass between the Tien Shan and the Pamir, the pass which has the famed market town of Kashgar at the entry to the Tarim basin. This basin has been studied in much

detail by Stein, who finds many indications of desiccation of what seems to have been an area of much importance. The eastern end of the great Gobi plateau is marked by the Khingan mountains, one of the steps from the high Asiatic interior down to the coasts and deeps of the Pacific; and the north-east of the plateau is drained by the Amur which goes round the north end of the Khingan mountains. Huge amounts of loess near and beyond the eastern border of this region, in Kansu, and the Wei-ho and associated valleys, have played a great part in the development of Chinese civilization, and have furnished ways into China from the desert, to bar which was built the famous

wall, so that in a sense the wall of China may be considered the boundary of our region. The Pacific Coasts—Here is a unique series of land forms, festoons of islands, which seem to be formed largely of folds, in part submerged, but much complicated by vulcanicity. The toa) the lowland is continued as the world’s most remarkable Kuril islands, the Japanese chain, the Ryūkyūŭ islands and the internal drainage area, containing Lake Balkash and the Aral Philippines are an outer set of arcs enclosing the seas of Okhotsk, sa Caspian seas, each and all now without outlet. To this part of Japan, east China and south China, each with a considerable the lowland the name of Turkistan is often applied. The general area of deep water out of which the arc of islands arises. The gal of the northern part of the Euro-Asiatic lowland is alluvial continental coasts of these seas show a considerable zone of æ glacial mud with some more stony areas on the Angara shallow water from Tongking to the Korea strait, where the plateau, but in several parts at the foot of the mountains and continent has either alluvium or fragments of old blocks along dsewbere, and very notably south of the Oxus in Afghan Tur- its coasts, but north of Korea strait the coast becomes marked kistan, there are huge accumulations of loess (q.v.). more and more by formations akin to mountain arcs, and the To the north of the northern steppe the soil remains so cold that extent of shallow sea is less, but there is a good deal in the sea pine forest is the natural vegetation (this is called the Taiga) of Okhotsk. wih riverside meadows, so that men have migrated, probably In the north the mountain arcs form a complex transition wkr pressure, in this direction along the rivers, using them for zone between the Pacific coastlands and the Euro-Asiatic lowé$, as food from flocks and herds diminished. On the tundra, lands. In the latitude of Japan a very interesting step-structure wth of the pine forest in Asia, man has found the reindeer and is noticeable. East of Japan are the deepest hollows of the wih it has penetrated westward to Lapland. The Ural mountains ocean, west of Japan the sea has considerable, but by no means (maximum height 5,537ft., average probably well below 3,cooft., comparable, depth, then the edge of Korea and the Sikhota Alin Passes In some cases 1,400ft. above sea level) form an incomplete rise sharply. Beyond them again are the shallow waters of the boundary towards Europe, but to the west of them the greater Yellow sea, the lowland of Manchuria and of the middle and amt of summer rain permits a much larger extent of oak lower Amur. Beyond this again is the step up to the high plateaux, fmest, which can be cleared for cultivation, than occurs on the marked by the Khingan mountains. South of this interesting ae side. In the south part of the Urals are important zone of step-forms, the physiography is complicated by interresources. action of fold mountains and old blocks in China. The great The High Plateaux.—The high Jand stretching west from the river basins here are those of the Hwang-ho (2,400m.) and the Yeblenoi mountains and the Vitim plateau includes a number Yangtse-kiang (3,000m. or more), cut deeply into the highlands d'anges of old and much denuded mountain-arcs such as the and ending in a large alluvial area which is the great agricultural Saya, Tannu Ola, Khangai and Altai ranges, drained partly by region of north China, and offers the most striking contrast to feeders of the Ob and Yenisei to the north-west, and the Lena the deeply dissected plateau country of the old block of south ædAmur to the north-east, as well as by the Selenga which flows China. Whereas the alluvium of north China has become mo'Lake Baikal. The depressions between the Altai on the one thronged with cultivators using the soil most intensively, south hand, and the Khangai and Tannu Ola on the other, have lakes China is relatively less thickly peopled, and retains remnants wihout outflow, and south-west of the Altai is Lake Balkash, of pre-Chinese peoples. The social and economic contrasts based tow also without outflow but still fresh. on physiographical differences, and on the varying ranges of country is on the whole fairly well watered and has a good influences of the immigrant cultures from the loess of the dealof pasture, and some of its better valleys have been the homes north-west, form the fundamental difficulty of the problem of ofgroups dependent largely upon the horse. It contrasts strik- political organization in modern China. With the great plateau-waste of Gobi, at a lower altitude Formosa is essentially a continental island on the Tropic of stil almost everywhere more than 3,000ft. over sea level. Cancer with an axial ridge that reaches 12,939ft. near the centre. ate great undulating stretches with areas of grass here and It has ancient elements and immigrant Chinese, and now also » and remains of ancient drainage sometimes indicated by some Japanese in its population. In the Philippines and beyond ~ Swamps. Oases of relative fertility occur, but the rigours we have the continuation of the festoon of mountain curves ,wmter make them very different from the intensively de- that girdles the Pacific, but in this section it is complicated by fertile spots of the warmer Sahara. its Inter-relations with the fold mountains of Indo-Malaya,

514

ASIA

Tibet.—The southern border of the high plateaux discussed above is formed by the Nan Shan and Altyn Tagh ranges, south of which run the closely packed mountam ranges of Tibet, the Kunlun in the north being separated from the Nan Shan by the one Jarge depression, the Tsaidaman swamp, which, however, is itself more than 6,oooft. above sea level. Apart from this, only parts of the floors of the great carridor valleys of the Indus and Brahmaputra and the Salween, Mekong and Yangtse-kiang are below 12,000ft. in height, while immense stretches are aver 18,000ft. above sea level and K, (Godwen Austen) in the Karakoram reaches 28,250ft., while the giant Himalayas form the southern boundary with Everest (29,oo2ft.) and Kinchinjunga (27,815ft.). The country, known to its people as Bod, or Bodyul, must have remained uninhabitable for a long time ere the icesheets had retreated enough to give men an opportunity. They have managed to inhabit the land, partly thanks to the yak as a domestic animal; partly because patches of riverside alluvium could be cultivated in summer; partly because corridors, such as that of the upper Indus and Brahmaputra valleys, and some mountain passes have permitted caravan trade and have thus contributed to the importance of Lhasa. One should note the sanctity of both Lhasa and Mecca, both stations in desolate surroundings on caravan routes. South-west Asia.—The Armenian mountain knot is separated from the Caucasus by the lowlands of Georgia on the west, and Azerbaijan on the east, with Tiflis, the capital of the former, in the pass between them. What is, in 1928, called Armenia is but a fragment of the historic Armenia which included the mountains dominating from both sides the high corridors from Kars and Erivan to Erzerum and Erzinjan. The highest peak, Ararat, reaches 16,025ft. and the mountain system is unique in the Old World in containing great sheets of water that are bitter lakes

without outlet, Lake Van and Lake Urumiya being the chief. To the west the Pontus and Taurus mountains diverge on either side of the Anatolian plateau, partly basins of internal drainage, and partly the basin of the Halys (Kizil Irmak). The sinking of the Aegean area has brought about complex inter-relations of broken folds and edges, sunken valleys and islands at the west end in Asia Minor. South of the Armenian mountain knot is the ancient block, of Arabia, with the “fertile crescent” of the Mesopotamian lowland and Syria separating the two. Relief is complicated by the fact of the great rift system (see AFRICA) which has contributed to give west Arabia a high edge with much lava, Palestine is the country between the Mediterranean and the north part of the rift system, z.¢., the Jordan valley and the Dead sea. Mesopotamia and the shallow Persian gulf form one depression between the Arabian block and the Persian mountain arcs. Here land and water have had varied relations, and there seems every reason to think that in early historic times (¢. 4000-2000 B.c.), at least, the gulf shores were much farther north than they now are, as Ur of the Chaldees was a port; changes are due largely to silting. The contrast between the southern steppe (z.¢., the borders of the Arabian desert, with its proximity to the “fertile crescent,” a great cradle of civilization), and the northern steppe of the Euro-Asiatic lowland is of the utmost interest in connection with the interpretation of history. In the fertile crescent, as nowhere else in the ancient world, wandering, trading patriarchal herdsmen came into contact with settled cultivators living in agglomerations near the waterside, and organization taking both into account in various ways grew up. Persia, Baluchistan, Afghanistan.—East-north-east of the

' the Indus lowland. :

[GEOLOGY Analogously, from the Pamir’s South-west. i z

em region the great Hindu Kush extends south-westwards, With branch mountain lines fanning out in Afghanistan, the easter,

most fronting the Indus lowland while the northernmost are

tinued with only a slight break right to the Elburz. The Afghan and Baluch highlands of the border of the Indus basin COME ints

relation with one another, but the famous Bolan pass (Quetta. Kandahar) is near their junction. There is thus in Pem Afghanistan and Baluchistan a collection of mountain arcs net compressed closely as in Tibet but set round about

bag

which old blocks play their part. The basins are mostly withoy outlet and include the Salt desert of north Persia, the Lut dese

of east Persia, the basin of Seistan and the Helmand (Registaa) in south Afghanistan, the basins of Jaz Murian Hamu and

Hamun-i-Mashkel in south-east Persia and south Baluchisia,

These and other similar smaller basins usually have salt lakes

or swamps in their desert floors. The mountain sides in many

parts are far more fertile. India.—The essential facts here are that the Deccan is a part of the ancient Gondwanaland, projecting northward on the west into Rajputana and separated from the fold mountain ranges of the Indian borders by the Indo-gangetic lowland. The mountaig frame is roughly parallel to the edges of the ancient block, as

though the newer folds had become set in some way in relatie to it, but at a distance from it. The western coast of the Deccan

is dominated by the sharp edge of the western Ghats, the hill of west Mysore and smaller hills down to Cape Comorin, and Ceylon is a continental island separated from the Deccan peniwsula by the shallow Palk strait. As in Africa, so in the Deccan, there is a general tilt of the plateau, in this case down to the

aPE enn et

east, and there are basin depressions on the plateau (basins of Mahanadi, Godavari and Kistna). The heavy monsoonal rain fall of the east part of the Indo-gangetic trough against the

Himalayan flanks gives rise to the many feeders of the Ganges

running through what was once swamp and forest, but has bees

much altered by man. Rajputana and the west of the Indegangetic trough get little rain, monsoonal or other, at present, and the trough is watered by the Indus draining the great longitudinal valley of Ladakh and Baltistan, high between Himalaya and Karakoram and then turning sharply through great gorges dowa to the plains. The rivers of the Punjab, feeding the Indus a its left bank, mostly have analogous, longitudinally placed, upper valleys, that of the Jhelum being the vale of Srinagar in Kak mir, famed for its beauty. The Sutlej probably reached the sea independently of the Indus in early historic times. The Brak maputra, after a long course through a longitudinal valley north of the Himalayas, turns south through a great gorge only rm cently explored, into the Assam lowland, a narrow depression be

tween the Himalaya and the Patkoi, Naga and Khasi ranges The south-east peninsula of Asia shows the sudden southward bending of the great Tertiary fold mountain ranges after they have formed the giant Himalayas. They bend apparently in face of the resistance of older blocks, parts of which survive as south- | east China, the Cambodian region and a part of Borneo, the twe latter being separated by very shallow sea, which rarely, if ever, | f

reaches a depth of 70 fathoms. As the folds bend south they

diverge on either side of Cambodia and form the corridor basiss of Irrawaddy, Salween and Mekong. Still farther south one may trace these lines in the Andamans, Nicobars and in Sumaim

and Java, as well as through the Malay peninsula, while the Philippines represent the scheme of folding along the Pacific border. East of the Philippines and south of Sumatra and Jaw

Mesopotamian lowland and the Persian gulf, the Armenian mountain knot branches, forming the Elburz mountains (Mt. Demavend, 18,600ft.) of the south coast of the Caspian eastwards,

the ocean is very deep, but the sea between Java and Malay 0

boundary between Mesopotamia, in the physical sense, and the Persian highland, though politically Persia includes the Karun basin and reaches down to the Euphrates just below Basra, Farther south the mountains turn into a west-to-east direction and proceed towards the Indian border in lines behind

chains of islands in complex fragmented curves around the dep | basins called the Banda and Celebes seas. (See also Nev |

the one hand and Borneo on the other is very shallow, Beyond the zone formed by the Philippines, Borneo, Java and Bali th and the Zagros mountains stretching south-eastwards as the two fold lines approach one another and we find islands aud

the Baluchistan coast, whereafter they turn north as they front

GUINEA.)

(H. J.F)

GEOLOGY

The fundamental feature in the geological structure of A% appears to be the presence in the north and in the south of lag

ASIA

GEOLOGY!

which have remained relatively rigid since the beginning of the Cambrian period, while between and around them folding df mountain-building type has taken place at diferent dates.

The Siberian Massif.—This is limited on the north-west by

the arc of the Byrranga hills in the Taimir peninsula, convex

wwards the south-east, in which folding of a date not yet deterwiped occurs. On the north and north-east it is bounded by the Verkhoyansk range and its continuations across the Lena. Here de Trias is marine and the folding belongs, perhaps, to an early of the Alpine system.

Towards the south-east the massif

gads a spur across the Lena into the Aldan region, but before ihe Stanovoi range is reached folding begins to affect the Palae-

geic beds. Southwards the rigid area is bounded approximately bythe east Sayan range and the ranges south-east of Lake Baikal, bt overthrust masses appear before this limit is reached. Westwards the massif disappears beneath the later deposits of the

Ob plain and in this direction its boundary cannot The southern portion of the region thus defined of a platform of Cambrian and Ordovician beds, eally horizontal or nearly so. The deposits are

be determined. consists chiefly which are genmostly marine,

bat red sandstones and gypsum in the Ordovician suggest salt

lakes. These Lower Palaeozoic beds are overlaid in places by

pant-bearing beds of terrestrial origin, to which Suess has given

the general name of the Angara series.

The series, which is

widely spread in northern Asia, probably ranges from the Per-

mian to the Cretaceous, but in Siberia the deposits are mostly ssic. T the southern portion of the area thus seems to have been land since the later part of the Palaeozoic era the sea at times

werspread it from the north at least as far as 62° N., but not contmuously. Marine deposits of various Jurassic and Cretaceous horizons have been found, but there is no indication of marine

Trias such as occurs in the Verkhoyansk range. Extensive flows of basic lava cover a wide area, with little dication of actual volcanoes. The age of the flows is uncertain. They may be Cretaceous or Tertiary. The Sinian Massif.—The limits of the Sinian massif are very imperfectly known. Over large areas in northern China, especially n Shansi, Shensi and the Ordos region, the Cambrian beds are watly horizontal, but the Tsin-ling-shan with its strongly folded bds defines its southern border. The horizontal Cambrian beds we marine and they are succeeded by marine deposits of Upper Carboniferous age, which in turn are followed by coal measures. The coal measures are overlaid by a thick sandstone upon which mst plant-bearing beds of the Angara series. Throughout the Mesozoic era the area seems to have been land. The Indian Massif.—This includes Ceylon and the whole of ihepeninsula south of the Indo-gangetic plain. The oldest fossilifeous beds are called the Gondwana series and are characterized specially by the presence of Glossopteris and other fern-like fms. The series is entirely of terrestrial origin, except in the wper part, in which near the present coast marine beds are smmetimes intercalated. In age it seems to extend from the Upper Carboniferous to the Upper Jurassic. Throughout the peninsula æ marine deposits of earlier date than the Upper Jurassic are and these are confined to the borders of the mass. The xareached its greatest extension in the Upper Cretaceous period. Marine deposits of this age are found about 150m. up the valley a the Narbada. Elsewhere they are limited to the coastal regions. is thus no indication that the peninsula was ever beneath the sea excepting near its borders and there is positive evidence that the greater part of it has been land since the Carboniferous Pod. There is also evidence that that land was connected with

515

abruptly cut off at the western coast is a clear proof that the land mass formerly extended much farther in that direction than it does at present. The Arabian Massif.—This includes most of Syria and the whole of Arabia except Oman. In Palestine Cambrian beds with trilobites near the Dead sea, and limestones with marine Carboniferous fossils over a wide area indicate that during the Palaeozoic era the northern portion was at times beneath the sea. Jurassic beds occur in Lebanon and in the north of the Sinai peninsula, but throughout the greater part of the region the earliest marine deposits belong to the Upper Cretaceous. Like the other rigid areas the Arabian massif seems to have been land through most of the Mesozoic era. Whether it was connected with the Indian massif is still uncertain, but the existence of a strongly folded zone in Oman which runs out to sea upon its southern coast and in which marine Mesozoic beds are involved, suggests that the two were independent. In Syria and north-western Arabia several high-lying plateaux are formed of basic lava-flows, but they are not comparable with the Deccan Trap of India in extent and seem to be of later date. Probably the eruptions took place largely from fissures, but towards the western edge of the Arabian plateau there are many small volcanic cones which are still nearly perfect, and there is a record of an eruption east of Medina in A.D. 1256. The great belt of folding which runs from Asia Minor to the coast of China occupies the site of an ancient sea which lay between the northern and the southern massifs and which Suess named “Tethys.” Marine deposits play a much larger part than upon the massifs and the geological succession is much more complete. Folding took place at various periods and the effects of the different periods have not yet been disentangled. From the Tien Shan and Kunlun northwards and also in south-eastern

China the chief folding took place during the Palaeozoic era. The Caledonian system of Europe may perhaps be represented in the ranges near the Siberian massif, but this is still uncertain.

The Hercynian system is dominant in the Tien Shan, the Kunlun and in China. But it must not be supposed that the present

mountain ranges are the direct consequence of this ancient folding. The old ranges have been worn down and broken up and the actual topography is largely due to a remarkable system of troughfaulting of much later date. Farther south the principal folding is of Tertiary age and belongs to the Alpine system. The southern limit is marked by the depression of Mesopotamia, the Persian gulf and the Indogangetic plain. The whole mass is being pushed forward over the rigid regions of the south and is crumpling in the process. Similarly the Burmese ranges, which are of about the same age, were produced by crushing against the eastern border of the Indian massif. Although the Alpine system of earth movements is believed to have culminated in the Tertiary period, there is clear evidence of an earlier and independent phase. In the Oman zone already referred to, the principal movements took place during the earlier part of the Cretaceous period. Movements of the same age occur in central Persia, and it is not impossible that the folding of the Ural mountains may have taken place about this time. The latter is usually referred to the Hercynian system but on very imperfect evidence. All that is really proved concerning it is that a part of the Russian Permo-Carboniferous is involved and that the folding was completed before the deposition of the Upper Cretaceous. Whether there was any connection with the Urals or not it seems clear that in western Asia an earlier Cretaceous folding cuts across the line of the later Tertiary movements, and much work southern part of Africa throughout the greater part of the will be necessary before the effects of the two phases are unIC era. ' ravelled. Most of the north-western part of the peninsula is covered by Movement in the Himalayas and in other parts of the Alpine è thick series of basaltic lava flows, known as the Deccan Trap, system has not yet entirely ceased, but the island arcs off the east uch occupies an area of about 250,000sq.m. Very little coast of Asia seem to belong to a system which has not even tndence of any explosive action has been found and the erupreached its culmination. Wegener has attributed them, in a vague took place from fissures. They belong either to the later way, to a dragging effect as the continent drifted westward. putt of the Cretaceous or the early part of the Tertiary period. Judging from the history of other mountain arcs they must have fact that this Series, several thousand feet in thickness, is been produced by the thrusting of Asia against and over the

516

ASIA

[CLIMATE

floor of the Pacific, which seems to function as a rigid area. The | but are bearable because of the extreme dryness of the ai, and great deeps which lie outside the island arcs would then corre- ithe general absence of wind. The hard dry snow surface is ex.

spond with the depressions common on the convex side of moun- | cellent for sleighs, and winter is the favourite season for travel The effect of the winter on vegetation is negligible, and in deposits of the Indus and Ganges. of Siberia plants thrive in the open which in England need the proit is common ground to all geologists that the folded belt of tection of a glasshouse; this is because the temperature rises so Asia has been produced by lateral compression, and this compres- rapidly in spring that once the growing season begins there is sion implies that the rigid regions of the north and the south have no further danger of frost. The summer is short, but in the ig. approached one another; but there are differences of opinion as terior it is hot, the average July temperature exceeding 69° p to the cause of this approach. Suess would attribute it to con- over most of Siberia. The mean daily range is about 15° F iy traction of the earth’s interior, Wegener to movement of sial winter but 25° F in summer; the highest temperatures frequen masses floating in the sima. The former hypothesis supplies exceed 100° F and 113° F has been recorded at Olekminsk, (jy a force of ample power, but whether the amount of contraction the Arctic coast the summer consists of two months of ¢ has been sufficient cannot be finally determined until we know foggy, dismal weather. Turkistan has moderately cold win more about what happens in the interior of the earth. The latter with an average temperature of about 30° F in January, and ey. allows movement of the required extent: it has not yet provided tremely hot summers, the July temperature at Tashkent being a force capable of lifting the floor of the sea to the level of 80° F.

tain arcs, such as the Persian gulf and the deep hollow filled by the

central Asia against the force of gravity.

(P. La.)

CLIMATE

The great area of Asia and its extension from 77° N. at Cape Chelyuskin almost to the Equator at Singapore, give this continent a very great range of climates. It may conveniently be divided into four sections, Siberia and western Turkistan; southwest Asia; India and Farther India; China and Japan; but even in these smaller areas the range is still very great. Siberia and Western Turkistan.—This section extends from the Urals and the Caspian to the Pacific, and from the Arctic ocean to the great mountain ranges of central Asia—Tien Shan, Altai and Yablonoi mountains. The southern part is occupied by extensive steppes, becoming true desert in Turkistan. North of this is a belt of forest, succeeded by the tundras of the Arctic coast. The climate is characterized by a remarkably clear cold winter and a hot summer, which is the chief rainy season. In the west the moderating effect of the Atlantic can be traced at times as far as the Yenisei, the Urals not being high enough to act as a marked climatic divide, but in the east a temperate maritime climate is only found in the peninsula of Kamchatka. In winter Siberia is occupied by a vast anticyclone, in which the highest known pressure on the globe (1,072 millibars reduced to sea level) was recorded at Irkutsk on Dec. 20, 18096. The intensity of the anticyclone is mainly due to the severity of the cold, forming a great pool of cold air, but the basin-like topography of the Baikal region is also an important factor by preventing the cold air from flowing away, hence the centre of the anticyclone is found south of Irkutsk instead of at the “cold pole” near Verkhoyansk. From this anticyclonic centre an axis of high pressure extends towards the Black sea in the west and Bering strait in the east; to the north of this axis the winds tend to be westerly, and to the south of the axis, easterly. Winds are in general light in the interior, but violent blizzards termed poorgas and buran occur, often causing loss of life. In the main river valleys the cold air flows down the valleys irrespective of direction. On the east coast strong, very cold, northerly winds prevail. The anticyclone lasts from September to April inclusive; in June, July and August it is replaced by a large shallow area of low pressure over eastern Siberia and China, and southeasterly winds prevail over eastern Siberia, bringing much cloud and a moderate rainfall, while over western Siberia the winds are mainly north-westerly. Northern Siberia is among the coldest regions on the surface of the globe, the Lena delta having an average annual temperature of 1° F, while the isotherm of 32° reaches 49° N. (the latitude of Jersey) near Kharbarovka. The annual variation is extreme over the interior, the winters being frightfully cold and the summers comparatively hot. Verkhoyansk, with an average January temperature of —59° F and an extreme of —94° F, has the coldest winter of any permanently inhabited portion of the globe. Other average January temperatures are —46° F at Yakutsk, —6° F at Irkutsk, —g° F at Veniseisk, —14° F at Obdorsk and —5° F at Omsk, and almost everywhere extremes of —50° F are recorded. These temperatures sound appalling

The annual rainfall is less than roin. a year over the tundras and again in southern Siberia, falling below 4in. in parts of Turkistan. The rainiest regions are the forest belt of westem

Siberia and south-eastern Siberia, with 2oin. or more, and southern Kamchatka with 4o inches. The precipitation in winter jg

everywhere small, and is entirely in the form of snow; spring

is the wettest season in Turkistan but is dry elsewhere. Sum. mer has fairly heavy rains over the whole of Siberia, while southern Kamchatka has its rainy season in autumn.

South-west Asia.—This area includes Asia Minor, Syria and

Palestine, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Persia and Afghanistan. We may sub-divide it into three belts, a northern belt of plateaux and mountains, an intermediate belt of steppe and desert, and the south coast. The northern belt, including Asia Minor, Armenis and the highlands of Persia and Afghanistan, has a climate re sembling that of the Spanish plateaux but drier and more severe

The winters are cold, with a moderate but irregular snowfall,

and the summers are hot and dry. Thus Angora has a tempers. ture of 31° F in January and 71° F in July and August, the extremes are 100° F and —13° F and the annual precipitation is

only 9 inches. The prevailing winds are north-easterly. The western and southern coasts of Asia Minor and the northern part of the Syrian coast have much warmer winters and a greater rainfall, reaching 36in. at Beiriit. Farther east the rainfall in this belt is generally between ro and 2oin. a year, and the tempera tures at heights of 5,000 to 6,oooft. range from 32° F in January to 80° F in July. The steppe and desert belt includes Syria, most of Arabia, southern Mesopotamia and the greater part of Persia. Owe to its lower elevation, the temperatures are higher than in the plateaux, but cold weather is often experienced in winter; heavy snowfalls have occurred in Jerusalem and even the northern part of the Arabian desert has been seen carpeted with snow for many miles. At Baghdad a temperature of 19° F has been recorded. In summer the heat is intense, the average temperature exceeding 90° F in July and August, while the extremes exceed 110° F almost every year and 123° F has been recorded at Baghdad. The

prevailing winds are northerly throughout the year (except i Palestine, where they are westerly) and are sometimes of great strength, especially in summer. Strong dust-laden northerly winds are termed Shamal in Mesopotamia and Persia. The province of Seistan in-eastern Persia is noted for the Seistan or “wind of 120 days” (June to September) which often exceeds 7om. per hour and has reached 120 miles. In southern Palestine and Arabia the Sirocco occurs as a dry dust-laden south-east wind. The rainfall averages about 20in. a year in the west but decreases

eastwards, and in Arabia, Mesopotamia and eastern Persia there are large desert areas with less than roin., often less than mm. a year. The rainfall is limited to the winter and spring m

and is very variable from year to year. The southern Red sea,

the south coast of Arabia and the Persian gulf have a moister climate with frequent south-west winds in summer and some ra at that season. The winters are very mild (Aden January ave

age 76° F) and the summers are characterized by a moist heat, which is very unpleasant, especially in the Persian gulf.

ASIA

CLIMATE]

P

India.—In India the year falls into three seasons, the cold| which is almost everywhere the rainy season. The western and weather, the hot weather and the rains.

The “cold weather” ex-

sends from November to March, January being the coldest month

with temperatures (reduced to sea-level) rising from 55° F in the

north-west to nearly 80° F over Ceylon, the average for the

whole country being 67-5° F. There is some rain in the north-

west, brought by storms which have come from the Mediterra-

pean across Persia; Ceylon also has an appreciable rainfall, t by the prevailing north-east trades blowing across the Bay of Bengal, but the greater part of India is dry. In March and April

temperature rises rapidly, and April, May and June are very hot, the average temperature of the whole country being 87°F, and exceeding 95° F in central India in May and in the north-west in June. The dry weather lasts through May and the early part of June, but heavy rain begins to fall towards the end of June; July and August are generally the wettest months, but the rain

continues through the greater part of September.

The cloudy

skies and rain lower the temperature over most of India, and the

average for July, August and September is only 83° F. In the north-west the rainfall is very small, and temperature is much higher, averaging 99° F at Jacobabad in June and 97° F in July,

while a maximum of 126° F has been recorded. Owing to the yertical decrease of temperature at the rate of 3° F per 1,000ft., gations at a height of several thousand feet have a pleasant climate during the hot weather on the plains, and are employed

as summer resorts. The prevailing winds are north-easterly from October to February, irregular in March, and south-westerly from April until September. The north-east winds are naturally dry (except in Ceylon); during April and May the south-west winds are also dry, because they originate as northerly winds in Persia, curving round the Arabian sea. Towards the end of June there

is a change in the general pressure distribution; the south-west-

erly winds over India originate in the south Indian ocean and arrive heavily charged with moisture. The north-east and southwest winds are termed monsoons, but owing to the economic importance of the summer rains, the term monsoon is often applied to the rainy season and not to the wind. The winds are generally light, except during the passage of cyclones. The distribution of rainfall over India is very irregular. The heaviest falls occur where the rain-bearing winds strike directly against high ground, and the amount exceeds rooin. a year over the whole stretch of Western Ghats from Cochin to beyond Bombay, in central Ceylon, the whole coast of Burma, and the high ground in Assam and Bhutan. The Khasi hills in Assam are reputed to be the rainiest region on the globe, Cherrapunji having an average of 424in. a year (the average for July alone being rozin.) while a five-year record at Manoyuram gave an

north-western parts of China have an exceedingly continental climate, with a small rainfall and great extremes of temperature, while the sub-tropical islands of Japan are highly oceanic. The main Japanese islands are greatly influenced by two conflicting Systems of ocean currents, the warm Kuro Siwo and a cold current which originates in the Sea of Okhotsk. Korea and the east coast of China are for their latitude the coldest parts of the northern hemisphere; this is due in the first place to the intense cold of winter brought about by the northerly winds and the absence of east-west mountain ranges; the summers, being very cloudy, are not hot enough to balance the winter cold. Over the

interior of China the northerly winds of winter are not so strong, and are warmed by compression during their descent from the northern plateau, while the summers are less cloudy than the coast, hence the interior is generally warmer than the coast throughout the year, especially in the south. Japan has comparatively mild winters on both coasts. The winter climate of the high ground of Tibet is very severe. Spring and autumn are everywhere short, the cold of winter giving place quickly to the heat of summer and vice versa. The mean annual rainfall varies from less than roin. a year over the Tarim basin, western Tibet and the Gobi desert to nearly 300in. in north-east Formosa. Eastern Turkistan is one of the driest regions of the earth. Generally speaking the coast and islands have sufficient rain, the interior of China too little, except in the south-east. The greater part of the rain falls in the period of the south-east monsoon or summer, the only exceptions being coasts which directly face the north-east winds—the east coast of Japan and northern Formosa—but there is an appreciable winter rain in the Yangtse valley also. Snow falls in winter over almost the whole area. In the coastal regions, especially over south-east Japan, the summer monsoon is the season of typhoons, which do a great deal of damage, not only by the strength of the winds but also by the heavy rainfall and floods which accompany them. (C. E. P. B.) FAUNA

Sclater’s Palaearctic region includes Asia, north of the Himalayas and Hindu Kush, and Europe. South-west Asia has a good many animals like those of the Mediterranean lands or those of Africa. East of Sind we enter the Oriental region, which reaches out over shallow sea to Sumatra, Java, Bali and Borneo. The Sunda islands beyond Bali, as far as Timor, and Celebes and the Moluccas are to some extent intermediate between the oriental and the Australian regions. New Guinea may be reckoned with the latter, as the island has a good number of Monotremes and average Of 499 inches. It may be remarked that in the western Marsupials, and a pig and a mouse are the only two mammals of Ghats 546in. fell in one monsoon. The smallest rainfall is found higher orders, save the bats. The Moluccas have only two Marsuin the north-west, where Jacobabad has an average of only 4in. pials (Cuscus and Belideus) and only the first of these two sura year; while part of the Deccan, in the rain-shadow of the vives in Celebes or in Timor and the eastern Sunda islands. Celebes has an ape, Cynopithecus niger, and the so-called pigWestern Ghats, receives less than 20 inches. The Malay peninsula has a uniformly hot climate, the average deer, Babirusa, which occur in some of the Moluccas as well, but temperature being about 80° F throughout the year, with a daily may have been taken thither by man. It also has the pig, a range of about 12°. The rainfall is generally heavy (about rooin.) peculiar bull-antelope (Azoa), several squirrels, and, on an island and is distributed evenly through the year. In Siam and Cambodia off its north coast, the lemuroid Tarsius. ‘Timor has the Cuscus and the year is divided into a hot rainy summer and a dry winter, a shrew as indigenous forms. which is hot in the south but is relatively cool in the north. Coming west to Java, Borneo and Sumatra, one finds no trace Annam has a considerable rainfall in all months, the largest of Australian forms, but oriental types are numerous, though on amounts falling in autumn. The alternation of a north-east mon- the whole less so in Java than in the other two, which share with soon in the winter months with a south-west monsoon in the the mainland the Indian elephant, some deer, the tapir and Galeopithecus (a flying Insectivore peculiar to this region). The summer months is found over all this region. China and Japan.—Under this heading we include the whole chevrotain (Tragulus), the rhinoceros and the Malayan bear of the old Chinese empire from the Pacific to eastern Turki- occur on the mainland and in Sumatra. The orang-utan and stan, Korea and the whole of Japanese territory from southern Tarsius inhabit Sumatra and Borneo; the gibbon also occurs in ukhalin to Formosa. This region includes a great variety of Further India, south China and south Assam, and in Java, but its climates, from sub-tropical in the south, where the sugar-cane relative, the siamang, occurs in the Malay and Sumatra. Some and banana flourish in a mean annual temperature of 72° F, to monkeys in addition to those named above have reached as far boreal in the northern interior, with a mean of 36° F and occa- as Java and Borneo. The old-fashioned scaly anteater (Manis) Sonal readings below —30° F, but the whole area has a regular occurs in all three islands and on the mainland as far west as alternation of two monsoons, the cold dry northerly monsoon India, and the same distribution holds good for some lemurs and of winter and the warm moist southerly monsoon of summer, the Tupaitdae or squirrel-shrews.

518

ASIA

[FAUNA AND FLOR

These examples, not a complete list for Java, Sumatra or Bor- |ing up rivers from the Black and Caspian seas, and the re neo, are given to illustrate transitions between the Australian | Scaphirhynchus found in the rivers of Aral, of eastern Asia and and the oriental fauna, and to show that in the islands of the of the United States of America. (H. J. F.) oriental region one finds several types peculiar to them, some at least of which are old-fashioned forms. One might give at least FLORA

as interesting a sketch of the reptiles or of the birds, showing that the babbling thrushes are almost absolutely restricted to the oriental region and include peculiar forms in Celebes. The Australian Megapodius, or mound-building bird, extends to the lesser Sunda islands, the Moluccas, Celebes and the Philippines, while a supposedly indigenous form is found on the Nicobar islands. The continental part of the oriental region is especially the home of the hunting leopard and the tiger, but they have spread north and west as well. The rhinoceros and elephant have been mentioned as highly characteristic forms. The analogies between the oriental and the intertropical African fauna (see AFRICA: Fauna) may be followed out with profit. Though southwest Asia is in many ways a link between the two, it lacks the anthropoids, lemurs, rhinoceros, elephant, scaly anteater and other forms which might be expected to show that linkage as they occur in both. South-west Asia is also linked with the Mediterranean lands. The lion, the hyena, antelopes and the coney (Hyrax) are African forms that reach into Asia; though Hyrax does not get in very far, the lion does not go east of the Indian desert, and the hyena avoids the forested parts of India, the antelopes do stretch far into India. Deer, absent from Africa save near the western Mediterranean, are important in Mediterranean lands, south-west Asia and the Palaearctic region. South-west Asia shares with the Palaearctic region, in which it is often included, asses, antelopes, sheep and goats and the camel, the one-humped form being apparently indigenous in Arabia, while the two-humped or Bactrian camel belongs to the plains farther north. The oxen and buffaloes belong to oriental Palaearctic, south-west Asiatic and African regions, and the antelopes,

The vegetation met with over northern Asia much resem

that of the adjacent parts of Europe. The climates are similar and the rainfall, though moderate, is still sufficient to maintain thesupply of water in the great rivers flowing into the Arctic sea and to support an abundant plant life. A similar affinity exists between the southern parts of Europe and the zone of Asia extending from the Mediterranean across Asia Minor, northem Persia and Af.

ghanistan to the Himalayas and northern China. The plants and

animals along it are found to have a marked similarity in char.

acter to those of south Europe, with which region the zone is virtually continuous. The extremely dry and hot tracts forming an almost unbroken

desert from Arabia through south Persia and Baluchistan to Sind show a considerable uniformity in the types of life closely proaching those of the neighbouring hot and dry regions of Africa,

The region of heavy periodical summer rains and high temperature which comprises India, the Indo-Chinese peninsula, southern

China and the western part of the Malay archipelago, is also

marked by much similarity in its plants. The area between south

Siberia and the margin of the temperate zone of the Himalaya and

north China, including what are commonly called central Asia, Turkistan, Mongolia and western Manchuria, is an almost rain. less, high-level region having winters of an extreme severity and summers of intense heat. Its life has a special character suited to the peculiar climatic conditions, more closely allied to the northern Siberian tract than to the other bordering regions. The south. eastern parts of the Malay archipelago have much in common

with the Australian continent, though their affinities are chiefly Indian. North China and Japan have many forms of life in common

their relatives, though especially African, also range far north on and many special forms of China and eastern Asia extend to the the open lands of central Asia. The open lands of central Asia, Himalayan zone while others clearly indicate a connection with

or lands which formerly had similar conditions, are the primary home of the horse, and probably of the two-humped camel, and it seems to be breeds of horse, ox, and sheep from the great steppes and their borders that are most widespread among domesticated types generally. The yak of Tibet, the musk deer of north-central Asia, the ermine, sable, glutton, reindeer, lemming and lynx of the north are characteristic forms of the Palaearctic region. The mysterious seal and Comephoridae (related to the mackerel) of Lake Baikal should be mentioned as indicating the great changes which have separated that lake from the ocean. Belt long ago suggested that during some phases of the glacial epoch the rivers of Siberia were probably dammed up, giving immense sheets of water between Baikal and the Arctic. Seals also inhabit the Aral and Caspian seas. Eastern Asia yields a few monkeys, penetrating from farther south, a remarkable large carnivore (Aelurus), the raccoon dog (Nyctereutes) and a few special moles, deer, etc. Though some subtropical forms have reached Japan, their numbers are not very large, and this has been held to suggest that continental land connections of Japan have been rather northwards than southwards. The Philippine islands have traces of connections southwards in the presence of Tarsius, Galeopithecus and Tupaia, along with a few more continental mammals, including three deer; it is, however, remarkable that the Philippines seem to lack the gibbon, the rhinoceros, the scaly anteater, etc., which belong to the East Indies. The birds of the Philippines include many forms peculiar to those islands and a number shared with the East Indian islands. The tiger and leopard (panther) require special mention apart in view of their remarkably wide range; the former is found over a wide area from farther India to Siberia northward and to the Caspian westward; the leopard is also very widespread and occurs in Africa as well. Among marine mammals the dugong (Halicore) is found only

in the Indian ocean and a dolphin (Platanista) is peculiar to the Ganges, which it ascends for a long distance from the sea. Among fishes should be named especially the sturgeon, migrat-

North America. The foregoing brief review of the principal territorial divisions according to which the forms of life are distributed in Asia, indicates how close is the dependence of this distribution on climatic conditions, and this will be made more apparent by a somewhat fuller account of the main features of the flora. Northern Asia.—The flora of the whole of northern Asia is in

essentials the same as that of northern Europe, the difference being due rather to variations of species than of genera. The absence of the oak and of all the heaths east of the Urals may be noticed.

Pine, larch and birch are the principal trees on the mountains; willow, alder and poplars on the lower ground. The northern limit of the pine in Siberia is about 70° N. The whole of the far north, along the Arctic ocean is covered with tundra consisting of a low growth of flowering plants—species of Ranunculus, dwarf Salis, etc., with numerous mosses and lichens. South-west Asia.—The flora of the rainless region of southwestern Asia is continuous with the desert flora of northern and eastern Africa. It includes the peninsula of Arabia, the shores of the Persian gulf, south Persia, Afghanistan and Baluchistan. In southern Arabia the aspect of the vegetation is very peculiar, and is commonly determined by the predominance of some four or five species, the rest being either local or sparingly scattered over the area. The absence of the ordinary bright green colours of the vegetation is another peculiarity of this flora, almost all the plants having glaucous or whitened stems. Foliage is reduced to a min-

imum, the moisture of the plant being stored up in massive stems against the long-continued drought. Aridity has favoured the production of spines as a defence from external attack, sharp thorns are frequent and asperities of various kinds pre dominate. Among the more mountainous regions of the southwestern part of Arabia, the rainfall is sufficient to develop a more luxuriant vegetation and the valleys have a flora like that of siwilarly situated parts of southern Persia, and the less elevated parts of Afghanistan and Baluchistan, partaking of the characters of

that of the hotter Mediterranean region. Here aromatic shrubs

FLORA]

ASTA

ae,

we abundant. Trees are rare and prickly forms of Statice and families of all parts of the world than that of any other country. Astragalus cover the dry hills. India and Ceylon.—This subregion contains a by no means The flora of the northern part of Afghanistan approximates to homologous vegetation, but presents almost as great a diversity as that of the contiguous western Himalaya. Quercus Ilex, the ever- the region itself. Roughly it may be subdivided into the following

oak of southern Europe, is found in forests as far east as the Sutlej, with other European forms. In Asia Minor and northern Persia the mountains are clothed, where the rainfall is abundant, with forests of Quercus, Fagus, Ulmus, Acer, Carpinus and Corylus, and various Coniferae. Of

these the only genus that is not found on the Himalaya is Fagus.

zones: Himalayan, characterized by conifers, oaks, rhododendrons, and a number of Compositae. Peninsular, with a large assortment of deciduous trees, including many Leguminosae, that have adapted themselves to the drier conditions, particularly of the genera Butea, Dalbergia, Pterocarpus, Bauhinia, Cassia, Acacia and Albizzia, as also some genera of other families such as: Cochlospermum, Shorea, Sterculia, Grewia, Terminalia, Gyrocarpus, Euphorbia

fruit trees of the plum tribe abound. The cultivated plants are those of southern Europe. Central Asia.—The vegetation of the dry region of Central Asia is remarkable for the great relative number of Chenopodiaceae, Salicornia and other salt plants being common; Polygonaceae also are abundant, leafless forms being of frequent occurrence, which gives the vegetation a very remarkable aspect. Species of Caragana and other peculiar forms of Leguminosae also prevail, md these, with many of the other plants of the southern and drier

and Givotia. The teak tree, though not confined to or characteristic of this subdivision, occurs over widespread areas in the central portion, and in the south the sandal tree appears as an outlier of the genus the focus of which lies in the middle of the Malay islands. The desert zone in the north-west with a small semi-desert zone in the south-east, characterized by a number of xerophytic species belonging to various genera among which may be cited: Capparis, Tamarix, Balanites, Zisyphus, Crotaleria,

Persia and Afghanistan, extend into Tibet where the extreme

comprises a belt running along the west coast from north Kanara

regions of Siberia or of the colder regions of the desert tracts of Prosopis, Acacia and Euphorbia. The humid Malabar zone, which drought and the hot sun compensate for the greater elevation,

to the extreme south of Travancore and includes the highest md the summer climate resembles that. of the plains farther north. hills (8,800ft.) south of the Himalayan chain. The most distinctive Assemblages of marine plants are frequently met with growing feature of this zone, which is akin to the Malayan subregion, is at elevations of 14,000 to 15,000ft. above the sea in the vicinity the presence of dense evergreen forests with orders and genera of the many salt lakes of central Tibet. almost absent in the other zones; viz., Guttiferae, DipterocarpaChina and Japan.—The flora of north China and Japan is ceae, Anacardiaceae, Meliaceae, Myrtaceae, Melastomaceae, Amrelated to that of Siberia and to the neighbouring American con- pelidaceae, Piperaceae, Myristicaceae, Araceae and several palms tinent as would be expected from the geographical position. On and bamboos; among the shrubs there is a large development of the other hand there is a close connection between the flora of the Strobilanthes and other Acanthaceae and Rubiaceae and of ZmCentral Provinces of China and the eastern United States of patiens among the herbaceous plants. The peculiar small plants America; the oaks and a number of other genera reach their found clinging to rocks in the stream beds belonging to the family greatest development in these two countries and have very Podostemonaceae occur in considerable number. On the higher closely allied species in these parts of the Old and New Worlds hills there are Jarge tracts of open grass lands with an admixture respectively. In Hong-Kong and the tropical parts of China some of herbaceous or shrubby Leguminosae, Rubus, Rubiaceae, Comthree-fifths of the species are common to the Indian region, and positae, Labiatae and terrestrial orchids and Curcuma. The eastnearly all the remainder are local Chinese forms. The number ern semi-evergreen zone, which runs parallel with and close to the of species common to southern China, Japan and northern Asia is east coast from Orissa to the south, characterized by species of small. The cultivated plants of China are, with few exceptions, Acacia, Albizzia, Diospyros, Mimusops and Strychnos, with a conthe same as those of India. siderable proportion of thorny species. The estuarial or mangrove

The flora of west and south-west China and the bordering parts ef south-east Tibet and upper Burma has only recently become well known through extensive botanical exploration. Together with that of the eastern Himalaya with which it is very closely connected, this mountainous area now comprises the richest temperate flora in the world. A striking feature is the presence of a very large number of species belonging to several genera of alpine plants; viz., Rhododendron, Primula, Gentiana and Pedicularis, many species being restricted to a very small area. Dwarf species of Rhododendron cover large areas of the moorlands at an altitude of 15,000ft. while the high meadow-lands are luxuriant with a very varied vegetation. In Yiinnan every altitudinal zone is, represented from tropical jungle to permanent snow. Formosa has largely an endemic flora, but as a remarkable example of discontinuous distribution Taiwania cryptomerioides may be cited. This tree is only known from this island and south-west China. Indo-Malayan Region.—Recent research has added greatly fo the number of plants known to cccur in south-eastern Asia. The principal families arranged in-order of specific numerical importance are: Orchidaceae, Leguminosae, Graminaceae, Rubiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Acanthaceae, Compositae, Cyperaceae, Labiatae and Urticaceae. With the exception of the Compositae and Labiatae these are all more tropical than temperate and but for the temperate and alpine Himalayan species the Compositae would occupy a much lower place still. Within the region, however, there are very great variations, principally under the influence of humidty and elevation, so that the above order does not hold good for individual subregions. In short we have a somewhat heterogeneous assembly of tropical, temperate and alpine plants, of which, how-

ever, the tropical are so far dominant as to give their character to the flora viewed as a whole. The Indian flora contains a more general and complete illustration of almost all the chief natural

zone, which occurs intermittently along both coasts of the peninsula as well as along those of all the other subregions. Ceylon exhibits great affinity with the peninsula and with it some to east Africa. The drier zone lies in the north and the higher ranges of the centre together with the coastal areas of the centre and south correspond more or less with the humid zone in character but present a number of endemic forms. Burma.—The vegetation of Burma links up that of India with the Indo-Chinese and Malayan floras. In the north there is an extension of Himalayan flora, which continues into western China, with a wealth of Rhododendron, Primula, Meconopsis, Quercus and Castanopsis as well as some conifers. Towards central Burma

a drier tract is met with and there the plant life is comparable to that of peninsular India, with, however, a larger number of Dipterocarpaceae and a far greater number of species of bamboos. Within this drier zone lies a more or less arid area which does not differ greatly from the desert zone of India. In the southernmost part the vegetation becomes more tropical and more and more akin to the Malayan flora. Here the Anonaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Guttiferae, Meliaceae, Anacardiaceae, Myrtaceae, Melastomaceae, Myristicaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Orchidaceae abound. Indo-China.—The knowledge of the flora of this subregion is hardly sufficiently advanced to warrant the framing of a general account. It may be said that as might, indeed, be expected, it corresponds, fairly closely with that of Burma at corresponding latitudes. Malay Peninsula.—The best represented families in order of their specific numerical strength are: Orchidaceae, Leguminosae, Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae, Anonaceae, Graminaceae, Melastomaceae, Cyperaceae and Moraceae; a sequence that, except for the first two, shows a considerable divergence from the Burmese flora

as a whole.

In this subregion Nepenthes appears in increasing

520

ASIA

[ANTHROPOLOGY

numbers as also the Dilleniaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Guttiferae, Dip- , Negrito and Papuasian races, the wavy-haired by the Pre. terocarpaceae, Meliaceae, Anacardiaceae, Myrtaceae, Melas- , Dravidians, Dravidians and Nesiots, and the straight-haired tomaceae, Myristicaceae and especially Palmaceae. A feature| the Pareoean or south Mongoloid race, while invading e strongly contrasting with the Indian, and Burmese floras is the of Chinese, Tibetans, Arabs, Portuguese, French, Dutch and British have added to the general mixture, so that owing to the comparative poverty in species of Impatiens. Malay Archipelago.—The vegetation of the individual islands absence of accurate data and to the fusion of races and t composing this subregion shows considerable specific divergence accurate classification is almost impossible. A group of Mongoloid but in general it forms a fairly homologous whole. Essentially tribes stretches from Assam to Formosa and includes the Khasi tropical, it connects the northern portions of the region with the Mikir, Bodo and Garo of Assam, the Lisu of Yunnan and the fiora of Australia. At the higher levels there is a defnite resem- Lolos of Szechuan, who are probably more allied to White-skinned blance to the eastern Himalayan zone. The Monocotyledons are races than to yellow-skinned Mongolians. This, the protomo specially well developed, particularly the Orchidaceae, Pandan- apparently represents an unspecialized strain surviving from the aceae and Araceae. The numerical strength of the genera Eugenia, original type from which both the white European stocks and the Psychotria, Ardisia, Piper and Ficus is striking. yellow-skinned stocks of eastern Asia are derived. A definite The cultivated plants of the Indo-Malayan region include wheat, Caucasian stock appears to be present in the aboriginal population barley, rice and maize; various millets, Sorghum, Pennisetum, of Indo-China and has doubtless survived as a submerged ele. Panicum, Eleusine; many pulses, peas and beans, mustard and ment in other hill tribes in south-east Asia. Negritos.—The earliest inhabitants of south-east Asia were rape; ginger, turmeric and cardamoms; pepper and capsicum; several Cucurbitaceae and brinjal; tobacco, sesamum, poppy, Croto- probably Negrito or Pre-Dravidian in race and representatives of laria and Cannabis; cotton, indigo and sugar; cofee and tea; both these races survive in a submerged condition and ge oranges, lemons of many sorts, pomegranate, mango, custard- more or less mixed in blood by contact with their neighbours, apple, figs, peaches, vines and bananas. Of late years the Para They are naturally hunters and collectors of food, not cultivators, rubber has also been extensively introduced. The more common and where they possess cultivation it seems to be a recent acquiscultivated palms are Cocos, Phoenix, Borassus and Areca, which tion from outside, and is communal in character. Generally they supply coconut, toddy, molasses and betel-nut. Indian agriculture move about in family groups where game, fish, and wild yams are easiest to obtain. The social unit is the family, and the social combines the harvest of the tropical and temperate zones. North of the tropic the winter cold is sufficient to admit of the structure of the simplest description. Excluding the Andamanese cultivation of almost all the cereals and vegetables of Europe, the Negrito is represented in this area principally by the Aeta of wheat being sown in November and reaped early in April. In this the Philippines and the Semang of East Sumatra and the same region the summer heat and rain provide a thoroughly peninsula. They have no domestic animals and their dwellings tropical climate, in which rice and other tropical cereals are freely are of the frailest description; they have separate quarters, raised, being as a rule sown early in July and reaped in September probably, for the bachelors and spinsters of each community, the or October. In southern India, and the other parts of Asia and dead are buried or exposed in trees, and religious ideas are of the the islands having a similar climate, the difference of the winter vaguest, but a land of the dead is believed in and spirits on their and summer half-years is not sufficient to admit of the proper way thither have to pass over a perilous bridge guarded by 2 cultivation of wheat or barley. The other cereals may be seen demon. This belief is characteristic of the Indonesian area genoccasionally where artificial irrigation is practised, in all stages of erally and extends alike to the pure Negrito of the Andaman progress at all seasons of the year, though the operations of agri- islands and to tribes in which Negrito affinities are unsuspected. culture are, as a general rule, limited to the rainy months, when So, too, the segregation of the unmarried is typical of the area in alone is the requisite amount of water commonly forthcoming. general and the practice extends from central India to Formosa Many of the trees of the region produce timber of excellent and southwards into the Pacific. The typical weapon of the quality. The teak tree, Tectona grandis, supplies the finest Negrito is the bow and arrow, and both Aeta and Semang poiso timber, for certain purposes the finest in the world. It is found in the arrows. Though naturally kind and gentle the Negrito once greatest perfection in the comparatively humid forests of the west embittered evinces the most implacable hostility towards his coasts of Burma and the Indian peninsula, where it grows to a enemies. He survives, however, as a distinct tribe only in the Anheight of r50ft. or more, mixed with other trees and bamboos. damans, the Malay peninsula (Semangs) and in the Philippine The sal, Shorea robusta, produces a fine, heavy, durable timber, islands (Aetas), though traces of his blood are to be seen elseparticularly useful for railway sleepers. It is found from the foot where in the archipelago and the mainland. Even in Assam the of the Himalayas to the Central Provinces and north Madras. The physique of some of the hill tribes and their traditions of the Himalayan cedar, Cedrus Deodara, is the chief timber of that past suggest their survival to a comparatively recent date. Pre-Dravidians.—The Pre-Dravidians of this area are reprerange. Among many other genera yielding excellent timber may be mentioned Dipterocarpus, Hopea, Canarium, Chloroxylon, Gluta, sented primarily by the Sakai (g.v.) of the Malay Peninsula Dalbergia, Pterocarpus, Acrocarpus, Acacia, Terminalia, Diospy- whose mode of life is not dissimilar to that of the Negrito, but

others (Pre-Dravidians) of less pure stock survive in East Sumatra and in the Celebes, as the Toalas, and no doubt the race plantations. (C. E. C. F.; C. V. B. M.) has contributed to other existing stocks in the East Indian arcbipelago, and perhaps on the mainland, where the strain is probably ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY present in the hill tribes of Assam and Burma, and in Dutch Asia presents to the anthropologist the widest range of different Borneo it has been suspected in a slightly larger proportion in types of any of the continents. So vast is its area, so varied its the Ula Ayar tribe. Their distinctive weapon for war and the climate, that ethnic types of all kinds are found within its borders. chase is the blow-gun (g.v.). This being so, no complete anthropologic or ethnologic study of Papuasian Negroes.—The Papuasian branch of the Oceanic Asia as a whole is yet possible; the work of research and classifi- Negroes was perhaps a later arrival in this area than the Negrito cation is still proceeding. Old divisions are found to be unsuited branch, but is less definitely represented among the present mto new developments in our knowledge, and surveys, official and habitants. Even in the most south-easterly islands of Indonesia private, are annually penetrating old fields to emerge with new where it is best represented it has generally been modified by

ros and Gmelina. The cinchona, from the bark of which quinine

is derived, has been introduced and grown with much success in

data.

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contact with other races, but traces of its presence are to be

FARTHER ASIA found in Assam again both in the physique and disposition of Anthropology.—In south-eastern Asia there is a heterogene- some of the Naga tribes, particularly in the inaccessible interior ous mixture of racial elements, and a population which contains of the hills, where individuals, and sometimes whole communities very varied elements at all stages of culture and much confused by show decided signs of Papuasian blood in their frizzly hax, race mixture. The wooly-haired peoples are represented by the prominent or aquiline noses, in their very excitable disposition,

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PLATE IV

ASIA

521

ASIA

\NTHROPOLOGY]

pirthful, voluble and cruel, and in the artistic bent which shows | Naga communities, and survives in the Kachari and Hinduized ysef in wood-carving, as well as in a number of minor items of| plains tribes in the village Namghar or prayer-house, while in the paterial culture, which can be traced from Assam at any rate to | societies which have secular chiefs like the Semas or Thados it Fiji. Their typical culture, however, should be sought in Papua | has almost entirely disappeared, though in some such tribes it still

survives with some of its former functions as in the case of the i md Melanesia (g.v.). Cultural History.—The Oceanic Negroes and the Pre-Dra- | Lushei sawlbak. It has already been noted that it is a wideyidians are present in south-east Asia merely as archaic survivals, | spread institution and is shared even by the Negritos of the

and bave probably contributed little to its culture. As far as can | Andamans.

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THE PLATEAU OF ASIAGO SHOWING THE MOUNTAINOUS NATURE OF THE REGION. THE 1916, AND ENDED IN THE FAILURE OF THE AUSTRIANS TO BREAK THROUGH THE ITALIAN

+

It

MAIN BATTLE LASTED FROM DEFENCES TO THE PLAINS

MAY

14 TO

25,

Austrians’ Attack.—The offensive opened on May 14 with a | waiting with his 20th Corps until the guns could be brought up to very heavy bombardment along the whole line from the Val | support a new attack, instead of driving through at once to Lagarina to the Val Sugana, but the concentration of fire was most | Arsiero with all available troops. The risk was not taken, and the intense between the Vallarsa and the Upper Astico, and against | short respite gave time to close the door in the face of the invader. this sector, the following day, the main infantry attack was The course of the battle, with the necessity of bringing up relaunched. The plan was to attack first with the right wing of the | serve divisions, led to a reorganization of the attacking forces, rith Army, commanded by the archduke Charles, supported not | Kövess taking command of the left wing and Dankl of the right. only by its own artillery, but by flanking fire from the massed guns | In the Vallarsa and Pasubio sector the attack developed strongly, on the Lavarone plateau. When the right wing had made sufficient | but without success. Farther north the archduke Charles was waitground the left wing was to come into action against the Italian | ing for his guns and reserves, and between his left and the 3rd line north of the Upper Astico. Corps, Kirchbach’s rst Corps was coming into action. The 3rd For a time everything went well with the attack. The Italians | Corps was hammering against the Italian 34th Division, which were driven back from their ill-chosen front lines, losing many | was not to resist for long. prisoners and guns, and by May 19 their position was very grave | The situation in the centre was critical, and Cadorna considered all along the line from the Vallarsa to the Astico. The retiring | that if the Austrians were able to concentrate on the weak spot troops had failed to make a prolonged stand on the insufficiently | and keep up the impetus of their attack they might succeed m

prepared battle positions.

On the left Monte Pasubio, the key | breaking through to the plain. On May 20 he went to Udine, and

position, was only lightly held by reserves, which had been hurried | after consultation with the duke of Aosta and Frugoni gave orders

up in the nick of time, and in the centre the Austrians had driven | for the concentration of a reserve army in the Venetian plain. The the defenders off the main line of defence, which ran from Monte | first four corps of this reserve army (the sth), which were made Maggio by Campomolon to Spitz Tonezza. The 37th Division, | up of units drawn from the 2nd and 3rd Armies, were ready 02 which had held this line, had been forced back beyond the Posina | June 2. and the Astico, and there were gaps both to right and left of it. Meanwhile the Austrians were continuing their advance in the The Austrian right was pressing hard on the Italian main positions | centre, but they could gain no ground against the Italian left. By west of the Vallarsa (Coni Zugna and Passo Buole), and was col- | May 22 Bertotti’s 44th Division, sent up from Desenzano, wasm lecting forces to attack Pasubio. There was breathing space for a| solid possession of both sides of the Vallarsa road and of Pasubto, moment in the centre, but the Austrian left now came into action, | and in touch with Ricci-Armani’s 37th Division on his left. It was Krautwald von Annan’s 3rd (Graz) Corps being launched against | in this sector that the Austrian offensive met its fate. Owing to the the Italian 34th Division. Ample Italian reserves were now on the | steadfast resistance of the troops under Ricci-Armani and Bertotti, move, but it was a race. Krauss blames the archduke Charles for | Dankl could never secure a sufficient width of front for his ad-

ASIA MINOR

535

ition, already a salient, would have been more than serious, and

west of the continent of Asia, bounded on the north by the Black Sea, on the west by the Aegean, and on the south by the Medi-

the holding of the Pasubio lines depended the maintenance of

terranean, and at its north-west extremity parted from Europe

vce. If the Zugna ridge had fallen, the effect upon the Pasubio the positions to the eastward.

If Pasubio went, the line south of

Posina was turned, and the Austrians had a new route to the in by the Valli dei Signori, as well as the opening they were now making for, by the Lower Astico. Till May 30 the attacks on the ridge were continuous, but no progress was made. The attempts upon Pasubio were as incessant, and lasted longer. The Austrian infantry advanced along the great ridge from Col Santo;

came up from Anghebeni and Chiesa in the Vallarsa and from

the Val Terragnolo by the Borcola Pass. All efforts were in vain. North-east of Pasubio, along all the rest of the mountain front

tp the rim of the Val Sugana, the Austrians gained notable successes. Kovess drove back the Italians across the Val d’Assa, and thence still farther east, across the parallel valleys of Nos and

Campomolon. To the south-west Dankl’s left crossed the Astico,

and after heavy fighting pushed the Italians back across the Val Canaglia, while his centre gained ground across the Posina, south

of Arsiero. At the end of May the Italian position still seemed critical, and Cadorna gave orders for the withdrawal of stores and

heavy guns from the Isonzo front to beyond the Sile, south of

Treviso. He believed he had the measure of the Austrians, but he omitted no precautions. His confidence, in fact, was justified. The impetus of the Austrian attack was dwindling. Losses had been very heavy; the attacking divisions were beginning to lose their offensive value, and the reserves were insufficient. Already on May

2 Conrad had been compelled to ask Falkenhayn to send a dvision of the Austrian 12th Corps, which belonged to Prince Leopold's Army Group. And Cadorna’s 5th Army was practically ready in the plain. Qn June 4 Brusilov broke through at Luck. The first news of the Russian attack did not perturb Austrian headquarters, for Conrad thought that his line in the east was firmly held. In a few days the situation was changed altogether. But even before the news of the disaster had reached Bozen it was clear that the offensive against Italy had failed. Kövess was to gaina little more

sound. By June 8 the Austrians were only three miles from Valstagna, low down in the Brenta valley, but they had shot their bolt. South of Asiago and south of the Posina the attack was continued for ten more days. Here were the shortest routes to the plain and here the Austrians had been able to bring up their guns in sufficient numbers. Kirchbach made a great effort against the Monte Lemerle-Monte Magnaboschi line, while the archduke Charles sirove hard to win room south of Arsiero by incessant attacks in the Novegno sector. No further ground was gained. The Austrian Retreat.—By the middle of the month Cadorna had begun the first move of a counter-attack, but the Austrians were now getting ready to go out of the salient and back to a strong line which they had already selected. Attacking on May 25, all along the line, the Italians found the invaders in retreat. It was too late to develop the counter-offensive which was to have been directed against the two sides of the Austrian salient, and Cadorna relinquished the idea of a big attack as soon as he found a resistance which could only be overcome by long preparation and the use of artillery in mass. Casualties on both sides were very heavy, and indicate the severity of the fighting. The Austrian losses were estimated at aver 100,000; the Italian figures, up to the end of the countermovement, were 35,000 killed and 75,000 wounded, with 45,000 prisoners, many of whom should be reckoned among the wounded.

The Austrian attempt to break through ended in definite failure

but the attack was well planned and conducted with skill and determination. Failure was due to the fact that Conrad met with a resistance which went beyond his calculation. Falkenhayn and Cadorna had summed up the situation rightly. Bwuocrarny.—Cadorna, La guerra alla fronte Italiana (Milan, 1921), French trans., Mémoires du général Cadorna

(Paris, 1924);

Cadorna itz, La Psychologie du G.Q.G. Italien sous le général tis, 1923); Tosti, La guerra Italo-Austriaca, 1915-18 (Milan,

1925).

(W. K. McC.)

ASIA MINOR, the general geographical name for the peninsula forming the bulk of the republic of Turkey, on the extreme

only by the narrow straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles, On the east no natural boundary separates it from the Armenian plateau. The term Asia Minor was not used by classical geographers (it is first found in Orosius in the sth century a.p.) and is not in local or official use now. The name might have arisen as a vague distinction between the larger continent and the Roman province of “Asia” (g.v.), which at one time included most of the western section of the peninsula. Geographically, however, the name has a far deeper significance; the country is but “a small Asia” with its highland interior and its fringe of rich, less arid, well-peopled coastlands. The name Anatolia (Anadol) is used locally for the part of the peninsula west of the Halys, i.e., with Cappadocia and Pontus. This name appears first in literature in the work of Constantine Porphyrogenitus (roth century). A central core of ancient rocks with newer folds rucked round about it, it is comparable in size and structure to the Iberian peninsula, its counterpart in the western Mediterranean. The function of Asia Minor as a great “landbridge” between the continents has made its study important, and from its shorelands from early times Europe has received varied immigrations of men and culture. The interior has been through many changes of fortune which some students are inclined to associate with changes of climate and especially with variations of rainfall. Structural Features and Mountain Ranges.—The central plateau of Asia Minor consists largely of nearly horizontal strata,

while the edges are intensely folded and form mountain ranges allied to the systems of Tertiary date in both Europe and Asia. Tertiary deposits are found both on the coastal lowlands and among the mountains and there are late Tertiary fresh-water strata on the plateau. The southern system of folds forms the great arc of the Taurus with its north-eastward continuation the Anti-Taurus. The Taurus is composed mainly of Eocene and Cretaceous limestones, but Miocene strata also have been markedly uplifted, though they are not deeply involved in the folding. The average height is some 7,o00ft. but there are sum-

mits above 10,000ft. in both Lycia and Cilicia (Bulghar Dagh). In the Anti-Taurus the folding has affected the Eocene, but not the Miocene, strata. The sharp north-south ridge of the Ala Dagh (r1,000ft.) is a conspicuous feature. The name Anti-Taurus is variously used by different authors: (1) some give this name to the northern buttress of the plateau, parallel to the Taurus; (2) for some it means the whole line of heights separating streams running to the Black sea and Anatolian plateau from those running to the Mediterranean and the Persian gulf, że., the line from the source of the Kizil Irmak through the Ala Dagh to the Taurus; (3) others use it for bare hills south of Sivas, traceable right along, in more forested heights, to the Taurus. The range of Amanus (Giaour Dagh in the north) is separated from the Taurus and Anti-Taurus line (3rd sense) by the deep valley of the Jihun and its continuation, the Gulf of Alexandretta. It forms the limit between Cilicia and Syria and is highest at Kaya Duldul (6,500ft.) above the Jihun. Groups of volcanic peaks rise above the plateau and extend for about 150m. from Kaisarieh to Karaman, with Argaeus or Erjish Dagh rising above Kaisarieh itself to a height of 13,100ft., the highest point in Asia Minor. The north side of the plateau is formed by the Pontic arcs. Along the eastern arc from Trebizond to Sinope a well defined system includes large amounts of Cretaceous limestones and serpentines, and Oligocene beds are involved in the folds. West of Sinope, Cretaceous beds form a long strip parallel to the shore line, and this system culminates in Ilkaz Dagh, south of Kastamuni. On the west of the plateau the main direction of folds is eastto-west but, on the borders of Phrygia and Mysia, they meet the north-westward extension of the Taurus folds and bend around the ancient block of Lydia; there are zones of serpentine and of crystalline and schistose rocks, believed to be Palaeozoic, and it is known that portions of the old block are mingled with newer fold schemes on the western coasts. There are many evidences of volcanic activity in the district of Kula and in hot springs con-

536

ASIA MINOR

nected with the Lycus, Maeander and other valleys. The valleys

[DESCRIPTION

the Gereniz Chai (Indus) and the Eshen (Xanthus) : in Pam

of the Maeander, Hermus and Caicus communicate between the | phylia the Ak Su (Cestrus), Keupri Su (Eurymedon) and Meplateau and the Aegean coast while those of the Kara Su and | navgat Chai (Melas). Farther east the two; branches of the Geuk Sangarius lead to the sea of Marmora, the coast of which continues Su (Calycadnus) run south-east between lines of the Taurus, the Mesozoic band mentioned for the Black sea coasts west of Tersous Chai (Cydnus) has three streams, one of which flows t

Sinope (see above), but here the rocks are Jurassic and Triassic as well as Cretaceous. Devonian fossils have been identified near the Bosporus. Marine Eocene beds occur near the Dardanelles but the Tertiary beds of western Asia Minor are mostly fresh-

water and late Tertiary; it is interesting that in the west they

are much disturbed, as this points to the recent date of important movements in the Aegean area. In this last area we meet with broken mountain arcs that link the Dinaric and Greek mountain lines with those of Asia Minor and partial submergence has brought into existence islands, the disposition of which in chains led them to play a very important part in the early development of maritime intercourse in the 3rd millennium B.c. Here again volcanic activity is conspicuous (Milo, Santorin, etc.), among the fold-lines. Lakes and Rivers.—The salt lake Tuz Geul (anc. Tatta) on the central plain, said to be 60m. by 10-30m. in winter, becomes a mere marsh in the summer drought. Other salt lakes are Buldur Geul (2,900ft. above sea-level) and Aji-tuz Geul (2,600ft.). Beishehr Geul (anc. Karalis) at 3,770ft. is a fine freshwater lake with an outflow stream discharging into the lower Soghla Geul which in its turn loses itself on the arid south part of the plateau. Egirdir Geul (probably anc. Limanae) at 2,850ft. is fresh and noted for its fish. In north-west Asia Minor, in the lowlands between the ridges that run out westwards to the south-east coast of the Sea of Marmora, are Isnik Geul (Ascania), Abulliont Geul (Apollonia) and Maniyas Geul (Miletopolis Lake). The older drainage of Asia Minor seems to have been westwards towards the Aegean depression, but some phase of this depression was attended by uplift on the west of the peninsula converting the western ends of streams flowing to the Aegean into a plateau-edge drainage, and giving rise to a large lake on the plateau, the remnants of which include the plateau lakes above named and the salt incrustations between Tuz Geul and the stream from Soghla Geul. The subsidence of the Black sea allowed northward streams to cut back into the plateau and the

Sakaria (Sangarius), the Kizil Irmak (Halys, 600m. long) and Yeshil Irmak (Jris)} have captured portions of the old east-towest drainage. The depression between the blocks of Arabia and Asia Minor has analogously helped the Euphrates to cut back and capture a part of the east-to-west drainage. Old names include Tembris (Pursak Su), a tributary of the Sangarius; Cappadox (Delije Irmak), a tributary of the Halys; and the Lycus (KelkitIrmak), a tributary of the Iris. Of the western plateau-edge drainage one should mention Edrenos Chai (anc. Rkyndacus), and Susurlu Chai (Macestus), which unite 12m. before they flow into the sea of Marmora; Bigha Chai (Granicus), which flows into the west of the Sea of Marmora; and Menderes Su (Scamander), which reaches the Dardanelles. The last two rise In Kaz Dagh (Mt. Ida). Bakir Chai (Caicus), Gediz Chai (Hermus), Kiichiik Menderes (Caystrus) and Menderes Chai (Maeander) flow to the Aegean and bring down so much silt from the plateau edge that, for example, the Caystrus silt has filled up the port of Ephesus; while the Hermus has changed its course more than once, for as recently as 1880 it reached the sea near Smyrna, but now follows a parallel valley farther north. The silt of the Maeander long ago filled up the harbour of Miletus and converted its islands into mounds standing out of a swamp. The chief tributary of the Hermus is Kun (Phrygius), which receives Gürduk (Lycus) and Kuzu (Cogamus); those of the Maeander include, on the right, the Glaucus, Banaz (Senarus), and Hippurius, and on the left, Churuk Su (Lycus), flowing by Colossae, Ak (Harpasus) and China (Marsyas). The southward drainage to the Mediterranean works back along structural lines of the Taurus fold mountains and is thus varied in its directions, but it consists mainly of rather short streams which flood down quantities of water in winter and spring. They are probably helped also by subterranean drainage. In Lycia are

through the Cilician Gates; in its lower course it deposits so

much silt that Roman Tarsus is covered to a depth of 25 feet. The Sihun (Sarus) and its tributaries flow through precipitous ravines in the Taurus, and one of the tributaries (Kerkhim Su)

cutting back westwards through the Bulghar Dagh, opens a

way

for the roads from the Cilician Gates to Konia. Apparently at one time the Sihun flowed south-eastwards to join the Jihu

(Pyramus). This river is made up of a number of streams and in

its lower course runs through the defile between the Taurus and the Giaour Dagh to reach the Cilician plain near Budrun, whente

it flows west and south-west to the sea past Missis, being naviga-

ble up to this point. East of the Kezil Irmak and the Jihun basins we enter that of the Euphrates. Passes.—Over the principal passes of the Taurus there went Roman or Byzantine roads:—(z) from Laodicea to Adala (Attalia), by way of the Khonas pass and the valley of the Istanoz Chai; (2) from Apamea or from Pisidian Antioch to Adalia, by Isbarta and Sagalassus; (3) from Laranda by Coropissus and the upper valley of the southern Calycadnus to Germanicopolis and thence

to Anemourium

or Kelenderis;

(4) from

Laranda by the lower Calycadnus to Claudiopolis and thence to Kelenderis or Seleucia; (5) from Iconium or Caesarea Mazarca through the Cilician Gates (Gulek Boghaz, 3,300ft.) to Tarsus: (6) from Caesarea to the valley of the Sarus, and thence to Flaviopolis on the Cilician plain; Germanicia (Marash) is the name of this pass. In the Anti-Taurus region (in the sense of the ranges from

south of Sivas down to the Taurus), the chief passes are those

followed by old roads: from Sivas (Sebasteia) to Divrik (Teph-

rike) and the upper valley of the western Euphrates; from Sivas to Malata (Melitene) by the pass of Delikli Tash and the basin

of the Tokhma Su, and from Kaisarie to Marash (Germanice) by the Kuru Chai and the valley of Geuksun (Cocysus). The Giaour Dagh (Amanus Range) is crossed by two famous passes:— Baghche (Amanides Pylae), with the road from the Cilician plain to Apamea Zeugma on the Euphrates, and Beilan (Pylae Syrias or Syrian Gates), with the Roman road from Tarsus to Syria. The valleys of the Maeander, Hermus and Caicus give ways from the plateau to the Aegean and the descent to the Sea of Marmora along the Kara Su and Sangarius is easy. The best roads from the plateau to the Black sea are those due to the Romans, from Tavium and Sebasteia to Sinope and Amisus and those from Sebasteia to Cotyora and Cerasus-Pharnacia. The subterranean drainage, added to the tectonic instability, accounts to some extent for the number of thermal and mineral springs. The most important are:—VYalova, in the Ismid sanjak; Brusa, Chitli, Terje and Eskishehr, in the Brusa vilayet; Tuzla, in the Karasi; Cheshme, Ilija, Hierapolis (with enormous alum deposits), and Alashehr, in the Aidin; Terzili Hammam and Iskelib in the Angora; Boli in the Kastamuni; and Khavsa, in the Sivas.

Many of these were famous in antiquity and occur ina

list given by Strabo. The Maeander valley is especially noted for its hot springs. Climate, Vegetation and Animal Life.—The north coastal regions have a very heavy rainfall, especially during the autumn and winter. The rainfall here is lightest in the west but increases to over rooin. per annum in the more mountainous east. The high ground behind the patches of coastal lowland has forests of pine, fir, cedar, oak and beech, while the more sheltered valleyways have very luxuriant vegetation resembling the Mediter-

ranean flora. West of the promontory of Sinope the vegetation tends to be poorer and the olive in particular is not found. East of Sinope, where the Caucasus shelters the coast from the cold north-east winds of the Russian steppe, the olive grows abund and the vegetation is more luxuriant.

The apple, pear, chery

and plum are grown extensively in northern coastal Asia Miner. The wheat of the Sivas vilayet is well known.

ASIA MINOR

gTHNOLOGYJ

537

The southern and western coasts have a Mediterranean climate, | among the modern Armenians. They are especially associated with a tendency towards greater extremes of temperature than with the bridgeland of mountains which stretches from the Pamir

ig the case further west. The summers are warmer and drier, with rain, and there is greater cold in winter than on the French

or Italian Riviera. A great feature is the nbat or strong north yind which blows fiercely almost daily from noon to sunset off

he sea in summer along the west coast.

Cold winds from the

Russian steppe are felt as far south as Smyrna in winter. The olive and vine are grown everywhere, while on the west coast

the ilex, plane, oak, valonia oak and pine predominate.

The

mountain slopes of the Taurus are clad with forests of oak and ge and there are numerous “yailas” or grassy “alps” with abun-

gant water to which the villagers and nomads move with their focks during the summer months. The sheltered southern valleys uce the orange, lemon, citron, sugar cane and date palm. The interior plateau region is more allied to the Russian steppe

in both climate and vegetation. The rainfall is slight, being less than roin. per annum on an average, and what rain occurs falls

in spring or early summer. The seasonal range of temperature is extreme, conditions becoming more continental towards the Armenian Highlands in the east, which experience a heavy snow-

inwinter. Near streams willows, poplars and chestnut grow, fall wit elsewhere the country is almost entirely steppe or scrubland.

The wild animals include the bear, boar, chamois, fallow, red

and roe-deer, gazelle, hyena, ibex, jackal, leopard, lynx, mouffion, wild sheep and wolf. Amongst domestic animals are the buffalo, the Syrian camel, and a mule camel bred from a Bactrian sire ind a Syrian mother. A large number of sheep and Angora goats are reared on the plateau, and fair horses are bred on the Uzan

Yaila, while small hardy oxen are largely bred for ploughing and transport. The larger birds are the bittern, great and small bustard, eagle, francolin, goose, partridge, sand grouse, pelican, pheasant, stork and swan. The rivers and lakes are well supplied with fish. ETHNOLOGY

Ethnologically Asia Minor forms a unit with Arabia, and the liter country will therefore be treated with the former in the present article. Owing to the important ancient empires which flourished in the Near East this region has in places been thoroughly explored, and although much remains to be done, there are already abundant materials for reconstructing the racial history. Asia Minor remains at present the least known country. Zumoffen found near Antioch skeletal remains which are alkeged to be Neanderthaloid, although no complete report has yet been published. Turville-Petre found in a cave near the Sea of Galilee the remains of a skull which, though differing in certain respects from the Neanderthal clearly belongs to this type. The Mousterian culture associated with this type of man is widely spread throughout the region, and has been proved by Buxton to extend even into the desert regions between the Jordan and the Euphrates, although no remains of man have actually been found in the valley of the twin rivers; either they are covered by living on the high desert which to-day is only penetrated at certain seasons by Bedouin. Palaeolithic implements of a later date are also found in the same regions, but none have so far been fod in the valley of the twin rivers; either they are covered by sit or else the region was at this early period too marshy for habitation. The earliest type of man known in this area comes

from graves of about 3,000 B.c., a type which in form is almost identical with the people who were living in Europe in Aurigna-

Gan times and who survive to-day in remote places, Fleure having found them on the Plynlimmon moorland.

This very long-

westwards into Asia Minor, and ultimately to the Alps. Von Luschan considered that they were the oldest inhabitants of Asia Minor, and though they may have been the first dwellers in the mountains they were certainly late comers into the plains. On the whole the racial history of the entire region has consisted of the gradual blending of these three stocks since the dawn of history, but the Armenoid

types have probably increased in a

larger proportion than the others. The modern populations consist of different groupings of these main racial stocks and can be most conveniently divided partly on a geographical and partly on a political and linguistic basis. There are four main areas: first, Turkey, including Turkey proper, Armenia and Cyprus; secondly, Syria and Palestine; thirdly, Mesopotamia; and fourthly, Arabia. Within these larger areas the most important groups may be summarized as follows: in the first, Turks, Greeks, Kurds, Armenians and various religious communities, who are endogamous and often keep themselves apart from the rest of the population. In Syria and Palestine, although there are representatives of the groups already mentioned, the three most important groups are the Jews, Arabs and again certain important religious communities, the most noticeable being the Druses and Maronites of the Lebanon district. In Mesopotamia the bulk of the population are Arabs, although there are important racial diferences. Apart from aberrant groups there are several different forms of social organization, the dividing lines cutting across one another. On a basis of religion there is a profound cleavage between Muslim and Christian, though even here there are certain intermediate people, Linobambakoi, Linsey-woolsies, who to a certain extent show, at least on the surface, the characters of both. Environment and natural surroundings have been practically responsible for three types of social organization, urban, common to Jew, Christian and Muslim, agricultural also common to the three though to a lesser extent to the Jews, except in ancient and in very modern times, and pastoral nomadism, practised almost entirely by the desert and steppe dweller. The Muslim communities are, at least in theory, polygamous, though. polygamy is becoming increasingly uncommon. The women were secluded and never saw any men except their husbands and their immediate relations, though naturally among the poorer classes this rule did not hold, for they had to work in the felds or go to market. As a general rule the towns are mixed, though different religions have different quarters, both mixed and pure Turk or Christian villages exist, and in Palestine there are Jewish communities. In the desert the group of tents is organized on a war footing in which the sheikh has an absolute position, unlike the position of the elected or appointed village elder. Among the more powerful tribes the groups are organized into a single unit, this unit being not infrequently at war with its neighbours. This region gave birth to three of the great religions of the world, Christianity, Judaism and Islam. It still is the home of innumerable heretical cults of all these three religions. They have all influenced one another, and some of the sects partake of the nature of more than one of these mutually intolerant religions. Of these heretical sects the most interesting are the various crypto Christians, outwardly Muslims, secretly Christians, the Druses and Maronites, the Dancing Dervishes, the Yezidis or Devil worshippers and the Babis. BretiocrapHy—D. G. Hogarth, The Nearer East (1902); A. C. Haddon, The Races of Man (1924, bibl.); L. H. D. Buxton, The Peoples of Asia (1928) (bibl.); Sir A. Keith, in Excavations at Al (L. H. D. B.) Ubaid (1927).

headed, slender stock still forms to-day the main part of the ARCHAEOLOGY Arab population of much of the Near East. Two other types apFor the purposes of Archaeology Asia Minor and Syria form pear in early times in northern Mesopotamia and over all the northern part of the Near East, one type identical with what is one territory, and it will therefore be more convenient to treat

wsually called “the Mediterranean race.” They are long-headed but their skulls are much more round in contour than the Euraf-

nean type mentioned above. The third type is round-headed and

both together in the present article. At the earliest period of its history Syria participated in the Sumerian Asianic culture of Mesopotamia, for the British excavations at Saktjegézii (to the

has heen called Armenoid owing to the prevalence of this type north of Aleppo) found pottery and carvings analogous to those

ASIA MINOR

538

lARCHAEOLOGY

SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C.

which (c. 3000 B.C.) were in use in Elam and in Sumer-Akkad. Moreover, the history of Asia Minor and of Syria shows that the

The Hittites.—The interior of Asia Minor was at this epoch Semites of Syria overran Anatolia during the 3rd millennium, | under the influence of the Hittites, whose ancient capital Kha. while the Hittites of Asia Minor reached Syria in the course of | tushash (Boghaz Keui), flourished in the second half of the 2nd

the 2nd millennium s.c. Thus these displacements of peoples had a profound effect on the civilization of the two countries and made their art up to a certain point the same. Three well-defined periods can be distinguished in Asia Minor. THIRD

MILLENNIUM

B.C.

millennium.

Many monuments of Hittite origin are spread over

the whole of the peninsula, and as a whole, with one or two ey. ceptions, belong to a very homogeneous art, which is sober if somewhat crude, with traces of oriental as well as of Aegean

influence. Troy VI.—The sixth city of Troy which, as Dörpfeld recognized, is the Troy of Homer, was destroyed about 1180. The nins of Troy VI. amount to very little, for when the Romans built on

Anatolia.—Probably as early as the epoch of the Agade dynasty (28th century), Anatolia was invaded by Semites from Syria, who there founded a permanent colony, whose archives the site, they razed the top of the hill to obtain a large oval hase dating from the last centuries of the 3rd millennium have been for their structures and destroyed all the buildings of the yy. discovered at Kiil-Tepe, near Kaisaryieh. A text, half historical, VII., and VIH. cities; nothing remains of Troy VI. but a fe» half legendary, belonging to the days of Sargon the Old (c. 2800), foundation-elemenis on the slopes of the hill below the Roman describes a campaign of this king from the other side of the levelling. A part of the rampart four or five metres thick is a Taurus in order to help a colony engaged in commerce, which strong fortification flanked by towers, with three gates of a mors complained of oppression at the hands of the inhabitants of the modern type than in the earlier buildings. At Troy, as a country. These archives consist of cuneiform tablets, letters and Tiryns and Mycenae, no enemy could reach the gates withoy contracts, relating to the commercial undertakings of the great exposure on a portion of the rampart, which made defence easier. merchants of the district. They are written in the ancient Assyr- What pillage and fire left unhurt was destroyed by the Romans, ian language; the writing resembles that used at the time of the and of the Troy of Homer there remains little to-day save Ur dynasty (25-24th centuries). An impression of a cylinder memory. seal bearing a dedication to King Tbi-Sin of this dynasty, gives FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C. the earliest date of these tablets for it seems probable that this ancient seal was in long use, and that most of the tablets only The empire of Boghaz Keui had been destroyed by the Seg date from ¢. 2100. Side by side with the Semitic names of the peoples, but its artistic traditions were carried by the Mushki members of this colony appear those of the inhabitants of the people, perhaps akin to the Phrygians, occupying the territory country. They are Asianics of the type called “protohittite,” of which Boghaz Keui was the centre, then by the Phrygians speaking the dialect in use in Anatolia before the supremacy of whose kingdom corresponded to the country situated to the west invaders of Indo-European stock, who established successfully the of the area occupied by the Hittites of Boghaz Keui, by the Hittite confederation of the 2nd millennium B.C. On these tablets Lydians, the Carians and the Lycians. the impression of Asianic seals appears along with that of seals of The Mushki.—At the beginning of this period Hittite inf the Semites of Cappadocia. The Asianic seals are flat, usually ence is still dominant. Art, however, displayed a decadence, circular, of slight dimensions, ornamented with the heraldic eagle, which showed itself in a grossness of shape and a general clumsiwith ornamental designs based on animal motives, with concen- ness, aS in a certain number of the sculptures at Uyiik, the has. tric circles or with spirals. The Semitic seals are cylindrical, and, reliefs on rocks at Bor and Ivziz (north of the Taurus), repreretaining the complexity of Sumerian art, by which they are in- senting a local king before his god. These sculptures typify spired, represent the combat of the hero Gilgamesh with wild the transition from those of Anatolia under the Hittite empire to beasts, animals crossed in an X, a divinity seated on a chariot, those of Syria of the rst millennium B.c. and the adoration of an idol in the form of a bull No single Phrygia and Lydia.—The most important Phrygian mongreat monument can be attributed either to the Semites of ments are funerary and fall into two principal groups. The frst Cappadocia or te the Asianic peoples who were their contem- is in the neighbourhood of the town of Ayazinn, the second to the poraries. north of it. To the first group belongs the tomb, called the tomb Troy I1.—The excavations on the hill which bears the famous of Midas, in which the facade hewn out of the rock itself is 2 city of Troy (Hissarlik) were begun by the German, Schliemann, great flat surface, divided in the form of a cross into equal parts, assisted by Dörpfeld, in 1870, and were continued intermittently surrounded by regular scrolls in relief. The facade is surmounted until 1894, on the site of nine successive cities, of which only by a triangular pediment slightly raised, crowned by a double two are of real importance: Troy Il., discovered by Schliemann scroll, In the lower part of the façade a false door is carved. and wrongly regarded as the Troy of Homer, which belonged to This arrangement appears also in a monument in the valley of about 2400-1900 B.c., and Troy VI., discovered by Dörpfeld, Thyndakos, called the Delikli-tash (the pierced stone). The real which is really the Troy of Homer (1500-1180). The second entrance to such tombs was in the upper part. They consisted, Troy, which was destroyed by fire, had foundations of stones therefore, of shafts sunk in the rock itself, the external face of joined by a mortar of clay, on which rose walls of rough bricks which was ornamented. Sometimes these monuments were purely with wood supports. The town was surrounded by a rampart with commemorative and consisted of the single facade sculptured towers. At Troy II. appeared vases with human figures, and from the rock, in the style of the monument of Midas. The group pitchers with vertical and elongated lips. Rich jewels, discovered of tombs situated near Ayazinn are not distinguished from the by Schliemann in a hiding place, and erroneously described as first group; they have the same façades with geometric ornamen“the treasure of Priam,” comprise golden diadems with many tation in relief, with or without a false door, and surmounted by small chains finished off with the simplified image of an idol, a triangular pediment more or less raised. In certain cases the earrings of the same metal and technique, libation vases, one of scheme of shafts has not been adopted, and the door, in that case which is in gold and is shaped like a sauce tureen with two a real one, gives access to the tomb. Besides the geometrical type handles. There are also flat bronze axes with widened edges, of decoration, a naturalistic and very effective one exists. Thus bronze knives and daggers, together with stone weapons, some- the necropolis of Ayazinn a rock-face shows half way up the door times sumptuously set in a metal mount. The antiquities of Troy of a tomb. On either side gigantic lions, cut out of the living rock, II. must be compared with those of Crete and the Aegean world stand erect, facing each other, their forepaws resting on the top rather than with the interior of Asia Minor, though as regards the of the door. This motive of lions guarding the tomb is found period of Troy I. (2400-1900), our sole knowledge of the interior on other monuments of the necropolis. Quite a different typ of Asia Minor consists of epigraphic material as in the “Cappa- of tomb (at Ayazinn, at Yapuldak, at Gherdek-kaia-si) shows docian tablets,” Greek influence in its facades, columns and decorative ornaments;

ASIA MINOR

ARCHAEOLOGY]

are the most recent of all the series, which belong, without doubt, to the period between the 8th and 4th centuries B.C. In Sipyle, near Smyrna, another kind of tomb is to be found, a

mulus; the most celebrated is the so-called tomb of Tantalus,

asily comparable to those in Lydia, where very few specimens emain except Of funerary architecture. The type of tumulus

tomb is due to Thracian influence. The finest monument of this tind is the tomb of Alyattes, the father of Croesus, near Sardis.

y consists of a funerary chamber sunk into a circular base made

af stones and earth, and surmounted by a cone of worked earth.

A pillar with an expanded base should adorn the summit. This of tumulus tomb occurs frequently in this area, most of

them dating perhaps from the beginning of the 6th century B.c. The coins, however, and the jewels found in Lydia, at Tralles, for example, display also Eastern influences, chiefly Assyrian, with occasional use of Egyptian designs. Decorative Lydian art manifests individual taste, but situated like that of Phoenicia, was

gmilarly subject to varied influences at that epoch.

Lycia.—In funerary architecture, Lycia draws its inspiration chiefly from Phrygia in the arrangement of the tomb; carved

gt of a rock wall itself. But the style is quite diferent; generally the artist reproduces the front of a wooden house with projecting beams, in which the jutting ends have been intentionally rved. This scheme is found in the tombs of Kenibachi, Hoiran, A-Myra and Antiphellos; the façade is surmounted by a

triangular pediment in the second case, arched in the first; a

scheme which is found in the so-called Lycian sarcophagus in the

royal necropolis of Saida.

THE GRAECO-ROMAN

EPOCH

During the last centuries of this millennium and the first centuries of the Christian era, Greek and Roman influence became

predominant in the country. There are, therefore, changes in the

539

partly cleared by the excavations. Its theatre is one of the most beautiful buildings of its kind. On a hummock near the town have been found traces of an earlier Miletus, destroyed by the Persians in 494 B.C.

Didyma is situated near Miletus; the French, and then the

Germans, have made excavations there, which have brought to light the remains of the oracular shrine of Apollo; begun at the end of the 4th century B.C., it was not finished at the beginning of the Christian era. It was a long building surrounded by columns (122 in all) which were more than 20 metres high, only three of which remain standing. The sculptures on the door leading from the maos to the cellar are an indication of the richness of the ornamentation of this temple. “The way of the Branchides,” ornamented with the statues of priests of that name, leads from the temple to the sea. Halicarnassus, to the south of Miletus, was the capital of a small State, which became independent under Mausolus, a Persian satrap. The British Museum possesses important fragments of the famous tomb (from which the word mausoleum is derived) which was raised by his widow. SYRIA: THIRD AND SECOND MILLENNIUM

B.C.

Byblos.—The excavations of M. P. Montet at Byblos (Djebail to-day, 30km. to the north of Beyrouth) have thrown some light on the archaeology of Phoenicia at the dawn of history. About 3000 B.c. the kings of Egypt maintained regular relations with Byblos; they held in peculiar veneration the local goddess of the place, the “Baalat Gebal,” ze., the “Lady of Byblos,” and sent her offerings. In 1926 a piece of an alabaster vase was found bearing the name of Khufa, the Pharaoh who built the Great

Pyramid of Giza (c. 30th century B.c.). During the 2nd millennium s.c. relations between Egypt and Phoenicia had not lessened in any way; Virolleaud and Montet have discovered at Byblos a hypogeum of the local kings, contemporary with the Pharaohs of the 12th dynasty. The king of

character of the monuments. The art, which at first was purely oriental, then hellenized, gives place to Graeco-Roman art, and an be distinguished from that of the continent only by its Egypt was then overlord of the city; he sent presents, such as oriental exuberance of detail, this being the case also at this perfume vases made of obsidion set with gold, to the local petty kings, who, in imitation of Egypt, had made locally breast-plates time in Syria. Assus.—Among the principal ruins of the Aegean coast and its in cloisonné, or in wrought gold. They wrote their names neighbourhood, we must cite in going from north to south: Assus, clumsily in Egyptian hieroglyphics on the arms, which were the facing the north-eastern point of the island of Mitylene, built on insignia of their authority (that called the karpé is of Babylonian terraces cut into the side of a hill, where an agora, a theatre, a origin, and the ancestor of the oriental scimitar). Kafer-ed-Djarra.—In the vicinity of Sidon, at Kafer-edgymnasium and a street of tombs have been unearthed. The sculptures of Assus use the Dorian order, but in a hybrid form, Djarra, several burial areas have been excavated, first by Dr. a feature not found in Asia Minor except at Pergamus. The Contenau and then by M. Guigues. The tombs, in the form of temple, of which nothing remains but the bare surface of the a baker’s oven, contain a great deal of pottery. A 12th dynasty Egyptian faience balsam vase was discovered there, as well as sylobate, dates probably from the middle of the 5th century. Pergamus.—At the junction of the Selinus and the Caicus, is scarabs of the Hyksos type, with an imitation of Egyptian wax the ancient capital of a State, which became independent of the in which designs derived from the spiral play a large part. Macedonian empire of Alexander’s successors, and which main- Further, many types of pottery, some Egyptian, but more often tained its independence from 220 to 133 B.c. The German excava- copies of Aegean pottery, have been found there. The Tomb of Ahiram.—Another hypogeum, also discovered tions at Pergamus have revealed baths, amphitheatre, theatre, an asklépieion, and on the Acropolis, the agora and gymnasia, at Byblos by M. P. Montet, dating from the end of the znd remains of the sanctuary of Athene Polias and of the temple of millennium B.C., contains a sarcophagus with the oldest Phoenician inscription known at present, in the name of Ahiram, a vassal Trajan and Hadrian. Ephesus—The Austrian and the British excavations have of the Pharaoh. The tomb of Ahiram represents on its four hid bare the great monuments of the city, the agora, baths, sides funeral scenes in a border of lotus blossom; the bearers of library, theatre, gymnasium and porticos. At the Odéon a long offerings for the dead and the lamenting mourners. A certain portico of 23 columns, the bases of the columns still occupying number of objects found in the tomb, bearing the name of the their original positions, and several of their capitals, decorated Pharaoh, Rameses Il., give the date of the tomb of Ahiram and` with bulls’ heads have been found. The most celebrated monu- its inscription as the 13th century B.c. This date has been disment of Ephesus is the Artemision, the temple of Artemis. The puted; but even if it should be ascribed to the extreme end of old temple was built in the 6th century B.c., on the site of three the millennium (and indeed it cannot be later), tbe inscription previous sanctuaries; it was burnt in 356, rebuilt and finished at still remains the oldest in the Phoenician language known up to the end of the 4th century. the present time. Kadesh, Mishrifeh.—The explorations of Pézard on the site Priéne.—In the deep valley of the Maeander German excavatons have revealed a hellenistic city with streets cut at right of Tell-Nebi-Mend, near Homs, the ancient Kadesh, a strong angles; the theatre, the sanctuary of Demeter and the temple of place of the Hittites against the Egyptians, came to a premature

Athene Polias, built in 334 B.C., are still to be seen. These ruins

show us what was the type of hellenistic city in Asia Minor.

Miletus, near Prigne, explored by the Germans, the most mmurious town of Ionia, possessed four gates, which have been

end owing to the death of the excavator, and nothing has been done at Homs itself, at Damascus or at Aleppo, which, history tells us, passed under Hittite dominion in the rst century of the end millennium B.c. The researches of Du Mesnil du Buisson at

540

ASIA MINOR

Mishrifeh, in northern Syria, near Homs, show that Egyptian influence (a sphinx of the 12th dynasty has been discovered there) had reached there. Cuneiform tablets record the inventory of the treasures of the Mesopotamian goddess, Ninegal, who had a sanctuary there, and from them we learn that the old name of the site was Katna. Mesopotamian influence can be traced also in several monuments at Mishrifeh (heads of statues) and at Damascus and its neighbourhood (the lion of Cheik-Saad in the museum of Damascus, a bas-relief of Salihiyeh representing a warrior, in the British Museum). But it is by no means the only influence. The Anatolian art has had an effect, and for this reason the term Syro-Hittite must be given to this art. This corresponds to historic fact, for the Hittites in the 2nd millennium had settled in Palestine. This view is strengthened by the great number of cylinder seals of the period found in this region. Their general style is a development of the style of the Cappadocian cylinders; on profound examination they betray the distant influence of Sumerian art; but in detail—the types, attitudes, costumes of the people—they continue the tradition of Boghaz Keui. FIRST

MILLENNIUM

B.C.

The Interior of Syria: Zendjirli, Carchemish, Tell-Halaf.

—German excavations at Zendjirli (the old kingdom of Samal) to the north-west of Aleppo near the Amanus, and the British work at Carchemish on the Euphrates, which after the fall of Boghaz-Keui was the capital of the new Hittite confederation, have produced some important inscriptions and have reconstituted the art of the Arameans. Here Hittite and Mesopotamian influences contend. A type of city based on a circular plan, surrounded by one or several walls has been revealed. In these are found bit-hilant (Assyrian for these buildings), which are more wide than deep, with steps and a peristyle with columns and often flanked by two square towers. In conformity with technique found in Assyria, the courts and halls of the palace are decorated with plinths of carved stone, representing mythological scenes, lines of palace guards, or winding processions. Roaring lions guarded the doors. But this art is earlier than the glorious Assyrian period, for it starts with the beginning of the rst millennium and is distinguished from the Assyrian by the use of basalt, and by a vigorous, bold, almost primitive, style, where massiveness is compensated by sincerity. This art, in comparison with the Assyria of the Sargonides, is provincial, but its date makes it independent of Assyria. It is related in a general way, though not directly, to the art of Boghaz Keui. Some of the oldest sculptures, those of Uyiik for example, explain this art of upper Syria at the beginning of the rst millennium, though there

is missing the translation in relationship with the Hittite art of Anatolia of the 13th century. The German excavations of von Oppenheim at Tell-Halaf (on the Chabur) have revealed monuments of the same style, the most vigorous being the oldest; others, which are analogous to the most recent specimens from

Zendjirli, exhibit in decadence the formula, of which they are the extreme branch in the direction of Assyria. Phoenicia.—The majority of the Phoenician monuments which have come down to us date from the rst millennium, and to a large extent from the middle of it, when Persian rule was established in the country. We learn from this epoch the funerary art of the Phoenicians, and as a result of Renan’s mission we also possess several ruins of their temples. Interment is usually made in vaults, to which access is by an upright square shaft. The sarcophagi are plain stone cases, with a lid having a slightly shelving ridge. Certain Sidonian monarchs, Tabnit and his son, Eshmunazar, were interred in Egyptian sarcophagi, which shows how great the influence of Egypt (5th century B.c.) still was in Phoenicia. In imitation of these sarcophagi, of which the first is in the museum of Constantinople, and the second in the Louvre, the Phoenicians cut sarcophagi out of marble from the islands in the shape of a mummy case, with the head raised in high relief on the cover. These are known as the “anthropoid” sarcophagi (sth and 6th centuries). They were buried in the true subterranean dwellings, to which access is by shaft, or often, more con-

[ARCHAEOLOGY

veniently, by stairs. Such necropoli are found all along the Coast ( (Tartous) and Amrit. In this last notably at Sidon, at Tortose

necropolis there are still vestiges of the commemorative mony-

ments which the Phoenicians placed in their tombs- they i en cylindrical in shape with a rounded end.

To the same epoch date the foundations of temples, which prove

the continuity of the Semitic worship ; : : in this area. At Amrit mnt, ma

great court a small naos (shrine) is cut out of the rock itself

showing that it was a place of worship. At Sidon, on the side of a hill on a terrace overlooking the river, are the ruins of a temple

dedicated to Eshmun, the Phoenician Aesculapius. The mog important Phoenician inscriptions, found in Phoenicia itself. come from Sidon and from the dynasty to which Tabnit and Eshmy.

nazar belonged. We may conclude that Phoenician art, in the course of its history, remained under the direct influence of the conquerors and of the countries with which Phoenicia had inter. course. Phoenician art is a compound of Egyptian, Aegean and Mesopotamian motives, which local artists have utilized and combined with real taste.

The Sarcophagi of Sidon.—As forming a link between the

art of the East and that of the Graeco-Roman period the sarcophagi, discovered in the hypogeum, where Tabnit was buried, may be mentioned. Though of a more recent period, they belong entirely to Greek art. These sarcophagi, rightly famous are in the museum of Constantinople. The most famous Š termed the “Sarcophagus of Alexander,” not because that monarch was buried there, but because his effigy is reproduced among

the sculptures of the bottom part. It is made of Pentelian marble. The artist has depicted on the sides scenes of battle and the chase, in which the Macedonian conqueror is taking part. The

sculptures have an admirable finish and style, and were originally enlivened with touches of colour. It dates from the end of the 4th

century B.c. and has a lid in the form of a roof, ornamented at the four corners with small recumbent lions. Of the other sarcophagi of this series, which, though bearing no name, te

judge by their richness must surely have sheltered the sovereigns

of Sidon, the sarcophagus known as the “Lycian” is made of sculptured marble (c. 400 B.c.), while that called “the Satrape,” which depicts some man of rank inspecting his horses, or taking a part in a banquet, or at a hunt, is dated to the middle of the sth century. A third, known as “The Weepers,” represents a temple in outline, with columns between which are mourners in the funeral procession of the dead man (middle of the 4th century). Therefore, at least from the Persian epoch, oriental art in Phoenicia was in competition with Greek art, which little by little was to oust it. The Graeco-Roman Period.—From the beginning of this era it is no longer necessary to draw distinctions in Syrian art between the region of the interior and that of the coast. The whole country was under Graeco-Roman influence, and art was permeated with it in varying degrees. The great Syrian ruins date from this age, such as the old temple of Boetocécé (called to-day Hosn Suleiman) on the road from Tripoli to Hamah, a vast

enclosure of Semitic type, restored in the rst century A.D. (The original enclosure was left open to the sky.) Baalbek.—Here in the ancient Heliopolis, situated on the line from Rayak to Homs, are the remains of two great temples with their adjoining buildings, constructed within an enclosure of high

walls, some of the stones being of gigantic size. The propylaea led to a hexagonal court 60 metres in diameter, at the end of which was the temple of the sun. Nothing remains of it but the foundations and six tall columns. In front of the temple was a

sacrificial altar and basins for lustral water. Theodosius, at the end of the 4th century a.p. partly demolished the temple in order to build a church, itself ruined. At the side of the Temple of the Sun is a smaller sanctuary called the Temple of Bacchus, doubtless because one of the doors is decorated with vines. It was

ably dedicated to Atargatis, the goddess spouse of the chief god of Heliopolis. It is in better preservation than the Temple of the

Sun. The rich floral decoration used by the artists of Syria and Palestine in their profuse ornament of the buildings constru at this epoch is very conspicuous here.

pr

Palmyra, situated in an oasis, about 85m. east of Homs, was important town at the time of the Assyrian empire (7th cenB.c.), but its splendour dates from the 2nd, and still more

fom the grd century A.D., when, under Queen Zenobia, it was the head of an immense empire. The temple of “the sun” pregents many analogies with that of Baalbek, and is surrounded in

be same way by walls. Other monuments of less importance, temples, a theatre, and in particular a colonnade, in which a numter of the columns are still standing, are decorated as lavishly god richly as those at Baalbek. Most of the treasures from Palmyra, now in museums, come by reason of their funerary practices. The custom of placing in the tombs the bust of the

dead in high relief, accompanied by an epitaph, produced an easy form of sculpture of beautiful decorative effect, which is a source of information as to the dress and the customs of the people. (See PALMYRA. ) At the beginning the temple of Jupiter at Damascus (later the church of St. John and then the mosque of Ommeiades) must

have been a magnificent building.

The court of the present

mosque corresponds to the temple enclosure, which was formerly

get in a still greater enclosure, which to-day is entirely covered by buildings, nothing remaining except the ruins of the gates. Doura.—After the occupation of Mesopotamia by English troops, on the edge of Syria, at Salihiyeh on the Euphrates, to the north-west of Abou Kemal, in 1920, were discovered the remains

Histoire de lart dans l'Antiquité TV.

(1890). Languages

of Asia

Minor: C. Autran, Les langues propres de l'Asia Antérieute anctenne;

Langues du monde (1924); J. Friedrich, Altkleinasiatische Sprachen, Ebert-Reallexitkon

d. vorgeschichte

(1924).

Graeco-Roman

epoch

(Asia Minor): F. Sartiaux, Villes mortes d'Asie Mineure (1911); D. G. Hogarth, Excavations at Ephesus; the archaic Artemisia (1908); Th. Wiegand et H. Schrader, Priene (1904); A. von Salis, “Die Ausgrabungen in Milet und Didyma,” Neue Jahrb. f. d. k, Alt., xxv. 2 (1910); E. Pontremoli et B. Haussoullier, Didymes (1904); J. B. K. Preedy, “The Chariot Group of the Mausoleum,” J. of Hellen. Stud. (1910). Phoenicia: G. Contenau, La Civilisation phénicienne (1926, bibl.). Kadesh: M. Pézard, “Mission archéologique à Tell-Nebi-Mend,” in Syrie (1922). Mishréfé: Du Mesnil du Buisson, “Les Ruines d’El-Mishrifé” (Syria, 1926-28). Zendjirli: Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli (1893, et suiv.). Carchemish: D. G. Hogarth, Carchemish, i. (1914), C. L. Woolley, ii. (1921), D. G. Hogarth, Kings of tke Hittites (1924). Baalbek: T. Wiegand, Baalbek (1921-25). Palmyra: S, Butler Murray, Hellenistic Architecture in Syria (1917, bibl.); A. Gabriel, “Recherches archéologiques à Palmyre,” Syria (1926). Doura: F. Cumont, Doura-Europos (1927, bibl.). Christian Epoch in Syria: S. Butler Murray, Publications of an

American Archaeological Expedition to Syria in 1899-1900, ii. (1904) ;

Publications

of the Princeton

University Archaeological Expeditions

to Syria in 1904-05, ii., A.B. (1904).

See also ASIANIC LANGUAGES.

(G. Co.)

HISTORY

goddess, Fortuna of Doura and Palmyra, by the Roman legion

Asia Minor has been known from the earliest period as a battleground between the East and the West. The central plateau with no navigable rivers and few natural approaches, its monotonous scenery and severe climate, is a continuation of Central Asia. The west coast, with its fertile valleys and fine climate, is almost a part of Europe. These conditions are unfavourable to permanence, and the history of Asia Minor is that of the march of nomad tribes and colonists, and of the rise and fall of small

which was in garrison there (3rd century A.p.). These paintings

states.

ethibit the influence of Palmyra (perhaps the artist was a Pal-

myrian) and afford interesting evidence of the influence which oriental art, as known through the important works at Palmyra ad Doura, had on Byzantine art. From the beginning of the ist

About 1950 B.c. western Asia Minor appears to have been held by the rst dynasty of Hittites (g.v.), with their capital at Kushara (?). Two centuries later Aryan races seem to have invaded the country and imposed at least their language on the Hit-

millennium A.D. a number

tites, who about 1500 B.c. emerged suddenly as a powerful empire

ef the old city of Doura-Europos

(rst century a.D.), which

Breasted and Cumont have partially explored. The éxcavations have uncovered a building ornamented with precious frescoes,

representing a sacrifice offered by a dignitary of the town, surrounded by all his followers, and a sacrifice offered to the local

of funerary monuments have been

iound, sarcophagi, statues in Graeco-Roman style, tombs painted with frescoes, especially near Sidon, and finally a marked preference for the use of mosaic. A good example is the mosaic of Kabr Hiram discovered by Renan near Tyre, and a funeral stele

at Hati (Boghaz-Keui of to-day, Greek Pteria), ruling over Asia Minor and fighting the Egyptian Pharaohs for the mastery of Syria, and Assyria for the mastery of Mittani (Jerablus). The Hittite sculptures and inscriptions have been found in

with portraits of the deceased found on the outskirts of Sidon in 1914 and now in the museum of Beirut. The Christian Epoch in Syria has left an appreciable number of monuments. In the north the most celebrated is the monastery of Qala’at Seman on the road from Aleppo to Alexandretta, where St. Simon Stylites lived. The church was built, undoubtedly, at the beginning of the 6th century, a little time after the death of the saint. It is composed of a central octagon, 30 metres in diameter, an essentially Syrian arrangement, making

their own capital at Boghaz-Keui and at various places between Smyrna and the Euphrates. This Hittite empire was overthrown by Indo-European races, possibly Greeks, who, crossing the Hellespont from Europe to Asia, with their iron weapons defeated the Hittites possessing only bronze weapons. These Indo-European races established many colonies all along the Aegean coast and in the hinterland, from which arose the Phrygian kingdom. Traces of this kingdom remain in various rock tombs, forts and towns, and in leg-

the centre of a cross. Not far from Qala’at Seman are the ruins of Tourmanin, a church of the 6th century, and a large two-

ends preserved by. the Greeks. In the 8th century B.c. the Cimmerians coming from Armenia overran the Phrygian kingdom, and on its decline rose the kingdom of Lydia, with its centre at Sardis. A second Cimmerian invasion, followed later by Cyaxares, almost destroyed the rising kingdom, but the invaders were stopped by Alyattes (617—586 B.C.; see SCYTHIA). The last King Croesus (?560-546 B.C.) carried his boundaries to the Halys, and subdued the Greek colonies on the coast. These flourishing Greek colonies formed a chain of settlements extending from Trebizond to Rhodes. Too jealous of each other to combine, and too demoralized by luxury to resist, they fell an easy prey to Lydia. After the capture of Sardis by Cyrus, 546 B.c., these colonies passed to Persia without resistance. Under Persian rule Asia Minor was divided into ‘four satrapies, but the Greek cities were governed by Greeks and the tribes in the interior retained their native princes and priest-dynasts. The conflicts between Persians and Greeks are told in the article GREECE: History. Beginning with Darius’ attempt to conquer the European, as well as Asiatic, Greeks, they ended in 334 B.c. when Asia Minor was invaded by Alexander the Great. (See Grerce; Persra; Iona.) After the death of Alexander various diadochoi (succession rulers) established their rule over various parts of the peninsula.

storied building for the use of pilgrims. At El-Barah, near the caravan route from Hamah to Aleppo, and at Serdjilla, an hour’s distance away, many houses of the 5th century are still in an admirable state of preservation. They were

abandoned at the time of the Arab occupation. They owe their

preservation to the fact that stone was used almost entirely in

their construction. Beautiful specimens of Syrian silver work of this period, chalices, vials for holy oil, vases, sumptuous book-

bindings of the Gospels, belonging, many of them, probably to the middle of the 6th century, are to be seen in the important museums.

BrstiocrapHy.—Anatolie: G. Contenau, Trente tablettes cappadodennes (1919 bibl.); F. Hrozny, “Rapport préliminaire sur les fouilles tchécoslovaques du Kultépé 1925,” in Syria (1927). Troy II: lemann, Troja (1884). Hittites: D. G. Hogarth, Ionia and ike East (1909); Hittite Seals (1920); J. Garstang, The Land of the Hittites (1910); O. Puchstein, Boghaskéi, Die Bauwerke (1912); Meyer, Reich und Kultur der Chetiter (1914); G. Contenau, Glyptique Syro-Hittite (1922), Bibliographie Hittite (1922); A. H. Sayce, The Hittites (new ed., 1925); E. Pottier, L’art Hittite (Ist

c., 1926). Troy VI.: W. Dörpfeld, Troja-Excavations » 1891).

Phrygia,

Lydia, Lycia:

I

m

541

ASIA MINOR

ARCHAEOLOGY;

$ +

(Eng.

G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez,

542 Rhodes became a great maritime republic.

ASIANIC LANGUAGES The Ptolemies of

Egypt ruléd over the Mediterranean coast of Asia Minor. A small independent kingdom was founded at Pergamum 283 B.C.,

which lasted a century and a half. Bithynia became an independent monarchy, Cappadocia and Paphlagonia tributary provinces under native princes. In the south the Seleucids founded Antioch, Apamea, Attalia, the Laodiceas and other cities as centres of commerce, some of which afterwards played an important part in the Hellenization of the country and in the spread of Christianity. During the 3rd century B.c. certain Celtic tribes crossed the Bosporus and established their power in districts between the Sangarius and Halys, called Galatia. Its capital was at Ancyra—the modern Angora, the capital of republican Turkey. The defeat of Antiochus the Great at Magnesia, 190 B.c., placed Asia Minor at the mercy of Rome, but it was only in 133 B.C. that the first Roman province, Asia, was formed to include the western Anatolia. Under Mithridates the Great (g.v.) Pontus rose into a formidable power; but he was driven from his country by Pompey and died in 63 B.c. The Romans organized the peninsula into various provinces, leagues and almost independent principalities, and under their dominion Asia Minor developed and became prosperous. At the end of the 3rd century AD., in reorganizing the empire, Diocletian broke the great military commands and united the provinces into groups called dioceses. A great change followed the introduction of Christianity, which gradually spread over the region. The seven Christian Churches of Asia Minor were built up in this period. When the Roman empire was divided into two in 395, Asia Minor fell to the Eastern Roman empire with its capital at Constantinople; the native languages and old religions partly disappeared and the country was thoroughly Hellenized. At the close of the 6th century Asia Minor had become wealthy and prosperous, but centuries of peace and over-centralization produced a state of affairs which is embodied in the term Byzantine. The vigorous Persian monarch Chosroes IT. (Khosrau) invaded Asia Minor from 616 to 626 and pitched his camp on the Bosporus. The emperor Heraclius, however, restored the Byzantine power by marching his army to Kurdistan; but soon after the Arabs entered Asia Minor, and in 668 A.D. laid siege to Constantinople. For the following three centuries Byzantium and the caliphs of Baghdad waged occasional warfare for the mastery of the bridgeheads of the Euphrates and the Cilician gates. But a more dangerous enemy was soon to appear from the East. In 1067 the Seljuk Turks ravaged Cilicia and Cappadocia; in 1071 they defeated and captured the emperor Romanus Diogenes; in 1080 they took Nicaea. One branch of the Seljuks founded the empire of Rum with its capital at Iconium. During the r2th century a number of Seljuk Atabeks ruled in different districts of Asia Minor; the Mamelukes of Egypt in Syria and farther East; Greeks in Pontus, Armenians in Cilicia, Danishmends (an Armenian family) at Sivas, Bayandurs (a Greek family) at Erzerum, etc. The Mongols swept the whole region and in 1243 subdued the Seljuk sultan of Rum. In the ensuing struggle for power among

the Turkoman tribes, the Osmanli Turks eventually assumed su-

the camel. The native peasants were thus forced to be nomad: themselves. The Mongols, as they advanced, sacked towns and historic monuments; they razed to the ground even mounds ang

“all that might serve as a place of armed resistance.” Timur c

ducted his campaigns with a ruthless disregard of life ang pr

erty. Entire Christian communities and almost all who attempted

any self-defence were massacred; flourishing towns were com.

pletely destroyed and all Asia Minor was ravaged.

From these

disasters the country never recovered, and many traces of Ha} lenic civilization disappeared with the enforced use of the Turkish

language and the wholesale conversions to Islam under the carly Osmanli sultans. In modern times, Asia Minor slowly recovered under western influences; but the construction of railways and the consequent

growth of trade and local industries were seriously interrupted

by the disaster of the World War.

When the Turks signed the

Armistice on Oct. 30, 1918, they were utterly beaten. The British armies had captured all the Arab-speaking lands of Asia

Minor.

In May 1919 a Greek army seized Smyrna and most of

the Ionian coast and gradually extended its occupation to Eski-

Shehir (the ancient Dorylaeum) and Afiun-Karahissar. At one moment it was thought that the Hellenic civilization was again rising in its historic centres. The Treaty of Sévres (q.v.), signed by the Turks in Aug. 1920 reduced Asia Minor to its geographical and ethnic boundaries as it had been established by five centuries of Turkish domination,

Great Britain assumed the mandates of Palestine and “Iraq, and France that of Syria. Meanwhile Great Britain, France and Italy

had signed a tripartite agreement, by which they divided south and south-eastern Asia Minor into spheres of influence. The Turkish nationalist movement, however, led by Mustapha Kemal Pasha soon reasserted itself. The Turks drove the French from Cilicia and the Greeks from Smyrna. The Treaty of Sévres was not ratified and was superseded by the Treaty of Lausanne (July 1923) which left Turkey absolutely sovereign in Asia Minor in the narrow sense. After the suppression of the sultanate in Nov. 1923, soon followed by that of the caliphate, Turkey declared itself a republic with its capital at Angora. Under the auspices of the Allied Powers and in conjunction

with the Treaty of Lausanne a convention for the exchange of populations was signed between Turkey and Greece, by which about one million Greeks, the oldest civilized natives of western Asia Minor, were driven from their ancestral homes and lands and transferred to Greece and Macedonia, thus wiping out the last traces of Hellenism in Anatolia. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—TLexier, Asie Mineure (1843); Hamilton, Researches in Asia Minor (1843); Tchihatchev, Asie Mineure (1853—60); Ritter, Erdkunde, vol. xviil—xix. (1858-59) ; Cuinet, La Turquie d’Asie (1890) ; Ramsay, Hist. Geog. of Asia Minor (1890) and Studies in the History and Art of the Eastern Roman Empire (1906) ; Radet, Lydie (1893); Chapot, La frontiére de Euphrates (1907); Stahelin, Geschichie d. Kleinasiatische Galater (1907) ; Banse, Die Turkei (1918, bibl.); Gibbons, The Foundations of the Ottoman Empire (1916, bibl.) ; Toynbee and Kirkwood, Turkey (1926, bibl.). (C. W. W.; D. G. H.; A.S.)

ASIANIC

LANGUAGES.

The languages described as

Asianic were spoken in Asia Minor by non-Hellenic peoples before the arrival of Greek, by which most of them have been slowly ousted or absorbed. The term is purely geographical and comprises the country to the shores of the Aegean. On the death of Timur, a number of ancient languages, of different families and modes of the Osmanli power was re-established after a prolonged struggle writing whose only common feature is their obscurity. They are which ended with the annexation by Mohammed II. (1451-81) mainly (xr) recorded in cuneiform, as Sumerian (q.v.), Hittite of Karamania and Pontus. The later history of Asia Minor is Cassite, Vannic and Elamite; or (2) languages whose name alone that of the Ottoman empire. The Turks have dominated Asia survives, as Pisidian, Lycaonian, Cappadocian, Paphlagontan, Minor since in the widest sense, until their supreme power was Phrygian (an Indo-European language); and (3) the speech of challenged in 1832 by an Egyptian army under Ibrahim Pasha, the peoples of the coast of Asia Minor, Mysian, Lydian (Maiones), Carian and Lycian (Termiles), recorded by alphabets akin to or and their rule shattered in the World War. The devastation of Asia Minor, initiated by the Seljuk hordes derived from the Greek. premacy and established their state at Brusa. In 1400 Sultan Bayazid I. held almost all Asia Minor west of the Euphrates. But he was defeated and imprisoned by Timur, who swept through

in the 11th century, was followed by a long succession of nomad Turkish tribes. The latter did not ill-treat the native people; but as they passed onwards they left the country bare and desolate. Whole provinces passed out of cultivation and the natives, taking to the mountains or to towns, abandoned their lands to these nomads, who replaced wheeled traffic by the pack horse and

Mysian.—According to Herodotus the Mysians were related to

the Carians and Lycians, and of their speech we have only three glosses surviving on which no conclusions can be based.

Lydian.—Excavations

conducted by the American school,

1910-13, produced numerous inscriptions dating from the$ and 4th centuries B.c. written in an alphabet closely resembling

ASIENTO

543

Grammar-—Two genders seem to have existed with a dede Greek, usually from right to left. Mostly funerary inscriptions, they contain with variations the common formula—“This is clension with a nominative, an oblique case in -i (plural -e) and an the tomb of X son of Y. May he who damages it be punished accusative with nasalization. The possessive of the 1st person is by the divinity, himself and his family.” We have a few short emi or mine. The relative is zi. In the verb the singular third yilingual (Greek and Lydian) inscriptions and one (Lydian- person was, it seems, £ or d, and the third person plural was mi and Aramaic) dating 455 Or 394 OF 349 B.C. which, despite many ob- there was a vowel conjugation, the timbre of the vowel varying curities, is the basis of our decipherment and interpretation. We with the variations of time. The usual negative form is ne, ni. have a fairly accurate knowledge of Lydian, although the value of A certain number of words have been elucidated by the bilingual some signs is problematic and the greater part of the vocabulary re- inscriptions so that the meaning of certain phrases can be esunknown, while the longest texts available, metrical in- tablished with some accuracy, although it is as yet impossible to deal satisfactorily with the larger inscriptions. scriptions from. Sardis, are still a riddle. Phonetics—Lydian has the vowels, a, e, z, o and u; nasalized gowels G, &; an aspirate h, two ls, one plain and one rolled, two

ries of occlusives, surd and sonor, with an absence of aspirated

aclusives. There are accumulations of consonants due perhaps to habits in writing or perhaps indicating a modification of the short yowels, possibly the result of accent. Grammar.—Nouns

seemingly

have

two

genders

and three

Affinities of the Asianic Languages.—As

to the relation-

ship of these languages to one another, all that can be said is that they have certain identical tendencies in pronunciation, in nasalized vowels, which prove nothing, some grammatical coincidences (accusative in -2; verb forms for the third person in -é and -nt) which are of little aid. Neither Lydian nor Lycian display any certain marks of relationship.

Their vocabularies are

cases in the singular, less certainly in the plural. The nominative very different, a fact which does not prevent their having a commasculine and feminine in the singular is -s for roots in -ż and -$ in mon origin. Too little is known of Carian, which must be others. The oblique case (dative and perhaps locative) is -A and omitted, and as regards Lydian and Lycian such facts as we have the accusative -7 as also probably the oblique plural. Demonstra-

tives and adjectives have the case forms as the nouns to which they belong. Thus the demonstrative es- is in the masculinefeminine nominative es-s which becomes es$; in the neuter it is esl becoming est; thus we have es$ vanas, this. tomb, and est mrud, this monument.

In all genders the form es

is used in

oblique cases. Possession is indicated by an adjective in -l- which can be associated with the oblique case form -^ and takes the

same case forms as the noun. Thus vãnaś Átalis, the tomb of Atas. Verbal forms are less clear. Lydian seems to have had a

third person singular form in -d and a third person plural form in -ent. The numerals are not known. The post-position -k means ‘snd’ as -c in Etruscan. Negative forms are ik .. . nik, neither ... nor, and a negative or indefinite element nã- combines with the pronoun pis, pid forming napis, napid somebody, something. The alternative buk means or, and the conditional form is ak in the protasis, sometimes lengthened to akit or by adding it-in to aktin, while fak, then, introduces the leading element in the apodosis. The order of words is subject, verb, object. The exact meaning of individual words is not known save in a few cases such as the words for tomb, monument, court, house, water, fire, priest, divinity, destroy, with a certain number of words explained by glosses. Carian.—Our knowledge of Carian rests on about 80 small inscriptions recorded in an alphabet containing several signs identical with Greek forms. The earliest date from the middle of the mth century B.C., and three are bilingual, Egypto-Carian. Decipherment is still uncertain, and the meaning of a large number of the signs is conjectural despite the work of Sayce. Herodotus mentions the tradition that the Carians were once the inhabitants of the islands. Sundwall with some probability relates Carian to Lycian. The evidence is, however, based on place-names and on the glosses recorded mainly by Stephen of Byzantium. The material does not enable us to verify the association of Carian with Cretan or the relationship of Carians to Mysians and Lydians. Lycian.— Discoveries made over the last century from 1811 onwards have brought to light about 150 inscriptions dating from

the sth and 4th centuries B.c. written in an alphabet of Greek

origin, which come mainly from Limyra, Xanthos, Myra, Pinara and Tlos. Nearly all are funeral inscriptions and uniform in purport and language except the second part of the long stele of Xanthos and the inscription of Antiphellos which are metrical in an archaic, perhaps different, dialect and much more obscure. A

few very short and varying bilingual (Greco-Lycian) inscriptions

give some help towards interpretation. Phonetics-—Lycian possessed as vowels, a, e, 4 (marked e€), « (marked o), nasalized vowels , é, sonants w and y, a series of occlusives in frequent alternation, like J and 7, siga m and ñ whose value is doubtful, two spirants, « and @, two sibilants s and z and

theaspirate 4. An equivalence of e, ä, or a is found but not ex-

plained. A few signs have not been surely identified.

do not as yet indicate a close affinity. Fundamental resemblances have been found between Lydian and Indo-European, such as case forms, the adjectival concord, the system of relative and demonstrative pronouns, the verbal forms for the third person, singular and plural, the negative forms. On the other hand, not one Lydian word has a clear Indo-European origin and the oblique case in àis definitely alien to Indo-European declension though known in Etruscan and the southern Caucasus. Lycian has similar but less numerous points of likeness and many features in it are common in Etruscan (g.v.), such as a large number of proper names, some words and elements of common derivation. If these languages are really to be regarded as related and if we may apply to them the term “‘Asianic family,” which is probable, though not proved, their position with regard to Indo-European languages (g.v.) may be that they have retained some features of their common origin but have from early times diverged independently;

similarly as regards the relationship witb Etruscan and the southern Caucasus, unless the features shared with these languages are accidental. But before this or any other hypothesis can be taken as beyond doubt, more investigations are necessary. BIBLIOCRAPHY.—General: Kretschmer, Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache (1896); Hirt, Die Indogermanen, vol. ï.; Autran, in Les Langues du Monde, bibl. (1924) —Lydian: E. Littmann, Sardis, vi. ı (1916) ; Buckler, Sardis, vi. 2 (1924); Sommer and Kahle, Kleinasiatische Forschungen, i. p. 18-86, bibl. (1927) —Carian: Sayce, Transact. of the Soc. of Bibl. Archeology, vol. ix. Proceedings of the same Society, vol. xvii. xxvii. xxviii. xxx.; Sundwall, in Kho, p. 464, bibl. (1911) —Lycian: Kalinka, Tituli Asiae. Minoris, i. (1901) ; Kluge, Die Lykier, bibl. (x910); Sundwall, Die einheimischen Namen š A der Lykier (1913); Deeters, in Pauly-Wissowa’s SEn . BEN.)

ASIENTO or ASSIENTO, a Spanish word meaning a farm

‘of the taxes, or contract. The word acquired notoriety on account of the “Asiento Treaty” of 1713. After the establishment of the Spanish Bourbon dynasty in 1700, a French company was formed which received the exclusive privilege of the Spanish-American slave trade. At the peace of Utrecht the British Government claimed the monopoly. The Asiento Treaty (March 16, 1713) accordingly authorized British subjects to introduce 144,000 slaves in the course of 30 years, at the rate of 4,800 per annum and to send one ship of 500 tons per annum, laden with manufactured goods, to the fairs of Porto Bello and La Vera Cruz. This privilege was conveyed by the British Government to the South Sea Company, and formed the solid basis of the fit of speculative fever called the South Sea Bubble (g¢.v.). Until 1739 the trade in blacks went on without interruption, but amid increasingly angry disputes between the Spanish and the British Governments. The right to send a single trading ship to the fairs of Porto Bello or La Vera Cruz was abused. Under pretence of renewing her provisions the ship was followed by tenders loaded with goods, and thus arose what was in fact a vast contraband trade. The smugglers were guilty of many piratical excesses, and the Spanish revenue officers

acted. often with violence on mere suspicion, After many disputes,

544

“AS IF”—ASKALON

war was declared in 1739. When peace was made at Aix-la-, Chapelle (g.v.), in 1748, Spain undertook to allow the asiento to be renewed for the four years which were to run when war broke out in 1739. But the renewal for so short a period was not considered advantageous, and by the Treaty of El Retiro of 1750, the British Government agreed to the recession of the Asiento Treaty altogether on the payment by Spain of £100,000.

Great Britain and in 1920 occupied Hudaida after the departure of the temporary British garrison. In 1920 the Wahhabis Occupied Ibha and all upland ’Asir, while Imam Yahya recovered Hudaida in 1921. The following year Said Mohammed died and his son "Ali, proving incapable of maintaining his position, fled the coun. try in 1925. His uncle, Hasan, in 1926 placed his remaining terri-

“AS IF,” THE PHILOSOPHY OF. The expression was

he was appointed governor of the province for life. The Farisan islands off the coast belong to ’Asir and have recently come into

coined by Hans Vaihinger and applied to his own system of philosophy, according to which all human knowledge, all explanations in the realm of science, philosophy, law, religion, etc. are merely so many fictions or assumptions which tell us that the things or events, etc., referred to are or behave “as if” they had such or such a character, or “as if” they had been produced in such and such a way. Thus, for instance, in physics the conceptions of ether, electric fluid, etc., are merely fictions which facilitate our grasp of the transmission of certain forms of energy “as if” there were such a medium as ether, or an electric fluid, etc. In law a company is treated “as if” it were a person. In morals and religion certain imperatives of conduct are conceived

tory under a Wabhabi protectorate by formal treaty, under which

prominence owing to the grant by the Idrisi in 1926 of an oil-progpecting concession to a member of the Shell group. No starti results have yet been achieved. Of late years there has been much

unrest on the southern boundary of ’Asir which is in dispute with the Imam, but the steady extension of Ibn Sa’ud’s effective administration of the province has exercised a calming effect on the tribes of the border.

ASISIUM

(mod. Assisi), ancient town, Umbria, in a lofty

situation about 15m. E.S.E. of Perusia. Finds include traces of city walls, the so-called temple of Minerva (with six Corinthian travertine columns of the Augustan era), now a church, part of the pavement of the forum, and remains of the amphitheatre in the north-east corner. Asisium was the birthplace of the Roman poet Propertius.

“as if” there were a God, a hereafter, and rewards and punishments, etc. Vaihinger does not regard these fictions as deliberate fictions or mere make-beliefs. His contention rather is that human ASKALON, now a desolate site on the sea-coast 12m, N. of knowledge, be it pursued never so earnestly, is at best only a series of fictions, or “as ifs,” by which man with his finite capac- Gaza and about 3m. from El-Majdal on the Kantara-Jerusalem ities endeavours to make the world intelligible to himself so as to railway. It occupies a rocky amphitheatre embracing about 4m, of shore with traces of an old harbour in the south-west comer. feel at home in it. The philosophy of “as if” traces its descent from Kant, through Protruding from this sand-swept terrain shattered columns and Lange (the historian of materialism) and Nietzsche. Kant, by the remnants of ruined buildings and broken walls bear ample limiting human knowledge to phenomena, that is, to things as testimony to a past magnificence. The site is studded with wells they appear to man, not as they are in themselves, and by regard- (Oavpacra dpéara Origen c. Cels. IV. 44), and the ruins are intering human knowledge as moulded by certain a priori forms innate spersed with gardens which belong to the inhabitants of the neighin the human mind, obviously, if unintentionally, gave an impulse bouring village of El-Jorah. The country around is fertile. Vines, to the philosophy of “as if.” Nietzsche promptly pointed out that olives, and a variety of fruit trees flourish. Its most characteristic other beings than man may have other a priori forms of appre- product, however, is the onion Ascalonia coepa whence Ital hending reality, and that the human forms of apprehension instead scalogno, Fr. échalotte, Eng. shalot. Its wine and its henna were i of revealing the true nature of reality may only conceal it in renowned of old. History.—In the Amarna letters (c. 1400 B.C.) Askalon is one order to make human existence tolerable. The whole philosophy of “as if” may be regarded as one expression of the sceptical and of the cities which write to the Pharaoh for help against the agnostic tendencies of the age, of which pragmatism and hominism Habiru. Also it would appear that Askalon was leagued with Gezer and Lachish against Abd-Khipa the pro-Egyptian ruler of are other expressions. See H. Vaihinger, Tke Philosophy of “As if’ (English trans., 1926). Jerusalem. In 1285 B.C. Rameses II. took Askalon by storm. The >ASTR, a district of West Arabia between 17° 31’ and 21° N. scene is depicted on a wall of the Ramesseum at Thebes. In 1223 and 40° 30’ and 45° E.; bounded north by Hejaz, east by Nejd, B.C. certain Palestinian cities, amongst them Askalon, revolted south by Yemen and west by the Red Sea. Apart from Rub’ Al against their overlord, Merneptah, to their own undoing. “Carried Khali no district of Arabia is less known to Europeans who have off is Askalon” sings the Egyptian poet laureate of the period. only visited Sabia and a few places near the coast. It consists of a Askalon is not mentioned amongst the cities of Judah in Joshua maritime plain with an average width of 25m., rising gradually to XV. and it appears as Philistine from the days of Samson to the the foot of a mountain range, whose eastern flank falls to a high- Hellenic age. In 70r B.C. it fell to Sennacherib. About 630 BC. land plateau merging gradually with the steppes of Nejd. It is the Scythian invasion engulfed Palestine and Herodotus tells us oi about 230m. long and 180m. broad. Its mountains contain a num- their sack of the temple at Askalon. With the conquest of Alexber of fertile valleys and coffee is cultivated on its mountain slopes ander the city became Hellenized and following his time its fate as in Yemen. Kunfuda, Jizan and Maidi are the most important as a tributary was determined alternately by Egypt and Syria. of many petty ports on the Red sea, and Sabia is the lowland Although a stronghold of Hellenism it prudently opened its gates capital (and residence of the Idrisi ruler), as Ibha (or Abha) is to Jonathan the Maccabee (147 B.c.) and later to Alexander that of the highlands. Wadis Bisha, Ranya and Turaba, each with Jannaeus. It was the birthplace of Herod the Great who adored a considerable population, are the principal valleys of the eastern it with fine buildings. During the Roman period it was a noted plateau, while Khamis Mushait and Wadi Shahran are among the centre of Hellenic scholarship. It became also the seat of a most notable in the highlands. The population is a hardy race of bishopric. From 104 B.c., for four and a half centuries it was an mountaineers with a tendency towards Wahhabi fanaticism, while oppidum liberum of the Roman empire. In a.D. 636 it passed into the principal element in the east is the Qahtan tribe centring on the hands of the Arabs. During the Crusades Askalon was the Ranya. The Turkish occupation of ’Asir was never very effective key to south-west Palestine. In 1099 its gates were shut agamst beyond the coast, though Turkish expeditions penetrated the coun- the defeated Egyptian host and the panic-stricken refugees from try frequently between 1814 and 1837 and garrisons have been fallen Jerusalem. Over 30,000 are said to have perished at that maintained in a desultory fashion at Ibha and Khamis Mushait. time beneath its walls. When eventually Askalon was taken after

a six months’ siege by Baldwin IIL, its capture completed the Frankish conquest of the country (1153). In 1187 it was retaken

The Idrisi dynasty of Sabia and Abu Arish is of comparatively recent advent to the country, its founder, Said Ahmad, having established himself in the latter part of the roth century with a doctrine akin to that of the Sanusis of North Africa. Under Said

by Saladin after but feeble resistance. The approach of Richar Coeur de Lion, fresh from his triumph at Acre, caused Salad

Mohammed ’Asir first acquired political importance, his rebellion in 1911 against the Turks having with Italian assistance achieved a measure of success. From 1915 he was in'treaty relations with

king promptly set about their restoration with zeal, but under the terms of the truce arranged with Saladin the following yee ihe

to burn the city and demolish the defences (r191).. The English

ASKAULES—ASMARA

545

was arrested in April, tried were once more destroyed and the city abandoned. In 1240 ! on false assurances of security. He and sentenced to death for , Westminster at commission a before | was ` nard of Cornwall began the task of rebuilding, but the city yred in 1247 by Fakhr ed-Din. Finally Sultan Beibars, in | high treason on May 17; on June 28 he was taken back to Yorkwhich he with his scheme of defence, destroyed the fortifications in| shire, being paraded in the towns and country through passed. He was hanged at York in July, expressing repentance tor 1279 and blocked the harbour with stones. Excavations—In 1815 Lady Hester Stanhope employed from | breaking the King's laws, but declaring that he had promise of io to 150 men for several weeks excavating, but with no scien- | pardon both from Cromwell and from Henry. Aske was a real

jic method, a part of the site. After a preliminary survey in | leader, who gained the affection and confidence of his followers. See Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries, by F. A. Gasquet 1913; the Palestine Exploration Fund commenced their post-war :

‘on

of Garstang and here (1920-23) ’ under> the supervision e Herod’s cloisters—the

Adams.

“court surrounded by

P

Xil.,

o,o i e fae»Reign of Faaa e or 55 V KEV, ist.

cota i

es to ieee) : Chronicle of Henry VIII,

anon and

gelumns” of Josephus—have been exposed and a number of|tr. by M. A. S. Hume (1889); Whitaker’s Richmondshire, i. 116 gatues, amongst them one of Isis-Tyche, recovered. The remains | (pedigree of the Askes). ASKED PRICE, the price which the owner of any property of a Byzantine theatre, which has proved to be an earlier senate}

house converted to this purpose, have been revealed. A statue of | places upon it for the purpose of sale. A prospective buyer will Peace was discovered close to the mouth of a well, probably the | usually make an offering price or “bid” at a lower figure. When “well of Peace” familiar from the description of Antoninus | the bid and asked price coincide, either through the purchaser’s Martyr (A.D. 360-570). The stratification of the site has been | raising his offer to meet the asked price, or through the seller’s

determined and a date of about 1800 B.C. for the earliest traceable | reducing his asked price to meet the bid, or by a compromise jabitation established. Sufficient supplies of pottery, etc., have price somewhere between the two, a sale may be consummated. wen unearthed in the appropriate stratum to enable experts to | On the stock and produce exchanges bid and asked prices are recognize a distinctive Philistine handiwork. The Palestine De- | regularly quoted on all items, and such quotations are carried in the financial reports of the daily papers, on the ticker systems, ent of Antiquities has established here a local museum. and in other financial information media. 7 nel e S a a S: a

d. Deutsch. Paldstina

Vereins, ii, (1879), pp. 164 seq

(with plan),|

ASKEW or ASCUE, ANNE (1521-1 346), English Protes-

tant, born at Stallingborough about 1521, second daughter of Sir William Askew (d. 1540) of South Kelsey, Lincoln. She came to London and made friends with Joan Bocher, who was already Excavations in P.E.F.Q.S. for the-years 1921 to 1924. known for heterodoxy, and other Protestants. Anne was examined | albag-piper, for word Greek the probably ASKAULES, though there is no documentary authority for its use. Neither for heresy by the lord mayor (March 1545), then by Bishop i nor dcxavos (which would naturally mean the bag-pipe) has Bonner, and then (June 13 1545) brought up as a sacramentarian brought on ben found in Greek classical authors, though J. J. Reiske—in | at the Guildhall. These efforts having failed, she was anote on Dio Chrysostom, Orat. lxxi. ad fin., where an unmistak- June 18 1546 before a special commission without jury and with-

e WT. a ea teedpp.BELL. in P.É.F.Ó.S. oe of Askalon,” 76 f. (1921); Reports on the “History

able description of the bag-pipe occurs (“and they say that he is | out witnesses, and was condemned, on her confession, to be burnt. skilled to write, to work as an artist, and to play the pipe with On the following day she was racked, and after four weeks in his mouth, on the bag placed under his arm-pits”)—says that prison was burnt at Smithfield (July 16). It is probable that the pertinacity displayed against Anne was éoxavdyns was so used. ASKE, ROBERT (4d. 1537), English rebel, was a country due to the desire of the reactionary party to intimidate Hertford gentleman who belonged to an ancient family long settled in York- and Catherine Parr who were suspected of sympathy with her. shire, In 1536 Aske led the insurrection called the “Pilgrimage of | Brsriocrarny.—Bale’s two tracts, printed at Marburg in Nov. 1546

id scarTo of the Grace.” Marching with the banner of St. Cuthbert and with the 2 Ap roe? Ge the a of sens E ar Re Raon eee pias ‘Gough's. Inare badge of the “five wounds,” he occupied York on Oct. 16, and on | bo: aaa the Reformation; Dixon's the zoth captured Pontefract Castle, with Lord Darcy and the | Parker Soc. Publications; Burnet’s Hist. of Biog. of York, who took the oath of the rebels. He caused | Hist. of the Church of England; Dict. Nat.

archbishop

the monks and nuns to be reinstated, and refused to allow the| _ eee oe a

made

commons

to

th

on

to the sovereign

hi

oa. isi h if

himself, secure the expulsion

a a

e pee a

eae peal

= che chronicles, and by a contemporary letter: ibid., Narratives of the Letters, 2nd ser. il. 177. Reformation, p. 305; Ellis, Original i RADIA B65): (é ASMA‘. Abd al-Malik ibn karabof coun-

sllors of low birth, and obtain restitution for the church. Aske,

(c. 739-831), : scholar, was born of pure Arab stock in Basra and died in Bagh-

hy the Duke of Norfolk with the royal forces, which, inferior in numbers, would probably have been overwhelmed had not Aske coe .

roperty in Basra, where he again settled for a time. Asma‘l was 8 pee one of the greatest scholars of his age. While Abū ‘Ubaida fol-

ise of a Parliament at York, and to disband. Aske then went to London under the guarantee of a safe-con-

porter of the superiority of the Arabs over all people, and of the

followed by 30,000 or 40,000 men, marched on Doncaster, where | dad. He became tutor to the son of Harūn-al-Rashid, and acquired

declared for the persuaded his followers to accept the King’s pardon and the prom- | jowed (or led) the Shu'ibite movement and excellence of all things not Arabian, Asma‘I was the avowed sup-

duct and was well received by Henry. He put in writing a full | freedom of their language and literature from all foreign influence.as

works mentioned in the catalogue known account of the rising and of his own share in it; and fully per- |Of Asma‘l’s many about half a dozen are extant. Of these the only Fikrist, the | 1537, 8 waded of the King’s good intentions returned home Jan. him promises of a visit from the King to Yorkshire, |Book of Distinction has been edited by D. H. Müller (1876); with bringing of the holding of a parliament at York, and of free elections. | the Book of the Wild Animals by R. Géyer (1887); the Book of Shortly afterwards he wrote to the King warning him of the still | 4,2 torse, by A. Haffner (1895); the Book of the Sheep, by A.

'

not only of the north butCre of the: midlands, and statunquiet ing hi state

: Haffner (1896).

cis Bigod’s rising.

123-127.

cause for further suspicions of his loyalty, and in his last con-

edge, at an elevation of 7,765ft. Tt is some 4om. W.S.W. in a

For life of Asma‘, see Ibn Khallikin, Biographical Dictionary, mg his fear that more bloodshed was impending. The Same month hereceived the King’s thanks for his action in pacifying Sir Fran- | translated from the Arabic by M'G. de Slane (1842), vol. ii. pp.

For his work as a grammarian, see G. Flügel, Die gram-

But the new rising had given the court an excuse for breaking matischen Schulen der Araber (1862). colony of Eritrea, northofthe treaty and sending another army under Norfolk into York. | ASMARA, the capital of the Italian plateau, near its eastern Hamasen the on built is It Africa. east shire. Possibly in these fresh circumstances Aske may have given

but 75m. by railway. fession he acknowledged that communications to obtain aid had| direct line from the seaport of Massawa at the foot and were contemplated (The line from Massawa, which had reached Ghinda,

opened with the imperial ‘ambassador in 191 2.) Pop. with Flanders. In any case Aske was persuaded to go to London | of the plateau, in 1904, was completed to Asmara

546

ASMODEUS—ASP

(1921) 13,510, of whom 2,407 were Europeans. The natives are who succeeded his father Chandragupta, by a lady from : Abyssinian. The European quarter contains several fine public , The Greeks do not mention him and the Brahman books į buildings. Fort Baldissera is built on a hill to the south-west of | him, but the Buddhist chronicles and legends tell us much abog the town and is considered impregnable. Asoka. The inscriptions, which contain altogether about 5,000 w Asmara (Amharic, “good pasture place”) is an old town. It was in the maritime province of northern Abyssinia, governed by are entirely of religious import, and their references to w the Bahar-nagash (ruler of the sea). By the Abyssinians the Ha- affairs are incidental. They begin in the 13th year of his rej masen plateau was known as the plain of the thousand villages, of

which Asmara was one of the most prosperous, and it grew through being on the high road from Axum to Massawa. The Franco-Ger-

man War (1870) killed a project of W. Munzinger (g.v.) French consul at Massawa, to annex the Hamasen to France (cf. A. B.

Wylde, Modern Abyssinia, 1901).

In 1872 Munzinger, now in

Egyptian service, annexed Asmara to the khedivial dominions, but in 1884, owing to the rise of the Mahdi, Egypt evacuated her Abyssinian provinces and Asmara was chosen by Ras Alula, the representative of the negus Johannes (King John), as his headquarters. Shortly afterwards the Italians occupied Massawa, and in 1889 Asmara. In 1900 the seat of government was transferred from Massawa to Asmara, which is surrounded by rich lands, cultivated in part by Italian immigrants, and is a busy trading centre.

and tell us that in the oth year he had invaded Kalinga, and hag

been so deeply impressed by the horrors involved in warfare that he had then given up the desire for conquest, and devoted him-

self to conquest by “religion.” What the religion was is explained

in the edicts. It is purely ethical, independent alike of

and ritual, and is the code of morals as laid down in the Buddhist sacred books for laymen. He further tells us that in the oth year of his reign he formally joined the Buddhist community as a

layman, in the 11th year he became a member of the order, and in the 13th he “set out for the Great Wisdom” (the Sambodhi)

which is the Buddhist technical term for entering upon the well.

known, eightfold path to Nirvana.

The extent of Asoka’s dominion included all India from the

13th degree of latitude up to the Himalayas, N epal, Kashmir, the Swat valley, Afghanistan as far as the Hindu Kush, Sind and

ASMODEUS or ASHMEDATL, an evil demon who appears Baluchistan. It was thus as large as, or perhaps somewhat| in later Jewish tradition as “king of demons.” He is sometimes than, British India before the conquest of Burma. He was identified with Beelzebub or Apollyon (Rev. ix. 11). In the Tal- undoubtedly the most powerful sovereign of his time and the mud he plays a great part in the legends concerning Solomon. In most remarkable and imposing of the native rulers of India. “If a man’s fame,” says Köppen, “can be measured by the the apocryphal book of Tobit (iii. 8) occurs the well-known story of his love for Sara, the beautiful daughter of Raguel, whose seven number of hearts who revere his memory, by the number of lips husbands were slain in succession by him on their respective who have mentioned, and still mention him with honour, Asoka bridal nights. At last Tobias, by burning the heart and liver of a is more famous than Charlemagne or Caesar.” At the same time fish, drove off the demon, who fled to Egypt. From the part played it is probable that, like Constantine’s patronage of Christianity by Asmodeus in this story, he has been often familiarly called the his patronage of Buddhism, then the most rising and influential genius of matrimonial unhappiness or jealousy, and as such may be faith in India, was not unalloyed with political motives, and it compared with Lilith. Le Sage makes him the principal character is certain that his vast benefactions to the Buddhist cause were in hbis novel Le Diable boiteux. Both the word and the conception at least one of the factors that led to its decline. See also Vincent Smith, Asoka (1901), revised edition (1920); E, seem to have been derived originally from the Persian. The name has been taken to mean “covetous”; it is in any case no doubt Senart, Inscriptions de Piyadasi (1891); chapters on Asoka in T. W, David's Buddhism (20th ed. 1903), and Buddhist India (1903); identical with the demon Aéshma of the Zend-Avesta and the Rhys V. A. Smith, Edicts of Asoka (1909). (T. W. R. D3) Pahlavi texts, but the meaning is not certain. It is generally agreed ASOLO (anc. Acelum), Venetia, Italy, province of Treviso, that the second part of the name Asmodeus is the same as the Zend daéwa, déw, “demon.” The first part may be equivalent to about 19m. N.W. direct from Treviso, some rom. E. of Bassano Aéshma, the impersonation of anger. But W. Baudissin (Herzog- by road and rom. W.N.W. of Montebelluna by tram. Pop. (1921) Hauck, Realencyklopadie) prefers to derive it from ish, to drive, town, 899; commune, 6,919. It is on a hill, 6goft. above sea-level Remains of Roman baths and of a theatre have been discovered set in motion; whence ish-min, driving, impetuous. See Jewish Encyclopaedia (s.v.). See also the articles in the Ency- in the course of excavation. It became an episcopal see in the 6th clopaedia Biblica, Hastings’ Dictionary of the Bible, and Herzogcentury. Catherine Cornaro, queen of Cyprus, retired here on Hauck, Realencyklopddie. abdication and was visited by Pietro Bembo, who conceived here ASMONEUS or ASAMONAEUS (so Josephus), great- his Dialoghi degli Asolani, and by Andrea Navagero (Naugerius). grandfather of Mattathias, the father of Judas Maccabaeus. Paulus Manutius was born here.

Nothing more is known of him, and the name is only given by Josephus (not in r Macc. ii. 1). But the dynasty was known to Josephus and the Mishna (once) as “the sons (race) of the Asamonaeans (of A.)”; and the Targum of 1 Sam. ii. 4 has “the house of the Hashmoneans who were weak, signs were wrought for them and strength.” If not the founder, Asmoneus was probably the home of the family (cf. Heshmon, Jos. xv. 27).

ASOR, an instrument “of ten strings” mentioned in the Bible, about which authors are not agreed. The word occurs only three times in the Bible, and has not been traced elsewhere.

ASP (Vipera aspis), a species -

ait, I

az 3

PaA Foon, Re ot

A

a N A

oe

z% ‘a

See Schurer, Geschichte des jiidischen Volkes, i. 248 N; art. “Maccabees” §2 in Ency. Biblica. (J. H. A. H.)

ASNIERES, a town, department of Seine, France, on the left bank of the Seine, practically an extension of Paris and 14m.

N.N.W. of its fortifications. Pop. (1926) 52,071, compared with 35,883 in 1906. It is a boating centre for Parisians. Industries include boat-building and the manufacture of perfumery, colours, etc.

ASOKA, a famous Buddhist emperor of India who reigned from 264 to 228 or 227 B.c. Thirty-five of his inscriptions on rocks or pillars or in caves still exist (see Inscriptions: Indian), and they are among the most remarkable and interesting of Buddhist monuments (see Buppuism). Asoka was the grandson of Chandragupta, the founder of the Maurya (Peacock) dynasty, who had wrested the Indian provinces of Alexander the Great from the hands of Seleucus, and he was the son of Bindusara,

THE HORNED ASP (VIPERA ASPIS), A POISONOUS

CLOSELY

SNAKE

ALLIED

OF

EUROPE

TO THE ADDER

of venomous snake, closely allied to the common adder of Great Britain, which it represents throughout the southern parts of Europe, being specially abund-

ant in the region of the Alps. It differs from the adder in having the head entirely covered with scales, shields being absent, and in having

the

snout

somewhat

turned up. The term “Asp” as it

is used in literature is applied to several species of poisonous snake,

that by which Cleopatra is said to have ended her life is generally supposed to have been the cerastes, or horned viper (Cerastes cornutus), of northern Africa and Arabia, a snake about 15m.

long, exceedingly venomous, and provided with curious horn-lke

protuberances over each eye. The snake, however, to which the

word “asp” has been most commonly applied is the haje of Egyp4

the spy-slange or spitting-snake of the Boers (Naja haje), on

ASPARAGINE—ASPEN af the very poisonous Elapidae, from 3 to 4it. long, with the skin of its neck loose, So as to render it dilatable at the will of the as in the cobra of India, a species from which it differs only

iathe absence of the spectacle-like mark on the back of the neck. Like the cobra, the haje has its fangs extracted by jugglers, who

afterwards train it to perform various tricks.

GINE, a naturally occurring base found in plants

ing to the families Leguminosae and Cruciferae, and noticeably in asparagus. It has the structure

CO:H.CH[NH:]-CH:-CO-NH,;,,

547

been developed whereby the soft pulp of the asparagus stalk is separated from the fibre, forming a thick paste which is preserved by canning. Asparagus is also dried, especially in European countries, in which state it may be kept indefinitely. The asparagus grown at Argenteuil, near Paris, is noted for its size and quality.

ASPARAGUS-PEA,

the name of a group of cultivated

leguminous plants mostly derived from Psophocarpus tetragonolobus, native to India. All varieties are rapidly-growing vines, ro ft. to 50 ft. long, producing quadrangular, green-winged pods,

3 in. to g in. long. The tender young pods are eaten like string beans and have a distinct favour resembling that of asparagus. wid, by virtue of the carboxyl (CO:H) group, and a base, by The seeds, which are about the size of peas, are very rich in virtue of the two amino (NH2) groups. Owing to the presence of proteids. Because of their extreme hardness when ripe, they are „n “asymmetric carbonation” (C above), it should exist in two difficult to cook, hence usually only the immature seeds are eaten. optically active forms and one inactive form (see STEREO-cHEM- The plant is a quasi-perennial, bearing almost continuously for one or two years. Its cultivation is increasing in most tropical TRY). "a A (1887) synthesized the asparagines from the mono- countries and it is also grown as a cover-crop. ASPASIA, born at Miletus, was the most famous of the methyl ester of inactive aspartic acid by heating it with alcoholic ymmonia. In this way both asparagines were obtained and were Ionian courtesans who settled at Athens. She became Pericles’ separated by picking out the hemihedral crystals. Laevo aspara- mistress, for by his own law of 451 she could not, as a foreigner, gne, which was isolated by L. N. Vauquelin in 1805, is slightly be his legal wife, and her charm and talents seem to have won soluble in cold water and readily soluble in hot water and crystal- her an important place in the intellectual society of the time. izes in prisms, containing one molecule of water of crystallization, The comic poets represent her as the political adviser of Pericles, theanhydrous form melting at 234-23 5° C. Nitrous acid converts and as the cause of the Samian and Peloponnesian wars (Plutarch, it into malic acid, HOOC-CHOH-CH2-COOH. It is laevo-rotatory and Aristoph. Ack. 497), but this is probably mere caricature. in aqueous or in alkaline solution, and dextro-rotatory in acid Shortly before the Peloponnesian war she was accused of impiety, solution (L. Pasteur, 1851). Dextro-asparagine was first found in and only the tears and entreaties of Pericles secured her acquittal 1886 in the shoots of the vetch (Piutti). It forms rhombic (see Cambridge Ancient History, vol. v., note $). After the death aystals possessing a sweet taste. It is dextro-rotatory in aqueous of his two legitimate sons, he procured the passing of an enactment legitimizing his son by Aspasia. or alkaline solution, and laevo-rotatory in acid solution. See Plutarch, Pericles; Plato, Menexenus; Xenophon, Oecon. Hydrolysis by means of acids or alkalis converts the asparagines into aspartic acid; whilst on heating with water in a sealed tube 52, 14; Natorp, Philologus, 51, p. 489 (attempted reconstruction of the dialogue “Aspasia” by Aeschines the Socratic); Le Conte they are converted into ammonium aspartate. ASPARAGUS, a numerous genus of plants of the lily family de Biévre, Les Deux Aspasies (1736); J. B. Capefigue, Aspasie (Liiaceae), comprising upwards of 120 species, widely distributed et le Siécle de Périclés (1862); L. Bec de Fouquiéres, Aspasie de in the temperate and warmer parts of the Old World. They are Milet (1872); H. Houssaye, Aspasie, Cléopâtre, Théodora (1899); erect or climbing, extensively branching and sometimes more or E. Meyer, Forschungen, vol. ii., pp. 55-56, in opposition to Wilaless woody plants, rising from cord-like, thickened or tuberous mowitz-Möllendorf, in Hermes, xxxv. (1900); A. E. Zimmerm, rootstocks (Rhizomes). The leaves are reduced to minute scales Greek Commonwealth, part iii., chap. 12, pp. 334-342. See also bearing in their axils tufts of green, needle-like or flattened PERICLES. snd belongs to the important group of amino-acids, being both an

branches (cladodes or cladophyls), which perform the function

of leaves. Some species climb or scramble, in which they are aided by the development of the scale-leaves into spines. The

fowers are small, whitish and pendulous; the fruit is a berry. Several climbing species are grown as house plants and in greenhouses for their ornamental foliage. The so-called asparagus-fern (A. plumosus), native to South Africa, with numerous horticultural varieties, is an especially elegant species, highly prized for its delicate, feathery branches. The vine-like smilax of the florists

(A. asparagoides), with stiffish, shining, many-veined “leaves”

(cladodes), is likewise a native of South Africa.

Garden Asparagus.—Economically the most valuable species is the common vegetable (A. officinale), widely grown for food.

ASPASIUS, a Greek peripatetic philosopher, and a prolific

commentator on Aristotle. He flourished probably towards the close of the rst century A.D., or perhaps during the reign of Antoninus Pius. Commentaries on books 1-4, 7 (in part), and 8 of the Nicomachean Ethics are preserved; that on Book 8 was printed with those of Eustratius and others by Aldus Manutius at Venice in 1536. They were partly (2-4) translated into Latin by Felicianus in 1541, and have frequently been republished, but their authenticity has been disputed. The most recent edition is by a Heylbut in Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca, XiX. i. (1889). Another AspPaAsIus, in the 3rd century A.D., was a Roman sophist and rhetorician, son or pupil of the rhetorician Demetrianus. He was secretary to the Emperor Maximin.

The plant is a native of the north temperate zone of the Old ASPECT RATIO, of an aeroplane wing, the ratio of the span World, grows wild on coasts and sandy areas in the south of England; and on the steppes of Russia it is so abundant that it to the chord, the latter being the length of the straight line drawn is eaten by cattle like grass. It has escaped from cultivation and from the leading to the trailing edge, at right angles to the length become extensively naturalized in North America, especially of the wing. (See AEROPLANE.) ASPEN, a section of the poplar genus (Populus) of which around salt marshes from New Brunswick to Virginia, sparingly along roadsides and in fields in the interior, and also on the Pacific the common aspen of Europe, P. tremula, may be taken as the coast. Since Greek and Roman times the young shoots have been type—a tall, fast-growing tree with a slender trunk, and grey bark becoming rugged when old. The roundish leaves, toothed on the in high repute as a culinary vegetable. margin, are slightly downy when young, but afterwards smooth, as well as gardens private in Asparagus is grown extensively for the market. It prefers a loose, light, deep, sandy soil; the dark green on the upper and greyish green on the lower surface; depth should be 3 ft., the soil well trenched, and all surplus water the long slender petioles, flattened towards the outer end, allow drained away. A quantity of well-rotted dung should be laid in of free lateral motion by the lightest breeze, giving the foliage its the bottom of the trench, and another top-dressing of manure well-known tremulous character. By their friction on each other should be dug in preparatory to planting or sowing. If properly the leaves give rise to a rustling sound. The flowers, which aptreated, asparagus beds will continue to bear well for several pear in March and April, are borne on pendulous hairy catkins, years. Most generally the tender shoots are eaten fresh but large 2—-3in. long; male and female catkins are, as in the other species quantities are canned or otherwise preserved. A process has of the genus, on distinct trees.

548

ASPENDUS—ASPERN-ESSLING

The aspen is found in moist places, sometimes at more than 1,6coft. in Scotland. It is an abundant tree in northern Britain, and is occasionally found in the coppices of the southern counties; throughout northern Europe it abounds in the forests, while in Siberia its range extends to the Arctic Circle. The wood is light and soft, though tough; it is employed for pails, herring-casks, butchers’ trays, pack-saddles, and various articles for which its lightness recommends it; in mediaeval days it was valued for arrows; the bark is used for tanning; cattle and deer browse on the young shoots and suckers. Charcoal prepared from it is light and friable, and has been employed in gunpowder manufacture. The powdered bark is given to horses as a vermifuge; it possesses tonic and febrifugal properties, containing salicin. The aspen is propagated by cuttings or suckers. The American aspen (P. tremuloides), called also quaking-asp, closely allied to the European species, is the most widely distributed tree in North America. It ranges from Labrador to the mouth of the Mackenzie river and the valley of the Yukon and southward to Pennsylvania, Missouri and Nebraska, and in the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada to Chihuahua and Lower California, often ascending to 10,000 ft. altitude. With the exception of the

black willow (Salix nigra), it is the only native tree common to

| perished, but all its supporting structures are in place, and the great scena wall stands to its full height and produces a cent impression whether from within or from without. Inwar : it was decorated with two orders of columns, one above the other

with rich entablatures, much of which survive. In the tympanum

is a relief of Bacchus (wrongly supposed to be of a female, and

called the Bal-Kys, że. “Honey Girl”). The position of the sou.

ing board above the stage is apparent. Under the forepart of the auditorium, built out from the hill, are immense vaults, The whole structure was enclosed within one great wall, pierced with numerous windows. This structure was probably Put to some

ecclesiastical Byzantine use, as certain mutilated heads of saints

appear upon it; and later it became a fortress.

ASPER, AEMILIUS, Latin grammarian, possibly lived in the 2nd century A.D. He wrote commentaries on Terence, Sallust and Virgil. Editions in Keil, Probi in Vergilii Bucolica Commentarius (1848); see also Suringar, Historia Critica Scholiastarum Latinorum (1834):

ar

1843-50).

Geschichte der klassischen Philologie im Alterthum. iw

ASPERGES, the ceremony of sprinkling the people with holy

water before High Mass in the Roman Catholic Church, so called both California and Maine. It attains a maximum height of roo ft. from the opening words Asperges me, Domine, hyssopo (Ps, ki "), and a trunk diameter of 3 ft., but is usually much smaller. The The brush for sprinkling is an aspergillum, and a vessel for holy large-leaved American aspen (P. grandidentaia) has ovate or water an aspersorium. roundish leaves deeply and irregularly serrated on the margin. ASPERN-ESSLING, BATTLE OF (1809), was fought on The wood of both these species is manufactured into wood-pulp. May 21 and 22, 1809, between the French and their allies under ASPENDUS, an ancient city of Asia Minor, mod. Balkis Napoleon and the Austrians commanded by the Archduke Charles Kalé, or, more anciently in the native language, Estvedys (whence (see NapoLeonic Camparicns). When Austria, with her amy the adjective Estvedijys on coins), very strongly situated on an reorganized, reopened hostilities in 1809, the swift opening move isolated hill on the right bank of the Eurymedon at the point of Napoleon split her army asunder and enabled him to push down where the river issues from the Taurus. The sea is now about the south bank of the Danube and occupy Vienna, left exposed by ym. distant, and the river is navigable only for about 2m. from the Austrian retreat across the river. Napoleon then aimed tp the mouth; but in the time of Thucydides ships could anchor off complete the overthrow of the Austrian forces, but the bridges Aspendus. Really of pre-Hellenic date, the place claimed to be over the Danube had been broken, and the archduke’s army had an Argive colony. It derived wealth from great salines and from reassembled on and about the Bisamberg.! The first task of the a trade in oil and wool, to which the wide range of its admirable French was the crossing of the Danube. Lobau, one of the numercoinage bears witness from the 5th century B.c. onwards. There ous islands which divide the river into minor channels, was selected Alcibiades met the satrap Tissaphernes in 411 B.c., and thence suc- as the point of crossing, but rough weather caused 24 hours’ delay ceeded in getting the Phoenician fleet, intended to co-operate with in the bridging of the channels from the right bank to Lobau and Sparta, sent back home. The Athenian, Thrasybulus, after ob- it was not until midday on May 20 that the troops, other than taining contributions from Aspendus in 389, was murdered by the the advanced detachments, crossed to the island. By the evening inhabitants. The city bought off Alexander in 333, but, not keep- of the 20th a large force had been collected there and the last arm ing faith, was forcibly occupied by the conqueror. In due course of the Danube, between Lobau and the left bank, bridged. Masit passed from Pergamene to Roman dominion, and, according to séna’s corps at once began to cross to the left bank and dislodged Cicero, was plundered of many artistic treasures by Verres. It the Austrian outposts. Undeterred by the news of heavy attacks was ranked by Philostratus the third city of Pamphylia, and in on his rear from Tirol and from Bohemia, Napoleon hurried all Byzantine times seems to have been known as Primopolis, under available troops to the bridges, and by midday on the zi% which name its bishop signed at Ephesus in ap. 431. In me- 25,000 men were collected on the edge of the Marchfeld, the diaeval times it was evidently still a strong place but is now a broad open plain of the left bank, which was also to be the scene wretched hamlet. of the battle of Wagram. The archduke did not seriously resist With the Roman theatre, the finest in the world, the ruins the passage; it was his original intention to await developments, have earned for the place a connection with Solomon’s Sheban but a misleading, if happily misleading, report led him to seize queen. On the summit of the hillock, surrounded by a wall with the opportunity for a blow before the bulk of the French army three gates, lie the remains of the city. The public buildings round had crossed. Napoleon seems to have taken the risk too lightly, the forum can all be traced, and parts of them are standing to a both underestimating his opponents and the need for preparatory considerable height. They consist of a fine nympheum on the measures, but he sought to minimize it by concentrating close te north with a covered theatre behind it, covered market halls on the river before pushing forward—and thus also to avoid atterthe west, and a peristyle hall and a basilica on the east. In the tion. His forces on the Marchfeld were drawn up in front of the plain below are large thermae, and ruins of a splendid aqueduct. bridges facing north, with their left in the village of Aspem But all else seems insignificant beside the huge theatre, half hol- (Gross-Aspern) and their right in Essling (or Esslingen). Both lowed out of the north-east flank of the hill. This was completely places lay close to the Danube and could not therefore be tured. planned and described by Count Lanckoronski’s expedition in But the French had to fill the gap between the villages, and alse 1884. It is built of local conglomerate and is in marvellous pres- to move forward to give room for the main body to form up. ervation. Erected to the honour of the emperors Marcus Aurelius Whilst they were thus engaged the archduke moved to the attack and L. Verus by the architect Zeno for the heirs of a local Roman with his whole army of 98,o00 men in five columns. Three under citizen (as an inscription repeated over both portals attests), its Hiller, Bellegarde and Hohenzollern were to converge up% auditorium has a circuit of 313ft. There are 4o tiers of seating, Aspern, the other two, under Rosenberg, to attack Essling. | divided by one diazoma, and- crowned by an arched gallery of Austrian cavalry was in the centre, ready to move out agamst rather later date, repaired in places with brick. This auditorium any French cavalry which should attack the heads of the colemms. held 7,500 spectators. The seats are not perfect, but so nearly so During the 21st the bridges became more and more unsafe, owing as to appear practically intact. The wooden stage has, of course, 1See sketch map in the article WAGRAM.

ASPHALT

549

to the violence of the current, and the passage of the French | which consist of a mixture of hydrocarbons and their derivatives of complex structure, largely cyclic or bridge compounds.” In reinforcements was frequently delayed. The battle began at Aspern; Hiller carried the village at the more popular terms asphalt may be defined as a semi-solid sticky grst rush about 4 P.M., but Masséna recaptured it, and held his residue formed by the partial evaporation or distillation of cerd with the same tenacity he had shown at Genoa in 1800. tain petroleums. This is as true of native asphalts as of those

The French infantry, indeed, fought on this day with the old gubborn bravery which it had failed to show in the earlier

obtained by refining petroleum.

The solid or semi-solid native

battles of the year. The three Austrian columns, hindering each ather by their convergence on a single point, were unable to do more than drive the French out to the far edge of the village

before night fell. In the meanwhile nearly all the French infantry

sted between the two villages and in front of the bridges had

heen drawn into the fight on either flank. Napoleon therefore, to

create a diversion, sent forward his centre, now consisting only

of cavalry, to charge the enemy’s artillery, which was deployed in slong line and firing into Aspern. The first charge of the French was repulsed, but the second attempt, made by heavy masses of tuirassiers overrode the guns, but failed to break Hohenzollern’s infantry squares, and in the end retired to their old position. Even so, they effectively discouraged any further attack on the French

POROUS ROCK IMPREGNATED WITH ASPHALTIC PETROLEUM DIAGRAM

SHOWING

HOW

ASPHALT

IS FOUND

bitumens were termed &odadros by the Greeks.

IN NATURE

Only the native

asphalts were known to the ancients, but late in the r9th century almost as desperate as that of Aspern. The French cuirassiers it was found that asphalt was a constituent of certain petroleums made repeated charges on the flank of Rosenberg’s force, and and could be recovered from them by distilling off the volatile oils for long delayed the assault, and in the village Lannes with a which held it in solution. In 1928 over 80% of the world’s supply single division made a heroic and successful resistance, till night of asphalt was produced at petroleum refineries. Sandstones and limestones naturally impregnated with asphalt ended the battle. The two armies bivouacked on their ground, and in Aspern the French and Austrians lay within pistol shot of each —commonly known as rock asphalt or bituminous rock—are found in various parts of the world, the most widely known deother. All through the night more and more French troops were put posits being at Val de Travers in Switzerland; Seyssel in France across, and at the earliest dawn of the 22nd the battle was re- and Mons in Belgium; San Valentino and Cesi in Italy; Ragusa in smed. Masséna by degrees cleared Aspern of Austrians, but at Sicily; Limmer, Lobsann and Vorwohle in Alsace; and in Texas, the same time Rosenberg stormed Essling at last. Lannes, how- Oklahoma, Alabama and Kentucky in the United States. The ever, resisted desperately, and reinforced by St. Hilaire’s division, largest and best known deposit of relatively pure asphalt occurs as drove Rosenberg out. By 7 am. Napoleon had 77,000 troops an asphalt or pitch lake on the Island of Trinidad, British West across and he launched a great attack on the Austrian centre. Indies, and covers an area of about 100 acres. A sample of crude Beginning with Lannes on the right, the whole French centre, with contains approximately 39% of pure asphalt or bitumen, the balthe cavalry in reserve, moved forward. The Austrian line was ance being gas, water, light oils and organic and mineral matter. broken through, between Rosenberg’s right and Hohenzollern’s The surface of the lake forms a crust which may be removed by left, and the French squadrons poured into the gap. Victory means of picks. The plastic material from beneath flows into the seemed within reach when the archduke brought up his last re- excavations and rapidly hardens into a new crust. A more extenserve, himself leading on his soldiers with a colour in his hand. sive but shallower deposit is found at Bermudez lake in Venezuela. Lannes was checked, and with his repulse the impetus of the This asphalt is softer than that found at Trinidad and contains attack died out all along the line. Meantime Aspern had been less mineral matter. An exceptionally pure asphalt of very brittle lost to a counter-attack by Hiller and Bellegarde, and graver nature known as Gilsonite, is obtained in Colorado. Other varienews reached Napoleon at the critical moment. The Danube ties are known as manjak, glance pitch, wurtzelite, étc.

centre. In the meanwhile Essling had been the scene of fighting

Practically all native asphalt is too hard for direct use and bridges had at last been cut by heavy barges, which had been set adrift down stream for the purpose by the Austrians. Napoleon must be heated until water, gas and other volatile materials are thereupon (rr A.M.) suspended the attack and decided to retire driven off and then fluxed or softened to the desired consistency toLobau. About 3 p.m. Essling fell to another assault of Rosen- by mixing with it the proper amount of residual petroleum. On berg, and though again the French, this time part of the Guard, the other hand asphalt recovered directly from petroleum (q.v.) drove him out, the Austrian general then directed his efforts on by distillation does not require fluxing, as the process is stopped the flank of the French centre, slowly retiring on the bridges. when the product reaches the desired consistency. When a high The retirement was costly, and the French must have been driven melting-point is desired, the asphalt is heated to fluidity and air into the Danube but for the steadiness of Lannes, the exhaustion is blown through it, producing what is known as “blown” or ofthe assailants, and the archduke’s inexplicable action in draw: oxidized asphalt. Asphalt Cements.—The hardness of asphalt is determined ing back part of his force about 4 p.m. Although he turned them about again on hearing that the French were retiring across to by measuring the distance that a standard needle, under a load Lobau, he did not seek a renewal of the struggle. The French of 500g. applied for five seconds, will penetrate the asphalt at lost 20,000 and amongst the killed were Lannes and St. Hilaire. 77°, This “penetration” test classifies asphalts into grades, and The Austrians lost 23,360. Even this, the first serious defeat of when a consistency suitable for some commercial use is reached, Napoleon did not shake his resolution. The beaten forces were the products are known as “asphalt cements.” These are used at last withdrawn safely into the island. On the night of the 22nd primarily as water and weather resisting binders, and their value thegreat bridge was repaired, and the army awaited the arrival of for these purposes was utilized in ancient times for preserving reinforcements, not in Vienna, but in Lobau. But it had been a nar- mummies and in some cases for coating and binding masonry. Asphalt is extensively used in paving, roofing and water-prooftow escape from disaster, and its special historical significance is an illustration of the over-confidence which was fastening more ing. Over 50% of the total production is employed in the construction of highways in which it is used to bind together the and more strongly on Napoleon’s mind. (B. H. L. H.) ASPHALT. According to the standard definition of the stone, sand and mineral dust which constitute the bulk of the American society for testing materials, asphalts are “solid or semi- wearing surface. Approximately 140,000,000sq.yd. of asphalt pave-

slid native bitumens, solid or semi-solid bitumens which are ments are constructed annually in the United States alone. Rela-

combinations of the bitumens mentioned with petroleums or deuvatives thereof, which melt upon the application of heat and

tively fluid asphalt products known as “road oils,” are used for

the surface treatment of macadam and gravel roads. Asphalt is

ASPHODEL—ASSAM

559

also employed in the manufacture of wall boards, flooring, floor coverings, sheathing, moisture-proof wrapping paper, paints. varnishes, enamels, japans, acid-proof coatings, pipe dips, sealing compounds, insulating products, emulsions and moulding composition. The roofing industry consumes over 30% of the total production in the manufacture of asphalt-impregnated roofing and

shingles. The total annual production and importation of asphalt into the United States amounts to over 4,000,000 tons of which some

of asphodel stalks (cf. Herod iv. 190).

See Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyklopédie, s.v.; H. O. Lenz, Botanik dey

alten Griechen und Rémer (1859); J. Murr, Die Phanzenwelt iydey griechischen M ytkologie (1890).

ASPHYXIA, a term in medicine signifying arrest of respi. ration from some hindrance to the entrance of air into the lungs (See RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: Diseases of.) :

ASPIC, a poisonous African snake popularly supposed to

give a quick and easy death. “The worm’s an odd worm,” said the clown to Cleopatra, “those that do die of it do rarely re.

CRUDE ASPHALTIC PETROLEUM

CRUDE LAKE ASPHALT

bites and a specific against sorcery; it was fatal to mice, but served pigs from disease. The Libyan nomads made their huts

cover,” and the aspic was welcomed by the queen as the means of swift dispatch. The French have a proverb froid comme un aspic, and it is to be supposed that French cooks, when t STEAM COILS

invented as a dainty savoury a bit of meat, game or fish imbedded in calf’s-foot jelly, called it an aspic because it was cold to the touch like a snake. Aspic is also the botanical name of the Lavandula spica, or spikenard, from which a white aromatic and highly inflammable oil is distilled, called huile d’aspic.

MATTER SETTLE OUT

ASPIDISTRA, a small genus of the lily family (Liliaceae), native of the Himalayas, China and Japan. Aspidistra elatior is a favourite pot-plant, bearing large green or white-striped leaves on an underground stem, and small dark purplish, cup-shaped flowers close to the ground. It is very resistant to unfavourable

conditions and will live in the low light intensity of an ordinary dwelling room.

HARD REFINED ASPHALT SOFTENED

ASPIRIN is the trade-name of acetyl salicylic acid. Its dose

ASPHALT CEMENT CONTAINING EARTHY MATTER

COMBINED WITH MINERAL AGGREGATE TO PRODUCE

HOW

LAKE

AND

PETROLEUM

ASPHALTS

ASPHALT PAVEMENT

ARE

i

REFINED

3,500,000 tons are recovered directly from domestic petroleum and petroleum imported to the American refineries from Mexico and certain Central American and South American countries.

(See BITUMEN.) BIBLIOGRAPEY.—See

Barton and Doane, Sampling and Testing of

Highway Materials; Richardson, Asphalt Construction for Pavements and Highways; Judson, Road Preservation and Dust Prevention; Hubbard, Laboratory Manual of Bituminous Materials; O. G. Strieter, The Mechanism of Asphalt Formation (192 2 ao

ASPHODEL

(Asphodelus), a genus of the lily family (Lilia-

ceae), containing seven species in the Mediterranean region. The

plants are hardy herbaceous perennials with narrow tufted radical leaves and an elongated stem bearing a handsome spike of white or yellow flowers. Asphodelus albus and A. fistulosus have white flowers and grow from 14 to 2ft. high; A. ramosus is a larger plant, the large white flowers of which have a reddish-brown line in the middle of each segment. Bog-asphodel (Narthecium ossifragum), a member of the same family, is a small herb common in boggy places in Britain, with rigid narrow radical leaves and a stem bearing a raceme of small golden yellow flowers. In the United States there are two species of similar appearance and habitat, the American bog-asphodel (NV. americanum), of the New Jersey pinebarrens, and the western bog-asphodel (N. californicum), of the coast ranges of California and Oregon. In Greek legend the asphodel is the most famous of the plants connected with the dead and the underworld. Homer describes it as covering the great meadow (àopóôeħos Neruwv), the haunt of the dead (Od.xi.539,573; xxiv.13). It was planted on graves, and is often connected with Persephone, who appears crowned with a garland of asphodels. Its general connection with death is due no doubt to the greyish colour of its leaves and its yellowish flowers, which suggest the gloom of the underworld and the pallor of death. The roots were eaten by the poorer Greeks; hence such food was thought good enough for the shades (cf. Hesiod, Works and Days, 41; Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxi. 17 [68]; Lucian, De luctu, 19). The asphodel was also supposed to be a remedy for poisonous snake-

is o-3 to t-og. (5 to 15 grains). Like other salicylates it is of great use in acute rheumatic fever, in which it seems to have almost a specific action, as it causes the temperature to drop and the pain and swelling of the joints to decrease. Recent studies seem to point to a beneficial action on the heart itself in this disease. Aspirin also relieves headaches and neuralgia but does not cure the cause of these pains. It is much safer to use than the

so-called antipyretics. The symptoms of an overdose are ringing in the ears, some dimness of vision at times, nausea and vomiting,

With the lowering of temperature in fever there may be great sweating. Exposure to cold after its administration is therefore unwise.

ASPROMONTE,

mountain, Calabria, Italy, behind Reggio

di Calabria, the western extremity of the Sila range. It is 6,420ft. high and has forest-clad slopes. Here Garibaldi was wounded and taken by Italian troops under Pallavicini (1862). ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY: see Oxrorp aw ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY ASQUITH, EARL OF.

ASS, a common name for varieties of the subgenus Asnes, belonging to the horse tribe, and especially for the domestic ass; it differs from the horse in its smaller size, long ears, the character of its tail, fur and markings, and its proverbial dullness and obstinacy. The fifth proposition of Book i. of Euclid is known as the Pons Asinorum, “bridge of asses.” ASS, FEAST OF THE, a festival formerly held on Jan. 14 in Northern France, in commemoration of the biblical flight into Egypt. A girl with a baby at her breast and seated on an ass splendidly caparisoned was led through the town to the church where mass was said. The ceremony degenerated into a bur-

lesque in which the ass of the flight became confused with Balaam’s ass. So scandalous became the popular revels associated with it, that the celebration was prohibited by the church in the rsth century. (See Foors, FEAST oF.)

ASSAB, a bay and port on the African shore of the Red sea, 6om. N. of the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. Assab bay was the first

territory acquired by Italy in Africa. Bought from the sultan of Raheita in 1870, it was not occupied until 1880. (See ERITREA, History.)

ASSAI (Ital), though meaning originally “enough” (cf.Fr.

assez) has acquired also the secondary meaning of “very, # which sense alone it is employed in musical terminology, 4 ® Presto assai, meaning “very fast.” i

ASSAM, a province of British India. Area (including the State Pop. (1921) 7,606,230.

of Manipur) 62,790sq.m.

ASSAM

Sos

The Brahmaputra emerges from Himalayan gorges into a valley,

hot season whilst the rains have been watering Assam from early

om. wide, with steep mountain sides, and flows west and west-

March onwards, merging finally into the great monsoonal rainfall.

south-west till it turns south around the bastion of the Garo Hills.

This broad valley is the main region of Assam but the province iso includes the hills that bound this valley on the south. They sre named from their peoples—the Garo, Khasi, Jaintia and North Cachar hills and the highest point in them is Shillong peak (6,450

The Khasi hills are said to have the heaviest rainfall in the world,

with an average of 424 inches at Cherrapunji overlooking the lowlying land of the Surma, which, in monsoon time, becomes a lake of almost warm water. Sylhet on the southern lowland has an annual rainfall of 159 inches, and Gauhati on the floor of the Brahit). South of these hills are the districts of Sylhet and South maputra valley, that is north of the hills, only 67in. The heavy Cachar, essentially the Surma valley, fiat below the very abrupt and long continued rains keep the temperature relatively moderslope of the Khasi and Jaintia hills. To the ate, the mean temperature of the warm season not reaching above east and south-east, Assam is bordered by 84° F.

hill ranges which make a barrier between + and Burma; these are a part of the

Earthquakes.—Assam is liable to earthquakes. By far the se-

verest shock known is that of 1897, the focus of which was in the mountain curve that stretches down the Khasi and Garo hills. In the station of Shillong every masonry west side of Burma. The hills of the Asbuilding was levelled to the ground. Throughout the country sam-Burma border are named from their |"/ bridges were shattered, roads were broken up like ploughed fields ples the Naga hills and rise to nearly and the beds of rivers were dislocated. In the hills there were ter10,000 feet at Japro peak. Within the genrible landslips which wrecked the little Cherrapunji railway and eral limits of the province are petty feudacaused 6oo deaths. The total mortality recorded was 1,542. In tory states in the Khasi hills, while south 1918 another severe earthquake, which had its centre in the of the Naga hills and east of Cachar lies Balisera hills in Sylhet, caused considerable damage to property the feudatory state of Manipur (area but very little loss of life. 8.456sq.m.; pop. [1921] 384,016). | Fauna.—Wild elephants are numerous on the lower slopes of Rivers.—The Brahmaputra may be said 3734 the Assam range and in the Brahmaputra valley. The Government to be formed by the union of a number of keddah establishment captures large numbers, and the right of streams at the head of the valley of Assam. hunting is also sold by auction to private bidders. The rhinoceros The Dihang, called Tsang-po in Tibet, has is found in swampy places along the Brahmaputra. Tigers, leopits source far to the west on the north side ards and bears are numerous. Another formidable animal is the of the Himalaya and flows parallel to that wild buffalo or gaur which is of great size, strength and fierceness. COURTESY OF THE NORTHERN range for hundreds of miles until it breaks BY Wild game is plentiful; pheasants, partridges, snipe and waterBAPTIST CONVENTION through Himalayan gorges in a series of THE BATTLE ARRAY OF A fowl of many descriptions make the country a tempting field for waterfalls and rapids and emerges into the warrior oF THE NAGAS, the sportsman. Forests.—An area of 6,000 square miles is occupied by GovAssam valley. The Sesiri, Dibang and THE LARGEST HILL TRIBE Luhit rivers from the north-east unite with IN ASSAM ernment reserved forests. The most valuable are those bearing it to form the Brahmaputra which receives further tributaries Sal (Shorea robusta) in the districts of Goalpara, Kamrup and irom the Himalayas on the north and from the other hills named the Garo hills. Agriculture.—The principal and almost the only food-grain on the south-east. The former include the Subansiri, Bhareli, North Dhansiri, Barnadi, Manas and Sankosh rivers, mostly of the plains portion of the province is rice. In 1925-26 there glacier-fed. Among the latter are the two Dihings (Noa and Buri), were 44 million acres under rice, or two-thirds of the total cultithe Disang, Dhansiri and Kalang, streams which dwindle as the vated area in the plains. In addition, jute is grown to a considerdry season progresses. The valleys of the Dhansiri and Kalang able extent in Goalpara and Sylhet; cotton is grown in large quanisolate the Mikir and Rengma hills from the southern hill frame- tities along the slopes. Potatoes are raised in the Khasi hills, which work. The Brahmaputra becomes a sheet of water several miles are also the centre of orange cultivation supplying most of Bengal broad in the rainy season. and Assam. Soils and Geology.—Geographically the Assam hills (Garo, Tea Plantations.—The most important article of commerce Khasi and Jaintia, North Cachar, etc., hills), lie in the angle be- produced in Assam is tea. The rice crop covers a very great protween the Himalayas and the Burmese ranges, but geologically portion of the cultivated land, but it is used for local consumption, they belong to neither. The greater part of the mass consists of and the Brahmaputra valley does not produce enough for its own gneiss and schists overlain unconformably by cretaceous beds, con- consumption, large quantities being imported for the coolies. The sisting chiefly of sandstones with seams of coal, the whole series tea plantations are the great source of wealth to the province, and thinning out northwards as though towards a shore line; they are the necessities of tea cultivation are the chief stimulants to the covered by tertiary rocks, including nummulitic beds and valuable development of Assam. At the close of the year 1925 there were seams of coal. These rocks show neither Himalayan nor Bur- 930 gardens in all, with 416,477 acres under tea, and a total output mese folding but, while nearly horizontal towards the north, they of 224 million Ib. of tea. Two-thirds of the gardens are in the are bent sharply downwards to the south in a simple monoclinal Brahmaputra valley, and the rest in the Surma valley; the mafold. The hill sides are generally forested. A good deal of the jority are owned by Europeans. valley is raised well above flood-level and is rich agricultural land, Tea-Garden Labour.—The labour required on the tea gardens partly under rice, partly in tea and other plantations. The alluvial has hitherto been almost entirely imported, as the natives of the deposits of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries show much varia- province are too prosperous to do such work. During the decade tion of fertility and elevation; there are vast chars of pure sand ending in 1921, 769,000 labourers were imported. The importation inundated'every year but easily and rapidly transformed into pas- of coolies is controlled by an elaborate system of legislation. To tures in many places, and there are also terraces and islands of firm ensure the protection and welfare of the labourer on the one hand soll raised well above the floods. Many of the wetter lands are and the enfercement of contracts on the other, there has been a occupiéd by great reeds and grasses. The Himalayan and Burmese series of legislative enactments dating back to 1863. By the latest mountain frame includes great masses of tertiary rocks, with coal act passed in 1915 recruitment by contractors has been abolished, sams in the Burmese ranges. and the sardari system is general, z.¢e., selected men, and sometimes _Climate.—In January the high pressure over the land gives women, are sent to their native districts to induce relations, nse to frequent winds down the valley of the Brahmaputra, friends and acquaintances to emigrate. Parties of them are conthough there may be some rain and fogs are common; the tem- ducted to Assam by agents of the Labour Supply Association, arperature at this season averages 61° F. But the wind from the sea rangements being made for food, clothing and medical attention soon begins to penetrate along this corridor and Assam thus con- en route. In 1925 there were nearly a million labourers, and 33,000 trasts strongly with many parts of North India which have a dry fresh importations.

552

ASSAM

Industries.—Though Assam is rich in natural resources, diffi- grants form a large constituent. Altogether 44° of the culties of transport and lack of capital have impeded their de- speak Bengali, 229% Assamese and 18, various Tibeto Bye velopment. Apart from the manufacture of tea, the industries are languages. Bengali is the mother-tongue of the great cae of the people of the Surma valley. Assamese is written in n T not of great importance. Coal mining is carried on in the Makum coalfield near Margherita and at Nazira in the Naga hills. Pe- the same alphabet as Bengali, and the vernacular Assamese troleum is extracted at Badarpur on the Barak river in Cachar, sesses a Close affinity to that language. Indeed, so close whe and is exported for use as fuel. There are also oil wells in the resemblance that for a time Bengali was used as the cour and Makum field in Lakhimpur; the oil is refined at Digboi. Timber official language; but with the development of the country the from the forests is brought to various saw mills and made up into Assamese tongue asserted its claims to be treated as a distinct ver tea chests. Limestone and iron ore are found in large quantities nacular, and the Government in 1873 re-established it as the ie in the Khasi hills and formerly provided materials for flourishing guage of official life and public business. Hill Tribes.—The Singphos, Daphlas, Miris, Khamtis Mich. industries—‘Sylhet lime” was a monopoly of the Nawabs of Bengal, and cannon were forged at Sibsagar. Owing, however, to mis, Abors, etc., are found near the frontiers of Lakhimpur dis competition, the lime trade has declined and iron smelting has trict. The Nagas inhabit the hills and forests along the eastern and south-eastern frontier of Assam, residing partly in the British almost disappeared. Trade.—The external trade of Assarm is still mainly carried by district of the Naga hills and partly in independent territory under its waterways, though the railway traffic is steadily increasing year the political control of the deputy-commissioner of the adjoini by year. The river borne trade of the Assam valley is chiefly con- districts. Under regulation V. of 1873, an inner line has been ia ducted by steamer and by native boat. No less than two-thirds of down in certain districts, up to which the protection of British authority is guaranteed, and beyond which, except by Special perthe total trade is conducted with Calcutta. Railways.—The Eastern Bengal State railway runs from mission, it is not lawful for British subjects to go, This inner Dhubri north of the river to Gauhati, whence it follows the Kalang line has been laid down in the Balipara Frontier tract towards valley eastwards to Lumding. At this point it meets the Assam- the Bhotias, Akas and Daphlas; in the Sadiya Frontier tract and Bengal railway which has come north from Chittagong via Karim- Lakhimpur towards the Daphlas, Miris, Abors, Mishmis, Khamtis ganj and across the hills. From Lumding the railway goes along Singphos and Nagas, and in Sibsagar towards the Nagas. The line the Dhansiri valley to the towns of North-east Assam. The is marked at intervals by frontier posts held by military police and commanding the roads of access to the tract beyond, and any Assam-Bengal railway has branches to Sylhet and Silchar. Inhabitants.—The total population of Assam, according to the person from the plains who has received permission to cross the census of 1921, was 7,606,230, of whom 55% were Hindus, 28% line has to present his pass at these posts. The inner line formerly Mohammedans and 16% Animists. The number of Christians maintained along the Lushai border has since 1895 been allowed was almost doubled in the decade and in 1921 was 132,106: the to fall into desuetude. (For the ethnology of Assam see Ast: increase was specially remarkable in the Lushai hills, where mass Anthropology and Ethnology, § Farther Asia.) Administration.—Assam was under a chief commissioner conversion brought up the number from 2,000 to*27,000 or onequarter of the whole population. The total density is only 130 from its formation as a province from 1874 to 190%, when it was persons per square mile and there are extraordinary variations. merged in the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. In 1912 As explained in the Government review of the census of 1921, it was restored to its former status as a separate province under some of the sources of these variations are physical and climatic, a chief commissioner. In 1921 it was constituted a province under but some at least are to be sought in history, and the devastation a governor with an executive council (of two members) and two caused in the Brahmaputra valley by the Moamaria insurrection ministers. The capital of the province is Shillong. and the Burmese invasion left a scanty pra si HISTORY population at the time of the British annexation. Until recent years an unhealthy Assam was the province of Bengal which remained most stubclimate and the absence of communicabornly outside the limits of the Mogul empire and of the tions, in spite of the opening up of the Mohammedan polity in India. Indeed, although frequently overcountry by tea gardens, prevented speedy |. run by Mussulman armies, and its western districts annexed to development. In the Surma valley also, the Mohammedan vice-royalty of Bengal, the province mainCachar and the east and south portions of |. tained an uncertain independence till its invasion by the Burmese the Sylhet districts suffered too much from | | towards the end of the 18th century, and its final cession to the the raids of the neighbouring hill tribes to British in 1826. It seems to have been originally included, along be inviting places of residence. In the hills with the greater part of north-eastern Bengal, in the old Hindu it is not so long since head-hunting was territory of Kamrup. Its early legends point to great religious considered to be the only proper occupa- Fs revolutions between the rival rites of Krishna and Siva as a tion of a man, while the primitive condisource of dynastic changes. Its roll of kings extends deep into tions of agriculture militate against a large pre-historic times, but the first rajah capable of identification population, Assam has moreover in the flourished about the year A.D. 76. past suffered from the ravages of “black A ee When Hsiian Tsang visited the country in Ap. 640, a prince fever” or Kala Azar to an extent of which Fa, named Kumar Bhaskara Barman was on the throne. The people there is no record elsewhere. An intensive sy courtesy of THE NORTHERN are described as being of small stature with dark yellow comcampaign undertaken by the Government ao ees plexions; fierce in appearance, but upright and studious. Hinde and the discovery of effective methods of hee pa ee ism was the state religion, and the number of Buddhists was very treatment have done much to counteract sidered among the most small. The soil was deep and fertile, and the towns were surthis terrible disease. beautiful in India rounded by moats with water brought from rivers or banked-up About one-sixth of the population is foreign born-and consists lakes. Subsequently we read of Pal rulers in Assam. It is supof immigrants such as those who have come to cultivate waste posed that these kings were Buddhist and belonged to the Pal land or to work in the tea gardens, the majority from Bengal and dynasty of Bengal. Although the whole of Kamrup appears from Behar and Orissa. The population is consequently somewhat time to time to have been united into one kingdom under some heterogeneous; there are, for instance, 100,000 Nebans. Of the unusually powerful monarch, it was more often split up mto total population 3,800,000 (in round figures) are inhabitants of numerous petty states; and for several centuries the Koch, the the Brahmaputra valley, 2,540,000 of the Surma valley, and 700,- Ahom and the Chutia powers contested for the Assam valley. oco of the hill districts. No less than ror distinct languages, of the early part of the 13th century the Ahoms or Ahams, from which 52 are native to Assam, were returned at the census— northern Burma and the Chinese frontiers, poured into the east-

figures significant of a heterogeneous population of which immi-

ern districts of Assam, founded a kingdom and held it firmly for

ASSAMESE

LANGUAGE—ASSASSIN

J53

several centuries. The Ahoms were Shans from the ancient Shan | into a separate chief commissionership in 1874. In 1886 the eastern Dwars were annexed from Bhutan; and in kingdom of Pong. Their manners, customs, religion and language and for a long time continued to be, different from those of 1874 the district of Goalpara, the eastern Dwars and the Garo the Hindus; but they found themselves compelled to respect the hills were incorporated in Assam. In 1898 the southern Lushai gperior civilization of this race, and slowly adopted its customs hills were transferred from Bengal to Assam, and the north and md language. The conversion of their king Chuchengpha to south Lushai hills were amalgamated as a district of Assam, and Hinduism took place in the year A.D. 1655, and all the Ahoms of placed under the superintendent of the Lushai hills. Frontier Assam gradually followed his example. From this time dates the troubles occasionally occur with the Akas, Daphlas, Abors and deterioration of the Assamese and their decline as a power. In Mishmis along the northern border, arising out of raids from the mediaeval history, the Assamese were known to the Mussulman independent territory into British districts. In Oct. 1905, the tion as a warlike predatory race, who sailed down the whole province of Assam was incorporated in the new province Brahmaputra in fleets of canoes, plundered the rich districts of of Eastern Bengal and Assam.

the delta, and retired in safety to their forests and swamps. As the Mohammedan power consolidated itself in Bengal, repeated

See E. A. Gait, The History of Assam History of Upper Assam (1914).

expeditions were sent out against these river pirates. The phys-

ASSAMESE LANGUAGE, the Indo-Aryan tongue spoken

ical difficulties which an invading force had to contend with in Assam, however, prevented anything like a regular subjugation

in the Assam valley. In its grammar it closely resembles Bengali (g.v.), since both are derived from a common source. Its vocabulary is mainly tadbhava. It has been affected by its proximity to Tibeto-Burman dialects both in vocabulary and in structure, as in the use of pronominal suffixes, and in phonetics, though following Bengali generally in its accentuation. The chief glory of Assamese literature is in history. The duranjis or historical works are voluminous and have been carefully preserved. Tadbhava means “of the same character as” Sanskrit, contrasted with tatsama, “identical with” the Sanskrit word. The French ete ange is tadbhava, while angelus is tatsama, identical with the atin.

of the country; and after repeated efforts, the Mussulmans contented themselves with occupying the western districts at the mouth of the Assam valley. In 1638, during the reign of the

emperor Shah Jahan, the Assamese descended the Brahmaputra, ad pillaged the country round the city of Dacca; they were expelled by the governor of Bengal, who retaliated upon the plunderers by ravaging Assam.

During the civil wars between the sons

of Shah Jahan, the king of Assam renewed his predatory incursions into Bengal; upon the termination of the contest, Aurang-

zb determined to avenge these repeated insults, and despatched a considerable force for the regular invasion of Assamese terri-

tory (1660-62). His general, Mir Jumla, defeated the rajah, who fed to the mountains, and most of the chiefs made their submission to the conqueror. But the rains set in with unusual violence, and Mir Jumla’s army was almost annihilated by famine and sickness. Thus terminated the last expedition against Assam by the Mohammedans. A writer of the Mohammedan faith says:— “Whenever an invading army has entered their territories, the Assamese have sheltered themselves in strong posts, and have distressed the enemy by stratagems, surprises and alarms, and by cutting off their provisions. If these means failed, they have declined a battle in the field, but have carried the peasants into the mountains, burned the grain and left the country desert. But when the rainy season has set in upon the advancing enemy, they have watched their opportunity to make excursions and vent their rage; the famished invaders have either become their prisoners or been put to death. In this manner powerful and numerous armies have been sunk in that whirlpool of destruction, and not a soul has escaped.” The same writer states that the country was spacious and populous; that the paths and roads were beset with difficulties; and that the obstacles to conquest were more than could be expressed. The inhabitants, he says, were always prepared for battle, and the approach to their forts was

opposed by dangerous jungles, and broad and boisterous rivers. From the middle of the 17th century internal dissensions, invasion and disturbances of every kind convulsed the province, and neither prince nor people enjoyed security. Late in the 18th century some interference took place on the part of the British government, then conducted by Lord Cornwallis; but his successor, Sir John Shore, adopting the non-intervention policy, withdrew the British force, and abandoned the country to its fate. Its condition encouraged the Burmese to depose the rajah, and to make Assam a dependency of Ava. The extension of their enctoachments on a portion of the territory of the East India company compelled the British government to take decisive steps for ts own protection. Hence arose the series of hostilities with Ava known in Indian history as the First Burmese War, on the termination of which by treaty in Feb. 1826, Assam remained a British possession. In 1832 that portion of the province denominated Upper Assam was formed into an independent native state, and conferred upon Purandhar Singh, the ex-rajah of the country; but

(1906); L. W. Shakespear,

See Linguistic Survey of India, vol. v. pt. 2 p. 393, for grammar and list of authorities.

ASSARY

or ASSARION,

a Roman

copper

coin, the

“farthing” of Matthew x. 29.

ASSASSIN, a general term for a secret murderer (properly Hashishin, from Hashish, the opiate made from the juice of hemp leaves), originally the name of the Ismé‘ili branch of the Shiite sect founded by Hasan-i-Sabbah at the end of the rth century, and from that time active in Syria and Persia until crushed in the 13th century by the Mongols under Hūlāgū in Persia, and by the Mamluk Baybars in Syria. Hasan, a native of Khurasan and a Shiite, after many adventures settled near Kuhistan and gradually spread his peculiar modification of Isma‘ili doctrine. Having collected a considerable number of followers he formed them into a secret society. In ro9o he obtained, by stratagem, the strong mountain fortress of Alamiit in Persia, and, removing there with his followers, settled as chief of the famous Assassins. The speculative principles of this body were identical with those of the Ismi‘ilis, but their external policy was marked by one peculiar and distinctive feature—the employment of secret “assassination” against all enemies. This practice was introduced by Hasan, and formed the essential characteristic of the sect. At their head was the supreme ruler, the Shaykh-al-Jabal, i.e., Chief, or, as it is commonly translated, Old Man of the Mountains. Under him were three Da‘7-al-Kirbél, or, grand priors, who ruled

the three provinces over which the shaykh’s power extended.

Next came the body of Da‘is or priors, who were fully initiated into all the secret doctrines, and were the emissaries of the faith. Fourth were the Rafigs, who were in process of initiation, and ultimately advanced to the dignity of dd‘is. Fifth came the most distinctive class, the Fidis (7.e., the devoted ones}, who were the guards or assassins proper—young men who were kept uninitiated, and the blindest obedience was exacted from and yielded by them. Finally, the sixth and seventh orders were the Lasigs, or novices, and the common people. The Assassins soon began to make their power felt. One of their first victims was Hasan’s former friend, Nizam-al-Mulk (see SELJUKS), whose son also died under the dagger of a secret murderer. After a long and prosperous rule Hasan died at an advanced age in 1124, and was succeeded by his chief da‘, Kiya Buzurg-Umméd. During the 14 years’ reign of this second leader, the Assassins the administration of this chief proved unsatisfactory, and in 1838 his principality was reunited with the British dominions. were frequently unfortunate in the open field, and their castles After a period of successful administration and internal develop- were taken and plundered; but they acquired a stronghold in ment, under the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, it was erected Syria, while their numerous murders (e.g., of the caliphs Mustar-

554

ASSAULT—ASSAYING

shid and Rashid) made them an object of dread to the neighbouring princes, and spread abroad their evil renown. Buzurg-Umméd was succeeded by his son Muhammad I. (1138-62) in whose reign the fortress of Masyad became the chief seat of the Syrian branch of the society. His son Hasan (1162-66) declared himself to be the promised Imam, the caliph of God upon earth, and a lineal descendant of Ismail. His son and successor Muhammad II. (1166-1210) had to contend with many powerful enemies, especially with the great Atabeg sultan Nur ad-Din, and his more celebrated successor, Saladin, who had gained possession of Egypt after the death of the last Fatimid caliph, and against whom even secret assassination seemed powerless. During his

reign, also, the Syrian branch of the society, under their da‘i, Sinan, made themselves independent, and remained so ever afterwards. It was with this Syrian branch that the Crusaders made acquaintance; and it appears to have been their emissaries who slew Count Raymund of Tripoli and Conrad of Montferrat. During the reign of his son, Hasan II. (1210-1220), no assassinations occurred, and he obtained a high reputation among the neighbouring princes. Like his father, he was removed by poison, and his son, ‘Ala ad-Din Muhammad ITI. abandoned the mild principles of his father and a fresh course of assassination was entered on.

In 1255, after a reign of 35 years, ‘Ala ad-Din was

slain, with the connivance of his son, Rukn ad-Din, the last ruler of the Assassins. In the following year Hilagi, brother of the Tatar, Mangtii Khan, invaded the hill country of Persia, took Alamit and many other castles, and captured Rukn ad-Din. (See Moncots.) He treated him kindly, and, at his own request, sent him under escort to Mangii, who ordered Rukn ad-Din to be put to death, and sent a messenger to Hilagii commanding him to slay all his captives. About 12,000 of the Assassins were massacred, and their power in Persia was completely broken. The Syrian branch flourished for some years longer, till Baybars, the Mamluk sultan of Egypt, ravaged their country and nearly extirpated them. Small bodies of them lingered about the mountains of Syria, and are believed still to exist there. Doctrines somewhat similar to theirs are still to be met with in north Syria, Persia and India.

other, and battery as an unlawfui touching of another by an assai} ant in a rude and insolent manner, with or without a weapon, In.

tent is a constituent part of civil assault, thus an accident cannot constitute an assault since it lacks negligence and intention The apparent intention must be to inflict physical injury on the person

assaulted.

However, if an action is for assault and battery the

intention is not a material element, for, if the act was wronginl

the intent is presumed from the act. If the act was lawful the ele

ment of malice or recklessness enters and this is a necessary of the action in such case, and must be stated under United States

practice.

A criminal assault and battery may be committed al.

though the person injured does not know of, realize or fear the existence of the assault and battery. It may be stated as ageneral

rule in assault and battery that the intention of the aggressor and the fear or apprehension of the person assaulted are not in any way controlling, thus if a person throws a stone at A and strikes B he

is guilty of assault and battery upon B upon the principle of con. structive intent; z.¢., that a man is presumed to intend the natural and probable consequences of his acts. For when one puts into motion an injurious or deadly agency he assumes responsibility for all the natural and probable consequences of his conduct.

There is an irreconcilable difference of opinion in the United States as to what constitutes a criminal assault in a case where A

points a gun at B, within shooting distance, knowing that thegun is not loaded, and threatens to “blow his head off.” Some courts hold that this is not a criminal assault because A has no actual intention and lacks the ability to injure B in the manner threatened. Other courts hold that it is a criminal assault because there js an apparent present intention and ability to injure B, and the outward demonstration of A may lead to defensive measures on B's part which might produce, at least, a breach of the peace. The weight of authority is in favour of the latter position. A battery may be committed by the administration of a drug to another who

is innocent as to its nature and content. So, in battery, deception may be the equivalent of force, since the deceit practised is a fraud on the will of the innocent consumer of the drug equivalent

to force. An officer of the law, or one who aids him, in the enforcement of his lawful duties is privileged in the use of such BIBLIOGRAPHY.—J. von Hammer, Geschichte der Assassinen (1818); force as is reasonably necessary to uphold the law and preserve St. Guyard, Fragments relatifs à la doctrine des Ismaélis (Notices et order. Extraits, xxii, 1874); id., Un grand-maitre des Assassins (Journal In military language, the word is used of the culminating phase Asiatique, 1877) ; E. G. Browne, Literary History of Persia, ii., 193 sqq. of an attack, when the advancing troops come to close quarters 1906). (1906 (G. W. T.) ASSAULT, in English law, “an attempt or offer with force or with the enemy, surging into and overrunning his positions. violence to do corporal hurt to another, as by striking at another ASSAYE, a village of Hyderabad or the Nizam’s Dominions, with a stick or other weapon, or without a weapon, though the in southern India, just beyond the Berar frontier. The place is party misses his aim.” Mere words, be they ever so provoking, celebrated as the site of a battle fought on Sept. 23, 1803, between will not constitute an assault. Coupled with the attempt or threat the combined Mahratta forces under Sindhia and the rajah of to inflict corporal injury, there must in all cases be the possibility Berar and the British under Maj.-Gen. Wellesley, afterwards the of carrying the threat into effect, and so if the person threatened duke of Wellington. The Mahratta force consisted of 50,000 men, is out of range there can be no assault. ‘A battery is more than supported by r00 pieces of cannon served by French artillerya threat or attempt to injure the person of another; the injury men, and entrenched in a strong position. Against this the Engmust have been inflicted, but it makes no difference however small lish had but a force of 4,500 men, which, however, after a severe it may be, as the law does not “draw the line between degrees struggle, gained the most complete victory that ever crowned of violence,” but “totally prohibits the first and lowest stage of British valour in India. Of the enemy 12,000 were killed and it.” Every battery includes an assault. A common assault is a wounded; and Gen. Wellesley lost 1,657—one-third of his little misdemeanour, and is punishable by imprisonment with or with- force—killed and wounded. Assaye is 261m. N. W. of Hyderabad. out hard labour to the extent of one year, or by fine, and if it ASSAYING, a term originally applied to the trying or testoccasions bodily harm, with penal servitude for five years, or ing of ores and alloys for their contents of gold or silver. Later imprisonment to the extent of two years, with or without hard it has received a wider significance; from meaning to test any labour. There are various different kinds of assaults of a more ore or metallurgical product, in order to find its proportion of serious description which are provided against by particular enact- valuable constituents, it has even been extended to cover the ments of parliament, such as the Offences against the Person Act determination of alkaloids (g.v.) in plants. It will, however, be 1861; and there are also certain aggravated assaults for which used in this article in a metallurgical sense only. It is essentially the punishment is more severe than for common assault, as an a commercial process, hence the difference between assaying and assault with intent to murder, with intent to commit a rape, etc. chemical analysis. Analysis is an end in itself: the greater the An assault may be both a tort and a crime, giving a civil action accuracy, the more satisfactory is the result. In assaying $ 8 for damages to the person injured, as well as being the subject desired to determine the value of a material, and a degree 0 of a criminal prosecution. accuracy which exceeds that required to obtain this value 38 United States.—In the United States assault and battery, al- uneconomical for it requires excessive time and care which might though sometimes defined by statute, usually follow the common be more valuably employed. This does not mean that great law definitions. The statutes usually define an assault as an accuracy is never required, as the value of the substance to be unlawful attempt to commit immediate bodily injury upon an- determined must be taken into account, For example, in the

ASSAYING say of ores, iron is usually reported to 0-1%, whereas platinum

may be carried beyond an accuracy of o-o001%.

The origin of the art is lost in antiquity. The trial by ‘““Touch-

gone” and by “Fire” are mentioned by Theophrastus (371388 B.C), and the early alchemists were well acquainted with sych processes as precipitation, cupellation, etc., which are still in everyday use. The earliest known books on assaying were blished in Germany at the beginning of the 16th century. The most interesting of these is Agricolas De Re Metallica, which devotes considerable space to the subject.

Assaying is closely allied to the metallurgical industry.

In

early times it was merely a small-scale smelting operation, and followed the large-scale processes in detail. Hence the “Dry” or “Fire” assays originated, in which the assay sample was

smelted in a small crucible with suitable reagents, using a wood

or charcoal furnace. The simultaneous development of chemistry led to the introduction of analytical or “Wet” methods, which are now used for the majority of metals. The old smelting, or “Fire” assay, has survived for some materials, and is still the

only method available for the determination of gold and silver

in ores. The trial by “Touchstone,” or “Lydian stone,” to estimate the gold proportion of alloys, probably dates from the time of the Lydians (500 B.c.). The colour of the streak made on a

black stone by the metal under examination, was compared with

similar streaks made by “‘needles” of metal of known composition, called “Touchneedles.” ‘These needles were used in sets, one of golden-silver alloys, another of gold-copper alloys, and a third of “Triple” alloys, containing gold, silver, and copper. Touch

needles were introduced later for testing silver-copper alloys. DRY OR FIRE ASSAYING Gold and Silver Ores.—Gold and silver are bought by the ounce (Troy), and, for convenience in the evaluation of ores, the contents of precious metals are not reported in percentages, but in oz., or decimals of an oz. (Troy), per ton of ore. The ton (Avoirdupois) contains 32,6666 oz. (Troy), and, to save calculation, the weight of ore taken for assay is 32-67 grammes, or some multiple of this. This weight is known as the Long Assay Ton (A.T.), and has the advantage that every o-oor gramme of metal found represents 1 oz. (Troy) per ton of ore. In some countries it is more usual to employ the Short Ton of 2,000 1b., and the Short Assay Ton of 29-17 grammes is used in assaying. In many of the Latin countries the Metric Ton of 1,000 kilos is the standard, and the values are reported in grammes per ton, no Assay Ton being required. Sometimes the gold or silver present is reported in its money value (e.g., $42.50 per ton). The assay consists of three operations: (1) fusion, (2) cupellation, and (3) parting. (1) Fuston.—This may be carried out by two methods. (a) In the “Pot Fusion” method, one A.T. or more of the crushed ore is mixed and fused in a clay crucible, or pot, with kad oxide (about 30 grammes), a reducing agent such as charcoal, argol, or flour (up to about 5 grammes), and a suitable quantity of reagents called “fluxes” which combine with the “gangue,” or waste matter in the ore, forming a “flowing,” or fusible slag. The fluxes used depend upon the nature of the ore. if the gangue contains silica, tin or zinc, soda is required; for iron, lime, or other basic materials, borax, crushed quartz, or similar fluxes are introduced. The quantity of these fluxes is varied to suit the requirements of the ore under examination, and will be nearly twice the weight of the ore. The crucible is placed in a coke, oil, or gas furnace at a fairly low temperature, and kept at a dull-red heat for about ten minutes, to allow the

chemical reactions to be completed. By the action of the reduc-

Ing agent, metallic lead is formed, which sinks through the charge to the bottom of the pot, alloying with, and so collecting the gold and silver. The temperature is then raised until the whole charge is molten and thoroughly fluid, and the contents of the pot are poured into a dry, iron mould. When cold, the brittle slag is

oken away with a hammer, leaving a “button” of lead which

contains the precious metals.

359

Certain types of ore require special treatment. Sulphide ores may be given a preliminary roasting at a red heat to burn off the sulphur, or the ore is desulphurised during fusion by adding suitable reagents to the charge. Cupriferous ores are treated with acid before fusion, to dissolve away the copper. Arsenical ores are roasted before fusion, and antimonial ores are oxidised by adding nitre to the charge.

(b) In the “Scorification” method, about 10 grammes or $ A.T. of ore is mixed with 30-35 grammes of granulated lead in a “Scorifier,” which is a shallow fireclay dish. Another 30-40 grammes of granulated lead are placed on top of the charge, and about I gramme of borax is added as a thin cover. The scorifier is placed in a muffle furnace at a very high temperature, when simultaneous oxidation of the lead and of the ore takes place. Some impurities volatilise, and the remainder combines with

the oxidised lead and the borax, forming a slag. A ring of this slag soon forms round the surface of the molten lead, and, as oxidation proceeds, the ring extends towards the centre and

finally covers the whole surface. At this pomt the oxidation ceases, and the charge is poured as before. The quantities of granulated lead and borax required will depend upon the nature of the ore, and are variable. It will be seen that, as a smaller quantity of ore is used, the method is only suitable for rich materials, and hence is practically confined to the assay of rich silver ores, very high grade gold ores being rarely found. (2) Cupellation—By this process the gold and silver are isolated from the lead obtained in the first operation. A cupel is a shallow cup made of bone-ash or some other absorbent matter, which, when hot, is capable of absorbing any molten material which wets its surface. The lead button is fused upon a red-hot cupel in a muffle furnace. The lead melts and oxidises, forming molten litharge, which is absorbed, together with any oxidised impurities, into the cupel. The gold and silver do not oxidise, but remain on the cupel, forming a small bead of “Bullion,” which is weighed. (3)} Parting—The bullion bead is attacked with nitric acid which dissolves, or “parts,” the silver from the gold. Before commencing this operation, it is necessary to ensure that the alloy is of such a composition that the whole of the silver will be dissolved away from the gold. The proportion, by weight, of silver to gold should be at least 4:1 if the gold present exceeds 0-or gramme, and this ratio is increased for smaller amounts of gold. If there is insufficient silver present, more must be added by the process of “Inquartation.” This consists of adding a sufficient weight of silver to the bead, either by melting the metals together with a blaw-pipe flame, or by recupelling them in a small piece of puré lead. The name “Inquartation” was introduced in early times, when it was believed that the proportion of silver to gold should always be 3:1. The inquarted alloy 1s flattened under a hammer and dropped into boiling nitric acid. The silver dissolves, leaving a brown residue of gold. This is washed with distilled water, dried, and annealed by heating it to redness, when it takes on the familiar yellow colour of pure gold. The weight of this residue gives, by calculation, the gold content of the ore, and the silver is determined by difference from the weight of the bullion. Gold Bullion.—This is assayed by cupellation. A representative sample of 0.5 gramme of the alloy is wrapped in 2-6 grammes of pure, silver-free lead foil, the exact weight of the lead depending on the purity of the alloy. The lead packet is cupelled in the usual manner, and the resulting bead of gold and silver is weighed. The bead is again wrapped in lead foil, together with sufficient silver to form a parting alloy, the proportion of silver to gold in this case being 24:1. The bead obtained after cupellation, is cleaned and rolled into a thin strip, or “fillet,” which is curled into a small “cornet” or coil. The cornet is treated twice with boiling nitric acid, and is then washed, dried, annealed, and weighed. Errors introduced during cupellation and parting are’ corrected by carrying out simultaneous “check” assays on test pieces made up to the same composition as the alloy. The gold present is reported as so many parts of gold in 1,000 parts of alloy. This is called “Fineness,” and British gold coinage is said

556

ASSAY

OFFICE—ASSAY

to be “g16-6 Fine.” Lead Ores.—The assay consists of fusion with suitable fluxes

and a reducing agent, in a clay or iron crucible. The charge is varied to suit the ore. A typical example being about one part of ore, 24 parts of soda, one half part of borax and one half part of argol. When a clay crucible is used, a piece of hoop iron, in length about twice the height of the crucible, is pushed down into the mixture to act as a desulphurising agent. When an iron crucible is used, the pot itself acts in this way. The crucible is heated in a wind furnace, and it is important to work the charge at the lowest temperature which will give a fluid slag, in order to prevent undue loss of lead, and to minimise the amount of metallic impurities which will pass into the button. On completion of the fusion, the charge is poured into a mould, and the lead button is separated from the slag and weighed. Tin Ores.—The smelting assay is unsuitable for crude tin ores, but satisfactory results may be obtained with high-grade concentrates, provided the charge is run at a low temperature and is not left in the fire longer than necessary. The sample of ore is mixed with four times its weight of crude potassium cyanide, and is placed in a clay crucible. The pot is put in a furnace, and the temperature is raised to dull redness, and kept there until the charge is thoroughly fused. The temperature is further raised for a few minutes to render the slag quite fluid, and the charge is poured as usual. Many metallic impurities in the ore are reduced and pass into the tin button; consequently the method is unreliable except for fairly clean concentrates.

WET ASSAYING This employs the volumetric, gravimetric, and electrolytic methods. Volumetric methods are in particular favour, as less manipulation is required, and the sample may often be titrated without lengthy chemical separations. The weight of ore taken for assay is much smaller than in Fire Assaying, o-25~2-0 grammes generally being sufficient. It is essential that the sample shall be finely crushed, especially if it is to be dissolved in acids, as particles of the mineral may be encased in the insoluble gangue. Minerals which are not decomposed by acids are fused with a flux which will render them soluble in water or acids. Silver Bullion.—The cupellation assay was used formerly, for the determination of silver in many of its alloys. This method has been replaced in the majority of mints and assay offices by volumetric methods. The chief of these is the “Gay Lussac” assay, which was introduced into the Paris mint in 1830, and has since been adopted in most offices. An exact weight of the bullion is dissolved in nitric acid, and very nearly all the silver is precipitated at once by the addition’ of a known volume of a standard solution of salt. When the precipitate has settled, the remaining silver is precipitated by the further addition of a small quantity of a more dilute solution of salt, the precipitate forming a white cloud in the supernatant liquid. The quantity of this silver is judged by the appearance of the white cloud.

Copper.—The material is attacked with suitable acids, and

7 i l

OFFICE

Iron.—The

BAR

ore is brought into solution by acid attack, the

iron is reduced by one of the usual chemical processes, and

| ferrous solution is oxidised by titration with a standard Solution | of potassium dichromate, or of potassium permanganate, In the

! former

case a weak solution of potassium ferricyanide is used as | an outside indicator (g.v.). ti

Lead.—Minerals of this metal are dissolved in hydrochlori,

acid, sometimes assisted by nitric acid. The lead js separated evaporation with sulphuric acid, and the solution is cooled, dilut and filtered. The precipitated lead sulphate is redissolved inhot

ammonium acetate solution, and titrated, just below the boii point, with a standard solution of ammonium molybdate. A solution of tannic acid is used as an outside indicator. An alternative

method is to reprecipitate the lead as chromate, filter, and dissolve the precipitate in a hydrochloric acid solution of salt. Potassium iodide is added, which results in the liberation of iodine. This js titrated with thiosuplhate as in the copper assay.

Tin.—The ores of tin are decomposed by fusion with sodium peroxide in an iron or nickel crucible, or by ignition with zine oxide and metallic zinc. In either case the residue is leached out with water and dissolved in hydrochloric acid. The tin is reduced by suspending a nickel coil in the solution and boiling vigorously for 40-60 minutes. The solution is cooled in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide, and the tin is oxidised by titration with a stand. ard solution of iodine, using starch as an inside indicator.

Zinc.—These ores are attacked with acids, and the solution is subjected to a process of separation which follows, in principle, the system adopted in Qualitative Analysis. (See CHEMISTRY: Analytıcal.) The clear zinc solution is rendered slightly acid, and is titrated, just below the boiling point, with a standard solution of potassium ferrocyanide. A solution of uranium nitrate is used as an outside indicator. BrsriocrarHy.—Agricola (Georgius), De Re Metallica (Basle 1536), Eng. trans. by Mr. and Mrs. H. C. Hoover (The Mining Magazine, 1912); E. A. Smith, The Sampling and Assay of the Precious Metals (new edition in preparation); E. A. Wraight, Assaying in Theory ond Practice (1914); W. W. Scott, Technical Methods of Metallurgical

Analysis (1924).

(C. W. D.)

ASSAY OFFICE, a department operating under the United States mint as a laboratory for the purpose of assaying, ie. chemically and otherwise testing for purity, content and value, metals submitted to it for this purpose. The metals brought for assay are usually gold and silver, and may be in the forms of bullion, jewellery, ornaments, metal-ware and others. The Assay Office is authorized to buy gold to send to the mint for coinage and to pay for it with an order on the U.S. Treasury for an equal amount in gold coin or in gold certificates. It will also, for a reasonable charge, assay metals for others than prospective sellers to the Government or analyze sample ores brought in, the latter activity forming a considerable part of the work in western branches. The U.S. Assay Office is in New York city and has very heavy duties owing to the vast movements of gold passing through the city. All foreign gold received is here submitted to test. In recent years special facilities for the assaying of platinum have

the copper is carried into solution. There are three methods of assay available. (1) In the cyanide assay, the solution is rendered ammoniacal, which results in the formation of a deep blue liquid. ‘This colour is discharged by titration with a standard solution of potassium cyanide, the volume of the latter being a measure of the copper present. (2) In the iodide assay, the copper is first separated from the other metals present, and is then redissolved in Nitric acid. The mineral acid is destroyed by adding an excess of zinc acetate. Potassium iodide is then added, which results in the reduction of the copper and the liberation of a quantity of iodine which is proportional to the amount of copper present. This iodine is measured by titration with a standard solution of sodium thiosulphate, using starch solution as an inside indicator (qg.v.), towards the end of the titration.

been installed in the New York office. There are branches of the Assay Office at Boise, Carson, Deadwood, Helena, New Orleans, Salt Lake City and Seattle. The Assay Commission, established by the United States govemment, meets annually to examine and test, in the presence of the Director of the Mint, the fineness and weight of certain coin indiscriminately withheld at the various mints for that purpose. The number of coins reserved for such examination must be not less than one piece for each thousand of gold coins or two thousand of silver coins and they must be taken out at every delivery of

(3) In the electrolytic assay, any hydrochloric acid is expelled

time to time designate, the entire Commission usually numbering from ten to fifteen persons.

from the solution, and the acidity is carefully adjusted to the correct strength. The solution is then subjected to electrolysis, the copper being deposited on the cathode. The increase in

weight of the latter gives the amount of copper present.

coins made by the coiner. The commission is composed of the judge of the district court for the Eastern district of Pennsylvania,

the Comptroller of the Currency, the assayer of the assay office at

New York, and such other persons as the President shall from

ASSAY OFFICE BAR, 2 bar of fine, meaning pure, gold

which has been made from metal assayed by the U.S. Assay Office. Such a bar bears the Government stamp certifying te i

ASSEGAI—ASSER

557

weight and fineness. Bars of precious metals turned out by pri- not a suitable system for the larger articles, and conveyor outfits yue assayers cannot carry the Government stamp, and are have to be installed, such as plain rails on which the objects are moved away, travelling chains or plates, turntables, etc. Motor as “commercial bars.” ASSEGAI or ASSAGAI (from Berber-Arab as-sahayah, cars are assembled while running on dummy flanged wheels rolling through Portuguese azagaza ), a weapon for throwing or hurling, a on rail tracks, each assembler adding some portion as the chassis t spear or javelin made of wood and pointed with iron, par- reaches his standpoint. Motion-study becomes essential in these ticularly the spear used by the Zulu and other Kaffir tribes of highly organized systems, and special tools greatly assist, such as south Africa. In addition to the long-handled assegai there is a

shorter weapon for use at close quarters.

ratchet screwdrivers and spanners, screwdriver braces, and pneu-

matic and electric wrenches for rapid rotation without labour. (See Conveyors For Mass Propucrion; Mass ProDUCTION.)

ASSEMANI, the name of a Syrian Maronite family of Conveyors;

oriental scholars.

Josera SImoN (1687-1 768), a Maronite of Mount Lebanon. He was sent to the Maronite college in Rome, and entered the Vatican library. In 1717 he was sent to Egypt and Syria to search for valuable mss., and returned with about 150 very choice ones. The pope again sent him to the East in 1735, and he returned with a still more valuable collection. On his return he was made titular archbishop of Tyre and librarian of the Vatican library.

His two great works are the Bibliotheca Orientalis Clementinoyaticana rec. manuscr. codd. Syr., Arab., Pers., Turc., Hebr.,

Samarit., Armen., Aethiop., Graec., Aegypt., Iber., et Malab., „esy et munif. Clem. XI. (1719-28), and Ephraemi Syri opera omnia quae extant, Gr. Syr., et Lat. (1737-46). Of the Bibliotkeca the first three vols. only were completed. The work was to

have been in four parts but only the first—Syrian and allied mss., Orthodox, Nestorian and Jacobite—was completed. There is a Cerman abridgment by A. F. Pfeiffer. His brother, JosEpH ALovysrus (c. 1710-82), was professor of oriental languages at Rome, and a nephew, STEPHEN EVODIUS

(1707-82), was assistant to his uncle at the Vatican library, and held various ecclesiastical preferments. His most important work isBibliothecae mediceo-Laurentianae et Palatinae codd. manuscr. Orientalium Catalogus (Flor. 1742). Another member of the family, SIMON (1752—1821) was professor of oriental languages at Padua.

ASSEMBLE, a term of great significance in modern produc-

tive methods. It explains the difference between the older practice of fitting parts to one another, and the modern way of finishing components so that they can be brought together or “assembled” without the need for any cutting or alteration; if spares and replacements are needed, they may then be supplied in tens of thousands, all certain to fit without alteration. There is often a modified procedure in manufacturing parts of large and elaborate structures, the primary assembling being done at the works, with a moderate amount of hand fitting, and then all the joints are marked with paint or stencilling for the final assembly in situ. Perfection of assembling occurs in the smaller all-metal products and parts such as screws and bolts, brass fittings, steam and water valves, ball bearings, clocks, typewriters, sewing-machines, magnetos, small arms, machine-guns, cartridges, shells, small engines, pumps and motor cars. The practice originated in the United States because of the great demand for sewingmachines and small arms, and later for typewriters. An elaborate equipment and routine system becomes necessary to make parts ready to assemble. All the cutting tools on the machine-tools must keep their size for a certain period without wear, and to test the results therefrom numerous gauges have to be employed, the germ of the system being the “limit-gauge.” This has two measuring portions, called and marked the “go” and “not go.” No machine tool can cut or grind a piece of metal to exact size (commercially), but if a definite limitation of error each way is ensured, then the piece will assemble with its other component. Hence the limit-gauge is made oversize one end, say 4 in. plus one 2,0coth of an inch, and undersize at the other, one 2,oooth

ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL, the term used in common law for an assembly of three or more persons with intent to commit a crime by force, or to carry out a common purpose (whether lawful or unlawful}, in such a manner or in such circumstances as would in the opinion of firm and rational men endanger the public peace or create fear of immediate danger to the tranquillity of the neighbourhood. In the Year Book of the third year of Henry VII.’s reign assemblies were referred to as not punishable unless in terrorem populi domini regis. An assembly, otherwise lawful, is not made unlawful if those who take part in it know beforehand that there will probably be organized opposition to it, and that it may cause a breach of the peace (Beatty v. Gillbanks, 1882, 9 Q. B. D. 308), but if words are said or acts done indirectly inducing others to commit a breach of the peace, the meeting becomes unlawful (Wise v. Dunning, 1902, 1 K. B. 167). All persons may, and must if called upon to do so, assist in dispersing an unlawful assembly (Redford v. Birley, 1822, 1 St. Tr. n.s. 1215; R. v. Pinney, 1831, 3 St. Tr. n.s. 11). This is merely one aspect of the common law duty of every man to assist in keeping the peace and it is an indictable misdemeanour to refuse so to assist (R. v. Sherlock, 1 C. C. R. 20). An assembly which is lawful cannot be rendered unlawful by proclamation unless the proclamation is one authorized by statute (R. v. Fursey, 1833, 3 St. Tr. ns. 543, 567; R. v. O’Connell, 1831, 2 St. Tr. n.s. 629, 656; see also the Prevention of Crimes [Ireland] Act 1887). Meetings for training or drilling, or military movements, are unlawful assemblies unless held under lawful authority from the Crown,

the lord-lieutenant, or two justices of the peace (Unlawful Drilling Act 1820, s. II). An unlawful assembly which has made a motion towards its common purpose is termed a row, and if the unlawful assembly should proceed to carry out its purpose, e.g., begin to demolish a particular enclosure, it becomes a riot (g.v.). All three offences are misdemeanours in English law, punishable by fine and imprisonment. The common law as to unlawful assembly extends to Ireland, subject to the special legislation referred to under the title Rror. The law of Scotland includes unlawful assembly under the same head as rioting.

ASSEMBLYMAN,

the official who is elected to serve as

a member of the more numerous branch of the State legislature in New Jersey and New York, where he is elected for a term of one year. In most of the other States such official is called a “representative” and serves for a term of either one or two years, generally the latter. There is no constitutional prohibition against the re-election of such official and the office is frequently used as a stepping-stone in a man’s political career to some higher position, such as State senator, district or circuit Judge or representative in Congress.

ASSEN, capital of the province of Drente, Holland, 16m. by

rail S. of Groningen, at the junction of two canals running north and south to Groningen and Meppel respectively. Pop. (1927) 17,793. Many remains of early man from this region are in the Leyden museum. Assen was the site of a small convent in the of an‘inch less than 4 inches. A shaft must, therefore, be made of middle ages around which the present town gathered. Bishop such diameter that it will neither be too large to pass into the Otto II. (of Utrecht) was murdered here in 1237. There is a chamber of commerce and a museum of antiquities, and it is an -+ opening of the gauge, nor so small that it will pass into the — important market town. opening. Thus the limits of size are guaranteed. ASSER or ASSERIUS MENEVENSIS (died c. gro), The assembling department of a factory may contain merely bishop, author of a life of Alfred the Great, was born in English benches, with bins full of the parts within reach, the assemblers acquired putting the details together without any special holding arrange- Wales. He became a monk at St. David’s, and having to Alfred King by invited was he learning, for reputation some is This trucks. or ments, the product being taken away by hand

558

ASSESSED

VALUATION—ASSIGNATS

his court. He agreed to spend six months of each year with the ASSESSOR, a Roman term originally applied to a trai King and six months in his own land; but his first stay at the | lawyer who ] sat beside side a governorr of a province or other magisroyal court extended to eight months, and it is probable that the trate, to instruct him in the administration of the laws (seeRoll annual visit to Wales was curtailed, if not altogether discontinued. De assessoribus magistratuum Romanorum, Leipzig, 1872), The It is difficult to fix the date of Asser’s arrival in England, but it system is still exempli fied in Scotland, where it is usual in the was probably about 885. He was bishop of Exeter, and before larger towns for municip al magistrates, in the administration of goo became bishop of Sherborne. His death is recorded in the their civil jurisdiction, to have the aid of professional a Anglo-Saxon Chronicle under the date gto, although it is pos- In England, by the Judicat ure Act 1873, the court of appeal and sible that it occurred a year or two earlier. the High Court may in any cause or matter call i the ai n the aid of Asser’s work, Annales rerum gestarum Alfredi magni, written assessors. The Patents Act 1907 makes special provision for about 893, contains a chronicle of English history from 849 to assessors in patent and trade-mark cases. By the Supreme Court 887, and an account of Alfred’s life, largely drawn from personal of Judicature Act 1891 the House of Lords may, in appeals in ad. knowledge, down to 887. The only manuscript of which there is miralty actions, call in the aid of assessors, while in the admiralty any record dates from about 1000, and that was destroyed by division of the High Court it is usual for the Elder Brethren of fire in 1731. From that manuscript an edition was printed in 1 574 Trinity House to assist as nautical assessors. In under the direction of Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canter- in the county courts, too, the judge is frequently admiralty cases assisted by asses. bury; but this contained many interpolations and alterations sors of “nautical skill and experience” (County Court Admiralty which were copied by subsequent editors. The text has since been Jurisdiction Act 1868). In the same courts assessors may be a the subject of careful study, and the edition edited by W. H. pointed by the rules made under the Employers’ Liability Act Stevenson (Oxford, 1904) distinguishes between the original work 1880; while a medical referee may be summoned as an assessor in of Asser and the later additions. Some doubt has been cast upon cases under the Workmen’s Compensation Acts. In the ecclesiasthe authenticity of the work, especially by T. Wright in the tical courts assessors assist the bishop in proceedings under the Biographia Britannica literaria (London, 1842), who ascribes the Church Discipline Act 1840, s. 11, while under the Clergy Dislife to asmonk of St. Neots; but the latest scholarship regards it cipline Act 1892, s. 2, they assist the chancellor in determining as the work of Asser, although all the difficulties which surround questions of fact. By the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, S. 14, the authorship have not been removed. The life was largely used the king in council may make rules for the attendance of archby subsequent chroniclers, among others by Florence of Wor- bishops and bishops as assessors in the hearing of ecclesiastical cester, Simeon of Durham, Roger of Hoveden, and William of cases by the judicial committee of the privy council. Malmesbury. In France and in all European countries where the civil law BrstiocrapHy.—See W. H. Stevenson, introduction to Asser’s Life system prevails, the term assesseu r is applied to those assistant Vises Alfred (1904); R. Pauli, introduction to Koenig Aelfred judges who, with a president, compose a judicial court. IO51). In Germany an Assessor, or Beisitzer, is a member of the legal

ASSESSED VALUATION, the value placed upon real or profession who has passed four years in actual practice and bepersonal property by governmental authority for purposes of tax- come qualified for the position of a judge. (X. ation. It may or may not be an indication of the market value United States.—An assessor in the United States is an official of the property, but in any case, provided the assessments are who evaluates property for purpose s of taxation. An assessor equitable, it supplies a guide to the relative values of similar kinds exists as a county officer in virtual ly all of the States, and is of property in the same assessment district. Methods of assessing elected by the voters for a term of two, three or four years, the valuation of real estate for tax purposes differ in various Originally, in the early colonial days, the work of the assessor was places. Sometimes valuations are based upon full market value done by justices of the peace, transferred in later colonial days to and at other times upon some fraction of the market value. Of the county boards of commissioners or supervi sors. The duties of the two general methods of raising taxes, a high assessment value with assessor are generally to list all propert y and persons subject to a low tax rate, and a low assessment value with a correspondingly taxation. Appeals are provided by statutes to county boards of higher tax rate, the latter is much more generally used. commissioners or supervisors or courts where the person taxed A study of real estate assessment and assessed valuation is of may protest against the amount assessed as being unfair. Some great importance to the dealer and investor in municipal bonds, States have provided for township assessor s, elected by the voters The debt of a municipality is usually limited by law to a certain of the township, to work under the supervi sion of the assessor, percentage of the assessed valuation of the property and the and in others the assessor is permitted a sufficie nt number of holder of municipal bonds should know the assessed value to be deputies to aid him in the completion of his work, the assesssure that the limit of debt has not been exceeded. Where the ments generally being made annually. Most of the States have assessment is for practically full market value of property the State boards of taxation which supervise, to some extent, the debt limit should be considerably below the assessed valuation to work of the assessors. In most of the States this board is named make the bonds sound; but where the assessment represents only by the governor, but in a few, such as Illinois where it is called one-half or one-third of the market value, as is the case in many the board of equalization, it is elected. communities, the bonded debt may safely approach much more In Roman law, used throughout Europe, wherever the civil closely to the assessed valuation. Investment bankers who offer law system obtains, an assessor is one who is called by the courts municipal bonds frequently state in their circulars not only the to give legal advice and assistance. In the United States Federal assessed valuation of the municipality in question and the ratio district courts experienced shipmasters serve as assessors in this of total debt to it, but also the method of assessment and the total sense of the word in admiralty matters. In the State probate and estimated market value of all property. surrogate courts in the United States, “appraisers” are frequently

ASSESSMENT,

a demand or call made by a corporation

upon stockholders for a specified sum of money per share of stock in addition to that already paid in. Such assessments are generally made when the company is financially embarrassed and it is a question of the stockholders meeting the assessment or the company becoming insolvent. Reorganizations of corporations frequently involve the placing of an assessment on the stockholders and sometimes even upon bondholders. For English law see DAMAGES, TAXATION, VALUATION AND VALUERS.

appointed to ascertain the value of deceased persons’ estates. See H. G. James, Local Government in the United

a fant

ASSETS: see Current Assets, Dererrep Assets, Fin ASSETS, WORKING AND TRADING ASSETS.

ASSIDEANS: see MACCABEES.

ASSIGNATS, a form of paper money issued in France from

1789 to 1796.

Assignats were

so termed as representing land

The

term is from Lat. assignatus,

assigned to the holders. assigned.

ASSESSMENT INSURANCE: see Frienviy SOCIETIES ; The financial strait of the French Government in 1789 was Benerit Societies and APPROVED SOCIETIES. extreme. Coin was scarce, loans were not taken up, taxes

ASSIGNEE—ASSIGNMENT

559

as to their value if the Revolution should fail, the relation they bore to both specie and commodities, which retained their value “4a a substitute for a metallic currency. They were originally and refused to be exchanged for a money of constantly diminishof the nature of mortgage bonds on the national lands. Those ing purchasing power. Even between the assignats there were ands consisted of the church property confiscated, on the motion differences. The royal assignats, which had been issued under of Mirabeau, by the Constituent Assembly on Nov. 2 1789, and Louis XVI., had depreciated less than the republican ones. They he crown lands, which were taken over by the nation on Oct. 7 were worth from 8 to 15§¢ more, because of the hope that in case of a counter-revolution they would be less likely to be discredited. (see FRENCH REVOLUTION ). The Directory was guilty of even greater abuses in dealing with The assignats were first to be paid to the creditors of the State. With these the creditors could purchase national land, the the assignats. By 1796 the issues had reached the enormous figure assignats having, for this purpose, the preference over other forms of 45,500,000,000 francs, and even this gigantic total was swollen of money. If the creditor did not care to purchase land, it was still more by the numerous counterfeits introduced into France sed that he could obtain the face-value for them from those from the neighbouring countries. The assignats had now become who desired land. Those assignats which were returned to the totally valueless—the abolition of the “maximum” the previous State as purchase-money were to be cancelled, and the whole year (1795) had produced no effect, and though, by various payissue, it was argued, would consequently disappear as the national ments into the Treasury, the total number had been reduced to about 24,000,000,000 francs, their face-value was about 30 to I lands were distributed. A first issue was made of 400,000,000 francs’ worth of assignats, of coin. At that value they were converted into 800,000,000 rach note being of 100 francs’ value and bearing interest at the francs of land-warrants or mandats territoriaux, which were to rate of 5%. They were to be redeemed by the product of the constitute a mortgage on all the lands of the republic. These sales, and from certain other sources, at the rate of 120,000,000 mandats were no more successful than the assignats, and even on francs in 1791, 100,000,000 francs in 1792, 80,000,000 francs in the day of their issue were at a discount of 826%. They had an 1793 and 1794, and the surplus in 1795. The success of the issue existence of six months, and were finally received back by the was undoubted, and, possibly, if the assignats had been restricted, State at about the 7oth part of their face value in coin. (See also asMirabeau at first desired, to the extent of one-half the value of Parer Money; Money.) BIBLIOCRAPHY.—L. A. Thiers, Histoire de la révolution française, the lands sold, they would not have shared the usual fate of in- gives a full and graphic account of the assignats, the causes of their convertible paper money. Mirabeau was a strenuous advocate of depreciation, etc.; J. Garnier, Traité des Finances (1862); J. Bresson, most the property, “real said, he tbe assignats. “They represent,” Histoire financière de la France (1829); R. Stourm, Les Finances de secure of all possessions, the soil on which we tread.” “There Pancien régime et de la révolution (1885); F. A. Walker, Money ny Henry Higgs, in the Cambridge Modern History, vol. viii. cannot be a greater error than the fear so generally prevalent as 1904). to the over-issue of assignats . . . reabsorbed progressively in ASSIGNEE, one to whom property is assigned. (See the purchase of the national domains, this paper money can never ASSIGNMENT. ) become redundant.”

to be productive, and the country was threatened with imminent bankruptcy. In this emergency assignats were issued to

EIGHT THOUSAND MILLION ASSIGNATS In 1790 the interest on the assignats holdings was reduced to 3%, and as the Treasury had again become exhausted a further issue was decided upon; it was also decreed that the assignats

were to be accepted as legal tender, all public departments being instructed to receive them as the equivalent of metallic money. This second issue amounted to 800,000,000 francs and carried no interest. It was solemnly declared in the decree authorizing the issue that the maximum issue was never to exceed 1,200,000,000 francs. This pledge, however, was soon broken, and further issues brought the total up to 3,750,000,000 francs. The consequence of these further issues was instant depreciation, and the note of 100 francs’ nominal value sank to less than 20 francs’ coin. Recourse was then had to protective legislation. The first step was to decree the penalty of six years’ imprisonment against any person who should sell specie for a more considerable quantity of assignats, or who should stipulate a different price for commodities according asthe payment was to be made in specie or in assignats. For the

second offence the penalty was to be 20 years’ imprisonment (Aug. 11793), for which the death penalty was ultimately substituted (May 10 1794). This severe provision was, however, repealed after the fall of Robespierre. Notwithstanding these precautions the value of assignats still declined, till the proportion to specie had become that of six to one. Then came the passing by the convention, May 3 1793, of the absurd “maximum.” The decree re-

quired all farmers and corn-dealers to declare the quantity of corn

in their possession and to sell it only in recognized markets. No person was to be allowed to lay in more than one month’s supply. A maximum price was fixed, above which, under severe penalties, ho one was to buy or sell. These measures were soon stultified by

further issues, and by June 1794 the total number of assignats

aggregated nearly 8,000,000,000, of which only 2,464,000,000 had returned to the Treasury and been destroyed. The extension of

the “maximum” to all commodities only increased the confusion.

Trade was paralysed and all manufacturing establishments were

closed down. Attempts by the convention to increase the value :the assignats were of no avail. Too many causes operated in avour of their depreciation: the enormous issue, the uncertainty

ASSIGNMENT.

An assignment is the term for that kind

of total alienation by deed or writing (other than testamentary) of a chattel interest in real property, or of chattels personal, or of an equitable interest in real estate, which is not essentially de-

structive of such interest. Assignments are either voluntary or for valuable consideration. The former are specifically termed “gifts” (see DoNATION). The document evidencing the latter is called a “bill of sale.” The technical operative words of an assignment are “assign, transfer and set over”; but any other words showing an intention to make a complete transfer will amount to an assignment. In Scotland the usual term for this contract is assignation. The parties thereto in England and Scotland respectively are called assign and assignee, assignor and cedent. In the United States they are known as assignor and assignee. In the United States—An assignment of the property of a debtor is often made to a trustee for the benefit of creditors, the trustee being authorized to administer and to liquidate as far as necessary the assets, and to apply them to the satisfaction of, the creditors, the surplus, if any, being returned to the assignor. Such assignment may bé partial or general. A partial assignment may stipulate what is to be assigned, but a general assignment for the benefit of creditors embraces the entire property of the assignor except such part as may be exempt by statute, and constitutes an act of bankruptcy (qg.v.). Exemptions vary in different jurisdictions and local laws must be consulted in any given case. A permanent assignment, such as is made in the transference of the title to stock and bonds, is known as an irrevocable assignment. Assignment in Blank.—This is a formal assignment of a bond or of a certificate of stock in which the name of the party to whom the assignment is made is omitted; it is often called “endorsement in blank.” Instruments so assigned are convenient and easy for a broker to handle with promptness, as he merely has to fill in the name of a purchaser to make the instrument transferable on the books of the issuing company. Great care must be exercised to guard against forgery in such stock assignments, and for that reason most corporations will not transfer stock on their books unless the signature of the assignee on the old certificate is guaranteed by a bank or by a stock exchange house or is acknowledged by a notary.

560 ASSIGNOR,

ASSIGN MENT.)

ASSIGNOR—ASSIZE one who assigns property to another.

(See

ASSIMILATION, a term used in psychology to denote the mechanism by which two or more mental processes are drawn into a single unitary whole. What takes place in psychological assimilation can be understood by considering the way in which lines slightly different in length are taken to be equal, or musical intervals slightly out of tune (as in equal-tempered musical instruments) assume the character of the pure intervals. In more complex mental formations, such as perceptions, recognitions, memories and emotions, the parts lose their individual independence and form a single unit of experience.

ASSINIBOTIA, a name formerly applied to two districts of Canada, but not now held by any. (1) A district formed in 1835 by the Hudson’s Bay Company, having in it Fort Garry at the junction of the Red and Assiniboine rivers in Rupert's Land, North America. It extended over a circular area, with a radius of 50m. from Fort Garry. It was governed by a local council nominated by the Hudson’s Bay Company. It ceased to exist when Rupert’s Land was transferred to Canada in 1870. (2) A district of the North-west Territories, which was given definite existence by an act of the Dominion parliament in 1875. Assiniboia extended from the western boundary of Manitoba (99° W. in 1875, and ror° 25” W. in 1881) to 111° W., and from 49° N. to 52° N. The name was a misnomer, as it barely touched the Assiniboine river. To the north of the district lay the district of Saskatchewan, so that when the two were united by the Dominion Act of 1905 they were somewhat changed in boundaries and the name Saskatchewan was given to the new province.

ASSINIBOIN,

an American Indian tribe in the northern

Plains, of Siouan affiliation, closely related in dialect to the Yankton Dakota, but separately mentioned as early as 1640. Their habitat in the 17th century was about Lake Winnipeg, and in the 18th century on the upper Saskatchewan, where they ultimately gave its name to the province of Assiniboia. In the early roth century they were estimated at from 6,000 to 10,000; in 1902-04 they numbered 2,500, about equally divided between Canada and the United States. Culturally they belong with the Dakota and Plains Cree. See R. H. Lowie, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Anthr. Pap., vol. iv. (1909).

ASSISI (anc. Asisium), episcopal see, Umbria, Italy, province of Perugia, 15m. E.S.E. by rail from Perugia. Pop. (1921) town, 5,353; commune, 19,720. The town occupies a fine position on a spur of the Monte Subasio (1,345ft. above sea-level) with a view over the Tiber and Topino. St. Francis was born bere in 1182, and returned here to die in 1226. The Franciscan monastery and the lower and upper church of St. Francis, begun immediately after his canonization in 1228, and completed in 1253,

are fine Gothic. The neo-classical crypt was added in 1818, when his sarcophagus was found. The lower church contains frescoes by Cimabue, and famous ones over the high altar by Giotto, illustrating the vows of the Franciscan order; while the upper church has frescoes representing scenes from the life of St. Francis (by Giotto and his pupils) on the lower nave walls, and scenes from the Old and New Testament history by Pietro Cavallini and his pupils on the upper. The church of Santa Chiara (St. Clare), the foundress of the Poor Clares, with its massive lateral buttresses, fine rose-window, and simple Gothic interior, was begun in 1257, four years after her death. It contains the tomb of the saint. Santa Maria Maggiore is also good Gothic. The cathedral (San Rufino) has a fine facade with three rosewindows of 1140. The mediaeval castle (1,655ft.) was built by Cardinal Albornoz (1367) and added to by Popes Pius II. and Paul III. Two miles to the east in a ravine below Monte Subasio is the hermitage delle Carceri (of the prisons) (2,300ft.), partly built, partly cut out of rock, given to St. Francis by Benedictine monks as a place of retirement. Close to the station is the large pilgrimage church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, begun in 1569 by Pope Pius V., with Vignola as architect, but not completed until 1679, partly destroyed by an earthquake in 1832, and afterwards rebuilt. It contains the original oratory of St. Francis (the Porziuncola) and the cell in which he died.

See L. Duif-Gordon,

Assist

(“Mediaeval

Towns”

series, Lond

1900). For ancient history see Aststum. F. Herman, Assise. Iavile

Saint-François (Rome, 1927).

;

de

ASSIZE or ASSISE, a legal term, meaning literally a Heng.

sion,” but in fact sometimes a jury, or the Sittings of a courtand

sometimes the ordinances of a court or assembly. It originally signified the form of trial by a jury of 36 persons

which eventually superseded the barbarous judicial combat: this jury was named the grand assize and was sworn to determine the

right of seisin of land (see Evipence). The grand assize Was abolished in 1833 ; but the term assize is still applicable to the jury

in criminal causes in Scotland. In the only sense in which the word is not now almost obsolete assize means the periodical session of the judges of the High Court of Justice held in the various counties of England, chi for the purposes of gaol delivery and trying causes at nisi prius Previous to Magna Carta (1215) writs of assize had all to be

tried at Westminster, or to await trial in the locality in which

they had originated at the septennial circuit of the justices in eyre; but, by way of remedy for the great consequent delay and inconvenience, it was provided by this celebrated act that the assizes of mort d’ancestor and novel disseisin should be tried annually by the judges in every county. By successive enactments, the civil jurisdiction of the justices of assize was extended, and the number of their sittings increased, till at last the necessity of repairing to Westminster for judgment in civil actions was almost

obviated to country litigants by an Act, passed in the reign of Edward I., which provided that the writ summoning the jury to Westminster should also appoint a time and place for hearing such causes within the county of their origin. The date of the

alternative summons to Westminster was always subsequent to the former date, and so timed as to fall in the vacation preceding the Westminster term, and thus “Unless before,” or nisi prius,

issues came to be dealt with by the judges of assize before the

summons to Westminster could take effect. The nisi prius clause, however, was not then introduced for the first time. It occurs occasionally in writs of the reign of Henry III. The royal commissions to hold the assizes are (1) general, (2) special. The general commission is issued twice a year to the judges of the

High Court of Justice, and two judges are generally sent on each circuit. It covers commissions—(1) of oyer and terminer, by which they are empowered to deal with treasons, murders, felonies,

etc. This is their largest commission; (2) of mist prius (q.v.); (3) of gaol delivery, which requires them to try every prisoner

in gaol, for whatsoever offence committed; (4) of the peace, by which all justices must be present at their county assizes, or else suffer a fine. Special commissions are granted for inquest in certain causes and crimes (see Circuit; Jury). Assizes, in the sense of ordinances or enactments of a court or council of state, as the “‘assize of bread and ale,” the “assize of Clarendon,” the “‘assize of arms,” are important in early economic history. As early as the reign of John the observance of the Assisae venalium was enforced, and for a period of 500 years

thereafter it was considered no unimportant part of the duties of the legislature to regulate by fixed prices the sale of bread, ale, fuel, etc. (see ADULTERATION). The word assize is sometimes used in a wider legislative connection by early chroniclers and historians—the “assisae of the realme,” e.g., occasionally meaning the organic laws of -the country.

For the “assizes of Jerusalem”

see CRUSADES. The term assize, originally applying to an assembly or court, became transferred to actions before the court of the writs by which they were instituted. The following are the more important. Assize of darrein presentment, or last presentation, was a wit directed to the sheriff to summon

an assize or jury to enquire

who was the last patron that presented to a church then vacant, of which the plaintiff complained that he was deforced or unlawfully deprived by the defendant. It was abolished in 1833 the action of quare impedit (g.v.) substituted. But by the Com

mon Law Procedure Act 1860, no quare impedit can be brought,

so that an action in the king’s bench of the High Court was substituted for it.

ASSIZE

OF JERUSALEM—ASSOCIATE

JUSTICE

561

Assize of mort d’ancestor was a writ which lay where a plain-

Europe. With the completion of other re-construction work, the annual group productive capacity will be 3,000,000 tons of rotary

ejected by a stranger on the death of the plaintiff's father, mother,

kiln Portland cement excluding all shaft kiln plant. The products of both companies are sold by the Cement Market Company, Limited. Foreign works are successfully operated in Mexico,

uf complained of an “abatement” or entry upon his freehold, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, etc. It was abolished in 1833.

Assize of novel dissetsin was an action to recover lands of which ‘ntiff had been “disseised” or dispossessed. It was abolished

By the Clerks of Assize Act 1869 he must either have been for

British Columbia, South Africa and India. It should be added ee company gives close attention to research and welfare work. The Associated Portland Cement Manufacturers, Ltd., had an issued share capital, at Dec. 31, 1927, of £4,785,000, and outstanding debentures of £4,139,000. The company owns, amongst other important cement properties, about 75% of the ordinary

three years a barrister or solicitor in actual practice, or have acted

shares of British Portland Cement Manufacturers, Ltd., and at

Frankfort-on-Main

ually evolved the Associated Press, the largest co-operative news organization in the world and one of the most successful purely mutual enterprises that has ever been organized in any industry. It is a union of persons who represent more than 1,200 morning, evening and Sunday newspapers. Its function is to collect and distribute the spot news of the world, written true to fact and without the expression of opinion, over a network of about 145,o0om. of leased telegraph wires. On this system, covering the whole American continent, there is an exchange of the news gathered in local communities by individual members, augmented by the dispatches of staff representatives scattered over the civilized world. The membership spreads from Alaska to Argentina and from the ' Philippines to Porto Rico. The association possesses exclusive contracts providing for news exchange with 27 important news agencies in foreign countries. In all of the leading cities of the world it maintains bureaux. In the United States the domestic news is received by such bureaux from Associated Press members and is converted into dispatches for publication in other cities, while in the foreign capitals similar service is rendered by staff representatives with respect to the news of the affiliated agencies. This selective process is relied upon to provide a flow of news material which is appropriate for general publication and which conforms to Associated Press standards. In the more important bureaux over 75,000 words, the equivalent of 60 standard newspaper columns of news matter, is handled in a single day. The Associated Press is organized under the Membership Corporations law of New York, its charter providing for a purely co-operative body, without capital stock, profits or dividends. Its control finally is governed by voting bonds apportioned among members. Its annual revenues aggregate more than $8,000,000. Each member is assessed on a weekly basis for service rendered and is also obliged to furnish exclusively to the association and without cost the news of his immediate vicinity. The association is administered by elected officers, a board of 15 directors and a large staff of general and regional executives. General headquarters are situated in New York.

ia 1833. See Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law. Assize, clerk of, an officer “who writes all things judicially done

by the justices of assizes in their circuits.” He has charge of the commission, and takes recognizances, records, judgments and sen-

ences, grants certificates of conviction, draws up orders, etc.

for three years in the capacity of subordinate officer of a clerk of Dec. 31, 1927, the latter company had an issued share capital of gssize on circuit. £3,080,000 and outstanding debentures of £1,698,000. ASSOCIATED PRESS. In the period prior to 1892 there ASSIZE OF JERUSALEM: see Jerusatem. ASSMANNSHAUSEN, a village of Germany, near Wies- existed among important daily newspapers in the United States a baden, on the right bank of the Rhine and the railway from loose federation of news-gathering associations from which gradto Niederlahnstein.

Pop.

1,047.

It has a

lithium spring, baths and a Kurhaus, and is famed for its red wine (Assmannshiuser)..

ASSOCIABILITY

is a term used by Herbert Spencer

(Principles of Psychology, sec. 160 ff.) to denote the capacity of

an experience (state of consciousness or feeling) of one kind for association or integration with others so as to lead subsequently tg mutual revival or recall. He pointed out that emotions are less associable with one another than are other mental experi-

ences. He explained this tion varies directly with and emotions are least eg. are among the most PsyCHOLOGY.

by saying that associability or integrathe relational character of experiences, relational, whereas visual experiences, relational. See ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS,

ASSOCIATED BANKS, banks that make daily clearings

through the same clearing house, 7.e., a group of banks which are members of the same clearing house association. (See CLEARING House.) ASSOCIATED PORTLAND CEMENT MANUFAC-

TURERS, LTD.

This company, formed in 1900, was one of

the earliest of British industrial combinations. It amalgamated some 24 businesses, and the 32 works acquired, producing over 1,000,000 tons of cement a year, were nearly all situated on the Thames and Medway, the cradle of the Portland cement industry. While the company possessed brands of repute, it suffered at the outset from over-capitalization and lack of working capital; these disadvantages were intensified by depression in the building industry. Also at this juncture a revolution was taking place in the method of production. The rotary kiln, an English invention,

had been made a practical success in the United States. This method of calcination not only improved the quality of the cement but saved much fuel and labour as compared with the system of hand-operated chamber-kilns. J. Bazley White and Brothers, one of the constituent firms, had already secured a licence to install rotary kilns under American patents, and the company paid a large sum in cancellation of royalties, but the patent rights purchased afforded no exclusive advantages, as the rotary kiln system came to be generally adopted by cement manufacturers. No dividend was paid on the ordinary share capital down to

See Melville E. Stone, Fifty Years a Journalist (1921).

(M. E. P.)

ASSOCIATE JUSTICE, a judicial official in the Federal and

many of the State courts in the United States. In the United States judiciary there are eight associate justices of the Supreme Court, who have concurrent authority with the chief justice, British Portland Cement Manufacturers, Ltd., was formed. This except that he presides and assigns cases for opinions. Likewise company absorbed 32 firms and also controlled a number of sub- there are eight associate justices of the United States court of companies. Much competitive tonnage was thus elimi- customs, with headquarters in New York. Such associate justices nated; the total tonnage controlled came to represent some 80% have the same authority as the ‘chief justice, except that he assigns of the productive capacity of Great Britain. By 1926 the British the cases for hearings. In the District of Columbia there are five Portland Cement Manufacturers, Ltd., had absorbed the assets of associate justices of the Supreme Court, which is the court of

1912, which marked a turning-point in the firm’s affairs. With the aid of additional finance furnished by a debenture issue, the

in

original general jurisdiction. They are assigned to the civil, equity or criminal divisions by their chief justices, who also sit as trial judges. The members of the supreme courts of the Territories

bo 10,000 tons to be loaded expeditiously at any state of the

who do not preside over the courts are associate justices. In the various States the courts of highest jurisdiction are either the supreme court or the court of appeals, composed of judges or

ls subsidiary companies. In recent years considerable

sums

have been expended

modernizing the plants. The new Bevan works, with an output of 0,000 tons weekly and shipping facilities enabling vessels up

ude, is probably the largest and most efficient cement plant in

562

ASSOCIATION

justices. Where justices sit on the bench, the associate justices are all the members of the body except the chief justice, and their relationship is similar to that of the chief justice and associate justices of the United States Supreme Court. In other States the presiding official is the chief judge or presiding judge, and his associates are known as judges or associate judges. In a few States, such as New York, the courts of general original jurisdiction are presided over by justices rather than by judges. see C. N. Callender, Procedure (1927).

ASSOCIATION

American

Courts,

Their Organization and (S. Le.)

phenomena.

J. D. van der Waals showed that a certain Telation

should hold between the critical temperature and pressure and the

vapour pressure at any given temperature, and the fact that marked deviations were found by S. Young in the case of Certain liquids containing hydroxyl groups (¢.g., water, alcohols, and

acetic acid) was ascribed to association in the case of theg liquids. Similarly, the abnormally high boiling point of water (r00°C.), when compared with that of hydrogen (—60°C.), for instance, leads to the same conclusion.

sulphide Further

F. Trouton showed that for “normal” liquids the equation is a term used in a specialized sense in ML/T=20-7 held with fair accuracy at the boiling poi

chemistry to denote the union of like atoms of an element or (M=molecular weight; L=latent heat of vaporization; T=abmolecules of a compound to give a more complex molecule hav- solute temperature); marked deviation from this relation is ing the same chemical properties. The term polymerization is shown by the above hydroxylic liquids and is regarded as evi. not quite synonymous, for it has a wider application (see later). dence of association. The precise extent of association in the liquid state was first Thus the molecule of white phosphorus is produced by the association of four atoms of the element to give P,, and the molecules studied by Sir W. Ramsay and J. Shields, using a modification of of water are said to be associated because they are complex mole- a formula proposed by R. Eötvös. If y is the surface tension, cules, each consisting of two or three simple H.O molecules. The M the molecular weight, and v the specific volume at any given reverse process of complex molecules breaking down to simple temperature T, then they found that the “molecular surface ones is known as dissociation, but this term is not necessarily the energy” y(Mv) changes at a definite rate with change of temconverse of the term association, since it includes also the break- perature: dy(Mv)i/dT=k, the constant k being approximately ing down of a molecule into simpler unlike species (ions, atoms, 2-121 for all non-associated liquids. In many cases, k was less or molecules). than this value, and a factor x was introduced, such that the use The phenomenon of association is found in solids, liquids, and of Mx instead of M gave the correct value for k. The necessary gases, but its extent can only be determined with certainty in the value of x decreased with rise of temperature and was held to case of gases; its existence can be detected in the case of liquids, denote the degree of association, and the results were in agreebut its extent cannot be determined definitely; whilst in solids, ment with the foregoing qualitative methods. Quantitatively, its existence is inferred both because a solid is probably at least however, the method is open to many objections; P. Walden 'as complex as the corresponding liquid or vapour, and because, in showed that k was not a constant, even for normal liquids, and many cases, X-ray examination shows that several molecules was dependent upon the molecular weight, varying from 2 up to unite to form a crystal unit. about 6, this high value obtaining for tristearin. G. M. Bennett The existence of association in gases was inferred from vapour- and A. D. Mitchell showed that the “total molecular surface

point density determinations by E. Mitscherlich and J. B. A. Du-

mas, but its extent was only clearly demonstrated when §. Cannizzaro showed how to apply Avogadro’s law to such cases. Chiefly owing to the work of Victor Meyer, a mass of data was then accumulated on the molecular complexity of vapours at temperatures up to 2,000°C. Thus, the vapour densities showed that the molecules of most metals were monatomic at temperatures slightly above their boiling points, that phosphorus was P, in the vapour state, arsenic As, at 1,700°C., and sulphur S, under reduced pressure at 200°C., decreasing by stages to S. at about 1,700°C. This decreasing complexity with increasing temperature is quite general, and even stable molecules like Cl, and Br. begin to break up to Cl and Br above 1,000°C.; so also at very high temperatures Ha, N., and O, show a very slight dissociation to simple atoms. Among compounds, cuprous chloride was shown to be Cu, Cl, in a state of vapour, and ferric chloride to be Fe, Cl, at about 500°C., whereas many metallic chlorides and bromides

were unassociated; acetic acid was (C2H,OQ.)2 just above its boiling point, but C.H,O. at about 200°C.; phosphorous, arsenious, and antimonious oxides were P.O,, As,Os, and Sb,O, at low temperatures, the second being As.O, at 1,800°C. and the last remaining complex even at this high temperature. Phosphoric oxide seems to persist as P,O. at very high temperatures. In many cases the equiHbrium between the higher and lower type of molecule has been shown to conform to the law of mass action (see CHEMICAL ACTION) at each of a number of temperatures. Moreover, according to this law, increase of pressure should decrease dissociation, i.e., favour association, and this also has been verified. The association of nitrogen peroxide can be followed visually by the loss of colour as the deep brown NO, is cooled and assumes the form of the colourless N.O, in increasing proportions. In a few cases, vapour-density results have led to erroneous conclusions; thus, mercurous chloride was thought to be HgCl until it was shown that the molecule was really Hg.Cl,, but that it dissociated into unlike molecules (Hg.Cl—> Hg-+-HegCl,) and not into like molecules (2HgCl). According to H. B. Baker, however, perfectly dry mercurous chloride does not dissociate but remains as Hg.Cl, in the vapour state (see Dryness, CHEMICAL). The association of liquids can be deduced from a variety of

energy,’ K=(y—T.dy/dT) (Mv)#, was constant over a wide range of temperature for any one unassociated liquid, and that K was an additive function of certain atomic and structural con-

stants even for substances which gave high values for Ramsay and Shields’s k; K was not constant for associated liquids, but although the method could be applied to the evaluation of the degree of association of some liquids, it failed in the case of hydroxylic liquids. Walden used the specific cohesion a’=2 y9 and found that Ma?/T=1-162 for normal liquids, and this constant did not suffer from the same disadvantages as that of Ramsay and Shields. By a modification of this he deduced degrees of association for many substances, but some (e.g., benzene, 1-85) seemed improbable as judged by other methods. Longuinescu found that for normal liquids T/d4/n=100, where d is density at boiling point, T (in absolute degrees), and # is the number of atoms in the molecule. His results for n led to values for the degree of association which were similar to those deduced from other methods. E. C. Bingham, from viscosity data, and J. Traube, from considerations of atomic and molecular volumes, deduced similar results. The general trend of the foregoing methods seems to indicate that water is chiefly (H.O) and

(H.O)s, but this is doubtless a statistical average for all sorts of molecules from H,O to, possibly, (H-O). (see WATER). Still more modern views, based on dielectric constants, internal pressure, and other physical properties, tend to supplant all the foregoing results in attributing a considerable but comstant degree of association to many of the liquids hitherto regarded as

“normal,” and a similar but variable degree to other liquids. _ Although it is not possible to give any very definite information as to solids, yet many cases are on record in which they give complex molecules in solution. Thus, benzoic acid exists as double molecules in benzene solution; trimethylammonium chloride and bromide undergo four- or five-fold association in fairly concentrated bromobenzene

solution; phosphorus

and sulphur are re-

spectively P, and Sg in carbon disulphide solution; but most metals are monatomic when dissolved in mercury or molten tm. 1In dealing with surface-tension measurements, it must always be remembered that the molecules in the surface layer may differ from those in the bulk of the liquid.

ASSOCIATION

563

dealing with solutions, however, so many new factors are in- amples: (1) A lyre or garment belonging to the beloved one volved that the results should not be accepted as conclusive puts the lover in mind of him. (2) From beholding a picture witbout careful consideration—the solvent plays an important of Simmias you may remember him. (3) The sight of a weedy and imperfectly understood part in such cases. For this reason, youth may put one in mind of a robust athlete. These examples ti doubtful how to interpret G. Oddo’s results that water has an association factor of 1-2—2-0 when dissolved in several organic

ents. ri is important to note that association in the solid state is a fmdamental concept of A. Smits’s theory of allotropy (g.v.),

illustrate what are usually known as association by contiguity, similarity and contrast respectively. Aristotle was much more explicit than Plato in formulating these types or laws of association as principles governing the reinstatement of ideas previously experienced.

These three laws of association were accepted and

taught by various philosophers (Epicureans, Stoics and Scholastics) during the centuries that intervened between Aristotle and Hobbes. But no great importance was attached to these prinof dryness (g.v.), Just as it does in the gaseous state. As implied at the outset, the terms association and polymeri- ciples. Even Locke, who, as already remarked, coined the phrase tion are not always interchangeable, for the latter was applied “association of ideas,” laid no particular stress on the laws of by J. J. Berzelius (1833) to cases where the percentage compo- association. Hobbes attached considerable importance to asstion remained the same, but the properties (and molecular sociation of ideas in mental life, but did not advance the subject weight) were different, whereas in association there is no well- of association to any appreciable extent. It was Hume who marked change in the chemical properties, as far as we are able to marked the next considerable advance beyond Aristotle in this wl. In the article POLYMERIZATION, instances are given of matter. He recognized association by contiguity, and by simorganic substances which differ greatly from their “polymerides”; ilarity; but instead of association of contrast Hume put forward on the other hand, in the cases dealt with here, such differences association by cause and efect—the observation of clouds, for are not sufficiently pronounced to be detectable as a rule, although instance, puts one in mind of rain. Strictly speaking this was the different forms of phosphorus and sulphur may possibly have really tantamount to reducing the laws of association to two, to be classed as polymerides on account of their altered solubility namely, those of contiguity and resemblance, since Hume rerties (see ALLoTROPY). It may be that, in the future, im- garded the idea of causal connection as merely a case of habitual proved experimental technique will be able to assign different association by contiguity (or contiguous sequence) between an properties to each of the different stages of complexity in the antecedent and a consequent. Hume, however, was interested in the epistemological bearing of the subject of association of ideas molecules of all the substances discussed here. rather than in its psychological importance. The so-called AsBrecrocRrapHy.—W. E. S. Turner, Molecular Association (1915).

and that the results of both this author and H. B. Baker seem to show that association in the solid and liquid states depends on the

(A. D. M.)

ASSOCIATION ADVERTISING is the co-operative ad-

sociationist Psychologists (Hartley, James Mill, etc.) attached exaggerated importance to the association of ideas, which they regarded as occupying in the realm of psychology a place anal-

United States which were advertising on a national scale. Their

ogous to the Law of Gravitation in the realm of Physics (see ASSOCIATIONIST PsycHoLocy), as Hume had already vaguely suggested. : Criticism and Restatement.—(a) Thomas Brown, although he may be described as a member of the school of Associationists or Associationist Psychologists, objected to the term Association, for which he substituted the term suggestion. He pointed out that the term association appears to imply some previous association between the idea suggested and the idea which suggested it.

yertising of competitors to promote the sale or use of the product of an industry, e.g., the campaign to increase the buying of flowes conducted by the Society of American Florists. This is a form of advertising which developed during the first 20 years of the 2oth century. In 1925 there were 31 associations in the amual advertising expenditures ranged from $30,000 to more than $1,500,000 each. This form of advertising has arisen out of a new conception of competition which recognized that trade rivalry is not merely that of one concern with another in the same kind of business, but rather that of one industry with another; e.g., aggressive advertising for composition roofings curtailed the sale of cedar shingles. The proprietors of the shingle mills, through their association, raised an advertising fund and began vigorously to promote the sale of their product. Behind many other association campaigns there has been a similar development. It may be noted that the result is not merely an advertising battle in which each industry struggles to hold what it already has, for if the advertising is successful even competing industries may prosper more with advertising than without. This is illustrated by the experiences of manufacturers of flat wall-paints and wall-papers. Before makers of the latter started advertising, their products suffered a diminution of sales because of the aggressive advertising of the former. An association advertising campaign for wall-paper resulted in greatly increased sales without reducing the consumption of flat paints. The explanation is that people became “wall conscious,” in the language of the marketing man. Whereas walls had frequently gone for years without refreshening or redecoratmg, under the stimulus of the two advertising campaigns, new wall-paper or new paint was often applied annually or biennially. (H. E. A.) BrsrioGrapuy.—Hugh E. Agnew, Céoperative Advertising by Competitors (Harper and Brothers, 1926).

Yet in many cases, and especially in cases of so-called association by similarity, there is no previous association—any object seen for the first time may suggest the idea of something resembling it, but which has never been associated with it in the past. Even if the term association be suitable in cases of association by contiguity (even this Brown questioned), it was clearly inappropriate for cases of suggestion by similarity. (b) F. H. Bradley went far beyond Brown in his criticism of

the laws of association, although he did not repudiate association

in principle, when properly formulated and kept within its proper bounds. The laws of association most widely accepted in the roth century were those of contiguity and of similarity—the only ones really acknowledged by Hume. The main points in Bradley’s criticism come out most clearly if attention is paid to the way in which the laws were formulated by the best known British psychologist of the roth century, A. Bain. (1) The Law of Contiguity: “Actions, sensations and states of feeling, occurring together or in close connection, tend to grow together, or cohere, in such a way that, when any one of them is afterwards presented to the mind, the others are apt to be brought up in idea” (Senses and Intellect, p. 327). To this Bradley said that sensations, etc., are particular experiences or events that do not recur at all. Consequently the sensations that are contiguous are not really asASSOCIATION OF IDEAS. The chief problem that is in- sociated in the manner stated by the law of contiguity, whereas volved in a discussion of the Association of Ideas and the Laws the associated ideas were never contiguous before, so that their

of Association is the problem of recollection and the conditions

association could not be due to their contiguity.

(2) The Law of

inder which it takes place. Although the expression “‘association of ideas” was introduced by Locke, the problem under consideration was already dealt with by Plato incidentally, and

Similarity: “Present actions, sensations, thoughts or emotions tend to revive their like among previous impressions or states”

by Aristotle fairly fully. According to Plato, reminiscence takes Place in one of the three ways illustrated by the following ex-

of the same sensation, etc., applies here also. And he adds two further criticisms. Two ideas, etc., can only be recognized as

(ibid. p. 457). Bradley’s criticism based on the non-recurrence

564

ASSOCIA TIONISM

similar if they are both present in the mind; but what the law seeks to explain is how an idea present in the mind calls up another that is absent. Moreover, ideas alleged to be associated by similarity are usually more unlike than like one another; so that the recall cannot be due to mere similarity. Bradley then formulated his own law of association to which he gave the name

(borrowed from Hamilton) of the Law of Redintegration: “Any part of a single state of mind tends, if reproduced, to reinstate the remainder,” or “any element tends to reproduce those elements with which it has formed one state of mind.” At first sight this law appears to be exposed to Bradley’s own criticism about the non-recurrence of states of mind. But the most characteristic feature in Bradley’s account (though it can really be traced to Aristotle) is his view that association only marries universals, that is, it associates not particular experiences as such, but the elements that are identical in the individual of the same type. In this way Bradley’s Law of Redintegration is really a law of identity and contiguity. (c) Physiological Basis of Association.—Of the older psy-

chologists, Aristotle and Hartley were almost the only ones to attempt some sort of explanation of association, namely, by reference to its physiological or neural basis. But until quite recently the subject received very little further attention—most psychologists being content apparently to subscribe to Hume’s remark that the causes of association “are mostly unknown, and must be resolved into original qualities of human nature, which

I pretend not to explain” (Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Part I. § v.). But with the increasing vogue of Physiological Psychology, the attempt to find a physiological explanation of association or suggestion has naturally been renewed. So far as association by contiguity is concerned, a physiological account seems to suggest itself readily. W. James pointed to the “laws of habit in the nervous system” as its physiological cause or basis. The idea more or less generally accepted is that if two nerve-centres in the brain are excited simultaneously or in immediate succession, then some connection is established between them, to the extent at least that the resistance at their synapse (the point of contact between two neurones or nerve-centres) is reduced; and the more frequently this simultaneous or successive activity of two neurones occurs, the more does the path between

them tend to become a path of least resistance, so that if one of them is afterwards excited, the excitation spreads to the other. If Bradley’s Law of Redintegration be accepted as a true account of association, then the foregoing physiological account of association by contiguity may be made to account for all association— similarity being explained by identity and contiguity. And this is so much in favour of Bradley’s views on the matter. But the physiological account involves, of course, the larger problem of the relation between body and mind. (d) J. Ward and G. F. Stout.—Excessive stress on Association, as may be seen most clearly in the case of so-called associationist psychology, has had a tendency to betray psychologists in two ways. It has often misled them to overlook the initial unity of consciousness, to treat experiences as if they were ultimately mere atoms put together and held together by the quasi-gravitation of association. And in the second place, but largely perhaps in consequence of this soulless treatment of psychology, the whole character of association was conceived in a too impersonal and non-conational manner—as if human experiences were the chance result of the play of impersonal tendencies and in no way influenced by the desires and strivings of the individual subject of the experiences. These defects curiously enough are not to be found in Aristotle, who indeed laid emphasis on the activity and purposiveness involved in recollection and association—“we hunt,” he says, “for the next in the series, starting our train of thought from what is now present or from something else, and from something similar or contrary or contiguous to it” (Memory and Rec-

ollection, 4524, p. 111, ed. G. R. T. Ross). The faults in question were mainly the consequence of a tendency to fall into line with the mechanistic ideas of modern science. Ward and Stout have done much to stem this current of thought in psychology, and to remedy the faults under consideration. Association, according to

Ward, is largely a matter of selective attention, ang attenti largely depends on interest. Hence to a considerable extent = sociation is a form of integration or a way of constructing a E tinuúm expressing and subserving some interest of the experien.

ing mind. Stout likewise emphasizes the importance of interest n the formation of associations. Association and recall are a

mined by continuity of interest.

; BIBLIOCRAPHY.—G. Croom Robertson, Pkilosobki tains a brief history); G. R. T. Ross's EAA ae Aristotle’s De Sensu and De Memoria; works on Psychology byBi : Sully, Ward, Stout, James, etc.; the works of the other Writers men.

tioned in the text.

ASSOCIATIONISM

CHOLOGY.

l

(A. Wo.)

or ASSOCIATIONIST psy.

This is the name of a theory that mental experi-

ences consist in the consciousness which under the laws of In its extreme form

last resort of certain ultimate elements of are variously combined into complex wholes association. (See ASSOCIATION oF Ipgas.) this theory treats the whole development of

the mind as little more than an increase in the combinations of

pre-existing elements. The theory was probably modelled more or less on the atomic.theory in physics—the simple elemenis of experience corresponding to physical atoms; and association to gravitation. Associationism may be traced to some extent to the ancient Epicureans and Stoics. But it is mainly modern, and, indeed British, though not without some adherents in France and Germany.

In the modern period, Hobbes is the first thinker of permanent note to whom this doctrine may be traced. Though, in point of fact, he took anything but an exhaustive view of the phenomena

of mental succession, yet after dealing with trains of imagination or what he called mental discourse, he sought in the higher departments of intellect to explain reasoning as a discourse in words dependent upon an arbitrary system of marks, each associated with, or standing for, a variety of imaginations; and, save for a general assertion that reasoning is a reckoning—otherwise a com-

pounding and resolving—he had no other account of knowledge to give. The whole emotional side of mind, or, in his language, the passions, he, in like manner, resolved into an expectation of consequences based on past experience of pleasures and pains of sense. Thus, though he made no serious attempt to justify his analysis in detail, he is undoubtedly to be classed with the asso-

ciationists of the next century. They however, were wont to trace their psychological theory no further back than to Locke’s Essay. Bishop Berkeley was driven to posit expressly a principle of suggestion or association in these terms:—‘That one idea may suggest another to the mind, it will suffice that they have been observed to go together without any demonstration of the necessity of their co-existence, or so much as knowing what it is that makes them so to co-exist.” (New Theory of Vision, $25); and to support the obvious application of the principle to the case of the sensations of sight and touch before him, he constantly urged that association of sound and sense of language which the later school has always put in the foreground, whether as illustrating the principle in general or in explanation of the supreme importance of language for knowledge. It was natural, then, that Hume, coming after Berkeley, and assuming Berkeley’s results, though he reverted to the larger inquiry of Locke, should be more explicit in his reference to association; but he was original also, when he spoke of it as a “kind of attraction which in the mental world will be found to have as extraordinary effects as in the natural, and to show itself in as many and as various forms.”

(Human Nature, i. 1, §4). Other inquirers about the same time

conceived of association with this breadth of view, and set themselves to track, as psychologists, its effects in detail. David Hartley, in his Observations on Man, published m 1749

(rr years after the Human Nature, and one year after the better-

known Inquiry of Hume), opened the path for all the investiga-

tions of like nature that have been so characteristic of English psychology. A physician by profession, he sought to combine with an elaborate theory of mental association a minutély, de tailed hypothesis as to the corresponding action of the nervous

system, based upon the suggestion of a vibratory motion withn

ASSOCIA TIONISM the nerves thrown out by Newton in the last paragraph of the cipia. So far, however, from promoting the acceptance of

the psychological theory, this physical hypothesis proved to have rather the opposite effect, andit began to be dropped by Hartley’s

followers (as F. Priestly, in his abridged edition of the Observa-

tions, 1775) before it was seriously impugned from without. When it is studied in the original, and not taken upon the report

of hostile critics, who would not, or could not, understand it, go little importance must still be accorded to the first attempt, not seldom a curiously felicitous one, to carry through that paral-

lism of the physical and psychical, which since then has come to

count for more and more in the science of mind. Nor should it be forgotten that Hartley himself, for all his paternal interest in theedoctrine of vibrations was careful to keep separate from xs fortunes the cause of his other doctrine of mental association. Of this the point lay in no mere restatement, with new pre-

cision, of a principle of coherence among “ideas,” but in being taken as a clue by which to follow the progressive development

of the mind’s powers. Holding that mental states could be scientifically understood only as they were analysed, Hartley sought for

a principle of synthesis to explain the complexity exhibited not oly in trains of representative images, but alike in the most

involved combinations of reasonings and (as Berkeley had seen) in the apparently simple phenomena of objective perception as well as in the varied play of the emotions, or again in the manifold conscious adjustments of the motor system. One principle appeared to him sufficient for all, running, as enunciated for the simplest case, thus: “Any sensations A,B,C, etc., by being assocated with one another a sufficient number of times, get such a power over the corresponding ideas (called by Hartley also vestiges, types, images), a,b,c, etc., that any of the sensations A,

when impressed alone, shall be able to excite in the mind, b,c; etc., the ideas of the rest.” To render the principle applicable in the cases where the associated elements are neither sensations nor smple ideas of sensations, Hartley’s first care was to determine the conditions under which states other than these simplest ones have their rise in the mind, becoming the matter of ever higher and higher combinations. The principle itself supplied the key to the difficulty when coupled with the notion, already implied in Berkeley’s investigations, of a coalescence of simple ideas of sensation into one complex idea, which may cease to bear any obvious relation to its constituents. So far from being content, like Hobbes, to make a rough generalization to all mind from the phenomena of developed memory, as if these might be straightway assumed, Hartley made a point of referring them, in a subordmate place of their own, to his universal principle of mental synthesis. He expressly put forward the law of association, eadued with such scope, as supplying what was wanting to Locke’s doctrine in its more strictly psychological aspect, and thus marks by his work a distinct advance on the line of development of the experimental philosophy. ‘ The new doctrine received warm support from some, as Law

and Priestley, who both, like Hume and Hartley himself, took the principle of association as having the like import for the science

of mind that gravitation had acquired for the science of matter. The principle began also, if not always with direct reference to Hartley, yet, doubtless, owing to his impressive advocacy of it, to be applied systematically in special directions, as by Abraham

Tucker (1768) to morals, and by Archibald Alison (1790) to

aesthetics. Thomas Brown (d. 1820) subjected anew to discus-

sion the question of theory. Hardly less unjust to Hartley than

Reid or Stewart had been, and forward to proclaim all that was diferent in his own position, Brown must yet be ranked with the

associationists before and after him for the prominence he signed to the associative principle in sense-perception (what called external affections of mind) and for his reference of other mental states (internal affections) to the two generic

565

the term seemed least inapplicable. According to him, all that could be assumed was a general constitutional tendency of the mind to exist successively in states that have certain relations to each other, of itself only, and without any external cause or any influence previous to that operating at the moment of the suggestion. Brown's chief contribution to the general doctrine of mental association, besides what he did for the theory of perception was, perhaps, his analysis of voluntary reminiscence and constructive imagination—faculties that appear at first sight to lie altogether beyond the explanatory range of the principle. In James Mill’s Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind (1829) the principle, much as Hartley had conceived it, was carried out, with characteristic consequence over the psychological field. With a much enlarged and more varied conception of association, Alexander Bain re-executed the general psychological task, while Herbert Spencer revised the doctrine from the new point of view of the evolution-hypothesis. John Stuart Mill made only occasional excursions into the region of psychology proper, but sought, in his System of Logic (1843), to determine the conditions of objective truth from the point of view of the associationist theory, and, thus or otherwise being drawn into general philosophical discussion, spread wider than any one before him its repute. The associationist school has been composed chiefly of British thinkers, but in France also, it has had distinguished representatives. Of these it will suffice to mention Condillac, who professed to explain all knowledge from the single principle of association (liaison) of ideas, operating through a previous association with signs, verbal or other. In Germany, before the time of Kant, mental association was generally treated in the traditional manner as by Wolff. Kant’s inquiry into the foundations of knowledge, agreeing in its general purport with Locke’s however it differed in its critical procedure, brought him face to face with newer doctrine that had been grafted on to Locke’s philosophy; and to account for the fact of synthesis in cognition, in express opposition to associationism, as represented by Hume, was, in truth, his prime object, starting as he did, from the assumption that there was that in knowledge which no mere association of experience could explain. To the extent, therefore, that his influence prevailed, all inquiries made by the English associationists were discounted in Germany. Notwithstanding, under the very shadow of his authority a corresponding, if not related, movement was initiated by J. F. Herbart. Peculiar and widely different from anything conceived by the associationists, as Herbart’s metaphysical opinions were, he was at one with them and at variance with Kant, in assigning fundamental importance to the psychological investigation of the development of consclousness, nor was his conception of the laws determining the interaction and flow of mental presentations and representations, when taken in its bare psychological import, essentially different from theirs. In F. E. Beneke’s psychology also, and in more recent inquiries conducted mainly by physiologists, mental association has been understood im its wider scope, as a general principle of explanation. The associationists differ not a little among themselves in the statement of their principle, or when they adduce several principles, in their conception of the relative importance of these. Hartley took account only of contiguity, or the repetition of impressions synchronous or immediately successive; the like is true of James Mill, though incidentally, he made an express attempt to resolve the received principle of similarity, and through this,

the other principle of Contrast, into his fundamental law—law of Frequency, as he sometimes called it, because upon frequency, in conjunction with vividness of impressions, the strength of association, in his view, depended. In a sense of his own, Brown also,

ashe all while accepting the common Aristotelian enumeration of princica- ples, inclined to the opinion that “all suggestion may be found to Pacities or susceptibilities of simple and relative suggestion. He depend on prior co-existence, or at least on such proximity as is Preferred the word suggestion to association, which seemed to him itself very probably a modification of co-existence,” provided toimply some prior connecting process, whereof there was no evidence in many of the most important cases of suggestion, nor

even, strictly speaking, in the case of contiguity in time where

account be taken of “the influence of emotions and other feelings that are very different from ideas, as when an analogous object suggests an analogous object by the influence of an emotion which

ASSOCIATIONS

566

each separately may have produced before, and which is, therefore, common to both.” To the contrary effect, Spencer maintained that the fundamental law of all mental association is that presentations aggregate or cohere with their like in past experience, and that, besides this law, there is in strictness no other, all further phenomena of association being incidental. Thus in particular, he would have explained association by contiguity as due to the circumstances of imperfect assimilation of the present to the past in consciousness. A. Bain regarded contiguity and similarity logically, as perfectly distinct principles, though in actual psychological occurrence blending intimately with each other, contiguous trains being started by a first (it may be implicit) representation through similarity, while the express assimilation of present to past in consciousness is always, or tends to be, followed by the revival of what was presented in contiguity with that past. The highest philosophical interest, as distinguished from that which is more strictly psychological, attaches to the mode of mental association called inseparable. The coalescence of mental states noted by Hartley, as it had been assumed by Berkeley, was further formulated by James Mill in these terms :—“Some ideas are by frequency and strength of association so closely combined that they cannot be separated; if one exists, the other exists along with it in spite of whatever effort we make to disjoin them.” (Analysis of the Human Mind, 2nd ed. vol. i., p. 93.) J. S. Milľ’s statement is more guarded and particular :—‘When two phenomena have been very often experienced in conjunction, and have not, in any single instance, occurred separately either in experience or thought, there is produced between them what has been called inseparable, or, less correctly, indissoluble, association; by which is not meant that the association must inevitably last to the end of life—that no subsequent experience or process of thought can possibly avail to dissolve it; but only that as long as no such experience or process of thought has taken place, the association is irresistible; it is impossible for us to think the one

Employers’ Associations.—There are in Great Britain 2,500 associations of employers concerned with matters to the employment of labour. They may be regarded as the

counterpart on the employers’ side of the Trade Union on the workpeople’s side. They exist for the purpose of establishing

unified policy among the employers in the industry in regardtg wages, hours and working conditions generally, and their principal activities culminate in negotiating agreements on these Matters with the responsible Trade Unions (see TRADE Unions), and in giving effect generally to the collective views of employers in the

industry upon labour questions.

In some countries there is a

central organization whose membership consists not of individual concerns but of the Employers’ Associations for the varioys industries. In Great Britain there is the National Confederation of Employers’ Organizations, which exists for the purpose of co ordinating the industrial and political activities of the many employers’ associations or federations which constitute its member. ship. This body may be regarded as the employers’ counterpart

of the General Council of the Trades Union Congress, Associations for the Regulation of Trade—Associations of business concerns for the regulation of prices, output, tender.

ing, selling areas, etc., exist in very many branches of British trade and industry. They are properly constituted bodies having rules, constitution, officers, subscription, entrance fees, etc. The object of these associations is to control the competition in which firms in the same line of business ordinarily engage, in such a way as to make for remunerative prices, steady trade, and reduction of

overlapping and waste. They represent one phase of the persistent tendency towards the replacement of competition in industry by combination (see COMBINES, also COMPETITION), but trade associations must be distinguished from some other forms of industrial combination in that they are terminable alliances and

not permanent fusions (see AMALGAMATION also Trusts). The Trade Association is an association, for particular purposes, of otherwise independent and self-governing business concerns. So

thing disjoined from the other.”—(Examination of Hamilion’s long as it exists, members must conform to its rules or incur Philosophy, 2nd ed., p. 191.) penalties; but if for any reason—stress of external circumstance It is chiefly by J. S. Mill that the philosophical application of or internal jealousy or disloyalty—it should break up, the conthe principle has been made. The first and most obvious applica- stituent firms revert to their original unfettered independence, tion is to so-called necessary truths—such, namely, as are not merely analytic judgments but involve a synthesis of distinct notions. Again, the same thinker sought to prove inseparable association the ground of belief in an external objective world. The former application, especially, is facilitated, when the experience through which the association is supposed to be constituted is understood as cumulative in the race, and transmissible as original endowment to individuals—endowment that may be expressed either, subjectively, as latent intelligence, or, objectively, as fixed nervous connections. Spencer, as before suggested, is the author of this extended view of mental association. BrBrioGRaPHy.—(See ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS.)

ASSOCIATIONS,

INDUSTRIAL.

(A. Wo.)

Associations whose

membership consists of firms engaged in a particular branch of industry or trade are of three kinds: (1) those which exist for purposes of collective bargaining with their workpeople or their representatives;

(2) those which are concerned with the regulation of prices, output, sales, etc.; and

(3) those which devote themselves to the technical, scientific and informational aspects of the business in which the firms are engaged. These three types of function are not mutually exclusive, but in Great Britain most industrial associations devote themselves wholly or mainly to one or other kind of activity. In the United States employers’ associations for dealing with workpeople are rare, trade unionism being neither so developed nor so recognized as in other countries; price and output associations, being illegal, are not openly existent; therefore all industrial associations fall ostensibly within the third type. Such American employers as have occasion to negotiate collectively with workpeople are tending to do so through the medium of the informational trade association.

competing against each other, it may be, as keenly as before, These internal disruptive forces are on occasion very strong and the history of British associations for the regulation of trade exhibits many instances of dissolution followed after a time by re-formation. Under English law contracts or agreements in restraint of trade, such as those between members of the associations described above, are not actually illegal unless they involve an illegal act, but they are in principle unenforceable, since the Courts will not in general entertain any legal proceeding instituted with the object of enforcing or recovering damages for the breach of such agreements. In the United States agreements for the limitation of competition are illegal under the Sherman Law (1890). In Canada associations regulating price or output are liable to investigation under the Combines Act of 1923 with punishment under the Criminal Code in case of proved offence. In Australia and New Zealand there is little legal interference with such associations. Informational Associations.—Associations existing solely for the supply of statistical or credit information to their members or for scientific and technical research and standardization, and concerning themselves not at all with the regulation of trade, are not numerous in Great Britain, though some outstanding ex-

amples occur in the iron and steel, electrical, motor, chemical, silk,

glass, leather, paint, flint glass, and paper industries. The mterchange of information in regard to credit terms, railway rates, shipping freights, forms of contract, methods, and processes, the standardization and interchange of costings, and the collection an dissemination of trade statistics is more frequently carried out as an adjunct to the control of prices or output. The F ederation of British Industries may be regarded as the central organization concerned with the co-ordination of the informational activites of trade associations and as the counterpart, in the sphere

ASSOCIATION

TESTS—ASSUMPTION

trade, of the National Confederation of Employers’ Organizations

a that of wages, hours, and working conditions.

in the United States, however, concerted action in fixing prices or regulating output is questionable under the common law and

567

preceded rhyme in several of the European languages, and to have led the way towards it. It is particularly observable in the French poetry which was composed before the 12th century, and

it reached its highest point in the “Chanson de Roland,” where

the sections are distinguished by the fact that all the lines in a laisse or stanza close with the same vowel-sound. When the ear of the French became more delicate, and pure rhyme was intropot legally do, but there has, notwithstanding, been a vast increase duced, about the year 1120, assonance almost immediately reinthe members of such associations. About 1910 the idea of “‘co- tired before it and was employed no more, until recent years, rative competition” through the medium of “‘Open Price Asso- when several French poets have re-introduced assonance in order cations” took shape. Under this plan members were to furnish to widen the scope of their effects of sound. It held its place to the association day by day particulars of enquiries, quotations longer in Provencal and some other Romance literatures, while and orders and, less frequently, of output and stocks. These were in Spanish it has retained its absolute authority over rhyme to to be collated, and a summary statement based on the returns the present day. It has been observed that in the Romance despatched to all members. Since the information so furnished languages the ear prefers the correspondence of vowels, while in related to past, not future, prices and output, and was in the the Teutonic languages the preference is given to consonants. nature of an ascertainment, not an agreement, it was expected Various German poets of considerable merit, and in particular that these activities would be found not to be in contravention Tieck and Heine, have endeavoured, as English rhymers have of the law, but to be a salutary and legal means of turning blind done, to mix pure rhyme with assonance, but the result of this competition into informed competition. The courts, however, in almost all cases is that the assonances are drowned in the stress fod against these activities where it could be shown that they of pure rhymes. Assonance as a conscious art, in fact, is scarcely resulted in fact in approximations to a unified policy in regard recognized as legitimate in English literature. In Irish (Gaelic) to production or price, but the decision of the Supreme Court, in poetry, on the other hand, assonance triumphed over pure rhyme, the Maple Flooring and Cement cases in 1925, established the and the Irish poets writing in English who rhymed “Blarney” legality of a much wider range of informational activity than had with “charming” were merely following a national tradition. ASSUMED BONDS, bonds of a corporation which has previously been known to be definitely within the law. The trade association on the informational basis is one of the most momen- been absorbed by another by means of merger, consolidation, tous features of modern industrial developments in the United purchase or other methods. In a merger, the corporation which States. According to an estimate made by the National Industrial retains its identity; in a consolidation, tbe newly formed corporaConference Board in 1925 “‘it is fairly safe to assume the existence tion; and in a sale, the purchasing company, assumes all the inof between 800 and 1,000 trade associations of a national or inter- debtedness of the merged, consolidated or purchased organization, and hence becomes entirely responsible and liable for the (J. H.) state character.” Bærocrarny.—For British trade associations, see the Report of the payment of the bonds, which then take the name of assumed Committee on Trusts (Cd. 9,236 of 1919); Reports of 57 Committees bonds. Bonds of one existing corporation which are guaranteed inted under the Profiteering Acts 1919 and 1920; Report of the Contes on Industry and Trade, entitled Factors in Industrial and as to either interest or principal by the endorsement of another Commercial Efficiency, H. M. Stationery Office (1927) ; and Industrial corporation are sometimes loosely called assumed bonds, but for Combination in England by P. Fitzgerald (1927). For American such instruments it is better to reserve the name “guaranteed irade associations see A. J. Eddy, The New Competition (1914); bonds.” definitely illegal under the various anti-trust statutes. The years

paward from the passage of the Sherman act in 1890 have been of uncertainty as to what a trade association might or might

Trede Association Activities issued by the Department of Commerce (1923); Public Regulation of Competitive Practices, also Trade Associations, their Economic Significance and Legal Status, both issued by the National Industrial Conference Board of New York in 1925.

ASSUMPSIT, the Latin word meaning “he has undertaken.”

It is applied in English law to an obsolete form of action for the recovery of damages by reason of the breach or non-performance ASSOCIATION TESTS are used in psychology to discover of a simple contract, elther express or implied, and whether made the mental connections which underlie such cognitive functions orally or in writing. Assumpsit was the word always used in as perception, learning, memory, language ability, reasoning and pleadings by the plaintiff to set forth the defendant's undertaking judgment, and also in psychopathology to discover the way in or promise, hence the name of the action. See Practice AND which emotional experiences upset normal mental connections. In PROCEDURE. ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF, the feast of the Assumption the usual association test an individual is given a word and is told to respond with the first word which comes into his mind. The of the blessed Virgin Mary (Lat. assumptio, dormitio depositio, exact procedure varies for different purposes. The kind of words pausaito B.V.M. (Gr. xoipnots or dvadnts ths Geordxov), celewith which the individual responds and the length of time it takes brated by the Christian Church on Aug. 15, commemorating her him to make his replies are factors which throw important light death and miraculous ascent into heaven. The belief in the latter on the nature of mental constitution, variation and abnormality. has its origin in apocryphal sources, such as the els r7jv Kolunow THs ASSOCIATIVE LAWS, two laws relating to numbers, ùrepayilas deoroivns ascribed to the Apostle John, and the De one with respect to addition and the other with respect to multi- transitu Mariae, assigned to Melito, bishop of Sardis, but actually plication. These laws may respectively be defined symbolically written about A.D. 400. They were accepted as authentic by as follows: a + (b +- c)=(a+ b) + c, and a(bc)= (ab)c; that is, Gregory of Tours (d. 593 or 594), who in his De gloria martyrum the terms or the factors may be associated in any way we (1.4) gives the following account of the miracle: As all the choose. (See also Commutative Laws.) The numbers may be Apostles were watching round the dying Mary, Jesus appeared either positive or negative, integral or fractional, rational or with His angels and committed the soul of His Mother to the national, and real or imaginary. The laws do not hold through- Archangel Michael. Next day, as they were carrying the body to out the entire range of mathematics, however. For example, the grave, Christ again appeared and carried it with Him in a the associative law of addition does not hold for certain divergent cloud to heaven, where it was reunited with the soul. According to St. John of Damascus, the patriarchs and Adam and Eve series. (See SERIES.) ASSONAN CE, a term defined, in its prosodical sense, as “the also appear at the death-bed; a Jew who touches the body loses corresponding or riming of one word with another in the accented both his hands, which are restored to him by the Apostles; and vowel and those which follow it, but not in the consonants” the body lies three days in the grave without corruption before (New English Dictionary). Much rustic or popular verse in Eng- it is taken up into heaven. The festival is first mentioned by St. Andrew of Crete (b. c. d is satisfied with assonance, as in such cases as 650), and is said to have been fixed on Aug. 15 by the emperor And pray who gave thee that jolly red nose? Maurice (d. 602). From the East it was borrowed by Rome, Cinnamon, Ginger, Nutmeg and Cloves, Where the agreement between the two o’s permits the ear to where there is evidence of its existence so early as the 7th cenReglect the discord between s and v. Assonance appears to have tury. The belief in the bodily assumption of the Virgin has never

568

ASSUR—ASSUR-BANI-PAL

been defined as a dogma and remains a “pious opinion” which the —most famous being the Tabara or “gate of the metal Workers “ faithful are not bound to accept, though its denial would involve on the extreme western curve oi the wall. A second grea: gue “insolent temerity” as being contrary to the common agreement pierced the double wall of this side 400 metres south of Tabara of the Church. By the reformed Churches, including the Church Two more gates pierced the west wall between Tabara ang = of England, the festival is not observed, having been rejected | north-west corner of the city, and there was another gate on the at the Reformation as being neither primitive nor founded upon south side near the Tigris. The antiquities recovered in the excavation of the temple oj any “certain warrant of Holy Scripture.” ASSUR (country), the land of Assyria, not to be confused Ishtar indicate a very advanced Sumerian civilization at Assur with the city of Ashur (modern Shergat) from which it took its whose origins appear to be almost as ancient as any yet found name. The country is situated on the Tigris, at the southern ex- in Sumer of the south. They prove that the Sumerians were tremity of Assyria proper, which was bounded on the north by the settled here before 3500 B.C., but the city clearly had no inde. foothills of Kurdistan, and lay between the Tigris and its tributary pendent line of kings either in the Sumerian period down to the lesser Zab (Zab al Asfal) in a fertile triangle of land. The c. 2600 B.C., or in the long period of Semitic governors, when thi: early history of Assyria probably consisted in the gradual occupa- city-State was a dependency first of Ur and then of Babylon, tion of this fertile region, from the city of Assur, which retained It is clear that an interval of Gutean domination intervened he. its position as a holy city long after the political power had been tween the Sumerian period and the Semitic occupation. Assur re. transferred to the more conveniently placed Nineveh. (See Meso- mained a dependency of Babylon until the end of the first Baby. lonian dynasty, and Nineveh did not become the capital of As. POTAMIA: Ancient Geography.)

ASSUR, ASHUR, ASUR, name of the ancient capital of

Assyria, the modern ruins, Kalat Sherghat, built on a rocky headland on the west bank of the Tigris, 40 miles above the mouth of the Lower Zab. It is first mentioned in the 46th year of Dungi of Ur, 2376 B.c., where the name is written with the Sumerian ideogram A-USAR, of unknown meaning. At this time the governor of the city was Zariku, who bears a Semitic name. The city then belonged to the kingdom of Ur, and the same Zariku governed the city for Bur-Sin, Dungi’s successor. In his own inscription Zariku writes the name of the city A-Shir, and this is the usual writing of the name of the city god in the early inscriptions of the city. It is certain, however, that the Sumerian goddess Innini, z.e., Accadian Ishtar, was the oldest important deity of Assur, and that the site was occupied by the Sumerians many centuries before the rise of this city-State to a place of great political importance in the time of the first Babylonian dynasty (2169-1870). There can be little doubt concerning the racial character of the people of Assur from the period of Zariku onward. They were Semites and possibly from Amurri, who, like the Semitic colony in Cappadocia of the same period, obtained their culture from Babylonia. Inscriptions of later Assyrian kings mention two early rulers, Ushpia, who built the temple of the god Ashur, in the north-east corner of the city and Kikia, who built the city walls. There is also an Accadian inscription of a certain Ititi, son of Yakulaba. All of these local rulers bear nonSemitic and non-Sumerian names, and they indicate a period of Gutean or Mitanni occupation of the city, in the interval between the decline of the old Sumerian period and the occupation by Semites in the time of Dungi. It is, therefore, probable that the city-god Ashir, Ashur, is of Sumerian origin. The old city was bounded on the east by quay walls, extending for zoo metres, along the west bank of the Tigris. An ancient branch of the Tigris flowed past the north side of the city, which was protected by a buttressed wall and a huge building known as the Mushlalu, just north of the great stage tower of the temple of the god Ashur. The north side measured about 800 metres, and on this side of the city stood the temple and stage tower of Ashur (north-east corner), the ancient palace, the double temple of the gods Adad and Anu, and a vast new palace of TukulNinurta (13th century B.c.). The western’and southern sides were originally defended by a double wall, whose line sweeps in a return curve to the Tigris, over 1,500 metres long. In the early

part of the second millennium the outer wall on the south was extended southward and eastward to enclose a large new precinct of the city. Outside the city, 150 metres from the northwest corner, stood the house of the New Year’s festival on the bank of the ancient rivulet, which ran past the northern side of the city. The temple of Ishtar, where excavations revealed the

oldest (Sumerian) culture at Assur, lay in the west central part of the city, and a later temple to the god Nebo stood just east of it. The city was occupied continuously down to Parthian times,

and a great palace of that period was built over the ruins of the inner southern wall. The most important city gates are on the western side, the

syria until the end of the reign of Ashurnasirpal IT. (883-855.

In a triangular space enclosed between the southern inner city wall and the southern extension outer wall, stood the inscribed stelas of the kings of Assyria from Adadnirari I. to Ashurbanipal, including one

of Semiramis,

and a parallel row

of stelas of

many provincial governors. It formed a kind of memorial ground for the great rulers and officials of Assyria from the 14th century to the end of the Assyrian kingdom, and proves that Assur remained the holy city of that mighty empire long after it ceased to be the capital. As seat of the cult of Adad, the thunder god, the ideogram IM-(ki) is also employed to write the name of the city.

The God Ashur.—It was noted above that this local deity of the city was probably of Sumerian origin, although the meaning of the ideogram, by which his name was first written, is obscure, He was never admitted into the official Sumerian—Babylonian pantheon, nor is his, or any other Assyrian temple, named in the canonical Sumero-Babylonian liturgies, which were sung in Assyrian temples also. The local deities of the two cities which became capitals of Babylonia and Assyria were at first minor gods, and they owe their importance to political influence. The priests of Assur identified their city-god with the mighty earthgod Enlil of Nippur, and his consort bears the same name as that of the ancient Enlil; viz., Ninlil, the Assyrian; and the name of Ashur’s temple Ekhursagkurkurra, “House of the mountain oi the lands,” also suggests an earth-god. The stage tower of this temple is called E-aratta-kisharra, “House of Aratta of the Universe,” and explained by “House of Enlil.” Aratta is an ancient title of Enlil at Shuruppak. Ashur replaces Marduk in the Epic of Creation (g.v.), and is consequently represented in art with the winged sun disc and assumed many aspects of the sun-god. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—(1) City~—-Walter Andrae, Der Anu-Adad-Tembel (Leipzig, 1909), Die Festungswerke aus Assur (Leipzig, 1913), Due Archaischen Ischtar-Temple in Assur (Leipzig, 1922). (2) God Morris Jastrow, Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens (Giessen, 1904); Anton Deimel, Pantheon Babylonicum (Rome, 1914), No. 294; Pa Dhorme, La Réligion Assyro—Babylonienne (1910). (S. L. wn

ASSURANCE: see INSURANCE. ASSUR-BANI-PAL

(“Assur creates a son”), the grond

monarque of Assyria, was the prototype of the Greek Sardanapalus, and appears probably in the corrupted form of Asnapper m

Ezra iv. 10. He had been publicly nominated king of Assyria (on the 12th of Iyyar) by his father Esar-haddon, some time before the latter’s death, Babylonia being assigned to his twin-brother Samas-sum-yukin, in the hope of gratifying the national feeling of the Babylonians. After Esar-haddon’s death in 668 3.c. the first task of Assur-

bani-pal was to finish the Egyptian campaign. Tirhakah, who had

reoccupied Egypt, fled to Ethiopia, and the Assyrian army spent 40 days in ascending the Nile from Memphis to Thebes. Soon afterwards Necho, the satrap of Sais, and two others were detected intriguing with Tirhakah; Necho and one of his compan ions were sent in chains to Nineveh, but were there pardoned and

restored to their principalities. Tirhakah died 667 3.c., and his successor, Tandaman (Tanuat-Amon), entered Upper Egypl,

ASSUS—ASSYRIAN

LANGUAGE

569

«here a general revolt against Assyria took place, headed by`

Brstiocrapny.—George Smith, History of Assurbanipal (1871); Memphis was taken by assault and the Assyrian troops ' S. A. Smith, Die Keii-chrifitexte Asurbunipais (1887-1889) ; P. Jensen in E. Schrader’s Keidinschri‘tliche Bzbliothek, ii. (1889); J. A. Knudt-

Thebes. iyen out of the country.

Tyre seems to have revolted at the | zon, Assyrische Gebete an den Sornengott (1893); C. Lehmanr, “ine time. Assur-bani-pal, however, lost no time in pouring fresh jSchamashschumukin (1892); Delitztch, **Asurbanipal und assyrische ‘orces into the revolted province. Once more the Assyrian army , Kultur seiner Zeit” in Der Alte Orient (Leipzig, 1909); M. Streck,

-de its way up the Nile, Thebes was plundered, its temples were ; Asurbanipal und die letzen assyrischen Koénige (1916), an analysis of chapters in R. W. Roger's History destroyed, and two obelisks were carried to Nineveh as trophies ' inscriptions; Assyria (1915); and H. R. H. Hall, History of the ~~ w

ASSUS

(mod. BEHRAM),

of Babylonia

Near A

and

he

an ancient Greek city of the

Troad, on the Adramyttian gulf. The situation is magnificent. The natural cleavage of the trachyte into joint planes had already scarped out shelves which it was comparatively easy for human labour to shape; and so, high up this cone of trachyte, the Greek town of Assus was built. tier above tier. the summit of the crag being crowned with a Doric temple of Athena. The view from the summit is very beautiful and of great historical interest. In front is Lesbos, one of whose towns, Methymna, is said to have sent forth the founders of Assus, as early, perhaps, as 1000 or goo B.C. The whole south coast-line of the Troad is seen, and in the southeast the ancient territory of Pergamum. from whose masters the possession of Assus passed to Rome by the bequest of Attalus IH. (133 B.c.). The great heights of Ida rise in the east. Northward, the Tuzla is seen winding through a rich valley. This valley was BY COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM traversed by the road which St. Paul must have followed when A FRAGMENT OF A SCULPTURED RELIEF SHOWING ASSUR-BANI-PAL, THE GREAT KING OF ASSYRIA IN THE 6TH CENTURY B.C., ENGAGED IN A he came overland from Alexandria Troas to Assus, leaving his RELIGIOUS CEREMONY OF POURING LIBATION OVER LIONS fellow travellers to proceed by sea. The north-west gatewav, to (see Nahum iii. 8). Meanwhile, the siege of insular Tyre was which this road led, is flanked by two massive towers, of Hellenic closely pressed, its water-supply was cut off, and it was com- work. On the shore below, the ancient mole can be traced by large blocks under the clear water. Assus affords the only harbour on pelled to surrender. Assur-bani-pal was now at the height of his power. The land the som. of coast between Cape Lectum and the east end of the of the Manna (Minni), south-east of Ararat, had been wasted, Adramyttian gulf; hence it must always have been the chief its capital captured by the Assyrians, and its king reduced to shipping-place for the exports of the southern Troad. The great vassalage. A war with Teumman of Elam had resulted in the natural strength of the site protected it against petty assailants, overthrow of the Elamite army; the head of Teumman was sent but, like other towns in that region, it has known many masters— to Nineveh, and another king, Umman-igas, was appointed by the Lydians, Persians, the kings of Pergamum, Romans and Ottoman Assyrians. The kings of Cilicia and the Tabal offered their Turks. From the Persian wars to about 350 B.c. Assus enjoyed daughters to the harem of Assur-bani-pal; embassies came from at least partial independence. It was about 348-345 B.c. that ArisArarat, and even Gyges of Lydia dispatched envoys to “the great totle spent three years at Assus with Hermeas, an ex-slave who king” in the hope of obtaining help against the Cimmerians. Sud- had succeeded his former master Eubulus as despot of Assus and denly the mighty empire began to totter. The Lydian king, find- Atarneus. Under its Turkish name of Behram, Assus is still the ing that Nineveh was helpless to assist him, turned instead to commercial port of the southern Troad, being the place to Egypt and furnished the mercenaries with whose help Psam- which loads of valonia are conveyed by camels from all parts of metichus drove the Assyrians out of the country and suppressed the country. Explorations were conducted at Assus in 1881-83 by his brother satraps. Egypt was thus lost to Assyria forever (660 Mr. J. T. Clarke for the Archaeological Institute of America. See J. T. Clarke, Assos, 2 vols. 1882 and 1898 (Papers of Arch. z.C.), In Babylonia, moreover, discontent was arising, and finally Samas-sum-yukin put himself at the head of the national party Inst. of America, i-ii.) ; and authorities under Troan. ASSYRIA. The two great empires, Assyria and Babylon, and declared war upon his brother. Elamite aid was readily forthcoming, especially when stimulated by bribes, and the Arab tribes which grew up on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, can joined in the revolt. The resources of the Assyrian empire were be separated as little historically as geographically. From the strained to their utmost. But as a result in some measure of the beginning their history is closely intertwined; and the power of internecine troubles of Elam, the Babylonian army and its allies the one is a measure of the weakness of the other. (See BABYwere defeated and driven into Babylon, Sippara, Borsippa and LONIA AND ÅSSYRIA.) ASSYRIAN LANGUAGE. The Babylonians, though Cutha. One by one the cities fell, and Babylon finally was starved into surrender (648 B.c.) after Samas-sum-yukin had burned him- Semites, learnt the cuneiform (g.v.) script from the non-Semitic Sumerians, whom they found in southern Mesopotamia in the self in his palace to avoid falling into the conqueror’s hands. It was now the turn of the Arabs, some of whom had been in 3rd millennium B.c.; and 1,000 years afterwards the northern Babylon during the siege, while others had occupied themselves Assyrians adopted it. Sumerian had 600 signs, constituting thouin plundering Edom, Moab and the Hauran. Northern Arabia was sands of ideograms (signs depicting ideas). Some signs had Were.

oe

=

:

ý

E

"p

°

traversed by the Assyrian forces, the Nabataeans were almost exterminated, and the desert tribes terrorized into order.

Elam

was alone left to be dealt with, and the last resources of the empire were therefore expended in preventing it from ever being again a thorn in the Assyrian side. But the effort had exhausted Assyria. Drained of men and

resources, it was no longer able to make head against the Cim-

merian and Scythian hordes who now poured over western Asia. The Cimmerian Dugdammē (Lygdamis in Strabo i. 3, 16), whom Assur-bani-pal called “a limb of Satan,” after having sacked

Sardis, had been slain in Cilicia, but other Scythian invaders came to take his place. When Assur-bani-pal died in 626 (?) B.C., his empire was already in decay, and within a few years the end

came, (See SARDANAPALUS,)

only word-values, others both these and syllable-values. The Babylonians primarily used only the syllable-values of these signs. But they freely borrowed their word-values, as a kind of short-hand, using in reading (as variants show) the Babylonian equivalent. The use of Sumerian, when no longer spoken, in the templeservices led the Babylonians and Assyrians to compile lists of signs and vocabularies, sometimes of more than 300 ideograms, giving the sign together with its name, Sumerian pronunciation and Semitic meaning, which they often glossed with synonyms. They also drew up lists of Sumerian paradigms and dialectical forms with Semitic renderings in parallel columns. Some lists contain

foreign (e.g., Cossaean or Hittite) words. These and liturgical

texts with interlinear translations have proved indispensable in the decipherment of cuneiform documents.

ASSYRIAN

57° Assyro-Babylonian

LAW—ASTARTE

(Accadian), the oldest known member of | the Hebrew “wéw-consecutive” but without its effect On the fol. lowing tense, to connect each fresh verb in the narration of a series of events; unlike Hebrew, it often employed asyndeton and

the eastern group of the Semitic languages (see Semitic LANGUAGES), had affinities with all the other groups, yet not enough to be called a mixed language. Thus with the central (Amorite-

Aramaic) it prefers @ to u or o (cf. Bab.-Ass. tdbu=Aram. tabh with Hebr. 26bh “good”); with the western (Canaanite-HebrewPhoenician) group it shared much of its vocabulary (cf. Ass.-Bab. andku=Can. anuki=Hebr. ’andkhi=Phoen. anech with Aram. ’ané “Y”’); and with the southern group it retained the case-endings

(as in Arabic) and employed -k instead of -t for the first person singular in the permansive -or perfect tense (as in Ethiopic). Babylonian and Assyrian differed only dialectically; e.g., Bab.

gatu=Ass. gdtu “hand” and Bab. ashtur=Ass. aliur “I wrote.” During more than 2,000 years changes crept in; e.g., Bab. law# or lamai=Ass. lami, labi or lap# “to surround.” Each also exhibited variations within itself: thus s was sometimes preferred to sh

was rich in adverbs, co-ordinate and subordinate conjuncti

and other particles. Like Aramaic and Syriac, it often substituted a periphrasis with sé “of” for the “construct state,” and it tended

under Sumerian influence to throw the verb to the end of the sentence, as Syriac and Ethiopic frequently did. In prohibition

it used /@ “not” with the present or é “not” with a tense resem-

bling but hardly identical with the preterite: for example, já i tazékar or ê tazkur “do not remember.” In prose the style was heavy and unadorned, often almost

barbarous. In poetry there was little attempt at grace or charm but the order of the words was more varied and the voca somewhat fuller; the lines, which a caesura sometimes broke, were of roughly the same length, and there were occasional attempts

in early Babylonian (as in sz for shi “he”) and late (vulgar) at parallelism and rhythmic beat. (G. R. D.) Assyrian (as in Asdudu=Hebr. ’ashdédh ‘“Ashdod”’). CappadoASSYRIAN LAW: see BABYLONIAN Law. clan, an Assyrian offshoot, also substituted s for sk before z and AST, GEORG ANTON FRIEDRICH (: 778-1841), showed other peculiarities, such as the change of & to g before a German classical scholar, was born at Gotha and died at Munich and of ¢ to d before z and the loss of the more strongly articu- where he was professor of classical literature for 15 years, His lated consonants. works are Platons Leben und Schriften (1816), an edition of Assyro-Babylonian stood out from the Semitic languages in sev- Plato’s works (1819-32), with Latin translation and commen. eral ways. Its script showed the primitive vocalization and, par- tary, and Lexicon Platonicum (1834-39). Ast denounced as tially, the accentuation. Its connection with Sumerian brought in spurious many of the Platonic dialogues which had hitherto been foreign words under a Semitized form. The gutturals ’ (’dleph), accepted as genuine. He also wrote many books on philosophy. h, h and * (‘ayin) were mostly weakened into vowels: e.g., Bab.ASTARA, a small port in the Azerbaijan S.S.R. on the Ass. aléku ‘to go” (cf. Hebr. halakh “went”) and Bab.-Ass. bélu Caspian sea at the mouth of Astara river. Lat. 38° 25’ N. Long, (=Hebr. ba‘al “lord”), although # always and ’ and # sometimes 48° 52’ E. The river is the boundary between Persia and Russia were preserved, as in Bab.-Ass. ma’ddu ‘‘to be much” (cf. Hebr. and trade from Tabriz in rice, timber, rushes and piece goods is mé’odh “very”); so w and y generally disappeared, as in Bab.- carried on, though the lack of railway transport hampers the Ass. idé “to know” (cf. Hebr. yddha* “knew”). Assimilation of town. vowels (as in unikkir for unakkir “changed”) was common and ASTARABAD, a province of Persia, bounded north by the of consonants (as in nidittu for nidintu “gift”) regular; final Caspian sea and the Atrak river, south by the Elburz mountains, vowels were sometimes dropped, as in kashdék for kashdéku “I west by Mazandaran and east by Khurasan. Area about 5,630 am seized.” Many uncontracted forms, lost in the cognate lan- sq.m. with a sparse population. The land is thickly wooded but guages, were preserved in the older, though contracted in the marshy in parts, and the soil is exceedingly productive, even with

later, speech; e.g., Capp. z7du(w)ar=Bab.-Ass. ztuar and itdr “re-

little culture. Among the products rice must have first mention, then wheat, sesame-oil and walnut wood. In the middle ages there or’ (aleph); namely, in certain pronouns, as in shi (cf. Hebr. was considerable rearing of silk-worms. The province is malarial ha) “he” and so on, and in the causative prefix, as in shuzkur (cf. owing to the extensive swamps. Affluence and industry nowhere Hebr. Aizkir and Aram. ’adhkar) “mentioned.” The pronominal exist, and apart from the capital and its port, Bandar Jaz, trade suffixes with verbs alone expressed the direct, but with an affixed and commerce are insignificant. The district formerly suffered -m the indirect, object. from frequent excursions of the Turkomans, but these have Certain nouns took the feminine ending in Assyro-Babylonian ceased in recent years. In many villages of Astarabad and but not in the cognate languages, like Ass.-Bab. irsitu=Hebr. ’eres Mazandaran reside Gudars, an energetic tribe, though despised “earth,” or, though elsewhere masculine, were feminine in it, like by the Persians, which is engaged in agriculture, cattle-rearing Ass.-Bab. kabsttu=Hebr. kabhédh “liver.” Special vowels dis- and the drying of fruit. The revenue of the province was 1,206, tinguished the cases (sing. nom. -w, acc. -a, gen. -2; du. nom. -é, 700 krans in 1926-27. acc.-gen. -€; plur. nom. #%, acc.-gen. -2), to which various affixes ASTARABAD, chief town of Astarabad province, Persia; might be added, though with little change in significance. These on the Astar, a tributary of the Kara Su, in 36° 40’ N. lat. and endings, however, soon sporadically and later generally, were used 54° 30 E. long., 23m. from the Caspian sea, at the foot of a indiscriminately, and various transcriptions (cf. Gr. perep8= Bab.- thickly wooded spur of the Elburz. Occupying a commercially Ass. mitertu “rain”) show that they were usually disregarded in and strategically important position the town dates back to a speaking. The dual, too, tended to fall into desuetude. remote antiquity. During the recurring disorders in Persia in The verbs employed the usual Semitic inflections and derived the 18th century, Astarabad was frequently ravaged; it attained themes, with modifications. There were three instead of two its present compass of 34m. under Nadir Shah. Jonas Hanway, tenses: a “permansive” which expressed state, corresponding with pioneer trader, visited the town in 1744 and endeavoured to open the Semitic perfect (Bab.-Ass. zakir “was remembered”=Hebr. up a direct commerce through it between Europe and Asia. The zakhar “remembered”); a preterite corresponding with the im- town, built four square, is surrounded by a high wall flanked by perfect (Bab.-Ass. iskur “remembered” =Hebr. yizkér “was re- bastions now much dilapidated. The frequent rains compel the membering,” “remembers,” “will remember”); and a present inhabitants to build their houses of stone. The population, which corresponding with the Ethiopic imperfect (Bab.-Ass. isdékar “re- must have been more numerous in earlier centuries, is estimated members”=Eth, yesdker “is remembering,” “remembers,” “will remember’). Subordinate verbs were marked by the termination at 10,000-12,000. The chief articles of trade are cotton, rice, sugar-cane, salt, sesame-oil, soap and carpets; but the trade has -u or sometimes -a, which often in independent clauses had also suffered heavily by the opening of the Trans-Caspian line. The the sense of the German her. The derived themes are nearly as climate is unhealthy especially during the hot weather. numerous as those of Ethiopic, and one of these, or the permanASTARTE, a Semitic goddess whose name appears in the sive, was used in place of a passive formed by modification of the Bible as Ashtoreth. She is everywhere the great female principle, vowels. answering to the Baal of the Canaanites and Phoenicians and to Syntactically, it showed no definite affinities. It shared several the Dagon of the Philistines. She had temples at Sidon and at idioms with Hebrew and used the enclitic -ma for y “and,” like Tyre (whence her worship was transplanted to Carthage), and the turns.”

It sometimes had sk where the other languages have k

ASTATIC

COILS—ASTHMA

57+

and the smooth blue aster (4. laevis), both of which, like the foregoing, are widely cultivated. In California the common aster is mtil the days of King Josiah (I. Kings zi. 5; II. Kings xxiii. 13), A. chilensis; other noteworthy species are the somewhat woody pd the extent of her cult among the Israelites is proved as desert aster (A. tortifolius) and the reed-like spiny aster (4. much by the numerous biblical references as by the frequent spinosus), which grows 9 fi. high in the Colorado desert and is

Philistines probably venerated her at Ascalon (I. Sam. xxxi. 10). Sglomon built a high-place for her at Jerusalem which lasted

tations of the deity turned up on Palestinian soil. The

Moabites formed a compound deity, Ashtar-Chemosh (see Woas), and the absence of the feminine termination occurs simirly in the Babylonian and Assyrian prototype Ishtar. The old

popularly called Mexican devil-weed.

The China aster {Callistephus chinensis) is also a member of the family Compositae. It is a hardy annual, a native of China, which by cultivation has yielded a great variety of forms.

South Arabian phonetic equivalent ‘Athtar is, however, a male

ASTER or ASTROSPHERE, the term used in biology for

deity. Another compound, properly of mixed sex, appears in the Aramaean Atargatis CAt[t] ar-‘athe), worn down to Derketo, who

the star-shaped structure produced by the centrosome immedi-

is specifically associated with sacred pools and fish (Ascalon, Hierapolis-Mabog). (See ATARGATIS.)

unite to form the spindle. (See Cyrotocy.)

As the great nature-goddess, the attributes of fertility and reproduction are characteristically hers, as also the accompanying immorality which originally, perhaps, was often nothing more

ruby and sapphire which exhibit a six-rayed star. Cymophane, or chatoyant chrysoberyl, may also be asteriated. The asterism is

ately prior to cell-division.

Two asters arise in the cell and these

ASTERIA or STAR-STONE, a name, applied to varieties of

than primitive magic. As patroness of the hunt, later identifcation with Artemis was inevitable. Hence the consequent

due to the reflection of light from twin-lamellae or from fine tubular cavities or thin enclosures definitely arranged in the stone. The astrion of Pliny is believed to have been the modern

Her star was the planet Venus, and classical writers give her the

ASTERISK, the sign * used in typography (from the Gr. acrepicxos, a little star). The word is also used in its literal mean-

fysion with Aphrodite, Artemis, Diana, Juno and Venus, and the ation and reaction of one upon the other in myth and legend.

moonstone.

epithet Caelestis and Urania. Robertson Smith argues that Astarte was originally a sheep-goddess, and points to the interesting ne of “Astartes of the flocks” (Deut. vii. 13) to denote the

ing, a small star, and as a description of an ornamental form in

one of the utensils in the Greek Church.

ASTERIUS, bishop of Amasia, in Pontus, c. 400. His fame

ofispring. To nomads, Astarte may well have been a sheep- rests chiefly on his Homilies, which were much esteemed in the goddess, but this, if her earliest, was not her only type, as is Eastern Church. Twenty-one of these are given in full by Migne dear from the sacred fish of Atargatis, the doves of Ascalon (Patrol. Ser. Gr. xl. 164-477), and there are fragments of others (and of the Phoenician sanctuary of Eryx), and the gazelle or in Photius (Cod. 271). ASTERIUS, of Cappadocia, sophist and teacher of rhetoric antelope of the goddess of love (associated also with the Arabian in Galatia, was converted to Christianity about the year 300, and Athtar). ASPATIC COILS, when passing an electric current, produce became the disciple of Lucian, the founder of the school of no external magnetic field. Conversely, a varying external mag- Antioch. He is best known as an able defender of the semi-Arian netic field does not induce in them an electromotive force. (See position, and was styled by Athanasius the “advocate” of the Arians. He is last heard of at the synod of Antioch in 341. ELECTRICITY.)

ASTELL, MARY

(1668-1731), English author, was born

ASTEROIDS,

the minor planets, over 1,000 in number,

which describe orbits round the sun, lying between those of Mars tiled A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, wherein a Method ts and Jupiter (g.v.), and having various eccentricities. (See ofered for the Improvement of their Minds. A scheme of hers MINOR PLANETS.) In zoology, a group of Echinoderma (q.v.), the starfish as opfor an Anglican sisterhood which was favourably entertained by Queen Anne, was frustrated by Bishop Burnet. Mary Astell was posed to the brittle-stars or Ophiuroids (see STARFISH). ASTHENTIA, lack or loss of strength, a condition in which the attacked in the Tatler (No. 52) under the name of Madonella. ASTER, a large genus of plants of the family Compositae, so body lacks or has lost strength either as a whole or in any of its named from the radiate or star-like appearance of the flowers, and parts. General asthenia is found in certain individuals with a known as asters or star-worts (Gr. dornp, a star). There are characteristic physical build. They are thin, have small bones, some 400 species, found chiefly in North America but scattered underdeveloped musculature and are subject to neurotic affections. sparsely in Asia, Europe and South America. They are usually General asthenia occurs in many chronic wasting diseases such perennial, leafy-stemmed herbs, sometimes somewhat woody at as anaemia and cancer. It is probably most marked in diseases of the base, and bearing in late summer and autumn a profusion of the adrenal gland, where it dominates the whole picture. Asthenia flowering heads, mostly in clusters, but sometimes solitary. In may be limited to certain organs or systems of organs. Thus there each head numerous showy blue, red, purple or white rays sur- is asthenopia, which is characterized by ready fatiguability of round a central disc of minute yellow tubular flowers. Many vision, and myasthenia gravis, in which there is progressive inasters are strikingly handsome, and various species are cultivated crease in the fatiguability of the muscular system until death as ornamental plants, flowering throughout the autumn and results from inability of the heart muscle to continue its work. In sometimes even until December. The flowers recall those of the neurasthenia and psychasthenia there is a strong subjective sense daisy, and one variety is known in England as the Michaelmas of fatigue in the absence of real weakness. ASTHENOPIA, a condition in which the eyes are weak and daisy. The only species (A. Tripolium) native to Great Britain, tire too easily. It may be brought on by disorders in any of the grows abundantly in saline marshes near the sea. In North America there are upwards of 250 species, most various complicated functions involved in the visual act. Thus humerous in the northeastern United States and adjacent Canada, imbalance between the muscles that keep the eyes parallel leads with about 75 species, some 45 of which are native to the State of to fatigue in the constant effort to prevent double vision. Errors New York. They are generously represented in the Rocky Moun- in refraction lead to fatigue of the muscles of accommodation in tam region, some 50 species being found in Utah and Nevada, the continued compensation demanded of them. Clouding of the and about 20 occur in California. In the region east of Manitoba lens or of the media which transmit the light may bring it about, and Kansas and north of Tennessee, the asters, together with the and finally disorders of the retina, where the impressions are regoldenrods, dominate the floral landscape in autumn, filling fields, ceived, will lead to fatigue. The symptoms are pain in the eyewoodlands and roadsides with masses of brilliant colour. Among ball, frontal headache, blurring of vision and smarting and watere many conspicuous kinds the New England aster (A. novae- ing of the eye. These are usually worse toward evening and are ongliae), found abundantly from Quebec to Alberta and south aggravated by close work such as reading and sewing. to South Carolina and Colorado, is the best known. It grows 3 ft. ASTHMA, a disorder of respiration characterized by severe to 5 ft. high with handsome purple flowers 14 in. to 2 in. across. paroxysms of difficult breathing (dyspnoea), usually followed by Other noteworthy species are the New York aster (A. novi-belgii} a period of complete relief, with recurrence of the attacks at at Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

She published, in 1697, a work en-

ASTI-—ASTOR

574

more or less frequent intervals. The term is often loosely em- | forming an area instead of a point and thus causing blurred ployed in reference to states of embarrassed respiration, which | vision. (See Optics and Eve.) are plainly due to permanent organic disease of the respiratory ASTLEY, JACOB ASTLEY, Baros (1 579-1652), royal commander in the English Civil War, came of a Norfolk fami $ organs (see ResprraTory System: Pathology). The attacks occur quite suddenly; in some patients at regular, In 1598 he joined Counts Maurice and Henry of Orange in the in others at irregular. intervals. They are characterized by ex- Netherlands, and afterwards fought under the elector palati treme difficulty both in inspiration and expiration, but especially in the latter, the chest becoming distended and the diaphragm

immobile. In the case of “pure,” “idiopathic” or “nervous” asthma there is no fever or other sign of inflammation. But where the asthma is secondary to disease of some organ of the body, the symptoms will depend largely on that organ and the disease present. Such secondary forms may be bronchitic, cardiac, renal, peptic or thymic. . The mode of onset differs greatly in different cases. In some the attack begins suddenly and without warning, but in others various sensations well known to the patient announce that an attack is imminent. The commonest warning is that of an intense desire for sleep, so overpowering that though the patient knows his only chance of warding off the attack is to keep awake he is utterly unable to fight against his drowsiness. Among other patients a condition of unwonted mental excitement presages the attack. The secondary forms of the disease may be ushered in by flatulence, constipation and loss of appetite, and a common symptom is a profuse diuresis, the urine being watery and nearly colourless. In the majority of instances the attack begins during the night, sometimes abruptly but often by degrees. A few hours after midnight he is aroused from sleep by a sense of difficult breathing. In some cases this is a slowly increasing condition, not becoming acute for an hour or more. But in others the attack is so sudden, so severe, that the patient springs from his bed and makes his way at once to an open window, struggling for breath. The face is pale, anxious, and it may be livid. The veins of the forehead stand out, the eyes bulge and perspiration

bedews the face. The head is fixed in position, and likewise the powerful muscles of the back to aid the attempt at respiration. The breath is whistling and wheezing, and if it becomes necessary for the patient to speak, the words are uttered with great diffculty. The chest is almost motionless, and the respirations may

become extraordinarily slowed. Inspiration is difficult as the chest is already over-distended, but expiration is an even greater struggle. The attack may last from an hour to several days, and between the attacks the patient is usually quite at ease. But notwithstanding the intensely distressing character of the attacks, asthma is not one of the diseases that shorten life, except by way of secondary changes it induces in the heart. Though the causes of asthma are known to be diverse, recent investigation has shown that it depends essentially upon swelling of the mucous lining of the bronchioles and local outpouring of a mucous secretion. It is possible, too, that the muscular coats of the air-tubes are in a state of spastic contraction during an attack. Asthma is a special example of anaphylaxis (q.v.); the patient being hypersensitive to some protein or derived substance, exposure thereto by way of inspired air leads to anaphylactic phenomena predominating in the lungs. On subcutaneous inoculation with minute quantities of infusions of various substances the occurrence with one of them of a local oedema will indicate the substance to which the asthmatic patient is hypersensitive and

should avoid in order to be free from attacks.

See F. M. Rackemann, “Clin. Study of rso cases of bronchial Asthma,” Arch. Int. Med. (1918), xxii, p. 517; F. Coke, Asthma (1923); W. M. Duke, Allergy, Asthma, Hay Fever, etc. (1928): J. Adam, Asthma and its radical treatment (1926). K

ASTI (anc. Hasta), episcopal see, Piedmont, Italy, province of

Alessandria, on the Tanaro, 22m. W. by rail from Alessandria. Pop. (1921) town, 25,042; commune, 40,597. -Remains include Sth-century baptistery (S. Giovanni), rrth-century octagonal baptistery (S. Pietro), mediaeval towers, and a fine 14th-century Gothic cathedral. It was the birthplace of the poet Vittorio Alfieri. It is now famous for its sparkling wine (Asti spumante).

ASTIGMATISM,

a form of aberration in optical systems,

including the eye, resulting in rays proceeding from a point source

Frederick V. and Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years’ War Returning to England with a well-deserved reputation he Was employed by Charles I. in various military capacities, At the out.

break of the Great Rebellion (1642) he was made ma jor-g

of the foot. His characteristic battle-prayer at Edgehill has become famous: “O Lord, Thou knowest how busy I must be this

day. If I forget Thee, do not forget me. March on, boys!” At Gloucester he commanded a division, and at the first battle of Newbury he led the infantry of the Royal Army. With Hopton,

In 1644, he served at Arundel and Cheriton. At the second battle

of Newbury he made a gallant and memorable defence of Shaw House, and at Naseby he once more commanded the main body of the foot. He afterwards served in the west, and with 1,500 men fought stubbornly but vainly the last battle for the King at Stow.

on-the-Wold (March 1646). His remark to his captors has become as famous as his words at Edgehill, “You have now done your work

and may go and play, unless you will fall out amongst yourselves,”

His scrupulous honour forbade him to take any part in the Second

Civil War, as he had given his parole at Stow-on-the-Wold, He died in Feb. 1652.

ASTLEY, SIR JOHN DUGDALE, Bart. (1828-1894), English soldier and sportsman, was in the army from 1848 to 1859. Fie married an heiress in 1858 and thenceforth devoted himself to horse-racing and sport. He lost large sums of money on the turf, where he was known as “the mate.” He was Conservative MP.

for North Lincolnshire 1874-1880 and died on Oct. 10, 1894.

ASTON, FRANCIS WILLIAM (1877- _ ), British scientist, was born at Harborne, Birmingham, Sept. 1 1877, and edw

cated at Malvern College and the universities of Birmingham and Cambridge. He was elected to a fellowship at Trinity College, Cambridge, and was made assistant lecturer in physics at Bir-

mingham University in 1909. In 1920 he received the Mackenzie Davidson Medal of the Rontgen Society, and in 1922 the Hughes Medal of the Royal Society. He received the Nobel Prize for

chemistry in 1922 for his work in connection with isotopes and also the John Scott Medal, Philadelphia, and the Paterno Medal, Rome, both in 1923. He has written Isotopes (1922) and numerous papers in scientific periodicals on electric discharge in gases, mass-spectra, isotopes, etc.

ASTON, HUGH

(early 16th century), an old English musi-

cian, of considerable historical importance. He was one of the first composers of purely instrumental works, and is further regarded by some authorities as the actual inventor of the instrumental variation form. He composed also a number of choral works (masses, motets, and so forth) some of which have beer preserved.

ASTON MANOR, a district in the north-east of the city of Birmingham, Warwicks., England. Pop. (1921), 61,000. It was originally a municipal borough of its own but was included within the city of Birmingham (g.v.) in rgrz. Aston Manor is an industrial district with large motor works.

ASTOR, JOHN JACOB

(1886-

), younger son of the

ist Viscount Astor, was born May 20 1886.

Educated at Etoa

and New College, Oxford, in 1906 he joined the rst Life Guards, and, from 1911 to 1914, was aide-de-camp to the viceroy of

India. In 1916 Major Astor married Lady Violet Mary, daughter

of the 4th Earl of Minto and widow of Lord Charles MercerNairmne. At the outbreak of the World War, he went to France

with the Household Cavalry, and served there four years. He was wounded at the first battle of Ypres and again severely im

Sept. 1918. In 1922, Major Astor purchased the holding of the

late Viscount Northcliffe in The Times Publishing Company,

became its chairman and the chief proprietor of The Ties. Shortly afterwards he caused to be established a body of trustees

consisting of the holders of certain important non-political offices,

whose consent he made necessary to any future transfer of the

ASTOR—ASTORGA

573

rol of that journal. He was Conservative member for the | man from the outset of the consultative committee of women’s organizations established (1921) to secure that co-operation. Outside questions relating exclusively to women, her chief work has been done for a progressive educational policy, for press conference in Australia.

Dover division of Kent in Nov. 1922 and again In 1923 and 1925. In 1925, as treasurer of the Empire Press Union, he attended the

ASTOR, JOHN JACOB (1763-1848), American merchant,

temperance, and for the extension of the Trade Boards Acts; in the advocacy of these causes she has shown a courage which comoa July 17; 1763. For four years he was employed in the piano pelled admiration even from those who were indifferent or opposed wd flute factory of an uncle, of the firm Astor and Broadwood, to them. She constantly advocated the raising of the school age, London. In 1783 he emigrated to America, and settled in New in 1923 she carried through the Intoxicating Liquor (Sale to PerYork. On the voyage he became acquainted with a fur-trader, sons under 18) bill, and she maintained a continuous interrogation py whose advice he devoted himself to the same business. He was of the ministers of labour as to the low rates of wages existing in sso the agent in New York of thefirm of Astor and Broadwood. certain branches of the distributive and catering trades. ThroughBy his energy, industry, and business judgment he amassed an out her parliamentary career, as a representative of a dockyard eormous fortune—the largest up to that time made by any constituency, she took an active interest in the naval and dockAmerican. He devoted many years to organizing the fur trade yard services. It may be said that Lady Astor’s vitality and irom the Great Lakes to the Pacific ocean, and thence by way of trenchancy, her energy and the variety of her interests, her fearthe Hawaiian islands to China and India. In 1811 he founded a lessness and gaiety combined to render her a noteworthy memcentral depot, Astoria, at the mouth of the Columbia river, but ber of parliament, and emphasized the significance of a great two years later the settlement was seized by the English. The departure—the election of women as members of the British incidents of this undertaking are the theme of Washington Irving’s House of Commons.

was born at the village of Walldorf, near Heidelberg, Germany,

Astoria. A series of disasters frustrated the gigantic scheme. Astor made vast additions to his wealth by investments in real

ASTOR,

WALDORF

ASTOR,

2xp Viscount

(1879-

), British politician, born in New York May 19, 1879, and estate in New York city. He died in New York city on March 29, educated at Eton and New College, Oxford. He married in 1906, 1948, his fortune then being estimated at about $30,000,000. He the daughter of Chiswell Dabney Langhorne (see Astor, NANCY made various charitable bequests by his will, his chief benefaction WITCHER). He represented Plymouth as a Unionist 1910-18, and being a bequest for the foundation and endowment of a public the Sutton division of Plymouth 1918-19, when he vacated his ibrary in New York city, now a part of the New York public seat on succeeding to his father’s peerage. He was chairman of the Government committee on tuberculosis and of the State ibrary. medical research committee. During the World War, he was See Parton’s Life of John Jacob Astor (1865). His eldest son, WILLIAM BACKHOUSE ASTOR (1792—1875) was inspector of quartermaster-general services, and in 1918 became sometimes known as the “Landlord of New York.” Under his private secretary to the prime minister, Lloyd George. He acted direction the building for the Astor library was erected. His son, as Parliamentary secretary to the ministry of food, 1918-19, Joms Jacos Astor (1822—1890) was also well known as a capi- and to the local government board in 1919, retaining the same position on the formation of the ministry of health up to 1921. talist and philanthropist. The son of the last named, WILLIAM WALDORF ASTOR (1848- Since rg15 he has been the proprietor of The Observer and active 1919) served in the New York legislature from 1877 to 188r. on behalf of many causes of social progress, especially temperance He was United States minister to Italy from 1882 to 1885. He reform. At the same time he was one of the leading British owners published two romances, Valentine (1885) and Sforza (1889). and breeders of race horses. ASTORGA, EMANUELE GIOCCHINO CESARE In 1890 he removed to England, and in 1899 was naturalized. In 1893 he became proprietor of the Pall Mall Gazette, and after- RINCON, Baron D’ (1680-c. 1755), Italian musical composer, wards started the Pall Mall Magazine, and in 1916 was created was born at Naples, and had a romantic career which has lost apeer, assuming the title of Baron Astor of Hever Castle. He was nothing at the hands of his biographers; he is said, on doubtful evidence, to have been the son of a baron of Sicily who was made a viscount in 1917, and died in England Oct. 18, 1919. ASTOR, NANCY WITCHER, Viscountess (1879), executed for his activities in the attempts to throw off the Spanish danghter of Chiswell Dabney Langhorne, was born on May 109, yoke, and to have been a pupil, at Palermo, of Francesco Scarlatti. 1879, at Mirador, Virginia. In 1897 she married Robert Gould The established facts concerning him are indeed few enough. Shaw of Boston, from whom she obtained a divorce in 1903, and They are: that the opera Dafne was written and conducted by the in 1906 married Waldorf Astor. When her husband succeeded to composer in Barcelona in 1709; that he visited London in 1714; the viscountcy, Lady Astor, who had been his constant comrade- that his Szabat Mater had its frst public performance at Oxford m-arms in his constituency at Plymouth, was adopted as Unionist many years later; and that he retired eventually to Bohemia, candidate in his place, and after a stirring campaign was elected where he died in a castle which had been given to him in the by a substantial majority on Nov. 28, 1919. She was the first domains of Prince Lobkowitz, in Raudnitz. Astorga deserves woman to sit in the House of Commons, though Countess Mar- remembrance for his dignified and pathetic Stabat Mater, and for beviecz, who did not take her seat, had been elected by an Irish his numerous chamber-cantatas for one or two voices. He was constituency in the Sinn Fein interest at a slightly earlier date. one of the last composers to carry on the traditions of this form of Lady Astor was re-elected for Plymouth at the general elections chamber-music as perfected by Alessandro Scarlatti. See Hans Volkmann, Emanuele d’Astorga (1911 and 1919). of 1922, 1923 and 1924. She took a lively interest in the questions before the house, but the fact that she was for two years the only ASTORGA, a city of N.W. Spain, province of Leon; on the Woman member made it inevitable that the various women’s or- right bank of the river Tuerto. Pop. (1920) 6,312. Astorga ganizations should look to her especially to represent the interests was the Roman Asturica Augusta, the administrative centre of of women and children. Her sympathy and power of work helped one Asturian district and the point of convergence of the great in this rôle. As soon as she entered parliament she arranged military roads connecting the north-west with the Pyrenean a deputation from the women’s organizations to interview the passes and with Baetica. The route followed by this last road, pime minister on the subject of widows’ pensions. She advo- which used the valley of the river Alagón to cross the Central cated the amendment of the legitimacy laws, and the equal guar- Sierras, is in essence the route of the modern railway lines condanship of children; and in 1924 supported the Guardianship of necting the south-west with the north-west via Mérida, Plasencia Infants bill, which became law in that year. Lady Astor served and Astorga, the junction with the main line from Madrid to onthe joint select committee of both houses of parliament for the Corunna. Astorga has been the see of a bishop since the 3rd consideration of criminal law amendment, in and on the Home century, but the city was left in partia? or total abandonment Office committee on the employment of women in police duties in the Muslim period from the time of the expulsion of the m Feb. 1920, Lady Astor inaugurated a movement for co-opera- Berbers (c. 750) until the repopulation under Ordoño I. of Leon

ben between the different women’s organizations, and was chair-

(c. 860). Its Gothic cathedral dates from the 15th century.

ASTORIA—ASTROLABE

574

ASTORIA, a city and a port of entry, the county seat of Clatsop county, Oregon, U.S.A., on the south bank of the Columbia river, which is about 6m. wide here, rom. from the open ocean, and about 75m. in a direct line N.W. of Portland. It is at

the intersection of the Columbia and the Roosevelt highways; is served by the Spokane, Portland and Seattle railway, by intercity bus lines, and by river and coastwise steamers, and Is a port of call for vessels operating between north Pacific ports. The population was 14,027 in 1920, of whom 4,509 were foreign born, and Was 10,349 in 1930. Federal engineering has deepened the channel at the entrance to the Columbia river to a minimum of 46ft. at mean low tide. The port of Astoria, a municipal corporation embracing all Clatsop county, has constructed and operates modern deep-water terminals, with warehouses and facilities for handling grain, flour, lumber, coal and other bulk freight. The total water-borne commerce in 1927, including rafted timbers, amounted to 448,933 tons. The principal industrial establishments are salmon canneries, creameries, lumber mills and flour mills. The value of the yearly pack of Royal Chinook salmon from the Columbia river is estimated at $6,000,000. Tourist traffic brings into the city, it is estimated, about $1,000,000 a year. On Coxcomb hill stands a column 125ft. high, on which a spiral frieze, 535ft. in length, depicts the early history of Oregon. Astoria is the oldest white settlement in the northwest. It was founded by John Jacob Astor in 1811 as a fur-trading post. From 1813 to 1818 the settlement was in the hands of the British. The first saw-mill was erected in 1851, and the salmon-packing industry dates from 1866. The city was chartered in 1876. On Jan. 1 1923 a city-manager form of government was adopted.

ASTRAEA,

in ancient Greek mythology, the “star maid-

en,” daughter of Zeus and Themis, or of Astraeus the Titan and Eos (“the dawn”), in which case she is identified with Diké. During the golden age she remained among men distributing blessings, but when the iron age began, she left the earth in disgust and was placed amongst the stars as the constellation Virgo. She is represented with a pair of scales and a crown of stars.

ASTRAGAL,

in architecture, a small torus (g.v.). The

term is sometimes restricted to the combination of a small torus and a fillet used between the shaft and capital of a classic order

(see ORDER).

It is frequently carved with a “bead and reel”

ornament.

ASTRAGALUS,

a very large genus of the pea family

(Leguminosae or Fabaceae), widely distributed throughout the world, except in Australia, but most numerous in the steppe region of northern Asia, the high plains of western North America and the tropical Andes. The common species of Great Britain and of the eastern United States and Canada are called milk` vetch. They are mostly low herbs though some are shrubby, with leaves usually divided into many narrow leaflets. Astragalus contains upwards of 1,600 species. More than 275 of these are found in North America, 95% of which occur west of the Mississippi river. Although in number of species Astragalus ranks among the largest of plant genera, only a few are of economic importance. Gum tragacanth is derived from A. gummifer and other related low spiny shrubs native to Asia Minor. In Persia a sort of manna is obtained from A. florulentus. In northern Europe A. boeticus is cultivated for its seeds, which are used as a substitute for coffee, sometimes called Swedish coffee. The long roots of A. aboriginum, which occurs from Saskatchewan to Alaska and southward to British Columbia, Nevada and Colorado, are used for food by the Crees and other North American Indians; in the plains region of the United States, extending from Nebraska and Wyoming southward to Texas and New Mexico A. mollissimus and other related species called loco-weed are poisonous to grazing animals. Many highly ornamental oldworld species of Astragalus are in cultivation and several native to North America are now sparingly planted. For distribution

and

recent

technical

treatment

of the North

American species, see P. A. Rydberg, Flora of the Rocky Mountains and Adjacent Plains (1917), and numerous contributions in The Torrey Bulletin; M. E. Jones, Revision of North-American Species of

|

Astragalus (1923) ; Ivar Tidestrom, Flora of Utah and Nevada

and

W. L. Jepson, Manual

(1925).

ASTRAKHAN.

of the Flowering Plants of Cagis);

(1) A province in the Russian Republic

(U.S.S.R.) consisting of a narrow strip on either side of the Volga river from about lat. 48° 2’ N. to the Caspian sea. Area 27,984 sq.km. Pop. (1926) 516,706; urban 153,134; rural 363,572. The Akhtuba river runs parallel with the Volga river and the area

lying along their courses consists of chains of lagoons, with dark. ish, alluvial, damp soil, in places impregnated with salt, and in the south-east are shifting sand hills and sand dunes. In the ravines and adjoining the lagoons are belts suitable for plough culture and in some years considerable crops are raised, but the rainfall ig unreliable and the province is one of frequent famine, the 1921

famine being of unprecedented severity. Near the Volga is a flowery oasis, with melon and other vegetables, but the rest of the area is steppe-desert in type, blossoming in spring, but a monotonous yellow grey waste in summer. At Astrakhan the average rainfall is only 5-gin. per annum; average temperatures, January 19-0°F, July 77-9°F. The population consists of Russians, Tatars, Kalmucks and Kirghiz and the chief occupation is fishing (herring sturgeon, perch, carp, salmon), which employed 250,000 men te: fore the war. There are indications of a conflict of interests be. tween the need of the agriculturists for irrigation and of th fisheries for a quiet breeding place for fish. Home industries are leather, furriery, linen and cotton hosiery. Salt is obtained from the lakes in the north and in some places the vine is cultivated. (2) A town, administrative centre for the area and for the Kalmuck autonomous area, situated on the left bank of the Volga

river at the head of the delta. Lat. 46°22’ N. Long. 48°6’ E. Al. soft. below sea-level, frozen 3-4 months. Its Caspian trade is hampered by the need for dredging the Volga delta and by the unsatisfactory state of the dry cargo fleet, though oil transport is adequate. Its chief exports are fish, caviare, water melons and wine from its own area, grain, salt, metal, cotton and woollen goods from the interior, along with timber floated down the river from the north in spring. It is an entrepôt for naphtha and kero-

sene from Baku, cotton and dried fruits from Turkestan, rice, fruit and carpets from Persia and timber from the Caucasus. The skin of the new-born Persian lamb “astrakhan” is named from the city. Tanning, shipbuilding, brewing and small manufactures, e.g, soap and tar products are carried on. The city is divided into three parts. (1) the Kreml or fortress (1550) on a hill, witha brick cathedral, an archbishop’s palace and a monastery, (2) the White Town, with administrative offices and bazaars, (3) suburbs with wooden houses and irregular unpaved streets. The Greek Catholics, the Armenian Church and the Lamaists all had centres here. In 191g a university was founded and there are technical schools, museums, wide squares and public gardens.

Formerly the city was the capital of a Tatar State and stood 7m. to the north but it was destroyed by Timur in 1395 and the present city built. Ivan IV. expelled the Tatars in 1554, the Turks besieged it in 1569 and Stenka Razin captured it in 1670. Peter

the Great made it the centre for his campaign against Persia and Catherine II. gave it special trading privileges. In the 18th century it was plundered by the Persians. It has been several times almost destroyed by fire, and was decimated by cholera (1830)

and by famine (r92r). ASTRINGENT, a term comprising a group of agents that tend to shrink mucous membranes and raw surfaces and to dry up

secretions. They are usually classed according to their mode of

action into (1) those that decrease the blood supply by narrowing the small blood-vessels (adrenalin and cocaine are in this group);

(2) those that abstract water from the part as glycerine and ab cohol; and (3) those that coagulate the superficial layers and form a crust, as the metallic astringents. They are used in međicine to reduce swollen mucous membranes in inflammations of the nasal, alimentary and urinary passages. They are frequently employed in attempts to dry up excessive secretions and to stop the oozing of blood. :

ASTROLABE, an instrument used for the taking of altitudes

of heavenly bodies, from which time and latitude are deducible.

ASTROLOGY ispheric astrolabe, to which the name is now commonly | wE

is believed to have been a Greek instrument invented

575

Among the accessories often introduced in the earlier astro-

pyHipparchus (150 B.C.), Or even by Apollonius of Perga (c. 240

labes were “shadow scales,” for simple surveying, measuring heights and distances; calendar scales showing the sun’s place in

xc). It has recently been revived by Prof. Jenkin, of Oxford, x; a useful educational instrument, so with a history of 2,000 years it may claim to be the oldest scientific instrument in the

in instruments of the 16th and 17th centuries, which thereby became useful to surveyors as circumferentors; and lastly, various

the zodiac for every day of the year; magnetic compasses, usual

lines and tables of use to astrologers. The principal varieties astrolabes in use in the different countries of Europe and of nearer East may be studied in the Lewis Evans collection Oxford. The finest English examples, a great 2ft. astrolabe

of the in by Cole, of 1575, and a seaman’s astrolabe by Elias Allen (1616) belong to St. Andrews university.

|

BrsLtiocRrapHy.—Chaucer, Treatise on the Astrolabe (1391), Skeat’s ed. 1872; J. J. Stoffler, Elucidatio Fabrice ususque Astrolabii (1524) ; F. Ritter, Astrolabium (1640?); J. L. B. Delambre, Histoire de PAstronomie Ancienne (1817); L. Sedillot, Traité des Instruments Astronomiques des Arabes (1834); W. H. Morley, Description of Astrolabe of Shah Husain (1856); M. L. Huggins, “The Astrolabe” (Astro-

physical Jour., 1894) ; A. Anthiaume and J. Sottas, L’Astrolabe-Quadrant du Musée des Antiquités de Rouen (1910); C. Close and H. St. J. Winterbotham, Texi-book of Topographical and Geographical Surveying (H.MS.O., 1925). (R. T. G.)

ASTROLOGY, the ancient art or science of divining the

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fate and future of human beings from indications given by the positions of the stars and other heavenly bodies. The study of astrology and the belief in it, as part of astronomy, is found in a developed form among the ancient Babylonians, and, directly or indirectly through the Babylonians, it spread to Greece about the middle of the 4th century B.c., and reached Rome before the opening of the Christian era. In India and China astronomy and astrology largely reflect Greek theories and speculations; and similarly, with the introduction of Greek culture into Egypt, both astronomy and astrology were actively cultivated in the region of the Nile during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Astrology was further developed by the Arabs from the 7th to the 13th century, and in the Europe of the r4th and 15th centuries astrologers were dominating influences at court. Babylonian Astrology.—In Babylonia, as well as in Assyria, astrology takes its place officially as one of the two chief means at the disposal of the priests for ascertaining the will and intention of the gods, the other being through the inspection of

the liver of the sacrificial animal (see Omen, Hepatoscopy). Astrology is based on a theory of divine government of the world, which assumes a scientific or pseudo-scientific aspect. Starting with the indisputable fact that man’s life and happiness are largely FROM “ARCHAEOLOGIA.” BY COURTESY OF THE SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES, LONDON dependent upon phenomena in the heavens, that the fertility of THE FACE VIEW OF HUMPHREY COLE’S ASTROLABE, 1574, SHOWING THE ALIDADE, OR SIGHT RULE, THE RETE OR STAR MAP, REMOVABLE PLATE the soil is dependent upon the sun shining in the heavens as well WITH LINES OF ALTITUDE, AND HOURS WITHIN THE GRADUATED RIM. as upon the rains that come from heaven, that on the other PROPER USE OF THIS INSTRUMENT AT SEA WILL FIND THE SHIP’S hand the mischief and damage done by storms and inundations, LATITUDE AND GIVE THE TIME OF DAY to both of which the Euphratean Valley was almost regularly subworld, and has played a correspondingly important part in the ject, were to be traced likewise to the heavens, the conclusion was drawn that all the great gods had their seats in the heavens. history of civilization. In its most usual form it consists of an evenly-balanced circle With the moon and sun cults thus furnished by the “popular” ar disc of metal or wood, hung by a ring and provided with a faith it was a natural step for the priests to perfect a theory of rotatable alidade or diametral rule with sights, turning within a a complete accord between phenomena observed in the heavens circle of degrees for measuring the altitudes of sun or stars. and occurrences on earth. If moon and sun, whose regular movements produced the conSeamen from the time of Martin Behaim (c. 1480) to the middle af the 18th century, when the astrolabe and cross staff were ception of the reign of law and order in the universe as against superseded as navigational instruments by Hadley’s quadrant the more popular notion of chance and caprice, were divine pow(¢.v.), relied largely upon such instruments and tables of the ers, the same held good of the planets, of which five were recognized—Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, Mercury and Mars—io name sun’s declination for finding their latitude. On the back is a circular map of the stars, the rete, beautifully them in the order in which they appear in the older cuneiform designed in fretwork cut from a sheet of metal, with named literature; in later texts, Mercury and Saturn change places. pomters to show the positions of the brighter stars relatively to These five planets were identified with the great gods of the one another and to a zodiac circle showing the sun’s position for pantheon as follows:—Jupiter with Marduk (g.v.), Venus with

rotate the rete until the sun’s position coincides with a circle on

the goddess Ishtar (g.v.), Saturn with the god Ninib, Mercury with Nebo (g.v.), and Mars with Nergal (g.v.). The movements of the sun, moon and five planets were regarded as representing the activity of the five gods in question, together with the moongod Sin (g.v.) and the sun-god Shamash (g.v.), in preparing the occurrences on the earth. The priests of Babylonia accordingly

the plate corresponding to the observed altitude. A line drawn

applied themselves to the task of perfecting a system of interpre-

every day of the year. Lying below the rete are one or more iterchangeable plates engraved with circles of altitude or almucantars. To obtain the time, first measure the altitude of the sun, then, having noted the sun’s position for the day in the zodiac circle, through this point of coincidence and the centre of the instru-

ment to a marginal circle of hours shows the time.

tation of the phenomena to be observed in the heavens, and it was natural that the system was extended from the moon, sun

576

ASTROLOGY

and five planets to the more prominent and recognizable fixed ; of the known sciences: botany, chemistry, zoology, mineral stars. That system involved not merely the movements of the anatomy and medicine. Colours, metals, stones, plants moon, sun and planets, but the observation of their relative posi- and animal life of all kinds were associated with the planets and tion to one another and to all kinds of peculiarities noted at any placed under their tutelage. In the system that passes under the point in the course of their movements. To all these phenomena name of Ptolemy, Saturn is associated with grey, Jupiter with some significance was attached, and this significance was naturally white, Mars with red, Venus with yellow, while Mercury, occy. intensified in the case of such a striking phenomenon as an eclipse pying a peculiar place in Greek as it did in Babylonian astrol of the moon. By the same method of careful observation of the (where it was at one time designated as the planet par excellence } sun and planets, and later of some of the constellations and of was supposed to vary its colour according to changing circum. many of the fixed stars, the body of observations and the inter- stances. The sun was associated with gold, the moon with silver pretations assigned to the nearly endless variations in the phe- Jupiter with electrum, Saturn with lead, Venus with copper and nomena thus observed grew to enormous proportions. The inter- so on, While the continued influence of astrological motives i to pretations themselves were based chiefly (1) on the recollection be seen in the association of quicksilver, upon its discovery at or on written records of what in the past had taken place when a comparatively late period, with Mercury, because of its changethe phenomenon or phenomena in question had been observed, able character as a solid and a liquid. In the same way, stones and (2) on association of ideas, involving sometimes merely a were connected with both the planets and the months; plants, play upon words in connection with the phenomenon or phe- by diverse association of ideas, were connected with the planets nomena observed. Thus if on a certain occasion the rise of the and animals likewise were placed under the guidance and pronew moon in a cloudy sky was followed by victory over an enemy tection of one or other of the heavenly bodies. By this curious or by abundant rain, the sign in question was thus proved to be process of combination the entire realm of the natural sciences a favourable one and its recurrence would be regarded as a good was translated into the language of astrology with the single omen. On the other hand the appearance of the new moon earlier avowed purpose of seeing in all phenomena signs indicative of than was expected was regarded as an unfavourable omen prog- what the future had in store. The fate of the individual, as that nosticating in one case defeat, in another death among cattle, feature of the future which had a supreme interest, led to the not necessarily because these events actually took place after such association of the planets with parts of the body. Here, too, a phenomenon, but on a general principle resting upon association we find various systems devised, in part representing the views of ideas, whereby anything premature would suggest an unfa- of different schools, in part reflecting the advancing conceptions vourable occurrence. regarding the functions of the organs in man and animals, From Astrology in this its earliest stage is marked by two char- the planets the same association of ideas was applied to the conacteristic limitations. In the first place, the movements and posi- stellations of the zodiac, which in later phases of astrology are tion of the heavenly bodies point to such occurrences as are of placed on a par with the planets themselves, so far as their impublic import and affect the general welfare; individual interests portance for the individual horoscope is concerned. The fate of are not in any way involved. In Babylonia and Assyria the the individual in this combination of planets with the zodiac was cult centred almost exclusively in the public welfare and the made dependent, not merely upon the planet which happened to person of the king, because upon his well-being and favour with be rising at the time of birth or of conception, but also upon its the gods the fortunes of the country were dependent in accordance local relationship to a special sign or to certain signs of the with the ancient conception of kingship (see J. G. Frazer, The zodiac. The zodiac was regarded as the prototype of the human Early History of Kingship). In the second place, the astronom- body, the different parts of which all had their corresponding ical knowledge presupposed and accompanying early Babylonian sections in the zodiac itself. The late Egyptian astrologers set up astrology is essentially of an empirical character. In a general a correspondence between the 36 decanz recognized by them and way the reign of law and order in the movements of the heavenly the human body, which is thus divided into 36 parts; to each bodies was recognized, and indeed must have led to the rise of part a god was assigned as a controlling force. Many diseases a methodical divination. We have, probably, as early as the days and disturbances of the ordinary functions of the organs were of Khammurabi, the combinations of prominent groups of stars attributed to the influence of planets or explained as due to conwith outlines of pictures fantastically put together. The theory ditions observed in a constellation or in the position of a star; of the ecliptic as representing the course of the sun through the while, on the other hand, the influence of planetary lore appears in the assignment of the days of the week to the planets, beginyear, divided among twelve constellations with a measurement of 30° to each division, is also of Babylonian origin, perfected ning with Sunday, assigned to the sun, and ending with Saturday, after the fall of the Babylonian empire in 539 B.c. The golden the day of Saturn. In later periods, Saturn’s day was associated age of Babylonian astronomy belongs to the Seleucid period, 2.¢., with the Jewish Sabbath; Sunday with the Lord’s Day; Tues after the advent of the Greeks in the Euphrates Valley. The day with Tiw, the god of war, corresponding to Mars of the beginnings at least of the calculation of sun and moon eclipses Romans and to the Nergal of the Babylonians. Wednesday was belong to the earlier period. Recent investigations have shown assigned to the planet Mercury, the equivalent of the Germanic that the precession of the equinoxes was known to Babylonian god Woden; Thursday to Jupiter, the equivalent of Thor; and astronomers. Friday to Friga, the goddess of love, who is represented by Venus The Influence of Greece.—To the Greek astronomer Hip- among the Romans and among the Babylonians by Ishtar. Astroparchus was given the credit of the discovery (c. 130 B.c.) of the logical considerations regulated in ancient Babylonia the distinctheory of the precession of the equinoxes, but such a signal tion of lucky and unlucky days, which passing down to the Greeks advance in pure science did not prevent the Greeks from endeav- and Romans (dies fasti and nefasti) found expression in Hesiod's ouring to trace the horoscope of the individual from the position Works and Days. Judicial Astrology.—In the science of judicial astrology 4 of the planets and stars at the time of birth, or, as was attempted by other astrologers, at the time of conception. The system was horoscope or “nativity” is a map of the heavens at the how taken up almost bodily by the Arab astronomers, it was em- of birth, showing, according to the Ephemeris, the position of the bodied in the Kabbalistic lore of Jews and Christians, and through heavenly bodies, from which their influence may be deduct these and other channels came to be the substance of the astrol- Each of the twelve signs of the zodiac (g.v.) is credited with ogy of the middle ages, forming, under the designation of “judi- its own characteristics and influence, and is the controlling S&a cial astrology,” a pseudo-science which was placed on a perfect of its “house of life.” The sign exactly rising at the moment of footing of equality with “natural astrology” or the more genuine birth is called the ascendant. The benevolent or malignant infescience of the study of the motions and phenomena of the ence of each planet, together with the sun and moon, is ï fied by the sign it inhabits at the nativity; thus Jupiter in ost heavenly bodies. anctaet, Chiefly under Greek influences, the scope of astrology was house may indicate riches, fame in another, beauty in enlarged until it was brought into connection with practically all and Saturn similarly poverty, obscurity or deformity.

ASTRONOMICAL

ARTICLES—ASTRONOMY

Judicial astrology, as a form of divination, is a concomitant | astronomical societies: British Astronomical Association

577 (Lon-

of natural astrology, in its purer astronomical aspect, but mingled | don) and societies at Bristol (1869), publishing Reports; Leeds with what is now considered an unscientific and superstitious view (1859), Manchester and Liverpool (1881); the Roy. dstr. Soc. of world-forces. Francis Bacon abuses the astrologers of his day of Canada, Toronto (1890), Transactions (1890), Proceedings no less than the alchemists because he has visions of a reformed (1902), Journal (1907, etc.); Soc. Astr., Paris (1887), Bull; astrology and a reformed alchemy. Sir Thomas Browne, too, Kgl. Astr. Rechneninstitut, Berlin (1897); Astronomische Ges., while he denies the capacity of the astrologers of his day, does Leipzig (1863), Publ. (1865, etc.) and Vierteljahrschrift (1866, not dispute the reality of astrological science. But Aristarchus etc.); Soc. Astir. Ital., Milan (1920), Revista; Soc. Belge. d’Astr. of Samos, Martianus Capella (the precursor of Copernicus), de Météorol. et de Physique du Globe, Brussels (1893), Bull. Cicero, Favorinus, Sextus Empiricus, Juvenal, and in a later mens.; Soc. d’Astr., Antwerp (1905), Gasetie; Soc, Asir., Mexico age Savonarola and Pico della Mirandola, and La Fontaine, a (1902), Boletin (1902, etc.). The American Astronomical Society contemporary of the neutral La Bruyère, were all pronounced opponents of astrology. In England Swift may fairly claim the caedit of having given the death-blow to astrology by his famous Prediction for the Year 1708, by Isaac Bickerstaf, Esq. Many

passages in the older English poets are unintelligible without some knowledge of astrology. Chaucer wrote a treatise on the astrohbe; Milton constantly refers to planetary influences; in Shake-

speare’s King Lear, Gloucester and Edmund represent respec-

tively the old and the new faith. In modern languages words with astrological associations are still in use, such as lunatic, saturnine, molkeureux and il-starred. BrauiocraPpHy.—A. Bouché-Leclercg, L’Astrologie grecque (1899)

and Histoire de la divination dans lantiquité (1879); with a full bibliography; F. Boll, Sphaera (1903) and “Die Erforschung der antiken Astrologie” (in Neue Jahrbücher für das klassische Altertum, Band xi.); F. Cumont, Catalogus Codicum Astrologorum Graecorum (1898)

and Les Religions orientaies dans le paganisme romain (1907); A. Maury, La Magie et Pastrologie a Vantiquité et au moyen dge (1877) ; RC. Thompson, Reports of the Magicians and Astrologers of Nineveh

was Originally founded in 1899 as the Astronomical and Astrophysical Society of America. The Astronomical Society of the

Pacific was founded in 1889. The American Association of Variable Star Observers was organized in I911. ASTRONOMY. The earth on which we live is the fifth largest planet belonging to one of the lesser stars. Perhaps it is less necessary now than it used to be to insist on the smallness of our planet. Scientific inventions and ease of travel seem to have brought different parts of the earth near together, and we no longer hold an exaggerated idea of its immensity. But it is when we look up into the vault of the heavens that we realize the insignificance of the earth in the scheme of the material uni-

verse. Our sight penetrates space beyond space revealing world beyond world of unimaginable grandeur; and the greatest of these orbs is but as a speck in the vast intervening void. All this world beyond the earth is the field of the science of astronomy.

Of the objects of the sky the sun and moon stand out from the rest in prominence. Both appear to us of much the same size. In fact the phenomenon of eclipses gives a delicate test showing that the apparent angular sizes are almost identical; for when the moon passes between us and the sun, sometimes it is just able to cover it completely, sometimes it just fails to cover it and Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics; G. Stucken, Astralmythen (1907); E. Mayer, Kurzes Handbuch der Astrologie (1891); E. M. leaves a narrow ring of the sun showing all round it. But this Bennett, Astrology (1894) ; G. Wilde, Chaldaean Astrology up to date apparent agreement is only a coincidence; the sun and moon are (1901); Dobson and Wilde, Natal Astrology (1893); Fomalhaut, bodies of altogether different size and cosmical importance. Manuel d’astrologie spherique et judiciaire (1897); T. O. Wedel, The The moon is a smaller globe than the earth, of no particular Mediaeval Attitude toward Astrology (Yale Univ. Press, 1920). importance except to the earth which it attends as satellite; it is ASTRONOMICAL ARTICLES. Besides the article probable that in the remote past its material formed part of the ASTRONOMY, this subject is dealt with under the following heads: earth, that it broke away in a great convulsion, and has gradually SOLAR SYSTEM.—1, Sun; Eclipse; Chromosphere; Corona; 2, receded to its present distance of 240,000 miles. Thus the first Planet; Mercury; Venus; Earth; Moon; Mars; Jupiter; Saturn; halting point in our journey through space tends rather to enUranus; Neptune; 3, Minor Planet; Eros; Trojan Planet; 4, hance our idea of the dignity of the earth by showing that a subordinate globe attends it; but that is unique, and when we pass Comet; Meteor. STELLAR UNIVERSE.—1z, Star; Nova; Sirius; Algol; 2, Star beyond this comparatively small distance over which the earth’s domain extends, the “proud father” is seen to be a very humble Cluster; Nebula; Cosmogony; Stellar Evolution. METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS.—1, MetHops—Parallax; Time, member of a great community. Measurements of; Photometry, Celestial; 2, INSTRUMENTS— The other luminary, the sun, stands to our earth in much the Observatory; Telescope; Transit Circle; Spectro-Heliograph; same relation as the earth does to the moon. The sun is the ruler Micrometer; Altazimuth; Zenith Telescope; Blink Microscope; and the earth a subordinate globe travelling round nearly in a Coelostat ; Heliostat; Photography; 3, CoMPUTATION—Ephemeris. circle (but strictly an ellipse) under the controlling force of the HistoricaL.—1, History of Astronomy (forming part of the sun’s gravitational attraction. The sun is of a size that befits the article Astronomy); Constellation; Ancient Eclipses (in article dignity of a ruler. The amount of matter constituting it is equivEckpse); 2, Astrolabe; Armillary Circle; Dial. alent to 300,000 earths rolled into one. This great mass is mainThirty-two short articles on individual constellations are given tained, by means which are still very largely a mystery, at enor(see table at the end of the article Constellation). These contain, mously high temperature so that it pours forth the unceasing besides a reference to the mythology of the constellation, notes stream of heat and light of so much importance to terrestrial life. Our average distance from the sun is 92,870,000 miles; but since on the principal objects of astronomical interest. _ Further articles deal with various phenomena of fundamental the earth’s orbit is not exactly circular its distance varies over a mportance either cosmically or from their effect on questions of range of about 3,000,000 miles according to the time of year. When we pass beyond the moon all astronomical distances bePractical life:—Precession of the Equinoxes, Aberration of Light, come inconceivably great, and the reader may be inclined to group Equation of Time. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETIES. The Royal Astronomical them together without distinction as virtually infinite. But it has Society was founded in 1820 as the Astronomical Society of Lon- to be realized that we have passed to a new scale of extension and was incorporated March 7, 1831. Its headquarters are where we must make a distinction of comparatively smaller and at Burlington House, London, and Memoirs (1882, etc.) and greater distances. Great as may be the distance from the earth to Honthly Notices (1831, etc.) are published. The first Inter- the sun it is traversed by light in about eight minutes; or a radio national Astronomical Congress met at Heidelberg in 1863 and telegram would take the same time to travel. We see the sun m 1887 the first international conference for celestial photography not as it is now but as it was eight minutes ago. This gives a conassembled in Paris. The International Astronomical Union, or- venient way of realizing how much further our journey through gazed at Brussels in rọrọ, held meetings at Rome in 1922, Cam- space must extend. There is little doubt that the most remote e, Eng., in 1925 and at Leiden, Holland, in 1928. Other object in the heavens which can be seen without telescopic aid is end Babylon (1900); F. X. Kugler, Sternkunde und Sterndienst in Babel (1907) ; Ch. Virolleaud, L’Astrologie chaldéenne (1905) ; Jastrow, Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens; M. Berthelot, Les Origines de Falchimie (1885); F. Hofer, Histoire de astronomie (1846); R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomie (1877); article “Sun, Moon and Stars’ in

$7

ASTRONOMY

a small fuzzy patch of light in the constellation Andromeda.

At

first glance this would be taken for one of the fainter stars, but

the diffuseness of the light is distinctive, and telescopes show it to be a great spiral nebula. The light which we see to-day left that nebula 900,000 years ago. This is more or less the limit of our exploration; the telescope shows other spiral nebulae, smaller and presumably in many cases more remote, but their distances are at present a matter of conjecture. The Solar System.—Just as the earth’s supremacy comes to an end beyond the moon, so there are limits to the sun’s supremacy. The solar system, as it is called, may be regarded roughly as limited by the orbit of the outermost planet, Neptune; though many of the comets obeying the sun’s attraction have elongated paths which take them some way out into the space beyond this limit for part of their course. Neptune’s distance from the sun is 30 times as great as that of the earth; and as seen from Neptune the brightness and heat would be diminished to about a thousandth; but even so the sun would appear far more brilliant than any of the stars. The isolation of this system from other astronomical bodies or systems can be best realized from the fact that the sun’s light takes 4 hours to reach the limits of its domain (Neptune), but 4 years to reach its nearest neighbour among the stars. For this reason the study of the heavenly bodies falls naturally into two divisions: the solar system and the stellar universe, the

latter comprising all that is beyond the solar system.

To the solar system belong, besides the sun and the earth with its moon, the planets or “wandering stars,” Such of the planets as are visible to the naked eye are ordinarily mistaken for true or “fixed” stars; they can usually be distinguished by the fact that their light does not twinkle, but that is by no means an infallible test since it depends a great deal on atmospheric conditions. Their special characteristic is that they move from place to place in the sky—not like the stars which form fixed constellations, For this reason it is impossible to give simple directions as to where they

are to be found, or to insert positions for them in a map of the heavens. A planet of unusual brilliancy seen towards the west after sunset or the east before sunrise may fairly safely be identified as Venus; after the sun and moon it is much the brightest object of the heavens. Jupiter is also much brighter than any of the stars; its position in the sky is not so circumscribed as that of Venus and it may be visible at any time of the night. Mars is easily distinguished from other planets by its red colour, and when near the earth is conspicuous by its brilliancy; at other times

it may easily be mistaken for one of the reddish fixed stars. Saturn can scarcely be distinguished from the bright (first magnitude) stars except by those who have enough familiarity with the normal appearance of the heavens to spot “a bright star in the wrong

place.” Mercury is rarely seen except in tropical latitudes; at

[INTRODUCTION

or meteoric matter seen in the zodiacal light and evid enced in other more indirect ways. | The Stellar Universe.—As already stated we have to ada | our minds to a transcendently large scale of size and distance į studying the solar system; but this is only a prelude to sii aen million-fold leap in studying the scale of the stellar

Passing outside its own particular domain, the sun is just one of

some thousands of millions of stars. It is not a particularly

star. In fact, most of the stars which we see in the night sky are

in reality much more brilliant; but this is not quite a fair compar. ison to make, because naturally it is the more brilliant members of the community that have the best chance of being noticed. Whilst

we must recognize that there are numerous stars which outshine the sun, we must also recognize that feebler stars are still more numerous. This part of astronomy includes the study of individ.

ual stars and their associations, star clusters, and nebulae. The last term includes three distinct types of objects. The two main divisions of astronomical knowledge—the solay

system and the stellar universe—cannot be kept entirely disso. ciated. Thus our study of the sun as the leading member of the

solar system must be supplemented by a comparative study of him in relation to his compeers in the stellar universe. Moreover

much of astronomical research is directed not so much towards knowledge of individual objects as to the discovery of physical

laws and truths of universal application; the problem of the laws of motion of the planets round the sun repeats itself in the motion of the components of a double star; the configuration which in our own system gives rise to the awe-inspiring spectacle of an eclipse is also the secret of the winking of the “demon” star Algol. Some Practical Uses of Astronomy.—What is the use of astronomy? It is not necessary here to defend the pursuit of pure

science whether or not it leads to results which can be used (or, as

commonly, misused) for modifying the conditions of human existence. Therefore it is not in any spirit of apology or defence that

reference may be made to some of the practical reasons why a

study of astronomy is necessary.

To begin with, it provides the

explanation of certain phenomena of immediate importance to us such as the seasons and the tides. The exact time circulated several times a day by radio is derived from continued astronomical observations, It is of fundamental importance in navigation,

Greenwich observatory was founded in 1675 to meet urgent needs of navigation; and in particular its long series of observations of the moon from 1750 onwards has been the basis by which longitudes were determined up to recent times. The radio time-signals have now rendered the moon obsolete for this purpose; but even after 1900 the ownership of many hundreds of square miles of territory hung in the balance until the boundary commissioners were furnished with the latest observations of the moon’s position,

. favourable times it is visible as a brilliant point of light in the All this, it will be said, belongs to the old fashioned type of glow of sunset or sunrise. The other planets, Uranus and Nep- astronomy, and is no justification of the usefulness of much of tune, are telescopic objects. These planets are bodies revolving the present domain, of research which seems to be inspired with round the sun and having the same status as the earth. Telescopes the idea of getting as far away as possible from the earth and all show that some of them are attended by satellites as the earth is terrestrial things. The answer is that scientific knowledge forms a attended by the moon. A planet more remote than Neptune was single whole, and if astronomy lags behind, the sister science of discovered at the Lowell observatory in Feb. 1930 in a posi- physics will suffer. Present-day astronomy has a very definite tion agreeing closely with a prediction made by the late Percival part to play in the general advance. The stars and diffuse nebulae Lowell as the result of calculation from the perturbations of are physical laboratories where we can watch experiments pêrUranus, Its present distance from the sun is between 3,700 and formed on matter under the most extreme conditions of tem4,000 million miles. The period is unknown at present but is perature and density. They supply the gaps in knowledge which expected to be about 300 years. the experimental physicist is unable to cover in the limited cond To complete the enumeration of the bodies of the solar system tions of a terrestrial laboratory. The element helium, of great pracwe must mention; (1) The minor planets, of which more than a tical use to-day, was first discovered on the sun. The theory af thousand have been discovered, which in some way seem to rep- relativity has revolutionized the conceptions of physics and 3

resent what ought to have been an ordinary planet between Mars

and Jupiter where there is a hiatus in the regular spacing of the successive orbits; (2) the comets, bodies of no great mass, which suffer extremes of heat and cold owing to their very elongated orbits and display “fireworks” at each return to proximity to the

sun’s heat; (3) swarms of meteors which the earth ploughs through on its way round the sun; these hedies (mostly of very

small mass) become incandescent om striking the earth’s atmos-

phere and show themselves as “falling stars”; (4) diffuse gaseous

fundamental in our modern knowledge of the atom; but it largely

owes its general acceptance to the astronomical tests which were applied. Numerous technical illustrations could be given of the way in which the stars have been invoked to supplement the terrestrial laboratory. At the time of writing (1928) comes the news that the most prominent lines in the spectra of the nebulae are now identified as “forbidden lines” of the spectrum of the oxy

gen atom in a certain state-——forbidden, that is to say, in anything

approaching terrestrial conditions but possible at the extremely

INTRODUCTION ]

ASTRONOMY

iw density of a nebula. We cannot foresee what will be the next

practical application of the rapidly advancing physical knowledge wrung by joint effort from the laboratory and the stars; but that

579

necessary to impose some systematic limitation on the survey; but proper motions determined by the ten thousand, parallaxes and radial velocities by the thousand, fail to satisfy the demands of

the theorist for more and more data. Much of our knowledge of the stars has come from statistical studies, and work of that kind swallows up data by the thousand before it can assert results with confidence and accuracy. It is by spreading our net wide that we catch the objects which will repay an intensive study. The minor planets give a good exthe world with a source that will supersede all present fuel; but it ample of this. After the first few were discovered there seemed would certainly be remiss not to make every effort to learn what little object in continuing to find hundreds more, calculating their orbits, and generally keeping track of them. There was some we can of the conditions of release of this transcendent power. Observatories and Their Work.—Numerous observatories chance that statistics of their distribution in distance, eccentricity, have been set up in most countries to carry out astronomical obser- inclination, etc., might prove interesting; but otherwise they were vations. It may be well first to remove the rather amusing popular an unmitigated nuisance in astronomy. But after Ceres, Pallas, misconceptions as to the kind of work that goes on in these. The Juno, Vesta, the work went on, each new planet being as uninastronomer does not spend his nights with his eye “glued to the teresting as its predecessor. Then in 1898, No. 433, Eros, was distelescope.” He is not bound to keep a continuous watch over the covered, a body of the greatest astronomical importance which

there will be applications the whole history of science and invention

assures us. One thing may be pointed out. The sun and stars hold the secret of releasing from matter vast quantities of energy compared with which all our commercial sources of energy are significant. Few scientific men would venture to hold out any expectation that by quest of this secret we may be able to provide

sry lest something should turn up when he happened to be asleep. Very little of his time is spent in gazing at the show objects of the

was the subject of thousands of observations at its close approach

to the earth in igor, and which will no doubt be watched with equal zeal at the still closer approach in 1931. Another dull accumulation of these planets followed until No. 588, Achilles, started him for many years past. He does not relapse into inactivity in the interesting Trojan group, which if it has done nothing else has those intervals when there is nothing particularly new or strik- set a new and difficult problem to the dynamical astronomers. Another illustration may be given. One of the greatest needs in ing going on in the sky. Whilst we are on thé subject of popular misconceptions, it may be added that the chief preoccupation of stellar astronomy is a knowledge of the masses of the stars; many astronomers is not the question whether there is intelligent life important conclusions turn on evidence as to the mass. The only on Mars or elsewhere in the universe; although an occasional chance of making a direct determination of the mass is when the crumb of information that might possibly bear on this subject star is a binary system; but it is rare to find all conditions favourmay happen to be picked up, astronomy can take no responsibility able. Burnham’s General Catalogue lists 13,600 visual double for the speculations that may ensue. Also astronomers do not stars and to these may be added more than 1,000 spectroscopic predict the weather; and, their work being at the mercy of the binaries. From these we are able to scrape together just about 30 clouds, they have more cause than most people to rail against reasonably well-determined masses. It seems a meagre amount of grain to extract from so much chaff; yet the advance that this failure to foretell the state of the sky a few hours in advance. What, then, is the work of an observatory? The question is knowledge of stellar mass makes possible is so great that we rather like asking what is the work of a factory: no summary can should have no reason to feel dissatisfied even if this were the cover all the different kinds of investigation that the different insti- only result of double star observation. When in these astronomitutions may take up. A few years ago a central feature of every cal articles a star is mentioned as having given occasion for some observatory was an accurate astronomical clock, which had to bé new extension of knowledge, it should be recalled that in most kept corrected by frequent observations of stars. But now lines cases the observer had no initial reason to suspect that it would of work have developed in which accurate knowledge of time is prove more fruitful than a hundred other stars on his programme. Astronomical Telescopes.—A telescope of some kind is emmessential; and there is at least one famous observatory where no one worries about the time to a minute or so. But it would ployed in nearly all observations. There are two entirely distinct be nearly true to say that all astronomical work consists of exact functions which it may fulfil(1) to collect enough light from measurement. If the eye of the observer is gazing fixedly into extremely faint objects to make them visible or capable of méasthe telescope for a few minutes, his fingers are all the time twid- urement; (2) to resolve and magnify brighter objects. These heavens—the moon, planets, nebulae, etc—which for the most part can show him nothing more to-night than they have shown

ding screws to move cross-wires or other devices; and in the

course of the night he has to look as much at terrestrial micrometer-readings as at celestial phenomena. Part, but by no means all, of the work consists of photography, the exposures ranging from less than a minute to many hours according to the nature of the investigation. These photographs are afterwards measured

up ünder the microscope. Many measures are made photographi-

functions aré independent, and any particular telescope is usually

specialized for one purpose or the other. Having, for example, employed a wide aperture ard long exposure to collect enough

light from a faint extension of a nebula or the end of a comet’s

tail we do not want to squander it over a large area on the pho-

tographic plate. A wide dumpy instrument gathering much light

on to a small scale picture is best for detecting the faintest objects. On the other hand, when the amount of light permits, we profit by employing a long telescope with high magnification; the accuracy of measurements is enhanced by the increased scale. For these and other reasons there is a tendency to specialization of telescopes for different kinds of work. Owing to conditions of achromatism 4 refracting telescope cannot ordinarily be used both for visual and photographic work; attempts to combine both funcamount of measurement. There are several lines of explanation tions in one instrument involve extra lenses and considerable sacrifice of light. In some applications of the largest telescopes the which may help us to understand this. The Demand for Data.—Few people realize how big the vault perfect figuring of the mirror would seem to be rather wasted. of the sky is. If the moon is photographed with an ordinary as- For measurement of the heat of the stars the rays have to be contrographic telescopé its image seems disappointitigly small. The centrated on a disc enormously greater than the ordinary size of usual size of plate is 64x64in.; atid the beginner perhaps ex- a star-image; arid in photo-electric work they merely have to pects that this will cover only a limited area of the moon. Instead enter the wide mouth of a photo-electric cell. In the spectroscopy of that the full moon is only a circle just over an inch in diam- of nebulae the perfection of the focus is unimportant. There tter. Yet even on this unambitious scale it takes r0,000 plates to would seem to be room in an observatory nowadays for a very cover the whole sky. With more powerful telescopes giving a big, very “bad” telescope. higer scale the task is correspoñdingly increased. The number of Besides the largest telescopes mounted equatorially, ż.e., sò as to sars that might be studied is overwhelming, and indeed it is keep the same stars in view notwithstanding the apparent diurnal

cally and visually of the brightness of different stars. Or the light may be split up by a spectroscope before photographing, and the spectta subsequently measured. What is learnt from all these measures forms the subject matter of many separate articles on celestial objects included in this encyclopaedia. The reader will there find evidence that the work is often fruitful; but he may not easily be convinced that there is need for such an enormous

ASTRONOMY

580

rotation of the sky, there are instruments (useless for prolonged scrutiny of objects} with which observations of position of the stars and planets are snapped as they traverse the field of view. The transit circle (or meridian circle), the altazimuth and the zenith telescope are the most important of these. They are used for measuring the positions, and hence ultimately the motions of heavenly bodies. With the equatorial telescopes positions can only be measured relative to the stars in the same field. This suffices for some kinds of work: but, for example, in following the motion of the moon and planets round the sky the whole system of reference stars will need to be connected together. This liaison is provided mainly by the transit-circle and forms a very important branch of practical work known as “Fundamental Astronomy.” Finally reference may be made to kinds of work which may perhaps give some colour to the popular misconceptions mentioned at the beginning of this section. There are two things which come on an astronomer without warning—the outbreak of a Nova or temporary star, and the arrival of a comet. The arrival of comets can be predicted sometimes, but the biggest comets come unannounced; outbreaks of Novae are never predicted. The discovery of either is likely to fall to someone who makes a practice of searching the sky night after night, whether with deliberate intention or from delight in its wonders. It is not likely to fall to those who are occupied with the intensive measurements abovementioned. After a comet has been observed on three nights its orbit is worked out, and it is possible to judge whether it is likely, by close approach to the sun or the earth, to give favourable opportunity for studying outstanding questions of cometary structure. The result is generally disappointing and it passes out of notice so far as the majority of astronomers are concerned, though the comet specialists will continue to keep an eye on its behaviour. The announcement of a Nova most decidedly disturbs the even life of an observatory; for these stars present some of the most perplexing problems of present day astronomy and there is great need for observation especially in the earliest stages of the outbreak. At least for spectroscopic workers it is well worth while to suspend other problems and make concentrated efforts to explore the mysterious phenomena.

[SPHERICAL

| (Of course we know that it is really our earth that is rotating by this is not4 the appropriate moment to airi our superiperior knowli 4 . edge.) We can determine the axis of rotation because the end of

the axis will remain still, One well known star remains near still; we always find it in practically the same direction and alti.

tude in the sky. This must accordingly be very near the end of

the axis, and the star is called Polaris or the Pole Star. B

careful observation we fix the unchanging point or Pole ee accurately among the stars, and find that Polaris is about 1’g away from it. There is an opposite pole in the other hemisphere

not marked by any bright star but equally locatable; and midway

between them runs a great circle called the Equator of the celes. tial sphere.

The observer can also mark on the celestial sphere the zenjsp or point which (momentarily) is vertically overhead. This is given by the direction of gravity (including centrifugal force): it is perpendicular to any undisturbed liquid surface, and in practice is generally determined by a method employing reflection from a trough of mercury. Opposite to the zenith is the nadir and the great circle midway between them is the horizon. This a lestial horizon does not quite agree with the observed terrestrial]

horizon; because if we are on a hill we see rather more than half

the celestial sphere. At fixed observatories we usually measure

angles from the zenith; but at sea the sailor measures altitudes above the sea-horizon, and he has to subtract a correction called the “dip of the horizon” to give the altitude above the celestial

horizon (corrected altitude=9o°— zenith distance).

Sidereal Time.—The diagram shows our two named points, the pole P and the zenith Z, our two great circles, the equator and

horizon, and the south pole P’ and nadir Z’ in the opposite hemisphere. The equator meets the horizon in the east and west points. The great circle joining PZ is called the meridian, and

meets the horizon in the north and south points N, S. Finally the angular distance PN, z.e., the altitude of the pole above the horizon, is called the latitude of the observer. The reason for this last identification is easily seen. If the observer were at the north pole, where the axis of the earth’s rotation is the line going straight down. to the earth’s centre, z.e., to the nadir, it is clear that Z and P

would coincide. As we travel towards the earth’s equator the angle

between Z and P diverges; and at the equator our zenith direction Z is 90° away from its original direction P. In fact for stations on the equator P The Celestial Sphere.—In surveying the universe from a fixed must be on the horizon. Conversely, point we can define the position of any object by specifying (1) travelling steadily through go° of terresits direction and (2) its distance. Owing to the property of proptrial latitude from the terrestrial equator agation of light in straight lines we can immediately observe the to the pole, P rises steadily from the direction of any visible object, but we cannot tell how far away it horizon through go° to the zenith, and its is. Our knowledge of astronomical distances is derived by more inheight at any stage measures the latitude. direct methods, and it never attains the precision of our knowlIt may be asked, How does the spheredge of directions. Hence our study of position begins with a oidal figure of the earth affect the accurstudy of direction only; or, we may put it, we study the location THE DIAGRAM OF A acy of this statement? The statement is of heavenly bodies, not in space, but on the celestial sphere. CELESTIAL SPHERE still exact, because the latitude shown oa The celestial sphere, then, is a sphere with the observer as centre, of radius which is arbitrary though it is perhaps convenient maps is defined by this astronomical definition; but the spheroidal to choose it very great; and an observation of direction fixes the shape has the effect of making a degree of latitude greater (ir object (or projects it) on some point of this sphere. For the pres- miles) near the pole than near the equator. Consider now a star or planet Q. We can specify its position ent we can regard the fixed stars as fixed points of this sphere (ignoring their very slow proper motions). They play the part either by giving its zenith distance ZQ and the azimuth from th of the figures on a clock face, and we observe the sun, moon and south point, i.¢., the angle QZS; or by giving the north polar dis planets moving across them like the hands of the clock. Primar- tance PQ and the angle QPZ which is called the hour ample. ily the actual observer himself is the centre of this sphere; but Formulae of spherical trigonometry connect these two methods for combining with observations at other times and places we of defining position. The hour angle introduces us to the problem often apply corrections so as to give the positions which would of time. The earth rotates once in 23®56™4-ọo1® of ordinary time (mean have been observed from the centre of the earth or of the sun— geocentric or heliocentric positions. The correction necessary to solar time). But although the astronomer supplies mean solar reduce the original position to geocentric or heliocentric position time for the convenience of the general public, he has for his owa is called parallax. The closer the object the greater is the par- use another reckoning of time called sidereal time and the foreallax; for example, the moon has so large a parallax that if we going period is equal to 24 sidereal hours. Thus in 24 hoursby point a moderately powerful telescope to its geocentric position the sidereal clock the celestial sphere makes one revolution (the position given in the Nautical Almanac) it will probably be comes into the same position again. The convenience of such & clock will be evident when we realize that if we have once seen& out of the field of view; we, so to speak, look over the top of it. The first thing we notice is that the celestial sphere carrying star in a certain direction at 5 o’clock (sid.), we always find # the stars is rotating; the stars rise in the east and set in the west. there at 5 o’clock (sid.). The hour angle (or indeed any angie SPHERICAL ASTRONOMY

SPHERICAL]

ASTRONOMY

581

aa be expressed in the usual way in degrees, minutes, seconds, This zone is called the sediac, and its course amongst the stars pat it can also be expressed in time units by converting at the rate | Is marked by the 12 well known constellations of the zodiac. An’ to 24™ of time. gular distance from the ecliptic is called latitude, and distance When converted into time units in this way the hour angle tells round the ecliptic measured from P is called longitude. Posigshow long by the sidereal clock the celestial sphere will take to tions of objects are often given in longitude and latitude instead wm through the angle QPZ and so bring Q on to the meridian. of in right ascension and declination. It should be noted, howHit is now 5 o'clock (sid.) and the easterly hour angle of Q is ever, that the names are rather misleading. because right ascenghours, Q will cross the meridian at 13 o’clock (sid.). sions and declinations are the proper analogues on the celestial We have explained how to regulate the rate of the sidereal clock but we have not yet explained how to set it. At o%o™o® sidereal

gars) must be crossing the meridian NZS. We call this mark “the frst point of Aries” and denote it by P. Evidently at any mo-

sphere to longitudes and latitudes on the earth. Perturbing Factors.—After measurements have been made of the apparent position of a body in the sky a host of corrections must be applied before the results can be reduced to a useful form. Besides the purely instrumental corrections, the chief cor-

ment the sidereal time will be equal to the hour angle of T

rections are: (1) Refraction. The bending of the rays of light in

nme a certain fixed mark of the equator (fixed relative to the

measured towards the west. Every other star has its fixed time of passing through our atmosphere displaces the apparent position passing the meridian by the sidereal clock and this time is called

the right ascension of the star. This gives the third, and most wul, way of specifying positions on the celestial sphere, viz., Right Ascension, the time by the sidereal clock at which the point the meridian, or the angle‘ (PQ measured towards the east;

Declination, the complement 9 -PQ.

of the north polar distance, or

a this system it is no longer necessary to refer to the time of

observation, since if the point is in a constant position with regect to the stars the right ascension and declination remain consant (subject to corrections mentioned later). Sun, Moon and Planets.—Turning from the fixed stars to

of a star by 57” when the altitude is 45°, and by a rapidly increasing amount at lower altitudes; the correction, moreover, varies according to the thermometer and barometer readings. Considering the magnitude and variability of this correction it is really rather surprising that it should be possible to measure absolute positions with an accuracy approaching o-1”. (2) Aberration of light (¢.v.). This may be anything up to 20-5”, but the correction can be calculated without any uncertainty. It arises because, owing to the fact that the earth’s velocity in its orbit is not insignificant compared with the velocity of light, the apparent direction of the light-ray is not the true direction of the object.

(3) Parallax. For bodies belonging to the solar system a sensible correction is required to reduce observations made from the circle round the sphere of the stars once a year, as it went round its observer's particular station on the earth’s surface to a common bit. The direction from the earth to the sun is just the opposite, standard, viz., an imaginary station at the centre of the earth. For and therefore it sweeps out a great circle round the celestial sphere a few stars an analogous correction is required to reduce observaoce a year. This great circle is called the ecliptic; it is the inter- tions from a particular point on the earth’s orbit to a standard section of the plane of the earth’s orbit with the celestial sphere. station coinciding with the sun; but for the most part stellar We can, of course, trace this great circle among the stars by ob- parallax is a matter of specific observation rather than a serious serving the sun’s right ascension and declination from day to day. correction required for other investigations. The point (hitherto treated as arbitrary) is defined as the in(4) Precession. We have hitherto treated the equator and Y tersection of the equator and ecliptic; the sun in its course round as fixed marks in the sphere of the stars but actually they are conthe ecliptic passes through this point at the vernal equinox, about tinually moving—a fact which causes the practical astronomer no March 21. The ecliptic and equator are inclined at an angle of end of trouble. When positions observed at different times have to be compared or combined together, corrections must be applied about 234° called the obliquity. The sun goes round the ecliptic towards the east increasing in for the difference between the equators and equinoxes with redeclination after passing P and therefore giving us (in the north- spect to which they have been measured. The steady part of this em hemisphere) the long summer days. After reaching a maximum change is called Precession (See PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES). (5) Nutation. This is part of the same phenomenon as precesdeclination of 234° it descends, passes through the point opposite T about Sept. 21, and continues to a minimum declination of sion; it comprises the periodic or oscillating part of the motion. 234°. It has to make a complete circuit in 3654 days and thereA modern branch of spherical astronomy is concerned with the fore has to do an average of nearly 1° a day. Thus when the ce- projection of the celestial sphere on a plane photographic plate. kstial sphere has made one complete turn it has still 1° more to The problem is equivalent to a central projection of the sphere go before the sun is brought back to the meridian; that takes 4 on a plane which is tangent to it; and formulae have been deminutes more, or, to give the accurate figures, the average sidereal veloped for converting position measured on the plate (in plane tme between two successive passages of the sun over the meridian rectangular co-ordinates) into right ascension and declination on i 24"3™56-555%. Since our daily affairs are more or less regu- the celestial sphere. Photographic determinations of position are ated by the sun we set this equal to 24% of ordinary (mean solar) necessarily diiferential, that is to say, the photograph must include tme. Clocks regulated by this time keep pace with the sun on the a number of “reference stars” whose right ascensions and declinaaverage throughout the year, but not exactly from day to day (see tions are already known; from these the ‘‘plate-constants” for the EquaTION or Time). The sidereal clock gives one extra “day” particular plate under discussion are determined; and the plate moving bodies, the simplest motion is that of the sun. If we observed the earth from the sun we should see it describe a complete

a the year compared with the mean clock; hence there is only om Instant In the year when the two clocks agree. About March

31 the sun coincides with P, so that it is on the meridian (noon) e T is on the meridian, i.e., at ob sidereal time; midnight

which is the beginning of the civil day (o™) accordingly coincides

with 12" sidereal time about March 21. Thus the time when the

two clocks agree is at the autumnal equinox about Sept. 21. These Satements, however, need a slight correction because of the equa-

tion of time, true midnight on Sept. 21 being at about 11.53 p.m.

al mean time. The orbit of the moon is inclined at a small angle 5°9’ so that

moon’s position in the sky is always within this distance of theecliptic, The principal planets also have small inclinations, so thatit Is possible to define a zone not much more than 10° wide within which the sun, moon and planets are always to be found

constants are in turn used for deducing right ascensions and declinations of other objects in the photograph. BrsriocrapHy.—Astronomy by Russell, Dugan and Stewart (1926— 27) is a comprehensive manual without any difficult mathematics. A smaller general work is General Astronomy by H. S. Jones (1922). Modern Astrophysics by H. Dingle (1924) and Astronomical Physics

by F. J. M. Stratton (1925) deal with the side of astronomy most prominent at the present time, the former being intended for the general public and the latter for the working astronomer primarily. Other references are given under STAR, SUN, etc. Popular astronomical books are very numerous; mention may be made of Hutchinson’s Splendour of the Heavens (1923), a composite work very fully B E)

HISTORY

OF ASTRONOMY

A practical acquaintance with the elements of astronomy İs indispensable to the conduct of human life. Hence it is most

582

ASTRONOMY

[ANCIENT

widely diffused among uncivilized peoples, whose existence de- | to it by their successors. From them the Greeks derived the, pends upon immediate and unvarying submission to the dictates | first notions of astronomy. They copied the Babylonian asterisms of external nature. Having no clocks, they regard instead the appropriated Babylonian knowledge of the planets and the face of the sky; the stars serve them for almanacs; they hunt and fish, they sow and reap in correspondence with the recurrent order

of celestial appearances. But these, to the untutored imagination, present a mystical, as well as a mechanical aspect; and barbaric

familiarity with the heavens developed at an early age, through the promptings of superstition, into a fixed system of observation. In China, Egypt and Babylonia strength and continuity were lent to this native tendency by the influence of a centralized authority; considerable proficiency was attained in the arts of observation; and from millennial stores of accumulated data, empirical rules were deduced by which the scope of prediction was widened and its accuracy enhanced. But no genuine science of astronomy was founded until the Greeks sublimed experience into theory.

ASTRONOMY OF THE ANCIENTS China.—Already, in the third millennium 8.c., equinoxes and solstices were determined in China by means of culminating stars. _ This is known from the orders promulgated by the emperor Yao about 2300 B.C., as recorded in the the Sha King, a collection of documents antique in the time of Confucius (550-478 B.c.). And Yao was merely the renovator of a system long previously established. The Sk King further relates the tragic fate of the official astronomers, Hsi and Ho, put to death for neglecting to perform the rites customary during an eclipse of the sun, identified by Professor S. E. Russell with a partial obscuration visible in northern China 2136 B.c. The date cannot be far wrong, and it is by far the earliest assignable to an event of the kind. There is, however, no certainty that the Chinese were then capable of predicting eclipses. They were, on the other hand, probably acquainted, a couple of millenniums before Meton gave it his name, with the nineteen-year cycle, by which solar and lunar years were harmonized; they immemorially made observations in the meridian; regulated time by water-clocks, and used measuring instruments of the nature of armillary spheres and quadrants. In or

courses, and learned to predict eclipses by means of the “Saros”

This is a cycle of 18 years 11 days, or 223 lunations, discovereg

at an unknown epoch in Chaldaea, at the end of which the mom

very nearly returns to her original position with regard as wel to the sun as to her own nodes and perigee. There is no getting back to the beginning of astronomy by the shores of the Euphrates. Records dating from the reign of Sargon of Akkad (3899 B.C.) imply that even then the varying aspects of the sky had ‘yep, long under expert observation.

Thus early, there is reason to

suppose, the star-groups with which we are now familiar began to be formed. They took shape most likely, not through one stroke of invention, but incidentally, as legends developed and astrological persuasions became defined. The zodiacal series in particular

seem to have been reformed and reconstructed at wide intervak of time.

Virgo, for example, is referred by P. Jensen, on the

ground of its harvesting associations, to the fourth millennium B.C., while Aries (according to F. K. Ginzel) was interpolated at a comparatively recent time. In the main, however, the constellations transmitted to the West from Babylonia by Aratus and Eudoxus must have been arranged very much in their presen: order about 2800 B.C. E. W. Maunder’s argument to this effect is

utianswerable. For the space of the southern sky left blank of stellar emblazonments was necessarily centred on the pole; and

since the pole shifts among the stars through the effects of precession by a known annual amount, the ascertainment of any former place for it virtually fixes the epoch. It may then be taken

as certain that the heavens described by Aratus in 270 8.C. repre-

sented approximately observations made some 2500 years earlier in or near north latitude 40°. In the course of ages, Babylonian astronomy, purified from the astrological taint, adapted itself to méet the most refined

needs of civil life. The decipherment and interpretation by the learned Jesuits, Fathers Epping and Strassmeier, of a number of clay tablets preserved in the British Museum, have supplied detailed knowledge of the methods practised in Mesopotamia in near 1100 B.c., Chou Kung, an able mathematician, determined the 2nd century p.c. They show no trace of Greek influence, with surprising accuracy the obliquity of the ecliptic; but his at- and were doubtless the improved outcome of an unbroken tra tempts to estimate the sun’s distance failed hopelessly as being dition. How protracted it had been, can be in a measure esti grounded on belief in the flatness of the earth. From of old, in mated from the length of the revolutionary cycles found for the China, circles were divided into 3654 parts, so that the sun planets. The Babylonian computers were not only aware that described daily one Chinese degree; and the equator began to be Venus returns in almost exactly eight years to a given startingemployed as a line of reference, concurrently with the ecliptic, point in the sky, but they had established similar periodic re probably in the second century B.C. Both circles, too, were mark- lations in 46, 59, 79 and 83 years severally for Mercury, Satur, ed by star-groups more or less clearly designated and defined. Mars and Jupiter. They were accordingly able to fix in advance Cometary records of a vague kind go back in China to 2296 B.c.; the approximate positions of these objects with reference to they are intelligible and trustworthy from 611 B.c. onward. Two ecliptical stars which served as fiducial points for their deterinstruments constructed at the time of Kublai Khan’s accession mination. In the Ephemerides published year by year, the timės in 1280 were still extant at Peking in 1881. They were provided of new moon were given, together with the calculated interval with large graduated circles adapted for measurements of decli- to the first visibility of the crescent, from which the beginning of nation and right ascension, and prove the Chinese to have an- each month was reckoned; the dates and circumstarices of solat ticipated by at least three centuries some of Tycho Brahe’s most and lunar eclipses were predicted; and due information we important inventions. The native astronomy was finally super- supplied as to the forthcoming heliacal risings and settings, cor seded in the 17th century by the scientific teachings of Jesuit junctions and oppositions of the planets. The Babylonians knew of the inequality in the daily motion of the sun, but i missionaries from Europe. Egypt.—Astrolatry was, in Egypt, the prelude to astronomy. by 10° the perigee ef his orbit. Their sidereal year was 43” toe The stars were observed that they might be duly worshipped. The long, and they kept the ecliptic stationary among the stats,makimportance of their heliacal risings, or first visible appearances ing no allowance for the shifting of the equinoxes. The striking as at dawn, for the purposes both of practical life and of ritual ob- covery, on the other hand, has been made by the Rev. F. X. Kuservance, caused them to be systematically noted; the length of ler that the various periods underlying their lunar predictis the year was accurately fixed in connection with the annually re- were idetñitical with those heretofore believed to have been rea curring Nile-flood; while the curiously precise orientation of the independently by Hipparchus, who accordingly must be held to Pyramids affords a lasting demonstration of the high degree of have borrowed frorn Chaldaea the lengths of the synodic, sidereal technical skill in watching the heavens attained in the third anomalistic and draconitic months. millennium B.C. The constellational system in vogue among the Greece.—A steady flow of knowledge from East to West be Egyptians appears to have been essentially of native origin; but gan in the 7th century 3.c. A Babylonian sage named Berossus they contributed little or nothing to the genuine progress of founded a school about 640 B.c. in the island of Cos, andp astronomy. counted Thales of Miletus (c. 639-548) among his pupils. a Babylon.—With the Babylonians the case was different, al- famous “eclipse of Thales” in 585 B.c. has not, it is true, been though their science lacked the vital principle of growth imparted thenticated by modern research; yet the story told by Herodotu

ASTRONOMY

i

| ANCIENT]

583

s to intimate that a knowledge of the Saros, and of the fore- | obliquity of the ecliptic and of the moon's path, the place of the citing facilities connected with it, was possessed by the Ionian suns apogee, the eccentricity of his orbit, and the moon's korjwee. Pythagoras of Samos (f. 540-510 B,C.) learned on his zontal parallax; all with approximate accuracy. His borrowings ravels in Egypt and the East to identify the morning and eve- from Chaldaean experts appear, indeed, to have been numerous; sing stars, to recognize the obliquity of the ecliptic, and to regard but were doubtless independently verified. His supreme merit.

the earth as a sphere freely poised in space. The tenet of its however, consisted in the establishment of astronomy on a sound aial movement was held by many of his followers—in an ob- geometrical basis. His acquaintance with trigonometry, a branch ure form by Philolaus of Crotona after the middle of the sth oi science initiated by him, together with his invention of the

ceatury B.C., and more explicitly by Ecphantus and Hicetas of planisphere, enabled him to solve a number of elementary probSyracuse (4th century B.c.), and by Heraclides of Pontus. Hera- lems; and he was thus led to bestow especial attention upon the

dides, who became a disciple of Plato in 360 B.c., taught in ad- position of the equinox, as being the common point of origin for dition that Pi sun, Sera TE round v earth, was the measures both in right ascension and longitude. Its steady retrocentre of revolution

to

Venus an

ercury. A genuine heliocen-

ic system, developed by Aristarchus of Samos (fl. 280-264 B.C.), was described by Archimedes in his Arenarius, only to be set wide with disapproval. The long-lived conception of a series of qystal spheres, acting as the vehicles of the heavenly bodies, and attuned to ae harmonies, seems to have originated with

thagoras himself.

Ti frst mathematical theory of celestial appearances was devised by Eudoxus of Cnidus (408-355 B.C.). The problem he

attempted to solve was so to combine uniform circular move-

ments as to produce the resultant effects actually observed, The sm and moon and the five planets were, with this end in view,

xcommodated each with a set of variously revolving spheres, to the total number of 27. The Eudoxian or “homocentric” system, after it had been further elaborated by Callippus and Aristotle, wasmodified by Apollonius of Perga (f. 250-220 B,C.) into the hypothesis of deferents and epicycles, which held the field for 1goo years as the characteristic embodiment of Greek ideas in

gression among the stars became manifest to him in 130 B.C., on comparing his own observations with those made by Timo-

charis a century and a half earlier; and he estimated at not less than 36” (the true value being 50”) the annual amount of “precession,” The choice made by Hipparchus of the geocentric theory of the universe decided the future of Greek astronomy. He further elaborated it by the introduction of “eccentrics,” which accounted for the changes in orbital velocity of the sun and moon by a displacement of the earth, to a corresponding extent, from the centre of the circles they were assumed to describe. This gave the elliptic inequality known as the “equation of the centre,” and

no other was at that time obvious. He attempted no detailed discussion of planetary theory; but his catalogue of 1,080 stars, divided into six classes of brightness, or “magnitudes,” is one of

the finest monuments of antique astronomy. It is substantially embodied in Ptolemy’s Almagest (see PTOLEMY). An interval of 250 years elapsed before the constructive labours astronomy. Eudoxus further wrote two works descriptive of the of Hipparchus obtained completion at Alexandria. His observaheavens, the Enopiron and Phaenomena, which, substantially pre- tions were largely, and somewhat arbitrarily, employed by Ptolemy. a =n nee of a (f. uaeBC), provided all Professor Newcomb, who compiled a very instructive table of eading features of modern stellar nomenclature. the equinoxes severally observed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy, Greek astronomy culminated in the school of Alexandria. It with their errors deduced from Leverrier’s solar tables, found was, s00n after its foundation, illustrated by the labours of Aris- palpable evidence that the discrepancies between the two series iyllus and Timocharis (c, 320-260 B,C.), who constructed the first were artificially reconciled on the basis of a year 6" too Jong, tatalogue giving star-positions as measured from a reference- adopted by Ptolemy on trust from his predecessor, He neverthepoint in the sky. This fundamental advance rendered inevitable less held the process to have been one that implied no frauduthe detection, of precessional effects. Aristarchus of Samos ob- lent intention. served at Alexandria 280-264 B.Ç. His treatise on the magnitudes The Ptolemaic system was, in a, geometrical] sense, defensible; and distances of the sun and moon, edited by John Wallis in it harmonized fairly well with appearances, and physical reason1688, describes a theoretically valid method for determining the ings had not then been extended to the heavens. To the ignorant relative distances of the sun and moon by measuring the angle it was recommended by its conformity to crude common sense; between their centres when half the lunar disc is illuminated; but to the learned, by the wealth of ingenuity expended in bringing the time of dichotomy being widely indeterminate, no useful it to perfection, The Almagest was the consummation of Greek result was thus obtainable. Aristarchus in fact concluded the sun astronomy. Ptolemy had no successor; he found only commentobe not more than twenty times, while it is really four hundred tators, among the more noteworthy of whom were Theon of imes farther off than our satellite. His general conception of the Alexandria (fl. A.D. 490) and his daughter, Hypatia (370-415). Arabia.—With the capture of Alexandria by Omar in 641, wmverse Was Comprehensive beyond that of any of his predeces$075, the last glimmer of its scientific light became extinct, to be reEratosthenes (276-196 B.¢.), a native of Cyrene, was sum- kindled, a century and a half later, on the banks of the Tigris. moned from Athens to Alexandria by Ptolemy Euergetes to take The first Arabic translation of the Almagest was made by order charge of the royal library. He invented, or improved armillary of Harun al-Rashid about the year 800; others followed, and the spheres, the chief implements of ancient astrometry, determined Caliph al-Mamun built in 829 a grand observatory at Baghdad. the obliquity of the ecliptic at 23° 51’ (a value 5’ too great), Here Albumazar (805-885) watched the skies and cast horoscopes; and introduced an effective mode of arc-measurement. Knowing here Tobit ben Korra (836-901) developed his long unquestioned, Alexandria and Syene to be situated 5,000 stadia apart on the yet misleading theory of the “trepidation” of the equinoxes; sme meridian, he found the sun to be 7° 12’ south of the zenith Abd-ar-rahman al-Siifi (903-986) revised at first hand the cataat the northern extremity of this arc when it was vertically over- logue of Ptolemy; and Abulwefa (939-0998), like al-Sifi, a native

head at the southern extremity, and he hence inferred a value of of Persia, made continuous planetary observations, but did not

253,000 stadia for the entire circumference of the globe. This is avery close approximation to the truth, if the length of the unit

employed has been correctly assigned.

Among the astronomers of antiquity, two great men stand out with unchallenged pre-eminence. Hipparchus and Ptolemy enter-

ined the same large organic designs; they worked on similar

methods; and, as the outcome, their performances fitted so ac-

turately together that between

them they re-made celestial

sence. Hipparchus fixed the chief data of astronomy——the bs of the tropical and sidereal years, of the various months,

tad of the synodic periods of the five planets; determined the

(as alleged by L, Sédillot) anticipate Tycho Brahe’s discovery of the moon’s variation. Ibn Junis (c. 950-1008), although the scene of his activity was in Egypt, falls into line with the astronomers of Baghdad. He compiled the Hakimite Tables of the planets, and observed at Cairo, in 977 and 978, two solar éclipses which, as heing the first recorded with scientific accuracy, were made

available in fixing the amount of lunar acceleration. Nasir uddin (1201-1274) drew up the Ilkhanic Tables, and determined the constant of precession at 51”. He directed an observatory established by Hulagu Khan (d. 1265) at Maraga in Persia, and

equipped with a mural quadrant of r2ft. radius, besides altitude

ASTRONOMY

584

and azimuth instruments. Ulugh Beg (1394-1449), a grandson of , landgrave built at Cassel in 1561 the first observatory With Tamerlane, was the illustrious personification of Tatar astronomy. | revolving dome, and worked for some years at a star-catal : He founded about 1420 a splendid observatory at Samarkand, in finally left incomplete. Christoph Rothmann and Joost Bum: which he re-determined nearly all Ptolemy’s stars, while the (1552-1632) became his assistants in 1577 and 1579 respectively. Tables published by him held the primacy for two centuries. and through the skill of Biirgi, time-determinations were made ASTRONOMY

OF THE MIDDLE AGES

Arab astronomy, transported by the Moors to Spain, flourished temporarily at Cordova and Toledo. From the latter city the Toletan Tables, drawn up by Arzachel in ro8o, took their name; and there also the Alfonsine Tables, published in 1252, were prepared under the authority of Alphonso X. of Castile. Their appearance signalized the dawn of European science, and was nearly coincident with that of the Sphaera Mundi, a text-book of spherical astronomy, written by a Yorkshireman, John Holywood,

known as Sacro Bosco (d. 1256). It had an immense vogue, perpetuated by the printing-press in fifty-nine editions. In Germany, during the 15th century, a brilliant attempt was made to patch up the flaws in Ptolemaic doctrine. George Purbach (14231461) introduced into Europe the method of determining time by altitudes employed by Ibn Junis. He lectured with applause at Vienna from 1450; was joined there in 1452 by Regiomontanus (qg.v.); and was on the point of starting for Rome to inspect a manuscript of the Almagest when he died suddenly at the age of thirty-eight. His teachings bore fruit in the work of Regiomontanus, and of Bernhard Walther of Nuremberg (1430-1504), who fitted up an observatory with clocks driven by weights, and developed many improvements in practical astronomy. Copernicus.—Meantime, a radical reform was being prepared

in Italy. Under the searchlights of the new learning, the dictatorship of Ptolemy appeared no more inevitable than that of Aristotle; advanced thinkers like Domenico Maria Novara (14541504) promulgated sub rosa what were called Pythagorean opinions; and they were eagerly and fully appropriated by Nicolaus Copernicus during his student-years (1496—1505) at Bologna and Padua. He laid the groundwork of his heliocentric theory between 1506 and 1512, and brought it to completion in De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (1543). The colossal task of remaking astronomy on an inverted design was, in this treatise, virtually accomplished. Its reasonings were solidly founded on the principle of the relativity of motion. A continuous shifting of the standpoint was in large measure substituted for the displacements of the objects viewed, which thus acquired a regularity and consistency heretofore lacking to them. In the new system, the sphere of the fixed stars no longer revolved diurnally, the earth rotating instead on an axis directed towards the celestial pole. The sun too remained stationary, while the planets, including our own globe, circulated round him. By this means, the planetary “retrogradations” were explained as simple perspective effects due to the combination of the earth’s revolutions with those of her sister orbs. The retention, however, by Copernicus of the antique postulate of uniform circular motion impaired the perfection of his plan, since it involved a partial survival of the epicyclical machinery. Nor was it feasible, on this showing, to place the sun at the true centre of any of the planetary orbits; so that his ruling position in the midst of them was illusory. The reformed scheme was then by no means perfect. Its simplicity was only comparative; many outstanding anomalies compromised its harmonious working. Moreover, the absence of sensible parallaxes in the stellar heavens seemed inconsistent with its validity; and a mobile earth outraged deep-rooted prepossessions. Under these disadvantageous circumstances, it is scarcely surprising that the heliocentric theory, while admired as a daring speculation, won its way slowly to acceptance as a truth. The Tabulae Prutenicae, calculated on Copernican principles by Erasmus Reinhold (1511-1553), appeared in 155r. Although they represented celestial movements far better than the Alfonsine Tables, large discrepancies were still apparent, and the desirability of testing the novel hypothesis upon which they were

based by more refined observations prompted a reform of methods, undertaken almost simultaneously by the landgrave William IV. of Hesse-Cassel (1532-1592), and by Tycho Brahe. The

available for measuring right ascensions.

At Cassel, too, the aki.

tude and azimuth instrument is believed to have made its first

appearance in Europe.

Tycho Brahe and Kepler.—Tycho’s labours were both more

strenuous and more effective.

He perfected the art of prete,

scopic observation. His instruments were on a scale and of a type unknown since the days of Nasir ud-din. At Augsburg in

1569, he ordered the construction of a 19-ft. quadrant, and ofa celestial globe sft. in diameter; he substituted equatorial fg

zodiacal armillae, thus definitively establishing the system of measurements in right ascension and declination; and improved the graduation of circular arcs by adopting the method of “tran. versals.”

By these means, employed with consummate skill be

attained an unprecedented degree of accuracy, and as an ing. dental though valuable result, demonstrated the unreality of the supposed trepidation of the equinoxes. No more congruous arrangement could have been devised than the inheritance by Johann Kepler of the wealth of materials amassed by Tycho Brahe. The younger man’s genius supplied what was wanting to his predecessor. Tycho’s endowments were of the practical order; yet he had never designed his observations

to be an end in themselves. He thought of them as means towards the end of ascertaining the true form of the universe. His range of ideas was, however, restricted; and the attempt embodied in his ground-plan of the solar system to revive the ephemeral theory of Heraclides failed to influence the development of thought.

Kepler, on the contrary, was endowed with unlimited powers of speculation, but had no mechanical faculty. He found in Tycho's

ample legacy of first-class data precisely what enabled him ie try, by the touchstone of fact, the successive hypotheses that he imagined; and his untiring patience in comparing and cal lating the observations at his disposal was rewarded byaseries

of unique discoveries. He long adhered to the traditional belief that all celestial revolutions must be performed equably in circles; but a laborious computation of seven recorded oppositions of Mars at last persuaded him that the planet travelled in an ellipse, one focus of which was occupied by the sun. Pursuing the im quiry, he found that its velocity was uniform with respect to 3e single point within the orbit, but that the areas described, m equal times, by a line drawn from the sun to the planet wer strictly equal. These two principles he extended, by direct proef, to the motion of the earth; and, by analogy, to that of the other planets. They were published in 1609 in De Mottbus Stelle Martis. The announcement of the third of “Kepler’s Laws” was made ten years later, in De Harmonice Mundi. It states that the squares of the periods of circulation round the sun of the several planets are in the same ratio as the cubes of their mean distances.

This numerical proportion, as being a necessary consequence of the law of gravitation, must prevail in every system under us sway. It does in fact prevail among the satellite-families of our acquaintance, and presumably in stellar combinations as well. Kepler’s ineradicable belief in the existence of some such comgruity was derived from the Pythagorean idea of an underlying harmony in nature; but his arduous efforts for its realization te a devious and fantastic course which seemed to give little promise

of their surprising ultimate success. The outcome of his discover ies was, not only to perfect the geometrical plan of the solarsys tem, but to enhance very materially the predicting powe of

astronomy. The Rudolphine Tables (Ulm, 1627), computed by

him from elliptic elements, retained authority have in principle never been superseded. He research into the orbital relations of comets of their perishable nature. He supposed their

for a century, was deterred from by his conviction tails to result from the action of solar rays, which, in traversing their mass, bore off with them some of their subtler particles to form trams

rected away from the sun. And through the process of waste thes

set on foot, they finally dissolved into the aether, and

ASTRONOMY

585

-jke spinning insects.” (De Cometis; Opera, ed. Frisch, t. vii. to the highest heavens, had long to wait for realization. Kepler s10.) This remarkable anticipation of the modern theory of divined its possibility; but his thoughts, derailed (so to speak) by -pressure Was suggested to him by his observations of the

the false analogy of magnetism, brought him no farther than to the rough draft of the scheme of vortices expounded in detail The formal astronomy of the ancients left Kepler unsatisfied. by René Descartes in his Principia Philosophiae (1644). And this He aimed at finding out the cause as well as the mode of the was a cul-de-sac. The only practicable road struck aside from it. etary revolutions; and his demonstration that the planes in The true foundations of a mechanical theory of the heavens which they are described all pass through the sun was an im- were laid by Kepler’s discoveries, and by Galileo’s dynamical t preliminary to a physical explanation of them. But his demonstrations; its construction was facilitated by the developdiorts to supply such an explanation were rendered futile by his ment of mathematical methods. The invention of logarithms, the imperfect apprehension of what motion is in itself. He had, it is rise of analytical geometry, and the evolution of B. Cavalieri’s ue, a distinct conception of a force analogous to that of gravity, “indivisibles” into the infinitesimal calculus, all accomplished durby which cognate bodies tended towards union. Misled, however, ing the 17th century, immeasurably widened the scope of exact isto identifying it with magnetism, he imagined circulation in the astronomy. Gradually, too, the nature of the problem awaiting wlr system to be maintained through the material compulsion solution came to be apprehended. Jeremiah Horrocks had some of fibrous emanations from the sun, carried round by his axial intuition, previously to 1639, that the motion of the moon was rotation. Ignorance regarding the inertia of matter drove him to controlled by the earth’s gravity, and disturbed by the action of this expedient. The persistence of movement seemed to him to the sun. Ismael Bouillaud (1605-1694) stated in 1645 the fact of imply the persistence of a moving power. He did not recognize planetary circulation under the sway of a sun-force decreasing as that motion and rest are equally natural, in the sense of requiring the inverse square of the distance; and the inevitableness of this force for their alteration. Yet his rationale of the tides in De same “duplicate ratio” was separately perceived by Robert Hooke, Yotibus Stellae is not only memorable as an astonishing forecast Edmund Halley and Sir Christopher Wren before Newton’s disof the principle of reciprocal attraction in the proportion of mass, covery had yet been made public. But Newton was the only man but for its bold extension to the earth of the lunar sphere of in- of his generation who both recognized the law, and had power to fluence. demonstrate its validity. And this was only a beginning. His Galileo.—Galileo Galilei, Kepler’s most eminent contemporary, complete achievement had a twofold aspect. It consisted, first, took a foremost part in dissipating the obscurity that still hung in the identification, by strict numerical comparisons, of terrestrial ever the very foundations of mechanical science. He had, indeed, gravity with the mutual attraction of the heavenly bodies; secprecursors and co-operators. Michel Varo of Geneva wrote cor- ondly, in the following out of its mechanical consequences throughrectly in 1584 on the composition of forces; Simon Stevin of out the solar system. Gravitation was thus shown to be the sole Bruges (1548-1620) independently demonstrated the principle; influence governing the movements of planets and satellites; the and G. B. Benedetti expounded in his Speculationum Liber figure of the rotating earth was successfully explained by its ac(Turin, 1585) perfectly clear ideas as to the nature of acceler- tion on the minuter particles of matter; tides and the precession ated motion, some years in advance of Galileo’s dramatic experi- of the equinoxes proved amenable to reasonings based on the ments at Pisa. Yet they were never assimilated by Kepler; while, same principle; and it satisfactorily accounted as well for some on the other hand, the laws of planetary circulation he had of the chief lunar and planetary inequalities. enounced were strangely ignored by Galileo. The two lines of Euler, Clairault and d’Alembert.—Newton’s investigations, inquiry remained for some time apart. Had they at once been however, were very far from being exhaustive. Colossal though made to coalesce, the true nature of the force controlling celestial his powers were, they had limits; and his work could not but removements should have been quickly recognized. As it was, the main unterminated, since it was by its nature interminable. Nor mportance of Kepler’s generalizations was not fully appreciated was it possible to provide it with what could properly be called a witil Sir Isaac Newton made them the corner-stone of his new sequel. The synthetic method employed by him was too unwieldy cosmic edifice. for common use. Yet no other was just then at hand. MatheGalileo’s contributions to astronomy were of a different quality matical analysis needed half a century of cultivation before it from Kepler’s. They were easily intelligible to the general pub- was fully available for the arduous tasks reserved for it. They lc; ina sense, they were obvious, since they could be verified were accordingly taken up anew by a band of continental inby every possessor of one of the Dutch perspective-instruments, quirers, primarily by three men of untiring energy and vivid just then in course of wide and rapid distribution. And similar genius, Leonhard Euler, Alexis Clairault, and Jean le Rond results to his were in fact independently obtained in various parts d'Alembert. The first of the outstanding gravitational problems of Europe by Christopher Scheiner at Ingolstadt, by Johann with which they grappled was the unaccountably rapid advance of Fabricius at Osteel in Friesland, and by Thomas Harriot at Syon the lunar perigee. But the apparent anomaly disappeared under House, Isleworth. Galileo was nevertheless by far the ablest and Euler’s powerful treatment in 1749, and his result was shortly most versatile of these early telescopic observers. His gifts of afterwards still further assured by Clairault. The subject of exposition were on a par with his gifts of discernment. What planetary perturbations was next attacked. Euler devised in 1753 hesaw, he rendered conspicuous to the world. His sagacity was a new method, that of the “variation of parameters,” for their indeed sometimes at fault. He maintained with full conviction to investigation, and applied it to unravel some of the earth’s irthe end of his life a grossly erroneous hypothesis of the tides, regularities in a memoir crowned by the French Academy in 1756; early adopted from Andrea Caesalpino; the “triplicate” appear- while in 1757, Clairault estimated the masses of the moon and ance of Saturn always remained an enigma to him; and in regard- Venus by their respective disturbing effects upon terrestrial moveing comets as atmospheric emanations he lagged far behind Tycho ments. But the most striking incident in the history of the verifiBrahe. Yet he unquestionably ranks as the true founder of cation of Newton’s law was the return of Halley's comet to peridescriptive astronomy; while his splendid presentment of the helion, on the 12th of March 1759, in approximate accordance laws of projectiles in his dialogue of the “New Sciences” (Leyden, with Clairault’s calculation of the delays due to the action of 1638) lent potent aid to the solid establishment of celestial Jupiter and Saturn. Visual proof was thus, it might be said, afmechanics, forded of the harmonious working of a single principle to the uttermost boundaries of the sun’s dominion. MODERN ASTRONOMY Lagrange and Laplace.—These successes paved the way for The Law of Gravitation.—The accumulation of facts does the higher triumphs of Joseph Louis Lagrange and of Pierre hot In itself constitute science. Empirical knowledge scarcely de- Simon Laplace. The subject of the lunar librations was treated serves the name. Vere scire est per causas scire. Francis Bacon’s by Lagrange with great originality in an essay crowned by the prescient dream, however, of a living astronomy by which the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1764; and he filled up the lacunae physical laws governing terrestrial relations should be extended in his theory of them in a memoir communicated to the Berlin

t comets of 1618.

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ASTRONOMY

Academy in 1780. He again won the prize of the Paris Academy in 1766 with an analytical discussion of the movements of Jupi-

ter’s satellites (Miscellanea, Turin Acad. t. iv.); and in the same year expanded Euler’s adumbrated method of the variation of parameters into a highly effective engine of perturbational research. It was especially adapted to the tracing out of “secular inequalities,” or those depending upon changes in the orbital elements of the bodies affected by them, and hence progressing indefinitely with time; and by its means, accordingly, the mechan-

179) left the beaten track by choosing time as the sole yar

the orbital elements remaining constant.

A. L. Cauchy published

in 1842-1845 a method similarly conceived, though Otherwise developed; and the scope of analysis in determining the move. ments of the heavenly bodies has since been perseveringly wj by the labours of Urbain J. J. Leverrier, J. C. Adams, s New comb, G. W. Hill, E. W. Brown, H. Gyldén, Charles Delaunay

too numer ous to mention 2 F. Tisserand, ; H. Poincaré : and others INEI Nor were these abstract invėstigations unaccompanied by con. crete results. Sir George Airy detected in 1831 an inequalit

ical stability of the solar system was splendidly demonstrated eee through the successive efforts of Lagrange and Laplace. The periodic in 240 years, between Venus and the earth. proper share of each in bringing about this memorable result is undertook in 1839, and concluded in 1876, the formidable task not easy to apportion, since they freely imparted and profited by of revising all the planetary theories and constructing from them one another’s advances and improvements; it need only be said improved tables. Not less comprehensive has been the work cay. that the fundamental proposition of the invariability of the plan- ried out by Professor Newcomb of raising to a higher grade of etary major axes laid down with restrictions by Laplace in 1773, perfection, and reducing to a uniform standard, all the theories was finally established by Lagrange in 1776; while Laplace in and constants of the solar system. The discovery of Neptune in 1784 proved the subsistence of such a relation between the eccen- 1846 by Adams and Leverrier marked the first solution of the tricities of the planetary orbits on the one hand, and their inclina- “inverse problem” of perturbations. That is to say, ascertained tions on the other, that an increase of either element could, in any or ascertainable effects were made the starting-point instead of single case, proceed only to a very small extent. The system was the goal of research. Practical Astronomy.— Observational astronomy, meanwhik thus shown, apart from unknown agencies of subversion, to be constructed for indefinite permanence. The prize of the Berlin was advancing to some extent independently. The descriptive Academy was, in 1780, adjudged to Lagrange for a treatise on the branch found its principle of development in the growing powers perturbations of comets; and he contributed to the Berlin Mem- of the telescope, and had little to do with mathematical theory: oirs, 1781-1784, a set of five elaborate papers, embodying and which, on the contrary, was closely allied, by relations of mutual

unifying his perfected methods and their results. The crowning trophies of gravitational astronomy in the 18th century were Laplace’s explanations of the “great inequality” of Jupiter and Saturn in 1784, and of the “secular acceleration” of the moon in 1787. Both irregularities had been noted, a century earlier, by Edmund Halley; both had, since that time, vainly exercised the ingenuity of the ablest mathematicians; both now almost simultaneously yielded their secret to the same fortunate inquirer. Johann Heinrich Lambert pointed out in 1773 that the motion of Saturn, from being retarded, had become accelerated. A periodic character was thus indicated for the disturbance; and

Laplace assigned its true cause in the near approach to commensurability in the petiods of the two planets, the cycle of disturb-

ance completing itself in about goo (more accurately 92094) years. The lunar acceleration, too, obtains ultimate compensation, though only after a vastly protracted term of years. The discovery, just one hundred years after the publication of Newton’s Principia, of its dependence upon the slowly varying eccentricity of the earth’s orbit signalized the removal of the last conspicuous obstacle to admitting the unqualified validity of the law of gravitation. Laplace’s calculations, it is true, were inexact. An error, corrected by J. C. Adams in 1853, nearly doubled the value of the acceleration deducible from them; and served to conceal a

helpfulness, with practical astronomy.

Meanwhile, the elemen-

tary requirement of making visual acquaintance with the stellar

heavens was met, as regards the unknown southern skies, when

Johann Bayer published at Nuremberg in 1603 a celestial atlas

depicting twelve new constellations formed from the rude obser. vations of navigators across the line. In the same work, the cur-

rent mode of star-nomenclature by the letters of the Greek alphabet made its appearance. On the 7th of November 163: Pierre Gassendi watched at Paris the passage of Mercury across the sun, This was the first planetary transit observed. The next was that of Venus on the 24th of November (0.S.) 1639, of which Jere. miah Horrocks and William Crabtree were the sole spectators. The improvement of telescopes was prosecuted by Christiaan

Huygens from 1655, and promptly led to his discoveries of the sixth Saturnian moon, of the true shape of the Saturnian ap-

discrepancy with observation which has since given occasion to much profound research (see Moon). After Laplace—The Mécanique céleste, in which Laplace

pendages, and of the multiple character of the “trapezium” of stars in the Orion nebula. William Gascoigne’s invention of the filar micrometer and of the adaptation of telescopes to graduated instruments remained submerged for a quarter of a century in consequence of his untimely death at Marston Moor (1644). The latter combination had also been ineffectually proposed in 1634 by Jean Baptiste Morin (1583-1656); and both devices were recontrived at Paris about 1667, the micrometer by Adrien Auzout (d. 1691), telescopic sights (so-called) by Jean Picard (16201682), who simultaneously introduced the astronomical use of pendulum-clocks, constructed by Huygens eleven years previously.

welded into a whole the items of knowledge accumulated by the

These improvements were ignored or rejected by Johann Hevelius

labours of a century, has been termed the “Almagest of the 18th century” (Fourier). But imposing and complete though the monument appeared, it did not long hold possession of the field. Further developments ensued. The “method of least squares,” by which the most probable result can be educed from a body of observational data, was published by Adrien Marie Legendre

in 1806, by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his Theoria Motus (18009), which described also a mode of calculating the orbit of a planet from three complete observations, afterwards turned to important account for the recapture of Ceres, the first discovered asteroid

(see Minor PLanets). Researches into rotational movement were facilitated by S. D. Poisson’s application to them in 1809

of Lagrange’s theory of the variation of constants; Philippe de Pontécoulant successfully used in 18209, for the prediction of the impending return of Halley’s comet, a system of “mechanical quadratures” published by Lagrange in the Berlin Memoirs for 1778; and in his Théorie analytique du systéme du monde (1846) he modified and refined general theories of the lunar and planetary revolutions. P. A. Hansen in 1829 (Astr. Nach. Nos. 166-168,

of Danzig, the author of the last important star-catalogue based solely upon naked-eye determinations. He, nevertheless, used telescopes to good purpose in his studies of lunar topography, and his designations for the chief mountain-chains and “seas” of the

moon have never been superseded. He, moreover, threw out the suggestion (in his Cometographia, 1668) that comets move round

the sun in orbits of a parabolic form. Paris Observatoty.—The establishment, in 1671 and 1676 respectively, of the French and English national observatories at once typified and stimulated progress. The Paris institution, # is true, lacked unity of direction. No authoritative chief wa assigned to it until 1771. G. D. Cassini, his son and his grand-

son were only primi inter pares. Claude Perrault’s stately edifice was equally accessible to all the more eminent members of the Academy of Sciences; and tesearches were, more or less pendently, cartied on there by (among others) Philippe de laHire

(1640-1718), G. F. Maraldi (1665-1729), anid his nephew, J. D.

Maraldi, Jean Picard, Huygens, Olaus Römer and Nicolas de Lacaille. Some of the best instruments then extant were moust

ASTRONOMY

587

Paris observatory. G. D. Cassini brought from Rome a ' thaniel Bliss. provided in two years a sequel of some value to Me telescobe by G. Campani, with which he discovered in 1671 Bradley's performance. Nevil Maskelyne, who succeeded him in us, the eighth in distance of Saturn’s family of satellites: was detected in 1672 with a glass by the same maker of

1764, set on foot, in 1767, the publication of the Nautical Alinanac, and about the same time had an achromatic telescope fitted

it, focus; the duplicity of the ring showed in 1675; and in to the Greenwich mural quadrant. The invention, perfected by 1684, tWO additional satellites were disclosed by a Campani tele-

of zoo ft. Cassini, moreover, set up an altazimuth in 1678, ad employed from about 1682 a “parallactic machine,” provided with clockwork to enable it to follow the diurnal motion. Roth inventions have been ascribed to Olaus Römer, who used wt did not claim them, and must have become familiar with their principles during the nine years (1672-1681) spent by him at the Paris observatory. Romer, on the other hand, deserves full credit

John Dollond in 1757, was long debarred from becoming effective by difficulties in the manufacture of glass, aggravated in England by a heavy excise duty levied until 1845. More immediately efficacious was the innovation made by John Pond (astronomer royal, 1811-1836)

of substituting entire circles for quadrants.

He further introduced in 1821, the method of duplicate observations by direct vision and by reflection, and by these means obtained results of very high precision. During Sir George Airy’s for originating the transit-circle and the prime vertical instrument; long term of office (1836-1881) exact astronomy and the tradiand he earned undying fame by his discovery of the finite velocity tional purposes of the royal observatory were promoted with inof light, made at Paris in 1675 by comparing his observations of creased vigour, while the scope of research was at the same time ihe eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites at the conjunctions and oppo- memorably widened. sitions of the planet. Advances Elsewhere.—Meanwhile, advances were being made Work at Greenwich,—The organization af the Greenwich ob- in various parts of the continent of Europe. Peter Wargentin grvatory differed widely from that adopted at Paris. There a (1717-1783), secretary to the Swedish Academy of Sciences, fmdamental scheme of practical amelioration was initiated by made a special study of the Jovian system. James Bradley had John Flamsteed, the first astronomer royal, and has never since described to the Royal Society on July 2, 1719, the curious cycliheen lost sight of. Its purpose is the attainment of so complete cal relations of the three inner satellites; and their period of 437 apower of prediction that the places of the sun, moon and planets days was independently discovered by Wargentin, who based may be assigned without noticeable error for an indefinite future upon it in 1746 a set of tables, superseded only by those of J. B. J. time, Sidereal inquiries, as such, made no part of the original Delambre in 1792. Among the fruits of the strenuous career of e in which the stars figured merely as points of ref- Nicolas Louis de Lacaille were tables of the sun, in which terms erence. But these points are not stationary. They have an ap- depending upon planetary perturbations were, for the first time, parent precessional movement, the exact amount of which can introduced (1758); an extended acquaintance with the southern be arrived at only by prolonged and toilsome enquiries. They heavens; and a determination of the moon’s parallax from observahave besides “proper motions,” detected in 1718 by E. Halley in tions made at opposite extremities of an arc of the meridian 85° a few cases, and since found to prevail universally. Further, in length. Tobias Mayer of Gottingen (1723-1762) originated James Bradley discovered in 1728 the annual shifting of the stars the mode of adjusting transit-instruments still in vogue; drew up due to the aberration of light (see ABERRATION), and in 1748, a catalogue of nearly a thousand zodiacal stars (published postthe complicating effects upon precession of the “nutation” of the humously in 1775); and deduced the proper motions of eighty earth's axis. Hence, the preparation of a catalogue recording the stars from a comparison of their places as given by Olaus Romer “mean” positions of a number of stars for a given epoch involves in 1706 with those obtained by himself in 1756. He executed considerable preliminary labour; nor do those positions long con- besides a chart and forty drawings of the moon (published at tinue to satisfy observation. They need, after a time, to be cor- Gottingen in 1881), and calculated lunar tables from a skilful derected, not only systematically for precession, but also empirically velopment of Euler’s theory, for which a reward of £3,000 was for proper motion. Before the stars can safely be employed as in 1765 paid to his widow by the British government. They were route-marks in the sky, their movements must accordingly be tab- published by the Board of Longitude, together with his solar wated, and research into the method of such movements inevit- tables, in 1770. The material interests of navigation were in these ably follows. We perceive then that the fundamental problems works primarily regarded; but the imaginative side of knowledge of sidereal science are closely linked up with the elementary and had also patent representatives during the latter half of the 18th century. In France, especially, the versatile activity of J. J. indispensable procedures of celestial measurement. The history of the Greenwich observatory is ene of strenuous Lalande popularized the acquisitions of astronomy, and enforced eforts for refinement, stimulated by the growing stringency of its demands; and he had a German counterpart in J. E. Bode. Between the time of Aristarchus and the opposition of Mars in theoretical necessities. Improved practice, again, reacted upon theory by bringing tọ notice residual errors, demanding the cor- 1672, no serious attempt was made to solve the problem of the rection of formulae, ọr intimating neglected disturbances, Each sun’s distance. In that year, however, Jean Richer at Cayenne increase of mechanical skill claims a corresponding gain in the and G. D. Cassini at Paris made combined observations of the subtlety of analysis; and vice versa. And this kind of interaction planet, which yielded a parallax for the sun of ọ:5”, correspondhas gone on ever since Flamsteed reluctantly furnished the “places ing to a mean radius for the terrestrial orbit of 87,000,000m. of the moon,” which enabled Newton to lay the foundations of This result, though widely inaccurate, came much nearer ta the truth than any previously obtained; and it instructively illustrated hmar theory, Edmund Halley, the second astronomer royal, devoted most of the feasibility of concerted astronomical operations at distant his official attention to the moon. But his plan of attack was not parts of the earth. The way was thus prepared for availing to the happily chosen; he carried it out with deficient instrumental full of the opportunities for a celestial survey offered by the means; and his administration (1720-1742) remained compara- transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769. They had been signalized by tively barren. That of his successor, though shorter, was vastly E. Halley in 1716; they were later insisted upon by Lalande; an more productive. James Bradley chose the most appropriate enthusiasm for co-operation was evoked, and the globe, from tasks, and executed them supremely well, with the indispensable Siberia to Otaheite, was studded with observing parties. The outad of John Bird (1709-1776), who constructed for him an 8-ft. come, nevertheless, disappointed expectation. The instants of quadrant of unsurpassed quality. Bradley’s store of observations contact between the limbs of the sun and planet defied precise hasaccordingly proved invaluable, Those of 3,222 stars, reduced determination, Optical complications fatally impeded sharpness

oy F. W. Bessel in 1818, and again with masterly insight by of vision, and the phenomena took place in a debatable borderDr. A. Auwers in 1882, form the true basis of exact astronomy, land of uncertainty. J. F. Encke, it is true, derived from them

and of our knowledge of proper motions. Those relating to the in 1822—1824 what seemed an authentic parallax of 8-57”, implymoon and planets, corrected by Sir George Airy, 1840-1846, form ing a distance af 95,370,000 m.; but the confidence it inspired was part of the standard materials for discussing theories of move- finally overthrown in 1854 by P. A. Hansen’s announcement of ment in the solar system.

The fourth astronomer royal, Na-

its incampatibility with lunar theory. An appeal then lay to the

588

ASTRONOMY

1gth century pair of transits in 1874 and 1882; but no peremptory decision ensued; observations were marred by the same

optical evils as before. Their upshot, however, had lost its essential importance; for a fresh series of investigations based on a variety of principles had already been started. Leverrier, in 1858, calculated a value of 8-95” for the solar parallax (equivalent to a distance of g1,000,000m.) from the “parallactic inequality” of the moon; Professor Newcomb, using other forms of the gravitational method, derived in 1895 a parallax of 8-76’. For more recent researches on this problem see PARALLAX. Improvements in Telescopes.—The first specimen of a reflecting telescope was constructed by Isaac Newton in 1668. It was of what is still called “Newtonian” design, and had a speculum 2in. in diameter. Through the skill of John Hadley (1682-1743) and James Short of Edinburgh (1710-1768) the instrument unfolded, in the ensuing century, some of its capabilities, which the labours of William Herschel enormously enhanced. Between 1774 and 1789 he built scores of specula of

continually augmented size, up to a diameter of 4ft., the optical excellence of which approved itself by a crowd of discoveries. Uranus (qg.v.) was recognized by its disc on March 13, 1781; two of its satellites, Oberon and Titania, disclosed themselves on Jan. II, 1787; while with the giant 48-in. mirror, used on the “frontview” plan, Mimas and Enceladus, the innermost Saturnian moons, were brought to view on Aug. 28 and Sept. 17, 1780. These were incidental trophies; Herschel’s main object was the exploration of the sidereal heavens. The task, though novel and formidable, was executed with almost incredible success. Charles Messier (1730—1817) had catalogued in 178: 103 nebulae; Herschel discovered 2,500, laid down the lines of their classification, divined the laws of their distribution, and assigned their place in a scheme of development. The proof supplied by him in 1802 that double stars are mutually revolving threw open a boundless field of research; and he originated experimental inquiries into the construction of the heavens by systematically collecting and sifting stellar statistics. He, moreover, definitely established, in 1783, the fact and general direction of the sun’s movement in space, and thus introduced an element of order into the maze of stellar proper motions. Sir John Herschel continued in the northern, and extended to the southern hemisphere, his father’s work. The third earl of Rosse mounted, at Parsonstown in 1845, a speculum 6ft. in diameter, which afforded the first indications of the spiral structure shown in recent photographs to be a very prevalent characteristic of many nebulae. Down to near the close of the 19th century, both the use and the improvement of reflectors were left mainly in British hands; but the gift of the “Crossley” instrument in 1895, to the Lick observatory, and its splendid subsequent performances in nebular photography, brought similar tools of research into extensive use among American astronomers; and they are now, for many of the various purposes of Astrophysics, strongly preferred to refractors. At present the largest instruments are the too-in. reflector at Mount Wilson, California, and the 72-in. reflector at Victoria, British Columbia. Sidereal Astronomy.—The progress of science during the Iọth century had no more distinctive feature than the rapid growth of sidereal astronomy (see STAR). Its scope, wide as the universe, can be compassed no otherwise than by statistical means, and the collection of materials for this purpose involves most arduous preliminary labour. The multitudinous enrollment of stars was the first requisite. Only one “catalogue of precision”—Nevil Maskelyne’s of 36 fundamental stars—was available in 1800. J.J. Lalande, however, published in 1801, in his Histoire céleste, the approximate places of 47,390 stars. A valuable catalogue of about 7,600 stars was issued by Giuseppe Piazzi in 1814; Stephen Groombridge determined 4,239 at Blackheath in 1806-16; while through the joint and successive work of F. W. Bessel and W. A. Argelander, 324,000 stars were recorded in the Boun Durchmusterung (1859-62). The southern hemisphere was subsequently reviewed on a similar duplicate plan by E. Schénfeld (1828-1891) at Bonn, by B. A. Gould and J. M. Thome at Córdoba. Moreover, the imposing catalogue set on foot in 1865 at thirteen observatories by the Astronomische Gesellschaft was duly completed;

and adjuncts to it have, from time to time, been

an ~

publications of the royal observatories at

E

ide

; n the

of Good Hope, and of national, imperial and private establish ments in the United States and on the continent of Europe i

in the execution of these protracted undertakings, the human has been, to a large and increasing extent, supplemented by the

camera. Photographic star-charting was begun by Sir David Gig in 1885, and the third and concluding volume of the Cape Photo. graphic Durchmusterung appeared in 1900. It gives the co-o. dinates of above 450,000 stars, measured by Professor J.C : teyn at Groningen on plates taken by C. Ray Woods at the observatory. And this comprehensive work was merely prepara

tory to the International Catalogue and Chart, the production of which was initiated by the resolutions of the Paris Photographic

Congress of 1887.

Eighteen observatories scattered north and

south of the equator divided the sky among them; and the ow.

come of their combined operations aimed at the production of a

catalogue of at least 2,000,000 strictly determined Stars, together with a colossal map in 22,000 sheets, showing stars to the four.

teenth magnitude, in numbers difficult to estimate. TOGRAPHY: CELESTIAL.)

(See Pao-

The investigation of double stars was carried on from 1819 to

1850 with singular persistence and ability at Dorpat and Pulkow,

by F. G. W. Struve, and by his son and successor, O. W, Struve The high excellence of the data collected by them was a combined result of their skill, and of the vast improvement in refracting

telescopes due to the genius of Joseph Fraunhofer (1787-1826),

Among the inheritors of his renown were Alvan Clark and Alvan G. Clark of Cambridgeport, Massachusetts; and the superb defini-

tion of their great achromatics rendered practicable the division of what might have been deemed impossibly close star-pairs, These facilities were remarkably illustrated by Professor $. W. Burnham’s record of discovery, which roused fresh enthusiasm for this line of inquiry by compelling recognition of the extraor-

dinary profusion throughout the heavens of compound objects.

Discoveries with the spectroscope this conclusion.

have ratified and extended

Stellar Propet Motions.—Only spurious star-parallaxes had

claimed the attention of astronomers until F. W. Bessel announced,

in December, 1838, the perspective yearly shifting of 61 Cygni in an ellipse with a mean radius of about one-third of a second Thomas Henderson (1798-1844) had indeed measured the larger displacements of a Centauri at the Cape in 1832-33, but delayed until 1839 to publish his result. The exhaustive ascertainment of stellar parallaxes, combined with the visible facts of stellar distribution, would enable us to build a perfect plan of the universe in three dimensions. Its perfection would, nevertheless, be undermined by the mobility of all its constituent parts. Their configuration at a given instant supplies no information as to their configuration hereafter unless the mode and laws of their movements have been determined. Hence, one of the leading inducements to the construction of exact and comprehensive catalogues has been to elicit, by comparisons of those for widely separated epochs, the proper motions of the stars enumerated in them. Little was known on the subject at the beginning of the 19th century. William Herschel founded his determination in 1783 of the sun’s route in space upon the movements of thirteen stars; and he took into account those of only six in his second solution of the problem in 1805. But in 1837 Argelander employed 390 proper motions as materials for the treatment of the same subject; and L. Struve had at his disposal, in 1887, no fewer than 2,800.

Spectroscopy.—A beam of sunlight admitted into a darkened room through a narrow aperture, and there dispersed into a varie tinted band by the interposition of a prism, is not absolutely coatinuous. Dr. W. H. Wollaston made the experiment in 1802, and perceived the spaces of colour to be interrupted by seven obscure gaps, which took the shape of lines owing to his use of a rectangular slit. He thus caught a preliminary glimpse of the “Frau hofer lines,” so called because Joseph Fraunhofer brought them into prominent notice by the diligence and insight of his iabours upon them in 1814~15. He mapped 324, chose out nine, which

ASTRONOMY

589

he designated by the letters of the alphabet, to be standards of | has been shown by the spectroscope to be profound and inherent.

measurement for the rest, and ascertained the coincidence in po- | Yet the general agreement of solar and stellar chemistry does not sition between the double yellow ray derived from the flame of| exclude important diversities of detail. Fraunhofer was the pio-

buming sodium and the pair of dark lines named by him “D” in| neer in this branch. He observed, in 1823, dark lines in stellar the solar spectrum. There ensued 45 years of groping for a law spectra which Kirchhoff'’s discovery supplied the means of inter-

which should clear up the enigma of the solar reversals. Partial | preting. The task, attempted by G. B. Donati in 1860, was effecanticipations abounded. The vital heart of the matter was barely tively taken in hand, two years later, by Angelo Secchi, William

missed by W. A. Miller in 1845, by L. Foucault in 1849, by A. J. |Huggins and Lewis M. Rutherfurd. There ensued a general classi-

tröm in 1853, by Balfour Stewart in 1858; while Sir George fication of the stars by Secchi into four leading types, distinSiokes held the solution of the problem in the hollow of his hand | guished by diversities of spectral pattern; and the recognition by from 1852 onward. But it was the synthetic genius of Gustav | Huggins of a considerable number of terrestrial elements as presKirchhoff which first gave unity to the scattered phenomena, and | ent in stellar atmospheres. Nebular chemistry was initiated fnally reconciled what was elicited in the laboratory with what by the same investigator when, on Aug. 29, 1864, he observed the was observed in the sun. On Dec. 15, 1859, he communicated to bright-line spectrum of a planetary nebula in Draco. About sevthe Berlin Academy of Sciences the principle which bears his | enty analogous objects, including that in the Sword of Orion, were name. Its purport is that glowing vapours similarly circumstanced | found by him to give light of the same quality; and thus after

absorb the identical radiations which they emit. That is to seventy-three years, verification was brought to William Herspace, the hesis of a “shining fuid” diffused throuC.gh Vogel pubns of white light transmitted | schel’slehypot H. Dr. 1874, In stars. of al say, they stop out just those sectioown materi raw possib . | lished a modification of Secchi’s scheme of stellar diversities, and us badges l lumino specia their form which them temhigher a at through source a from come light white the if Moreover,

perature than theirs, the sections, or lines, absorbed by them show | gave it organic meaning by connecting spectral differences with dark against a continuous background. And this is precisely the advance in “age.” And in 1895, he set apart, as in the earliest case with the sun. Kirchhoff’s principle, accordingly, not only stage of growth, a new class of “helium stars,” supposed to deaforded a simple explanation of the Fraunhofer lines, but availed | velop successively into Sirian, solar, Antarian, or alternatively to found a far-reaching science of celestial chemistry. Thousands into carbon stars. The classification which survives at the present

of the dark lines in the solar spectrum agree absolutely in wave- | time is that of the Draper Catalogue of stellar spectra observed length with the bright rays artificially obtained from known sub- at Harvard (1890) comprising 10,351 stars. On Aug. 5, 1864, G. B. Donati analysed the light of a small stances, and appertaining to them individually. These substances must then exist near the sun. They are in fact suspended in a| comet into three bright bands. Sir William Huggins repeated the state of vapour between our eyes and the photosphere, the dazzling | experiment on Winnecke’s comet in 1868, obtained the same prismatic radiance of which they, to a minute extent, intercept, bands, and traced them to their origin from glowing carbonthus writing their signatures on the coloured scroll of dispersed | vapour. A photograph of the spectrum of Tebbutt’s comet, taken smshine. Research has been powerfully aided by the photo- by him on June 24, 1881, showed radiations of shorter wavegraphic camera and by the concave gratings invented by H. A. | lengths but identical source, and in addition, a percentage of reflected solar light marked as such by the presence of some Rowland (1848-1901) in 1882.

Solar Research.—Solar physics has profited enormously by| well-known Fraunhofer lines. Further experience has generalized the abolition of glare during total eclipses. That of July 8, 1842, | these earlier results. The rule that comets yield carbon-spectra was the first to be efficiently observed; and the luminous appen- | has scarcely any exceptions. The usual bands were, however, dages to the sun disclosed by it were such as to excite startled temporarily effaced in the two brilliant apparitions of 1882 by attention. Their investigation has since been diligently prose- | vivid rays of sodium and iron, emitted during the excitement of cuted. The corona was photographed at Königsberg during the perihelion-passage. totality of July 28, 1851; similar records of the red prominences, | An important contribution of the spectroscope to astronomy successively obtained by Father Angelo Secchi and Warren de la | is the determination of velocities in the line of sight by measureRue, as the shadow-track crossed Spain on July 18, 1860, finally | ment of the Doppler displacement of spectral lines. In 1868 demonstrated their solar status. The Indian eclipse of Aug. 18, William Huggins attempted these measurements; but no trust1868, supplied knowledge of their spectrum, found to include | worthy results were obtained till much later. Probably the earthe yellow ray of an exotic gas named by Sir Norman Lockyer liest results that can be counted successful were those of H. C. “helium.” It further suggested, to Lockyer and P. Janssen sepa- | Vogel who in 1888 substituted photographic for eye observation. rately, the spectroscopic method of observing these objects in day- The first extensive catalogue of radial velocities of stars was light. Under cover of an eclipse visible in North America on published by W. W. Campbell in i911. Aug. 7, 1869, the bright green line of the corona was discerned; | Miscellaneous.—The first evening of the nineteenth century and Professor C. A. Young caught the “flash spectrum” of the | saw the discovery of the minor planet Ceres by Giuseppe Piazzi reversing layer, at the moment of second contact, at Xerez de | at Palermo. This was the forerunner of a host of similar disla Frontera in Spain, on Dec. 22, 1870. This significant but eva- | coveries now numbering more than a thousand. Progress was nescent phenomenon, which represents the direct emissions of a | greatly accelerated when Max Wolf of Heidelberg in 1891 low-lying solar envelope, was photographed by William Shackle- | introduced the photographic method of searching for minor ton on the occasion of an eclipse in Novaya Zemlya on Aug. 9,| planets. Discovery of the satellites of planets continued during 1896; and it has been abundantly registered by exposures made | the nineteenth century. Between 1846 and 1851 William Lassell added Neptune’s satellite, Hyperion attending Saturn, Ariel and during subsequent eclipses. The photography of prominences in full sunlight was, after Umbriel attending Uranus. The two satellites of Mars were found some preliminary trials by C. A. Young and others, fully realized | by Asaph Hall at Washington in 1877. The fifth (innermost) in 1891 by Professor George E. Hale at Chicago, and independ- satellite of Jupiter was found by E. E. Barnard in 1892; and four in the ently by Henri Deslandres at Paris. The pictures were taken, in more faint and remote Jovian satellites have been added found was Phoebe satellite outermost Saturn’s century. present | calof ray violet the light, of quality one only with cases, both cium, the remaining superfluous beams being eliminated by the by W. H. Pickering in 18ọ8. In regard to the progress of astronomy since the latter part agency of a double slit. The last-named expedient had been de-| the last century we can only refer here to the general tendof | principle same the on devised Hale scribed by Janssen in 1867. the spectroheliograph (g.v.) an instrument by which the sun’s encies; fuller information is given in the separate articles on disc can be photographed in calcium-light by imparting a rapid | celestial objects and astronomical methods. One feature has been

movement to its image relatively to the sensitive plate; and the| the development of statistical studies of the distribution, motions, and other characteristics of stars. Important work on thei extenmethod has proved in many ways fruitful.

Stellar Spectroscopy.—The likeness of the sun to the stars | sion of the sidereal universe was done by H. von Seeliger who

ASTROPALIA—ASTROPHYSICS

590

must be counted the pioneer of modern

statistical astronomy; | what chemical elements are present in the source of light

but the subject received most impetus from the researches of J. C. Kapteyn. This was the main line of stellar investigation from about 1902-1912, but since then there has been something like a reaction to intensive study of individual stars. More re-

cently the feature of stellar astronomy has been the application of atomic physics and the quantum theory to the conditions in the stars and nebulae. This closer linking of astronomy with physics (and in particular with thermodynamics) may be said to have originated in important pioneer investigations of the flow of radiation through a star’s atmosphere by Arthur Schuster

(1905) and Karl Schwarzschild (1908). The great possibilities in the interpretation of spectra were first made manifest by M. N. saha (1920). BrBLiocrRAPHY.—R. Grant, History of Physical Astronomy (1852); Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, An Historical Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients (1862); J. B. J. Delambre, Hist. de l’astr. ancienne; Hist. de Vasir. au moyen âge; Hist. de Vastr. moderne; Hist. de Pasir. au XVillé siécle; J. S. Bailly, Histoire de Pastronomie (5 vols., 1775-87) ; J. E. Weidler, Historia Astronomiae (1741); J. H. Mädler, Geschichte der Himmelskunde (1873); R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomie (1876); Handbuch der Astronomie (1800—92); W. Whewell, Hist. of the Inductive Sciences; A. M. Clerke, Hist. of Astronomy during the roth Century (4th ed., 1903); A. Berry, Hist. of Astronomy (1898);

J. K. Schaubach, Geschiehte der griechischen Asironomie bis auf Eratosthenes (1802); Th. H. Martin, “Mémoire sur Phistoire des hypothèses astronomiques,” Mémoires de l'Institut, t. xxx. (1881); P, Tannery, Recherches sur Vhistoire de l'astronomie ancienne (1893) ; O. Gruppe, Die kosmischen Systeme der Griechen (2851) ; G. V. Sehiaparelli, I Precursori del Copernico (1873); Le Sfere Omocentriche di Eudosso (1855); P, Jensen, Kosmologie der Babylonier (1890); F. X. Kugler, Die babylonische Mondrechnung (1900); J. Epping and J. N. Strassmeier, Asironomisches aus Babylon (1889); F. K. Ginzel, Dze astronomischen Kenntinisse der Babylonier (1901); E. C. Pickering, Variable Stars of Long Periods (1891); Simon Newcomb, The Stars

(1901); F. R. Moulton, Introduction to Astronomy (Ed, 2, 1916); G. P, Serviss, Round the Year with the Stars (1910); S. A. Mitchell, Eclipses of the Sun (1923) ; D. Todd, Astronomy To-day (1924) ; G. E. Hale, The Depths of the Universe (1924); C. G. Abbot, The Earth and the Stars (1925); W. J. Luyten, The Pageant of the Stars (1929), Sir

James Jeans, The Universe Around Us (1929),

ASTROPALITA,

an Aegean island

(A. M, C.)

(classical Astypalaea,

mediaeval Stampalia}, with good harbours, situated in 36-5° N. and immediately west of 26-5° E. It was colonized by Megara, and its constitution and buildings are known from numerous inscriptions. The Roman empire recognized it as a free state, and in the middle ages it belonged to the noble Venetian family of Quirini.

Tt was taken by the Turks in the 26th century, and is now noted

for its sponges. The dialect, customs and dress of the people are interesting, and the fortified town picturesque. BIBLIOGRAPHY —Pauly-Wissowa Realencyklopaidie (1897) s.v.; Inscriptiones Graecae s.v.; L. Ross, Reisen (1841).

ASTROPHYSICS, that branch of astronomy which deals with the physical constitution of the heavenly bodies or involves the use of instruments and methods specially dependent on physics. It is contrasted with “astrometry,” which deals with the positions and motions of the heavenly bodies. There is no strict line of demarcation, but in a general way we can divide astronomical methods into those making use of general types of equipment (the telescope, camera, micrometer, etc.) and those involving distinctively physical apparatus (the spectroscope, photo-electric cell, thermo-couple, etc.). Similarly, on the theoretical side we distinguish between conclusions based on geometry or on the law of gravitation (spherical astronomy and celestial mechanics) and those depending on advanced knowledge of atomic physics and thermodynamics. But even if it were desirable to divide astronomy in this way into two separate branches, the attempt is frustrated by the fact that astrometrical data are commonly found by astrophysical methods, and astrophysical data by astrometrical methods. Astrophysics came into prominence through the application of the spectroscope in the third quarter of the roth century; and it is mainly in its limited meaning of celestial spectroscopy that we shall give an introduction to it here. The spectroscope, like a glorified prism, takes the light.of a body, separates it into its

different constituents (different wave lengths) and lays them out side by side fer examination.

Primarily this spectrum tells us

|element scopy.)

having its own characteristic set of lines. (See Sabea The lines may appear either as bright emission l;

or as relatively dark lines on a background of continuous }; In either case they are a sign of the presence of the correspondi

element, either shining on its own account or robbing the light that comes from lower down in the star of these particular constity. ents. In this way 57 terrestrial elements have been recognized

in the sun certainly and nine doubtfully.

But absence of the

characteristic lines does not necessarily mean that the clement

is absent or scarce; it may often happen that the temperature and density of the source are not suitable for exciting the spectrum, so that the element, although abundant, does not disclose itself. In any case the spectroscope, like the telescope, reaches only the outermost layers or atmosphere of the star and cannot indicate the chemical composition of the interior.

The first results obtained with the spectroscope related to the chemistry of the stars and nebulae; but later a much wider field of application was found in relation to the physics of the heavenly

bodies. It is just because it is an erratic tool for the chemist that the spectroscope is so valuable for the physicist. It will not show the spectrum of an element unless the physical conditions are suitable; conversely, if it does show the spectrum we can infer that the physical conditions in the star are suitable. For

example, we see very prominently in the spectrum of Siriw a series of lines due to hydrogen, and very little besides. We have to ask ourselves, what are the physical conditions which would account for so great a stimulation of this hydrogen spectrum?

The answer, given partly hy laboratory experience and partly by general physical theory, goes a long way towards settling the temperature and density in the outer layers of Sirius. At high temperature an atom may become ionized, that is to say one of the electrons in the system of the atom breaks loose, The element then emits an entirely different spectrum. Or two,

three, four electrons may break loose; a different spectrum being

shown in each case. Stars of fairly low temperature show the spectrum of the complete calcium atom; those of higher temperature show the spectrum of the atom deprived of ane electron.

At still higher temperature there is no indication of calcium and we infer that it has all become doubly ionized, the calcium atom with two electrons missing being known to give no lines in the part of the spectrum which astronomers can observe. In the sun and stars, the lines of which we have been speaking appear as dark gaps in the hand of light forming the spectrum. But in some of the nebulae they appear as isolated bright lines with little or no continuous background. It is commonly said that continuous spectrum indicates a solid or liquid or highly compressed gas; whilst a bright line spectrum indicates rarefied gas. This is not quite accurate, because a rarefied gas will show a continuous instead of bright line spectrum if we look at a sufficient thickness of it. It is a question of transparency, Light which is strongly emitted by any kind of atom is also strongly absorbed by it; and the internal absorption in a deep layer of material tends to even out the emission in different wave lengths.

Thus, if the light is strongly emitted and absorbed, we receive only the emission from a few atoms in the forefront, these forming an opaque screen to the radiation behind; if the emission

is weak we see down to a greater depth, and so the weakness is compensated by the greater number of atoms visible. For a deep layer at uniform temperature this compensation is so com-

plete that the resulting spectrum is a continuous band independent of the nature of the material and depending only on the temperature; this is known as the “black-body” spectrum. The continuous spectrum from a star is not very different from

a black-body spectrum;

in fact, it is much closer than we should

expect, seeing that the observed layer of the star is by no means at a uniform temperature, the upper part being considerably

cooler than the lower part. By measuring the distribution of

energy in the spectrum we can determine the temperature; for, as the temperature of a black body rises, the radiation comes more and more from the blue end of the spectrum. This tet

perature is commonly called the “effective temperature” or sul

ASTRUC—ASTURIAS face temperature of the star; it is strictly the mean temperature of the layers which we actually see. Deep down in the interior the temperature 1s, of course, far greater. Bright line spectra are shown by the gaseous nebulae, by tails ef comets, and by the uppermost layers (chromosphere and corona) of the sun when viewed transversely at the edge of the disc. We are then looking at extremely rarefied gas, and the

uyer, although enormously thick compared with terrestrial stand-

ards, is still thin enough to be transparent. Occasional bright tines are also found in the spectra of some stars superposed on

the continuous spectrum. These ptobably indicate either specially disturbed conditions or that the star is surrounded by an extended nebulous envelope.

591

The abrupt descent from the Cantabrian crest, which reaches 2.300m. in Peña Ubiña, brings down the rivers by steep courses set in deep valleys—in canyons. in the mountain limestone of the eastern Asturias—to the sea, nowhere more than okm. distant. A fan-shaped area drains to the Ria de Pravia by the converging rivers Narcea and Nalón; the town of Pravia stands at the apex

of the fan. Besides these rivers and their tributaries, the Navia and Sella are the only important streams. To the east of this fan, behind the coast between Avilés and Caravia, lies the area of successive marine invasions in geological times. To one of these invasions is due the natural trench which forms the central

We commonly judge stars by their light, but it is quite prac-

ticable to measure the heat which they send to us across inter-

stellar space. This is done by placing a thermo-couple at the focus of the telescope where the star’s rays are concentrated.

NET

The chief difficulty is that a great deal of the heat is absorbed i, our atmosphere, so that large and sometimes uncertain corrections must be applied in order to obtain the true output of

H

heat by the star. (A. S. E.) ASTRUC, JEAN (1684-1766), French physician and biblical critic, was born March 19 1684, at Sauve, in Languedoc, and died in Paris, where he was regius professor of medicine, May 5 1766. He published anonymously Conjectures sur les mémoires originaux dont il paraît que Moyse S'est servi pour composer le livre de la

Genèse (1753), in which he laid the foundation of modern criticism of the Pentateuch by pointing out that two main sources can be traced in the book of Genesis. See Hauck, Realencyk. f. prot. Theol., vol. ii. p. 162-170 (1897).

ASTURA,

Zee N

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THE MOUNTAIN CLIFF TOMB IN ASTURIAS, OF PELAYO, THE ASTURIAN KING WHO ATTEMPTED TO RECONQUER CHRISTIAN SPAIN FROM THE MOORS IN THE 8TH CENTURY

valley of the Asturias east of Oviedo, and which continues along the line of the old sea-gulf narrowing out between the Picos de Europa and the Sierra de Cuera. This structural valley, neither

formerly an island, now a peninsula, coast of the result of stream action nor occupied by any important stream, gives the principal interior line of communitations in the Asturias.

Latium, Italy, 7m. S-E. of Antium, at the south-eastern extremity of the bay of Antium. The name also belongs to the river which flowed into the sea at an anchorage immediately south-east. The mediaeval castle of the Frangipani, in which Conradin vainly sought refuge after the battle of Tagliacozzo in 1268, is built on the foundations of a large villa, with a series of tanks for pisciculture and a harbour for small boats. Along the coast, a mile to the north-west, a line of villas begins, which continues as far as Antium. To the south-east the coast seems to have been as sparsely populated in Roman times as it is now. Astura was the site of a favourite villa of Cicero, whither he retired on the death of his daughter Tullia in 45 B.c. It appears to have been unhealthy even in Roman times; according to Suetonius, both Augustus and Tiberius contracted here the illnesses which proved fatal to them.

Along the coast the great Cantabrian platform, running from

western Galicia to the mouth of the river Adour in France, is

represented in the Asturias as elsewhere, by the gently rolling “downs,” some 60 or 7om. in height and cut usually in sheer cliffs towards the sea, into which the platform, segmented by the rivers from the interior, has been moulded by the weather. To-day the platform is thickly populated, and one single coastal road connects the long line of small towns set on successive heights. The intervening rias are clogged with silt and afford no good harbours. The relief, of mountain, valley and coastal platform, the coal supply and the humidity of the climate determine jointly the character of the Asturias. The impenetrable Picos de Europa, in whose fastnesses the chamois still roams, sheltered the Christian nucleus of resistance to the Muslims, which deASTURES (i), a warlike tribe occupying the mountains of veloped into the kingdom of Oviedo and Asturias. In the early the north-west of ancient Spain. They resisted the Roman con- stages of this resistance the term Asturias (derived from the quest and were only reduced by Augustus; Asturica Augusta, original inhabitants, the Astures, whose territory extended westLegio VII. Gemina and other strong places being planted to hold wards from Ribudesella and as far as the Douro) covered loosely them down. Their name is preserved in the modern Spanish the Cantabrian territory held by the Christians; there were Asturias in the Liébana valley and as far east as Santander Asturias. ASTURIAS, a principality of Spain, created (1388) by John (Asturia de Sancto Anderio), and the name lingered long east I. of León and Castile when his eldest son Henry married the of the Picos in the term Asturia de Santillana (Sancta Ilana). daughter of the duke of Lancaster. The principality, now purely But the important movement was westwards along the central titular, belongs to the eldest son of the sovereign; administratively valley, in which Cangas de Onis and Oviedo (alternating with the principality is chiefly merged in the province of Oviedo, to Pravia) were successive headquarters or capitals of the small describe which Asturias still survives in popular usage as a regional Christian State. After the capital of the enlarged State had been term. Clearly defined on three sides by mountain ranges which transferred to León by Ordono II. (914-924), the isolation of the make the district a rough oval, and on the fourth side by a long Asturias and of Galicia, both from each other and from the straight coast-line, broken only by the projecting Cabo de Peñas, repopulated territory on thé central plateau, contributed to the the Asturias are secluded from the rest of the peninsula and such weakness and lack of homogeneity of the kingdom of León. The outlook as they have is maritime. On the east the triple limestone mountain barrier between Léon and the Asturias made Oviedo at massif of the Picos de Europa, reaching 2,600m., leaves only a a later date a refuge for the Léonese king Bermudo IT. during the narrow strip for passage to the coast of old Castile; on the south raid of Almanzor. The coal of the Asturias lies in distinct groups of small basins; the Cantabrian mountains shut off the central plateau to which no pass lower than 1,130m. gives access, the main road from the town of Tineo is the centre for the most westerly group, Oviedo to León crossing by the Puerto de Pajares at 1,363m.; but the comparatively thick beds of anthracite coal have been on the west the lower Sierras de Rañadoiro and de Meira, running little exploited there for lack of means of communication. The north-east to south-west, block the road to Galicia; between most important group at present is the central; here the coal lies these sierras the boundary-line of the Asturias runs without any in a series of folds of the mountain limestone, cut by the rivers Caudal and Nalon, on which Mieres and Langres are respectively special natural definition to the Ria de Rivadeo.

594

ASTYAGES—ASUNCION

the centres of exploitation. The more northerly basins of Arnas and Ferrofies supply a soft coal with 459% of volatile substances, and, speaking generally, the coals of the Asturian basins form a descending scale of hardness from north to south. Iron ore is also extracted in the Asturias and blast furnaces have been erected at La Felguera to treat it. Zinc ores are mined in the Picos de Europa. The altitude at which the zinc is found, however, prevents operations in winter; the iron ores have a high percentage of silica; the coal seams are relatively thin and irregular and they dip steeply, so that the costs both of production and of transport are high. Thus the mineral resources of the Asturias have served to industrialize considerable tracts of country without bringing any high degree of prosperity. The temporary prosperity of the abnormal war years and the new capital sunk in consequence of this prosperity in improved machinery (calculated as equivalent to some eight millions of pounds sterling for the decennium 1915-25) have had the effect of raising in a more acute form in recent times the question of the protection by governmental decree of Asturian coal. With a humid climate and a high rainfall, nowhere less than 1,00omm. per annum, the Asturias are predominantly pastoral and the cow is the chief domestic animal. Horses and mules are bred on the Asturian pastures but they are not worked, except in the mines. The absence of a regular period of drought, together with favourable temperature conditions, makes maize the chief cereal cultivated; the soils do not, however, favour the cultivator and America and the mines attract labour more than the farm. The marked summer minimum of rainfall is sufficient to make ordinary summer irrigation desirable, but the typical Asturian irrigation is the winter flooding of lands by running water, partly to maintain the soil temperature and partly to secure the benefit of the fertilizing deposit of mud. BIBLIOGRAPHY.——S. Canals, Asturias: información sobre su presente estado (1900); G. Casal, Memorias de historia natural y médica de Asturias (Oviedo, 1900); Les Asturias (Guide book for the XIVth International Conference of Gevlogy, Madrid, 1926). For statistics of population, production, etc., see Oviedo.

| Pop. (1927) 101,800. The city is connected with Buenos Ai and Montevideo by regular steamers. There is rail co z with Buenos Aires, through cars being ferried over the Àlto Paraná river between Posadas and Encarnación: time 48 hours

Asunción is built opposite a wide stretch of the Paraguay often called the Bay of Asuncion. Its site is only 2soft, above Sealevel but the hills rising gently back from the river furnish a

healthier site for future growth. The city’s streets are laid out

GRAPH OF THE TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL OF ASUNCION The thermometer shows the annual mean temperature; the curve illustrates Columns the monthly mean temperature. indicate the normal rainfati for each month

in rectangular form and in the larger division or older city rm north-west to south-east and are crossed by others at right angles, Many blocks are 240ft. square and a number of streets are asit,

wide. Close to the river stands the famous palace built by Lopez IL, now used for Government offices. Barrio Cachingo is a new

ASTYAGES, the last king of the Median empire. In the in- part of the city where streets run with cardinal points. Dwelling-

scriptions of Nabonidos the name is written Ishtuvegu (cylinder from Abu Habba V R 64, col. 1, 32; Annals, published by Pinches, Tr. Soc. Bibl. Arch. vii. col. 2, 2). According to Herodotus, he was

houses of Asuncion are largely one-storey structures; recently taller buildings have become numerous. Prominent buildings are

the House of Congress, National theatre, post and telegraph office, city hospital, Encarnacién church, national library with many rare books, a new market and a college opened in 1928. About his reign we know little, as the narrative of Herodotus, The port of Asunción is one of the busiest parts of the city: which makes Cyrus the grandson of Astyages by his daughter here transhipment is made from small ocean-going vessels to those Mandane, is merely a legend; the figure of Harpagus, who as gen- of lighter draught which handle up-river cargo (as far as eral of the Median army betrays the king to Cyrus, alone seems to Corumbá). The port is now undergoing improvements and ercontain any historical element, as Harpagus and his family after- pansion. New settlements of Mennonites at Puerto Casada and wards obtained a high position in the Persian empire. From the British colonization at Guiba lake, both several hundred miles inscriptions of Nabonidos we learn that Cyrus, king of Anshan north of Asunción, have provided additional port and city ac(Susiana), began war against him in 553 B.c.; in 550, when Asty- tivity. Mean temperature at Asunción is about 72° F.; maximum, ages marched against Cyrus, his troops rebelled, and he was taken 105° F. December, January and February are the hottest months; prisoner. ‘Then Cyrus occupied and plundered Ecbatana. The cap- the remaining months are cool or cold and occasionally frosts tive king was treated fairly by Cyrus (Herod. i..130), and accord- occur. The heaviest precipitation occurs about March and the ing to Ctesias (Pers., 5; cf. Justin i. 6) made satrap of Hyrcania, lightest in August. The city is governed by a municipal junta where he was afterwards slain by Oebares against the will of Cyrus, consisting of six councilmen and an intendente or mayor who is who gave bim a splendid funeral. Alexander Polyhistor and Aby- appointed by the president of the republic; councilmen are elected denus in their excerpts from Berossus, which Eusebius (Chron., i. by popular vote. p. 29 and 37) and Syncellus (p. 396) have preserved, give the Among city improvements are some newly paved streets, sidename Astyages to the Median king who reigned in the time of the walks, extension of electric light and power service, installation fall of Nineveh (606 B.c,), and became father-in-law of Nebu- of modern sewerage in certain districts, motor cars and a movechadrezzar. This is evidently a mistake; the name ought to be ment for extension of highways, new hotels, modern shops with Cyaxares (in the fragments of the Jewish history of Alexander large varieties of foreign goods and an active chamber of comPolyhistor, in Euseb. Praep. Ev., ix. 39, the name is converted into merce. The pleasure and health resort of San Bernardino on Lake Astibaras, who according to the unhistorical list of Ctesias, was Ypacarái, a short distance by railway or road, is frequented m the father of Astyages), and there is no reason to invent an earlier summer. King Astyages I., as some modern authors have done. The ArmeSebastian Cabot, after his explorations in North America, nian historians render the name Astyages by Ashdahak; i.e, Azhi turned to South America, and with a band of wanderers sailed up Dahaka (Zohak), the mythical king of the Iranian epics, who has the Paraguay to the region where Asuncién now stands. This nothing whatever to do with the historical king of the Medes. event was about 1526-27. Subsequently Ayolas and Irala with other Europeans visited the spot where Asunción is situated (Ep. M.)

the son of Cyaxares and reigned 35 years (584-550 B.C.) ; his wife was Aryenis, the daughter of Alyattes of Lydia (Herod. i. 74).

ASUNCIÓN (Nuestra Señora de la Asunción), capital of the republic of Paraguay, stands on the eastern bank of the Paraguay river in 25° 16 o4” S., 57° 47 40” W., 970m. N. of Buenos Aires,

and began a stockade in order to protect themselves from the Guaranis. These Indians, however, are said to have offered little resistance and ultimately assisted in laying out and building 4

ASVINS—ASYLUM gttlemest. Ayolas sailed farther up the Paraguay river and never

mumed. In 1617 a seat of government was established at Buenos sires, and Asuncion was almost abandoned. Later other explorers ame and Asuncion for many years was the scene of cruelty, ion, adventure, romance and bloodshed. Paraguay decared independence from Spain on Aug. 14, 1811, and Velasco,

the Spanish governor, being in sympathy with the movement, was chosen a member of the Junta. Asunción still bears many marks of the terrible fighting that from time to time has made

is streets run red with blood. In recent years, however, peace

has reigned and considerable progress is recorded. (W. A. R.) ASVINS, in Vedic Hindu mythology, twin gods of light, and ster Indra, Agni and Soma the most prominent in the Rig Veda, invoked in more than 50 hymns. As spirits of the Dawn they prepare her path in the sky. Called sons of the sun, offspring of the ean, the youngest of the gods, “honey-hued,” they are inseparable. The Boghaz-Keui inscription (c. 1400 B.c.) in Asia Minor mentions them with Indra and Varuna and they are unquestion-

ably Zoroastrian, though they seem to be the Nasatya demons

of the Avesta, and their resemblances to the Dioscuri are manifest. In the Epic era they survived chiefly as physicians and dentists

and so rather lost caste. In modern Hinduism they have all but ceased to function.

See E. W. Hopkins, Epic Mythology (Strasbourg, 1915).

ASWAN or ASSUAN,

2 town of Upper Egypt on the east

hank of the Nile, facing Elephantine island below the first cataract, and sgom. S. of Cairo by rail. It is the capital of a province of the

same name—the southernmost province of Egypt. The principal

buildings are along the river front, where a broad embankment has been built. Popular among Europeans as a winter health resort and tourist centre, Assuan is provided with large modern hotels (one situated on Elephantine island), and there is an English church. South-east of the railway station are the ruins of a temple

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The first Olympic games for women, held at Paris in 1922, were an attempt to revive the women’s athletic festivals of classical antiquity. At that time athletics for women (apart from fencing) scarcely existed in Sweden. There was some interest in the schools and a few events at the schools annual sports at Stockholm. Meanwhile the propaganda committee of the Swedish National Athletic Association formulated special lines of work for the movement, resulting in women’s competitions, but there were very few entries. In the summer of 1925 a strong team of

English girl athletes visited Sweden, and, competing at Gothen-

burg and Falkenberg, aroused such interest that the Sveriges Kvinnliga Idrottsförbund (Women’s Athletic Association) was at once formed and affiliated to the F.S.F.I.

At the third congress of the F.S.F.I. it was arranged that the

second women’s Olympiad should be held at Brussels in 1926, a venue later changed to Gothenburg in Sweden. The organizers received entries from ten nations but, unfortunately, Italy and Yugoslavia were unable to send teams. The eight nations

represented were Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France, Great Britain,

Japan, Latvia, Poland and Sweden. The games lasted for three days of unbroken sunshine and the large attendance of spectators

made it unnecessary for the organizers to call upon the Swedish Sportsmen who had guaranteed the expenses of the games. When

the contests were over and the final points assessed Great Britain

|

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The fourth congress of the F.S.F.I. took place in Gothenburg on Aug. 27—29, 1926; Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Poland,

Sweden and Switzerland were represented. At this congress it was decided to adopt and use the metric system only and tọ eliminate races at distances between 200 and 800 metres. The

weight of the women’s javelin was fixed at 600 grams (1-322]b.) and that of the shot and discus at 4 kilograms (8-8184lb.) and x kilogram (2:2046lb.) respectively. It was also agreed to take account only of best hand throws at the next games and to exclude walking contests from the list of records. The most important question dealt with was that of participation in the men’s Olympic games, the I.0.C. having decided to include five events for women at the ninth Olympiad at Amsterdam in 1928. These resulted as follows :— Event

Winner

Country

6%

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U. S. A. 66 Switzerland | r4z

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250 metres run

for the formation in 1921 of the

ing the countries represented were the United States, Czecho-

| Performance

Event

therein, that the international and national governing bodies of women’s athletics in many

615

100 metres. 80a metres.

400 metres relay

High Jump Discus i Note.

E. Robinson L. Radke

Canadian Olym-

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U.S.A, Germany Canada

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In each of the above events a new world’s record was made.

It may be added that all the nations subsequently decided tọ take part, with the sole exception of Great Britain, At the fourth congress of the F.S.F.I. it was decided to hold the third international ladies’ games at Prague in 1930. Each country has its own governing body and its annual national championships. Two important international matches have taken place in London, more than 25,000 spectators being present on each occasion, In 1924 Great Britain scored 56 points, France 24, Belgium 15, Czechoslovakia 13, Switzerland 7 and Italy 2. In 1925 there was a triangular match between Great

Britain (56 points), Czechoslovakia (26 points) and Canada (23

points). Women’s athletic sport is growing rapidly, and a high level of performance has been already reached, as may be seen from the table of world’s records on pp. 614-6. See F. A. M. Webster’s Athletics of To-day for Women (Frederick Warne & Co,, Ltd., London, 1930), (F, A. M. W.)

ATHLETIC SPORTS. Various sports were cultivated many

hundreds of years hefore the Christian era by the Egyptians and several Asiatic races. The Irish, too, had a great festival known

as the Lugnasad, or Tailtin games, which were celebrated several

ATHLETIC

Ya 1929 | 1928, 2% 1913 ;

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French, U.S.A. Japanese, U.S.A.

1926 i on

Japanese

1929

254 4; 593» 3 min., 8$ sec.

E. V. Potter, K. Hitomi

British, Japanese

M. E. King E. Trickey

British British

1928

19 ft., 72 Ins.

K. Hitomi B. C. Holliday C. A. Gisolf Dupius M. F. Hegarty

Japanese British Holland French British

I ie 1929 1925 1927

G. Heublin Jungkunz

German German

1929 1929

H. Konopacka

Polish

Polish

1028

Hargus

German

1028

Eureka H.S.,Millrose,A.C. George Schooi London Olympiades Canadian Olympic Team English National Team

U.S.A. U.S.A. British Canadian British

1924, 28 1924 | 1928 1928 1929

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Record

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SPORTS

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centuries B.c. From such ancient festivals as these the early Greeks undoubtedly adopted the elements of their athletic exer-

traditionally established by Lugaid of the long arm, one of the

the Olympic games and other periodical meetings of the time

to have taken part. For many centuries these games and others

the nature of preparations for war. The chroniclers of the middle ages are, for the most part, silent concerning the purely recreational pastimes. We are told, however, that Henry V. “was so swift a runner that he and two of his lords, without bow or other engine, would take a wild buck in a large park.” Strutt (Sports

in British athletics, as well as in America and the British dominions overseas. The Tailtin Games were successfully revived at Dublin in 1924, following upon the eighth Olympiad at Paris inthe

gods of Dia and Anna, in honour of his foster-mother, Tailti,

cises (see ATHLETE) which reached their highest development in some 3,000 years ago. Cuchulain, the mythical Irish hero, is said (see GAMES, CLASSICAL). After the Norman Conquest of Eng- like them were kept up in Ireland, and though almost constant land the nobles devoted themselves to the chase and the joust, wars which harried the country finally destroyed their organizabut the people also had their sports. In the main these were in tion, yet the Irish were for many centuries a very important factor

same year. The Scottish people have, like the Irish, ever delighted im feats and Pastimes of the People of England) chronicles the fact that of strength and skill, especially the Celtic Highlanders. Unforyoung men of good family were taught to run, leap, wrestle and tunately many of the great Highland gatherings are still of a projoust. Several ordinances of reigning sovereigns make it clear fessional nature, which has prevented the Scottish athlete from that the common people had their sports, but these, apparently, attaining the truly world-wide prominence to which his performinterfered with the practice of archery, and Edward III. pro- ances justly entitle him. The Briton does not lose his love of sport upon leaving his hibited weight-putting by statute. The popularity of feats of strength prevailed, however, and we find, later, that “casting of native soil, and the development of athletics in the United States the barre” was a popular pastime with Henry VIIL, who had also and the British dominions has, in many events, forged far ahead a penchant for throwing the hammer. In the reign of this mon- of that of the Motherland. Since the institution of the modem arch there appears to have been a great athletic revival. Opinion Olympic Games at Athens in 1896, national championship méetas to the value of athletics was sharply divided during the reign ings have been promoted annually on the Continent and throughof Henry VIIL His secretary, Richard Pace, advised the sons out Scandinavia. In recent years America, Finland, France, Gerof noblemen to practise sport and leave study and learning to the many, Italy, Norway and Sweden have produced a number of sons of meaner people. At about the same period Sir Thomas extraordinary world’s record-breakers. The first regularly organized athletic meeting of modem times Elyot deprecated too much study and flogging for schoolboys and suggested that more satisfactory results might be obtained by a was that promoted by the Royal military academy, Woolwich, m proper appreciation of athletic lore. On the other hand Roger 1849. A year later Exeter college, Oxford, inaugurated sports Ascham, in his Toxophilus, declares that “running, leaping and which have been continued annually down to the present day. The quoiting be too vile for scholars.” Up to the 16th century a great Exeter college meeting was undoubtedly the precursor of the football match had been played annually at Chester, but in that Cambridge sports founded in 1857 and the Oxford sports which century was abandoned in favour of a series of foot-races, which were first decided in 1860. The Oxford and Cambridge sports took place in the presence of the mayor. The Stuart kings were commenced in 1864 and the English championships in 1866. warm encouragers of sport, and James I. in the Basiltzkon Doron, In 1852 Kensington grammar school began to hold regular written to his son, recommended all forms of manly exercise. sports meetings, Harrow and Cheltenham and Durham university During the Puritan rule and that of Charles II., however, ath- followed suit a year later, and from those days may be tracedthe letic sport all but died out in England, only to be revived with growth of athletic sport in English schools which now has rea renewed vigour in the early part of the roth century. its climax in the public schools sports meeting promoted ar An extraordinary variety of sports has been popular in the nually by the London Athletic Club. The London Athletic Club British Isles with people of all classes for the past 500 years, but came into being in June, 1863, under the style of the Minang so far as history and legend record Ireland boasts by far the most Lane Athletic Club, the majority of the founders having ancient organized sports known, the Tailtin Games, or Lugnasad, business in that centre of London trade. In the following ye

617

ATHLETIC SPORTS

sisTORY}

„wo meetings were held at the West London grounds at Bromp-!1m. relay race (4x 44soyd.). In 1920 there was instituted an ton. In the spring of 1866 the club changed its name to its pres- |annual relay meeting between Oxford and Cambridge. Up to 1927 mt style of the London Athletic Club. The year 1864 marks a no Blues had been awarded for this match. which now comprises definite epoch in the history of modern athletics. On March 3 |gooyd., 4m., 1m., 2m., 4m., 480yd. high hurdles and 88o0yd. low Cambridge visited Oxford for a match of eight events on the ; hurdles, four runners, each covering an equal quarter of the disChrist Church cricket ground, the result being a draw, as each | tance, representing either university in each event. (For the gde won four events. The Oxford and Cambridge sports were not | United States events, see the article TRACK AND FIELD SPORTS:

moved to London until 1867. In the same year, 1864, the Civil |United States.)

Service sports were started, and at the beginning of 1866 the | Long before annual championship meetings were instituted in Amateur Athletic Club was formed to “supply the want of an es- | any country the desire to pit the athletes of one nation against tablished ground upon which competitions in amateur athletic | those of another was clearly in evidence. and England was vis-

sports might take place between gentlemen amateurs.” The | ited in 1844 by George Seward, an American professional runfrst English championship meeting was promoted by the A.A.C. | ner, who achieved some signal successes. and in 1863 by Louis

n1866. Despite this fact active athletes continued to ally them- | Bennett, called “Deerfoot,” a full-blooded Seneca Indian. who gives more with the L.A-C. than the A.A.C. The year 1879 | established running records up to 12 miles. In 1884 a team of marked a point of cleavage and two championship meetings were | Irish athletes, among them the late Dr. W. J. M. Barry, a magheld: one promoted by the A.A.C., which had up to that time been | nificent exponent of the heavy-weight field events, visited Canada in the habit of holding the championships in the spring, immedi- | and won several championships. In 1888 the Manhattan A.C.,

ately after the Oxford and Cambridge sports, the other being | New York, sent to England a team and the Gaelic A.A. despatched held later in the summer under the management of the L.A.C. | a team to America. In 1890 the Salford Harriers were the guests for the greater convenience of non-university athletes. In 1880 | of the Manhattan A.C. in New York, and the following year the the English Amateur Athletic Association was founded, and Brit- | Manhattan athletes went again to England. The first matches of sh athletic sports, together with the promotion of the English | a truly international character occurred, however, in 1894 and Yale sprinter, C. H.

championships, have remained under the jurisdiction of that body | 1895, and were arranged by the famous

Sherrill, who invented the crouch start. ever Since. Annual championship meetings are held in the dominions and | of Yale and Oxford met in London and all foreign countries, the programmes being based upon the list | successful by winning 54 to 34 events. of events contested quadrennially at the Olympic games. Of late |London A.C. took to New York almost vears in England a general tightening up of the rules has placed | could be mustered in the British Isles.

In 1894 the universities the English blues proved The following year the the strongest team that They competed against

a period upon the time during which a man may represent his | the New York A.C., but did not win a single event. Twelve thou-

miversity. In 1927 the joint committees of the Oxford and Cam- | sand people witnessed this match on Manhattan Field. Fourteen bridge university athletic clubs adopted the following new regu- | events comprised the programme and three world’s records were ations regarding the eligibility of competitors in inter-university | broken and one equalled.

Two weeks later Cambridge was de-

feated by Yale in America by 8 events to 3. In 1899 Oxford

contests:

“That the present eligibility rules governing the inter-university | and Cambridge combined forces for a match in London against

athletic sports be cancelled and the following substituted: The | Harvard and Vale, who were beaten by the odd event. A summary of the most interesting meetings follows :— eligibility to compete in (1) the inter-university sports, relays

Oxford s}

Yale 3}

in England

1895

Yale 8

Cambridge 3

in America

°%

Salo and -Harvard $ ee

and cross-country races shall be limited to members of the two | 1894 wiversities who, on the date on which the meeting is held, have

not exceeded four calendar years from the date of their matricu- | 1899 lation in either university; (2) Any meeting in which the two

miversities compete as such, including those mentioned in (1),}

shall be limited to those who have not exceeded the age of 23| years on Oct. 1 preceding the meeting in question. These rules, (1) and (2) to take effect as from Oct. 1, 1927, but not to affect |

10904

xort those who were resident members of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge before that date, to whom the old rules will ap- | 797?

ply.” (For eligibility rules in U.S. universities, see ATHLETIC Sports, United States.) Athletic sports are now usually understood to consist of those |

events recognized in the championship programmes of the differ-

ent countries which, in their turn, are based upon the Olympic

games schedule of events. This, however, does not apply so far} as England is concerned. Apart from the numerous championship meetings and international, inter-county and inter-club

1921

1923

1925

Yale and Harvard 4 in England

ee ore

VAMOS S

in England Yale and Harvard 6 Oxford ae > Cambridge 3 Yale and Harvard 4 in England Oxford and

. Cambridge 5 Yale and Harvard 8 ves

Oxford and Cambridge 5 Oxford and

Cambridge 63

a

ss

102.

Oxford sg

1926

Cambridge 9 Oxford and

matches, the majority of sports meetings in England are confined to flat race handicaps, the field events and hurdle racing are | *9?7 entirely ignored and it is true that only during the last few | 09.9

Cambridge 7 daha c Oxford e i

1929

Oxford and Cambridge 3

years the whole of the Olympic field events have been included in the AA.A.

open

and

district

championships

pro-

grammes, nor are the whole of these events even yet practised at Oxford and Cambridge, whereas in America nearly all of the

tems have been added to the A.A.U. and I.C.A.A.A.A. champion-

ship programmes as soon as they were raised to Olympic status.

The events included in the Oxford and Cambridge sports are

1ooyd., 440yd., 880yd., ım., 3m., r20yd. high hurdles, 220yd.

low hurdles, high and long jumps, pole vault and shot put. Of the above list the A.A.A. Open English championships do not include

the 3m. run and the 22oyd. low hurdles, but add 4m. and rom.

walks, gaoyd. low hurdles, 2m. steeplechase, throwing the hammer, discus and javelin, hop, step and jump, tug of war (catch Weights), tug of war (roost.), 44oyd. relay race (4x 100), and

:

in America

ae

:

: in America

“aleaad Harvard s in America

Yale and

_Harvard 53

in England

Yale and Harvard 6 in America

Priaceton:afd

ae re

Cornell 3 Princeton and

in England

. _ Cornell 5 Yale and Harvard 4 in England Vale and Harvard 8 in America

Cambridge 4 Princeton and Cornell 9

in America

It is from the enterprise of such bodies as the Salford Harriers, Gaelic A.A., London A.C., Manhattan A.C. and New York A.C. and the early meetings between English and American universities that the present series of international matches between all countries throughout the world, apart from the Olympic Games, has grown, until no athletic season passes at the present time without each country engaging in several international matches with one or more other countries. The most important of all international festivals is, however, the revived Olympic Games. They were instituted by delegates from the different nations who met in Paris on June 16, 1894, principally at the instigation of Baron

618

ATHLETIC

SPORTS

[OLYMPIC GAMES

Pierre de Coubertin, the result being the formation of an interna-

penses of the competitors from those countries. The 1906 inte

sports of the American Indians, Africans of several tribes, Moros, Patagonians, Syrians, Ainus and Filipinos were disappointing, their

the Olympic Games proper (athletic track and field events section), British athletes, including two wins by colonials from

tional Olympic Games committee with Baron de Coubertin at its calated games aroused much more interest in England than the head which resolved that games should be held every fourth year earlier ones in the series, but although upwards of 50 Britis, competitors took part in the contests, they were by no means in a different country. First Olympiad.—The first modern Olympiad took place at representative in all cases of the best British athletes. The Amer. Athens, April 6-12, 1896, in the ancient stadium, which was rè- ican representatives were slightly less numerous, but they wer built through the liberality of M. Averoff, a Greek merchant, and more successful. It was noteworthy that no British or Americans seated about 45,000 people. The programme of events included took part in the rowing races in the Bay of Phalerum, nor in th the usual field and track sports, gymnastics, wrestling, rope- tennis, football or shooting competitions. The English fencing climbing, lawn-tennis, fencing, rifle and revolver shooting, weight- team (epée) was composed of Lord Desborough, Sir Cosmo Dug lifting, swimming, the Marathon race and bicycle racing. Among Gordon, Edgar Seligman, Charles Newton-Robinson, Lord Hoy. the contestants wete representatives of nearly every European ard de Walden (spare man) and Theodore Cook (captain), They nation, besides Americans and Australians. Great Britain took fought France to a dead heat in the final. The Marathon race little direct interest in the occasion and was inadequately repre- by far the most important event in the games. was won in 1906 sented, but the United States sent five men from Boston and four by a British athlete, M. D. Sherring, a Canadian by birth. Nine from Princeton university, who, although none of them held hundred and one competitors, representing 19 countries, took part American championships, succeeded in winning every event for In accordance with an unofficial method of scoring adopted by which they were entered. The Marathon race of 42 kilometres the special correspondents of the press, America finished first in (26m.), commemorative of the famous run of the Greek messen- the athletic section with 75% points, Britain second, ar points ger to Athens with the news of the victory of Marathon (see Sweden third, 28 points and Greece fourth, 274 points, The Greeks have never been able to repeat the intercalated series of MARATHON RUNNING), was won by a Greek peasant. Second and Third Olympiads.—The second Olympiad was games at Athens, partly owing to the expense, partly because the held in Paris in June, 1900. Again Great Britain was poorly rep- Athenian Stadium is not built for high speed round the corners. Fourth Olympiad—The games of the fourth Olympiad resented, but American athletes won 18 of the 24 championship events. The third Olympiad was held at St. Louis, Mo., in the (1908) were held in London in connection with the Franco-Britsummer of 1904 in connection with the Louisiana Purchase Ex- ish Exhibition of that year. An immense sensation was caused position, its success being due in great measure to the late James the finish of the Marathon race from Windsor Castle to the staE. Sullivan, the physical director of the exposition, and Caspar dium in the Exhibition grounds in London. The first competitor tọ Whitney, the president of the American Olympic Games com- arrive was the Italian, Dorando Pietri, whose condition of physmittee. Although there were scarcely any entries except Amer- ical collapse was such that, appearing to be on the point of death, icans, the programmie contained far more events than those of he had to be assisted over the last few yards of the course. He the previous Olympiads, including sports of all kinds, handicaps, was, therefore, disqualified, and J. Hayes, an American, was adinter-club competitions and contests for aborigines. In the track judged the winner; a special prize was presented to the Italian by and field competitions the American athletes won every cham- Queen Alexandra. In the whole series of contests the United pionship except weight-throwing (56 Jb.) and lifting the bar. The Kingdom made 38 wins, the Americans 22 and the Swedes 7. In efforts in throwing the javelin, shooting with bow and arrow, weight-lifting, running and jumping proving to be feeble compared with those of the white races. The American Indians made the best showing.

Canada and South Africa, scored 25 successes and the Americans

18. In the track events eight wins fell to the British including two colonials and six to American athletes; but the latter gained complete supremacy in the field events, of which they won nine, Since that time, however, coloured athletes have attained to a while British compétitors secured only two of minor importance. The London Olympiad of 1908 may, however, well be regarded remarkable prominence. At the Stockholin Olympiad, tgi2, James Thorpe, an American Indian, won the pentathlon by a margin of as marking the commencement of a fresh athletic era throughout 14 points and the decathlon with 8,412-955 points, which latter the world. It is worthy of note that the United States, in pursuit performance would have stood for many years as 4 world’s record of a progressive policy, has always at once included in the Amabut that Thorpe was unfortunately declared a professional on teur Athletic Union and inter-collegiate championship programme the technicality of once, as a youth, having accepted a small pay- any new event which might be added to the Olympic syllabus. ment for playing in a baseball game. At the same Olympiad, Louis The English Amateur Athletic Association (A.A.A.), on the other Tewanami, another American Indian, finished second in the 10,000 hand, for many years ignored such events as throwing the javelin, metres world’s championship. More recently France has produced discus and 56 Ib. weight and the hop, step and jump, and allowed one and America three negro long jumpers who have beaten 25ft., to fall into disuse, through lack of encouragement and facilities while two of the best sprinters Great Britain has had since the war for competition, such excellent exercises as pole vaulting, shot are H. F. V. Edward, a West Indian, and J. E. London, a native putting and hammer throwing, and gave but little more attentioa of British Guiana. A regular championship meeting is now held to high and long jumping and hurdling. In Igro the English Amateur Field Events Association annually in Kenya Colony for East African natives, and there (A.F.E.A.) was formed and authorized by the A.A.A. to hold are also Egyptian championships. The Greeks, however, were not altogether satisfied with the championships. The new championships instituted were standing cosmopolitan character of the revival of the celebrated games of high jump (J. E. Boyde, 4ft. 6in.), standing long jump (L. H. G. their ancestors, and resolved to give the revival a more definitely Stafford, oft. r13in.), hop, step and jump (M. D. Dineen, aift. Hellenic stamp by intercalating an additional series to take place 6in.), throwing the javelin (F. A. M. Webster, 118ft. r1in.), and at Athens, in the middle of the quadrennial period. Their action 44oyd. hurdle race (E. B. Grier, 63%sec.). By 1914 the purpose of

was justified by the success which attended the first of this addi-

tional series at Athens in 1906. This success may have been partly

due to the personal interest taken in the games by the king and royal family of Greece, and to the presence of King Edward VII., Queen Alexandra and the prince and printess of Wales; but to whatever cause it should be assigned it was generally acknowl-

the A.F.E.A. had been fulfilled, for in that year the A.A.A. incor

porated in its championship programme the javelin, discus, hop, step and jump, and the 44oyd. low hurdles, but even then these events were not taken so seriously as the others.

Fifth Olympiad.—Meanwhile the holding of the fifth Olym-

piad (1912) had been allotted to Stockholm, and the Swedes had

edged that neither in Francé nor in America had the games ac-

recalled from America that great athletic coach, Ernie Hjettbeg,

Greece, In 1906 the Governments of Germany, France and the

great distance runner in Hannes Kolehmainen, and a set òf m

quired the same prestige as those held on thé classical soil of to make ready a national team. Finland, also, had produced è United States made considerable grants of money to defray the ex-

ficent heavy-weight field events men, such as Saaristo, Taipale

| i

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Niklander, while France had come into prominence with the late ean Bouin, a world’s distance-running record holder, who was, however, beaten by Kolehmainen in both the 5,000 and 10,000 metres Taces. Germany, too, gained prominence with R. Rau, the sprinter, H. Braun, the middle-distance runner, and H. Leische, the high jumper. Great Britain did very badly and would have heen completely disgraced but for the superb running of A. N. S. Jackson, Oxford university, who won the 1,500 metres from a

amber of American world’s record breakers, and in so doing get up a new Olympic record for the distance; in the 400 metres

relay race Great Britain was also successful.

It is significant that at the Stockholm Olympiad the United States finished first with a total of 85 points, Finland second with 29 points, Sweden third with 27 points and Great Britain fourth

with 15 points. American athletes were again in the ascendant,

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members presented public schools challenge cups to commemorate the diamond jubilee of Queen Victoria. A public schools meeting was promoted that year and now the public schools sports meeting comprises 100, 4.40 and 880yd., 1m., 1m. walk, r20yd. hurdles, gm. steeplechase, high jump, long jump and pole vault, and

junior competitions for boys between 14 and 16 years of age, at tooyd., 2soyd. and high jump.

This meeting

is the most

important fixture of the public schools athletic season. Education of Athletes.—Here one may pause to draw attention to the splendid movement now in progress all over the world for the better athletic education of boys at school. In the United States the universities and colleges, as well as all schools of any standing, have their properly qualified athletic coaches. Interuniversity, inter-collegiate and inter-school athletic meets are exceptionally popular, and the same may be said of the Scandi-

navian and many other European nations. France, in particular, has established a ministry of sport. In Scotland inter-scholastic championships have long been in vogue. In England the public European nations, such as Italy, Belgium and Holland, were all schools sports meeting and also the public schools relay meeting, the latter under the auspices of the Achilles Club, are both estabshowing steady progress towards national athletic efficiency. More International Matches.—About this time, too, the cus- lished fixtures, and there is now an Inter-Schools Athletic Assotom of holding international athletic matches became popular. ciation (elementary schools) which, for the first time, held chamMost notable of all these, perhaps, is the Scandinavian Lands- pionships in 1925. But in no country, save possibly the United States, is there to be found anything approaching the Swedish temp, founded in 1917, in which Norway, Sweden and Denmark meet annually at Oslo, Copenhagen and Stockholm in rotation. schoolboys’ athletic week, held annually in Stockholm, to which France, too, entered the international arena with matches with city school teams journey from every part of Sweden. (See Sweden and Belgium, and Great Britain began to hold a trian- the United States section of this article, and TRACK AND FIELD gular international, in which England, Ireland and Scotland meet Sports, United States.) To revert, however, to the war period. The United States, amually. The other European nations, in meeting each other, contest practically the whole of the Olympic programme, whereas unaffected by the struggle in its early stages, and Sweden, Norway from England’s match with France are excluded such important and Denmark, which countries maintained their neutrality events as javelin throwing, pole vaulting and the low hurdles, and throughout this time of strife, forged rapidly ahead. In 1915 ‘in the case of the British triangular international the discus is at Cambridge, Mass., Norman S. Taber (Brown university, also omitted. In any comparison of international prowess in field U.S.A.}, placed upon the books a new amateur mile world’s record events it is only fair to note that neither discus nor javelin throw- of 4mins. 12gsees., which, at last, eclipsed the professional mile ing is practised at Oxford and Cambridge, and that the hammer- time of W. G. George, who, in 1866, covered the distance in his throwing event has been abandoned, while these events are regular match with W. Cummings at Lillie bridge, in 4mins. 12$secs., a features at all American and foreign schools, colleges and uni- record which was broken only by Paavo Nurmi in 1925. Taber's versities. Examination of world, university and school records race was the forerunner of a great many record-breaking pershows clearly that England has fallen far behind the other nations formances. In 1916 at Evanston, Il, R. I. Simpson brought the r2oyd. in athletics. This circumstance is directly traceable to the fact that no coaching, such as appertains in cricket, is given to high hurdles record down to r4$secs., owing to certain modificaEnglish boys while they are still at school, whereas the youths tions he made in the then accredited style of hurdling; and in of other nations enter the universities with their athletic education 1920, a young Canadian, Earl Thomson, who had served in the Royal Air Force, still further reduced the record time to 14%secs. already far advanced. The War Period.—After Stockholm came the World War, Two of the most noteworthy achievements of the war period were which prevented the Sixth Olympiad, although a vast stadium the performances accomplished in 1916 by J. E. Meredith (Unihad been built to house it at the Griinewald, Berlin. Many versity of Pennsylvania, U.S.A.), who set up new world’s records doubtless thought that in those strenuous years all sports must for the quarter-mile, which he ran in 472secs., and the half-mile come to an end. This was not to be. Alva Kranzlein, the Ameri- run in rmin. s2ésecs. At Magdeburg, in 1913, A. R. Taipale (Fincan sprinter-hurdler-jumper, had returned to Germany, the land land) threw the discus r58ft. xtin. This performance is duly recof his forefathers, to make ready the German Olympic team, and ognized as a record in Scandinavia, but has never been passed by in Germany or Holland he stayed throughout the war, laying the the International Amateur Athletic Federation. Otherwise it foundations of a great athletic future for those nations. He was would stand as the world’s record. Shortly after the signing of the Armistice, a great inter-allied probably the first person to discover, in the internment camp at Grivenhaag, Holland, the potentialities of H. F. V. Edward, the military athletic meeting took place in the Pershing Stadium at West Indian sprinter, who won so many A.A.A. championship Paris. Of signal importance at this time was the step taken by the authorities of the British services, who decided that the pretitles, In England championships were abandoned from 1914 to 19109. war custom of rewarding athletic proficiency among soldiers and Athletic meetings of a sort continued to be held under an unoffi- sailors by money prizes must forthwith cease. An inter-services cial general amnesty, which allowed pure amateurs and those athletic sports meeting was held in 1919, at which some of Great soldiers who had forfeited their amateur status to compete Britain’s dominion soldiers, not yet demobilized, proved clearly together. In Great Britain the London Athletic Club contrived that the dominions themselves would hold a strong hand at the to carry on the public schools sports meeting right through the next celebration of the Olympic Games. It is interesting to note war, thus assuring for Great Britain the nucleus of a fine supply that even after the United States had entered the World War, of athletes of international standing when the days of war should the national A.A.U. championships were not abandoned, whereas, be ended. This public schools sports meeting, which has done in Great Britain, no championship meetings took place between more than anything else to induce British boys to pay more atten- 1914 and 1919. Peace Conditions Return.—Jn the year of the restoration of tion to athletics, commenced in 1890, in which year C. H. Mason presented a quarter-mile challenge cup to be competed for annu- the A.A.A. championships the governing body again elected to events from the programme; nor have ally by public school boys at an L.A.C. meeting. In subsequent omit certain of the field but with their supremacy

challenged by Finland and Sweden.

Finland, Sweden, Norway and Denmark had now become definitely athletic countries; while France, Germany and the lesser

years other cups were given and in 1897 a number of L.A.C.

they since insisted upon the inclusion of these events, which score

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equally with the track events at the Olympic Games, in such important contests as the triangular international between England, Scotland and Ireland, the annual match between England and France, and the inter-county championships. The governing body in 1925 decided to abandon the English national championships. after they had been held for only three years, and were just beginning to produce a really satisfactory crop of fine young English exponents of these field events. The A.A.A. championships are open to the whole world and hitherto Great Britain has always been outclassed at the A.A.A. championships proper in the majority of field events. In Great Britain the sterling post-war work of the Oxonians, A. N. S. Jackson and B. G. D. Rudd, coupled with the exertions of the Cambridge men, P. J. Baker, G. M. Butler, R. S. Woods and W. R. Seagrove, was responsible for inducing university athletes to take a healthy interest in open competitions generally, and championship meetings in particular, outside the limited scope of , their own university sports. In 1919, the Inter-University Athletic Board of Great Britain

and Ireland was constituted, comprising the universities and university colleges of Aberystwith, Bangor, Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Durham, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Nottingham and Sheffield; other universities, including London, have since joined the movement. At these provincial universities the whole of the Olympic events are practised, and year by year the records, especially in the field of events, improve. The keen promotion of and competition in athletics at the provincial universities is having a far-reaching effect upon British sport. Sidney Best, of Leeds university, has been one of the most prominent people in the movement, and it is largely due to his efforts that there has been laid out at Westwood, Leeds, a ground which caters for every form of sporting activity, and which has an athletic track and field that is the equal of any to be found in the world. Other provincial universities are rapidly acquiring their own grounds, and as these are made available at certain times for the use of the general public, it follows that the nation must derive the greatest benefit from the I.U.A.B. movement. Lack of suitable tracks, playing fields and pitches is a factor which is seriously handicapping the athletic development of England, but this state of things is being slowly remedied by the work of the National Playing Fields Association. Much remains to be done before Great Britain reaches the level of the Dominions in this respect.

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| magnificent team work of her men, and Italy came into promi. i nence by the fine walking of Ugo Frigerio.

Further proof of the taste which the public was acquiring for international competition was exemplifed immediately after the games by the match between France, Sweden and the United | States, which took place in Paris, and that even greater match a | Queen's Club, London, between the United States and the British empire, which ended in a dead heat.

This latter match has evi.

dently come to stay; it was repeated in London in 1924, after the celebration of the eighth Olympiad at Paris. In 1921 the Interna.

tional Amateur Athletic Federation held an important congress Geneva.

New rules for international competitions were passed

and the Olympic programme at last standardized. The years tha followed the Antwerp Olympiad were years of wonderful progress

This is conclusively proved by the existing world’s records. ) Eighth Olympiad.—At the eighth Olympiad held in Paris in

1924, at which nearly 2,000 athletes, representing 45 different nj.

tions, took part in the track and field events the United States, in 27 events, scored 12 first places, made five of the nine new world’s records, and established two of the five new Olympic records.

while one of the two marks, equalling previous Olympic records. was also established by an American.

Of the other countries Fin-

land scored nine first places, Great Britain three, New Zealand one, and Italy one.

The manner in which world’s and Olympic

records were broken or equalled at this Olympiad was amazing.

In the 400 metres trials record was broken successively by J. Im-

bach (Switzerland), H. M. Fitch (U.S.A.), and E. Liddell (Great Britain). In the final Liddell still further reduced the record to 47% seconds. In the 400 metres relay race the world’s and Olympic record, 424secs., made by the United States, Antwerp 1920, was beaten, Great Britain, in the first trial heat, reducing the time to 42 seconds. This was equalled by Holland in the third heat, and in the sixth heat the United States further reduced it to 414 seconds.

In the first heat of the semi-final the United

States team set up a new world’s record of 41secs., and duplicated this in the final. Ninth Olympiad.—The ninth Olympiad, held at Amsterdam in 1928, with 47 countries contesting, was distinguished by the wide distribution of awards among the nations. Thus in the mara-

thon an Algerian “with a face like the Pharaohs,” El Ouafi, ran first, his victory counting for France; a Chilean ran second, a Finn third, with a Japanese fourth and an American fifth. The last with admirable candour explained his failure by saying “I ran too slow.” In the same way association (soccer) football was won by Uruguay, with Argentina second, Italy third and Spain

The participation of the University of London in the championships of the Inter-University Athletic Board had the effect of raising the standard between the years 1925-27. fourth. British India was first in field hockey. Douglas Lowe, Seventh Olympiad.—lIt was decided to hold the seventh winning the 800 metres for Britain, made an Olympic record, Olympiad at Antwerp in 1920, partly as a tribute to the Belgian 1 51¢ secs. In the broad jump E. B. Hamm made an Olympic people for the part they had played in the war, but principally in record, 25 ft. 49 in., for the United States. Olympic records were order that the true Olympic cycle might not be interrupted. also made for the United States in pole vaulting and discus throwThere was a great outcry that the war-worn nations were not yet ing, while victory in the 16 lb. hammer throw went to Ireland. sufficiently recovered to participate in such a festival. P. J. Baker, Counting by team achievements, Germany won the highest total, Cambridge university, was appointed captain of Great Britain’s including greco-roman wrestling and weight lifting. Finland sent athletic team; the whole Olympic side came under the control of marvellous long distance runners. From Canada and the United Brig. Gen. R. J. Kentish, C.M.G., D.S.O., and the British team States went excellent women athletes, a Canadian winning the won golden opinions in Antwerp. Great Britain did better in ac- high jump while an American won the roo metre dash. Gold, tual competition at this Olympiad than she had ever done at any silver and bronze medals were distributed to the winners by the previous celebration of the games. Notable victories were gained Queen of Holland. Athletics in Great Britain.—In America, Scandinavia, on by A. G. Hill in the 800 and 1,500 metres, by B. G. D. Rudd, the Oxonian, representing South Africa, who won the 400 metres, and the European Continent and among the coloured races of the by Percy Hodge, who broke the world’s record in the 3,000 metres world, athletic progress of an amazing kind is taking place from steeplechase. The British team succeeded also in winning the year to year, but up to 1925 it seemed certain that Great Brita must fall so far behind as to be at last forced to abandon the 1,600 metres relay race. At the conclusion of the Antwerp games, the United States was struggle altogether. Prior to the World War the secret of Great first, Finland second, Sweden third and the British Isles fourth, Britain’s failure in international contests generally, and at the the same order as obtained at the conclusion of the Stockholm Olympic Games in particular, was to be found in the circumstance games, but in the other positions there was a marked difference. that Oxford and Cambridge athletes took little or no part m athFrance, for example, eighth at Stockholm, was now fifth, while letic sport, outside the competitions confined to their own and each Italy had moved up from the eleventh to the sixth place. Amer- other’s universities; whereas the ever-successful American Olymica’s strength lay in the sprints, hurdles, relay races and jumps. pic teams have been composed of nearly 80% of university 4! Finland gained honours across country, in the middle-distances collegiate athletes. On several occasions before the war tentative races and the throwing events, Sweden scored heavily through the proposals had been put forward for the promotion of a jomt Ox-

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62.5

ird and Cambridge Leander Club. It was o all blues, and also yes from Oxford and

athletic club, similar in Character to the | mer and javelin throwing, the hop, step and jump and the 440yd. proposed that membership should be open | low hurdles outside the scheme. The essential fact is that. up to 1906, the Amateur Athletic Asto a limited number of other undergraduCambridge. With others, Kenneth Powell sociation, which is the governing body of the sport in England, (King’s college, Cambridge) and G. R. L. Anderson (Trinity had been unable to establish any liaison with the English public

college, Oxford) had planned a definite attempt to form such a dub in the winter of 1914, but the outbreak of war frustrated their intentions. These two famous hurdlers fell on active service, snd it was not until March 27, 1920, that the Achilles Club came into being. One of the reasons for its promotion was that for many years previously very few blues had taken any part in national athletics, and those who formed the club believed it to be most desirable that they should do so. They thought that the club, when properly established, would have great influence, and, although their chief purpose was the promotion of match (team and

relay) athletics, they also hoped that such a club would help to improve the standard of athletics in Great Britain. The sponsors of the movement have every reason to be proud of their endeavours. Athletes wearing the gold trimmings of the Achilles Club have rendered Britain the most valuable services at the

Olympic Games, in other international contests and in defending British national titles. The club is responsible for the public

schools relay meeting, which is held annually, while other missionary work that has been done ig magnificent. Achilles teams have toured abroad in Central Europe, America, France, Greece and Germany; and, at home, have competed in Ireland and Scotland against national and university teams and in England against county, regimental and public schools teams, with great educational benefit to their opponents. A direct outcome of the influence of the Achilles Club is that British athletics have become less individual by the introduction of that team spirit which is so wholly in accord with British tradition and temperament. A cautious decentralization of authority recently embarked upon by the A.A.A. marks a further step in

progress, since it has led to the formation of county amateur athetic associations, holding

certain administrative

and judicial

powers within their own territories. The essence of the county administrative scheme is found in the internal management of the sport by counties within their own areas, inter-county contests being an essential adjunct to the movement. At present Bedfordshire, which county instituted

matches in 1925 with the London Athletic Club and the University of London A.C., has probably achieved the most signal progress, In this connection it may be stated that England has for years past been divided into northern, midland and southern areas for administrative purposes, and that the furtherance of the county scheme lay at first entirely in the hands of the south, a circumstance strongly resented by the northern and midland districts. The Midlands are now more strongly represented, but the north still holds aloof. In 1925 the first English inter-county relay and team athletic championship, for the trophy presented by the Achilles Club, was held at Stamford Bridge, London; Middlesex proved the winners and have never since lost their championship title. The position, however, was an entirely unsatisfactory one. The fatal policy of booming certain events at the expense of others was once again fully in evidence, such events as hammer, discus and javelin throwing, the pole vault, hop, step and jump and the 44oyd. low hurdles being excluded from the programme. The result was that Bedfordshire, exceptionally strong in the field events and hurdles, and several other counties, refused to take part in championships which were not considered fully representative of English athletic sport. A pronouncement was made subsequently that the championship programme would not be in any way augmented in

1926, Consequently the midland counties, comprising Bedfordshire, Gloucestershire, Leicestershire, Shropshire and Stafford-

shire, for the time being, abandoned all thought of taking part in the inter-county championships.

The north also, although possi-

bly from different motives, refused to have anything to do with

the county scheme. In deference to the views of the counties,

however, it was finally agreed to include in the 1926 programme

the pole vault and throwing the discus, but this still leaves ham-

schools, which should prove the great recruiting ground for future Olympic teams. On the other hand, the counties, by reason of their more personal local contact, have in a few years begun to till this field, as is witnessed by the number of schoolboys who gained their county athletic colours during 1927, and the far greater number of school authorities who sought the advice and assistance, for the coaching of schoolboys for the annual sports, of old champions and other county experts. Notable examples of the value of coaching promoted by county associations are found in the cases of H. A. Simmons, Taunton’s school, Southampton, and G. M. Moll, Bedford, aged 15 (high jumpers) both capped for their counties in 1927, and F. R. Webster, Bedford school, who, at 12 years of age, achieved 7ft. 43in. in the pole vault and set up new junior records in Yorkshire, Norfolk and Bedfordshire. G. M. Moll’s winning high jump of sft. sin. in the public schools junior competition constitutes a world’s record for a boy of under 16 years of age. The year 1926 was notable in that it marked the readmission of Germany to international competition with the former Allied Powers. At Basle, Switzerland, in August of that year, a triangular international match took place, Germany winning with 1274

points, France being second (894) and Switzerland third (68). A month previously the first German athletes who had been allowed “o compete in England since the war appeared at Stamford Bridge, London, to contest the English championships and were well received. That the German people had already made up their minds to signalize their readmission to the Olympic Games at the ninth Olympiad at Amsterdam in 1928 was at once evident. Five German sprinters and one single British rep-

resentative qualified for the final of the English A.A.A. rooyds. sprint championship, which was won by R. Corts, Germany, in tosecs.; in the 880yd. race Dr. Otto Peltzer, Germany, not only defeated the 800 metres Olympic champion, D. G. A. Lowe, Great Britain, but, in doing so, set up a new world’s record of Imin. stgsecs. Later in the afternoon the German doctor was but narrowly defeated in the 440yd. race by J. W. J. Rinkel, of Cambridge university. In several other events German athletes placed prominently. In 1927 the Germans made an even more successful raid upon the English championship titles; H. Kornig won the rooyd. in 10,3,secs., H. Houben, the 220yd. in 2zgsecs., R. Dobermann, the long jump at 23ft. 114in. and G. Brechenmacher, the shot put at 46ft. 64in., while the Preussen Krefeld team took the 4goyd. relay race (4 x r10yd.) in 42$secs. In the case of the 1927 international match in which Germany defeated Switzerland, the German 400 metres relay team equalled the world’s record of 4rsecs. France, also, was met and defeated, the result being Germany 89 points, France 62 points. In addition to his half-mile record, Dr. Peltzer set up a new world’s record of Imin. 3gsecs. for 500 metres. J. Schlokat, after only two months’ practice, made a new German javelin throwing record of 2o04ft. 11% in., H. Hoffmeister, a new discus record of over 154ft., while G. Brechenmacher is a shot putter of the soft. class and R. Dobermann a long jumper of the 25ft. class. Athletics have rapidly attained an amazing degree of popularity in Germany; the country is starred with new, well-equipped tracks and grounds, and there is no doubt that Germany is becoming an athletic force which even America will have to reckon with in the very near future. Meanwhile Great Britain and her dominions overseas are steadily improving, as is proved by the running of D. G. A. Lowe, J. W. J. Rinkel, R. Leigh-Wood and H. H. Hodge and the hurdling of Lord Burghley, F. R. Gaby, S. J. M. Atkinson (South Africa) and G. C. Weightman-Smith (South Africa), while the American development in such field events as throwing the discus and javelin, which, in the past, have been considered almost purely Scandinavian pastimes, is no less remarkable. The general improvement throughout the world, and the resultant number of records which have been recently broken, is

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622

[RECORDS

due partly to more intensive competition, but even more largely ,at the Hellenic Festival, Athens, 1906. The events comprised to the direct application of science to athletic sport. Coaching, |weight lifting, wrestling (team and individual), 1.90 Metres elsewhere than in Great Britain, is now a recognized and remark- | walk, rope climbing and tug of war. At the Stockholm Olympiad | ably lucrative calling. This state of things obtains on the Con- | 1912, the pentathlon was revived, the events contested being tinent. Capt. Helge Lévland, athletic director to Norway, won jump, javelin, 200 metres run, discus and 1,500 metres run, Jy the decathlon at the 1920 Olympiad. In Great Britain alone is the that year was added to the Olympic programme the decathlon profession of athletic coach regarded as an unfit means for a comprising 100, 400 and 1,500 metres runs, 110 metres hurdles public schools or university man to earn his living, and, consequently, British athletes do not enjoy such efficient instruction as is obtainable in other countries.

The teaching of athletics has now become a highly specialized art, in which all the aids of science are being fully utilized. Medical men and dieticians play their part; massage is freely employed to improve the athletes’ condition and cinematography, slow-motion films and fixed cameras are used in the study of technique, to record faults, and to make plain to the athlete himself his own shortcomings. Scientific exercises are designed by physical culturists, and questions of temperature, as affecting athletic performances, are well understood, as also are the stress and strain involved in certain athletic performances. Recently Prof. A. V. Hill, F.R.S., University of London, has perfected an electrical apparatus which enables him to calculate the rate of speed of a runner at any given point of a race or training run. This apparatus consists of a series of vertical plane coils set up at measured intervals beside a running track and connected in series electrically with a galvanometer. The man whose performances are to be studied wears a thin strap of magnetized steel round his waist and the exact instant at which he passes each coil is registered by a flick of the galvanometer and recorded as a sharp wave on photographic paper. The moving paper is furnished with accurate time marks to enable readings to a 100th of a second to be made. By this means can be recorded :-~

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

The starting signal. Time over the whole distance. Time over every intermediate distance. Speed at any point. Acceleration at the beginning. Total time-lag in attaining full speed. Point of maximum speed. Gradual slowing down due to fatigue.

Other instruments are in process of perfection which will determine correct angles of departure and flight in the jumps and throwing events, and yet other apparatus which will enable the coach to see at a glance exactly where his pupils are going right and where they are going wrong. Much has been done in the way of athletic research; but, even yet, the processes at work in the employment of the athletes’ muscles are only beginning to be understood; science and its applications, however, are proceeding hand in hand and it is certain that performances still more remarkable than any that have preceded | them will be produced by future generations of athletes. For list of world’s records, see OLYMPIC GAMES and RUNNING. ALL-ROUND

ATHLETICS

Up to 1927 England had no all-round athletic championship, such as almost every other country has instituted upon much the game basis as the modern Olympic games decathlon. In ancient times athletes were encouraged to excel in several branches of sport, often quite opposite in character. Thus the athlete held in highest honour at the Olympic games of ancient Greece (see Games, CLASSICAL) was the winner of the pentathlon, which con-

sisted of running, jumping, throwing the javelin and the discus and wrestling. An all-round championship was instituted in America in 1884, comprising rooyd., 4goyd. and rm. runs, 88o0yd. walk, r2oyd. hurdles, high and long jumps, pole vault, throwing the 16 lb.

hammer and the 56 Ib. weight and the shot put. This contest has now been abandoned in favour of the orthodox pentathlon and decathlon run on Olympic lines. The ancient athletic pentathlon was revived in modern times

long jump, high jump, shot put, discus, javelin and pole vault.

The conditions of the present pentathlon are such that all e.

`

trants compete in the first three events, in each of which the winner receives one point and the second man two points, and s on. The total points of the competitors are counted and the 13 men with the lowest scores qualify to compete in the discus throw. ing; after the discus throwing the best six compete in the 1,500

metres flat race. At the end of all five competitions the competi. tor having the lowest score is adjudged the winner.

The winner of the decathlon is the one who scores the highest number of points in the ten divisions. At the third congress of the International Amateur Athletic Federation, Geneva, 1921, it was decided that for a result similar to the best result obtained at the 1912, or previous, Olympic Games, 1,000 points should be awarded, other results to be valued in accordance with the decathlon table.

If a result exceed the best “Olympic” result, corres.

pondingly higher points to be awarded. therefore, works out as follows:—

The basis of scoring

OLYMPIC Recorp Scores Up To 1912, 1@00 Pts. Event.

Olympic record. tofsecs. (1912)

e

roo metres

Additional pts,

sS€C. =47:6opts.

Long jump Shot put High jump 400 metres

760cm. = 24-934ft. (1912) 15°34m. =50-304ft. (1912) 1°93cm. =6-33rft. (1912) 48}łsecs. = (1912)

hurdles Discus . Pole vault

r5secs. (1908)

¢sec. = ropts.

45°21m. =148-326ft. (1912) 395cm. = 12-950ft.(1912)

rcm.=0-38pts. cm. = 5-4pts.

ryo metres

Javelin . 1,500 metres

61m. = 200-13 1ft.(1942) 3mins. 56ģsecs. (1912)

ICM. = 2-45pts.

Icm. = rpt. Icm. = 14pts. sec. =7-52pts.

|

| |

Icm. =0:275pts.

|

45sec. = y-20pts.

Pentathlon.

2tisecs. (1904)

|sec. = 22pts.

Among the best decathlon performances so far returned are those of the Finns, P. Yrjdla and E. Jarvinen, rst and 2nd in the 1928 Olympiad; J. Thorpe, the American-Indian who was disqualified after the 1912 games and H. M. Osborn, U.S.A., the Olympic winner in 1924. The schedules of performances are as follows: Rvent

Yrjöla Jarvinen | Thorpe Osborn (Finland) | (Finland) | (America) | (America)

Too metres

rz secs. | Zr} secs. | IT secs, | 11} secs.

L

ft. 22

ong Jump

Shot Put .

6 «x

409 metres

Javelin

162

ft. 22

in. ft. A 3y_ | 22 oy

5 9

6 he}

ó Sih

p

I5?

y

.

ft. . | I38

in. I

ft. 118

ft. in. 3} | r21

.

. | 182

9

182

4% | 149 tł} | 153 IH

.

, | 10 10 min.

rsgometres

in, 7%

534 secs. | 5x2 secs. | 52} secs, | 53% seh

tro m. hurdles.

Pole Vault

ft. 22

46 38 | 44 of | 42 38 | 37 6%

High Jump

Discus

in. I}

.

Total Points Scored.

,|/4

IO IO

secs.lmin.

44 | 4 8053: 20

I5 to

secs.jmin.

p

8

7751-06

n

in ati

tr 6

secs.jmin.

528 | 4 40%¢

7931-59

IÓ

ft. in. 3th | 113

|4

secs

9

7710805

Harold M. Osborpe, University of Illinois, U.S.A., the official world’s record holder for the decathlon, holds also the worlds running high jump record of 6ft. 84in. In the Olympic pentathlon at Paris, 1924, R, L. Legendre, Georgetown Univ., U.S.A., crea , a new world’s long jump record of 25ft. 6 inches.

In addition to the above all-round athletic championships there

is in the Olympic programme a modern pentathlon comprising"

ATHLETIC

UNITED STATES]

1, Revolver shooting, rapid at 25 metres (82ft. o,4in.) with be competitor's best hand.

3, Swimming, 300 metres (328-ogyd.) free style.

} Epée fencing.

j. Riding, 5.000 metres (5,468-11yd.).

(Horses provided and

drawn for by competitors. )

3, Cross-country running 4,000 metres (4,374-61 yd.). A modern pentathlon championship of Great Britain was insti-

tuted In 1924.

; Seg also ARCHERY; ATHLETICS, WOMEN IN; BOXING; CRICKET Cycuinc; DIscus THROWING; FENCING; FOOTBALL, ASSOCIATION; FOOTBALL, RUGBY; GYMNASTICS AND GYMNASIUM; HOCKEY; HURLING; JAVELIN THROWING: JumrIne; Lawn TENNIS AND TeNNIS; OLYMPIC GAMES; POLE VAULTING; POLO; PUTTING THE sgor; ROWING; RUNNING; SKATING; SKI; STEEPLECHASING: TRACK AND FIELD SPORTS; WALKING Races; WEIGHT THROWING: WresTLinc. (For Marathon Races see RUNNING). BreuiocraAPHY.—S. A. Mussabini, The Complete

623

sentative organization, endeavours to perpetuate interest in the Olympic games and to exercise jurisdiction over all matters relating to American competition in them. Direct relations with American colleges and universities are maintained through membership of such institutions in various member associations and the Intercollegiate Association of Amateur Athletes of America (see below, and Track axo Fern Srorrs, United States). The National Amateur Athletic Federation, founded in 1921, fosters amateur athletics, physical education and participation in the Olympic games, through its two divisions, for men and women. The men’s division is made up of some 14 organizations. including the Army, Navy and Marine Corps of the United States, the Young Men's Christian Association, the Catholic boys brigade. and the National Collegiate Athletic Association, which provides contacts with the colleges. The women's division is composed on a different basis. Members include (1928) 21 national organizations, among which stand the American Child Health Association,

the Girl Scouts, Inc., the Playground and Recreation Association of America and the Young Women’s Christian Association national board, 14 schools of physical education, ror colleges and uniTraining 92 (1929) ; versities attended by women, 43 normal colleges and schools,

Athletic Trainer

(1913); F. A. M. Webster, Evolution of the Olympic Games C Silfverstrand and Moritz Rasmussen, Illustrated Athletics T. E. Jones, Track and Field (1926) ; H. M.and A. Abrahams, iy Aibletes (1928) ; D. G. A. Lowe and A. E. Porritt, Athletics

(1914); (1925);

C. M. Butler, Modern Athletics (1929); F. A. M. Webster, Athletics of To-day for Men—History, Devélopment and Trainzng (1929); F. A. M. Webster, Athletics of To-day for Women—History, Development (F. A.M and Training (1930).

UNITED

SPORTS

STATES

Whereas in England the term athletic sports usually denotes track and field athletics, in the United States this term and

especially the term athletics include not only the track and field

sports (g.v.) such as running, jumping, hurdling and throwing, but

also team games, like football, baseball, basketball, ice hockey and, among women, field hockey, as well as such games as tennis, golf and polo. In America contests in running, jumping, throwing, weight-lifting, wrestling, boxing and shooting were popular throughout most of the colonial period and after the Civil War. It was, however, the inter-collegiate contests of the later 1860s and the 1870s which gave to athletic sports stimulus that has continued to the present day. Thus, the American interest in athletics, beginning in earlier popular matches of skill and strength became, with the subsidence of pioneer conditions, intensified after 1870 by college contests, and since that time, fed not a little by college sumni and by immigration from the northern countties of Europe, especially England and Ireland, has developed and promessed until it has undoubtedly attained an important position in the national life.

National Athletic Bodies.-In the United States there are dx bodies, national in their composition, which in function are either consultative and regulatory or executive, or both: the Amateur Athletic Union of the United States, the American Olympic Association, the Intercollegiate Association of Amateur Athletes of America, the National Amateur Athletic Federation, the National Collegiate Athletic Association and the National Federation of State High School Athletic Associations. The Amateur Athletic Union of the United States was founded in 1888. Through some 23 regional associations, covering thé country on a geographical basis, the A.A.U. “recognizes all amateur sports and daims jurisdiction over” basketball, boxing, gymnastics, running, including hurdling, obstacle racing, steeple chasing, walking, jumpmg, pole vaulting, shot putting, throwing the hammer, weights,

javelin and discus, swimming, tug-of-war, wrestling both catch-ascatch-can and greco-roman styles, weight-lifting, volley ball and indoor baseball and squash. In all of these sports the Union “has conducted national championships annually.” It governs in matters of amateur status, national records and licensing of meetings to the extent that it requires all entrants in open meetings to be

registered with it and to obtain its licence to compete therein. With the A.A.U. are “allied” 23 other bodies, including two British and two Canadian, the rest being American organizations. Formal intemational relations for American athletes are maintained through the A.A.U., which is a certificating member of the Inter-

national Amateur Athletic Federation, and the American Olympic Association of 79 member bodies which, through permanent repre-

private schools, 11 State departments of physical education, 25

city school systems, 45 individual public high schools, 48 local branches of the Young Women’s Christian Association, 2 Young Women’s Hebrew associations, 32 physical education and athletic groups, 17 women’s clubs, corporations and commissions, and 98 individuals. This division “believes in the spirit of play for its own sake, and works for the promotion of physical activity for the largest possible proportion of persons in any given group, in forms suitable to individual needs and capacities, under leadership and environmental conditions that foster health, physical efficiency and the development of good citizenship.” As regards American college sport and certain phases of interscholastic relations, some 118 universities and colleges unite in the National Collegiate Athletic Association, whose principal functions are deliberative and advisory and which divides the country into eight athletic districts, each containing a number of universities under the leadership of a vice president. The N.C.A.A. promulgates rules for inter-collegiate competition in association football, baseball, basketball, boxing, gymmastics, ice hockey, lacrosse, swimming, track and field events, volley ball and wrestling, names committees to prepare such rules, and holds annually one national track and field meeting. The Intercollegiate Association of Amateur Athletes of America, commonly called the “I.C.4A’s” and organized in 1875, is a supervisory and executive body composed of qr colleges and universities, about three-quarters of which are situated in the eastern States. Declaring its “absolute jurisdiction among its members over all forms of track and field athletics,” it conducts under its own rules two annual competitions; a February indoor meeting, and a May track and field championship meeting. The L.C.4A. veterans division is composed of former college athletes and officers of the association. It occupies a position somewhat analogous to that of the Achilles club in England. In 1927 some 88 varsity track and field meetings, 17 freshman track and field meetings, and 70 cross-country runs were held under various auspices according to I.C.4A rules. Among national bodies the National Federation of State High School Athletic Associations endeavours to link together the athletic associations of the high schools in the several States for the improvement of competition in all sports and for freedom of action within the field of secondary school athletics. A total of 29 such associations are thus federated. In addition, the American Federation of Labor is doing much to bring sport into the leisure of its members. Regional Athletic Bodies.—The most significant development in the field of inter-collegiate athletics during the past half century has been the athletic conference. Following upon such athletic organizations of the 1870s as the Rowing Association of American ‘colleges and the competitive relation that sprang from inter-collegiate contests in more academic fields, the athletic conference may be defined as a group of collegiate institutions, from 4 to 22 in number, which band themselves together for competi-

624

ATHLETIC

SPORTS

[UNITED STATES

tion in one or many sports under uniform standards and rules ’ portant principally to undergraduates. Later, with the INCTease of eligibility. The Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association| in alumni, it became more and more the concern of the graduates was founded in 1894, followed by the Intercollegiate conference With the earlier years of the 2oth century, however, the faculties (“Western Conference” or “Big Ten”) one year later, the Maine of colleges and universities began to attempt to recover espe Intercollegiate Track and Field association in 1896, the North- cially as regards football, the authority which 60 years previ ; west conference in 1904, the Missouri Valley conference in 1907, they had exercised over the administration of college sport. Te the Rocky Mountain Faculty Athletic conference in 1909, the these efforts and to the foresight of certain graduates, is due the Southwest conference in 1914, the Pacific Coast Intercollegiate division of college sport into two categories: inter-collegiate and conference in 1926 and the Eastern Intercollegiate conference in intra-mural. Only in 1927 did consideration of problems of inter1928. There exist (1928) 40 definitely organized conferences collegiate athletics lead to a statement of their purposes, first for besides several loosely associated groups. From deliberative assem- the Intercollegiate Conference (“Big Ten”) and afterward for the blies, many conferences have developed into executive and super- N.C.A.A. The ideals of inter-collegiate competition are set asa visory bodies furthering increased standards of academic work series of “objectives,” —that is, the theoretical ends which athletic and delegating to officers police powers to enforce regulations and competition between colleges should serve: “General primary objectives of inter-collegiate athletics: (1) investigate infractions. Some stipulate that the control of athletics in member institutions shall rest with the faculties, lay down To supplement and broaden modern education. In order to take stringent rules concerning eligibility (residence, attendance, scho- full advantage of opportunities of inter-collegiate sport to this end lastic standing, interchange of lists of eligibles, signed statements the entire inter-collegiate sport programme should be made a from athletes attesting their own amateur status), training periods definite part of the general educational scheme. (2) To promote and the employment and compensation of coaches, and not only the all round welfare of an increased number of participants— supervise competition between their member institutions in foot- physical (health, motor skills), recreational (pleasure in sport) ball, baseball, basketball and other team games, but also arrange social (increased ‘social insight,’ good will), moral and spiritual track and field, swimming, boxing and other meetings, whether (strengthening of essential attitudes and behaviour through illyconducted under conference or other rules. An estimate of the tration and practice). (3) To strengthen by illustration and exam. number of annual inter-collegiate contests for the year 1927 gives ple individual, university and public conceptions of sportsman. 5,000 in football, 8.000 in basketball and from 6,000 to 8,000 in ship (group, sectional, national, international: regard for player baseball. Some 20 inter-collegiate intersectional track and field or adversary in victory or defeat, proper balance in victory, courmeetings, about the same number of collegiate State meetings, age in defeat, fairness of attitude), team play, clean and healthful nearly 150 dual, 8 triangular and one or more quadrangular meet- living, true winning spirit (tenacity, honesty of purpose), selfings, take place each year. At least 9 relay carnivals are held control, self-confidence, citizenship (respect for rules of game annually by universities, college conferences and other asso- under stress, and for wise discipline and authority), fortitude. (4) To develop group consciousness, morale and spirit in the sense ciations. For high schools, each of the 48 States has its own inter- of loyalty to the institution, and to fellow members of the college scholastic athletic association which, bearing many resemblances community. (5) To reflect through representation the spirit of to the college conference, exercises an increasingly strict super- the institution (intellectual ability and achievement, moral tone vision over school competition in all sports. In Alabama, Cal- and idealism, genuine sportsmanship through behaviour and ifornia, Delaware, Florida, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, conduct). Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, “Secondary objectives of intercollegiate athletics: (1) To serve Pennsylvania, Virginia and West Virginia, the State High School as the peak of an all inclusive physical educational pyramid in opAthletic Association is allied with the State department of physical portunity for specialization and superior achievement. (2) To imeducation, which is a part of the State department of public in- prove mental health for players and spectators by supplying wholestruction. Each State high school athletic association holds an- some absorbing interest. (3) To foster wholesome stimulating nually at least one State-wide track and field meeting and many recreational opportunity for students, faculty, alumni and general send representatives to compete in inter-scholastic meetings held public. (4) To provide opportunity to ‘animal spirits’ for legitiby various national bodies. Attempts to estimate the number of mate physical expression. (5) To further the educational viewinter-scholastic football, basketball and baseball games have point and needs by securing and maintaining active interest of proved futile, although one authority has given 80,000 as a possi- alumni and general public in the educational institutions through ble annual minimum. the field of greatest common interest and appeal.” In each larger American city there exist one or more amateur With a view to diffusing more widely among student bodies the athletic clubs, which possess houses often luxuriously appointed. benefits to be gained from sport, most of the colleges and wiwith facilities for all forms of indoor athletic exercise (gym- versities of the United States have initiated athletic competition nasiums, swimming pools, running tracks, squash and tennis between the groups into which undergraduates are divided by courts, etc.), as well as outdoor playing fields. Such clubs, usually their daily associations and loyalties (fraternities, halls of resiaffiliated with the A.A.U. through its regional associations, draw dence, classes, etc.). The movement has owed much to the intermany of their more expert members from the ranks of former college contests of Oxford and Cambridge, but little directly college athletes. Many industrial and commercial establishments to the inter-house matches of English public schools. In these make much of athletic sports and games, and some provide foot- intra-mural programmes American colleges include all branches ball and baseball fields for their employés as a branch of com- of sport, although football is less widely played by intra-mual pany personnel or welfare work. Besides the State and local teams than might be expected. The “objectives” of intra-mual associations that unite in the A.A.U., the Young Men’s Christian sports, according to Prof. Mitchell, who has developed a reAssociation and the Young Men’s Hebrew Association are provid- markable interest in them at the University of Michigan, are ing centres for all branches of sport. recreation, the forming of social contacts, “group spirit” (sol College Athletics.—During the past 30 years, athletics in the idarity through loyalty), better physical health, permanent interAmerican college and university have undergone a significant est in sports, the development of varsity material, bodily prowess change, in both theory and practice. The middle of the roth cen- (strength, endurance, neuro-muscular co-ordination), and mental tury saw the establishment of inter-collegiate competition. The alertness as expressed in improved academic achievement. first Harvard-Yale boat race was rowed on Lake Winnepesaukee The endeavour of faculties to regain the administrative cot in 1852; the first inter-collegiate baseball game, between Amherst trol of undergraduate athletics has led to the formulation of the and Williams, came seven years later, and the first inter-collegiate doctrine of “faculty control,” which provides that the teaching football contest was played by Princeton and Rutgers in 18609, staffs shall be responsible for the administration and practice of three years before the first Oxford-Cambridge football match. In athletic activities of all students. A corollary of the doctrine, to those days inter-collegiate athletic rivalry was informal and im- the effect that all teams, inter-collegiate and intra-mural, should he

625

SPORTS

ATHLETIC

UNITED STATES]

coached not by seasonal coaches but by members of faculties. has| |

Stadiums

ed rather frequently to the elevation of coaches to academic ;| ,

gatus and full-year appointments, more rarely to American adapation of the Ozford and Cambridge system of athletic mentors who assist in the development of college and university teams and ' crews. Especially at mid-western universities, no distinction ap- ;, s to be held between, on the one hand, men who teach aca-

Normal Total seating o ee Cost fon ot. aes | university a

Owner see

eee

re

teach physical education.

In most of the American universities |

ne 10,386 | 22,000 | $340,000,

Association yD

| =.294 | 74,000 | 730,000]

the administrative control of athletics is divided between repre- || University of Illinois Ath- | E

sentatives of interested groups: alumni and former students, iaculties, trustees, who usually delegate their authority, and under-

graduates, who are generally a minority upon committees, if indeed they sit with them at all. Townsmen, also, are beginning to exercise a direct influence upon college athletic administration. The

influence and the practical nature of alumni interest are manifested through the offices of graduate treasurer, graduate manager of athletics and similar positions that, occupied by alumni, not infrequently dominate athletics in a college, and often in a salutary fashion. There is generally, however, an athletic association of

undergraduates, somewhat resembling the amalgamated clubs of

Oxford and Cambridge colleges and the athletic associations of certain newer English and Scottish universities, that still awards insignia and may name undergraduate managers and assistants, but has lost much of the power it possessed at the turn of the cen-

tury through the encroachments of the alumni and the movement toward “faculty control” of college sport. The central problem of athletic administration is generally considered to be financial.

Athletic revenues range from as low as

$4,300 at a small college of 229 undergraduates to $1,104,000 at a large university of 4,283 students. As at Oxford and Cambridge,

sate receipts from varsity football games provide the great bulk of the support for all other branches of inter-collegiate athletics.

At a few eastern institutions inter-collegiate football pays also for intra-mural sports. For example, although at the United States Military academy (West Point, N.Y.) intra-mural sports are

considered to be of great value in the training of army officers, the current expense of all athletics is borne principally by sales of football tickets and not by appropriation from public funds. Most of the State and western universities make the cost of intramural programmes, except the use of facilities, a charge upon their instructional budgets. When the use of facilities is in question, preference is almost invariably given to candidates for intercollegiate teams. The situation presents sharp contrasts with the practice at the older English universities of financing college sport from subscriptions to amalgamated clubs. American profits from football, after all expenses chargeable to that sport have been paid, have ranged (1925-27) to as high as $500,000 at a few larger universities, and football profits of from $200,000 to $300,ooo from a season's schedule or fixture list are by no means uncommon at colleges of moderate size. Exceptions should, however, be noted in the case of a comparatively small number of institutions where because football has either not been sufficiently exploited, or in spite of exploitation has not yielded profits, the game shows a deficit and athletics are mainly supported by student fees. In most of the colleges of the United States, therefore, football is made to show a profit. When this consideration, respecting not alone football but any other sport, receives an emphasis that makes it paramount in the shaping of an institution’s athletic policies, the result is a commercialism which no amount of “faculty control” appears powerful enough to abate. From the necessity of providing, out of football gate receipts, large sums of money, not alone for other inter-collegiate sports,

but also equipment used in programmes of intra-mural athletics and of “physical education,” has developed the need of accom-

modating huge numbers of spectators at even the less important

football games and hence the building of great stadiums, or arenas, of reinforced concrete and in many cases of much architectural merit, owned by college athletic associations, in which matches take place. Statistics concerning the largest or most

famous stadiums are as follows:—

letic Association -

'

|

demic subjects for their livelihood and coach teams as an avoca- || Harvard university Ath-

tion, and on the other, men who as a career coach teams and | ee

Stanford university Athletic Association .

| i Date > erected

'

as

. | 13,399 | 55,000 | 1,700,000;

4,201 | University of Michigan | ' 12,695 { Athletic Association

88,000 ' 70,000

|

1904 1914

1924

578,000 | 1925 1,131,000]

1027

Prompted in part by large increases in funds made available from football gate receipts, many universities have embarked upon ambitious athletic building programmes, opened golf courses, erected “baseball cages” and “field houses” (huge barn-like structures of brick for practicing track and field events, basketball, certain features of baseball, etc.), enlarged gymnasiums and installed indoor tracks, basketball courts, swimming pools, tanks for indoor practice at the oar and other facilities, built training quarters, boat houses and locker accommodations, acquired increased acreage for playing fields, and generally augmented material facilities, indoor and outdoor, for all branches of athletics. Accommodations for women’s sports have not kept pace with those for men except in a few instances. The medical supervision of college athletics is receiving increased attention, and at a few institutions, notably Stanford university, the physiological health of the student is being closely interwoven with the athletic programmes. In figures collected for the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, football exhibits the highest incidence of athletic injuries and accidents, with a total of 12 serious injuries (chronic sprains, fractures, concussions, exhaustion, internal injuries, myositis ossificans) among each 100 players,—17-7% among inter-collegiate contestants, 5-1% among intra-mural players; boxing, the next highest. 5-2%; lacrosse. 4-7%; association football, 40%; wrestling, 3.4%; baseball, 2-2%; cross-country running, 1-5%; ice hockey, 1-4%; basketball, 1-3%; track and field, 1-2%; Towing, 0-29%; and swimming and fencing. no serious injuries. The proportion of injuries for all sports is about 39%. Serious injuries are, of course, much more common in inter-collegiate than in intra-mural sport. Usually, injuries to varsity players are treat ed at the expense of the athletic association, which also provides, notably at Dartmouth, Harvard, Oberlin and the United States Military academy, facilities for team surgeons and trainers. Whatever the incidence of athletic injuries, the disadvantages that they imply should be judged, not absolutely, but in comparison with physical and moral values received by participants. Because no trustworthy method of measuring such values has been devised, they remain a matter of personal conviction. With the growth of the notion of “faculty control” of college athletics, there has developed a tendency to exalt the position of the coach, not alone in respect of his status and tenure, but also as regards his relative importance as a member of the college family. Because it is widely recognized that the influence of the coach, whether salutary or debasing, among college students is very large, an increasing care is taken in the selection and appointment of men for such posts. Among Europeans the impression seems to be current that the widely known college coaches in the United States are men of some medical training, whereas they have come from all walks of life—business, medicine, the law, teaching and the profession of arms,—and many have risen from

the position of trainer or even of rubber and masseur. The leaders in the calling, including, for example, those most prominent in the councils of the American Association of Football Coaches, are men of university and in some instances of medical training, but the man of achievement in the field is as likely to be of more humble origin as he is to belong to a more select group. Recent

626

ATHLETIC

recruiting to the ranks of college coaches from among graduates of schools of physical education, like the Young Men's Christian Association Training colleges at Springfield, Mass., and Chicago,

Ill., and the schools at the University of Illinois and Teachers

SPORTS hibit a tendency to uniformity:

[UNITED STATES (1) an athlete must have Com.

pleted one year’s academic work before entering Inter-collegiats competitions:

(2) the playing of transferred students, migrants

or “tramp” athletes is discouraged and has been in fact practi

college (Columbia university), Oberlin, Michigan, and most of eliminated; (3) competition in inter-collegiate contests ig erally limited to three years for each athlete; (4) a reasonable

the other State universities, is changing the situation. State universities are led to offer courses in physical education because State laws require that the subject shall be taught in public schools and teachers must be trained for the work. The number of coaches who with a hope of bettering their position have attended summer schools of coaching and physical education, no matter of what attainment such schools may be, is growing rapidly. Salaries of coaches vary over a wide range. On the whole, head coaches employed on a seasonal basis without appointment to faculties receive the highest pay. Of these, 12 have (1928) salaries running from $10,000 to $12,000, although one professor of physical education on permanent appointment as

director and coach is paid $14,000. The maximum salary among

college track and field coaches is $8,000.

With faculty status,

typical salaries ranged between $5,000 and $10,000, the majority being found at the lower levels, with a minimum of $2,400 or

$2,500. Considering the unprecedented rise in salaries paid to college professors in the United States, the average of coaches’ salaries is not alarmingly high, except when contrasted at individual institutions with the compensation of teachers of academic subjects. Most universities and colleges have from 3 to 20 coaches for all branches of athletics taken together. Coaching in intra-mural athletics, where less is at stake, being regarded as a less specialized task, is generally entrusted to assistants and to major students in graduate or undergraduate departments of physical education. Such departments and schools are providing an increasing supply of trained men for college coaching and for the teaching of physical education in schools, but the value of their training varies widely. In the United States college sports are classified as major or minor. A major sport is a branch in which public appearance or distinguished service as a representative of a university or college on a team or crew is adjudged to be worthy of an award of a “letter” (the right to wear the initial of the college; e.g., “C” for Columbia, “M” for Michigan, “P” for Purdue, etc.) upon a sweater or athletic uniform. For the minor sports there is the

standard of academic work must be maintained; (5) an athige

must conform to the rule that “an amateur sportsman is og

who engages in sport solely for the physical, mental or social benefits he derives therefrom, and to whom the sport is noth;

more than an avocation” (part of the N.C.A.A. rule; the LA AF

A.A.U., and I.C.4A. rule is not dissimilar). (See Amarr) Ig spite of this amateur rule, athletes in the past have received money payments, scholarships and aids in the form of clothi or nominal jobs, generally in a covert and devious manner, and

seldom with the open approval of college or university authorities. Such practices are decreasing, but there is still room for more common honesty in college sport, among the more rabidly

partisan college alumni, and among needy young men who aspire

through athletic subsidies to the advantages of a college educa. tion. The part played by the undergraduate in college sport in the United States involves far less responsibility than at English wiversities and even at certain English public schools. The strategy and tactics of all branches are almost universally the affair of the trainer and the coach. The paternal attitude of the college,

manifest for many years in the academic and disciplinary aspects

of university life, extends even to athletics. Thus has been lost much of one of the greatest benefits that college sport can confer. As regards inter-collegiate contests, the proportion of students participating has not greatly changed since about 1900, about 20 to 25%. Owing, however, to the fostering of intra-

mural athletics the country over, the total percentage of participa-

lesser award of “numerals” (of the class of the year in which graduation is anticipated), or second-string or other insignia.

tion in all sports now lies between about 45% and 65% of all undergraduates, a proportion which is still rather below some estimates for Oxford and Cambridge. Much of the increased participation in intra-mural athletics is due to the fact that a student who takes part in them to the satisfaction of the department of physical education thereby satisfies one of the “credit” requirements for graduation. Although the formal relationships of American college athletes with college athletes of other countries find expression through the A.A.U. and thé Olympic games, even more promising for in-

Major sports universally include football, basketball, rowing, track and field athletics sometimes embracing cross-country running,

ternational amity is the seriés of university track and field meetings inaugurated through the efforts of Dr. C. W. Kennedy, of

rowing, baseball (declining in collège popularity in some sèctions), and occasionally fencing (Columbia), ice hockey (Dartmouth), and swimming (Yale). Minor sports usually are reckoned to include lacrosse, tennis, wrestling, boxing, swimming,

Princeton, John T. McGovern, of Oxford blue, whereby in each year from Oxford, Cambridge, Harvard in England and the United States.

Cornell, and Bevil Rudd, old except Olympic years athletes and Yale compete alternately The athletes lodge together,

association football, golf, polo, fencing and occasionally rifle dine and train together, and exchange coaching suggestions where shooting, gymnastics, water polo, trap shooting, and on the Pacific coast English “rugger.” Programmes of intra-mural sports may include any or most of the major and minor sports and also volley ball, soft ball, touch football (a variant of Ameri-

can football without tackling), speedball, handball, any of the six varieties of indoor baseball, foul throwing or shooting adapted

such assistance proves helpful. The plan, which provides a near approach to the ideals of amateur international competition, has led to further contacts between Oxford and Cambridge, and Cornell, Pennsylvania, Princeton and Syracuse universities in lacrosse, tennis, golf and other sports.

School Athletics—In American tax-supported public from basketball, horseshoe pitching and occasionally, squash, schools and also in private schools, athletics bear many resem: bowling and hiking. Awards for intra-~mural sports take the form blances to college athletics. State departments of physical eduof “numerals,” medals, cups, plaques or pennants. All awards in cation, now parts of the educational systems of 17 States, genmajor and minor sports are generally made by committees of erally exert a wholesome influence toward the uniting of physical athletic associations on nomination by captains or coaches of education and athletics as regards both theory and practice. both. The University of Iowa has abolished distinctions between Playing field space has increased greatly, and few modem high major and minor sports. Sports for women, played under women’s school buildings are without gymnasiums, swimming pools, indoot rules, include field hockey and basketball, in which most women’s running tracks and basketball courts. In the Middle West a inter-collegiate matches take place, swimming, running, jumping number of well-appointed high school buildings have been erected and volley ball. Wellesley college (Mass.) rows. Certain colleges from the proceeds of basketball games, a beneficent commercialand universities (¢.g., Bowdoin, Dartmouth, Minnesota) especially ism that parallels the situation in certain colleges. Much atterfavour winter sports, like skiing, snow-shoéing, ski-jumping, skat« tion has been devoted to the selection of games and events suling and ite hockey. able to school age, especially by the Playground and Recreation College sport is essentially amateur, and all conferences and Association of America and the women’s division of the NAAT.

practically all individual institutions have strict regulations to protect the amatetir status of contestants. Rules of eligibility ex-

The results have proved salutary. Indeed, the whole programme of physical education and athletics in public high schools has been

ATHLONE—ATHOLL

627

built by John revised, strengthened and better adapted to the tastes, capabil- railway. A castle and a bridge over the river were in 1210. It ces of boys and girls. Of especial significance de Grey, bishop of Norwich and justiciar of Ireland

ties and circumstan

wre the tendency to have school teams coached by teachers, whether of physical education or of other subjects, somewhat

s and after the method in English schools, the use of playground equipment by school athletes and teams after school hours under

the supervision of qualified teachers, the work of the Sportsman-

chip Brotherhood, one of whose functions it is to hold the ideals of sportsmanship before school boys and girls, and the spread of school-boy athletic leagues, generally under wholesome and

non-commercializing supervision. Indeed, the tone of high school

athletics is in some respects relatively superior to the tone of athtics in American universities and colleges. In this field the Pub-

lic School Athletic League, of New York city, organized in 1907,

is the pioneer. It has equipped over 5,000,000 school boys and is

supervising the play of 600,000 boys a year, Competitors in its

meetings number from 7,000 to 8,000,

Considered to be the

most powerful single agency in the reduction of juvenile de-

became the seat of the presidency of Connaught under Elizabeth, and withstood a siege by the insurgents in 1641. In the war of

1688 the possession of Athlone was considered of the greatest importance, and it consequently sustained two sieges, the first by William III. in person, which failed, and the second by General Godart van Ginkel (g.v.). In 1797 the town was strongly fortified on the Roscommon side, but the works are now dismantled. Athlone was incorporated by James I., and returned two members to the Irish parliament, and afterwards one member to the imperial parliament till 1835. The river Shannon divides the town into two portions, the Leinster side (east), and the Connaught side (west), which are connected by a bridge, opened in 1844. There is a swivel railway bridge. The rapids of the Shannon at this point are obviated by means of a lock communication with a basin, which renders the navigation of the river practicable above the town. Some trade by water is carried on with Limerick, and with Dublin by the

linquency, the league has profoundly affected youthful athletic river and the Grand and Royal canals. Athlone is an important activities in the cities of the United States and Europe. As regards the salutary development of sport in high schools, much

agricultural centre, and there are woollen factories. The salmon

columns daily and from ro to 30 columns on Sundays, A few publishers of metropolitan papers, all of which usually exceed

straw hats, silk thread, meat choppers, and popcorn products, An annual fair draws an attendance of 20,000. A municipal Memorial building with auditorium was completed in 1924.

fishing both provides sport and is a source of commercial wealth. appears to depend upon the degree in which the authority of the There are two parish churches, St. Mary and St. Peter, both priAmerican At ities, responsibil his match to principal is made erected early in the 19th century, of which the first has near it athletic the vate schools, sport parallels closely in miniature tower of earlier date. There are three Roman activities of colleges and universities, On the whole, private school an isolated church court-house and other public offices. Early a chapels, Catholic more and better be to tend equipment other playing fields and of the castle, of the town walls (1576), portions include remains public of fortunate extensive than those of all but the more of St. Peter, and of a Franciscan foundation. On schools, and athletics are possibly a shade better supervised on of the abbey Ree, to the north, are ecclesiastical and the average. Teams representing private schools meet freely several islands of Lough other remains. The those representing public schools in most branches of sport. ATHOL, a town of Worcester county, in northern Massafuture of school athletics in the United States would be the chusetts, U.S.A. It lies in the valley of Miller’s river at an altint developme its assure brighter if those responsible for jt could tude of 570 ft., and is served by the Boston and Albany and the independently of certain influences of college sport, which now Boston and Maine railways. The area is 35 sq.m. The population tend to impair it. in 1930 Federal census was 10,677. The yaried manufactures inthe for made study Publicity and Sports Writers—A fine tools, shoes and leather goods, toys, mill machinery, clude American Society of Newspaper Editors (1927) indicates that, cribs, cradles, towel racks, combs, pumps, sashes, doors, tables, 50,000 of cities in d of 125 newspapers studied, one-third, publishe panes, blinds, gears, vises, drills, tents, cellulaid goods, window population and over, devote to sport an average of more than 10 this space, are adopting a policy of emphasizing amateur sports.

Athol was settled in 1735 and incorporated as a township in The best of the sports columnists and special writers, some of 1762. It was named by its largest landowner, Col. James Murray, widely, exert a commendable influence through

whom syndicate

their writings, but this is not the case with the more commercialized and sensational writers and newspapers. The undue attention lavished by sports writers, usually at the solicitation of university publicity agents, upon professional coaches and college athletes has been gravely detrimental to the best interests of amateur sport in the United States.

after the ancestral home of the Murrays, dukes of Atholl.

ATHLETIC SPORTS; BASEBALL, FOOTBALL, GOLF, TENNIS, etc.

population is mainly in Dunkeld, Pitlochry and Blair Atholl. The

Athletics (1928); C. R. Griffith, Psychology of Coaching (1926); À. E. Hamilton, Sportsmanship (1926); Recreative Athletics (Play-, ground and Recreation Association of America); J. T. McGoverp

Kenneth Macalpine in 843.

See articles: ATHLETICS, WoMEN IN, ATHLETE, OLYMPIC Games, TRACK AND FIELD Sports IN THE UNITED STATES and

ATHOLL or ATHOLE, mountainous district in north Perth-

shire, Scotland, area about 450sq.m., bounded on the north by

Badenoch, on the north-east by Braemar, on the east shire, on the south by Breadalbane, on the west and by Lochaber. It is watered by Tay, Tummel, Garry, and other streams. Glen Garry and Glen Tilt are the

by Forfarnorth-west Tilt, Bryar chief glens,

and Loch Rannoch and Loch Tummel the principal lakes, The

only cultivable soil is in the large valleys, but deer-forest and mountain are very extensive. It is said n, Book of Athletics (1922) ; shootings on moor and Physical Education (1922); P, Withingto (Atholl) after Fotla, son of the Athfotla named Society been and have School to College,” and School in W. J. Bingham, “Athletics Mitchell, D. the rule of a Celtic mormaer E. ; under was (1925) and Cruithne, Athletics king Pictish (1924); C. W. Kennedy, College Intramural Athletics (1925); S. C. Staley, Individual and Mass (thane or earl) until the union of the Picts and Scots under Bretiocrapuy.—-J. F. Williams, Organization and Administration of

ATHOLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF the Stewart line

Athletics and Citizenship (1926); L. H. Wagenhorst, Administration of the Scottish earls of Atholl, which ended with the 5th Stewart and Cost of High-school Interscholastic Athletics (1926); Training earl in 1595, the earldom reverting to the crown, had originated for Leadership in Girls’ and Women’s Athletics (Women’s Division, with Sir John Stewart of Balveny (d, 1512), who was created earl Berry, P hilosophy National Amateur Athletic Federation, 1926); theE. History of Physical of Atholl about 1457 (new charter 1481). The 5th earl’s daughter of Athletics (1927) ; F. E. Leonard, Guide ta Programs in the Dorothea, married William Murray, earl of Tullibardine (cr, Hygiene of Education (1927); 'T. A. Storey, Status

Institutions of Higher Education in the United States (1927); T. D. 1606), who in 1626 resigned his earldom in favour of Sir Patrick Wood and Rosalind F. Cassidy, The New Physical Education (1927) ; Murray, on condition of the revival of the earldom of Atholl in National Collegiate Athletic Association, Praceedings, 1906 to date; s, The earldom thus passed to the Camegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Bulletin 23; his wife and her descendant acAmerican College Athletics (1929); Bulletin 24, The Literature of3 Murray line, and John Murray, their only son (d. 1642), was

American. Schoot and College

Athletics, W. Carson oa

a

ATHLONE, urban district, Co. Westmeath, Ireland. Pop. (1926) 7,546. Ít is 78m. W. of Dublin on the Great Southern

cordingly acknowledged as earl of Atholl (the 1st of the Murrays) in 1629.

ATHOLL, in the Stewart line (d.

Joun Stewart, 47H Farr oP 1579), son of Jobn, 3rd earl, succeeded his father in 1542. As ove

628

ATHOS

of the principal Catholic nobles of Scotland, he was especially trusted by Mary, Queen of Scots, but after the murder of Darnley in 1567 he joined the Protestant lords against her, and was included in the regency of James VI. on ber abdication. But in 1568 he was again advocating her cause. He had failed in 1572 to prevent Morton’s appointment to the regency, but in 1578 he succeeded with the earl of Argyll in driving him from office. In March James dissolved the regency and Atholl was appointed lord chancellor. On May 24 Morton succeeded in regaining his guardianship of James. Atholl and Argyll, who were now corresponding with Spain in hopes of assistance from that quarter, then advanced to Stirling with a force of 7,000 men, when a compromise was arranged, the three earls being all included in the Government. While on his way from a banquet held on April 20 1579 to celebrate the reconciliation, Atholl was seized with sudden illness, and died April 25, not without strong suspicions of poison. On the death, in 1595, of his son John, 5th earl of Atholl, the earldom in default of male heirs reverted to the crown. Jonn Murray, IST EARL oF ATHOLL in the Murray line (see above), died in 1642. On the outbreak of the civil war he called out the men of Atholl for the king, and was imprisoned by the marquess of Argyll in Stirling Castle in 1640. Joun Mvrray, 2ND Eart and 1st Marquess (cr. 1676) of Atholl (1631-1703), son of the rst earl was born May 2, 1631. In 1653 he was the chief supporter of Glencairn’s rising, but was obliged to surrender with his two regiments to Monk, Sept. 2, 1654. After the restoration Atholl received many high offices in Scotland. He at first supported Lauderdale’s tyrannical policy, but after the raid of 1678, called the “Highland Host,” in which Atholl was one of the chief leaders, he joined in the remonstrance to the King against the severities inflicted upon the Covenanters, and was deprived of his office of justice-general and passed over for the chancellorship in 1681. In 1679, however, he was present at the battle of Bothwell Brig; in July 1680 he was made vice-admiral of Scotland, and in 1681 president of Parliament. In 1684 he was appointed lord-lieutenant of Argyll, and invaded the country, capturing the earl of Argyll after his return from abroad in June 1685 at Inchinnan. The excessive severities with which he was charged in this campaign were repudiated with some success by him after the Revolution. (A. Lang, Hist. of Scotland, iii. 407.) At the Revolution he wavered, showing no settled purpose but waiting upon the event, but he took part in the proclamation of William and Mary as king and queen at Edinburgh. After Dundee’s insurrection he was imprisoned for a few weeks. In 1690 he was implicated in the Montgomery plot and subsequently in further Jacobite intrigues. In June 1691 he received a pardon, and acted later for the Government in the pacification of the Highlands. He died on May 6 1703. He married Amelia, daughter of James Stanley, 7th earl of Derby (through whom the later dukes of Atholl acquired the sovereignty of the Isle of Man). JoHN Murray, 2ND Marquess and ist Duke or ATHOLL (1660-1724), was born on Feb, 24, 1660. He was a supporter of William and the Revolution in 1688, taking the oaths in Sept. 1680, but was unable to prevent the majority of his clan, during his father’s absence, from joining Dundee under the command of his brother James. In 1703~04 an unsuccessful attempt was made by Simon, Lord Lovat, who used the duke of Queensberry as a tool, to implicate him in a Jacobite plot against Queen Anne; but the intrigue was disclosed by Robert Ferguson, and Atholl sent a memorial to the Queen on the subject, which resulted in Queensberry’s downfall. He vehemently opposed the Union during the years 1705-07, and according to Lockhart, he could have raised 6,000 of the best men in the kingdom for the Jacobites. On the occasion, however, of the invasion of 1708, he took no part, on the score of illness, and was placed under arrest at Blair Castle. On the downfall of the Whigs and the advent of the Tories to power, Atholl returned to office, and from 1712 to 1714 was high commissioner. On the accession of George I. he was again dismissed, but at the rebellion of 1715, while three of his sons joined the Jacobites, he remained faithful to the Government, whom he assisted in various ways, on June 4 1717 apprehending Robert Macgregor (Rob Roy), who, however, succeeded in escaping. He died Nov. 14 1724.

KATHERINE Marjory, DucHess or ATHOLL, wife of the Bth ; duke, entered the House of Commons for Kinross and West p : in 1923, and in 1924 became parliamentary secretary to the Board |of Education. She was a daughter of Sir J. H. Ramsay the historian, and herself edited and contributed to Oe : History of Perthshire (1660-1902). The Atholl Chronicles have been private

vy i » of Atholl (b. 1840). See also S. Conan; ThreeCelticRelates a 909).

ATHOS, the most eastern of the three peninsular promontor

ies which extend, like the prongs of a trident, southwards fies

the coast of Macedonia into the Aegean Sea. Before the roth century the name Athos was usually confined to the terminal peak of the promontory, which was itself known by its ancient name, Acie. The peak rises like a pyramid, with a steep summit

of white marble, to a height of 6,350ft., and can be seen at sunset from the plain of Troy on the east and the slopes of Olympus on the west. On the isthmus are distinct traces of the canal cut by Xerxes before his invasion of Greece in 480 Be The peninsula is remarkable for the beauty of its scenery and

derives a peculiar interest from its unique group of monastic communities with their mediaeval customs and institutions their treasures of Byzantine art and rich collections of documents It is about 4om. in length, with a breadth varying from 4 te

7m.; its whole area belongs to the various monasteries. Owing to the timely submission of the monks to the Turks after the establishment of their empire in Europe and especially after the capture of Salonika (1430), their privileges were respected by successive sultans. Under the present constitution, which dates from 1783, the general affairs of the commonwealth are entrusted to an assembly (civaéis) of 20 members, one from each

monastery; a committee of four members, chosen in tum, styled

epistatae (émiorarat), forms the executive. The president of the committee (6 mpéros) is also the president of the assembly which holds its sittings in the village of Karyes, the seat of gov.

ernment since the roth century. The 20 monasteries, which all belong to the order of St. Basil, are: Laura (7 Aadpa), founded in 963; Vatopédi (Barowédiov), said to have been founded by the

emperor Theodosius; Rossikén

(‘Pwoovxdév), the Russian mon-

astery of St. Panteleimon; Chiliandari (XcAavré prov: supposed

to be derived from xiMo: &vdpes or xiħa eovrapra, founded by the Serbian prince Stephen Nemanya, 1159-95); Iveron (ù worn Tov “IBypwv), founded by Iberians, or Georgians; Esphigmenu (rol ’Eocquypévov: the name is derived from the confined situation of the monastery); Kutlumush (Kour\ovupotey); Pandocratoros (roð Ilavroxp&ropos) ; Philotheu (@:dofeou) ;Caracallu (rod Kapaxaddov) ; St. Paul (rod ayrov Tatdov); St. Denis (rov ayiouv Acovuciou) ; St. Gregory (rod ayiou T pnyoplov); Simópetra (Ziudmerpa) ; Xeropotámu (roð Ænpororáuov) ; St. Xenophon {rot ayiov AevedGvros); Dochiariu (Aoxerapelov); Con stamonitu(Kwvorapovirov), Zographu (rod Zwy padov) ; and Stav), the last built, founded in 1545. Deronikitu {rod Zravpovixirov pendént on the several monasteries are 12 sketae (oxjrat) or monastic settlements, some of considerable size, in which a sill more ascetic mode of life prevails: there are, in addition, several farms (ueroxia), and many hundred sanctuaries with adjoining habitations (keħ\ia) and hermitages (åexnrhpia). The monasteries, with the exception of Rossikón (St. Panteleimon) and the

Serbo-Bulgarian Chiliándari and Zográphu, are occupied erclusively by Greek monks. The population of the holy mountain numbers about 7,000;

about 3,000 are monks (kadéyepou), the remainder being lay brothers (xocptxol). The monasteries, which are all fortified, generally consist of large quadrangles enclosing churches; standing amid rich foliage, they present a wonderfully picturesque appearance, especially when viewed from the sea, Their mmates, when not engaged in religious services, occupy themselves ‘with husbandry, fishing and various handicrafts; the standard of

intellectual culture is not high. A large academy, founded by

the monks of Vatopédi in 1749 for a time attracted students from all parts of the East, but eventually proved a failure, and is now in ruins. The muniment rooms of the monasteries contam

a marvellous series of documents, including chrysobulls of. vat

ATHY—ATLANTA

629

ous emperors and princes, sigilla of the patriarchs, typica, iradés ATKINSON, SIR HARRY ALBERT (1831-92), New and other documents, the study of which will throw an important ' Zealand statesman, was born at Chester. England, and migrated + on the political and ecclesiastical history and social life of to New Zealand in 1555. He distinguished himself in the Waitara she East from the middle of the ioth century. Up to comparative- | war of 1860-65, and entered parliament in 1863. As minister of iy recent times a priceless collection of classical manuscripts was defence in Sir Frederick Weld’s ministry (1864-65) he was identipreserved in the libraries; many of them were destroyed during fied with the “self-reliance” policy of using colonial troops only the War of Greek Independence

(1821-29) by the Turks, who

employed the parchments for the manufacture of cartridges;

others fell a prey to the neglect or vandalism of the monks, who, it is said, used the material as bait in fishing; others have been

wld to visitors, and a considerable number have been removed

to Moscow and Paris. Se V. Langlois, Le Mont Athos et ses monastères, with a complete bibliography (1867); Duchesne and Bayet, Mémoire sur une mission en Macédoine et au Mont Athos (1876) ; Texier and Pullan, Byzantine Architecture (1864); A. Riley, Athos, or the Mountain of the Monks (1887); P. Meyer, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der neueren Geschichte und des gegenwärtigen Zustandes der Athosklöster,” in Zettschrift fiir Kirchengeschichte (1890) ; G. Millet, J. Pargoire and L. Petit, Recueil

des inscriptions chrétiennes de V Athos (1904).

ATHY, urban district, County Kildare, Ireland, 45m. S.W. of Dublin on a branch of the Great Southern railway. Pop. (1926) 3.549. It is intersected by the river Barrow, the crossing of which was disputed from earliest times, and the name of the town is derived from a king of Munster killed here in the 2nd century.

against the Maori. In 1873 he re-entered parliament, and in 1874

became treasurer. Except during six months in 1876, he thenceforth held that post whenever his party was in power. From Oct. 1874 to Jan. 1891 Atkinson was only out of office for about five years. He was three times premier, and was always the most formidable debater and fighter in the ranks of the Conservative opponents of the growing Radical party. He was mainly responsible for the abolition of the provinces into which the colony was divided from 1853 to 1876. He repealed the Ballance land tax in 1879, and substituted a property tax. In 1880 and again in 1888 he raised the customs duties, amongst other taxes, and gave them a quasi-protectionist character. In 1880 he struck 105% off all public salaries and wages; in 1887 he reduced the salary of the governor by one-third, and the pay and number of ministers and members of parliament. By these means revenue was increased, expenditure checked, and the colony's finance reinstated. Atkinson advocated compulsory national assurance, and the leasing as opposed to the selling of

crown lands. Defeated in the general election of Dec. 1890 he became speaker of the legislative council. While leaving the council chamber after the sitting of June 28 1892, he died suddenly of heart disease. Though brusque in manner and never popular, he Union, Athy returned two members to the Irish parliament. There was esteemed as a vigorous, upright, and practical statesman. are good water communications, by a branch of the Grand canal ATKINSON, ROBERT (15839-1908), British philologist, to Dublin, and by the river Barrow, navigable from here to Water- was educated at Trinity college, Dublin. He became professor of ford harbour. Romance languages there in 1869, and in 1871 was professor of ATINA, the name of three ancient towns of Italy. (1) A Sanskrit and comparative philology. In 1884 he became Todd town (mod. Atena) of Lucania, upon the Via Popillia, 7m. N. of professor of Celtic languages in the Irish academy. In Celtic Tegianum, towards which an ancient road leads, in the Diano studies Atkinson was a pioneer. He edited: The Passions and valley. Walls of rough cyclopean work may have had a total Homilies from the Leabhar Breac (1887); Three Shafts of Death extent of some two miles. There are remains of an amphitheatre (Tri Bior-gaoithe an Bhais, 1890), and also wrote introductions and numerous inscriptions, including one carved upon the paving for many of the facsimiles issued by the Irish academy. blocks of the ancient forum (or market place). (2) a town (mod. ATKYNS, CHARLOTTE, LADY (1785-1836), English Atina) of the Volsci, 12m. N. of Casinum, and about 14m. E. of actress, née Charlotte Walpole, who married Sir Edward Atkyns Arpinum; (3) a town of the Veneti, mentioned by Pliny. in 1779. She was in France during the Revolution, and was a ATITLAN or SANTIAGO DE ATITLAN, a town in the faithful friend of the royal family. See F. Barbey, A Friend of Marie Antoinette (1906). department of Sololá, Guatemala, on the southern shore of Lake ATLANTA, the capital of Georgia, U.S.A., and its largest Atitlán. Pop. (1905) about 9,000; (1921) 7,675, almost all Indians. Cotton-spinning is the chief industry. Lake Atitlán is 24m. city, in the north-central part of the State, 8 m. from the Chattalong and rom. broad, with 64m. circumference. It occupies a hoochee river; lying mostly in Fulton county, of which it is the crater more than 1,000ft. deep and about 4,700ft. above sea-level. county seat, but partly also in De Kalb county. It is on the The peaks of the Guatemala Cordillera rise round it, culminating Dixie and the Bankhead highways, has a municipal airport, and near its southern end in the volcanoes of San Pedro (7,oooft.) and is served by 15 lines of eight railways: the Atlanta, Birmingham Atitlan (11,719ft.). Although the lake is fed by many small and Coast, the Atlanta and West Point, the Central of Georgia, mountain torrents, it has no visible outlet, but probably communi- the Georgia, the Louisville and Nashville, the Nashville, Chatta-

There are remains of Woodstock castle of the 12th or 13th century. White castle, built in 1506 and rebuilt in 1575, is still occupied. Both defend the ford. There are also an old town gate and ancient cemetery with slight monastic remains. Previous to the

cates by an underground channel with one of the rivers which

drain the Cordillera. Mineral springs abound in the neighbouri The town of Solola (g.v.) is near the north shore of the ke.

ATKARSK,

a port and railway

junction on the river

Medvyeditsa, with a grain elevator, in the Saratov province of the

USS.R. Pop. (1926) 19,326. ‘Lat. 51-52° N. Long. 44-58° E. ATKINSON, EDWARD

(1827-1905), American economist,

was born at Brookline (Mass.) on Feb. 10, 1827. For many years he was engaged in managing various business enterprises, and became, in 1877, president of the Boston Manufacturers’ Mutual Fire Insurance Co., a post which he held till his death. He was a strong controversialist and a prolific writer on economic subjects.

nooga and St. Louis, the Seaboard Air Line, and the Southern. It is the largest city between Washington and New Orleans, the com-

mercial and financial capital of the south-east, and also an important manufacturing and educational centre. The population was 89,872 in 1900; 154,839 in 1910; 200,616 in 1920, of whom 62,796 were negroes and 4,738 foreign born; and was 270,366 (after several annexations of territory) in 1930 by the Federal

census. The city lies on the Allegheny watershed, at an altitude of 1,000-1,175 ft., and is surrounded by the foothills of the Blue Ridge mountains. The rainfall is evenly distributed through the year, and the average mean monthly temperature ranges between

43-2° in January and 781° in July. The air is bracing, and

He was appointed in 1887 a special commissioner to report upon

deaths from sunstroke are unknown.

of mill construction and fire prevention, and invented an improved

In 1836 the present site of the Union station was selected for the

the status of bimetallism in Europe. He also made a special study cooking apparatus, called the “Aladdin oven.” He died at Boston

Atlanta owes its existence and development to the railroads.

southern terminus of a projected State railway; and within a

on Dec. 11, 1905. His principal works were Right Methods of few decades, as one railway after another built from other direcPreventing Fires in Mills (1881); Distribution of Products tions to the same point, it became the principal transportation (1885); Industrial Progress of the Nation (1889); Taxation and

Work (1892); and Margin of Profits (1902).

centre in the southern States. The city was laid out in a circle

with a radius of 14 m., which bad for its centre the old Union

ATLANTA

630

station. The original area has been increased by successive annex- ' The city pumps its water-supply from the Chattahoochee riy ations of territory in all directions until it is now 31-7 sq.m., and |and the present equipment is sufficient to supply a populatie the metropolitan area includes about 111 sq.miles. As the city | 50% larger than is now served. The sewerage system (a double

was almost completely destroyed by Sherman's raid in 1864, it |system, with one set of pipes to carry off storm water and

is nearly all of recent construction. In 1920 a city planning ; another for the sewage) extends to 90% of the total sif commission was established, and it has secured the adoption of mileage, and additional mains are under construction, Coal € = by in Alabama, Tennessee, a zoning ordinance (1922) which will promote the diffusion of from mines near ? andiu : z and Kentucky, z * : population. There are beautiful streets and residence sections, cheap. Electrical energy is brought in by nine long-distance high tension transmission lines, from various water-power deye i ments. Most of the industries use electric power; the total | supplied to Atlanta in 1925 amounted to 267,837,448 kilowatt

hours. The power company operates also a steam-heating plan which provides heat from underground mains for offices and other buildings in the central business district. The assessed valuation

of property for purposes of taxation was $369,365,690 in 1026

representing an actual value of about $530,000,000.

There were

53,061 telephones in use that year, and in 1925 the number of

licenses issued for privately owned passenger motor cars in the city and Fulton county was 41,651. The cost of living in Atlanta runs 7 or 8% below the average for American cities. Atlanta’s trade area embraces the entire south-eastern quarter

of the United States.

THE

STATE

CAPITOL

Beside a collection

BUILDING

of portraits

contains an extensive law Jibrary.

General John Brown

AT

ATLANTA,

of famous

COMPLETED

Georgians,

IN

the capitol

1889

building

The equestrian statue on the left represents

Gordon, distinguished

in the American Civil War

among them Peachtree street, Ponce de Leon avenue, Pace’s Ferry road, Druid Hills, Ansley Park, and Morningside Park. The business section has many large hotels and sky-scrapers; its principal office-huildings contain over 2,500,000 sq.ft. of floor

space. The streets are over-crowded with traffic, and projects for widening some of them are under consideration. The principal railway station, the Terminal, is modern and well equipped.

In 1926 there were 394 wholesale houses

and 3,749 retail establishments in the city, and 40 transport companies operating 130 motor trucks for commercial hauling exclusively; 500 cars of merchandise and package freight moved out daily over the various railways; and the post office receipts were $3,628,323. While Atlanta ranks 33rd in population (1930) among the cities of the United States, it ranks 21st in amom of postal receipts, and 15th in bank clearings. It is the seat of

the sixth Federal Reserve Bank. Debits to individual accounts

in the city’s banks amounted

to $1,905,259,000 in ro25, and

clearing-house exchanges to $3,370,400,000. Retail sales for 1926 totalled $177,782,800, or $728 per capita; sales by the wholesale establishments, $5 35,645,200.

There were 428 manufacturing establishments within the city limits in 1927, and the aggregate value of their output was $115, 830,250, about 19% of the total for the State. Many mote are located outside the city, within the metropolitan area. Printing

National Capitol in Washington, The Federal Reserve Bank is a

and publishing, especially of agricultural and trade journals, is an important industry. The leading manufactures include cotton goods, cottonseed oil, furniture and other lumber products, fer-

house, of granite and terra-cotta tile, the city quditorlum-ar-

modern

The old Union station is still used by three roads.

The State Capitol, built in 1884-89, is designed after the

magnificent building of Georgia marble. The Fulton county court

moury, which has a hall seating 6,000, the Federal building and the Carnegie library (opened 1902) are other conspicuous public

tilizer, agricultural machinery and implements, and (as in all American

cities) confectionery,

ice-cream and bakery

products; but there are no dominating industries, and more than 1,500 commodities are made within the metropolitan area. Many industries of national scope have established branches at Atlanta, either for production or for storage and distribution of their goods. The public-school system comprises (1926) 76 elementary schools, four junior and four senior high schools, with a total enrolment of 56,320. In 1921-22 on the occasion of a special appropriation of $4,000,000 for the development of the school plant, a comprehensive survey of the system was made, and plans

buildings. The Georgia training school for girls, a State reformatory institution, is about 7m. outside the city. On the southern boundary of the city are the State home for Confederate veterans; the Federal penitentiary, one of the three prisons maintained by the U.S. Government: and Ft. McPherson, a large army post of the 4th Corps Area, which has its headquarters in the city. There are many points of historic interest in and near the city, especially in connection with the Civil War. The home of Joel Chandler Harris, the author of “Uncle Remus,” is kept as a were mapped out to meet anticipated needs as far ahead as 10940. memorial to him; and the old red brick building in which Wood- The free public library (organized 1899, when the city accepted a row Wilson began the practice of law still stands. There is a double offer from Andrew Carnegie and the Young Men’s Library statue of Henry W. Grady in front of the city hall, and the Association) has an annual circulation of over 630,000 volumes. memory of this beloved orator and editor, who did much to miti- It maintains eight branches, and conducts a school for training gate the bitterness between the North and the South after the librarians, which since 1925 has been affiliated with Emory ur Civil War, is further cherished in the names of the largest city versity. There are 586 churches within the metropolitan area (301 of them maintained by coloured people) representing 20 dehospital and one of the leading hotels. There are 61 parks, squares, and open spaces in the city, with a nominations. Charitable institutions and agencies, about 40 m total area of 1,200 acres. They include 24 playgrounds for chil. number, are financed through a “community chest.” Atlanta has many institutions for the higher education of both dren, 62 double tennis-courts, two nine-hole golf courses, 12 baseball diamonds, three football fields, six swimming pools, and two white and coloured students. The Georgia institute of technology basketball courts—all maintained by the city for public use. (opened 1888) is a part of the State university (see ATHENS). The largest parks are Piedmont (185 ac.); Grant (144 ac.), Oglethorpe university (originally conducted at Midway, destroyed which contains Ft. Walker, a part of the breastworks in the during the Civil War, and reopened at Atlanta in 1916), the battle of Atlanta; and Lakewood (386 ac.), which is used as alma mater of Sidney Lanier, occupies beautiful blue granite fair-grounds by the South-eastern Fair Association. There are buildings on a campus of 137ac. north of the city. Emory mr several fine country clubs outside the city; and in all (public and versity (founded by the Methodist Episcopal Church South m ies there are ten golf courses here in the home of Bobby 1914) incorporates Emory college, named after Bishop Jobn ones. Emory of Maryland (d. 1335), which was conducted 1837-1939

ATLANTA, BATTLES ROUND

631

sound the death-knell of the st Oxford, Georgia. it has endowments of $4,362,745, and its | that the fall of Atlanta would the enemy he “was willing to meet campus of 1602¢. 1s Just outside the city, in Druid Hills. Agnes | Confederacy and to attain that well-constructed parapets” (Sherbehind not but field open the in | and Scott college for women is in the suburb of Decatur (g.v.) wrote, “too strong to be taken the Georgia military academy Is at College park, 7m. to the | man). If Atlanta was. as Joknston

to be invested,” still the Confederate south-west. Besides the professional schools of the universities |by assault and too extensive its sources of there are the Atlanta theological seminary (Congregational), the | army could be forced to evacuate it by cutting off

MontAtlanta law school, the Atlanta-Southern dental college, the At- | supply. Three railways fed Atlanta, viz., the Augusta, by Grant that was warned lanta college of pharmacy and the Southern college of pharmacy. | gomery and Macon lines. Sherman Lee might send reinforcements from Virginia, and these troops

The institutions for coloured students include Atlanta university

(founded 1865 by the American Missionary Association),

the | would probably follow the Augusta route, as Longstreet had done

to destroy the pioneer in advocating and furnishing opportunities for cultural | the previous year. Therefore Sherman decided to put it out of action hoping Decatur, of east railway Augusta | was Bois du Burghardt E. W. which with negroes, for education his operations against Atlanta and to associated for many years, Morehouse college, established in | long enough to complete

wing. Augusta, in 1870, by the Baptist Home Missionary Society; | close in upon the city from the north and east. His left XVIL and XVI. (XV., Tennessee the of Army McPherson's | Society Aid Freedmen’s the by Clark university, founded in 1870 from Roswell and strike the of the Methodist Episcopal Church; Morris Brown university, | Corps) was ordered to advance mountain, Schofield’s Army founded in 1882 by the African Methodist Episcopal Church; | railway between Decatur and Stone straight upon Decatur, march to Corps) (XXIII. Ohio the of | éstabEpiscopal) (Methodist and Gammon theological seminary

ished and endowed in 1883 by Dr. Elijah Gammon.

where it would be joined by McPherson, and Thomas with the

XIV. and XX. Corps) to advance Three daily newspapers are published: the Constitution (estab- |Army of the Cumberland (IV., to fight for Atlanta. He had premeant Johnston Atlanta. upon | (1850-89), lished 1868), edited 1880-89 by Henry W. Grady Peach-tree Creek forming a semibehind defence of line a pared | the and Journal the 1863), (b. Howell Clark by 1889 and since the city, with its flanks resting on the of north the round circle Georgian. forces of the two comOn Stone Mountain, a hill of naked granite 15m. E. of Atlanta, | Chattanooga and Augusta railways. The they had ever been. than equal nearly more now were batants | under is Confederacy Southern the to a magnificent memorial north of the detachments strong leave to had Sherman For | hundreds construction. When completed, a military procession of his communications against cavalry of figures chiselled in bold relief will sweep across the perpen- | Chattahoochee to protect to hold his fortified lines with the dicular cliff (800ft..high and 5,oooft. long) on the north side | raids, and Johnsion hoped Governor was sending to Atlanta, State the which militia, Georgia | of the mountain, “reviewed” by a central group representing the Federals in flank. But Johnattack corps three his with and | Davis, Jefferson including Command, High the Confederate of his corps commanders (July one Hood, by superseded was ston | work The . Robert E. Lee, Stonewall Jackson and a colour-bearer as one of Davis’s worst misregarded generally step, was begun by Gutzon Borglum and continued by Augustus Luke- | 17). This by certain influential President the upon forced was takes, a} as serve to out, quarried be will hall man, A vast memorial intending to abanwas Joknston that represented who Georgians, depositary for records and relics of the Confederacy. Government could get no History.—In 1821 this region was ceded to the State of | don Atlanta without a battle. The plans from Johnston, whose relations Georgia by the Creek Indians. In 1825 a lottery was held, and | definite statement of his strained since the autumn of 1861. been had President the with | was land lot no. 78, on which the greater part of the city stands, more aggressive policy must be a that decided was It The $50. for year following the it sold who Doss, Jane drawn by won a well-deserved reputation as had who Hood, and adopted, | dwelling his Near frst cabin was built in 1833, by Hardy Ivy. Lee, was appointed in Johkuston’s place. the railway engineers in 1836 drove their stake to mark the end | a fighting general under had explained to his sucof the proposed State railroad. The village was appropriately | Johnston on turning over the command decided to execute Hood and offensive, an for plans his cessor | was called Terminus at first, but in 1843, when a town charter use two corps for his offensive, secured, the narne was changed to Marthasville, in honour of the | them forthwith. But he could only The disposition of Sherman’s daughter of Gov. Wilson Lumpkin; and in 1847, when the city | as only 2,500 militia had arrived. were rom. apart and there flanks two The attack. invited armies | was incorporated, it was again changed to Atlanta, which was left and Schofield’s right. Thomas's between gap big a was | Western (the railroad the of name the by probably suggested

and Stewart’s corps to attack and Atlantic). The population in 1850 was 2,572; in 1860, 9,854. | Hardee was ordered with his own drive it

Peach-tree creek, and During the Civil War the city was the seat of military factories |Thomas’s army, when crossing creek and the river. But the the between pocket the into down | of objective the became it 1864 In and a depot of supplies. Confederate on-

invasion of Georgia from Chattanooga. The battle of | Federals held their ground and beat off all the

Sherman’s of the 21st Hood withdrew his Atlanta was fought on July 22, and other severe engagements slaughts (July 20). On the night ts and sent Hardee’s corps éntrenchmen of line inner an into troops | 2 Sept. On August. and July took place in the vicinity through the exposed flank and rear upon fall to Atlanta of east the round | the Union troops entered the city; the citizens were ordered to to be threatening a moveseemed which army, McPherson’s of | on When, camp. military a into turned was place the leave, and railway. Hood intended, as soon as Nov. 1s, Sherman started on his “march to the sea,” the city |ment against the Macon

to move was fired and a large part of it burned. The military government Hardee’s attack threw the Federal left into confusion, succession in ts entrenchmen their from corps two other his out | Atlanta 1868 in and 1865, in here of Georgia was established left to right. After was made the capital of the State. The International Cotton | and hoped to roll up the Federal line from in the thick woods position a reached ardee march night 15m. a | in Exposition Piedmont the 1881; in Exposition was held here which had just left, McPherson’s overlapped right his where | Exposition, 1887; and in 1895 the Cotton States and International . The Confederates the by vacated ts entrenchmen the occupied which had exhibits from 37 states and 13 foreign countries. as their cavalry was away surprise, by taken were Federals | round fighting The ROUND. ATLANTA, BATTLES and Sherman himself imagined Atlanta (July 20-Sept. 2, 1864), the Jast phase of the Atlanta | tearing up the Augusta railway

evacuating Atlanta. But the unexpected appearance campaign (May-Sept.), ended with Sherman, the Federal general, |Hood to be Corps in rear of McPherson’s left prevented the ConXVI. of-the | the of City Gate “the évacuate forcing his opponent Hood to

falling upon the enemy rear, and the onslaughts of South.” Having manoeuvred Hood’s predecessor, J. E. Johnston, | federates from left and of Cheathams corps, which advancing their on Hardee | a him before had Sherman 9), (July ee actoss the Chattahooch up the attack against the Federal front, were took lines its from | of destruction the twofold objective, the capture of Atlanta and Army of the Tennessee, which fought this the by repulsed finally | a by compassed be could ends two the If army. the Confederate of Atlanta (July 22), the bloodiest battle the as known battle, | dealready had single stroke, so much the better; but Sherman unaided. It lost its commander, practically campaign, whole the of cided that, if to take Atlanta he must let the enemy army escape, outset. Logan took over the the at killed was who McPherson, | believed He task. important more the was city the of the capture

632

ATLANTES—ATLANTIC

CITY

temporary command, but Howard was formally appointed McPherson’s successor (July 27). The railway bridge over the Chattahoochee was rebuilt (July 25), and for the greater security of his communications Sherman decided to advance against the Macon railway by his right flank instead of continuing the movement round the east of Atlanta. The Macon and Montgomery railways ran over the same line as far as Eastpoint, 5m. south of Atlanta. It was impossible for an army holding Atlanta to protect the latter railway, which crossed the Chattahoochee into Alabama. The safety of Atlanta therefore depended upon Hood’s ability to keep the Macon railway intact. Sherman now transferred the Army of the Tennessee to the extreme right and sent his cavalry round both sides of Atlanta against this railway. As Howard was moving into position south-west of Atlanta (July 28) S. D. Lee, who had replaced Cheatham in command of Hood’s old corps, attacked his right at Ezra Church with his own and part of Stewart’s corps. Hooa’s third attempt to strike a heavy blow was repulsed with comparative ease, and Davis, alarmed at these costly failures, urged upon Hood a more cautious policy. Sherman continued to extend his lines to the right, moving Schofield (Aug. x) with the XXIII. and XIV. Corps beyond Howard's army in the hope of capturing the railway above Eastpoint. But the insubordination of the XIV. Corps commander frustrated this attempt. Sherman now decided that he had stretched his lines as far as he could with safety. His cavalry raids failed to do any permanent damage to the railway. He therefore determined to cut loose from his base and throw his whole force (less one corps) against the Macon railway several miles south of Atlanta. He began the withdrawal of Thomas’s and Howard’s armies from their lines (Aug. 25), sending back the XX. Corps to entrench a position in front of the Chattahoochee railway bridge and leaving Schofield in his lines facing Eastpoint, where he kept up a series of demonstrations. By the night of the 27th the Federal forces were echeloned along the Atlanta-Sandtown road and next day commenced a left wheel pivoting upon Schofield. Thomas struck the Montgomery railway at Red Oak, 7m. below Eastpoint, and Howard at Fairburn, 5m. farther south-west. The 29th was devoted to a thorough destruction of the railway track. On the 30th Howard reached the Flint

' ATLANTES, in architecture, male figures used as SUDports | for an entablature, a balcony or other architectural Projection ;especially when such figures are posed as though they were acti. ‘ally upholding great weights, like Atlas carrying the world When . male figures resemble the female caryatides (g.v.) they are more

river and pushed the XV. Corps across. Schofield had come up into line on Thomas’s left the previous day and now moved up from Red Oak towards Eastpoint to cover the passage of the

county. It is at the intersection of highways 71 and 32 and is served by the Rock Island railway. It has an intermediate landing field for aeroplanes, lighted with beacons by the post office department. The population according to the Federal census of 1930 was 5,585. Atlantic is the trade centre for a rich farming region. and has large corn-canning plants, flour mills and grain elevators, poultry-feeding yards and packing houses. It was chartered as a city in 1869.

army trains, which carried 15 days’ rations for the troops. Hood meanwhile was completely mystified by Sherman’s withdrawal from before Atlanta. He had despatched Wheeler with over half his cavalry (Aug. 10) on an extensive raid against Sherman’s communications, and on Aug. 27 he jumped to the conclusion that In consequence of Wheeler’s raid Sherman was retreating across the Chattahoochee. On the 30th his cavalry brought him news that part of the Federal army was south of Atlanta, and he despatched Hardee’s and Lee’s corps under the former’s command to Jonesboro to drive back the advancing enemy. Hardee attacked

Howard (Aug. 31) but failed to drive him across the Flint river. Schofield and Thomas reached the Macon railway at and below Rough and Ready station and marched down towards Jonesboro, tearing up the track as they advanced. Hood, when he learned that the enemy had reached the railway, ordered the return of Lee’s corps to Atlanta. He inferred from his information that only the right wing of Sherman’s army was on the railway and that a general attack upon Atlanta from

the south was threatened. Hardee was left (Sept. 1) to defend Jonesboro. Sherman devoted his attention to the thorough destruction of the railway down to Jonesboro, until learning of Lee’s departure he endeavoured too late to envelop Hardee’s corps. Lee had been stopped half way on his return to Atlanta and ordered to cover the withdrawal of the remainder of Hood’s army during the night from Atlanta. The XX. Corps occupied the

city (Sept. 2). Hood marching round east of the railway effected a junction with Hardee at Lovejoy’s station to interpose between Sherman and Andersonville, where 34,000 Federal prisoners were confined. Sherman did not push his advance farther south but rested content with the capture of Atlanta, (See AMERICAN CIVIL WaR.) (W. B. Wo.)

' properly known as canephorae (see CANEPHORAE); when t

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of true atlantes occurs on a colossal scale in the temple of Zeus at Agrigentum (c. 500 B.C.). They were favourite motifs in the later Renaissance, particularly in Italy, Germany and France. ATLANTIC, a city in the south-west part of Iowa, USA, som. E. by N. of Omaha; the attractive county seat of Cass

ATLANTIC

CITY, a city of Atlantic county, New Jersey,

U.S.A.; a famous seaside resort, on the Atlantic ocean, 55m. SE. of Philadelphia and 110m. S.-by-W. of New York. It isserved by the Pennsylvania and the Reading railways, by trolley (tram) and motor-coach lines, and in summer by steamboats and by aeroplane service. It has had an airport since 1919. The resident population was 50,707 in 1920, of whom 10,946 were negroes and 7,009 were

foreign-born white; and, according to the U.S. census of 1930 residents numbered 66,198 in 1930. This population is increased by visitors to 300,000 in August, and the average daily population for the year is about 100,000. It is estimated that there are 15,000,000 visitors yearly. The city lies on a low, sandy island (Absecon Beach), rom. long by 3m. wide, separated from the mainland by a narrow strait and 4 or 5m. of meadows, partly covered with water at high tide. In winter it is warmed by the Gulf Stream and protected by the pine belt of New Jersey, and the heat of summer is moderated by the water on all sides. The percentage of sunshine is above the average, and there is little fog. These climatic advantages, added to us accessibility, have given it a unique position as an all-the-yearround playground, a resort for convalescents, and a favourite

meeting-place for conventions. There are about 1,000 hotels and

several sanatoria. The assessed valuation of property in 1926 was $302,181,238.

The “Boardwalk,” built of steel and concrete with a wooden

flooring, 6oft. wide in the central section and extending 8m. along

ATLANTIC

“ry

Id

the ocean-front, is the promenade of the nation. It is connected

as far as South Carolina, and again in Florida. Bangor, Portland,

, p00-2.500ft. and on the other side is lined with sumptuous hotels,

ton, Baltimore. Washington, Richmond, Raleigh, Augusta, Jacksonville, St. Augustine and Palm Beach are some of the centres of population that lie along its route. Bordering upon the Atlantic

mith six great recreation piers, which reach out over the ocean | Boston, Providence, New York, Trenton, Philadelphia, Wilming-

_ restaurants, and places of diversified amusements.

For

those who do not wish to walk, there are 2,500 licensed wheeled hairs. Surf-bathing, horseback-riding along the beach, fishing, yachting, and wildfowl-shooting are popular amusements. There sre three country clubs with good golf courses. Hydroplanes

ocean through much of its 2,240m., it affords scenes of great beauty, varying from the roaring

- 8 ==

te from the Inlet at the north of the island, carrying pas-

gengers for recreation. Absecon lighthouse, on the north end of thebeach, is 167ft. high, and its beams can be seen for 19 miles.

There was a settlement of fishermen on the island in the latter

of the 18th century. The movement to develop it as a seaside resort for Philadelphia began about 1845, and after the completion of the Camden and Atlantic City railway in 1854 the growth of the city was rapid. The first pier was opened in July 1882, and was destroyed by a storm in September of the same year. The city was incorporated in 1854, and adopted a commission form of government In 1912.

ATLANTIC

COASTAL

HIGHWAY

runs from New

York city to Miami, Florida. It is about 1,600m. in length and is for the most part hard surfaced or paved excepting between Wilmington, North Carolina, and Savannah, Georgia. This route follows the same general course as that of the Atlantic highway except between Petersburg, Va., and Savannah, Ga., and provides

surf and rock-bound cliffs of Maine to the coral reefs and

opalescent blue of Florida’s quiet = waters. ATLANTIC OCEAN, the name given to the vast stretch of sea dividing the continents of Europe and Africa from the New | World. The term is supposedly derived from Atlantis, presumed to be a submerged continent below the present ocean. Extent.—The Arctic basin which stretches from Bering strait across the North Pole to Spitzbergen and Greenland belongs essentially to it, as in the south does the Weddell sea, south

of South Georgia (fig. 1.). The utilization of the Arctic and Antarctic circles as boundaries has neither geographical nor physical justification. The Atlantic ocean has therefore a share in both the seas of ice. From a consideration of winds, currents and temperature it is best to count the equatorial boundary of the North At-

an excellent opportunity for viewing the coast lands of the interyening States. (See ATLANTIC HIGHWAY.)

ATLANTIC COAST LINE RAILROAD COMPANY, a Virginia corporation which operates in the States of Virginia,

North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida and Alabama. It is the outgrowth of the gradual consolidation of more than 80

separate railroad corporations and the construction and purchase of a large amount of additional mileage connecting therewith. The

Richmond and Petersburg Railroad Company, chartered by the State of Virginia in 1836, was the basic or parent company, into which the other railroads were merged and consolidated. The first step was taken in 1898, when this company absorbed the property of the Petersburg Railroad Company, another Virginia corporation, chartered in 1830, and changed its name to Atlantic Coast Line Railroad Company of Virginia, with less than 100 m. total mileage. In 1900, the Company absorbed the property of the Wilmington and Weldon Railroad Company, chartered by the State of North Carolina in 1834, and of other companies, and again changed its name to Atlantic Coast Line Railroad Company.

w= =

CFP

So

lantic at about latitude 5° N. In

contrast to the South Atlantic it

een

O

50 100 150 200 MILES

is very rich in islands, in variety

ATLANTIC HIGHWAY

of coastline, and in land-locked seas. The latter include the Caribbean sea, the Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Hudson bay; Baffin bay on the west, and the Mediterranean sea, Black sea, North sea and Baltic sea on the east. Between ta

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Upon this merger the railroad lines of the Atlantic Coast Line

"“ ” s * *

Railroad Company were extended from Richmond and N orfolk, in Virginia, to Charleston and Columbia, in South Carolina, with

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branch and feeder lines extending throughout eastern Virginia

and eastern North Carolina and eastern South Carolina, with a total mileage of about 1,760 miles. In 1902 the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad Company acquired the Plant System, extending from Charleston, S.C., to Tampa, Fla., and Montgomery, Ala., with many branch lines. This purchase gave the Atlantic Coast Line a total of 4,138 miles. Additional track constructed and acquired had brought the total mileage up to 5,105 in 1928. The territory served by the Atlantic Coast Line is one of the

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largest and most important producers in the United States of perishable fruits and vegetables, and this railway line ranks

among the leading carriers of these commodities. Passenger travel is important also because of the large number of tourists that annually visit Florida and other points in the southeastern States. The Atlantic Coast Line operates a number of trains, both seasonal and year-long, designed to encourage this traffic. The capitalization of the Company on May 31, 1928 consisted of common stock 823,427 shares, with a par value of $82,342,700; preferred stock

1,967 shares, with a par value of $196,700; funded debt out-

standing, $158,335,030; total $240,874,430.

(G. B. E.)

ATLANTIC HIGHWAY, one of the first great American

thoroughfares to have a name, is notable for the fact that it passes

through the greatest cities of the East and is surrounded by the historic points of interest of the 13 original States. .Extending from Calais, Me., to Miami, Fla., it is all hard or paved roadway

NORWEGIANS eo

Sagi SCOTLAN Ey

eyes

THE

NARROW

GATEWAY

OF

THE

NORTH

ATLANTIC

Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya on the one hand and the Murmansk coast on the other lies the Barents sea; between Spitzbergen, Iceland, the Faeroes, Shetlands and Norway lies the Norwegian sea. The southern outlets from the Arctic basin are relatively narrow. Hudson strait is 8okm. broad, Davis strait 240km., Denmark strait between East Greenland and Iceland 260km., and the passage between Iceland and north Scotland 850km. The total of all this is only 1,430km. In the South Atlantic on the other hand, between Cape Horn and South Africa, Antarctic and Atlantic meet on a 6,500km. front, and the South Atlantic is therefore much

ATLANTIC

634

colder and rawer than the North Atlantic. The Atlantic is, broadly, S-shaped and narrow in relation to its length, with the result that writers have spoken of an Atlantic valley. From the Bering strait in the north to Coats land in the south the distance is 21,000km. The breadth from Newfoundland to Ireland is 3,375km. and from Cap San Roque (Brazil) to Cap Palmas only 2,900km. Southwards from these latter it becomes broader and

OCEAN

| J. Murray estimated the total area of land draining to the Atlantk to be 34,788,000sq.km., or, with the Arctic area, nearly 51.099 sq.km., nearly four times the area draining to the Pacific Oceap and almost precisely four times the area draining to the Tndiag } t t

Ocean. (In this article m. represents metre.) Islands.—Among purely oceanic islands without a foundation of continental rock, usually the result of volcanic action we

have Jan Mayen, Iceland

(105,000sq.km.),

(near Cap San

Ascension,

Roque),

Fernando Noronka

St. Helena

(123sq.km.)

Tristan da Cunha, and Bouvet islands (54° S. Lat.), Mainly volcanic, but with a sedimentary foundation are the Azores Canaries, Madeira and Cape Verde islands. Purely continental are

Spitzbergen and the Bear islands, the British isles, Newfoundland the Great Antilles, the Falkland islands, South Georgia and the South Orkneys. The Bermudas (Lat. 30° N.) are the most northerly coral-reef islands of the world. All Atlantic islands of oceanic

origin together have an area of 0-5 million sq.km. In this cop. nection it seems best to consider Greenland as a part of the North American continent.

Relief of the Bed.—The foundations of our knowledge of the

relief of the Atlantic bed may he said to have been laid by the

work of H.M.S. “Challenger” (1873-1876), the German ship “Gazelle” (1874-1876) and the U.S. surveying vessel “Blake” (1877 and later). Large numbers of additional soundings have been made in later years by cable ships, by the expeditions of H.S.H. the prince of Monaco, the German “Valdivia” expedition (1898), and the combined Antarctic expeditions (1903-1904), especially by the “Scotia,” In the so-called Weddell sea, where the “Scotia” worked, the “Deutschland” in 19r1~12 took many

soundings towards

the Antarctic

continent.

In 1925-27 the

“Meteor” (German) took about 60,c00 soundings by acoustic methods in the South Atlantic, thus rounding off our knowledge

of the relief of the Atlantic bottom.

For the Arctic basin we have F. Nansen’s maximum sounding

FIG.

1.—THE

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

FROM

BERING

STRAIT

TO WEDDELL

SEA

Broadly S-shaped, and narrow in proportien to its length, the area of the Atlantic with its dependent seas is estimated at 106.4 million sq.km. It receives the waters of many of the great rivers of the world, Including the St. Lawrence, Mississippi, Orinoco, Congo and Niger, as well as that of the rivers flowing into the Baltic and Mediterranean. The Jand area drained is nearly four times that drained by the Pacific ocean

is bordered by very simple coasts almost without islands. Drake straits, between Cape Horn and the South Shetlands, give a passage gookm. wide into the Pacific. Kossinna reckons the area of the Atlantic without its dependent seas at 82-4 million sq.km. and with its dependent seas at 106-4 million sq.km. By way of comparison, one may mention that the North sea has an area of 0-6 million sq.km, Although not the most extensive of the great oceans the Atlantic has by far the largest drainage area. The “long slopes” of the continents on both sides are directed towards the Atlantic, which accordingly receives the waters of a large proportion of the great rivers of the world, including the St. Lawrence, the Mississippi, the Orinoco, the Amazon, the rivers of the La Plata, the Congo, the Niger, the Loire, the Rhine, the Elbe and the great rivers of the Mediterranean and the Baltic. Sir

of 3,850m., and we know that at the North Pole Peary failed to reach bottom with a sounding of 2,743m. In the Norwegian sea there are many depths of more than 3,000m., but the Barents sea is fairly shallow (300-400m.). The submarine ridge from East Greenland through Iceland and the Faeroes to North Scotland is such that a lowering of the water-level of 400m. would link Europe with Greenland. This ridge keeps the cold Polar bottem-water of the northern deeps away from the Atlantic. From this transverse ridge two branches stretch south-westwards, both probably of volcanic origin. The first projects from Iceland, the second, stretching from the Faeroes, includes the island of Rockall sookm. west of the Hebrides. The grand banks of Newfoundland are less than 200m. below sea level and between them and Iceland is the so-called “telegraph plateau,” the level of which varies between depths of soo and 4,ooom. South of this plateau begins the dominant feature of the relief of the whole Atlantic, namely the central Atlantic rise. This keeps to the middle of the ocean as far south as Lat. 50° S., parallel to main curvings of the continental coasts on both sides; it stretches through over 100° of latitude. On this rise, the depths of water are usually less than 3,000m. and often less than 2,o0om. On it lie the Azores, St. Paul’s island, Ascension, Tristan da Cunha and Bouvet Island, and at the last of these the rise bends esstwards and goes to the Indian Ocean. On both sides of the rise are greater depths, of more than 5,000 or 6,ooom. The greatest, those

of over 6,00om. or approximately 3,000 fathoms, are called

“Deeps” by Sir John Murray and he named them after famous marine explorers, e.g., Nares Deep, north of Haiti and Porto Rico, with a depth of 8,526m., only 150km. from the coast, the deepest spot known in the Atlantic. More recently purely geographical

names have been used, and we speak of a North American b

of a Brazilian basin and an Argentine basin. In the last, depths 8.ooom. have been found just North of the South Sandwich

islands.

East of the Central rise lie the deep Cape Verde de-

pression, the West African depression and the Cape depressio,

always deeper than 5,ooom., often than 6,000m. Some ridges branching out from the central rise in the South Atlantic infi-

ence greatly the water movements and temperatures of the depths.

635

ATLANTIC OCEAN

(qg.v.) near the Bermuda such are, to the West the Rio Grande ridge (30° S ). to the East ' middle latitudes. e.g., in the Sargasso sea

as high as 17° C. at the same the Walfish ridge, stretching S.W.-N.E, from Tristan da Cunha islands the temperature may be 10°-12° C. and over at this get we S. 30? latitude in and depth, ‘2 §,) to the African coast near Walfish bay. On these two ' only by supposing that ridges depths of goo or even only 700m. on some local pinnacles depth. This striking fact can be explained nearly vertically from rises l in the water cold region equatorial | as long as times three is ridge Walfish the and have been found, t latitudes warm surface the European Alps, with heights 4,000m. above the depths. The »}| depths of 4co~600om., whereas in middle vertically to the depths.

Atlantic thus possesses submarine mountains, of course with ; water descends In those parts of the Atlantic which are more than 1,000m. deep s less sharp than those of terrestrial ones. temperature of the water depends mainly on the latitude at the of depth average he Deposits-—T Bottom and Depth Mean off Europe, The Atlantic

of Cancer. the Atlantic, according to Kossinna (1921) is 3,924m. without, | least south of the Tropic

n water flowing out 332m. including the enclosed seas. This difference is due to | helped by warm and very salt Mediterranea great depths is these at even Gibraltar, of Strait the through | 100 than less is coasts many off areas the fact that the sea on large The

the deep water of the inter-tropical region. fathoms or 200m. deep. This continental shelf occupies 13-35% of |warmer than are 2-2-5° C. in the North Atlantic, 0-5° C. temperatures bottom | greater The it. of portion a upon lie isles British the area and the 2-2° in the West African depresdepression. Brazilian the in | of deposit a by part of the bottom of the Atlantic is covered southern latitudes. Differences of high in C. —o-4° and Globigerina ooze, roughly the area between 1,500 and 4,000m. | sion, zero mainly by the form of the explained are temperatures bottom | 5,ooom., about of depth a At whole. the of 53% deep, or about of the coldest water from flow the stop ridges transverse floor; to place ie. in the “deeps,” the Globigerina ooze gradually gives temperature on their equatorial req clay. In the shallower tropical waters, especially on the cen- higher latitudes, and the bottom a similar manner the Greenland-Icelandtral rise, considerable areas are covered by Pteropod ooze, a de- | side is thus higher. In less than soom. prevents the cold botdepth with ridge posit consisting largely of the shells of pelagic molluscs. Diatom | Shetland be as low as —1-2° C.) of the Arctic may (temperature water tom | The latitudes. southern higher in deposit ooze is the characteristic entering the North Atlantic. This from sea Norwegian the and | terrigenous deposits consist of blue muds, red muds (abundant European Atlantic along the coast of Brazil, where the amount of organic matter | fact further helps the temperature of the high temperature exceptionally of therefore are which waters, | the by down brought iron the reduce to present is insufficient

muds and sands, | for their latitude at every depth.

great rivers so as to produce blue muds), green the surface is by far the saltest of and volcanic and coral dettitus. In the Arctic and Antarctic areas | Salinity——The Atlantic onwaters are found in the two tradesaltest Its oceans. great the to due some and Age Ice the from some there are glacial muds, east and west in the North Atlantic its survivals in modern glaciation. Even as far south as latitude wind belts, one extending of almost equal salinity 19° N. Murray found small stones of northern origin doubtless | between 20° and 30° N. lat., and another America in 10° to South of coast the from eastwards extending barrier ice great a when days the catried South by icebergs in

stretched from South Greenland around to Scotland.

The origins and age of the Atlantic are unsettled.

20° S. lat. The average salinity in these two belts is 36-5-37-5%o.

Neumayr

In the equatorial region between

these

belts the salinity is

where only 34-30%» (188s) thought that in Jurassic times there was a bridge-continent | markedly less, especially in the eastern part, maximum the waters between North America and North Europe and one between is observed. North of the North Atlantic until the channels South America and Africa, so that then the ocean lay only between the West Indies and south Europe. Wegener (1922) on the

become steadily fresher as latitude increases opening into the Arctic basin are reached. In all of these, waiter

formed in the Cretaceous | of relatively high salinity usually appears for a long distance

other hand thinks the Atlantic was eastern side of the channel, while on period through a fracture between the Old and the New World, fol- | towards the north on the comparatively fresh, especially in lowed by the drift of America westward. J. Murray thought the | the western side the water is

d Banks, but great variations Atlantic in the main extremely old, thus upholding a view of the | the vicinity of the Newfoundlan occur at different seasons and in different years. In the higher

permanence of this ocean basin.

steadily to Temperature Distribution—The heat equator or line of latitudes of the South Atlantic the salinity diminishes near the except west, to east from uniform be to tends and %o 35 highest average surface temperature of the water lies in all months | America where the surface waters north of the geopraphical equator, going from the Gulf of Guinea

southern extremity of South

than 34700). In the true Polar sections of the about 5° N. towards the coast of British Guiana and then north- |ate very fresh (lessWeddell sea in the south and the Arctic basin in Caribbean sea to about 15° N. The yearly average Atlantic, że., the

west into the

of temperature on this liñe is about 27° C., and even far to the the north, the surface water is relatively poor in salt, 34-30%o, —— north, the isotherms keep a genêral direction E.S.E.-W.N.W., eee so the American side is warmer than the African. On the other pe i hand noth of 40° N. the European side is the warmer and the

waters in the broad region frorn Newfoundland to Cape Hatteras are relatively cold.

The Norwegian coast has a specially high

température for its latitude and, even north of the Arctic circle, its fjords do not freeze. In the South Atlantic the Brazilian side is the warmer with an average temperature of 23° C. near Rio de Janeiro, while in the same latitude near Walfish bay, S.W. Africa,

the temperature is 57°—59°.

In higher southern latitudes the

isotherms run nearly E. and W. save for local disturbances through the Cape current (Agulhas) and the Falkland current. Latitude

for latitude, South Atlantic water is colder than that of the North. Near Bouvet island and South Georgia in lat. 54° S. we find the

o° C. isotherm, west of Ireland in 54° N. the 11° C. isotherm.

eo>

n

oc

i ann

eee

mane Baeaes (Sourn-NorTH}

_ 60°

KOR AN

i000

(NORTH-SOUTH) NORTH

ATLANTIC

BOTTOM

CURRENT (SECTION ON 30°

West LONGITUDE GREENWICH) SOUTH ATLANTIC BOTTOM CURRENT (SoutH-NORTH)

FIG. 2.—DIAGRAM OF THE DEEP WATER CURRENTS IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN, SHOWING THE DEPTHS AND DIRECTION OF FLOW OF THE GREAT HORIZONTAL MOVEMENTS OF SEA WATER BENEATH THE SURFACE

especially where icebergs melt or the great Siberian rivers bring fresh water to the sea. Though this fresh water is very cold, its lack of salt makes it so light that it remains on the surface. Undet condition very little as 1°-4° Ç. in the tropics and in the coldér regions, and may this, one finds, however, warmer but salter water, aIn the Atlantic different from that obtaining in the open ocean. be 5°-8° C. in temperate latitudes. content of the water Temperature decreases—save in the polar regions—from the depths away from the ice regions the salt depths, though increasing with diminish both temperature its surface to the depths; but decreases in different places at different and rates. In the inter-tropical regions at a depth of 4oom. tempera- this is strictly true only in the northern hemisphere. In the and temperature decrease tures as low as 10° C. or even 8° C. and less have been noted. In southern Atlantic depths, salt content

Antarctic conditions thus reach into the temperate zone, and penguins have been seen even in the Great Fish bay, 16° S. The seasonal variation of the temperature of the surface waters is ās

636

ATLANTIC

only down to 800-1,000m. and then increase again slightly until a depth of 3,000m. is reached. Circulation in the Atlantic Depths.—Modern chemical research on salt content at various depths has become very important and the observations made by the “Challenger” are now better understood. Fig. 2 shows a section through the Atlantic about longitude 30° W. with indications of the slow movements of great masses of water determined by very small, but distinct differences of salinity. The surface currents, important for climate and shipping, of course only affect the uppermost layers at the very most down to 300m., and are due to the winds; they have little relation to questions of salinity. In higher latitudes. at the ice-limit between the Falklands and Bouvet island, cold water poor in salt sinks to 800-1,000m. depth and moves thence northward as an Antarctic under-current (No. I. in fig. 2) beyond the equator to at least 20° N. In the Sargasso sea, on the other hand, warmer and very salt water sinks and moves, as an undercurrent at a depth of 1,500 to 3,000m., to the Antarctic zone; this is the North Atlantic under-current (No. II. in fig. 2). Affecting almost all the greater depths, we have a South Atlantic bottom current (No. III. in fig. 2) uniting with a weaker North Atlantic bottom current (No. IV. in fig. 2). There are thus in the Atlantic depths great horizontal movements, just as in the atmosphere there are layers with different characters and movements (trades, westerlies, etc.). But, whereas the equatorial belt divides the atmospheric circulatory system on its two sides, there are immense exchanges of water in the depths right across the equator.

Meteorology.—The difference between water-temperature and air-temperature just over the water is usually 1° C. or less in equatorial and temperate latitudes. Only in the region of the Gulf Stream near the American coast and towards the Polar regions is the air as much as 4°—6° C., colder than the water.

North-westerly winter storms drive cold air (0°-5° C.) from North America eastwards into the Atlantic into regions where the water temperature may be 10°—15° C. On the other hand, on the Newfoundland banks with icebergs and cold water one finds in spring and summer that, if the wind is from the south, the air may be 10°—18° C. warmer than the water, and this is a main factor of the dangerous fogs there. On the whole, however, air temperatures over the Atlantic are distributed very much as are water temperatures at the surface. The wind circulation is much simpler than in the Indian ocean and is symmetrical about the meteorological equator which lies between lat. 2° N. and ro° N. Thus the two hemispheres have very similar and independent circulatory systems of air, though there are differences. The circulation in the South Atlantic is nearer than that of the North to a theoretical standard for a simple globe, as it is less influenced by land masses. Between latitudes 20° and 30° S. is a region of maximum pressure (anticyclone) and atmospheric pressure diminishes slowly northward and sharply southward. On the north side, the S.E. trade blows weakly in the southern summer but in the southern winter strongly, especially on the coast of North Brazil. On the African side, the S.E. trade always reaches beyond the equator and contributes to the rainy S.W. monsoon of the Gulf of Guinea (Cape Palmas to Gaboon). From the high pressure region towards the south there blow the N.W.—W. winds over a belt reaching from lat. 35° to 60° or 65° S. and they are felt around Cape Horn and Cape of Good Hope. They have been called “the roaring forties” because formerly ships sailing to India and Australia in lat. 40° to lat. 50° S. utilized these strong winds; storms are frequent here. In the North Atlantic also there is a region of high pressure (anticyclone) across the ocean between lat. 20° and 30° N. The highest pressures are noted south of the Azores and west of Madeira. The northeast trade blowing thence southward is stronger in summer than in winter, especially near the Canaries and the Antilles; at this season it is felt as far north as the latitude of Gibraltar. On the north side of the high pressure region the conditions over the American continent cause considerable seasonal variations in the westerly winds. These blow relatively weakly towards North Europe in summer, but in winter, when

OCEAN

North America has high pressure conditions, the baromers ; gradient towards the Atlantic is steep and the space ee | Labrador, Iceland, Jan Mayen and the North Cape is the = highway of a procession of cyclonic storms from the west: aie storms also pass more or less parallel with them over the British isles towards the east.

Surface Currents.—In the “west wind zone,” though this is the main direction, air movements are very varied as they are m movements in spirals of small diameter. The actual transport of air through space in these zones is therefore much less thay in the zone of the almost constant if often more moderate trade wind. It thence follows that the trade winds have a far greater

influence on the movement of surface water than have the wester. lies of higher latitudes.

The two Atlantic trade winds give ris

to two great equatorial westward

currents.

On account of the

earth's rotation the northern equatorial current turns into a Nw direction, the southern into a S.W. one. As, further, the ocean. ographical and the meteorological equator lie north of the geographical equator, through the year a good deal of the water of the southern equatorial current passes north of Cape San Roque

(N. Brazil) into the northern hemisphere

and so reaches the

north equatorial current on the coasts of Guiana and in the West Indies, and this current is thus much stronger than the

south equatorial current on the coast of S. Brazil. Almost all water that streams westwards between latitudes 5° S. and 20° N. is eventually banked up in the Caribbean sea and just north of the Great Antilles with the result that there is a northern out-flow

through the strait between Florida and the Bahamas. This is the origin of the Gulf Stream, though only a small fraction of the water of it comes from the Gulf of Mexico. This is one of the most important currents of the world, but it is markedly warm and rapid only in the uppermost layers. Even in Florida strait at a depth of 200m. the temperature is only 10° to 18° C, and the speed o-4-0-8m. per second as contrasted with over 25° C. and 1-2 to I-7m. per second at the surface. Generally speaking the surface currents

of the Atlantic and of all seas

affect the sea to a depth less than 400-soom.

The Gulf Stream is separated by cold water (the cold wall) from the east coast of U.S.A. as it flows northward to a region south of the Newfoundland banks. Here it mixes with the cok water of the Labrador current that comes from the west side of Baffin Bay; the interaction of these two currents causes powerful whirls near the southeast tail of the Newfoundland banks. Henceforth the Gulf Stream is so indefinite as to vary with the winds, and it is customary to speak of a Gulf Stream drift or an Atlantic drift, which moves towards and along the coast of Europe as far north as Norway and Spitzbergen. Here the sea temperatures on the S.W. coast remain above o° C., and the sea water may have more than 35%o of salts. In the Arctic this water sinks into the depths. A branch of the Gulf Stream drift, called the Irminger current, keeps the south and west coasts of Iceland free from ice. A third branch goes further north-westward and northward to the west coast of Greenland which is thus ice free for a large part of the year. Another branch reaches around Scotland into

the North sea giving a mild and rainy climate. Not all the Gulf Stream drift goes north of lat. so° N. An important part is deflected increasingly to the right near the Azores and forms a weak and variable Canaries current, which makes a small con tribution to the northern equatorial current in the vicinity of

the Cape Verde Islands. In the west centre of the mid-north Atlantic towards the Bermudas occurs the Sargasso sea with enormous masses of floating golden-yellow Gulf-weed (Sargassum

bacciferum); this weed does not hinder ship movements. It s now thought that this Gulf-weed is a really pelagic plant and that only small amounts are torn from the coasts of the Antilles Finally, in the north hemisphere, we must mention the Gume

current which can be discerned off the Liberia coast going south-

eastwards but becomes far more marked from Cape Palmas eastward to the Gulf of the Cameroons. This is partly a re-action cul

rent compensating

for the water driven west by the south

equatorial current, but it is partly due to the south-west mom soon of this coast.

ATLANTIC

PACIFIC HIGHWAY—ATLANTIS

in the South Atlantic the Brazil current and South Equatorial

current have been mentioned. The Benguella current which contributes to the south equatorial current can be traced over a broad

pne west of South Africa. In its path lie St. Helena and Ascengion and it is composed of rather cool water flowing rapidly; this is specially marked near the coast of South West Africa.

In the

enormous stretches between lats. 30° and 60° S., under the indpence of variable west winds, the surface current almost

everywhere tends E.N.E. or N.E. (not E.S.E. or S.E. as we might perhaps expect from analogy with the Gulf Stream); this fact is of enormous climatic importance, for cold water is thus

brought to the neighbourhood of the Falkland islands, South Georgia, etc., and the eastern South Atlantic thus shows a large negative thermal anomaly being relatively 2°-5° C. too cold, whereas the eastern North Atlantic is abnormally warm. Ice.—Pack ice from frozen sea water, and icebergs as fragments of the Antarctic ice-sheet and glaciers come especially from the Gulf between Graham Land and Coats Land, ż.e., from the Weddell sea which stretches between lat. 60° S. and 78° S. The famous drift of Shackleton on the “Endurance” (1915) shows that there the ice moves clockwise and to the N.E. and attains open water near the South Orkneys and South Georgia. The average limit of large ice masses is thus near the South Shetlands

in the west and near Bouvet island in the east. In some years

one finds ice near Cape Horn and even north of the Falklands towards lat. 40° S. in such quantity as to be dangerous to ships. Such years were 1891-1894, and 1906. This ice moves in the socalled Falkland current which sends cold water northwards parallel to the Patagonian shelf, and may be compared with the Labrador current; it is probable that this Falkland ice comes from

the southernmost Pacific. In the North Atlantic the occurrence of ice-fields and icebergs near the Newfoundland banks (about lat. 45° N.) is very important as this is near the most frequented of all ocean routes. It is the Labrador current that brings the ice southward, and the icebergs, especially, move along over the deep water outside, i.¢., east of the banks; thereafter they may swirl round for weeks between the Gulf Stream and the Labrador current. This ice never reaches the coasts of Nova Scotia or USA. and any ice sighted there comes from the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The ice of the Labrador current is seen between Febnary and August and reaches farthest south (lat. 42° N-43° N.) im May and June. From September to January the great seaway is practically free from ice. In some years the ice may reach as far south as lat. 40° N. or even 38° and the most dangerous zone is between long. 45° and 50° W. Collisions with icebergs have led to the southward deflection of the ocean route during the ice-season and the presence of Newfoundland fogs in the same months has contributed to the same end. A vessel of the U.S. coast-guard patrols the dangerous zone with signal apparatus during the critical periods. Polar ice is very important on the whole of the east side of Greenland, moving along the cold East Greenland current from the Arctic basin. The east coast of Greenland therefore can rarely be reached without difficulty and it is almost uninhabited. The north and east coasts of Iceland are also blockaded for a large part of the year by ice that comes from the north and fills the bays. In the north of the Norwegian sea the boundary of ice-floes stretches past Jan Mayen to the region west of Spitzbergen; in the Barents Sea it still remains far to the north of Norway and of the Russian coast.

Tides—The vertical tidal differences and the direction of the

tidal currents near the Atlantic coasts and harbours are wellknown, but conditions over the open ocean are still very uncertam. The reasons for this are that one needs observations from a ship anchored over a period of 124 to 25 hours and that we still

637

Good Hope are continued northward in the Atlantic deflection due to the eartb’s rotation, to the left in southern latitudes, to the right in northern ones, must strengthen the tides on the coasts of South Brazil and the Argentine and on the coasts of Europe. Large tidal differences have been observed in the harbours of Patagonia, moderate ones in the harbours of South and West Africa, large ones in the Spanish, French and West British harbours; they are quite small in the harbours of U.S.A. The funnelshaped Bay of Fundy, Bristol Channel, Gulf of St. Malo all con-

centrate tides and give a local vertical tidal difference of more than rom. Apparently the tidal currents are not restricted to coastal waters though as yet we have only a small number of observations, e.g., south of the Azores, north of the Cape Verde Islands, the tidal current changes its direction from hour to hour and affects water to a great depth. Apparently this must be the same everywhere, as ebb and flow of the tide are cosmic phenomena. BrsriocrapHy.—Re ports of results of voyage of HM.S. “Chalienger”

(1882-95); Pillsbury, “The Gulfstream in the W. Indies,” U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (1891) ; J. Murray and E. Philippi, Grundproben

der deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition (Jena, 1905); J. Murray and J. Hjort, The Depths of the Ocean (1912) ; Dansk Meteorol. Inst. Naut. Meteorol. Aarbog (Ice rv N. ATLANTIC) (1917); Kon. Neder]. Meteorol. Inst. Oceanogr. and Meteorol. Waarnemingen in den Ail. Oz. (Utrecht, 1918, f.); E. Kossinna “Die Meerestiefen” Inst. f. Meereskunde (1921); A. Wegener Enistehung der Ozeane u Kontinente (Brunswick, 1922); H. F. Meyer, “Oberflächenströmungen des Atl. Oz.” Inst. f. Meeresk. (1923) ; “Berichte der ‘Meteor’ Exp.” Zeitsch. d. Ges. f. Erdkunde (1926-27) ; G. Schott Geographie des Atl. A oF

.

ATLANTIC

PACIFIC HIGHWAY

Sc.

extends from New

York city to Los Angeles and San Diego, Calif., and is about 3,000m. long. In 1928 it was hard and paved for a large part of the distance from New York to Portsmouth, O., paved the full breadth of Illinois, and hard or paved across California; for the rest of its length it was partly unimproved. Spanning the continent as it does, the Atlantic Pacific highway probably em-

a

——

Ne

braces a greater variety of scenes and climate than any other American thoroughfare. Philadelphia, Wilmington, Baltimore, Washington, Covington, Charleston, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Wichita,

Santa Rosa and Phoenix are among the cities included in its course. ATLANTIC-YELLOWSTONE PACIFIC HIGHWAY runs from Chicago, Ill., to Yellowstone Park, and is about 1,562m. in length. In 1928 it was paved as far as Dubuque, Ia., improved or paved to Sioux Falls, $.D., and mostly improved across Wyoming. Beginning close to the western shore of Lake Michigan, it passes through the low-lying || farm country and touches upon

=

the picturesque Black Hills of

ÆA

South Dakota, in which is situated Wind Cave National park. The Shoshone district, noted for

its ranch resorts, and the Iowa lake region also lie in its path. The natural bridge of Wyoming and Jackson Hole, famous as a hunting resort, are accessible from lack instruments for measuring vertical changes in the conditions some of its many branches. Rockford, Dubuque, Mason City, of the water in the open ocean. Probably the vertical tidal differ- Sioux Falls, Douglas and Casper are among the important cities ence in the open Atlantic has a maximum of o-5—1-om., as these that lie along this route. ATLANTIS, ATALANTIS or ATLANTICA, a legendvalues have been fixed for oceanic islands with sharp slopes down to the depths—Bermudas 1-om., Ascension o-6m., St. Helena ary island in the Atlantic ocean. Plato in the Timaeus describes with Solon, represented ogm. The tidal difference seems to be less between the tropics how Egyptian priests, in conversation Minor with Libya, situAsia than larger country a as island the than in temperate and high latitudes. If the tidal waves from the great southern ocean between Cape Horn and the Cape of ated just beyond the Pillars of Hercules (g.v.). Beyond it lay

638

ATLAS—ATLAS

an archipelago of lesser islands. Atlantis had been a powertul kingdom nine thousand years before the birth of Solon, and its armies had overrun the Mediterranean lands, when Athens alone had resisted. Finally the sea overwhelmed Atlantis, and shoals marked the spot. In the Critias Plato adds a history of the ideal commonwealth of Atlantis. It is impossible to decide how far this legend is due to Plato's invention, and how far it is based on facts of which no record remains. Mediaeval writers, recelving the tale from Arabian geographers, believed it true, and had other traditions of islands in the western sea, the Greek Isles of the Blest, or Fortunate Islands (g.v.); the Welsh Avalon, the Portuguese Antilia or Isle of Seven Cities (g.u.), and St. Brendan’s island, the subject of many sagas in many languages. All except Avalon were marked in maps of the 14th and 15th centuries, and formed the object of voyages of discovery; St. Brendan’s island until the 18th century. Somewhat similar legends are those of the island of the Phaeacians (Homer, Od.), the island of Brazil (g.v.), of Lyonnesse (g.v.), the sunken land off the Cornish coast, of the lost Breton city of Is, and of Mayda or Asmaide, the French Isle Verte and Portuguese JIka Verde or “Green Island.” The last appears in many folk-tales from Gibraltar to the Hebrides, and until 1853 was marked on English charts as a rock in 44° 48’ N. and 26° 10° W. After the Renaissance attempts were made to rationalize the myth of Atlantis. It was identified with America, Scandinavia, the Canaries or Palestine. Ethnologists saw in its inhabitants ancestors of the Guanchos, the Basques or the ancient Italians. Even in the 17th and 18th centuries the credibility of the legend was seriously debated, and sometimes admitted, even by Montaigne, Buffon and Voltaire. BreriocrapHy.—-T. H. Martin, Etudes sur le Timée (1841) ; PaulyWissowa s.v.; K. T. Frost, “The Lost Continent” Times Feb. 19, 1909; Journ. Hell. Stud., vol. xxxiii., 1913 (Atlantis—Minoan Crete).

ATLAS, in Greek mythology, son of the Titan Iapetus and Clymene (or Asia), brother of Prometheus. Homer, in the Odyssey (i. 52) speaks of him as “one who knows the depths of the whole sea, and keeps the tall pillars which hold heaven and earth asunder.” In the first instance he seems to have been a marine creation. The pillars which he supported were thought to rest in the sea, Immediately beyond the most western horizon.

MOUNTAINS The Moroccan Ranges.—This section, known to the ; itants of Morocco by its Berber name, Idraren Drdren (“Mow tains of Mountains”), consists of five distinct ranges, varying in length and height, móre or less parallel to one another and with

a trend from south-west to north-east.

r. The main range (the Great Atlas) occupies a central pos. tion and is by far the longest and loftiest chain. It has an ay height of over 11,000ft. The slopes are precipitous toward the Atlantic but long and gradual toward the Dahra district of the north-east. Only one or two peaks reach the line of perpetual snow, but several summits are snowclad during most of the year The northern sides and tops of the lower peaks are often coy. ered with dense forests of oak, cork, pine, cedar and other trees with walnuts up to the limit of irrigation. Their slopes enclose well-watered valleys of great fertility, in which the Berber tribes cultivate tiny irrigated fields, their houses clinging to the hip.

sides. The southern flanks, being exposed to the hot dry winds of the Sahara, are generally destitute of vegetation. At several points the crest of the range has been deeply eroded,

thus forming devious passes. The central section, culminating in

Tizi n “Tagharat or Tinzaér, a peak estimated at 15,000ft. high

maintains a mean altitude of 11,60o0ft., and from this great mas of schists and sandstones a number of secondary ridges radiate in all directions.

For a distance of room. the central section nowhere presents any passes accessible to caravans, but in the south-west two gaps afford communication between the Tensift and Sus basins, those respectively of Gindafi and Bibawan. A few summits in the ertreme south-west in the neighbourhood of Cape Ghir still exceed 11,000ft., and although less majestic, the average height of this district is greater than that of the Alps. The most imposing view

is to be obtained from the plain of Marrakesh, immediately north

of the highest peaks. Besides huge masses of old schists and sandstones, the range contains extensive limestone, marble, diorite, basalt and porphyry formations, while granite prevails on its south-

ern slopes. The presence of enormous glaciers in the ice age is

attested by the moraines at the Atlantic end, and by other indica. tions farther east. The best-known passes are: (1) The Bibawan in the upper Wad Sous basin (4,150ft.); (2) the Gindáfi, giving access from Marrakesh to Tarouddnt, rugged and difficult, but low; (3) the Tagharat, difficult and little used, leading to the

But as the Greeks’ knowledge of the west increased, the name of Atlas was transferred to a hill in the northwest of Africa. Later, he was represented as a king of that district, turned into a rocky Dra’a valley (11,484ft.); (4) the Glawi (7,600ft.); (5) Tilghemt mountain by Perseus, who, to punish him for his inhospitality, (7,250ft.), leading to Tafilelt. 2. The lower portion of the Moroccan Atlas (the Middle Atshowed him the Gorgon’s head (Ovid, Metam., iv. 627). In works of art he is represented as carrying the heavens or the terrestrial las), lying north of the Great Atlas, is crossed by the pass from globe. The Farnese statue of Atlas in the Naples Museum is Fez to Tafilelt. Both slopes are wooded, and here only in Morocco does the lion still survive. From the north this range, which is famous. The plural form ATLANTES is the classical term in architecture only partly explored, presents a regular series of showy crests. 3. The Anti-Atlas (Jebel Sarro or Lesser Atlas) runs parallel for the male sculptured figures supporting a superstructure, as in the baths at Pompeii, and in the temple at Agrigentum in Sicily. to and south of the central range, and has a mean altitude oi In 18th century architecture half-figures of men with strong mus- s cooft., although some peaks and even passes exceed 6,000ft. cular development were used to support balconies (see CARY- The relation of the Anti-Atlas to the Atlas proper at its western ATIDES and TELAMONES). A figure of Atlas supporting the heavens end is not clear. Two more or less parallel ranges of less itv is often found as a frontispiece in early collections of maps, and portance complete the western system :— 4. The Jebel Bani, south of the Anti-Atlas, a low, narrow rocky is said to have been frst thus used by Mercator. The name is hence applied to a volume of maps (see Mar), and similarly to ridge with a height of 3,oooft. in its central parts; and g. The mountains of Ghaiata, north of the Middle Atlas, a series a volume which contains a tabular conspectus of a subject, such as an atlas of ethnographical subjects or anatomical plates. It is of broken mountain masses from 3,000 to 3,gooft. high, to the south of Fez, Taza and Tlemsen. also used of a large size of drawing paper.

ATLAS MOUNTAINS, the name for the mountain chains

more or less parallel to the coast of north-west Africa. They ex-

tend from Cape Nun (west) to the Gulf of Gabés (east), a distance of 1,500m., traversing Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. They are bounded on the north by the Mediterranean sea and on the south by the Sahara desert. They can be roughly divided into two main chains: (1) the Maritime Atlas from Ceuta to Cape Bon; (2) the inner and more elevated ranges, which, starting from Cape Ghir, run south of the coast ranges and are separated from them by high plateaux. The western inner ranges, described here as the Moroccan ranges, are the most important of the whole system. The Maritime Atlas and the inner ranges in Algeria and Tunisia are treated under the heading Eastern Ranges.

The Eastern Ranges—The lesser range (Maritime Atlas)

nearer the sea, calls for little detailed notice. From Ceuta, above

which towers Jebel Musa

(2,800ft.) to Melilla, a distance of

som., the Rif mountains face the Mediterranean, and here, a8

along the whole coast eastward to Cape Bon, many ruggedrocks

rise boldly above the general level. In Algeria the Maritime Atlas has fivé chief ranges, several mountains rising over 5,oooft. i

Jurjura range, extending through Kabylie from Algiers toBougie, contains the peaks of Lalla Kedija (7,542ft.), the highest point of the maritime chains, and Babor (6,447ft.). (See ALGERIA.)

heights The Mejerda range, which extends into Tunisia, has nothat the s mountain coast these in was It 3,700ft. g exceedin Romans quarried the celebrated Numidian marbles.

ATLAS—ATMOSPHERE The southern or main range of the eastern division, the Sa-| es ranges to the mountains of

Atlas, is linked

Atlas is essentiall

Saharan

Morocco. ToS aa

ae 4

;

ee

`

e

10g

Great Atlas

de Foucauld,

Ch.

BretiocrapHy.—Vicomte

oe

eeu :

639

Sen gore) >

1879),

(London,

W. B. Bas

these two

afilelt, a Jewes a

ountains, etc. (London, 1895);

B. Meakin,

au

Reconnaissance

ah Ball na o

books

The Land

ei

are

A 7

stil

and

very

ae

oj the Moors

shewest, and Jebel Aurès on the east. The central part, the Zéb |(London, 1901); M. W. Hilton Simpson, Among the Hill Folk of reaching its | Algeria (1921); V. C. S. O'Connor, A Vision of Morocco of lower elevation, the Saharan Atlas mountains, 1Spoint, Jebel Chelia (7,611ft. above the sea), in the x B Andrews, Old Morocco and the Forbidden Atlas culminating

(1923); (1924);

ouschz, Travels in North Africa (1927); E. A. Powell, In which joins the | X; Barbary (1927); and for the geology see Louis Gentil, Mission io runs Segonzac, etc. (Paris, 1906), and Le Maroc Physic. (Paris, 1912). rar Mejerda range of the Maritime Atlas,i and another branch ats This range sends a branch northward

south by Gafsa to the Gulf of Gabes. Here Mt. Sidi Ali bu

d-r)

Musin reaches a height of 5,700ft., the highest point in Tunisia. | ATLAS

PORTLAND

CEMENT

COMPANY

had its

the desert origin in the Mathey Cement company which was incorporated leading to or from r j i the passes In the Saharan Atlas underwent various are numerous, and in most instances easy. Both in the east (at |in New York State in 1885. This company developed in embryo the present 1889 in that Batna) and the west (at Ain traversed are Sefra) mountains the changes e corporat : :

: Coplay, Lehigh county, Pa., by railways, which, starting from Mediterranean seaports, take | Organization. In 1888 property at was acquired, and in 1889 a beginning for Atlas cement was the traveller into the Sahara.

Geology.—The Atlas mountains were uplifted during the Al- |made with a mill turning out 200 barrels a day. In 1896 a sec-

pine earth-movements (see ALPS). The movement commenced | ond mill, in Northampton county, Pa., began operations with a here at the end of the Jurassic period, was renewed in the Upper capacity of 3,000 barrels a day. In 1990 a third mill started opera-

Cretaceous and continued into the Miocene. There is also evi- | tion with a capacity of 10,000 barrels a day, and in 1905 @ fourth

dence of folding during earlier periods (Variscan in the Moroccan mill, with like capacity, got under way at Northampton, Pa. Following the purchase of a tract of cement property at Meseta). The direction of movement throughout the greater part two of the mountains is from north to south, and the trend from | Ilasco, near Hannibal, Mo., the company in 1905 opened additional mills, with a combined capacity of about 12,000 bareastcontinued is trend The west-south-west, te east-north-east ward through Sicily into the Apennines, and westward into the rels a day. The Atlas company in 1909 purchased the Hudson Canary islands. Nappe structures have been recognized here, but | Portland Cement company of Hudson, N.Y. The old plant was

remodelled, a new one erected, and 1,500ac. of farm and quarry land were added. A subsidiary company was organized, the | these to given Atlas name Exploration.—The History and mountains by Europeans—but never used by the native races—is New York and New England Cement and Lime company, and plant derived from that of the mythical Greek god who was supposed in 1910 production was begun. Ten years later another comio dwell in these mountains. The Atlas are the home of Berber | was purchased at Leeds, Ala., and in 1923 the fifth of the races, and those in the least accessible regions have been inde- pany’s production centres was purchased at Independence, a subsidiary pendent throughout their recorded history. Some mountain dis- | Kan. In 1924 the Atlas Lumnite Cement company, the detailed stratigraphy and tectonics are not fully known.

tricts of Kabylia had never been visited by Europeans until the | of the Atlas Portland Cement company, made available In the French military expedition of 1857. In general the Maritime range was well known to the Romans, The Jebel Amour was traversed by the column which seized El] Aghuat in 1852, and from that time dates the survey of the mountains.

United States a new hydraulic cement

called lumnite.

This

product makes concrete that sets and becomes hard in one day.

The company’s barrels.

entire

annual

production

exceeds 19,000,000 (J. R. Mor.)

The ancient caravan route from Mauretania to the western | ATMOLYSIS, a term invented by Thomas Graham to denote

Sudan crossed the lower Moroccan Atlas by the Pass of Tilghemt the separation of a mixture of gases by taking advantage of their and passed through the Oasis of Tafilelt, formerly known as Sajil- | different rates of diffusion through a porous septum or diaphragm. (See masa, on the east side of the Anti-Atlas. The Moroccan system| lt is derived from Gr. åruós, vapour: and Abey, to loosen. DIFFUSION.) European various by crossed, instances some iñ was visited, and ATMOSPHERE. The term “atmosphere” usually refers to travellers carried into slavery by the Salli rovers, and was tra-| versed by René Caillé in 1828 on his journey from Timbuktu, the gaseous envelope covering the surface of the earth. The word but the first detailed exploration was made by Gerhard Rohlfs | is derived from the Greek words åruós, smoke or vapour and the in 1861-62. Previous to that almost the only special report was | epatpa, globe or sphere, The early Greeks were probably first to study the weather in a regular and systematic way and the the misleading one of Lieut. Washington, in 1837. In 1873 the first scientific expedition, consisting of Dr. (after- wind was defined by Anaximander as “a flowing of the air.” wards Sir) J. D. Hooker, John Ball and G. Maw, explored the Hesiod in his treatise Works and Days discussed the origin of properties of the air central part of the Great Atlas. They ascended by the Ait Mizan wind, and many observations of physical others. The mavalley to the Tagharat pass (11,484ft.), and by the Amsmiz val- |were made by Ctesibus, Hero of Alexandria, and

ley to the summit of Jebel Tezah (z1,972ft.). Dr. Oskar Lenz | terial nature of air is clearly recognized in Hero’s Pneumatica. Anaximenes (¢. 500 B.C.) regarded the air as the primordial in 1879-80 surveyed a part of the Great Atlas north of Tarudant, time determined a pass south of Iligh in the Anti-Atlas, and penetrated substance from which all matter was condensed. During the inthence across the Sahara to Timbuktu. He was followed in 1883- | of Socrates meteorology was neglected, but Aristotle revived

& by Vicomte Ch. de Foucauld, whose itineraries included parts | terest in the study of the atmosphere and wrote about the winds. regions; the of the first and middle ranges; three routes over the Great Atlas, He regarded the atmosphere as consisting of three to be imsupposed. he exist animals and plants which in lowest | its neatly for flanks both along followed which was, moreover,

whole length: and six journeys across the Anti-Atlas, with a general survey of the foot of this range and several passages over the Jebel Bani, Then came Joseph Thomson, who explored some

movable like the earth; the uppermost, region adjoined the fiery

heavens and moved with them; the division intermediate between the other two, he believed to be exceedingly cold. Meteors were

of the central parts, and made the ascent of Mt. Likimt, 13,1 soft. | considered by Aristotle to be exhalations from the earth, which

reached the hot upper layer, (1888); and Walter B. Harris, who explored some of the south- | became incandescent when they from this time until the early made was progress little Very em slopes and crossed the Atlas at two points during his expedi-|

during the r1th tion to Tafflelt in 1894. In rgọr and again in 1905 the marquis | part of the 17th century, although it is said that from atmosphere, the of height the calculated Arabs the century | Mothe in journeys extensive made de Segonzac, a Frenchman,

a roccan ranges. A member of his expeditions, de Flotte Rocque- | the duration of twilight, as 92 kilometres. In 1643, Torricelli, one vaire, made a triangulation of part of the western portion of the | student of Galileo, found that if a long glass tube sealed at

and the open end closed with the main Atlas, Since that time numerous travellers and scientists | end was filled with mercury (See also Morocco, finger while the tube was inverted in a vessel containing mer-

have visited and explored the mountains.

ALGERIA, TUNISIA and SAHARA.)

cury, the liquid sank only to a certain level. it ihus became

ATMOSPHERE

640

possible to measure the pressure of the atmosphere, and the space above the mercury is still referred to as a Torricellian vacuum. This apparatus was called a barometer (g.v.) by Boyle and soon came into general use. Pascal demonstrated the decrease of the pressure of the air with altitude by measuring the height of the mercury column of a barometer at different points up a tower in

Paris. In 1650 von Guericke (¢.v.) found that he could pump air and was responsible for the famous experiment with the Magde-

burg hemispheres. That air consists chiefly of two gases was first recognized by Scheele (1772), but Cavendish (1781) was responsible for a large number of analyses of the air and found that 100 volumes contain 20-83 parts by volume of oxygen (g.v.) and 79-17 of nitrogen (g.v.). Similar experiments were carried out by Priestley (who thought the composition variable) and Lavoisier, but it was not until 1846 that it was definitely established by Bunsen that the composition of the atmosphere is not absolutely constant. The Composition of the Atmosphere.—Air is a mixture of gases and is not a chemical compound. This is proved by the

following:—(1) The composition of air is not constant, and the quantities present of the different components do not bear any

simple relation to their atomic weights. (2) The constituents can be separated by diffusion and by the fractional distillation of liquid air. (3) Air dissolves in water in accordance with the law of partial pressures and hence air expelled from water contains an increased proportion of oxygen.

Below a height of 2okm. (124m.) the constituents of the at-

mosphere, with the exception of water vapour, are well mixed by winds and by diffusion. Slight changes in composition do occur, however, at the surface of the earth and these depend on latitude and the presence of large quantities of vegetation or sea-water. The permanent constituents of the air are generally present in the following proportions (according to Humphreys in the Scientific

Monthly, 1927) :— Volume % in dry air

Substance

E

Total atmosphere i Dry air .

Nitrogen Oxygen

Argon Water

78-03

20-99

.

vapour Carbon dioxide Hydrogen

. 100-00

0-9323

. .

0-03 OOI 0-0018 0-0001 0-0005 ©-00000 0-000009

. Neon Krypton Helium . Ozone . Xenon

The following table by Hann shows the variation with latitude.

Equator . . Latitude 50° N.

Latitude 70° N.

Nitrogen Oxygen - 75-99 20-44 . 77132 ~ 20-80 . 77°87 20-94

Argon 0-92 0-94 O94

Water Carbon vapour dioxide 2-63 0-02 0-92 0-02 0-22 0-03

The composition also varies with altitude, but not to any very appreciable extent at heights at which respiration is still possible. The amount of water vapour present in the air is usually about 1:2% by volume, but in very cold weather this quantity falls almost to zero. At other times it may be as high as 5%. The ozone (g.v.) of the atmosphere is produced by electrical discharges and is found over the sea and mountains. Probably it is never present in quantities greater than one part in ten millions and the amount varies with the seasons, being greatest in winter, and averaging 2-5 volumes per million of air. Large quantities of carbon dioxide, steam, nitrogen and hydrogen are constantly liberated from inside the earth by volcanoes; and carbon dioxide is the product of respiration of animals and plants. It is probable that when the earth was in the liquid state most of the nitrogen would remain free and would be retained by gravity

rather than by chemical combination.

The source of the oxygen

presents difficulties: it may have been formed by the decomposition of volcanic carbon dioxide by plants; but this can only be

effected by green plants in the presence of light, and, as most prim-

| ive plants are not green, it is more probable that there Was an excess of oxygen in the frst place and that it has been reta; through the gravitational effect; however the balance of the

quantity of oxygen in the air is maintained by the decompeen; of carbon dioxide by plants. Lighter gases such as hydrogen and helium would tend to escape while the earth was stil] liquid, but

would be retained when a solid crust had developed. ` The Rare Gases—During his experiments on the combination

of nitrogen and oxygen by means of an electric spark, Cavendish

in 1785, observed that a small bubble of gas always remained after

the absorption of the nitrogen oxides by potash and of the oxygen by “liver of sulphur.” This was “certainly not more than rhe of the bulk of the phlogisticated air (nitrogen) let up into the tube”

Cavendish’s observation was overlooked until in 1894 the late Lord Rayleigh noticed that atmospheric nitrogen is slightly denser

than nitrogen prepared by chemical means (Atmospheric nitrogen 1-25718; Chemical nitrogen, I-25107). The difference could only be explained by the presence of an unknown gas in the air, and Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay used two methods ig isolate this, one of which was a repetition of Cavendish’s experiment on a large scale, while the other consisted in absorbing the nitrogen by heated magnesium.

The new gas was found to þe

chemically inactive and hence was called argon (Gr. &pyóv=lazy) (q.v.). During the course of the separation of argon from liquid

air by fractional distillation, Ramsay and Travers (1898) discovered four more inert gases, which received the names helium

' neon, krypton and xenon (gq.v.). These five inactive gases are best characterized by their spectra, which are quite distinctive. They are all monatomic, ʻe., each molecule only contains one atom. Certain springs evolve these gases, and helium is found in some natural gas and also occluded in certain minerals, e.g., bröggerite.

Impurities—Besides the normal constituents air always contains other substances which we can call “impurities.”

Organic and

inorganic particles are always present to a certain extent, but are more plentiful over towns than elsewhere. The organic matter consists chiefly of plant spores and micro-organisms, and decreases in quantity when the temperature falls. Over the open sea the number of such particles is about one per cubic metre, while in crowded places it may rise to several thousand per cubic metre. Air may be sterilized by treatment with ozone if dry, by passing it through a hot tube, or partially by filtration through cottoa wool. Inorganic dust is introduced into the atmosphere by the disintegration of meteors, volcanic eruptions, the combustion of fuel, and from the earth’s surface by wind. The minute crystals of sodium chloride (common salt) found in the air owe their orgm to ocean spray. The larger dust particles are visible as “motes”m a beam of light, but by far the greater number cannot be seen with the naked eye. In town air there are about 100,000 per cu. cm. but over the sea this number falls to some hundreds. The

particles can be made to settle out by washing and scrubbing. Atmospheric dust is the chief cause of haze in dry weather. Very slight traces of radioactive substances are also found in the air. A large number of gaseous impurities are present such as ammonia, oxides and acids of nitrogen, small quantities of hydrocarbons, sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon monoxide, sulphur diozide and sulphurous and sulphuric acids, chlorine and hydrochloric acid. Nitrogen compounds (see Nrrrocen) which are produced by electrical discharges, e.g., during thunder-storms, and ca

down by rain play an important part in the fertilization of the

soil. Ammonia (q.v.) is also introduced by the decay of organi matter. Carbon monoxide is contained in the exhaust gases af petrol engines and is found in railway tunnels. Other impuriixs are released from various chemical works. Height of the Atmosphere.—The height to which the atmos-

phere extends cannot be definitely stated, although at an altitude of som. the air cannot exert any measurable pressure. Three

methods are available for the estimation of the height: (1) observation of meteors, (2) measurement of the duration of twilight, (3) observation of auroral displays. The first method gives ré

ranging from 15o to 300km., while the duration of twilight= cates a value of about 64km. at lat. 45°. It is difficult te make

ATMOSPHERIC he

calculations from auroral displays, but it is claimed that

641

Absorption of Radiation by the Atmosphere.—The

blue

colour of the sky is due to the fact that the air is not perfectly phere remained uniform throughout with the same value as at transparent and its particles reflect and scatter light, that from the the earth’s surface, the air would form a layer only 8km. thick blue end of the spectrum being most widely scattered. This effect ind this is sometimes called the “height of the homogeneous also obscures the light of the stars. Very little of the sun's thermal stmosphere.”” Half of the air is below a height of 5-8km. At low radiation is absorbed by the air, which derives most of its heat prels temperature is usually considered to decrease 0-56°C per from the earth by conduction and convection. A layer of air one soo metres increase in altitude, but the rate is extremely variable. metre thick absorbs about 0-007%% of the radiant heat passing Above 2km. the temperature is on an average below o°C and con- through it. Of the radiation incident on the outer atmosphere tines to fall up to rokm. (6m.) when it is about —55° C. At about 37% is lost by reflection and scattering. The fraction of 37km. the temperature 1s practically the same as at 1okm. The the radiant energy from the sun which reaches the earth is lower region of the atmosphere is known as the troposphere and termed the coefficient of transparency of the atmosphere. The extends up to rokm., beyond which clouds are not generally found, absorption is chiefly dependent on the amount of water vapour, carbon dioxide and solid impurities present and consequently is except in tropical latitudes. The Outer Atmosphere.—The upper region of the atmos- much greater in the neighbourhood of towns. The following , above rokm., is called the stratosphere and is separated coefficients of transparency are given by Wild for one metre from the troposphere or lower region, by a boundary region of air:—Dry, dust-free air, 099718, Dry air, containing dust, yown as the tropopause. In the stratosphere the temperature from a room, 0-99520, Dust-free air saturated with water vapour ient runs parallel to the earth’s surface, whereas at lower alti- 0-99328. The ozone, which appears to be present at very high tudes it is vertical, ż.e., in the former case the air is arranged in altitudes, is responsible for the removal of practically all the columns each with a given temperature, while in the troposphere ultraviolet radiation of wave-length shorter than A=2,885 A.U. Since the temperature of the upper atmosphere is practically there are layers of air at different temperatures. Knowledge of the upper atmosphere, its constitution and physical properties, is constant and no convection or condensation takes place there, no means complete, although sounding balloons have been used it is important to consider what would be the effect of dust parup to about 25km. Lindemann and Dobson have deduced from ticles which might be forced into the stratosphere by volcanic observations on meteors, that the stratosphere does not extend eruption. After certain eruptions, ¢.g., Krakatoa 1883, Mont Pele beyond about 6okm. and they also conclude that above this level and Santa Maria 1902, Katmai 1912, a reddish halo was observed ihe temperature rises to about 30° C. This high temperature round the sun owing to the dust ejected to very great altitudes, region they believe to extend up to 150km. at which height meteors and it was possible to calculate the size of the particles. It has become luminous. Evidence for such a warm region has also been been estimated that a quantity of dust of volume less than 4-7 cu. brought forward by F. J. Whipple from a study of the abnormal km. distributed in the upper layers of the air, would reduce the awdibility of explosions, but its existence has been questioned intensity of solar radiation by 20%. It is possible to explain the occurrence of ice ages in this way. (See also SPECTROSCOPY; by Sparrow. i The behaviour of long wave-length electromagnetic radiation METEOROLOGY; CLIMATE.) Breciocrapuy.—Sir Napier Shaw, The Air and Its Ways (1923); (wireless waves) points to the existence of a conducting layer of Sir Napier Shaw, Manual of Meteorology (1926); W. J. Humphreys, ionized gas (the Kenelly-Heaviside layer) at a level of 4okm— Physics of the Air (1920); W. J. Humphreys, “The Atmosphere: sokm. during the day and rising to about gokm. at night. In the Origin and Composition,” Scientific Monthly (1927); “The Atmostbese occur up to a height of sookm. If the density of the atmos-

daytime this ionization could be caused by the ultra-violet (short

phere,”

Scientific

American

(1928);

F. H.

Bigelow,

Atmospheric

wave-length) radiation from the sun, but its existence at night can Circulation and Radiation (1915); Geddes, Meteorology (1921); only be explained if it is assumed that some substance is present Clara M. Taylor, The Discovery of the Nature of Air (1923); J. C. M’Lennan, “The Spectrum of the Aurora,” Proceedings of the Royal which is capable of dissociation in the dark. It is believed that Institution (1926). (J. R.:P. this substance is ozone. Various workers (Fabry and Buisson, ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION is a loss of power in 1921; Harrison and Dobson, 1925) have shown by studies of the absorption of solar radiation that there is a considerable quantity transmission of radio waves due to a dissipation in the atmosof ozone in the upper atmosphere and that it is probably formed by phere. The “fading” of radio waves as often observed in broadradiation of wave-lengths shorter thanA = 2,000 A.U. (2/ro® cm.). cast reception over long distances may be, in part, the result of The region in which this ozone occurs would be expected to have an variations in the atmospheric absorption to which the waves are abnormally high temperature and electrical conductivity, because subject. ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY: see ELECTRICITY, it absorbs strongly radiation of certain wave-lengths. This region may therefore be considered to be identical with that where ÅTMOSPHERIC. ATMOSPHERIC NITROGEN FIXATION: see Nimeteors become luminous and wireless waves are reflected back to : the earth’s surface. Its upper boundary is probably at a level of TROGEN, FIXATION OF. ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY. About 1840-45 great inabout 1sokm. and since it contains ozone, oxygen must also be present. Moreover, as oxygen is less dense than ozone, it will terest was excited by a method of propelling railway trains through tend to rise to even greater heights. At a height of 3,200km. the agency of atmospheric pressure. Various inventors worked at according to Jeans, there can only be about 300,000 gas molecules the realization of this idea. On the system worked out in England by Jacob Samuda and S. Clegg a continuous pipe or main was per cubic centimetre. Much information concerning the upper atmosphere may be laid between the rails, and in it a partial vacuum was maintained derived from studies of spectrum photographs obtained from the by means of air pumps. A piston fitting closely in it was condisplays of the Aurora Borealis. These displays take place at nected to the leading vehicle of the train by an iron plate which levels varying from about 80km. to sookm., but are most fre- passed through a longitudinal groove or aperture running the quent at 1o6km. The auroral spectrum always contains a well- whole length of the pipe. This aperture was covered by a valve strip of leather, strengthened on each defined, strong, green line of wave-length A =5,577-35 A.U., the consisting of a continuous while the other was origin of which remained a mystery for a long time. In 1925 side with iron plates; one edge was fastened was a frame carrypiston the behind Connected rise. to free mixa by emitted radiation the examined Shrum and M'Lennan ture of oxygen and either helium or neon in excess, under the ing four wheels which lifted and sustained the continuous valve influence of an electrical discharge, and found a green line, for a distance of about 15 feet. Thus the piston, having atmosof it and a vacuum equal to 15 or róin. 4=5,577-35 A.U., which was also shown with pure oxygen under pheric pressure on one side

W pressure... That nitrogen, in the same form as we know it, of mercury on the other, was forced along the tube, taking the must exist at these great altitudes was shown by spectroscopic train with it. It was installed on about two miles of line between work carried out by Lord Rayleigh in 1921. Ozone, hydrogen and Kingstown and Dalkey (Ireland) in 1843 and worked till 18553 it was also tried on the London and Croydon and on the South helium are also inferred. (See also AURORA POLARIS.)

642

ATMOSPHERICS—ATOM

Devon lines, but was soon abandoned. (See PNEUMATIC DisPATCH.) For further particulars see three papers by J. Samuda, P. W. Barlow and G. Berkeley, in Proc. Inst. C.E., 1844 and 1845.

influenced by external agencies. This, however, will depend op attractive force due to the nucleus which keeps the ¢ = together. On account of the small size of the nucleus com = with the distance apart of the electrons in the cluster, this{

will to a high approximation be determined solely by the teal ATMOSPHERICS are electrical disturbances occasioned by tric charge of the nucleus. The mass of the nucleus and thewa i lightning or other electrical changes in the atmosphere. They bewhich the charges and masses are distributed among the kk come manifest in radio reception as disturbing “crackling” sounds making up the nucleus itself will only have an exceedingly suai “noise.” or “x’s” “strays,” “static,” as and are variously known influence on the behaviour of the electronic cluster, ATOLL (native name ctollon in the Maldive Islands), a

horse-shoe or ring-shaped reef of coral enclosing a lagoon. It is found in low latitudes. Its form may be likened to that of a partly submerged dish with pieces broken from its edge, the ring of islands standing upon a conical pedestal. The dish is formed of hard coral and the shells of various reef-dwelling mollusca, covered, especially at the seaward periphery, with a film of living coral polyps that continually extend the fringe, and enlarge the diameter of the atoll. The lagoon tends to deepen when the land is stationary on account of the death of the coral animals in the still water, and the disintegration of the “hard” coral of the inner ring, while waves and storms tear off blocks of rock and pile

them up at the margin, increasing the height of the islands, which in course of time usually become covered by vegetation. The lagoon entrance in the open part of the horse-shoe is always to leeward of prevailing winds. See CoraL-REEFS.

ATOM, when ordinarily used in chemistry and physics, refers

to the smallest particle of an element which can exist either alone or in combination with similar particles of the same or of a different element. The atom also refers to a quantity proportional to the atomic weight of an element. According to the theory of atomism, which dates from pre-Socratic times, the atom is one of the minute indivisible particles of which the whole universe is (X.) composed. Through the important experimental discoveries of the second half of the 19th céjtury it became gradually clear that the atoms of the elements, far from being indivisible entities, had to be

thought of as aggregates built up of separate particles. Thus from experiments on electrical discharges in rarefied gases, and especially from a closer study of the so-called cathode rays, the existence of small negatively charged particles—the mass of which was found to be about 2,000 times as small as the mass of the lightest atom, the hydrogen atom—was recognized. These small particles, which may be regarded as atoms of negative electricity, are now, following Johnstone Stoney, generally called electrons. Through the investigations of J. J. Thomson and others convine-

ing evidence was obtained that these electrons are a constituent of eyery atom. Qn this basis a number of the general properties of matter, especially as regards the interaction between matter and

radiation, receive a probable explanation. In fact, the assumption that electrons are vibrating around positions of stable equilibrium in the atom offered a simple picture of the origin of spectral lines, which allowed the phenomena of selective absorption and dispersion to be accounted for in a natural way. Even the characteristic effect of magnetic fields on spectral lines discovered by Zeeman could, as was shown by

Lorentz, be simply understood on this assumption. The origin of

the forces which kept the electrons in their positions remained for a time unknown, as well as the way in which the positive electrification was distributed within the atom. From experiments on the passage through matter of the high speed particles expelled from radioactive substances, however, Rutherford was in 1911 Jed to the so-called nuclear model of the atom. According to this the positive electricity is concentrated within a nucleus of dimen-

sions very small compared with the total space occupied by an atom. This nucleus is also responsible for practically the whole of the atomic mass,

2. To the second class belong such properties as the radione

tivity of the substance. These are determined by the actual in-

ternal structure of the nucleus. In the radioactive processes we witness, in fact, explosions of the nucleus in which positive o negative particles, the so-called a and ĝ particles, are expelled with very great velocities. The complete independence of the two classes of properties

is most strikingly shown by the existence of substances which are indistinguishable from one another by any of the ordinary phyg. cal and chemical tests, but of which the atomic weights are not the

same, and whose radioactive properties are completely different. Any group of two or more such substances are called isotopes (g.v.), since they occupy the same position in the classification of the elements according to ordinary physical and chemical proper.’ ties. The first evidence of their existence was found in the work of Soddy and other investigators on the chemical properties of the

radioactive elements. It has been shown that isotopes are found not only among the radioactive elements, but that many of the ordinary stable elements consist of isotopes, for a large number of the latter that were previously supposed to consist of atoms all

alike have been shown by Aston’s investigations to be a mixture of isotopes with different atomic weights.

Moreover the atomic

weights of these isotopes are whole numbers, and it is because the so-called chemically pure substances are really mixtures of iso topes, that the atomic weights are not integers.

The inner structure of the nucleus is still but little understood, although a method of attack is afforded by Rutherford’s experiments on the disintegration of atomic nuclei by bombardment with a particles. Indeed, these experiments may be said to have started a new epoch in natural philosophy in that for the first time the artificial transformation of one element into another has been

accomplished (sea TRANSMUTATION OF ELEMENTS), In what fellows, however, we shall confine ourselves to a consideration of the ordinary physical and chemical properties of the elements and the attempts which have been made to explain them on the basts of the concepts just outlined. THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE ELEMENTS

It was recognized by Mendelejeff that when the elements are arranged in an order which is practically that of their atomic weights, their chemical and physical properties show a pronounced periodicity. A diagrammatic representation of this so-called

periodic table is given in Table I., which represents in a slightly

modified form an arrangement first proposed by Julius Thomsen.

In the table the elements are denoted by their usual chemical

symbols, and the different vertical columns indicate the so-called periods. The elements in successive columns which posses homologous chemical and physical properties are connected by lines. The meaning of the square brackets around certain series of elements in the later periods, the properties of which exhibit typi-

cal deviations from the simple periodicity in the first periods,

will be mentioned below. Radiation.—The discovery of the relationship between the elements was primarily based on a study of their chemical properties. Later it was recognised that this relationship appears very clearly in the constitution of the radiation which the ele

ments emit or absorb in suitable circumstances. In 1883 Balmer showed that the spectrum of hydrogen, the first element in the has afforded a new insight into the origin of the properties of the table, could be expressed by an extremely simple mathematical elements. These properties can be divided into two sharply dislaw. This so-called Balmer formula states that the frequenc

Properties of the Elements,—The nuclear theory of the atom

tinguished classes. | T. To the frst class belong most of the ordinary physical and

chemical properties. These depend on the constitution of the

electron cluster round the nucleus and on the way in which it is

y of the lines in the spectrum are given to a close approximation

p=R (om a

a)

(n)?

(3)

ATOM where R is a constant, and where #’ and n” are whole numbers. jį x” is put equal to 2 and m’ is given successively the values a the formula gives the frequencies of the series of lines in the visible part of the hydrogen spectrum. If 2” is put equal tor and # equal to 2, 3,4... a series of ultra-violet lines is obtained which was discovered by Lyman in 1914. To n”=3, paas correspond series of infra-red hydrogen lines which also

have been observed. Tasre I. Periodic Table of the Elements

19 K——37 R

Li—11 Nez 4 Be—12 Mga 5 B—13 Ah\

-nn - m—_

1 W 6 C—14 Sini

QHe,

7 N—15 Pit

N 8 0—16 S--\i\2 ‘9 F—17 C130 Zn—48 Cd 0 Ne—18 A- 31 Ga—49 In \'32 Ge—-50 Sn

W133 As—51 Sb

34 Se—52 Te

435 Br—53 I

36 Kr—54 X

86 Em Rydberg in his famous investigation of line spectra more than 30 years ago was able to analyse in a similar way many spectra of other elements. Just as in the case of hydrogen he found that the frequencies of a line-spectrum (such as that of sodium) could be represented by a formula of the type

yv=T"-T (2) where T”. T” can be approximately represented by R ~ (n—ak)? (3) ox is a constant for any one series, but takes different values 4,0... for the different series, while # takes a set of successive integral values. .R is constant throughout for all spectra, and is the same constant as that appearing in (1); it is generally called the “Rydberg number.” In many spectra the terms of most series are multiple, z.e., the terms which we consider as forming a series do actually form two, three or more series cortesponding to two, three or more slightly different values of ax. Rydberg also discovered that the spectra of elements occupying

homologous positions in the periodic table were very similar to each other, a similarity which is especially pronounced as regards the multiplicity of the terms.

Moseley’s Discovery.—The study of X-ray spectra made pos-

sible by the work of Laue and Bragg brought out relations of a stil simpler kind between different elements. Thus Moseley (g.v.) in 1913 made the fundamental discovery that the X-ray spectra of all elements show a striking similarity in their struc-

64.3 S (4-=) Io I v= WR

(4)

and that of another line by p= N?R Ge)

(5)

where R is again the Rydberg constant and V the ordinal number of the element in the periodic table. The extreme simplicity of these formulae enabled Moseley to settle any previous un-

certainty as to the order of the elements in the periodic table, and also to state definitely the empty places in the table to be filled up by elements not yet discovered. In the nuclear model of the atom, the ordinal number of an element in the periodic table receives an extraordinarily simple interpretation. In fact, if the numerical value of the charge on an electron is taken as unity, this ordinal number, which is often called the “atomic number” (g.v.), can simply be identified with the magnitude of the nuclear charge. This law which was foreshadowed by J. J. Thomson’s investigations of the number of electrons in the atom, as well as by Rutherford’s original estimate of the charge on the atomic nucleus, was first suggested by van den Broek. It has since been established by refined measurements of the nuclear charge, and it has proved itself an unerring guide in the study of the relationship between the physical and chemical properties of the elements. This law also offers an immediate explanation of the simple rules governing the changes in the chemical properties of radioactive elements following the expulsion of a or 8 particles. THE QUANTUM THEORY The discovery of the electron and of the nucleus was based on experiments, the interpretation of which rested on applications of the classical laws of electrodynamics. As soon, however, as an attempt is made to apply these laws to the interaction of the particles within the atom, in order to account for the physical and chemical properties of the elements, we are confronted with serious difficulties. Consider the case of an atom containing one electron: it is evident that an electrodynamical system consisting of a positive nucleus and a single electron will not exhibit the peculiar stability of an actual atom. Even if the electron might be assumed to describe an elliptical orbit with the nucleus in one of the foci, there would be nothing to fix the dimensions of the orbit, so that the magnitude of the atom would be an undetermined quantity. Moreover, according to the classical theory the revolving electron would continually radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic waves of changing frequency and the electron would finally fall into the nucleus. In short, all the promising results of the classical electronic theory of matter would seem at first sight to have become illusory. It has nevertheless been possible to develop a coherent atomic theory based on this picture of the atom by the mtroduction of the concepts which formed the basis of the famous theory of temperature radiation developed by Planck in 1900. This theory marked a complete departure from the ideas which had hitherto been applied to the explanation of natural phenomena, in that it ascribed to the atomic processes a certain element of discontinuity of a kind quite foreign to the laws of classical physics. One of its outstanding features is the appearance in the formulation of physical laws of a new universal con-

stant, the so-called Planck’s constant, which has the dimensions of energy multiplied by time, and which is often called the “elementary quantum of action.” We shall not enter upon the form which the quantum theory exhibited in Planck’s original investigations, or on the important theories developed by Einstein in 1905, in which the fertility of Planck’s ideas in explaining various physical phenomena was shown in an ingenious way. We

ture, and that the frequencies of corresponding lines depend in shall proceed at once to explain the form in which it has been a very simple way on the ordinal number of the element in the possible to apply the quantum theory to the problem of atomic periodic table. Moreover the structure of these spectra was very

lke that of the hydrogen spectrum. The frequency of one of the

strongest X-ray lines for the various elements could, for instance, given approximately by

constitution. This rests upon the following two postulates :— r. An atomic system is stable only in a certain set of states, the “stationary states,” which in general corresponds to a discrete sequence of values of the energy of the atom. Every change

ATOM

644

in this energy is associated with a complete “transition” of the atom from one stationary state to another. is gov2. The power of the atom to absorb and emit radiation on transiti a with ed associat n radiatio erned by the law that the must be monochromatic and of frequency » such that

of Heisenberg has resulted in the formulation of arational] quan. tum kinematics and mechanics.

In this theory the concepts of

the classical theories are from the outset transcribed in a wa appropriate to the fundamental postulates and every direct refer ence to mechanical pictures is discarded. Heisenbere's t i constitutes a bold departure from the classical way of‘desc ibi hv=E,—Ez (6) natural phenomena but may count as a merit that it deals on in where # is Planck’s constant and Æ, and Ez are the energies with quantities open to direct observation. This theory ha concerned. states stationary two the already given rise to various interesting and important results in- and it has in particular allowed the Balmer formula to be derived The first of these postulates aims at a definition of the a in clearly so ted without any arbitrary assumptions as to the nature of the station. herent stability of atomic structures, manifes great number of chemical and physical phenomena. The second ary states. However, the methods of quantum mechanics have not postulate, which is closely related to Einstein's law of the photo- yet been applied to the problem of the constitution of atoms conelectric effect, offers a basis for the interpretation of line spec- taining several electrons, and in what follows we are reduced to ed a discussion of results which have been derived by using mechani. tra; it explains directly the fundamental spectral law express by relation (2). We see in fact that the spectral terms appearing cal pictures of the stationary states. Although in this way arig. the in this relation can be identified with the energy values of orous quantitative treatment is not obtainable it has nevertheless stationary states divided by k. This view of the origin of spectra been possible, with the guidance of the correspondence principle d obtaine has been found to agree with the experimental results to obtain a general insight into the problem of atomic constitution, in the excitation of radiation. This is shown especially in the disfree between SPECTRA OF ELEMENTS OF HIGHER ATOMIC NUMBER impacts covery of Franck and Hertz relating to from , transfer energy an that found They The hydrogen spectrum may be considered as evidence of a atoms. and s electron the electron to the atom can take place only in amounts which. step-like process in which an electron is captured and bound incorrespond with the energy differences of the stationary states creasingly strongly in the field surrounding the nucleus, the stages of this process being the stationary states of the atom. Simple as computed from the spectral terms. The Hydrogen Spectrum.—From the Balmer formula (1) arguments lead to the conclusion that the stages corresponding and the quantum theory postulates, it follows that the hydrogen to the binding of an electron by a nucleus of any given charge atom has a single sequence of stationary states, the numerical will be represented by a similar sequence of stationary states and value of the energy in the n state being Rh/n*. Applying this that the energy W,, necessary to remove the electron from the result to the nuclear model of the hydrogen atom, we may as- nt? state will be given by the expression: sume that this expression represents the work necessary to reWr = N? 2 (3) move the electron from the mth state to an infinite distance from the nucleus. If the interaction of the atomic particles is to be explained upon the laws of classical mechanics, the electron in where N is the atomic number of the elements under consideraany one of the stationary states must move in an elliptical orbit tion. These states may be visualized as mechanical orbits of the about the nucleus as focus, with a major axis whose length is pro- electron in which the major axis is NV times as small as the major portional to n*. The state for which x is equal to r may be con- axis in the corresponding orbit in the hydrogen atom. The specsidered as the normal state of the atom, the energy then being a trum associated with the binding process under consideration is minimum. For this state the major axis is found to be approxi- represented by the formula: I I mately 10% centimetres. It is satisfactory that this is of the y = NPR GHG» (9) same order of magnitude as the atomic dimensions derived from experiments of various kinds. It is clear, however, from the naFor N=2, this formula actually represents the spectrum which ture of the postulates, that such a mechanical picture of the sta- is emitted by a singly ionized helium atom, że., a helium atom, tionary states can have only a symbolic character. This is per- which has lost one of its electrons. Spectra of this type have not haps most clearly manifested by the fact that the frequencies of yet been observed for values of N larger than 2, but it will be the orbital revolution in these pictures have no direct connection seen that formula (9) includes the approximate formulae (4) with the frequencies of the radiation emitted by the atom. and (5) representing the frequencies of the strongest lines in the Nevertheless, the attempts at visualizing the stationary states by X-ray spectra of the elements. This may be understood if we mechanical pictures have brought to light a far-reaching analogy assume that an X-ray spectrum is associated which changes in between the quantum theory and the classical theory. This an- the state of binding of one of the electrons in the inner region alogy was traced by examining the radiation processes in the limit of the atom, where, at least when the atomic number is large, the where successive stationary states differ comparatively little from force on the electron due to the nucleus will far outweigh the each other. Here it was found that the frequencies associated with forces due to the other electrons, and where consequently the the transition from any state to the next succeeding one tend to of these electrons will have a comparatively small ipresence coincide with the frequencies of revolution in these states, if the fluence on the strength of the binding. Rydberg constant appearing in tHe Balmer formula (1) is given by Influence of Electrons.—In general the mutual influence of the following expression: the electrons is very considerable. Consider the stages by which af oTetm electron is captured by an atom of which the nucleus already bas

R=

eS

(7) s electrons circulating round it.

In the initial stages of ths

have dimensions where e and m are the charge and mass of the electron and A is process while the orbits may be supposed to of the dimensions orbital the with compared large Planck’s constant. This relation,is actually found to be fulfilled which are from these latter within the limits of the experimental errors involved in the meas- electrons previously bound, the repulsive forces the nuclear urements of e, m and 4, and seems to establish a definite relation electrons may be assumed to neutralise s units of charge, and the resultant force will be approximately the same4s between the spectrum and the atomic model of hydrogen. Correspondence Principle——The considerations just men- when an electron is circulating round a nucleus of atomic n tioned constitute an example of the application of the so-called N-S. In the later stages, when the dimensions of the orbit of the “correspondence principle” which has played an important part new electron are smaller, the other electrons can no Jonger be in the development of the theory. This principle gives expression considered to act as a single central charge, and their rep mart to the endeavour, in the laws of the atom, to trace the analogy cannot be easily determined. Thus the conditions become be tr longer no can states stationary the and , complicated with classical electrodynamics as far as the peculiar character of 2 S& the quantum theory postulates permits. On this line much work by picturing the motion of the new electron as following has been done in the last few years, and quite recently in the hands lerian ellipse.

ATOM It has been found, however, that many features of the resulting spectra would be explained by assuming the added electron to move in a plane central orbit consisting of a sequence of quasi-

elliptic loops. In contrast to aKeplerian orbit the single loops are not closed, but the successive maximum radii will be placed at constant angular intervals on a circle with the nucleus at the

645

anomalous Zeeman effect to be accounted for, but affords at the same time a natural explanation for the empirical rules governing the dependency of the widths of the multiplet structures on the atomic number.

ATOMIC CONSTITUTION AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

Soon after the discovery of the electron it was recognized that centre. For such central orbits it is possible, as was first shown by Sommerfeld, to select from the continuous multitude of possible the relationships between the physical and chemical properties orbits a set of orbits which may be taken as representing station- of the elements expressed in the periodic table point towards a ary states in the sense of the quantum theory. These states are group-structure of the electronic distribution in the atom. Funlabelled with two integral numbers; the one, denoted by x, cor- damental work on these lines was done by J. J. Thomson in 1904. nds to the integer appearing in the Balmer formula and is After the discovery of the nucleus and the simple interpretation called the principal quantum number. The other, denoted by &, of the atomic number given above, his work has been followed may be called the subordinate quantum number. For any given up with great success especially by Kossel and Lewis. It is suggested that the electrons within the atom possess a value of , the number & can take the values 1, 2,3... n, corresponding to a set of orbits with increasing minimum dis- tendency to form stable groups, each containing a definite number tance from the nucleus. For a given value of k increasing values of electrons which, in the neutral state of the atom, surround the centre of the atom like successive shells or layers. An explanation of n correspond to orbits which exhibit an increasing maximum distance from the nucleus, but which are similar in size and shape of the simple valency properties holding for the second and third

period of the periodic table was, for instance, obtained by assuming that there was a tendency to form completed shells each concompletely from the nucleus, the theory leads to the following taining eight electrons. The single valency of sodium and the double valency of magnesium are ascribed to the facility with approximate expression which the neutral atoms of these elements can lose one or two electrons respectively, as the atomic ions remaining would then (n— az)? (zo) contain completed shells only. On the other hand the double where a depends only on the subordinate quantum number k, and negative valency of sulphur and the single negative valency of approaches zero for increasing &. chlorine are ascribed to the tendency of their outermost shells to If sis equal to N-1, we see that the Wa, when divided by + co- take up two or one additional electrons respectively in order to incides exactly with Rydberg’s expressions (3) for the spectral form a complete shell of eight electrons, like that contained in terms of the ordinary series spectra of the elements. These spectra the neutral atom of the inactive gas argon. Spatial Arrangement of Electrons.—Attempts have been may therefore be considered as evidence of processes, representing the last stage in the formation of a neutral atom, in which a made to associate the existence of such groups with statical connucleus of charge Ne, which holds already N-1 electrons bound figurations of electrons possessing a high degree of symmetry. in its field, is capturing an N“ electron. In recent years it has The presence of groups of eight electrons for instance has been been found that many elements under suitable conditions besides explained as an arrangement of electrons at the corners of a their ordinary spectra also emit spectra for which the terms can cube. However suggestive these ideas have been in affording pictures of the constitution of chemical compounds, they do not be represented by allow a direct connection with other properties of the atom to be R T= Pay (11) established; the main difficulty being that stable spatial arrangements of the electrons are incompatible with the nuclear theory where may take the integral values 2, 3, 4. . . . Comparing of the atom. In the meantime, however, it has been possible to (11) with formula (10) we see that these spectra must be as- connect the group structure of the electronic cluster in the atom cribed to atoms, which after having lost p electrons are rebinding with the quantum-theory interpretation of spectra. Thus the an electron in the field of the remaining atomic ion. constitution of the neutral atom in its normal state can be inThis interpretation of series spectra allows also the rules gov- vestigated by imagining a process by which WN electrons one erning the possible combinations of spectral terms to be explained. after one are captured and bound in the field of force surrounding In fact, it has been found that only those lines appear in the a nucleus of charge Ne. spectrum for which the k-values of the spectral terms involved To each step there corresponds a multitude of stages, i.e., difer by one unit. From an investigation of the constitution of stationary states, in which the electron is more and more firmly the radiation which on classical electrodynamics would be emitted bound to the atom. The final state, in which binding is strongest, from an electron performing a central motion, this rule can be corresponds to the normal state of the atomic ion. A definite shown to be a simple consequence of the correspondence principle. connection between the spectra and the group structure was now Multiplex Structure.—The multiplex structure exhibited by established by assuming that, in the normal atom only a limited the terms of most series spectra makes it necessary to assume number of electrons can be bound in states visualized as orbits that the motion of the electron involved in the emission of these characterized by definite values of the quantum numbers z and &. spectra is somewhat more complicated than the simple central The electrons bound in orbits corresponding to a given value of z motion described above. An analysis based on the correspond- are said to form an m-quantum group, which in its finally comence principle indicates that this motion may be described as a pleted stage will contain 2 subgroups, corresponding to the possicentral motion on which is superposed a uniform precession of ble values 1, 2 . . . # which k may take. For a sufficiently large the orbital plane round an invariable axis in space. For a time, nuclear charge, the strength with which the electrons in the however, it seemed very difficult to obtain any closer connection different subgroups belonging to one and the same group are between the observed structures and the above hypothesis of the bound will be nearly equal. constitution of the atom. In particular the remarkable analogy In the gradual building up of the groups in atoms with increasbetween the finer structures of the optical spectra and the X-ray ing nuclear charge, it is, however, to be noted that when an ny spectra, which had been brought out by the experiments, was orbit appears for the first time in the neutral atom, the strength very puzzling. The study of the strange anomalies exhibited by of the binding will depend very considerably on the value of &. the effect of a magnetic field on the components of the optical This is due to the circumstance that this quantum number fixes multiplets has, however, quite recently led to the view that the the closest distance to which the electron may approach the electron itself carries, besides its electric charge, also a magnetic nucleus. The screening of the nuclear charge by the other elecmoment which may be associated with a swift rotation round an trons in the atom may therefore be very different for orbits coraus through its centre. This new assumption allows not only the responding to different values of k, and the effect on the strength in the region where the electron comes nearest to the nucleus. For the work necessary to remove an electron in an n, orbit

Weee

ATOM

640

cerof the binding can be so large that an orbit characterized by than binding stronger a to nd correspo tain values of z and k may natural an orbit for which 7 is smaller but k larger. This offers a the that namely table, periodic the of feature one of explanation s of periods grow gradually larger, while there appear sequence elements which differ comparatively little in their chemical and physical properties. Such a sequence marks a stage in the development of an n-quantum group, which consists in the addition ly of a subgroup corresponding to a value of & which was previous the after place takes which and not yet represented in that group, n has building up of a group corresponding to 4 higher value of p a subgrou the of addition the during already begun. In fact, temporary standstill will occur in the development of the latter ne the group, the constitution of which will primarily determi chemical affinity of the atom, since it contains the most loosely bound electrons. In the accompanying table (Table IT.) is given a summary of the structure of the normal state of the neutral atoms of the elements. The figures before the different elements are the atomic numbers, which give the total number of electrons in the neutral s atom. The figures in the different columns give number of electron ate subordin and l principa the of values to in orbits corresponding quantum numbers standing at the top. A comparison with the periodic table (Table I.) will show that those elements which in

chemical respect are homologous, will have the same number of electrons in the electronic groups most loosely bound, contain;

the so-called valence-electrons. The atoms of elements which ; Table I. are enclosed in brackets possess electronic configurati : in which a subgroup is being added to a group, whose d

number is less than the group containing the typical valence electrons. An especially conspicuous example of such a completion

of an inner group is offered by the elements forming the family of the rare earths. Here we witness the addition of the fourth ii group to the 4-quantum group, which begins first in Ce (58) while the addition of the third subgroup was already finished in Ag (47)

Table II. is in general agreement not only with the AN spectral evidence but also with that in the region of X-rays, As mentioned earlier, we see in X-ray spectra a change in the bin i

of an electron in the interior of the atom. This takes place when for instance, by the impact of a swiftly moving particle on the

atom, an electron is removed from one of the electronic groups and its place is taken by an electron belonging to a group for which the binding energy is smaller. As an example it may be stated that the strong X-ray whose frequency is approximately

represented by formula (4) is emitted when an electron has been

removed from the 1-quantum group, and one of the 2, electrons performs a transition so as to occupy the empty place. The line represented approximately by formula (5) originates from a TABLE II. Summary of the Structure of the Neutral Atoms

22

| 2;

Ii

iH . 2 He.

I 2

3 Li

2

I

|

58

54

53

52

51

44

43

42

4.

3233

3

i |

2

4 Be

2

5 B

2

2

to Ne

2

2

rr Na 12 Mg.

2 2

I 2

13 Al .

2

2 2

2

2

I

i8 A

2

2

2

6

gK . 20 Ca . ax Sc . 22 Ti .

2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2

6 6 6 6

Iı 2

I 2 2 2

29 Cu 30 Zn 31 Ga

2 2 2

2° 2 2

2 2 2

6 6 6

10 10 Io

I 2 2

I

36 Kr

2

2

2

6

10

2

6

37 Rb 38 Sr 39 ¥

2 2 2

2 2 2

2 2 2

6 6 6

to to 10

2 2 2

6 6 6

I

40 ZY

2

2

2

6

Io

2

6

2

I 2 2 2

a7 Ag . 48 Cd . 49 In

2 2 2

2 2 2

2 2 2

6 6 6

10 10 Io

2 2 2

6 6 6

Io 10 Io

I 2 2

54 xe

2

2

2

6

10

2

6

I0

2

2

2

2

6

10

2

6

10

2

6

2

2

2

6

Io

2

6

Io

2

6

6 6 6

1. I Iı

2 2 2

55 Cs 56 Ba

63

62

| 6:

I ay

6

a

oa

I 2

57 La 58 Ce 59 Pr

2 2 2

2 2 2

2 2 2

6 6 6

o Io to

2 2 2

6 6 6

Io Io Io

I 2

2 2 2

7x Gp. 72 HE .

2 2

2 2

2 2

6 6

10 o

2 2

6 6

0 o

I4 I4

2 2

6 6

I 2

2 2

79 Au . 80 Hg . 81 Tl

2 2 2

2 2 2

2 2 2

6 6 6

10 I0 Io

2 2 2

6 6 6

10 Io Io

I4 14 I4

2 2 2

6 6 6

10 to to

I 2 2

I

86 Em

2

2

2

6

xo

2

6

Io

I4

2

6

10

2

6

87 — 88 Ra 89 Ac

2 2 2

prcrernri

2 2 2

2 2 2

6 6 6

Io to Io

2 2 2

6 6 6

Io Io 10

I4 14 I4

2 2 2

6 6 6

10 Io IO

2 2 2

6 6 6

64

65

6,

ATOM

647

transition by which a 3s electron takes the place left open upon | of electric charge and current, which, when applied to a charac-

the removal of a 2. electron.

The question how many electrons there are in the various

ups and subgroups has been subject to much discussion in the

last few years. Table II. is the temporary result of this discussion

„nd seems to give an adequate description of the spectral as well as the chemical evidence. It is clear that a full theoretical treatment of the problem cannot be obtained from considerations based oly on the simple picture of central orbits. Such a treatment will essentially involve an examination of those features of the binding of the electrons, which appear in the multiplet structure of spectral lines. Indeed it is very probable that the idea that the electron itself has magnetic properties may give the clue to the interpretation of the empirical rules governing the number of electrons in the group structure of the atom. Recent Progress.—Such is the outline of the theory of the atom and its structure as it stood in 1925. Since then the subject

of atomic structure has undergone a remarkable development due to the establishment of rational quantum theoretical methods which enable a quantitative treatment to be given to a large number of atomic problems that, earlier, were accessible only to considerations of a more qualitative character. These methods take their origin from two sources. On the one hand the symbolic

procedure of “quantum mechanics” initiated by Heisenberg, and briefly referred to above, has, thanks to the collaboration of a numher of eminent physicists, developed into a structure which, as re-

gards generality and consistency, may be compared with the

theory of classical mechanics. On the other hand a new method

of “wave mechanics” of great power and fertility has been de-

veloped by Schrodinger having its starting point in the pioneer work of de Broglie. (See Quantum THEory.) This method utilizes the analogy between mechanics and optics emphasized already long ago by Hamilton. According to de Broglie, the motion of a material particle may be compared with the propagation of a train of waves, the frequency of which is related to the kinetic energy of the particle, as calculated on the relativity theory, by the general quantum relation E=hv. Indeed, this view may be considered as an inversion of the considerations by which

Einstein was led to the hypothesis that the carrier of light energy

teristic vibration, represents the electrostatic and magnetic properties of an atom in the corresponding stationary state. Similarly the superposition of two characteristic solutions corresponds to a continuous vibrating distribution of electric charge, which on classical electrodynamics would give rise to an emission of radiation, fulfilling the requirement of the quantum postulate and the correspondence principle as regards frequency as well as intensity and polarization. These remarkable results have given rise to a renewed discussion regarding the physical nature of the constituents of the atom. Indeed, the view has been advocated that the wave idea offers a real picture of the atom, allowing a direct application of the methods of classical physics. On this view the wave mechanics represent a natural generalization of classical mechanics of material particles, to which it is related in the same way as the modern theory of optics based on the fundamental equations of electrodynamics is related to the more primitive theory of geometrical optics, which makes use of the idea of light rays. It would appear, however, that the situation is more complicated. Due to the very contrast between the ideas of quantum theory and the fundamental principles of classical physics, we cannot expect to be able to visualize atomic phenomena by means of our classical ideas. In the dilemma regarding the nature of light and the ultimate constituents of matter we witness a general feature of a dualism inherent in the quantum theory description. Indeed, the wave and particle ideas are both indispensable if we attempt to get a full description of experience. This situation is brought out very clearly by the recent development of the symbolic method of quantum mechanics, through which an intimate connection between the correspondence argument and Schrédinger’s work is established. Just when due regard is given to the feature of dualism in question, the quantum theory can, unfamiliar as it is, still be regarded as a natural development of the ordinary description of physical phenomena. F In the problem of atomic constitution we meet with a very striking example of the dualism mentioned. Notwithstanding the wonderful power of the Schrödinger wave functions of illustrating properties of stationary states, the wave theory fails to account for the peculiar stability of these states, on which the interpretation of atomic phenomena rests so essentially. Indeed, we have

had to be considered not as waves but as corpuscles—the socalled light quanta—which concentrated within a small volume contained the energy kv. Notwithstanding the indispensability of here to do with the very feature of discontinuity or rather “inthe wave theory of light for the account of ordinary optical expe- dividuality,” by which the quantum theory departs from the rience, Einstein’s hypothesis has proved most fruitful in explain- ideas of classical physics, and of which we perhaps have the most ing a number of phenomena, notably the important discovery of striking example in the existence of the individual particles Compton of the change in the frequency which X-rays suffer themselves. For the rest, the dualism of the quantum theory when scattered by electrons. Similarly the view of de Broglie, brings with it the conclusion that the use of the idea of stationstrange as it is from the classical point of view, has received a ary states excludes the possibility of following at the same time striking support from the recent discovery of Davisson and Ger- the behaviour of the single particles in the atom. Just this situamer about the selective reflection of electrons from metal crystals. tion finds its adequate representation in the characteristic vibraIndeed, in these experiments the electrons were found to behave tions of the Schrödinger wave problem. This problem, in fact, is Frwaves possessing the wave length anticipated from quantum not a 3-dimensional one, as that of ordinary spatial description, but one which operates with a number of dimensions equal to the numeory. The first indication of the importance of the wave idea in the ber of degrees of freedom of the whole atom. This fact has reproblem of atomic constitution was the suggestion of de Broglie cently found an important application in the interpretation of a that the stationary states of an atom might be interpreted as an certain peculiar duplexity in the structure of spectra especially interference effect of the waves associated with a bound electron. marked in the helium spectrum. This duplexity, which for a long A real advance in this direction, however, was first achieved by time eluded explanation, has recently been explained by HeisenSchrödinger, who succeeded in replacing the classical equations berg, who pointed out that we have here to do with an effect of of motion for the particles in the atom by a certain differential the mutual interaction of the electrons in the atom, which exhibequation of a type similar to that known from the theory of its a close correspondence with a classical resonance problem, but elastic vibrations of solid bodies. As is well known from, acous- cannot be accounted for on the simple procedure of characterizing tics any such vibration can be resolved into a number of purely the behaviour of the individual electrons by quantum numbers. harmonic components, representing the fundamental tones of a The justification of this procedure in a large number of applicamusical instryment, It was now found that the “characteristic tions rests on the circumstance that in general the resonance effect solutions” of the Schrödinger wave equation, corresponding to is very small, the mutual influence of the various electrons on such purely harmonic vibrations, offer a detailed interpretation each other being, as already described, to a close approximation of the Properties of statianary states. First of all the energy to that of a conservative central field of force. It is impossible here to give anything but a vague idea of the values appearing in the quantum theory of spectra are obtained by multiplying the frequencies of the characteristic vibrations by abundance of details regarding the physical and chemical properPlanck’s constant. Next Schrédinger succeeded in associating ties of the elements which have been explained by means of the with the solution of his wave equation a continuous distribution new methods of quantum theory. It may still be mentioned that

648

ATOMIC

NUMBER—ATOMIC

WEIGHTS

the important contributions of Main Smith and Stoner to the in- ; tions; hence they are the basis of quantitative chemical analve terpretation of the periodic table—embodied already in the and are in everyday use throughout the world. Because of the scheme of electron orbits given in the article—have been brought parallelism between gravitational effect and inertia, they record into most convincing connection with the so-called exclusion also the relative masses of the atoms of the elements. They i principle of Pauli and with the idea of the magnetic electron re- sess an extraordinary degree of definiteness, since the law of com ferred to already. Moreover a study of the fine structure of bining proportions is one of the few known precise laws ofthe band spectra has led to the conclusion that the proton, or the universe. Far deeper in meaning than the accidental astronomica! nucleus of the hydrogen atom, also possesses an angular mo- “constants,” such as the length of the day or the length of the mentum and a magnetic moment. Quite recently even a suc- year, the atomic weights of the simple elements and of the ing; vidual isotopes (see Isotopes) stand out as among the peculiar cessful attack on the fundamental problem of the origin of the and basic attributes of those 92 elementary substances of which has work whose Dirac, by made been has spin so-called electron opened new prospects. (See also ATOMIC WEIGHTS; CHEMISTRY; everything is composed. Their interpretation is closely concemed with our inferences concerning the nature of matter. ELECTRICITY, CONDUCTION OF: in Gases; ISOTOPES; QUANTUM Dalton’s Views.—Simple as the original concept of atomic THEORY.) —E. N. da C. Andrade, The Structure of the Atom BretiocrapHy (1923) ; G. Birtwistle, The Quantum Theory of the Atom (1926), The New Quantum Mechanics (1928); N. Bohr, The Theory of Spectra and Atomic Constitution (1922); A. Sommerfeld, Atomic Structure and Spectral Lines (1923); J. D. Main Smith, Chemistry and Atomic aye Structure (1924); N. V. Sidgwick, The Electronic Theory

weights seems to be, it nevertheless presents problems which

are rather

complex.

For example,

22-997

grammes

of sodium

combine with 126-932 grammes of iodine to form sodium iodide

This ratio of the combining weights of these elements appears to be invariable. As Dalton pointed out, these weights must depend

(1927).

on the relative weights of the respective atoms; no other simple

an element in the series of the elements arranged in accordance with the periodic law (q.v.). The chemical elements were formerly arranged in the periodic classification in ascending order of their atomic weights, but this

however, nothing which shows whether the sodium and iodine combine atom for atom, or whether one atom of sodium combines (for example) with two of iodine. Dalton himself perceived that this latter happening might in many cases occur; indeed it is the essence of his Law of Multiple Proportions. There is now every reason to believe that in this particular case of sodium and iodine the atoms actually combine one to one and that the numbers given above represent really the relative weights of the atoms of sodium and iodine; but there are many less simple cases. For instance, 126-932 grammes of iodine combine with 20-035 grammes of calcium; here the latter number represents only half the atomic weight of calcium; because every molecule of calcium iodide is believed on excellent evidence to contain two atoms of iodine for every atom of calcium (see VALENCY). Such a decision was beyond the reach of Dalton. It is based chiefly upon three subsequent discoveries to be briefly described. Avogadro’s Hypothesis.—In 1811 Count Amedeo Avogadro di Quaregna advanced the hypothesis, based upon Gay Lussac’s Law of Volumes, that equal volumes of gases under like conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules, a molecule being defined as consisting usually of two or more atoms. This hypothesis (which has since been so amply confirmed as to become, in many minds, a statement of fact) furnishes the most important means of deciding between the multiples or sub-multiples of the combining proportions which are to be taken as the atomic weights, because it fixes the molecular weights and formulas of volatile elements and compounds (see CHEMISTRY). Dulong and Petit’s Constant.—The second important means of deciding between possible multiples and sub-multiples of atomic weights was the discovery of Dulong and Petit (1818) that the atomic weight of an element is about equal to a constant number (6-3) divided by the specific heat. To be sure, this rule is not exact; but its inexactness is not usually great enough to affect it in its office of deciding the multiple or sub-multiple of the chemical combining proportion to be taken as the atomic weight. For example, the specific heat of calcium is about 0-16; therefore its atomic weight is shown to be about 39-4, whereas the exact value found by chemical means is 40-07. Crystalline Similarity—A third method of answering the question exists in the similarity of the crystal forms of similar salts of allied elements, discovered by E. Mitscherlich in 1821. If the atomic weight of one element entering into such isomor phous crystals is unknown, that multiple of the combining proportion of this element which corresponds to the formula indicated by

ATOMIC NUMBER, in chemistry, is the ordinal number of explanation is conceivable. There is in the experimental result

arrangement led to three pairs of anomalies, viz., argon and potassium, cobalt and nickel, and tellurium and iodine, in which the order of the atomic weight obviously disagreed with the position of the elements as shown by their chemical properties. This discrepancy was completely cléared up in 1913 by H. G. J. Moseley, who measured the wave-length of X-rays given off by elements when bombarded with cathode rays and showed that the frequencies of these X-rays were characteristic for each element. The square root of the frequency of the principal rays increased proportionately with the rise in atomic number, and when this relationship is traced out with a group of elements including iron, cobalt, nickel and copper, it is found that cobalt precedes nickel although of higher atomic weight, and X-ray spectra reveal a similar inversion in the case of tellurium and iodine. Similarly, potassium (atomic weight 39-1) is placed next but one after chlorine (atomic weight 35-46), thus leaving the intermediate position for argon (atomic weight 40). In Moseley’s own words these results show that “there is in the atom a fundamental quantity which increases by regular steps as we pass from one atom to the next. This quantity can only be the charge on the central positive nucleus.” (Moseley in Philosophical Magazine, 1913 and 1914.) Chemical atoms are composed of positive units of electricity

(protons) and of an equal number of negative units (electrons),

the charge on any one of such units being +4.77X 10™ electrostatic units. The protons are concentrated in the nucleus which also contains a portion of the electrons, the remaining electrons being extra-nuclear or planetary. Thus an element of atomic weight W and atomic number N will have a nucleus consisting of W protons and W—N electrons surrounded by NW planetary electrons. Accordingly the atomic number is (1) the ordinal number of the element, (2) the positive electrical charge on the nucleus, and (3) the number of planetary electrons surrounding the nucleus. (G. T. M.)

ATOMIC WEIGHTS.

Atomic weights have been defined as

“the relative weights of the atoms of chemical elements referred to a common standard,” This statement still serves as the simplest indication of the fundamental idea involved, although it now needs amplification. The concrete development of the idea was first effected in 1803 by John Dalton, an English chemist, when he converted the vague atomistic theory of the ancient Greeks into a highly valuable scientific asset by means of the concept of atomic weights. The chemical atomic theory thus initiated has been strengthened by modern investigation, and is to-day entrenched in a well-nigh impregnable position. Practical and Scientific Interest.—Atomic weights are quantities of great practical and theoretical importance. They record the operation of the chemical law of definite combining propor-

the known salt will be the true atomic weight, (See ISOMORPHISM.) The full significance and essential consistency of these three real methods of solving Dalton’s unsolved problem were not until 1858, when a table of atomic weights identical in principle

with that used to-day was published by S. Cannizzaro. Prewous doubts concerning the criteria just described had caused many

ATOMIC

WEIGHTS

649

compounds of any given element are fit to serve as a means of

chemists to reject wholly the term “atomic weights,” and to call

4 the arbitrarily selected multiples merely by some such name as | determining its atomic weight. for the reason that comparatively

“proportion numbers” or “chemical equivalents.” OEBut the num- | few substances may be prepared in a perfectly pure state. The

bers now used (as regards the multiples chosen) inevitably involve the atomic theory, hence the adjective “atomic” is fitting. “Weight” also is fitting, since the values are determined by means

of the gravitational balance. The term “atomic mass” applies consistently only when inertia is the basis of measurement. The term “chemical equivalent” is now used to signify the atomic

weight divided by the valency (q.v.). standard of Atomic Weights.—The choice of the standard of atomic weights has varied. Dalton chose the smallest atomic

weight, that of hydrogen, as his standard. Berzelius temporarily glected Oxygen=100 as the standard of his system. Later the chemical world returned to Dalton’s practice, especially because

(according to early work) it was believed that the atomic weight

of oxygen is nearly the whole number 16, if hydrogen is taken as

;, Finally, after it had been shown by E. W. Morley and others

that the ratio of the atomic weights of oxygen and hydrogen is in

fact 15-878 to I, it was decided, by general consent, in 1905, to

ahandon the standard H=1-000, retaining the standard O= 16.000. The decision was based upon convenience. The permanent choice of O=15-878 would have changed by nearly one per cent. almost

every other accepted value, and would have caused much confusion in previous quantitative statements. Besides, more atomic

weights approach whole numbers when oxygen is taken as exactly 16.000 than when any other usual standard is chosen. A more weighty reason lay in the fact that most of the values are experimentally determined by relation to oxygen, and are referred to hydrogen only through that element. Hence any subsequent change in the accepted ratio H:O (one of the most diffcult to determine of all such ratios) would affect all the atomic

| |

choice of the compounds to be employed is in some ways the most crucial part of the whole process, for with some compounds no result worthy of consideration could be obtained, even using the greatest care possible. Having chosen wisely, the experimenter must prepare the needful substances, whatever they may be, in a state of very great purity. He must never forget that every precipitate carries down with it contaminating impurities absorbed or included by the substance as it separates from the solution. He must remember always that no receptacle necessary to contain the substance is free from the possibility of being attacked or dissolved, thus affecting the result. Moreover, precipitates are never wholly insoluble; and most substances will volatilise if heated to an exces-

sive temperature. These complicating circumstances combine often in unexpected ways to introduce impurity, and the experimenter must not only guard against these dangers, but must prove by adequate tests that no such complication has occurred. Moreover, above all, he must not forget that oxygen, nitrogen and water are almost omnipresent; and continual care must be exercised lest in some way one of these impurities may affect the substance which is serving as the basis of the work. For further statement of these and other precautions and for a brief description of apparatus suitable for avoiding many pitfalls, together with the details of an especially instructive complex case, the reader is referred to Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication No. 125. A critical summary by F. W. Clarke of all investigations up to 1920 is to be found in the third Memoir of vol. xvi. of = Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (Washington).

A Typical Experiment.—A simple case may best exemplify the method. In one of many experiments, 7-59712 grammes of ferric oxide (Fe.0;) prepared with the greatest care, were found weight of hydrogen thus becomes 1-0077. The choice, on the to yield on reduction (by means of hydrogen at a high temperawhole, was a wise one; it has been justified by modern research, ture) 5-31364 grammes of metallic iron. The loss of weight and has proved to be peculiarly fortunate, because probably all (2-28348 grammes) represents the oxygen present in the oxide. Hence, from the proportion (2-28348):(5-31364) =O;:Fe=3 atoms of oxygen are alike in weight (see IsoToPEs). Atomic Numbers and Actual Weights—Atomic weights (16-000) :2%, the atomic weight of iron is found to be 55-843 are numbers; that is to say, they represent ratios and are there- (G. P. Baxter and C. R. Hoover). The analysis was repeated fore devoid of physical dimensions. They are, however, very many times in order to eliminate accidental errors. Alternative Method.—Another general method of determindiferent from the quantities designated by J. A. R. Newlands and ing atomic weights (applicable only to gases or vapours) depends serial the record which (q.v.), numbers” “atomic Moseley H G. J. order of the places in the periodic classification of the chemical upon Avogadro’s Rule, and resolves itself into the weighing of elements. No immediate knowledge of the actual weights of indi- like volumes of different gases under like conditions of temperavidual atoms is afforded by “atomic weights,” unless the number ture and pressure. This is the only gravimetric method applicable of atoms in a given gross weight of some elementary substance to the six inert gases (helium, etc.) which do not form chemical is known. Various researches have shown that 16 grammes of compounds. The method determines molecular weights, not oxygen contain about 60610! atoms; hence a single atom of atomic weights; but the number of atoms in a molecule may be oxygen must weigh 0-000,000,000,000,000,000,000,026,4 gramme. inferred in other ways, and therefore the atomic weights may be The actual weights of other kinds of atoms must be in due pro- calculated from the data. The method involves experimental diffculties. The globe containing a gas inevitably weighs much more portion. Experimental Determination.—The exact values of the than the gas itself and is peculiarly subject to changes of buoychemical combining proportions which form the basis of the table ancy of the air. The exact measurement of temperature and of atomic weights are found only by experimental work. There- pressure is not always easy, nor Ís the perfect purity of the gas fore, before the table is given, the necessary experimental meth- to be weighed a condition readily secured. Moreover, Avogadro's ods may well be briefly described. The first and most generally Rule holds only for perfect gases; no actual gas fulfils exactly useful method employed for the purpose has as its object the its requirements, because of the bulk occupied by the molecules determination of the precise amount of one element which is themselves and their mutual attraction. On the whole, making

weights, if hydrogen were chosen as the standard substance. The present unit of the system of atomic weights is therefore exactly the sixteenth part of the atomic weight of oxygen. The atomic

necessary exactly to combine with a given amount of some other allowance for these difficulties (see StoIcHEIOMETRY), the method element of known atomic weight. The experimental technique is of determining molecular (and therefore atomic weights) by of the most refined quantitative chemical analysis. Early extensive and careful investigations of this kind were conducted by J. Ber-

ælius, C. de Marignac, J. B. A. Dumas, J. S. Stas and many

others. Recently most of the work in this direction has been con-

ducted in the United States (E. W. Morley, W. A. Noyes, T. W. Richards, G. P. Baxter and others), although European investigators (especially B. Brauner and O. Hönigschmid) have made Important contributions.

Experimental work of tbis kind naturally involves the observance of a number of essential conditions. Comparatively few

comparison of the densities of gases agrees remarkably well with the results obtained from chemical analysis (Lord Rayleigh, E. W. Morley, P. A. Guye, A. Leduc, E. Moles, G. P. Baxter). Third Method.—A third method of determining atomic weights (like the last, a purely physical method) is that which determines the mass (or rather the ratio of mass to electric charge) of rapidly moving charged atoms or molecules by means of the deflection by electric and magnetic fields. It appraises (by means of impressions on a photographic plate of the positions of impact of the deflected particles) the relative atomic masses pertaining

ATOMIC

650

WEIGHTS

to selected groups of atoms. In its original form it furnished the :Their abnormal atomic weights (determined by chemical method first experimental evidence not only that in some elements the | of unquestioned trustworthiness) constituted at first the most si atoms are all alike in weight, but also that in other elements this vincing evidence of the existence of isotopes. Table of Atomic Weights.—The following table of atomic is not the case (Sir J. J. Thomson, 1912). Different varieties of a single chemical element, similar in every respect except as weights of the chemical elementary substances as they exist og regards the weights and masses of their atoms, and apparently the surface of the earth is essentially the table issued in 192 inseparable by natural agencies when once mixed, are called iso- the International Committee on Elements and Atomic Weight, topes (F. Soddy). Under that head will be found a full descrip- but includes the newly discovered element hafnium, as wel] us tion of this method of evaluating them, which was greatly im- two of the individual isotopes of lead which have been experimentally investigated by chemical methods. “Atomic number” proved by F. W. Aston, in his “mass-spectrograph.” are also given. Usually, the larger the atomic weight the larger substances elementary the of all not but Isotopes.—Many have been found by this third method to be isotopic or “complex.” the atomic number; but all isotopes of a given element have the js Hence elements may be divided into two classes: simple elements, same atomic number. Except for hydrogen, the atomic number probably possessing only one variety of atom, and isotopic ele- never more and usually less than half of the atomic weight, Redefinition of Term.—The discovery of the spontaneous ments, containing two or more varieties. The relative proportions of the several isotopes in a given elementary substance are disintegration of radioactive elements and the finding of isotopes shown roughly by the relative intensities of the “photographic” have modified our theoretical interpretation of the atomic weights records: they can be shown exactly only by quantitative analysis, Because of these discoveries, two a priori premises (of a more and then only when no more than two isotopes are present. Thus less philosophical nature), namely, first, the assumption that the ordinary terrestrial chlorine (Cl=35-46) must consist of a mix- atoms are indivisible (the elementary substances being absolutely ture of about 30 atoms of Cl=37 to every roo atoms of Cl=35. permanent) and, second, the assumption that the atoms of a given Although the term “atomic weight” referred originally to the chemical element are all alike in weight, must to-day be abanelementary substances (whether simple or isotopic) which actually doned, but the premises are seen on close scrutiny to be by no occur on the earth’s surface, it is applicable with even greater fit- means an essential part of the chemical atomic theory. Neverthe. ness to each isotope alone. Of all the isotopic elements only one, less, the old definition of atomic weights must be altered in order namely lead, has had the atomic weight of any individual isotope to correspond exactly to modern knowledge. A more complete accurately determined by chemical analysis (Richards, Soddy, and precise definition may be worded as follows: “Primarily Honigschmid). The individual isotopes of this metal are unique atomic weights are appropriate simple multiples (decided by because, so far as we can tell, they are end-products of the spon- theory) of the relative combining proportions or relative gas. taneous disintegration of uranium, and other radioactive elements, densities of elementary substances calculated on a consistent basis. in which the atoms of lead were segregated at the moment of They represent the relative average weights of the atoms of given their terrestrial birth and confined in the minerals producing them. specimens of elementary substances referred to a common stand. TABLE OF ATOMIC WEIGHTS

OF THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

Symbol. | At. No. | At. Wt

Symbol. | At. No. | At. Wt. Aluminium Antimony .

Argon

.

.

Boron Bromine Cadmium . Calcium Carbon Cerium . . Cesium (Caesium) orine n° Chromium

.

. . 4

Lutecium

Magnesium

.

.

. .

As Ba Be

33 56 4

74°06 "13737 9°02

B Br Cd Ca C Ce Cs Cl Cr

5 35 48 20 6 58 55 17 24

10°82 79°916 IIl2‘4I 40°07 I2°000 14025 132-81 35°457 520I

Er Eu p” Gd Ga Ge Au Hf He Ho H In I Ir Fe Kr La Pb Pb Pb Li

68 63 9 64 31 32 79

3

167°7 I52°0 19°00 157-26 69°72 72°60 197°2 178-6 4°00 163-4 1-008 114°8 126-932 193°2 55°84 82-9 138-90 207-20 206°06 208 6-940

71

175-00

Co Cb Cu Dy

ti

De a

26:97 I21°77

Bi

Cobalt . . 2.. Columbium (Niobium) . Copper a Dysprosium

Erbium Europium . Fluorine. Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold. .) . Hafnium (Celtium) Helium e Holmium . Hydrogen . Indium . . Iodine SG Iridium Iron . Krypton . Lanthanum . Lead (ordina ” (from Uy ; ¥ (from Th) Lithium

13 5I

A

Arsenic Barium . . . Beryllium (Glucinum)

Bismuth

Al Sb

À «© ae

. .rie. a e ee

Lu

Mg

18

83

27 4I 2 66

72

2 67 I 49 53 77 26 36 57 82 82 82

12

39°92

209*00

58°94 93'I 63°57 162-52

24°32

Manganese Mercury

.

Molybdenum Neodymium Neon .

Nickel

.

Mn

25

4:

Hg

80

oe

Mo

42

6o I0

144°27 20-2

Ni

28

58-69

Nd Ne

.

Nitrogen (Azote) Osmium . . Oxygen Palladium . Phosphorus Platinum . .

Potassium (Kalium)

Praseodymium Radium . . Radon (Niton) Rhodium . . Rubidium . Ruthenium Samarium . Scandium . Selenium . Silicon Silver Ses Sodium (Natrium) Strontium. . Sulphur

à.

Tantalum .

7 76 8 46 I5 78

106-7 317027 195°23

Pr Ra Rn Rh Rb Ru Sm Sc Se Si Ag Na Sr S

59 88 86 45 37 44 62 21 34 14 47 II 38 16

14092 225-95 222" 102-91 85-44 101°7 150°43 45°10 79°2 28-06 107°880 22°007 87°63 32-004

Te

52

Ta

Tellurium .

14'008 190°8 16-000

N Os O Pd P Pt

K

38 . .

96-0

IQ

73

39-096

181°5 127°5

Terbium

.

Tb

65

159°2

Thallium Thorium Thulium

.

Tl Th Tm

81 go 69

204°39 232°15 169°4

Ti W U

22 74 92

48'I 184-0 238-17

Y Zn

30 30

PI,

OR.

e

et

Titanium . . . Tungsten (Wolfram) Uranium . . . Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc . Zirconium .

OS

à. . .

Sn

. . a. e

V Xe Yb Zr

50

23 54 70

40

118-70 50°96 1302 173°

88-9 65°38 gr

|

| | | |

ATOMIZATION—ATONEMENT

651

An ele- | heavenly bodies are due to the collective action of countless myriads of atoms, whose individual shares in the process are ted by ordinary chemical reactions. This definition avoids the recorded in the table of atomic weights. The foregoing consideraimplication that such a substance is incapable of disintegration tions concerning atomic weights suggest many other cosmological Element” and “chemical elements” inferences, which are, however, beyond the scope of this article by extra-chemical means. are sometimes used synonymously. “Atoms” are postulated as the (see “Atomic Weights and Isotopes,” Chemical Review, I. L., smallest particles of such a substance under ordinary conditions. [1924]). It is not too much to say that these unique numbers, They are not necessarily incapable of disintegration under extreme the atomic weights, probably bear a very close relation to the conditions. Hence their name (from ä privative and rods unknown fundamental processes which determined the nature and (T.W. R) udivided, cut”) is not now appropriate, but it will doubtless be evolution of the universe. ATOMIZATION, ELECTRICAL, a process for the proretained; the term “chemical atom” would perhaps be better. Thequalification involved in the word “average” above is neces- duction of stable colloidal solutions of metals. An electric arc sary because of the discovery of isotopes. The weighted average is passed between electrodes of pure metal in distilled water conof the atomic weights of the isotopes in any particular isotopic tained in a vessel made of practically insoluble material. Faraday or “complex” elementary substance is that which is recorded as probably was the first to employ the electric arc to produce finely dispersed gold, but Bredig developed the method here described. ts atomic weight. Constancy of Atomic Weights.—That the atomic weights are Svedberg used the oscillating discharge from an induction coil and constant in different compounds is shown by the analysis of many greatly reduced the current density, producing some hydrosols e substances containing the same element and also by H. and olganosols. (See CoLLors.) ATONALITY, a modem musical term which has been Landolt’s experiments (1907), which proved that there is no loss or gain of gravitational effect in ordinary chemical reactions adopted in connection with that class of composition which is not » Any such definition involves other definitions.

mentary substance is a substance which is not further disinte-

within one part in ten million. Moreover, specimens of various elementary substances (¢.g., sodium, calcium, copper, silver, iron, nickel, cobalt, etc.) found in different parts of the earth or even in meteorites, have been found by careful research to have constant atomic weights independent of geographical occurrence. All the samples of terrestrial lead even, except those found in uranium or thorium minerals, show similar uniformity. That each native terrestrial mixture of isotopes is thus unvarying seems to show

that each was commingled when the earth was still fluid, or else that some unknown law determines the proportion in which the

isotopes are formed. If it were not for the consistency indicated

written in any definite key and hence has no defined tonality

(See Harmony.) ATONEMENT.

To “atone’* is to make “at one,” and this

is the actual derivation of the word. A doctrine of atonement makes the following assumptions. (a) There is a natural relation of communion between man and God. (b) This communion has been broken through man’s fault. Early conceptions of this breach as due to the non-observance of taboos and rituals become, in the higher religions, a sense of sin, as an ethical offence against God's holiness and love. (c) Communion can be restored, #.e., sin can be forgiven.

The Religious Doctrine.—Atonement is the means or condition of the restoration of communion between man and God. This has been variously found (a) in the endurance of punishment; (b) in the payment of compensation for wrong done, in the form of sacrifices or other offerings; (c) in the performance of some special ritual, the efficacy of which consists in its being pleasing to or appointed by God, or even in its having a coercive pawer over God; (d) in repentance and amendment of life. In most theories two or more of these are combined. Some or all of the conditions of atonement may be fulfilled, according to various views, either by the sinner or vicariously on his behalf by some kinsman; or by his family, clan or nation; or by someone else. Old Testament.—In the Old Testament to “atone” represents the Heb. Kipper, a word originally meaning to “cover” or “wipe out,” but probably used simply as a technical term. There is no harmonious system of teaching on the subject. In some cases there is no suggestion of forgiveness; sinners are “cut off” from the chosen people (Josh. vii. 24), nations perish in their iniquity (Jer. li. 62). Some passages make punishment the condition of loss of mass during the atomic coalescence of hydrogen nuclei, the pardon (II. Sam. xii. 13, 14; Is. xl. 2), though here repentance is expelled mass being transformed into energy. If this is true, the assumed as following the punishment. Sometimes penitence and exact values of the simple atomic weights (and those of individual amendment are the sole conditions (Ezek. xviii.; Mic. vi.). Sacrifice and other rites are also spoken of in this connection. isotopes) even to the third decimal place, possess great theoretical interest, since they must furnish an essential clue to the amount The Priestly Code (Leviticus and allied passages) seems to conof energy expended. Modern hypotheses concerning the structure fine the efficacy of sacrifice to ritual, venial and involuntary sins of the atom (Sir E. Rutherford, Sir J. J. Thomson, N. Bohr, G. N. (Lev. iv. 2), and requires that the sacrifices should be offered at Lewis, I. Langmuir) assume that practically all the weight and Jerusalem by the Aaronic priests; but these limitations did not

in this paragraph, the table of atomic weights would be much less useful than it is, The atomic weights are precisely consistent also with the electro-chemical equivalents indicated by Faraday’s Law (Faraday, Rayleigh, Richards), affording thus further evidence of their fundamental nature. Hydrogen and Other Elements.—The hypothesis of Prout (1815) that all elements are aggregates of hydrogen has been greatly strengthened by the discovery of isotopes; for it appears that the fractions in the table above are due chiefly to isotopic mixtures, in which each isotope taken separately has nearly a whole number for its individual atomic weight. The atomic weights of uranium, radium, thorium, the isotopes of lead, and helium furnish an argument in favour of the theory of the atomic disintegration in which they are concerned, and therefore support the postulate maintaining the composite nature of the elements. Nevertheless, all the simple elements and individual isotopes have atomic weights somewhat less than the appropriate multiples of that of hydrogen, as has been shown in the case of oxygen. Many theorists believe that this common deficiency is due to the actual

mass of the atom (fixing, of course, its atomic weight) are con-

centrated in an exceedingly small nucleus in its centre. Concord with Atomic Numbers.—For 50 years the atomic weights decided the arrangement of the periodic system of the elements. Recently x-ray spectra have more certainly evaluated the atomic numbers which place the elements in this system

(Moseley); but the agreement between the two methods is close

enough to indicate a fundamental if sometimes complex relation between them. Atomic Weights and Cosmogony.—The sun and stars appeat spectroscopically to be made largely of the elements existing on earth. It is therefore no mere flight of fancy to infer that

belong to the older religion. Some writers (Ps. li.; Mic. vi. 6-8; Is. i. rx) protest against the ascription of great importance to sacrifice. The Old Testament has no theory of sacrifice; in con-

nection with sin the sacrifice was popularly regarded as payment of penalty or compensation and this is specially connected with the offering of the blood (Lev. xvii. rz). Jewish Day of Atonement.—The atoning ritual reached its

climax on the Day of Atonement (in the Mishna simply “the Day” Ydmé), observed annually on the roth day of the 7th month (Tisri), shortly. before the Feast of Tabernacles or vintage festival. The laws of the Day of Atonement belong to the Priestly

Code. There is no trace of this function before the exile (see

Ezek. xlv. 18-20 LXX.) but the ritual of the “scapegoat” was the vast gravitational forces which regulate the motions of the

652

ATONEMENT

doubtless derived from earlier times. The object of the observances was to cleanse the sanctuary, the priesthood and the people from all their sins and to renew and maintain favourable relations between Yahweh and Israel. The ritual includes certain unique acts. The Day of Atonement is the only fast provided in the Law; it is only on this occasion that (a) the Jews are required to “af-

flict their souls”; (b) the High Priest enters the Holy of Holies; (c) the High Priest offers incense before the mercy seat and sprinkles it with blood; and (d) the scapegoat or goat for Azazel

is sent away into the wilderness, bearing upon him all the iniquities of the people. In later Judaism, especially from about 100 B.C., great stress was laid on the Day of Atonement, and it is now the most important religious function of the Jews. The idea of vicarious atonement appears in the Old Testament in different forms. The nation suffers for the sin of the individual (Josh. vii., 10-15); and the individual for the sin of his kinsfolk

of England we have (ii.) “Christ suffered . . . to reconcile Hi Father to us, and to bea sacrifice, not only for original guilt, by also for all actual sins of men” (so, verbally, the Augsburg Con. fession); and (xxxi.) “The offering of Christ once made isthat

perfect redemption, propitiation and satisfaction, for all the sin of the whole world.” The Council of Trent declared that “Christu

. . nobis sua sanctissima passione ligno crucis justificationem

meruit et pro nobis deo patri satisfecit,” “Christ earned our justi. fication by His most holy passion and satisfied God the Father for

us.” The Westminster Confession declares: “The Lord Jesu Christ, by His perfect obedience and sacrifice of Himself, which

He through satisfied the ciliation but for all those

the Eternal Spirit once offered up to God, hath i justice of His Father, and purchased not only reconan everlasting inheritance in the kingdom of heaven whom the Father hath given unto Him.” i

Individual theologians have sought to define more exactly the

(2 Sam. xxi, 1-9; Deut. v. 9, 10); or of the nation (Ezek. xxxi. 3,4). Above all the Servant of Yahweh appears as atoning for sinners by his sufferings and death (Is. liii.). But the Servant is nowhere identified with the Messiah. New Testament.—In the New Testament, the English version uses “atonement” once, Rom. v. 11, for xaraddAayy (R.V. here and elsewhere “reconciliation”). This Greek word corresponds to the idea suggested by the etymology of at-one-ment, the reuniting in amity of those at variance, a sense which the word had in the 17th century but has since lost. But the idea which has usually been expressed by “atonement” is rather represented in the New Testament by fAacpés and its cognates, e.g., I. John ii. 2, R.V., “He (Jesus) is the propitiation (fAacués) for our sins.” But these words are rare, and we read more often of “salvation” gwrnpia) and “being saved,” which includes or involves restoration to communion with God. The leading varieties of teaching, the sayings of Jesus, St. Paul, the Johannine writings, the Epistle to the Hebrews, connect the Atonement with Christ especially with His death, and associate it with faith in Him and with repentance and amendment of life. It is quite clear that such teaching goes back to Jesus Himself. Attempts to dispute the authenticity of Mark x. 45 (“‘to give His life a ransom for many”) and xiv. 24 (This is My blood of the covenant which is shed for many”) have not been successful. These ideas are also common to Christian teaching generally. The New Testament, however, does not indicate that its writers were agreed as to any formal dogma of the atonement, but various suggestions are made. St. Paul’s teaching connects with the doctrine of Is. lii., and less directly with the ritual sacrifices (I. Cor. v. 7). It is developed mainly on legalistic lines. (Christ’s right-

points on which the standards are vague.

the remission of sins”; the Athanasian Creed, “Who (Christ) suffered for our salvation.” In the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church

Modern Mind. The general trend of recent thought has been, however, in the direction (a) of much more strongly mog

For instance, how was

justice satisfied by Christ? The early Fathers, from the 3rd to the rrth century held, inter ala, that Christ paid a ransom to

Satan to induce him to release men from his power. Anselm and

the scholastics regarded the Atonement as a satisfaction to God's honour, rather than a ransom or a penalty, a satisfaction of such

worth that the outrage of man’s sin is made good. Hence this view is often called the Satisfaction Theory. The leading re. formers emphasized the idea that Christ bore the punishment of sin, sufferings equivalent to the punishments deserved by men a view especially characteristic of the later Calvinism, and known as the Penal Theory. But the intellectual activity of the Re formation also developed other views; the Socinians, with their

humanitarian theory of the Person of Christ, taught that He died only to assure men of God’s forgiving love and to afford them an example of obedience—‘Forgiveness is granted upon the ground of repentance and obedience.” Grotius put forward what has been called the Governmental Theory, viz., that the

atonement took place not to satisfy the wrath of God, but in the practical interests of the divine government of the work,

“The sufferings and death of the Son of God are an exemplary exhibition of God’s hatred of moral evil, In connection with which it is safe and prudent to remit that penalty, which so far as God

and the divine attributes are concerned, might have been remitted

without it,”

Modern Views.—The formal legal view continued to be widely held, though it was modifed in many ways by various theologians. For instance, it has been held that Christ atoned for mankind not by enduring the penalty of sin, but by identifying Himself with the sinner in perfect sympathy, and feeling for him an eousness makes possible the acquittal [6:caiwors] of the sinner “equivalent repentance” for his sin. Thus McLeod Campbell held who has identified himself with Christ by faith [Rom. vi. 3-9, that Christ atoned by offering up to God a perfect confession of etc.]. His work is an expression of God’s love to man (Rom. v. the sins of mankind and an adequate repentance for them, with 8). The redeeming power of Christ’s death is also explained by which divine justice is satisfied, and a full expiation is made for his solidarity with humanity as the second Adam—the redeemed human guilt. A similar view was held by F. D. Maurice. Others sinner has “died with Christ” (Rom. v. 15-19; vi. 8). Some aton- hold that the effect of the atoning death of Christ is not to proing virtue seems also attributed to the Resurrection (Rom. iv. pitiate God, but to reconcile man to God; it manifests righteous)provided by ness and thus reveals the heinousness of sin; it also reveals the 25). In I. John, Christ is a “propitiation” (f\acpds the love of God that man may be cleansed from sin; He is also love of God, and conveys the assurance of His willingness to førtheir advocate (IlapaxXnros) with God that they may be forgiven, give or receive the sinner; thus it moves men to repentance and for His name’s sake. Hebrews speaks of Christ as transcending faith, and effects their salvation; so substantially Ritschl This the rites and officials of the law; He accomplishes the realities | view, which is found as early as Abélard, is commonly called the which they could only foreshadow; in relation to the perfect Moral Theory. In England much influence has been exerted by sacrifice which has atoned for sin, He is both priest and victim Dr. R. W. Dale’s Atonement, the special point of which is that the death of Christ is not required by the personal demand of Goi (Heb. ii. 17; ix. 14). Later Interpretation.—The subsequent development of the to be propitiated, but by the necessity of honouring an ideal law Christian doctrine has chiefly shaped itself according to the of righteousness. This view, however, leads to a dilemma; if the Pauline formulae; the demands of divine righteousness were met law of righteousness is simply an expression of the divine will, saton man’s behalf, or in man’s stead, by Christ, a formula, how- isfaction to law is equivalent to propitiation offered to God; if ever, which left much room for controversy. The creeds and con- the law has an independent position, the view is inconsistent with fessions are usually vague. Thus the Apostles’ Creed, “I believe pure monotheism. Dale’s attempt to restate the Penal Theory in a form free from in the forgiveness of sins”; the Nicene Creed, “I believe in one Lord Jesus Christ . . . who for us men.and for our salvation objection on ethical grounds was followed on rather less definite came down from heaven ...I acknowledge one baptism for lines by J. Denney in his Death of Christ and Atonement ond the

AT OR BETTER—ATRIUM

653

him the flesh of his son whom Atreus had slain. Thyestes fied in Subsequently Atreus married the daughter of Thyestes, horror. is example good a types jectively as possible. Of the first of these by Aga-

transactional statements and (b) of a moral theory, stated as ob-

Pelopia, mother of Aegisthus (g.v.). Thyestes was found Father memnon and Menelaus, the sons of Atreus, and imprisoned at loving a as regarded be + js insisted that God should recogthan a Judge, and the work of atonement is restated in the Mycenae. Aegisthus being sent to murder Thyestes, mutual Atreus was slain by the father and son, who and place, took nition C. R. jis book influential more even An fight. of this principle. drove Agamemnon and Menelaus out of the Moberly’s Atonement and Personality. Here an attempt is made seized the throne, and identified with the Aitarissiyas of the generally is Atreus country. suggestion to work out the implications of McLeod Campbell’s eui Boghaz-K tablets. key the is suffering, vicarious than that vicarious penitence, rather ATRI, Abruzzi, Italy, province of Teramo, 18m. W. of i atonement. Moberly retains the conception of an objective on the railway from Ancona to Foggia, and 18m. transaction, but interprets this along the lines of the Moral Teramo station on the site of the ancient Hadria (g.v.). Teramo, of E.S.E. due is views of combination ry, as an expression of love. This 13,517 (commune). Its Romanesque(town); 3,786 (1921) made possible by emphasis upon the mystical self-identification Pop. is remarkably fine, though the in305) (1285-1 l cathedra Gothic Idea (The Rashdall H. recently the sinner. More

“Scott Lidgett’s Spiritual Principle of the Atonement, in which

of Christ with

terior was spoilt by restoration in 1657. The crypt was originally of Atonement in Christian T heology) has devoted a long and caredukes of Theory in its a Roman cistern. The palace of the Acquaviva family, ful historical discussion to a defence of the Moral simpler and less objective form, and his work has given a consider-

Atri from the 14th century to 1775, stands on the principal square.

tion have been widely

kitchen and hearth were removed to other positions the atrium remained as a court serving as a formal reception room and as the official centre of family life. By the end of the republic the addition of one or more colonnaded courts in the larger houses removed from the atrium the last vestiges of family life and in the empire it became practically the office of the owner of the

ATRIUM, originally the central room of a Roman house in able impetus in Modernist circles to views of this type. There is, was placed the hearth. As this room had a hole in the of which treatments extreme such from however, an undoubted reaction let out the smoke the atrium was in essence a small court, to roof reconstructhe subject and both Rashdall’s historical data and his ty of the Roman house the criticized. Meanwhile modified forms of and when with the developing complexi Anselm’s Satisfaction Theory, often expressed in terms of sacrifice, still hold the field in popular theology of a Catholic type

and in devotional literature.

t BreuiocRAPHY.—J. McLeod Campbell, Nature of the Atonemen tigung und (1869); A. Ritschl, Die christliche Lehre von der Rechtfer J. Scott Versdhnung (1870-74); R. W. Dale, Atonement (1875); Lidgett, The Spiritual Principle of the Atonement (1891); R. C.

Moberly, Atonement and Personality (xr901); J. Denney, Death of

G. B. Stevens, Christ, Atonement and the Modern Mind K.(1903); Mozley, The Doctrine

Christian Doctrine of Salvation (1905); J. H. of the Atonement (1915), and The Heart of the Gospel (1925); L. Rashdall, The Idea of Atonement in Christian Theology (1919); t Atonemen W. Grensted, A Short History of the Doctrine of the W. G.) (L. (1920).

11TH CENTURY A.D.

1st CENT. B.C.

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AT OR BETTER, a term used in instructions to brokers in

a the securities or commodities markets which means, if it is in selling order, to sell at the price specified or higher; or if it is in a purchase order, to buy at the price specified or lower.

ATOUTS, the 22 emblematic cards, numbered from I to 21,

and including one unnumbered card, used in the ancient game of tarrochino or tarots. (See Carps, Prayine.) Atouts is also the. regular modern French word for trumps at Auction and Contract Bridge. ATRATO, a river of western Colombia, South America, rising on the slopes of the Western Cordilleras, in 5° 36 N. lat., and fowing almost due north to the gulf of Uraba, or Darien, where it forms a large delta. Its length is about 400m., but owing to the heavy rainfall of this region it discharges no less than 175,000cu.ft. of water per second, together with a very large quantity of sediment, which is rapidly filling the gulf. The river is navigable to Quibdo (250m.), and for the greater part of its course for large vessels, but the bars at its mouth prevent the entrance of sea-going steamers. Flowing through the narrow valley between the Cordillera and coast range, it has only short tributaries, the principal ones being the Truando, Sucio and Murri. The gold and platinum mines of Choco were on some of its affluents, and the river sands

ate auriferous. The Atrato at one time attracted considerable attention as a feasible route for a trans-isthmian canal, which, it was estimated, could be excavated at a cost of £11,000,000. ATREK, a river which rises in lat. 37° 10’ N., long. 59° E., in the mountains of the north-east of the Persian province of KhoraTurksan, and flows west long the borders of Persia and the

menistan S.S.R. (g.v.). After a course of 350m., it enters the south-eastern corner of the Caspian sea, its mouth being in the Turkmenistan S.S.R., a little north-north-west of the Persian town of Astarabad.

ATREUS, in Greek legend, son of Pelops and Hippodameia, elder brother of Thyestes and king of Mycenae. His wife Aérope was seduced by Thyestes, who was driven from Mycenae. To son whom avenge himself, Thyestes sent Pleisthenes (Atreus’s Pleisthenes

but Thyestes had brought up as his own) to kill Atreus, Atreus, was himself slain by his own father. After this

apparently

reconciled to his brother, recalled him to Mycenae and set before

1

.

;

HOUSE OF THE FAUN, POMPEI! - SHOWING TWO ATRIA “ETUDE SUR SY COURTESY OF MAU, “POMPEII, ITS LIFE AND ART” (MACMILLAN); DARTEIN, L°ARCHITECTURE LOMBARDE” (DUNOD)

it house. The atrium might be either with or without columns, zmhad, universally, a marble basin which was known as the pluvium. This was situated in the centre under the opening in the roof called the compluvium.

The term atrium is used in a generic sense (like the English “hall”’) as in the Atrium Vestae, the house of the vestal virgins. around The word was later used for any open court, especially that at à temple or in front of a Christian church as in San Clemente

654

ATROPATENE—ATROPINE

Rome and San Ambrogio at Milan. Occasionally the word is in(T. F. H.) correctly used for narthex (g.v.). ATROPATENE or MEDIA ATROPATENE, anciently the district now occupied by the Azerbaijan republic and the Persian province of the same name. It formed part of the ancient Persian empire and the empire of Alexander, but in the confusion following the latter’s death, secured for a considerable time the rank of an independent State. (See Persia, Ancient History, and PARTHIA.)

ATROPHY,

a medical term implying wasting from some

interference with healthy nutrition. Waste and repair are constant processes in the animal body; when they balance, the volume of the body and of its constituent parts remains constant; when repair is greater than waste there is growth or hypertrophy; when waste is greater than repair there is atrophy. The chief causes of atrophy are (1) disuse, (2) pressure, (3) interference with nervous supply. Thus the diminution in size of the pregnant uterus after child birth, the shrivelling of thymus and umbilical vessels in the infant, are atrophies from disuse; the disappearance of soft tissues and even bone in the neighbourhood of tumours, or an aneurysm, is an example of pressure-atrophy; the wasting of limbs in disease affecting the large motor ganglia of the ventral horns of the spinal cord, or the anterior nerve roots or efferent nerves, is atrophy from interference with nervous supply. These causes may act singly or in conjunction, and may them-

selves be dependent upon antecedent conditions. A limb may atrophy from disuse because disease of bone, or of joint, renders

movement painful, and pressure-atrophy depends upon interference of blood supply which the pressure induces. For interference with nervous supply to cause atrophy of muscle—other than disuse-atrophy—it is necessary for the efferent nerve to be disor-

ganized in some part of its course, Hence in paralysis affecting the leg, when the lesion is in the brain, such atrophy as occurs is due to disuse, whereas in infantile paralysis and progressive muscular atrophy, the lesion is in the Jarge multipolar cells of the ventral horns of the spinal cord, and the atrophy of muscle is truly of nervous origin and far more conspicuous. Interference with afferent or sensory nerves causes atrophy of skin and subcutaneous tissue, This is seen in certain injuries to nerves. Thus, severance of the radial nerve (or musculo-spinal from which it arises) occasions a glossy condition of the skin covering the thumb, index, middle and contiguous half of the ring finger, and the skin becomes as thin as paper. The intimate structure of an atrophied part may be little or greatly altered. In the natural atrophy accompanying old age the microscope shows little difference from normal adult conditions. The biceps of a man aged 80 is visibly smaller than that of a pugilist aged 25, but the two could not easily be distinguished microscopically. The same is true of the muscle of an undersized and ill-developed factory worker. For this reason it is customary in pathology to distinguish between true atrophy and hypoplasia,

atrophy itself, with the result that the part, though atrophied ; respect of its essential elements, is actually larger than Seal Thus a fatty heart is atrophied so far as concerns its muscular elements, but may measure, and even weigh, more than the normal

organ. In hypertrophic muscular paralysis, too, the muscles oj calf and buttock are so large and firm that they give the impression

of magnificent development, and yet they are totally inefficient for their function, and the microscope shows that their bulk į

composed of fat and fibrous tissue almost tọ the exclusion 0 muscular fibres. In spite of appearances the condition is essenti atrophic. This disease does not come into the classes of atr mentioned above, for the cause is unknown; it seems to depend upon a hereditary factor and more than one member of a family

may suffer from it. Atrophy may be very rapid in onset. In acute yellow atrophy of

the liver, and in allied conditions caused by seme poisons, the organ may diminish in size to one-third or half within a few days, Under these circumstances the destructive changes are so intense that it may be impossible to recognize hepatic substance in the

fatty, blood-impregnated and pigmented material revealed by the microscope. But as a rule atrophy is a gradual and slow proces, Since an atrophied part is abnormal and depends upon abnormal

nutrition, it is sensitive to conditions which the normal part cag

resist. The small injuries and adverse circumstances of life pro-

duce disproportionately great results in the first instance, and reparative processes are correspondingly slow and unsatisfactory,

Sometimes it becomes necessary to consider surgical removal of

the affected part. In cases due to severance of a nerve, suture of the divided ends may effect great improvement or even a cure. In

the case of muscles and skin suffering from disuse-atrophy, massage and surgical treatment of any underlying condition are indicated, But in many forms no treatment modifies the atrophy it. self and treatment of symptoms as they arise alone is possible.

(W. S. L.-B.)

ATROPINE, a poisonous, crystalline alkaloid (see ArkaLoms) widely used in medicine. It does not normally occur in nature, but is derived from laevo-hyoscyamine and laevo-hyoscine (see HyoscyAMINE and Hyoscine), found in various plants of

the nightshade family, scyamus), thorn-apple Cy;H2:03N, crystallizes ourless prisms, which alcohol or chloroform,

as belladonna (Atropa), henbane (Hyo(Datura) and Scopolia. Pure atropine, from alcohol on addition of water in colmelt at 118° C. It is readily soluble in less so in ether, and almost insoluble in

water. When atropine was first prepared in 1833 the processes in use for the extraction of alkaloids were too crude to avoid racemization of laevo-hyoscyamine, and so the racemic isomeride,

atropine, was obtained, and partially racemic mixtures were later on mistaken for new alkaloids, of which “daturine,” “duboisine,” etc., are examples. Atropine is now made by racemization, with small quantities of alkali, of crude /-hyoscyamine, the best source

of which is Egyptian henbane, (Hyoscyamus muticus).

The

the former signifying that the part regressed after having reached alkaloid may be extracted by the process described in the article a normal size, the latter that it never reached the normal size. It ALKALomps, and is generally purified after racemization by conis clear, too, that a part may be hypoplastic either because it is version into, and re-crystallization of, the neutral oxalate. Atropine

composed of fewer elements each of which is normal size, or be- forms a series of well-crystallized salts, of which the sulphate cause it contains a normal number of elements each of which is (Ciz7H2303N)2,H2SO4,H20 is that principally used in medicine.

smaller than usual. Unknown factors of inheritance may control these two conditions. In cases of true atrophy, particularly those moderately rapid in

onset, the diminution in size is accompanied by other changes, such as fatty degeneration and fibrosis, which are recognizable

microscopically. Even in the atrophy of muscle in the aged the muscle nuclei are packed more closely and appear somewhat shrivelled, but in the atrophy of muscle caused by pressure of an aneurysm these changes are well marked, and in the region where atrophy is greatest the muscle fibres contain numerous minute fat globules due to fatty degeneration of the protein substance. In the renal atrophy characteristic of chronic granular kidney, fatty changes and fibrosis co-exist with actual disappearance of true renal elements, but it is uncertain which is the primary change. Sometimes these associated changes are so pronounced that their bulk more than counterbalances the diminished bulk due to

This salt crystallizes in long, slender, colourless needles (which break up on exposure to air to a crystalline powder) and melts at 194° C. Both atropine and hyascyamine have been synthesized

and are known to be respectively the racemic and laevo-tropic

esters of tropine (g.v.) and many attempts have been made to improve on them. The most successful attempt of this kinds homatropine, which is a phenylglycollic ester of tropine, and isa powerful mydriatic, more rapid but also more transient in is action than atropine. MEDICAL USES

Medicine.—The official doses of atropine or its sulphate are from xh, to yh grain. The most valuable preparations of this drug are the liguor atropinae sulphatis, which is a 1% solution, and the Jamella—for insertion within the conjunctival sac—wa contains z3 grain of atropine.

ATROPOS—AT

SIGHT

655

cology.—When rubbed into the skin with such sub- | in any case where the intra-ocular tension already is, or threatens ces as alcohol or glycerine, which are absorbed, atropine to become, unduly high. The fourth ocular effect of atropine is s the terminals of the pain-conducting sensory nerves. It the production of a sligbt but defnite degree of local anaesthesia acts similarly, though less markedly, upon the nerves governing of the eyeball. It follows from the above that a patient who is rapid pulse, the secretion of sweat and is therefore a local anaesthetic or ano- definitely under the influence of atropine will display due to dryness discomfort, of sense a and skin dry a pupils, dilated it blood, the into absorbed rapidly Being anhidrotic. and ah acts on nearly every part and function of the nervous system. Its of the mouth and throat.

most remarkable action is that upon the terminals of nearly all the

secretory nerves in the body. Sweating and secretion of saliva and pucus in the mouth and throat are arrested. But certain nerve

gpres from the sympathetic nervous system, which can also cause the secretion of a (specially viscous) saliva, are entirely unaffected by atropine. A curious parallel to this occurs in its action on the ‘The secretions of stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas and

yidneys are reduced, though not arrested, as in the other cases.

The secretion of mucus by the bronchi ahd trachea is greatly reduced and their muscular tissue is paralysed. The secretion of

milk is much diminished or entirely arrested. Given internally,

atropine does not exert any appreciable sedative action upon the

sensory nerves. The action of atropine on the motor nerves is equally important. Those that go to the voluntary muscles are depressed only by very ree and dangerous doses. But moderate doses of atropine se the terminals of the nerves of involuntary muscles, whether motor or inhibitory. In the intestine, for instance, are

Therapeutics.—The external uses of the drug are mainly anal-

gesic. The liniment or plaster of belladonna will relieve many forms of local pain; but totally to be reprobated is the use, in order to relieve pain, of belladonna or any other application

which affects the skin, in cases where the surgeon may later be required to operate. In such cases, it is necessary to use such anodyne measures as will not interfere with the subsequent demands that may be made of the skin, że., that it be aseptic and in a condition so sound that it is able to undertake the process of healing itself after the operation has been performed. Atropine is universally and constantly used in ophthalmic practice in order to dilate the pupil for examination of the retina by the ophthalmoscope, or in cases where the inflamed iris threatens to form adhesions to neighbouring parts. The drug is often replaced in ophthal-

mology by homatropine (vide supra). The anhidrotic action of atropine is largely employed in controlling the night-sweats characteristic of pulmonary tuberculosis.

Atropine, used as a plaster or internally, often relieves cardiac pain. Professor Schafer recommended the use of atropine prior anaesthetic, in cases where the splanchnic nerves. These are paralysed by atropine, and intestinal to the administration of a general heart is to be dreaded. It is the upon nerve vagus the peristalsis becomes more active, the muscles being released from action of by pilocarpine, muscarine poisoning in antidote an as value of bladder the of arteries, the of nerves nervous control. The motor (mushroom etc. poisoning), by paralysed and rectal sphincters, and of the bronchi, are also In cases of whooping-cough or any other condition in which there atropine. The action upon the vaso-motor system is fairly clear. spasmodic action of the muscular fibre in the bronchi—a is by or terminals, nerve the Whether affected entirely by action on nearly every form of asthma and many an additional influence upon the vaso-rmotor centre in the medulla definition which includes is an almost invaluable drug. Not —atropine bronchitis of cases blood-vessels, the of dilatation oblongata, atropine causes extreme but it lessens the amount of secrespasm, the relieve it does only doses, the skin becomes flushed and there may appear, after large y excessive—which is often associated with dangerousl n tion—ofte in distinguished, carefully be must which rash, an erythematous of symptoms in whooping-cough is sharply to be cages of supposed belladonna poisoning, from that of scarlet fever: it. The relief any influence on the course of the disease, from ed distinguish especially as the temperature may be raised and the pulse is very not abbreviate its duration by a single day. does drug the since to is atropine of action first the But rapid in both conditions. and present attack of asthma, it is advisable actual an treating In constimulate the vaso-motor centre—thereby causing temporary ed tincture of belladonna—umless expense standardiz traction of the vessels—and to increase the rapidity of the heart’s to give the which case atropine may itself be used—in in on, considerati no is transient, Though rises. rapidly action, so that the blood-pressure every quarter of an hour as long as no minims twenty of doses ihis action is so certain, marked and rapid, as to make the subnocturnal urinary incontinence of children The appear. effects evil conditions. certain in invaluable atropine of cutaneous injection frequently relieved by this drug. Since the respiratory centre is similarly stimulated, atropine must and of adults is Toxicology.—The symptoms of poisoning by belladonna or be regarded as a temporary but efficient respiratory and cardiac atropine are dealt with above. The essential point here to be stimulant. cardiac and reToxic doses of atropine—and therefore of belladonna—raise added is that death takes place from combinedkey to treatment. the temperature several degrees. The action is probably nervous. spiratory failure. This fact, is, of course, the , with In small therapeutic and in small toxic doses it stimulates the This consists in the use of emetics or the stomach-pump These measures are, motor apparatus of the spinal cord, just as it stimulates the centres lime-water, which decomposes the alkaloid. rapid absorption in the medulla oblongata. In large toxic and in lethal doses the however, usually rendered nugatory by the very as will measures such by averted be to is Death alkaloid. of the activity of the spinal cord is lowered. drug has been excreted the until action in lungs heart.and the keep atroof action the is above the of any than important less No give coffee— pine on the cerebrum, a state closely resembling that of delirium by the kidneys. Inject stimulants subcutaneously; of tremens being induced. In cases of poisoning the delirium may last hot and strong—by the mouth and rectum, or use large doses for many hours or even days. Thereafter a more or less sleepy caffeine citrate; and employ artificial respiration. Do not employ for the slate supervenes due to exhaustion after the long period of cerebral such physiological antagonists as pilocarpine or morphine, excitement. It is to be noted that children who are particularly lethal actions of all these drugs exhibit not mutual antagonism susceptible to the influence of certain of the other potent alkaloids, but coincidence. such as morphine and strychnine, will take relatively large doses ATROPOS, in Greek mythology, the eldest of the three Fates. name, the “Unalterable,” indicates her function, that of renHer of atropine without ill-effect. ble or immutable. ÀtThe action of atropine on the eye is of high theoretical and dering the decisions of her sisters irreversi scales, a sun-dial or a the involuntary mus- ropos is most frequently represented with

layers of muscle-fibre which are constantly being inhibited by the

practical importance. The drug affects only clesofthe eye, just as it affects only the involuntary or non-striated portion of the oesophagus. The result of its instillation into the eye—and the same occurs when the atropine has been absorbed elsewhete—is rapidly to cause wide dilatation of the pupil. As a

cutting instrument, the “abhorred shears,” with which she slits the “thin-spun thréad” of life. Of the two other Fates, Clotho is she “who spins the thread of life,” represented with a spindle, and Lachesis, she who “casts lots” as to its length, drawing a lot result, the tension of the eyeball is greatly raised. The sight of or pointing to the globe (see also FATE). ATROSCINE: see Hyoscine. many an eye has been destroyed by the use of atropine—in ignoratice of this action on the intra-ocular tension—in casés of incip-

ient glaucoma. The use of atropire is absolutely contra-indicated

AT SIGHT, a term used on bills of exchange and drafts meen-

ing that they are payable upon presentation or demand.

Such

ATTA—ATTALUS

656

instruments are ordinarily known as sight drafts (qg.v.), or sight | dents, they took away from the accused whatever advan might have gained in the courts of law; such evidence only was bills of exchange (g.v.). ATTA, TITUS QUINTIUS (QUIN TICIUS) (d. 77 admitted as might be necessary to secure conviction: indeed į B.c.), Roman comedy writer, was distinguished as a writer of many cases bills of attainder were passed without any nine being produced at all. In the reign of Henry VIII. they w national comedies. i E

1855).

Gellius vii. 9; Ribbeck, Comicorum Latinorum reliquiae

ATTACHMENT,

in law, a process from a court of record,

awarded by the justices at their discretion, on a bare suggestion, or on their own knowledge, and properly grantable in cases of contempt. It differs from arrest (q.v.), in that he who arrests a man carries him to a person of higher power to be forthwith disposed of; but he that attaches keeps the party attached, and presents him in court at the day assigned, as appears by the words of the writ. Another difference is, that arrest is only upon the body of a man, whereas an attachment is often upon his goods. It is distinguished from distress in not extending to lands, as the latter does: nor does a distress touch the body, as an attachment does. See PRACTICE AND PROCEDURE.

ATTACK is a word used in various senses in musical termi-

nology. Thus in the form aétacce (Ital.) it is a direction to pro-

ceed without pause to the next movement or section of a composition. “Good attack” applied to a performance signifies a performance characterized by spirit, decision and good ensemble; a use of the term allied with the French chef d’attaque as a designation for the leader of an orchestra. Affacco (Ital.), in turn, is a term applied to a short phrase or episodic subject in a fugue. ATTAINDER, in English law, was the immediate and inseparable consequence from the common law upon the sentence of death. When it was clear beyond all dispute that the criminal was no longer fit to live he was called aitaint, and could not, before the Evidence Act 1843, be a witness in any court. This attainder took place after judgment of death, or upon such circumstances as were equivalent to judgment of death, such as judgment of outlawry on a capital crime, pronounced for absconding from justice. Conviction without judgment was not followed by attainder.

much used, through a subservient parliament, to punish those ie

had incurred the king’s displeasure; many distinguished vict; who could not have been charged with any offence under the a isting laws being by this means disposed of. In the 17th cent during the disputes with Charles I., the Long Parliament ae effective use of the same procedure, forcing the Sovereign fo give his consent. The most famous cases were those of Strafford and

Laud. After the Restoration it became less frequent, though the Jacobite movement in Scotland produced several instances of a. tainder, without, however, the infliction of the extreme penal

of death. The last bill of attainder passed in England was in the case of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, one of the Irish rebel leaders of 1798. A bill for reversing attainder takes a form contrary to the usual rule. It is first signed by the Sovereign and presented by a peer to the House of Lords by command of the Crown, or in

other words, it is entirely within the Crown’s grace and favour Such bills for reversal are not obsolete as they are the first step necessary by a claimant to a peerage which has fallen into abeyance (see PEERAGE) when the ancestor was attainted. The House of Lords has recently (1928) adopted a report recommending that

such attainders be not reversed “where the attainder has been in existence for several centuries.” The Constitution of the United States forbids Congress to pass any bill of attainder or ex post facto law. Most of the State constitutions contain similar prohibitions.

ATTAINT, WRIT OF, an obsolete method of procedure in English law, for inquiring by a jury of 24 whether a false verdict had been given in a trial before an ordinary jury of 12. It originated in the days when jurors were regarded as witnesses as well as judges and a false verdict was regarded as perjury. If it

The consequences of attainder were (1) forfeiture, (2) corrup-

were found that an erroneous judgment had been given, the wrong

tion of blood. On attainder for treason, the criminal forfeited to the Crown his lands, rights of entry on lands, and any interest he might have in lands for his own life or a term of years. For mur-

prisonment and forfeiture of their goods, which punishments were,

der, the offender forfeited to the Crown the profit of his freeholds during life, and in the case of lands held in fee-simple, the lands themselves for a year and a day; subject to this, the lands escheated to the lord of the fee. These forfeitures related back to the time of the offence committed. Forfeitures of goods and

was redressed and the original jury incurred infamy, with im-

however, commuted later cases a writ of attaint was cases at the suit of either have become obsolete by

for a pecuniary penalty. In criminal issued at suit of the king, and in civil party. In criminal cases it appears to the end of the r5th century, although

juries were sometimes fined by the Star Chamber for acquittal

Procedure by attaint in civil cases had also been gradually giving chattels ensued not only on attainder, but on conviction for a place to the practice of granting new trials, and after the decision

felony of any kind, or on flight from justice, and had no relation backwards to the time of the offence committed. By corruption of blood, “both upwards and downwards,” the attainted person could neither inherit nor transmit lands. The lands escheated to the lord of the fee, subject to the Crown’s right of forfeiture. The doctrine of attainder has, however, ceased to be of much importance. The Forfeiture Act 1870 enacted that henceforth no confession, verdict, Inquest, conviction or judgment of or for any treason or felony, or felo de se, should cause any attainder or

corruption of blood, or any forfeiture or escheat. Bills of Attainder, in a parliamentary method were ordinarily initiated ings were the same as on they were brought might

English legal procedure, were formerly of exercising judicial authority. They in the House of Lords and the proceedother bills, but the parties against whom appear by counsel and produce witnesses

in Bushell’s case in 1670 (see Jury) it became obsolete, and was finally abolished by the Juries Act 1825, except as regards jurars guilty of embracery (g.v.).

ATTALEIA, an ancient city of Pamphylia, which derived its name from Attalus II., king of Pergamum; the modern Adalia (q.v.). It was important as the nearest seaport to the rich dis-

tricts of south-west Phrygia. A much-frequented “‘half-sea” route led through it to the Lycus and Meander valleys, and so to Ephesus and Smyrna. This was the natural way from any part of central Asia Minor to Syria and Egypt, and accordingly we

hear of Paul and Barnabas taking ship at Attaleia for Antioch. Originally the port of Perga, Attaleia eclipsed the old Pamphylian capital in early Christian times and became the metropolis. There are extensive remains of the ancient walls. The most conspicuous

monument is the triple Gate of Hadrian, flanked by a tower built in both Houses. In the case of an impeachment (q.v.), the by the empress Julia. House of Commons was prosecutor and the House of Lords ATTALUS, the name of three kings of ancient Pergamum. Attalus L, Soter, king of Pergamum, succeeded Eumenes Í. judge; but such bills being legislative in form, the consent of Crown, lords, and commons was necessary to pass them. Bishops, at Pergamum in 241 B.c. Soon after his accession (perhaps 235) who do not exercise but who claim the right to vote in cases of he defeated the Galatians in a great battle, as a result of whi impeachment (9.0.), have a right to vote upon bills of attainder, he took the title of king, and by defeating Antiochus Hierax ¢%but their vote is not conclusive in passing judgment upon the ac- tended his boundaries over a large area in Asia Minor. Most af cused. First passed in 1459, such bills were employed, more par- the rest of his life was occupied with wars against Philip V. of ticularly during the reigns of the Tudor kings, as a species of ex- Macedon. He fought with Rome and the Aetolians against F trajudicial procedure, for the direct punishment of political and the Achaeans in 211, and joined in the general peace offences. Dispensing with the ordinary judicial forms and prece- in 204. In 201 war again broke out between Philip and

ATTAR

OF ROSES—ATTENTION

657

are admitted nd Attalus joined the Rhodians. He died at Pergamum in 197. | tion, a form of preferential treatment—some things placed in are some or not, are others whereas consciousness into | centres the of one was Pergamum ing his reign the court of are relegated to of Hellenistic culture. A Pergamese school of sculpture arose, | the very centre of consciousness whereas others largely by the exercise and distribution of attengimulated by the dedication of votive figures to the great shrines | the margin. It is mind may be said to assert itself against human the after the victory over the Galatians, of which the so-called | tion that “Dying Gladiator” is one. There was equal activity on the | becoming the passive target of external stimulations.

The general effect of attention is that a certain object is aditerary side; there were a great library and a Stoic Academy. are excluded, or that an Attalus IL, king of Pergamum, was born in 200 zc. He | mitted into consciousness while others more clearly. apprehended is attention more receives which object | comand II. Eumenes brother his under general a as served but a differintensity in difference a not is difference resulting manded the Pergamene contingent that served the Romans in| The attention is concentrated special e.g., When, clearness. in ence | visited He (171). Greece and (189) Galatia in their expeditions its notes do not become louder but Rome frequently as an ambassador, and succeeded his brother in | on the first violin in a trio mistakes an increase in clearness for an inrarely One clearer. | successful a played he Rome, with alliance his i Secure 139. people confuse the two merely part in the wars and diplomacy of the East, though Rome had | crease in intensity. Only some kind of effect in so far as the same the have changes both to intervene actively when he was besieged in his capital by | because a more central place in occupy to helped is question in object | rePergamum II. Attalus Under 154. Prusias II. of Bithynia in the intensity

as will be pointed out presently, tained its rank as a centre of Hellenistic culture, and is espe- | consciousness. For, an increase in intensity, is one of the therefore and stimulus, a of 138. in died He critic. Homeric the Crates, for notable cially attention or to attract attendetermine to help which conditions | in II. Attalus uncle his Attalus IIL, Philometor, succeeded place in consciousprominent a it give so and stimulus, 138 B.C. A very different type of ruler from his predecessors, he | tion to the any object is that to directed attention of result negative A ness. | tyranny, Asiatic of mtroduced the Pergamese to the methods attention than less or attention no either receive objects other | trom which they had previously been secure. After pursuing an say they are either exto is that receive, otherwise would they | he sculpture, and gardening to devoted eccentric career, largely or are relegated to a back died in 133. The sole importance of his reign lies in his will. As | cluded from the field of consciousness the last of the Attalic house he could dispose of the sovereignty, | place. The conditions which influence the direction of attention to and he bequeathed it to Rome. Rome accepted it and became

some objects rather than to others are of two principal kinds. The ‘avolved in a struggle with the pretender Aristonicus (g.v.). direction of attention is determined partly by the nature of the | Livy, xvi, Polybius | are: authorities Bruiocrapuy.—Ancient objects claiming attention, and partly by the disposition and charGua ee : pot ee i she a attention. The

Thraemer, Pergamos (Leipzig, 1848); J.Mahaffy, Alexanders Empire (1887).

acter of the individual mind or subject exercising two sets of conditions may accordingly be described as the ob-

conditions respectively. ATTAR OF ROSES, a perfume prepared by macerating or jective and the subjective —The objective conditions of attention Conditions. oil Objective essential The . damascena Rosa the distilling roses, mainly in the intensity, volume, duration, and obtained is a beautiful, precious and very costly material, costing | are to be sought mainly stimulus claiming attention. A brilliant objective the of novelty to needed are roses of lbs. 250 Some pound. a as much as £50

is more likely to attract attention than a make a single ounce of the attar, which means that several ac. of | light or a shrill noise Again, within certain limits, a stimusound. soft a or land yield only that small quantity of the perfume. The word | feeble light likely to attract attention than a more is duration longer of lus | ‘attar, Persian the from is “otto,” as d attar, sometimes corrupte object is more likely to be large a Similarly one. ry momenta | Persia, essence. The manufacture is chiefly oriental, in India and

but it is also carried on in France and the Balkans.

ATTEMPT, in law, an act done with intent to commit a

noticed than a small one. But most important of all the objective

conditions is novelty, or change from preceding stimulation.

the duration of a stimulus is favourable to its being crime, and forming one ofa series of acts which would constitute Though a point is soon reached when its very sameness leads yet noticed, intention Mere ed. interrupt not were it if its actual commission ignored in favour of some new stimulus or some being its to proceed must attempt to commit a crime is not sufficient, and an existing stimulus. Change as such tends to attract an to an overt act, but at the same time it must fall short of the ulti- | change in sudden cessation in the motion of a mill or in The attention. | an of guilty be may person mate purpose in any part of it. A will be noticed when the preceding uniform clock a of ticking the | attempt to commit a crime, even if its commission in the manner to attract attention. The importance ceased has either of sound | or felony a commit to attempt Every . impossible proposed was movement or apparent move(including stimulus of change of punishnour, misdemea law misdemeanour is in itself a common and exploited by the realized is attention attracting in ment) able by fine or imprisonment, unless the attempt to commit is | ments. advertise luminous of purveyors S 1 C s r o of case the in as felony, a as statute by specifically punishable Subjective Conditions.—The subjective conditions of attenattempted murder, or in a defined manner as a misdemeanour ; on the momentary pre-occupations or the permaand a person who has been indicted for a felony or misdemeanour | tion turn mainly We Imay distinguish several the individual mind. of interests nent I may, if the evidence so warrants, be found guilty only of the such pre-occupations or interests may influence which in forms attempt. of attention. First, there is the influence of the idea ATTENTION. The term is employed in psychology some- the direction which happens to occupy our attention at the moexperience or the In sense. times in a wider, and sometimes in a narrower so shortly before. If we happen to be thinking of narrower sense, which coincides more or less with the popular use | ment, or did attract our attention even under conditions in will it object, an | some which by process mental that of the term, attention means have escaped our notice. Similarly a otherwise would it which object comes to be apprehended more clearly or distinctly than to locate at first may be easily difficult though before it was attended to, or by which one object occupies the | distant aeroplane or spotted. Secondly, there observed been has it once followed not is attention focus of consciousness while others (to which at the moment. A mental individual the of attitude mental the directed) are in the margin or periphery of consciousness. In | is wh . It favourss whatever orientation : limited of kind a is attitude process mental the depates the wider sense of the term attention simplest its In else. g everythin resists and it, to relevant appears | ness In virtue of which anything becomes an object of conscious form the general nature of a mental attitude at all, as compared with the multitude of stimuli which never | and most obvious a question occurs to one spontaneously, or is when ed exemplifi is reach fnd entry into consciousness, although they are within else. The effect is a certain kind of exsomebody by - of the observer. The wider sense is the more convenient, provided put to us for anything that may help to answer ness prepared and pectancy varying attention of degrees it is recognized that there are many problem. If one is asked, or asks the solve to or question the low

from what is commonly called inattention (that is, a very

in himself, about the architectural character of a clock-tower degree of attention) to the highest concentration. Attention in all character, and al architectur its to attend will he him, of front selecits forms, and especially in its higher forms, is a process of

658

ATTENUATION—ATTERBURY

probably fail to note the time indicated by the clock; if he is asked the time, he will note this, and probably fail to observe the architectural form of the tower, or even the character of the numerals on the face of the clock, until he is asked whether they are Roman or Arabic, etc. On the whole it is remarkable how little most people really notice for which their mental attitude is not set. This is not altogether to be regretted, for it means a certain economy of mental effort. Lastly, there is the influence of one’s entire previous training, that is, one’s general mental outlook or orientation, or his dominant disposition or permanent interests, as determined by his whole previous education, in the widest sense of the term. In a miscellaneous exhibition different people will direct their attention to different exhibits according to their knowledge of the different fields of interest to which the objects belong. Of the miscellaneous contents of a newspaper different parts will similarly attract the attention of different people according to their previous training. Even if they all read the major portion of the newspaper, they will read the several parts each in a different order. Various Kinds of Attention.—Psychologists usually distinguish various kinds of attention, and the classification is based on various grounds. Sometimes the classification is based on the differences in the kind of objects to which attention is directed. In this case we get the distinction between sensorial attention and ideational attention, according as the object attended to is a sensible object or an idea. More important are the distinctions based on the effort exerted. This distinction, however, is intimately bound up with that of interest. And the otherwise laudable attempt to combine both these bases in one scheme of classification has led to a somewhat inconsistent use of terms in this connection, the trouble being mainly due to the ambiguity of the epithet “voluntary,” which is sometimes used in the sense of “involving volition” or effort, and sometimes in the sense of “free” or “willing” or “spontaneous,” “not constrained.” The

supposing that most of them are really observed in the form oj after-images rather than as direct percepts.

Abnormalities of Attention.—In normal life one does D always concentrate one’s attention on anything special wa

scatters it somewhat diffusely over a number of objects, pas more or less rapidly from one thing to another. This is

up to a point—it is a form of mental relaxation. But when such a state of comparative inattention becomes chronic, it is a tom of a pathological mental condition. There are so-called

“scatter-brained” people who are constitutionally concentrating attention on anything for long. If about anything their interest in it seems exhausted they have put the question, and they proceed to question before the first has been answered. This

incapable of they enquire by the time put another condition ig

sometimes a passing phasé with children, but chronic with the feeble-minded, or the mentally unstable. The opposite abnormal-

ity to such instability of attention is seen in people suffering from “fixed ideas.” Even in normal life people sometimes cop. centrate attention on some

one object or problem to such an

extent that, for the time being, they are absorbed in it, and oblivi-

ous of everything else. This state of mind often betrays itself

in what is called absent-mindedness, that is, inattention to most

things because of special concentration on others. Up to a point

this state, too, is healthy and effective.

But when it becomes

chronic and excessive it ends in a variety of abnormalities ranging from the harmless crank, to the fanatic, and the person suffering from fixed ideas and illusions from which he cannot divert his

attention. BisLiocraPHY.—W. B. Pillsbury, Attention (1908) ; W. James, Pris. ciples of Psychology (1890) ; G. F. Stout, Manual of Psychology (3rd ed., 1913); J. Ward, Psychological Principles (1918); article PsyCHOLOGY. (A. Wo.)

ATTENUATION, in radio communication, is the reduction in power of a wave or a current with increasing distarice from the

most important distinctions may be indicated as follows: It is a source of transmission. Attenuation of an electric current or familiar experience that we sometimes pay attention to something wave is ordinarily the result of the absorption or loss of power in because it interests us, whereas at other times we attend to things

by an effort of will. The former is called attention from interest, the latter is called attention from effort. The former is usually spontaneous and easy, the latter is often unpleasant and a strain. The former, again, is frequently called spontaneous attention, the latter volitional or voluntary attention. Again, attention is sometimes attracted by the mere intensity of some external stimulus such as a loud noise or a flash of light. The attention in this case involves no effort at all, and the object may or may not prove interesting. Such attention is often called involuntary attention, because it is often exercised in spite of our wish to attend to something else. “The Duration of Attention.—The concentration of attention upon some object or thought may continue for a considerable time among normal people. But what is commonly called an object or a thought is something very complex having many parts or aspects, and our attention really passes from part to part, backwards and forwards all the time. Our attention to what can be seriously called a single thing, affording no opportunities for the movement of attention from part to part, say a small patch of colour, cannot be held for more than about a second without serious risk of falling into a hypnotic trance or some similar pathological condition.

The Span of Attention.—How many objects can be attended to at one time?

Many people have the impression that they can

attend to a number of things at the same time. What really happens in such cases is that their attention alternates from one object to another, so that they really do attend to a multiplicity of things within a given time, only successively. But if the expression “at one time” is taken strictly, then it seems very doubtful whether more than one object (or at most a group of four or

five things forming one object) can be attended to at once. When, in experiments on attention, objects are exposed for a small fraction of a second, then as a rule only one object is apprehended. Even when with somewhat longer exposures four or five objects appear to be apprehended by the subject there is some ground for

certain elements of the circuit or transmission path. In some electrical circuits, particularly for currents of audio-frequencies, it is possible to make substantially equal the total attenuation for

all frequencies within a certain range.

A device used for this

purpose is called an attenuation equalizer. ATTERBOM, PER DANIEL AMADEUS (1790-1855), Swedish poet, son of a country parson, was born in the province of

Östergötland. He studied in the university of Uppsala (1805-15) and became professor of philosophy there in 1828, and of aes thetics and literature in 1835. He was the first great poet of the romantic movement which was to revolutionize Swedish literature. In 1807 he founded at Uppsala an artistic society, the Aurora League, whose first newspaper, Polyfem, was a crude effort, soon abandoned; but in 1810 there began to appear a journal, Fosforos,

edited by Atterbom, which lasted for three years and found a place in classic Swedish literature. It consisted of poetry and aestheticopolemical essays; it introduced the study of the new Romantic school of Germany, and formed a vehicle for the early works, not of Atterbom only, but of Hammersk6ld, Dahlgren, Palmblad and others. Later, the members of the Aurora League established the Poetisk Kalender (1812—22), in which their poems appeared, and a new critical organ, Svensk Litteraturtidning (1813-24). Of Atterbom’s independent works, the most celebrated is Lyckss-

lighetens O (The Fortunate Island), a romantic drama published &

1824. Previously he had published a cycle of lyrics, Blommorna (The Flowers), of a mystical character somewhat in the manner of Novalis. Of a dramatized fairy tale, Fagel-bla (The Blue Bird), only a fragment, which is among the most exquisite of his writings, is preserve His Svenska Siare och skaldery (1841-55, supplement, 1864), a series of biographies of Swedish poets and men of letters, forms a history of Swedish letters down to the end of the “classical” period. Atter-

bom’s works were collected (13 vols., Örebro) in 1854—70.

ATTERBURY, FRANCIS

(1662-1732), English man of

letters, politician and bishop, was born at Milton, Bucks, the son of a clergyman. Educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford, he became a tutor of his college. He tookholy orders in 1687, and was appointed one of the royal chaplains, but

most of his time was spent in Oxford, where he was the chief

659

ATTESTATION—ATTICA ser of Dean Aldrich under whom Christ Church had become „centre of Toryism. He stood behind Charles Boyle in his attack oa Richard Bentley, and in the Battle of the Books Swift calls yim the Apollo who directed the fight. In the high and low church controversy he was a witty and audacious champion of the high durch clergy against what they regarded as the oligarchy of Erstian prelates. He was rewarded by the archdeaconry of Tones, 2 prebend in Exeter Cathedral, and, after Queen Anne’s

| tory, antiquities and topography of Attica and Athens,

secession, the deanery of Carlisle. In 1710 the prosecution of Gecheverell gave Atterbury another opportunity for the use of his powers of sarcasm and invective. He helped to frame the brilliant speech which the accused delivered at the bar of the

Bouse of Lords. With the fall of the Whigs his triumph came.

During the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C., a class of writers arose, who, making these subjects their particular study, were called atthidographi, or compilers of atthides. The first of these was Clidemus or Clitodemus (about 378 B.c.); the last, Ister of Cyrene (d. 212 B.c.); the most important was Philochorus (first half of the 3rd century B.c.), of whose work considerable fragments have been preserved. Fragments in Miiller, Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, i.

ATTIC, in architecture, any portion of wall raised above the

main cornice, utilized by the Romans principally for decorative purposes, inscriptions, etc., as in triumphal arches. It was developed in the Renaissance as an important part of a façade, frequently enclosing an additional storey, the windows of which were

As prolocutor of the lower house of convocation, he drew up in treated as part of the decoration. In modern usage the word is rit the famous Representation of the State of Religion, and in also employed to designate a storey immediately under the roof, August of that year Queen Anne, who had come to rely on Atter- especially when the roof is of steep pitch. ATTICA, a triangular district of ancient Greece, with the bury for advice in ecclesiastical matters, appointed him dean of

chain of Mts. Cithaeron and Parnes as its base and Sunium as its apex. It is washed on two sides by the Aegean sea, and the into small bays and harbours, exposed to the Probably Atterbury was one of those who hoped to arrange coast is broken up is very mountainous, and between the mounAttica wind. south could matters so that at Queen Anne’s death the act of succession sea. On the west be easily set aside in favour of James Stuart, but on the accession tain chains lie several small plains open to the its natural boundary is the Corinthian gulf, so that it would iningratito sought and allegiance of George I. he took the oath of clude Megaris; indeed, before the Dorian invasion, which resulted aie himself with the new court, though without success. He then country was politically violently opposed the new Government by his brilliant speeches in the foundation of Megara, the whole is proved by the This race. Ionian the of hands the in one, Hanothe against in the House, and anonymously by pamphlets Strabo, once stood on the Isthmus yerians. When the rebellion of 1715 broke out in favour of the column which, as we learn from on one side in Greek the inscription, “This Pretender he refused to sign the address in which the bishops of of Corinth, bearing land is Peloponnesus, not Ionia,” and on the other, “This land is the the Province of Canterbury declared their attachment to not Peloponnesus, but Ionia.” the with d directly correspon to began he 1717 in and house, royal Mountains—The mountains of Attica continue the chain Pretender. the south end of Pindus, through Phocis Atterbury was implicated in a plot in 1721 for the restoration from Tymphrestus at and Helicon); from this proceeds the (Parnassus Boeotia and The 1722. in Tower the in months of the Stuarts, and spent some (4,6ooft.) in the west and Parnes Cithaeron as which, range and evidence against him was insufficient for legal conviction, was he which by Parliament in bill special a to had was recourse deprived of his ecclesiastical dignities and banished*for life. For some years he was principal adviser to James, but, finding that his counsels were disregarded, he retired to Montpelier. For a brief period before his death on Feb. 22 1732, he was again in the Pretender’s service. His remains were brought to England and secretly buried in Westminster Abbey. In private life Atterbury was gentle and forbearing, and showed

Christ Church. He was not a good college administrator, and in

1713 was removed from Oxford to be bishop of Rochester.

none of the acerbity and violence of the pamphleteer. Between

him and his daughter, Mrs. Morice, there was tender affection; when he was ill in France she went over at the risk of her life to see him, and died immediately on her arrival. He was a close friend of Addison, and was on excellent terms with Pope, Swift, Arbuthnot and Gay.

Bal

A

See F. Williams, Memoirs and Correspondence of Atterbury with Wotes, etc. (1869) ; Stuart Papers, vol. i.: Letters of Atterbury to tke Chevalier St. George, etc. (1847) ; J. Nichols, Epistolary Correspond-

ence, etc. (1783-96); and H. C. Beeching, Francis Atterbury (1909).

_ ATTESTATION, the verification of a deed, will, or other instrument by the signature to it of a witness or witnesses, who

subscribe to a memorandum, to the effect that it was signed or

AÑ

executed in their presence, showing that at the execution of the document there was present some disinterested person capable

of giving evidence as to what took place. In Scots law, the

corresponding clause is called the testing-clause (see Deep; WILL

oz TestaMENT; WITNESS).

_ AT THE MARKET, 2 term used in instructions to brokers in securities or commodities authorizing them to buy or sell at

the most favourable price as promptly as possible after the order is given. Brokers receiving orders on such terms convey them to the exchange floor at once, where the floor trader will attempt

to put through the trade upon the best possible terms for his customer, While no price is named and no price limit is set, the ker is expected to make the purchase or sale within a fraction of the price set by the last transaction in the same security or commodity.

CRP

op C FROM MURRAY,

Err A

a

ANCIENT

ATTICA

HANDY ELASSICAL MAPS MAP OF ANCIENT ATTICA AND SOME OF ITS COASTAL ISLANDS, ING AEGINA

INCLUD-

(4,600ft.) in the east, separates Attica from Boeotia, throwing off spurs southward towards the Saronic gulf in Aegaleos (x,534ft.) and Hymettus (3,370ft.), which bound the plain of Athens. The east end of Parnes is joined by another line of hills, which, separating from Mt. Oeta, skirts the Euboic gulf, and, after s entering Attica, throws up the lofty pyramid of Pentelicu sinks then and , Marathon of plain the ng overlooki , (3.635ft.)

once more in the outlying ATTHIS (an adjective meaning “Attic”), the name given to towards the sea at Sunium to rise Cithaeron bends round at west, extreme the in Finally, islands. bispolitical and or special treatise on the religioys

a monograph

660

ATTICA

right angles in the direction of the isthmus, at the northern ap- ' Plain of Eleusis——To the east of Megara lies Eleusis proach to which it abuts against the mighty mass of Mt. Geraneia, on the one side by the chain of Kerata, and on the other by between the Corinthian and the Saronic gulf. Soil.—The soil is light and thin, and requires very careful agriculture on the rocky mountain sides and in the maritime plains. This enforced industrious habits on the inhabitants and encour-

of Aegaleos, through a depression in which was the line of the

sacred way, where the torchlight processions from Athens used descend to the coast, the “brightly gleaming shores” agg axrat) of Sophocles (Oed. Col. 1,049). The deep bay which here

aged seafaring. The level ground was sufficiently fertile to form a runs into the land is bounded on its southern side by the r marked contrast to the rest of the district. Thucydides attributes island of Salamis. The winding channel which separates that to the unattractive nature of the soil (i. 2 7d Aewrdyewv), the island from the mainland in the direction of the Peiraeeus Was permanence of the same inhabitants in the country, whence arose the scene of the battle of Salamis. The east of the plain of Eleusis the claim to indigenousness on which the Athenians prided them- was called the Thriasian plain, and the city itself was situated ia selves; while at the same time the richer ground fostered that the recesses of the bay just mentioned. Plain of Athens.—Next in order to the plain of Eleusis camp fondness for country life spoken of by Aristophanes. The fact Attica that of Athens, the most extensive, reaching from the foot of which into CLEISTHENES) (see demes 182 the of out that Aegaicos, and on was divided, one-tenth were named from trees or plants points Parnes to the sea, and bounded on the west byy Aegal the east by Hymettus. Its most conspicuous feature is the broad to less aridity in ancient times. Climate.—In approaching Attica from Boeotia a change of line of dark green along its western side, formed by the olive. temperature is felt as soon as a person descends from Cithaeron groves of Colonus and the gardens of the Academy, watered by or Parnes, and the sea breeze moderates the heat in summer. So the Cephisus. This river, unlike the other rivers of Attica, has a Euripides describes the inhabitants as “ever walking gracefully constant supply of water, from its sources on Mt. Parnes, which was diverted in classical times, as it still is, into the neighbouring through the most luminous ether” (Med. 829). Again Xenophon says “one would not err in thinking that plantations (cf. Sophocles, Oed. Col. 685). The two bare knolls this city is placed near the centre of Greece—nay, of the civilized of light-coloured earth caused the poet in the same chorus to apply world—because, the farther removed persons are from it, the the epithet “white” (a4py77a) to Colonus. The Ilissus river, rising severer is the cold or heat they meet with” (Vectigal. 1. 6). The in Mt. Hymettus and skirting the east of Athens, is a mere brook, air is so clear that one can see from the Acropolis the lines of white marble that streak the sides of Pentelicus. The brilliant colouring of the Athenian sunsets is due to the same cause. The epithet “violet-crowned,” used of Athens by Pindar, is due either to the blue haze on the surrounding hills, or to the use of violets (or irises) for festal wreaths. The prevalence of the north wind is expressed on the Horologium of Andronicus Cyrrhestes, called the Temple or Tower of the Winds, at Athens. Vegetation.—Sophocles (Oed. Col. 700) shows that the olive flourished specially in Attica (see also Herodotus v. 82). In the legend of the struggle between Poseidon and Athena, for the patronage of the country, the sea-god is represented as having to retire vanquished before the giver of the olive; and the evidences of this contention were an ancient olive tree in the Acropolis, together with three holes in the rock, said to have been made by the trident of Poseidon. The fig also throve and Demeter was said to have bestowed it as a gift on the Eleusinian Phytalus, z.e., “the gardener.” Cithaeron and Parnes were formerly wooded; for on the former are laid the picturesque sylvan scenes in the Bacchae of Euripides, and it was from the latter that the wood came which caused the neighbouring deme of Acharnae to be famous for its charcoal—the &vOpaxes Ilappncioe of the Acharnians of Aristophanes (348). From the thymy slopes of Hymettus came the famous Hymettian honey. Minerals.—The pure white marble of Pentelicus used for the Athenian temples, and the blue marble of Hymettus—the trabes Hymettiae of Horace, used for Roman palaces, were famous. The silver mines of Laurium rendered silver the principal medium of exchange in Greece, so that “a silver piece (4pytprov) was the Greek name for money. Aeschylus speaks of the Athenians as possessing a “fountain of silver” (Pers. 235), and Aristophanes makes his chorus of birds promise the audience that, if they show him favour, owls from Laurium (i.¢., silver pieces with the emblem of Athens) shall never fail them (Birds, 1106). The purity and accurate weight of the Laurium coins gave them a wide circula-

tion. (See further Numismatics: Greek, § Athens.) In Strabo’s

time the mines had almost ceased to yield, but silver was obtained from the scoriae; and at the present day lead is got in the same way, chiefly by two companies, one of which is French and the other Greek. Two thousand shafts and galleries of the ancient mines remain. Plain of Megara.—The plain of Megara was geographically linked with Attica. It commanded the three passes into the Peloponnese, one a long detour along the shores of the Corinthian gulf; the other two starting from Megara, and passing, the one over the ridge of Geraneia, the other along the Saronic gulf, under the dangerous precipices of the Scironian rocks,

which disappears in summer.

Three roads lead to Athens from

the Boeotian frontier over the mountain barrier—the easternmost over route war; alae,

Parnes, from Delium and Oropus by Decelea, the usu} of the invading Lacedaemonians during the Peloponnesian the westernmost over Cithaeron, by the pass of Dryosceph. or the “Oakheads,” from Thebes by Plataea to Eleusis, and

so to Athens,‘ along which the Plataeans escaped during the siege of Plataea in the Peloponnesian war. The third, midway between the two, by the pass of Phyle, near the summit of which, overlooking the Athenian plain, is the fort occupied by Thrasybulus in the days of the Thirty Tyrants. On the sea-coast to the south west of Athens rises the hill of Munychia, a mass of rocky ground, forming the acropolis of the town of Peiraeeus. The ground which joins it to the mainland is low and swampy, alluvial soil brought down by the Cephisus and according to Strabo was at one time an island. On one side of this, towards Hymettus, lay the open roadstead of Phalerum, on the other the harbour of Peiraeeus, a completely land-locked inlet, safe, deep and spacious, the approach to which was still further narrowed by moles. On the east are the small harbours of Zea and Munychia. Eastern Attica.—The north-eastern boundary of the plain af Athens is formed by the graceful pyramid of Pentelicus, commonly known as Brilessus in ancient times. Between it aad Hymettus intervenes a level space of ground 2m. wide, which

formed the entrance to the Mesogaea, an elevated undulating

plain in the midst of the mountains, reaching nearly to Sunium. At the extremity of Hymettus, where it projects into the Saronic gulf, was the promontory of Zoster (“the Girdle”), so called because it girdles and protects the neighbouring harbour. From this promontory to Sunium there runs a lower line of mountains, and between these and the sea is the fertile strip of land called the Paralia. Beyond Sunium, on the eastern coast, were two sale

ports, Thoricus, defended by the island of Helene, forming 3 natural breakwater in front of it, and Prasiae, now called Porto

Raphti (“the Tailor”), from a statue at the entrance. In the north-east corner between Parnes, Pentelicus and the sea is the

little plain of Marathon (g.v.), the scene of the battle against the

Persians (490 B.c.). The bay in front is sheltered by Euboea, and on the north by a projecting tongue of land, called Cynosura.

One district of Attica, the territory of Oropus, belonged to

Boeotia, as it was situated to the north of Parnes, but

Athenians always endeavoured to retain it, because it facuital their communications with Euboea, which was of the utmost ir

portance to them; for, if Aegina should rightly be called “the eye

sore of the Peiraeeus,” Euboea was quite as truly a thorn in the

side of Attica; Demosthenes (De Cor., p. 307) records the ravages

of the Euboean pirates:

;

7

ATTIC BASE—ATTIS y—J. genes

G. Frazer,

Te

Pausanias’s Descripti

1898) ; W. M. Leake, The Die oe

(nd ed., London, 1841); Chr. Wordsworth, Athens and Attica (4th

ed, London, 1869) ; C. Bursian, Geographie von Griechenland, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1862) ; _Baedeker’s Greece (4th Eng. ed., Leipzig, 1908) ;

von Attica, published by the German Archaeological In-

Korten gitute of Athens, with explanatory text, chiefly by Prof. Milchhéfer 1875-1903) See also ATHENS, ELEUSIS and GREECE: Topography.

ATTIC BASE, the term given in architecture to any column

base (9.2) consisting of an upper and lower torus (g.v.) separated by a scotia (g.v.). Used first by the Greeks in connection with the Ionic order, it became the favourite base of the Romans md is common in Byzantine, Romanesque and early Gothic work.

ATTICISM.

(1) Taking the side of Athens in the Pelopon-

sian war, a word formed similarly to medism (taking the side of Persia in the Persian war); (2) the artificial imitation of Attic k in Hellenistic literature. (See GREEK LITERATURE.)

ATTICUS, TITUS POMPONIUS

(109-32 B.c.), Roman

patron of letters, was born at Rome three years before Cicero,

with whom he was educated. His name was Titus Pomponius, that of Atticus being given him afterwards from his long residence in Athens (86-65) and his intimate acquaintance with the

Greek literature and language. When Pomponius was still a man his father died, and he prudently transferred himself and his fortune to Athens, in order to escape the civil war, in which he might have been involved through his connection with the murdered tribune, Sulpicius Rufus. Here he lived in retirement, devoting himself entirely to study. On his return to Rome, he assumed the name of Quintus Caecilius Pomponianus. From

this time he kept aloof from political strife, attaching himself

tono particular party, and continuing on intimate terms with men so opposed as Caesar and Pompey, Antony and Octavian. His most intimate friend, however, was Cicero, whose correspondence

with him extended over many years. His private life was tranquil and happy. He did not marry till he was 53 years of age, and his only child became the wife of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, the distinguished minister of Augustus. In 32, being seized with an ness believed to be incurable, he starved himself to death. Of his writings none is extant, but mention is made of two: a Greek history of Cicero’s consulship, and some annals forming an epitome of Roman history down to the year 54. His most important work was his edition of the letters addressed to him by Cicero. He formed a large library at Athens, and engaged a staff of slaves to make copies of valuable works.

661

His own special kingdom comprised the countries which are now called Hungary and Transylvania, his capital being possibly near

the modern city of Buda-Pest; but having made the Ostrogoths, the Gepidae and many other Teutonic tribes his subject-allies,

and having also sent his invading armies into Media, he seems

for nearly 20 years to have ruled practically without a rival from

the Caspian Early in Theodosius an amorous

to the Rhine. his reign, Honoria, grand-daughter of the Emperor IL., being subjected to severe restraint on account of intrigue with one of the chamberlains of the palace, sent her ring to the king of the Huns, and called on him to be her husband and her deliverer. Nothing came of the proposed engagement, but the wrongs of Honoria, his affanced wife, served as a pretext for some of the constantly recurring embassies with which

Attila worried the two courts of Constantinople and Ravenna. One of the return embassies from Constantinople (448) had the advantage of being accompanied by a rhetorician named Priscus, whose minute account of the negotiations, including a vivid picture of the great Hun in his banquet-hall, is by far the most valuable source of information as to Attila’s court and camp. In the ambassador’s suite there was an interpreter named Vigilas, who for so pounds of gold had promised to assassinate Attila. This design was discovered by the Hunnish king, but had not been revealed to the head of the embassy or to his secretary. The new Emperor Marcian answered the insulting message of Attila in a manlier tone than his predecessor. Accordingly the Hun now turned upon Valentinian III., the trembling emperor of the west, and demanded redress for the wrongs of Honoria, and one-half of Valentinian’s dominions as her dowry. Allying himself with the Franks and Vandals, he led his vast many-nationed army to the Rhine in the spring of 451, crossed that river, and sacked, apparently, most of the cities of Belgic Gaul, finally reached the Loire and laid siege to the strong city of Orléans. The citizens, under the leadership of their bishop, Anianus, made a heroic defence, but the place was on the point of being taken when, on June 24, the allied Romano-Gothic army of Aëtius and Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, was seen on the horizon. Attila turned again to the north-east, halted near Troyes, in the Catalaunian plains, and offered battle to his pursuers. The battle which followed—certainly one of the decisive battles of the world—has been well described by the Gothic historian, Jordanes, as “ruthless, manifold, immense, obstinate.” It lasted for the whole day, and the carnage was terrible. The Visigothic

Berwick, Lives of Messalla Corvinus |king was slain, but the victory, though hardly earned, remained

See Life by Cornelius Nepos; with his people and his allies. Attila retreated, apparently in good end TPA. (1813) h Fialon, ae in T.P TN ae vas order, on the Rhine, recrossed that river and returned to his Panoi alakoa A i E voL toi, 1926) EIA set forth to of 452 he again Cicero’s Letters to Atticus by E. O. Winstadt is published in the Loeb | noman home. Thence in the spring ravage or to conquer Italy. After a stubborn contest, he took and Chssical Library (1912).

the chief city of Venetia, and burned ATTICUS HERODES, TIBERIUS CL AUDIUS (c. ap. | utterly destroyed Aquileia,

101-177), Greek rhetorician, celebrated among his contemporaries.

In 125 Hadrian appointed him prefect of the free towns of Asia, and in 140 he was summoned by Antoninus Pius to undertake the received education of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, and(143). He many marks of favour, amongst them the consulship

is principally celebrated, however, for the vast sums he expended on public purposes. He built at Athens a race-course ofstillPentelic exists. marble, and a music theatre, called the Odeum, which at Thermopylae At Corinth he built a theatre, at Delphi a stadium,

hot baths, at Canusium, in Italy, an aqueduct. He even con-

Altinum and the cities at the head of the Adriatic, Concordia, Patavium (Padua). The fugitives, seeking shelter in the lagoons

of the Adriatic, laid the foundations of the future city of Venice. Upon Milan and the cities of western Lombardy the hand of Attila seems to have weighed more lightly, plundering rather than

utterly destroying; and he yielded to the entreaty of Pope Leo L of and consented to cross the Alps, with a menace, however, d. future return, should the wrongs of Honoria remain unredresse by Attila, But no further expeditions to Italy were undertaken

who died suddenly in 453, m the night following a great banquet

: which celebrated his marriage with a damsel named nae Under his name Etzel, Attila plays a great par in teutonic and under that o Atli in ScandiOf his many legend (see NIBELUNGENLIED) lineaments md numerous inscriptions testify their gratitude. are greatly obscured in histonc his but Saga, navian | n” Constitutio the “On speech a is extant one: only the works, and broad-chested, with

templated cutting a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth. Many of the partially ruined cities of Greece were restored by Atticus,

both. He was short of stature, swarthy (ed. Hass 1880) & large head and hair which early. turned grey, snub nose and | AtHerodis Fiorillo, 1; ii. Soph. Vit. ratus, ay—Philost Bretxocrar deep-set eyes. He walked with a proud step, darting a haughty | (1832), H. A. of Notice al Biographic A iici quae supersunt (1801); he felt himself lord of all.

this way and that as if privately printed; Fuelles, De Herodis Attici Vita (1864); Vidal- | glance See Priscus, J orun the ae a eatin AO who are the chief authorities tor Att ’s ATTILA (d. 453), king of the Huns, became king in 433 on Gregory of Tours,

Lablache, Hérode Atticus (1871).

the death of his uncle Roua. In the first eight years of his reign

and

life. ATTIS or ATYS, a-deity worshipped in Phrygia, and later

| throughout the Roman empire, in conjunction with the Great Attila was chiefly occupied in the wars with other barbarian tribes, Mother of the Gods. Their worship included the celebration of | Europe. Central in supreme hy which he made himself virtually

662

ATTITUDE—ATTORNEY

mysteries annually on the return of the spring season. Attis was . Attleboro, which is also a manufacturing centre, and which had confused with Pan, Sabazios (g.v.), Mén and Adonis, and there ,population of 9,790 in 1925 (State census). The city was j : ae were resemblances between the orgiastic features of his worship porated in 1914. There is a glacial rock ledge in fine preservation near Attlehory and that of Dionysus. His resemblance to Adonis has led to the theory that the names of the two are identical, and that Attis and an old powder-house where ammunition was stored i is only the Semitic companion of Syrian Aphrodite grafted on to days of the Revolution. Some old houses are stil] standing įr= the Phrygian Great Mother worship. It is likely, however, that a The Angle Tree monument was erected in 1790. o ee J. Er Dagget, A Sketch o f History . Attis, like the Great Mother, was indigenous to Asia Minor, ooo of Aittleborougk io 18hy adopted by the invading Phrygians, and blended by them with ATTOCK, a town and fort in British India, in the Pimi a deity of their own. Legends.—According to Pausanias (vii. 17), Attis was a beauti- 47m. by rail from Peshawar, and on the east bank of the re ful youth born of the daughter of the river Sangarius, who was The Indus is here crossed by the military and trade route th descended from the hermaphroditic Agdistis, a monster sprung the Khyber Pass into Afghanistan. The river runs past Attock from the earth by the seed of Zeus. Having become enamoured in a deep, rapid channel about 2oo0yd. broad. The rocky g X of Attis, Agdistis struck him with frenzy as he was about to wed through which it flows, with a distant view of the Hindu Kush, the king’s daughter, with the result that he deprived himself of form some of the finest scenery in the world. Since 1883 an iro manhood and died. Agdistis in repentance prevailed upon Zeus girder bridge of five spans carries the North-Western railwa t to grant that the body of the youth should never decay or waste. Peshawar, and has also a subway for wheeled traffic and Toot In Arnobius (v. 5-8) Attis emasculates himself under a pine tree, passengers. The fort of Attock was built by the emperor Akbar in at the foot of which violets sprang from his blood, like the flower 1581, on a low hillock beside the river. ATTORNEY, in English law, in its widest sense, any substi. called after him from that of Hyacinthus (g.v.). The Great Mother and Agdistis carry the pine-tree to her cave, where they tute or agent appointed to act in “the turn, stead or place of an. wildly lament the death of the youth. Zeus grants the petition other.” Attorneys are of two kinds, attorneys-in-fact and attoras in the version of Pausanias, but permits the hair of Attis to neys-at-law. The former is simply an agent, the extent of whose grow, and his little finger (which has been interpreted as the capacity to act is bounded only by the powers embodied in his phallus) to move. In Diodorus (iii. 58-59) the Mother is the authority, his power of attorney. The latter was a public officer carnal lover of Attis, and when her father the king discovers conducting legal proceedings on behalf of others, known as hi her fault and kills her lover, roams the earth in wild grief. In clients, and attached to the supreme courts of common law at Ovid, (Fasti, iv. 223 et seq.) she is inspired with chaste love for Westminster. Attorneys-at-law corresponded to the solicitors of him, which he pledges himself to reciprocate. On his proving the courts of chancery and the proctors of the admiralty, erunfaithful, the Great Mother slays the nymph with whom he has clesiastical, probate and divorce courts. Since the passing of the sinned, whereupon in madness he mutilates himself as a penalty. Judicature Act of 1873, however, the designation “attorney” has Another form of the legend (Paus. vii. 17), showing the influence become obsolete in England, all persons admitted as solicitors, of the Aphrodite-Adonis myth, relates that Attis, the impotent attorneys or proctors of an English court being henceforth called son of the Phrygian Calaus, went into Lydia to institute the wor- “solicitors of the supreme court” (see SOLICITOR). In the United States an attorney-at-law exercises all the fimeship of the Great Mother, and was there slain by a boar sent by Zeus. tions distributed in England between barristers, attorneys and Attis was originally a god of vegetation, or tree-spirit, as is solicitors, and his full title is “attorney and counsellor-at-law.” indicated by his association with the pine-tree, into which he was When acting in a court of admiralty he is styled “proctor” or said to have been afterwards changed. In his self-mutilation, “advocate.” In courts of equity or chancery in many States he is death and resurrection he represents the fruits of the earth, which styled “solicitor.” Formerly, in some States, there existed a die in winter only to rise again In spring. grade among lawyers of attorneys-at-law, which was inferior to See. GREAT MOTHER OF THE Gops; J. G. Frazer, Adonis, Aitis, that of counsellor-at-law, and in colonial times New Jersey eOsiris (1906) and THe Gortpen BoucsH (abridged edition,

e 5)

tablished a higher rank still—that of sergeant-at-law. Now the term of attorney-at-law is precisely equivalent to that of lawyer, ATTITUDE. The term is mostly used in psychology ta yet many consider a lawyer to be an attorney, particularly prodenote a certain disposition or preparedness to attend to certain ficient in his profession. Attorneys are licensed to practice as the objects or certain parts of objects rather than others. This is result of acts of the State legislatures, or by the rules of the one of the most important subjective conditions of attention highest court of the state. This is done ordinarily by examination (g.v.). Its influence manifests itself not only in waking life but by state or local boards, named by the court. In all States but even in sleep. A mother’s attitude is “set” for her child, and she Indiana, a preliminary education in a law school or under the dwill hear the child’s movements though deaf to other, louder rection of a practising attorney, or both, is required. In mos noises. The term is also used sometimes in a physical or physio- States a preliminary high school education is required, and ina logical sense to denote a certain condition of partial stimulation or few of the States, part or all of a college education is required, nascent excitation of nerve centres, which may help to explain the New Jersey has a later separate examination for counsellor. Atphenomena of habit (q.v.). torneys from other States may do a limited practice under comity ATTLEBORO, a city of Bristol county in south-east Massa- in most States, and similarly one may be admitted to practice im chusetts, U.S.A., 12m. N.E. of Providence. It is served by the most States if he has previously practiced for a required number New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad. The area is 28 sq. of years in another State under what is known as “comity.” In

miles. The population was 19,731 in 1920, of whom 4,723 were foreign-born; and 21,769 in 1930. The 143 manufacturing establishments, with 5,636 employés, produced goods valued at $28,506,638 in 1926, of which 58% was jewellery and silverware. Attleboro manufactures also optical goods, wrenches, tools, building paper, cotton goods and boxes, and has one of the largest dyeing and bleaching plants in the world. The jewellery industry was established here in 1780. The first settlement within the present bounds of the city was made in 1669 by John Woodcock. The name commemorates the market town of Attleborough, Norfolk, England, the home of

some of the early settlers. The town was incorporated in i694.

In 1887 it was divided by the creation of the township of North

the courts of the United States, admission is governed by par

ticular rules, the Supreme Court of the United States requiring practice of three years in a State, and admission for the same

length of time at the bar of the highest court of that State. Ia almost all States aliens are not admitted, most requiring actual

residence in the State as well as American citizenship. Womea

may practise in the United States Supreme Court, having been

given this privilege in 1879, and in substantially all of the State courts.

An attorney is an offcer of the court which admits him to prèt-

tice, and he is subject to its discipline. He is liable to his client in damages for failure to exercise ordinary care and skill, and be can bring action for the value of his services. He has a lien @

ATTORNEY-GENERAL

663

are not bound to grant what he jis client's papers, and usually on any judgment in favour of his | 18 L. J. Ch. 35) and the courts asks; they can prevent him from prosecuting a proceeding which to secure the payment of his fees. (See Bar.) simply vexatious and has no legal object. He enjoys preATTORNEY-GENERAL, in, England, the chief law || is as the representative of the Crown when he appears in rogatives which in suits icer appointed to manage all the legal affairs and at bar, change of the Crown is interested. He is appointed by letters-patent author- | the courts, such as the right to reply, trial

PETITION OF RIGHT), but it is charsing him to hold office during the sovereign’s pleasure. He is ex | venue (see PREROGATIVE, also of the British courts towards the Exe -, the leader of the bar. Although we do not meet with the| acteristic of the independenc

oficio

: i opinion has no more force than the ytle oitornatus regis until 1253, we may be sure that the office | ecutive that a Jaw officer's opinion of any other counsel. that Bracton bad already been long in existence. We are told by

Just as a public wrong, affecting no one in particular, can only be restrained at the instance of the attorney-general, so a public be may serjeants king’s These name. of the Crown in his the performance of which affects no one in particular, can duty, | yentified with the attornats regis, the number of whom varied enforced at the instance of the attorney-general, who in be aponly was Husee William 1472, in y, ‘om time to time. Eventuall is the proper party to apply for a writ of mandamus. cases depsuch appoint attorney-general of England with power to

the king had his serjeants-at-law in every county to prosecute

pointed

criminal information, opposed as they are to the nties to act for him in any court of record. Henceforth the office | Proceedings by t. are reserved for cases of

and in the usual criminal procedure of indictmen x held singly. He has precedence in all the courts, of suit te thea priva as at by regar foreinitia therethe tivededis taken c impor evenarewhen publiattor eneral,and ney-gtance ate, s even advoceding | the lord affectin- | the pal aks of most proce dence all The prece to ” has party rmer. he sary “info Lords neces or of a is House He tor” ie, a “rela Scottish appeals. and the solicitor-general | individual, ng the Crown. The attorney-general publication of a seditious (g.v.) are always members of the House of Commons (except for example of such proceedings is the himself files an ex officio neral attorney-ge the case a such in libel; | Ministry, the of and seat) a temporary difficulties in obtaining of a public charcharities of case the in also, So . information in power, and their advice is at the being selected from the Party

disposal of the Government, and of each department of the Gov-

acter, the attorney-general represents all the persons who are

cabinet and been made a privy councillor. The Crown has also as

the nominal defendant, but one or other of the law officers repre-

and they are thus plaintiffs through him. emment, while in the House of Commons they defend the legality |an object of the charity, by or against the Crown the attorneyproceedings civil In all of ministerial action if it is called in question. Prior to 1895 no the solicitor-general, is the proper legal representative restriction was placed on the private practice of the law officers, general, or in court. In actions for the recovery of any debt Crown the of the Wt since that date this privilege has been withdrawn, and whether by way of penalty or of tax, the atCrown, the to due such with year a £7,000 at fixed neral attorney-ge the slary of by information of debt. In proceedings proceeds ral torney-gene the of behalf on fees as he may receive for litigious business or RicHT) the Crown itself is PETITION (see Crown the Crown. During recent administrations he has had a seat in the against , although it rests nominally with the Home a legal adviser an attorney-general in Northern Ireland. In Scot- | sents it. Furthermore Petition of Right Act, to decide whether the land he is called lord advocate (g.v.). There are attorneys-general Secretary, under to sue the Crown, in practice the allowed be shall suppliant a | an also is There for the duchies of Cornwall and Lancaster. the petition to the attorney-general refers always Secretary Home | attomey-general or his equivalent in almost all the British col(“fiat”) shall be granted, and leave his whether decision his for | officer same the of those to similar onies, and his duties are very be questioned by the supcannot and absolute is discretion this | the by in England. In the self-governing colonies he is appointed the Crown are, of course, of interests the cases such administration of the colony, and in the Crown colonies by royal pliant. In indirectly concerned, the only are they Where concerned. directly . warrant under the signet and sign-manual made a defendant in be, must and is, himself neral attorney-ge The functions of the attorney-general are to-day of great conof the Crown may be protected. In a interests the that order casting statutes, recent of number a and stitutional importance considerable constitutional importance (Esquimautt upon him new duties, have invested his office with a continually recent case of 1925, A.C. 358) the power of the courts to Wilson, v. mcreasing responsibility. He is not only the legal representative | Railway neral being joined as a defendant was attorney-ge the on insist of guardian or patriae parens the of the Crown in the courts but namely the right of a subject, when ground, wider on based public interests. In English law “the public” as a juristic concepto claim that the attorney-general be action, an such tion does not exist, the Government of the country is not a cor- plaintiff in was a natural sequel to the great decision This party. a made | and , expression poration, the term “State” is merely a political 1911, 1 K. B., 410, where General, Attorneythe v. Dyson of case | even the term “Crown” is only a convenient impersonal exExchequer precedents, that 4 ancient following held, courts the are general in public the of rights pression for the king. The the attorney-general, as representative of the therefore protected by the attorney-general as the representative | subject might sue an action for a declaration as to the subject’s in ofthe king in whom the “public” rights are vested. The result Crown, directly oF RIGHT). PETITION (see rights public the of injury the to is that whenever acts are done tending To enumerate all the cases—such as peerage claims, lunacy in general, and to the injury of no one in particular, the only legitimacy declarations—in which the attorney-genperson who can set the law in motion is the attorney-general. If | proceedings, be a party would be beyond the limits of this must or may eral | so do only can he wrong, a plaintiff wishes to put in suit a public to say that in all such cases the explanation enough is It article. at the instance of the attorney-general. Our law here goes on the the same: the Crown is regarded as an interis on participati his of | business” nobody’s is business s principle that “what is everybody’ party. ested | can —it is the business only of the attorney-general. A plaintiff Of late years duties of great public importance have been cast oly sue by himself in respect of a public tort ‘where the interthe attorney-general by statute. The most recent example, upon | is, his of tight private some ference with the public is such that some ways the most important, is tthe Trade Disputes and in atthe same time, interfered with, ¢.g., where the obstruction of a and Act of 1927, by s. 7 of which the attorney-general Unions Trade | premises of owner the that highway by a local authority is such to apply for an injunction to restrain the applicaempowered is abutting upon the highway is specially affected by the interference at §section of the of that raver union funds in contravention with his private right of access. But so far as the public is tion of trade illegal. This, in effect, is to strike” “general a declares which act | only can wrong the wronged by such obstruction of the highway, such a enable the attorney-general to interfere in such a case for the pro-

be redressed at the instance of the attorney-general who in case would apply for an injunction. The attorney-general has an

absolute discretion as to whether he will intervene or not (see

LC.C. v. Attorney-General, 1902, A.C. 165, which may be re-

tection of the State. Certain Acts—such as the Official Secrets

Act of r911

(see SecreT)—provide

that no prosecution for

offences thereunder shall be initiated except by or with the

of the attorney-general. Such provisions may be regarded garded as the leading case on the subject). On the other hand, | consent ng i the shield of the attorney-general lbetween the subject interposi much as the attorney-general, once he intervenes, is just as and persons against whom they might institute authorities police Prosser v. (R. suitor other every as courts to the control of the

ATTORNEY-GENERAL

664

proceedings. and it is regrettable that the protection thus afforded | staffs who are not officers or employés of the Department of J by the Act of 1911 has been cut down by the Official Secrets Act | tice and who, in the performance of their duties within = of 1920 which only requires the consent of the attorney-general respective departments, are not under the direction of the attorney to proceedings in cases under the Act where they are dealt with general. In the language of the U.S. Supreme Court he “has “summarily,” in other words without a jury. The consent of the charge of the institution and conduct of the pleas of the United attorney-general is also required before an appellant whose con- States and of the litigation which is necessary to establish the viction and sentence has been affirmed by the court of criminal rights of the Government.” The duties of the attomey-genera} appeal (g.v.) can appeal further to the House of Lords, and such are primarily those of a lawyer, but as head of the department consent will only be granted where some important point of law much of his time and energy must now be devoted to administra. is involved. Here also the attorney-general has an absolute dis- tion. The personnel of his immediate staff at the seat of Gover. ment numbers between joo and 800. His chief assistant jg the cretion in the grant, or refusal, of his certificate. The office of attorney-general is therefore unique in character. solicitor-general, who by law exercises the powers of the attorney. He is a minister of the Crown but he also exercises, particularly general in the latter’s absence and to whom is assigned charge oj in the consideration of Petitions of Right, a judicial discretion. the Government's litigation in the Supreme Court, being abou He is the representative of the interests of the Crown and at the one-third of the entire business of that court. The solicitor-genera! same time the guardian of the rights of the public, and the two also decides whether review in the higher courts shall be may not always coincide. It is easy to conceive a conflict of in cases which the Government has lost in courts below. This duty duties and on this ground it has been contended that the recent of passing upon questions of appeal and therein seeing to it that innovation of giving him cabinet rank is a bad one as calculated the Government’s interests are protected, and all reasonable effort to impair his independence as the guardian of the public rights. made to procure a correct construction of the law, at the same See Holdsworth, Hist. Eng. Law vi. 457; J. H. Morgan, “Remedies time avoiding imposing unwarranted burdens upon the appellate v. the Crown”; Bellot, “The Origin of the Attorney-General,” Law courts and unnecessary expense to litigants, is one of grave responQuarterly Review xxviii. p. 400. There is an admirable exposition of sibility, calling for the exercise of sound, discriminating judgment, the attorney-general’s duties by Sir Douglas Hogg, now Lord Hailsham, in Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates

(Commons)

cols. 427~434.

vol. 207 ob 75)

(J.

O.

UNITED STATES The attorney-general of the United States is the chief law officer of the Government and head of the Department of Justice, one of the executive departments. He is appointed by the president, and, like the heads of the other executive departments, Is a member of the cabinet. Since 1886, in case of death, resignation, removal or disability of both the president and the vice-president, he is in line of succession to the Presidency, after the secretary of State, secretary of the Treasury and secretary of War. The office of attorney-general has existed since 1789, when the Government, under the Constitution, was organized. It was created by the Judiciary Act of 1789. That Act divided the United States into 13 judicial districts, established courts therein, defined their jurisdiction, and also the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. It provided that in each district there should be an attorney for the United States, who should have charge of civil and criminal actions In his district, and finally that there should be appointed an attorney-general of the United States who was to be “a meet person learned in the law,” whose duty it should be to represent the United States in the Supreme Court and who should be the legal adviser of the president and of the heads of the departments “touching any matters that may concern their Departments.” The attorney-general, under that act, was not an executive officer of

the Government. His duties, as defined by the statute, made him merely an adviser of the executive branch and an advocate in the Supreme Court, and the measure of his compensation, $1,500 a year, was based upon the belief that his duties would take but little of his time, leaving him free to enjoy the professional emoluments which it was thought the prestige of his position would bring him. Until about the year 1814, the attorney-general did not reside at the seat of Government. In that year, Attorney-General Pinckney, one of the great lawyers of his day, resigned because

President Madison insisted that he take up his residence in Washington. From the beginning, however, the office was regarded as one of great dignity and importance, and with the growth of the United States and the development of its governmental functions statutes were enacted from time to time which increased its duties and responsibilities, and gradually brought it to a parity with the heads of the executive departments. In 1870 it was organized by law as the Department of Justice. The Department of Justice is an executive department and the attorney-general as its head has plenary control over the Jaw business of the Government, all its other law officers being responsible to him, though some of the bureaux and commissions, such as the Bureau of Internal Revenue, the Federal Trade Commission and the Interstate Commerce Commission have lawyers on their

There are an assistant to the attorney-general and seven

assistant attorneys-general, among whom supervision of the work of the department is apportioned; one assistant, in charge of cases

arising under the customs laws, has his office in the city of New York. There are several departmental solicitors who, as members of the attorney-general’s staff, deal with legal matters arising in their respective departments. The office of each of the 91 US attorneys is, in effect, a branch of the attorney-general’s office. Through the superintendent of prisons he exercises general management of all Federal prisons and prisoners. The number of

such prisoners in Federal and State prisons in 1928 was about 16,000.

The judicial districts have increased from the original 13 to 91 with 91 U.S. district courts and 136 U.S. district judges. There are nine judicial circuits with nine circuit courts of appeals and 34 U.S. circuit Judges. There is a court of general jurisdiction and a court of appeals in the District of Columbia. In 1855 there was established a court of claims, a tribunal in which claims against the United States could be judicially heard and determined. It would not be within the scope of this article to set forth this jurisdiction in detail, but it may be said to include all causes of action based upon contract, express or implied, with the Government. Asa

result of the World War the number of cases of this kind has greatly increased and one of the heavy duties of the attorney-gen-

eral and his staff is the defence of these suits. At the present time there are pending in that court over 2,200 suits involving claims against the Government in amount exceeding $1,800,000,000. At the close of the last fiscal year there were pending in the district courts over 16,000 civil suits in which the U.S. Government was directly interested and more than 35,000 criminal prosecutions, although during that year more than 19,000 civil suits and 67,000 criminal cases had been terminated. | The administrative control and supervision of the offices of US. marshals, and in some respects, of the offices of clerks of US. courts, is in the attorney-general. The entire personnel of the Department of Justice is about 5,100. All petitions to the president for pardon, commutation of sentence, or other form of executive

clemency are investigated by an official of the department called

the pardon attorney and the facts relating to each application are ascertained for the guidance of the attorney-general in making bis recommendation to the president. About 1,200 petitions of this

kind are considered each year. All petitions of Federal prisoners for release on parole are considered and approved or disappro by the attorney-general. About 4,300 applications of this kind are considered each year. The attorney-general also makes recommen

dations to the president respecting appointments to all F ederal judicial positions including the U.S. Supreme Court. As already pointed out, from the beginning the attorney-gene

has been the legal adviser of the president and of the heads of the

665

ATTORNMENT—AUBE

| Atwood’s most important works are: Treatise on the Rectilinear utive departments with respect to the questions arising in the Motion and Rotation of Bodies (1784), which describes the machine, to pursuant years many For „ministration of their departments. since called by Atwood's name, for verilying experimentally the laws gatute his formal opinions have been published from time to time of simple acceleration of motion and Dissertation on the Consiruction in book-form, and are now contained in 34 volumes. They are and Properties of Arches (1801-04). bnding upon and control the action of the executive officers of the Government, are frequently cited by the courts, and regarded 35 of high authority. Prepared under statutory sanction by the chief law officer of the Government for the guidance of the heads

ATWOOD, WALLACE WALTER

(1872-

), Ameri-

can geographer and geologist, was born in Chicago, Tl., on Oct. 1, 1872. He graduated in 1897 and received the degree of doctor of philosophy in 1903 from the University of Chicago, in which of departments charged with the administration of the statutes from 1903 to 1913 he was successively instructor, assistant profesmacted by Congress, they have the status of important State sor, associate professor and professor of physiography and genrs entitled to the highest respect upon all questions of the eral geology. He was professor of physiography at Harvard university from 1913 until 1920 when he became president of Clark ers and duties of the executive branch of the Government. There is also under each State Government an officer usually university. In 1901-09 he was assistant geologist with the Lis: alied the attorney-general, whose relation to the Government of Geological Survey and in rgo4 became geologist of the TUinois bis State is similar to that of the U.S. attorney-general to the Geological Survey. He made extensive field researches in strucFederal Government. He is usually elected by the people at the tural and economic geology, notably on the coal resources of same time and for the same term as the governor. For an accurate Alaska. He also made studies of glaciation, especially in the description of the duties of the attorney-general of any particular Rocky mountains, and of the physical geography of various parts Sate an examination of the Constitution and laws of that State of the United States. In 1925 he founded and became editor of (J.G.S.) Economic Geology. ignecessary. Besides numerous scientific and educational papers, he published ATTORNMENT, in English real property law, the acknowlland. Geography of the Devils Lake Region (1899), Physical on of Physical alienati the on tenant the by lord new a ent of of the Evanston-Waukegan Region of Illinois (1908), Geography nunreaso red conside Under the feudal system, it was always of Topographical Maps (1908), Glaciation of the Uinta Interpretation able to the tenant to subject him to a new lord without his own and Wasatch Mountains (1909). Mineral Resources of South-western approval, and it thus came about that alienation could not take Alaska (1910), Geology and Mineral Resources of the Alaska Peninplace without the consent of the tenant. Attornment was also sula (1911) and New Geography, Book II. (1920). ATYPICAL CHILDREN. Atypical means irregular, or not extended to all cases of lessees for life or for years. The necessity for attornment was abolished by an act of 1705 (see now Ss. I51 conformable to type. Applied to children, it usually indicates from of the Law of Property Act 1925). The term is now used to those who are below normal mentally, or who are suffering MENTAL (See mind. ship the of relation conditions the e of abnormal less existenc or the nt more of ledgme indicate an acknow , of landlord and tenant. An attornment-clause, in mortgages, is Dericiency.) “Atypical schools” are maintained in Washington No class. this of ee, children for mortgag cities, the to American tenant other and attorns or D.C., mortgag the whereby a chuse The thus giving the mortgagee the nght to distrain, as an additional attempt is made to maintain the ordinary school curriculum. atypical children are taught as individual peculiarities require. security. They are not able, usually, to profit by any considerable ATTRIBUTES: see CATEGORY; SPINOZA; SUBSTANCE. ATTRITION, a rubbing away; a term used in pathology and amount of mental training, but frequently receive much benefit geology (Lat. attritio, from attero, “rub away”). Theologians from various sorts of manual training, rug and basket weaving have also distinguished “attrition” from “contrition” in the matter and other types of physical work. AUBADE (a French word from aube, the dawn), the dawnof sin, as an imperfect stage in the process of repentance; atconsin, of es consequenc of the troubadours of Provence, developed by the Minnethe of song fear servile to due trition being singers (q.v.) of Germany into the Tagelied, the song of the parttrition to filial fear of God and hatred of sin for His sake. watchman, and now ATTWOOD, THOMAS (1765-1838), English composer, ing at dawn of lovers at the warning oft the“serenade, ” to musical counterpar its with y in analogousl Mozart of applied, pupil a and was a chorister of the Chapel Royal In France the term is Vienna. In 1796 he became organist of St. Paul’s. One or two compositions in general of a suitable type. band in the early of his songs, such as “The Soldier’s Dream,” and of his glees such applied also to the performance of a military person. ed distinguish some of honour in that morning as “In peace love tunes the shepherd’s reed” and “To all AUBAGNE, a town of south-eastern France, in the departbreathe the air of Heaven,” are still occasionally heard. repolitical of Bouches-du-Rhône, rım. E. of Marseille. Pop. (1926), ment English 6), (1783-185 ATTWOOD, THOMAS and reaches the former, was born at Halesowen, Worcestershire, Oct. 6 1783. He 6,850. The railway to Toulon here turns south Earthenware ridge. transverse a under tunnels two Union, through ‘Political coast the of 1830, Jan. in founders, the of was one commemfountain A cultivated. are vines and fruit his and Under made is franchise. formed to agitate for a reform of the y (d. 1830). leadership vast crowds of working men met periodically in the orates the statesman Abbé Barthélem AUBE, department, France, south-east of Paris, including the neighbourhood of Birmingham to demonstrate in favour of reof the Jurassic form of the franchise, and Attwood used his power to prevent courses of the Seine and Aube from near the edge Seine, Yonne Aube, which in lowland the to d’Or Reform Céte of the of rocks passing the After agitation. of illegal methods frontier zone, old an largely is boundary north Its new the unite. for Loing members and the of act in 1832 he was elected one e.g., between Remi and Senones of early Gallo-Roman times, borough of Birmingham, for which he sat till 1839. between In the House of Commons he was persistent in advocating between the archbishoprics of Sens and Reims, main two The Capet. Hugh of days the till rectiBurgundy be and France his monetary theory, that the existing currency should the Champagne Poutlfied in favour of State-regulated and inconvertible paper money rivers traverse the Champagne Humide and departand the adoption of a system for altering the standard of value as leuse, the clay and the chalk, in succession. Much of the ns near the prices fluctuated. He retired from Parliament in 1837, and died ment is a sterile and monctonous plain with habitatio Sommes or springs coming from the chalk, but a large outlier of at Great Malvern, March 6 1856. covering the chalk in the south-west, the Forét His grandson, C. M. Wakefield, wrote his life “for private circula- Tertiary rocks Jurassic rocks tion” (there is a copy in the British Museum), and his economic d’Othe, is shared between Aube and Yonne. On the theories are set forth in a little book, Gemini, by T. B. Wright and in the south-east a height of 1,200ft. is reached and thence the J. Harlow, published in 1844. general slope is down to the north-west. As an unforested region of early times it seems to have had some prehistoric importance, imathemat English ATWOOD, GEORGE (1746-1807), as the unforested lowland north-east of the highland ways cian, was educated at Westminster school and Trinity college, and Côte d’Or to Paris it was long a traders’ route and had through custhe in office an Pitt William from received He Cambridge. n in the

The transitio toms which was practically a sinecure and left him leisure for his great fairs at Troyes and Arcis-sur-Aube. north-west from chalk to Tertiary deposits gives a broken surstudies. He was the inventor of Atwood’s machine.

AUBENAS—AUBIGNE

666

face. The climate is fairly mild and the rainfall mostly between | AUBERVILLIERS, town of northern France, in the 1 Une de. 600 and 7oo mm. per annum, but greater along the edge of the ' partment of Seine, on the canal St. Denis, 2m. from the Tight bank highland in the south-east, where porous Jurassic rocks give slopes ! of the Seine and 1m. north of the fortifications of Paris. p useful for the vine. The river zones have good natural pasture (1926) 47,881. It manufactures cardboard, colours. chemi and are famed for cattle and cheese, helped by good forage crops. products, perfumery, etc. During the middle ages and till m The capital of the department is Troyes, and that city, Bar-sur- times Aubervilliers was the resort of numerous pilgrims to Notr Aube, and Nogent-sur-Seine give their names to arrondissements.

The department is in the military circumscription of the A Ath Army Corps, its courts refer to the Court of Appeal at Paris, its educational area (académie) is that of Dijon. The archbishopric of Sens includes a bishopric of Troyes, and that cathedral’s famed collection of painted (16th century) glass is the crowning example

of a remarkable feature of the churches of the department. Within the department is the historic abbey of Clairvaux.

AUBENAS, south-east France, department of Ardéche, 19m. S.W. of Privas by road. Pop. (1926) 4,177. Situated on the slope of a hill, on the right bank of the Ardéche, its streets are crooked and narrow. It has a castle of the 13th and 16th centuries. Institutions include a tribunal and chamber of commerce, and a conditioning-house for silk. Iron and coal mines are worked in the vicinity. Aubenas is an important silk depôt and has a large silk-spinning and weaving industry. The district is rich in plantations of mulberries and olives. AUBER, DANIEL FRANCOIS ESPRIT (1782-1871), French musical composer, the son of a Paris printseller, was born at Caen in Normandy. He learnt to play at an early age on several instruments, his first teacher being the Tirolean composer, I. A. Ladurer. Eventually he studied under Cherubini, and in 1813 made his début as a composer with a one-act opera, the Séjour militaire, which was a failure. In 1822 began his long association with A. E. Scribe, who shared with him, as librettist, the success and growing popularity of his compositions. The opera Leicester, in which they first worked together (1823) showed evidences of the influence of Rossini. But in general his style was wholly individual being marked by all the lightness and facility, sparkling vivacity, grace, elegance, and clear and piquant melody characteristic of the French School. La Muetie de Portici familiarly known as Masaniello (1828), became a European favourite, and its overture, songs and choruses were everywhere heard. The duet, “Amour sacré de la patrie,” was welcomed like a new ‘“‘Marseillaise,” and sung by Nourrit at Brussels in 1830, it became the signal for the revolution. Of Auber’s remaining operas (about so in

all) the more important are: Le Macon (1825), La Fiancée (1829), Fra Diavolo (1830), Lestocg (1834), Le Cheval de bronze (1835), L’Ambassadrice (1836), Le Domino noir (1837), Le Lac des fées (1839), Les Diamants de la couronne (1841), Haydée (1847), Marco Spada (1853), Manon Lescaut (1856), and La Francée du roi des Garbes (1864). In 1829 Auber was elected member of the Institute, in 1830 he was named director of the court concerts, and in 1842, at the wish of Louis Phillippe, he succeeded Cherubini as director at the Con-

servatoire. Napoleon III. made Auber his Imperial Maitre de Chapelle in 1857. Auber’s attractive manners, his witty sayings, and his ever-ready kindness won for him a secure place in the re-

spect and love of his fellow-citizens. He remained in his old home

during the German siege of Paris, 1870~71, but the miseries of the Commune profoundly affected him and probably hastened his death. BreriocrapHy.—Adolph Kohut, Auber, vol. xvii. of Musiker Biographien (1895); Charles Malherbe, Auber; Lionel Dauriac, La Psychologie dans Vopéra francaise.

AUBERGINE

or EGG PLANT

Dame des Vertus. AUBIGNAC, FRANCOIS HEDELIN > ABBE D’ (1 1676), French author, was born in Paris. His father practised

at the Paris bar, and his mother was a daughter of the surgeon Ambroise Paré. François Hédelin took holy orders Wag appointed tutor to one of Richelieu’s nephews, and received through his pupil’s influence the abbeys of Aubignac and of Mainac. In 1646 he retired to Nemours, occupying himself with literature till his death. He took an energetic share in the literary controversies of his time. Against Gilles Ménage he wrote a Térence justifié (1656); he laid claim to having ors.

inated the idea of the “Carte de tendre” of Mlle. de Scudéys Cléle ; and after being a professed admirer of Corneille he turned

against him because he had neglected to mention the abbé in his Discours sur le poème dramatique. He was the author of four mediocre tragedies: La Cyminde (1642), La Pucelle d'Orléans

(1642), Zénobie

(1647) and Le Martyre de Sainte Catherine

(1650). Zénobie was written with the intention of affording a

model in which the strict rules of the drama, as understood by the theorists, were observed. In the choice of subjects for his

plays, he seems to have been guided by a desire to illustrate the

various kinds of tragedy—patriotic, antique and religious. It js as a theorist that d’Aubignac still arrests attention. Jean Chape-

lain was the first to establish the convention of the unities that plays so large a part in the history of the French stage; but the laws of dramatic method and construction generally were codified

by d’Aubignac in his Pratique du thédire.

The book was only

published in 1657, but had been begun at the desire of Richeliey as early as 1640. His Conjectures académiques sur I’Thade d'Homère, published nearly forty years after his death, threw doubts on the existence of Homer, and anticipated to some extent the conclusions of Friedrich August Wolf in his Prolegomena ed Homerum (1795). BrariocrapHy.—See G. Saintsbury, Hist. of Criticism, bk. v., and H. Rigault, Hist. de la querelle des anciens et modernes (1859), The contents of the Pratique du Théétre are summarized by F. Brimetiére in his notice of Aubignac in the Grande Encyclopédie.

AUBIGNE, CONSTANT

D’ (Baron pe Surmweay) (e.

1584-1647), French adventurer, was the son of Théodore Agrippa d’Aubigné, and the father of Madame de Maintenon, Bom Protestant, he became in turn Catholic or Protestant as it suited his interests. He betrayed the Protestants in 1626, revealing to the court, after a voyage to England, the projects of the English upon La Rochelle, He was renounced by his father; then im prisoned by Richelieu’s orders at Niort, where he was detained ‘ten years. After having tried his fortunes in the Antilles, he died in Provence. He had two children, Charles, father of the duchess of Noailles, and Francoise, known in history as Madame de Maintenon. See T. Lavallée, La Famille d’Aubigné et Venfance de Madame de Maintenon (Paris, 1863).

AUBIGNE, JEAN HENRI MERLE D? (1794-1872), Swiss Protestant divine and historian of the Reformation, was born on Aug. 6, 1794, at Eaux Vives, Geneva. The ancestors of his father, Aimé

Robert

Merle

d'Aubigné

(1755—1799), were

(Solanum Melongena), a French Protestant refugees. Educated in Germany, he was paster

tender annual widely cultivated in the warmer parts of the earth, of the French Protestant Church in Hamburg for some years, and in France and Italy, for the sake of its fruits, which are eaten and in 1823 a pastor in Brussels. He was at this time president as a vegetable (diminutive of Fr. auberge, a variant of alberge, a of the consistory of French Protestant Churches, and subsekind of peach). The seed should be sown early in February in quently professor of Church history in a Swiss institution maia warm pit, where the plants are grown till shifted into 8in. or tained by the Evangelical Alliance. He died in Switzerland in 1872. His principal works are:—Discours sur Vétude de Vinstows de roin. pots, in well-manured soil. Liquid manure should be given occasionally while the fruit is swelling; about four fruits are nor- Christianisme (Geneva, 1832); Le Luthéranisme et la Réforme mal to one plant. The fruit of the ordinary form almost exactly (Paris, 1844); Germany, England and Scotland, or Recolaciwss resembles the egg of the domestic fowl. It is also grown as an of a Swiss Pastor (London, 1848); Trois siédes de lutte en Ecosse, ornamental plant, for covering walls or trellises. | ou deux rois et deux royaumes (1850); Le Protecteur ou lar

667

AUBIGNE—AUBURN sone

was certainly founded on information d'Angleterre aux jours de Cromwell (Paris, 1848); Le Con- |ments called in questionThis perhaps explains the estrangement

ei Vinfaillibilite (1870); Histoire de la Réformation aux | provided by Aubrey. yyrem siècle (Paris, 1835-53; new ed. 1861-62, in 5 vols.); and | between the two antiquaries and the ungrateful account that gives of the elder man's character. “He was a shiftless Histoire de la Réformation en Europe au temps de Calvin (8 vols. |Wood roving and magotie-headed, and sometimes little better person, a e b 1862-77): y credulous, would stuff his The first portion ofbis Histoire de la Réformation, which was | than crased. And being exceedingl

sent to A. W. with follies and misinformations, oted to the earlier period of the movement in Germany, was | many letters would guide him into the paths of errour.”! sometimes which | portion, second The languages. translated into most European began his “‘Perambulation” or “Survey” of Aubrey 1673 In subject a with with reform in the time of Calvin, dealt and a “History of his Native District of Surrey, of hitherto less exhaustively treated, but it did not meet with the | the county In the next year he published his only ’ Wiltshire. Northern | of time the at game success. T his part was all but completéd not his most valuable work, the certainly though , completed | are bis death. Among his minor treatises, the most important on ghosts and dreams. He stories of i n of the character and aims of Oliver Cromwell, Miscellanies, a collection the vindicatio the church of St. Mary in buried was and Oxford at died snd a sketch of the struggles in the Church of Scotland. . Magdalene ion; d, his papers sie E Aubigné had amassed a wealth of well-documented informat as- | Beside the works already mentione picture, graphic and full a cases but his desire to give in all on ecclesiastical antiquities; and “Life of and then into tectonica Sacra,” ofnotes Malmesbury,” which served as the basis of Dr. dsted by a vivid imagination, betrayed him now ns. More- Thomas Hobbes

of surveyond Wood's History fling up a narrative by inference from later conditio he is 0 often Surrey NaturalHis n’s account. Life, Rawlinso R. of atedandin also Blackburn’s incorpor was Latin ; ormers, els l the) Ref found sympathy symp l y with in hi

e were (1719); his antiquarian notes on Wiltshir of Surrey Antiquities John Aubrey, is | printed work his But the Topographical Collections of1862); e; . Wiltshir in historian l direct impartia into us of brings cain and part , sincerity , ee t of painstaking monumen corrected and enlarged by J. E. Jackson (Devizes

over, mM his profound

“The Natural History of Wiltshire” was printed by

3 spirit of the period $ contact with the

another ms. on the Wiltshire Topographical Society; the D’ (15 52-1630), | John Britton in 1847 for PA AGRIP DORE THEO NE, AUBIG 1890 for the Library of Old Authors; the in edited were s Miscellanie St. at born was time, own French poet and historian of his “Minutes for Lives” were partially edited in 1813. A complete tran2 by John Aubrey one of the script, Brief Lives chiefiy of Contemporaries set down Maury, Saintonge, the son of a Huguenot gentleman, and 1606, was edited for the Clarendon Press C Amboise. f He was SS sent, at the age of 14, to between the Years 1660Andrew conspirators of Clark from the mss. in the Bodleian time had joined the Huguenot army in n 1898 a a Rev.

Geneva, but in a year’s

y

,

t |wan, otheBh Quart ely uy 150) Se gee ofcutspoken dlanben,though Hisough manners end Habi

France. :

in the counIV. both in the field and He served Henry s .

Uxtord.

Memoir

res de lecture d'un critique

.

;

rary,

See also Jobn Britton,

of Jokn Aubrey

(1891); an

(1845);

a catalogueof

:

David

Aubrey’s

in The Life and Times of Anthony Wood .| , by Andrew 1620 he was compelled to leave France in consequence of the | collections iv. pp. 191-193), Which contains many other

0, vol. Clark (1891-100 publication of his Histoire universelle depuis 1550 jusqwa Van | references to Aubrey. and 1618, and 1616 oor. The first two volumes appeared in AUBURN, acity of north-eastern Indiana, U.S.A., on Federal the third, which was ordered to be burned by the common hang-

27, 23m. N. by E. of Ft. Wayne; the county seat of man, in 1619. The book is a lively account of the camp and highway and the centre of a great variety of manufacturcounty, DeKalb first-hand court life of the time, valuable because of the author’s is served by the Baltimore and Ohio, the Indiana It industries. knowledge of the events described. Aubigné found a secure ing the New York Central and the Pennsylvania on, Corporati Service life. his of retreat at Geneva for the last ten years n in 1920 was 4,650 and 5,088 in 1930. populatio ‘Lhe railways. BrstrocrapHy.—A complete edition of Aubigné’s works according to as the county

about 1800 and was selected the original mss. was begun by E. Réaume and F. de Caussade (1879). |Auburn was settled

12.836N, duerot deTetra |SeteAUBUR l tainsalltheliterary works, theApenas

SEL r is byA.deRuble. The M imois were edited by L. Lalanne

(1854). AUBIN, a town of southern France, in the department of Aveyron on the Enne, 30 m. N.W. of Rodez. Pop. (1921) 9,740.

Aubin is the centre of important coal-mines worked in the middle ages, and also has iron-mines and marble quarries. Sheep-breeding is important in the vicinity.

city in the south-west part of Maine, U.S.A., on

a the Androscoggin river, opposite Lewiston, 32m. N. by E. of Portland; the shire-town of Androscoggin county. It is served by the Grand Trunk and the Maine Central railways, and by an electric line to Portland. The population was 16,985 in 1920 (15% foreign-born white) arid was 18,571 in 1930. With its neighbouring city across the river, Auburn forms an important industrial centre, favoured by abundant water-power.

development, to provide 27,000h.p., has been comA, a genus of small plants of the family Cruci- | A hydro-electric island, four miles above the cities. Within the

AUBRETI ferae, frequently cultivated in rock-gardens. The flowers are purple, and the plants are herbaceous and of low habit of growth. They are natives of the mountainous regions of Greece, Ttaly, etc. AUBREY,

JOHN

(1626-1697),

English

antiquary,

was

horn at Easton Pierse or Percy, near Malmesbury, Wiltshire, his father being a country gentleman. In 1667 he made the acquaintance of Anthony à Wood at Oxford, and when Wood began to gather materials for his invaluable Athenae Oxonienses, Aubrey

offered to collect information for him. From time to time he forwarded memoranda to him, and in 1680 he began the “Minutes

pleted at Gulf

boundaries of Auburn there were 55 manufacturing establishments in 1927, which had an output valued at $20,418,066. Its ten shoe factories and three moccasin factories make 65,000 pairs of shoes a day. Auburn was settled in 1786; incorporated in 1842; re-chartered in 1869; and adopted a commission-manager form of government in 1927-

AUBURN,

the county-seat and the only city of Cayuga

county (N.Y.), U.S.A., 25m. S.W. of Syracuse, on an outlet of Owasco lake, which lies two miles to the south-east. It is on left He discretion. his at use to was Wood for Lives,” which the Yellowstone Trail; and is served by the Lehigh Valley and in the task of verification largely to Wood. As a hanger-on the New York Central railways. Its area is 8.4sq.m. The popugreat houses he had little time for systematic work, and he wrote lation was 36,192 in 1920; and was 36,652 in 1930 by the Federal sleeping were hosts his while the “Lives” in the early morning are foreign-born, chiefly from Italy, Poland off the effects of the dissipation of the night before. The census. About 20% and Russia. he details amusing the in lies charm of his “Minutes”

principal has to recount about his personages, and in the truthfulness that In 1692

The city occupies an undulating site, over „ooft. above sealevel, in the heart of the Finger Lakes district. The wide streets are shaded with arching elms and other beautiful trees. The fertile surrounding country produces milk, corn, oats, barley, buckwheat,

Wood was prosecuted eventually for insinuations against the judicial integrity of the earl of Clarendon. One of the two state-

“Life of Anthony & Wood written by Himself” (Athen. Oxon., ed. Bliss) .

he permits himself in face of established reputations.

he complained bitterly that Wood had destroyed 40 pages of his ms., probably because of the dangerous freedom of Aubrey’s pen.

AUBURN—AUCH

668

potatoes, hay, and fine fruits; and there are quarries of waterlime, quicklime, gypsum and sandstone along the shores of Lake Cayuga. Auburn has 20-25 wholesale houses and over 700 retail stores. The principal manufactures are cordage and twine, agricultural implements and wagons, shoes and shoe patterns and shoe racks, woollen goods, carpets and rugs, rubber stamps and inking pads, Diesel engines and oiling devices, forgings and castings, caps and hats, buttons, gramophone records and surgical instruments. Printing also is an important industry. The 88 manufacturing establishments within the city in 1927 had an output valued at $29.846.700. The assessed valuation of property in 1926 was $28,316,492.

On the summit of Fort Hill, in the south-western part of the city, is a grass-grown earthwork which was an ancient stronghold of the Cayugas; and in its centre stands a monument to the Cayuga chief Logan (b. 1725) who was an unswerving friend of the early settlers of this region. The home of William H. Seward, Lincoln’s secretary of state, still stands in the heart of the city. The Auburn theological seminary (Presbyterian), founded in 1819, has a library of 43,000 volumes. The Seymour (public) library of 33,000 volumes is housed in the beautiful Case Memorial building. The Auburn state prison, when it was built in 1816, embodied advanced ideas of prison construction, and the “Auburn System” (solitary confinement by night, combined with work in association during the day) received much attention from the penologists of Europe and America. The state prison for women is also situated here. Auburn was founded in 1793 by Capt. John L. Hardenburgh, on the site of a Cayuga village called Wasco, near the place where the Genesee Trail crossed the outlet of the lake, and at first it was called Hardenburgh Corners. In 1805 it was chosen as the county-seat, and in 1815 it was incorporated. It was chartered as a city in 1848, and since 1920 has had the commission-manager form of government.

AUBURN,

ruddy-brown; the meaning has changed from

the original one of brownish-white or light yellow (Low Lat. alburnus, whitish, light-coloured), probably through the intensification of the idea of brown caused by the early spelling “abron” or “abrown.”

AUBUSSON, 2 town of France, capital of an arrondi in the department of Creuse, on the river Creuse, 24m, S.E, a Gueret by rail. Pop. (1926) 5,860. It has celebrated manui tories of carpets, etc., employing over 2,000 workmen, the — standard of which is maintained by a national school of decorati arts, founded in 1869. The industry goes back at least as i as 1531. Beauvais tapestries and Gobelins are still made o hand-looms. From the roth to the 13th century Aubusson Was

the centre of a viscounty. It was then incorporated in the count.

ship of La Marche and shared in its fortunes. From the fam

of the old viscounts was descended Pierre d’Aubusson (g.0.)

AUCASSIN AND NICOLETTE, now considered th

most charming of all mediaeval love romances, was not popular in its own day and has survived in a single manuscript in the Biblio. thèque Nationale at Paris. The story resembles that of the far

more popular Flotre et Blanchefleur (q.v.) and, like it, was probably based on a Moorish original, though the scene is laid in Provence. Aucassin, son of the count of Beaucaire, is enamoured of a lovely slave-girl, Nicolette, daughter of the Saracen king of Carthage. To keep them apart both are imprisoned, but she escapes to the forest, where she is found by her lover. After spending three years together in the kingdom of Torelore (a name given to the barren district of Aiguesmortes), they are captured by Saracens. The ship in which Aucassin is carried off is wrecked at Beaucaire, where he is joyfully received as count, his parents being dead. The other ship brings Nicolette to Carthage, where she is recognized by her father, the king; but as he wishes her to marry a paynim lord, she escapes in the disguise of a minstrel

and makes her way to Beaucaire, where all ends happily.

Not only is Aucassin the Arabic name Alcazin or al-Kâsim, and Carthage evidently Carthagena, but the form in which the tale is told is oriental; it is a ckante-fable, told in alternating sections of prose and verse, or rather song, for the verses were w-

questionably chanted.

But, in spite of its Arabic origin and

Provençal setting, it was composed in northern France in the 12th century by a skilful but unknown poet. The unique ms. of Aucassin and Nicolette was first published by Méon in 1808. The best edition is that by F. W. Bourdillon (Manchester University Press, 1919), which includes a bibliography. The first translation, into modern French, was that by M. de Sainte-Palaye

AUBUSSON, PIERRE D’ (1423-1503), grand master of in 1752, and it has been translated into English by Andrew Lang,

the order of St. Jobn of Jerusalem, was a scion of a noble French family, and was in early life a soldier of fortune under the

Laurence Housman and many others.

emperor Sigismund.

on the Southern railway, south of Agen. Pop. (1926) 9,059. It consists of a lower and upper quarter united by several flights of steps. The streets are steep and narrow, but there is an 18th century promenade in the upper town. Three bridges cross the Gers to the suburb of Patte d’Oie. Auch (Elimberris) was the capital of a Celtiberian tribe, the Ausci, and became one of the most important cities of Reman Gaul. In the 4th century its bishopric was founded and after the destruction of Eauze it became the metropolis of Novempopulana. Till 732, Auch stood on the right bank of the Gers, but in that year the Saracen ravages drove the inhabitants to the left bank. The Benedictine abbey of St. Orrens was founded by Comi Bernard of Armagnac in the roth century. The city was the capital of Armagnac in the middle ages. Its importance may be

On his return to France he fought with

the Armagnacs against the Swiss, distinguishing himself at the battle of St. Jacob (1444). He then joined the order of the Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem, becoming grand master in 1476. The defence of Rhodes against the fleet of the sultan Mohammed II. in 1479 made Aubusson famous throughout Europe. His treacherous conduct toward Jem, brother of Mohammed’s successor, the sultan Bayezid, is a stain on Aubusson’s memory. After Jem’s defeat by his brother he took refuge at Rhodes under a safe-conduct from the grand master; Aubusson nevertheless accepted a bribe from Bayezid, and after six years’ imprisonment Jem was handed over to Pope Innocent VIII. Aubusson’s reward was a cardinal’s hat (1489), and the power to confer all benefices connected with the order without the sanction of the papacy; the order of St. John received the wealth of the suppressed orders of the Holy Sepulchre and St. Lazarus. The remaining years of his life Aubusson spent in the attempt to restore discipline and zeal in his order, and to organize a grand international crusade against the Turks. The death of Jem in 1495 had removed the most formidable weapon available against the sultan; and when in 1501 Aubusson led an expedition against Mytilene, dissensions among his motley host rendered it abortive. The old man’s last years were embittered by chagrin at ‘his failure, which was hardly compensated by his success in extirpating Judaism in Rhodes by expelling all adult Jews and forcibly baptizing their children. See P. Bouhours, Hist. de Pierre d’Aubusson (Paris, 1676; Hague, 1793; abridged ed. Bruges, 1887); G. E. Streck, Pierre d’ Aubusson, Grossmeister, etc. (1873); J. B. Bury in Cambridge Mod. Hist. vol. i, p. 85, etc. (for relations with Jem).

(L. E. S.)

AUCH, south-west France, capital of the department of Gers,

related to the use of the valley-road through a rather difficult

region of deeply-cut streams—the Plateau de Gers. During the

Religious Wars of the 16th century Auch remained Catholic, except for a short occupation in 1569 by Huguenots under Gabriel.

count of Montgomery. In the 18th century it was the capital of Gascony and the seat of a generality. Antoine Mégret d'Étigay,

intendant from 1751 to 1767, did much to improve the aty

its commerce. The most interesting part of the town is the old quarter around the Place Salinis, a spacious terrace with an ex tensive view. On its north side rises the cathedral of Sainte-Mane, built from 1489-1662. It is one of the finest Gothic buildings# south France.

The Greco-Roman

facade, however, dates from

the 17th century. The chief treasures of the cathedral are, the magnificent Renaissance stained-glass windows and the 113 chosstalls of carved oak, also of Renaissance workmanship. archbishop’s palace, an 18th century building with a Romaąpesque

AUCHMUTY—AUCKLAND all and tower (14th century), adjoins the cathedral. Little se of the abbey of St. Orrens. The ecclesiastical seminary ontains an important library with a collection of manuscripts.

preThe former palace of the intendants of Gascony is now the and a court fecture. Auch is the seat of an archbishop, a prefect, of assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce

aad a chamber of commerce. Trade is in Armagnac brandy, wine,

are the reals, poultry, and “pâté de foie.” Other industries flour-milling, and

making of hosiery, horse-rearing, brick-making,

669

left in Kabul was surprised and defeated by a native insurrection.

A series of disasters followed, as a result of which very few of the white troops reached India alive. Lord Auckland left India, recalled by Peel, in Feb. 1842, when affairs were at their worst.

He re-entered politics and was again made first lord of the Admiralty in 1846 by Lord John Russell. He died suddenly on Jan.

I, 1849. See Forbes, Tke Afghan Wars (1892); S. J. Trotter, The Earl of Auckland (1893).

AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN, ist Baron, cr. 1793 ), English statesman, was educated at Eton and at (1745-1814 AUCHMUTY, SIR SAMUEL to the bar in 1768. He eal, was born in New York, and served in the American War of Christ Church, Oxford, and was called er of the board commission (1772), State of secretary under was a into exchanged he peace Independence. At the conclusion of in connexion America North to er commission (1776), trade of against regiment going to India. He served in the campaign colonists (1778), and chief Tippoo Sahib, returning to England in 1797. Auchmuty became with the dispute with the American Ireland (1780). He resigned the chief-secretaryship adiutant-general to Sir David Baird in Egypt in 1801; he was one secretary for but next year took office as vice treasurer of Ireland 1782, in Buenos the from distinction with out came who officers few the of under the coalition ministry, resigning with the Government in Ayres expedition of 1806-07. He opposed strongly Pitt’s propositions for free In 1810 he was sent out to India as commander-in-chief in December.

(1756-1822), British gen-

Madras, and in the following year commanded the expedition to Java. The storming of the fortified position of Meester Cornelis (Aug. 28 1811), stubbornly defended by General Janssens, prac-

tically achieved the conquest of the island, and after the action

at Samarang (Sept. 8), Janssens surrendered. In 1822 Auchmuty, who had received a G.C.B. in 1815, became commander-in-chief in Ireland. He died Aug. 11 1822.

AUCHTERARDER,

police burgh, Perthshire, Scotland,

133m. S.W. of Perth by the L.M.S. Railway, on Ruthven water,

a right-hand tributary of the Earn.

Pop. (1931) 2,254.

chief manufactures are those of tartans and other woollens.

obtained a charter from the earl of Strathearn

The

It

(early 13th

century), afterwards became a royal burgh for a period, and was

represented in the Scottish parliament. Its castle, now ruinous,

was built as a hunting-lodge for Malcolm Canmore, but of the

abbey it possessed as early as the reign of Alexander IT. (11981249) no remains exist. The Norman church of St. Mungo is in

ruins. The town was almost entirely burned down by the earl of Mar in 1716 during the abortive Jacobite rising. It was here that the dispute arose which led to the disruption in the Church of Scotland in 1843. The estate of Kincardine, ım. S., gives the title of earl of Kincardine to the duke of Montrose. The castle was dismantled in 1645 by the marquis of Argyll in retaliation for the destruction of Castle Campbell in Dollar Glen south of the Ochils. The ruined castle of Tullibardine, 2m. W. of the burgh, once belonged to the Murrays of Tullibardine, ancestors of the duke of Atholl, who derives the title of marquis of Tullibardine from : the estate.

AUCHTERMUCHTY, royal and municipal burgh and mar-

ket town of Fifeshire, Scotland, about 9m. W. by S. of Cupar.

Pop. (1931), 1,253. (See also FIFESHIRE.)

trade between England and Ireland in 1785, but took office with Pitt as a member of the committee on trade and plantations, and negotiated in 1786 and 1787 Pitt's important commercial treaty with France, and agreements concerning the East India companies and Holland. In 1788 he was sent as ambassador to Spain. The same year he was sent on a mission to Holland, and represented English interests there with great zeal and prudence during the critical years of 1790 to 1793, obtaining the assistance of the Dutch fleet in 1790 on the menace of a war with Spain, signing the convention relating to the Netherlands the same year, and in 1793 attending the congress at Antwerp. He did not again hold office until 1798, when he joined Pitt’s Government as joint postmaster general. He severely criticized Pitt’s resignation in 1801, from which he had endeavoured to dissuade him, and retained office under Addington. ‘This terminated his friendship with Pitt, who excluded him from his Administration in 1804 though he increased his pension, Auckland was included in Granville’s ministry of “All the Talents” as president of the board

of trade in 1806. He held the appointments of auditor and director of Greenwich hospital, recorder of Grantham, and chancellor of the Marischal College in Aberdeen. He died on May 28 1814.

He had married in 1776 Eleanor, sister of the first Lord Minto, and had a large family. Emily Eden (1797-1869), the novelist, was one of his daughters. On the death of his son George, 2nd baron and earl of Auckland (q.v.), the barony passed to the Ist baron’s younger son Robert John (1799-1870), bishop of Bath and Wells, from whom the later barons were descended, and who was also the father of Sir Ashley Eden (1831-87), lieutenant governor of Bengal. Lord Auckland’s Journal and Correspondence (published 1861-62)

throws much light on the political history of the time. AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN, Eart or (1 784-1840) a AUCKLAND, the largest city of New Zealand, and a thriving governor-general of India, was second son of the first Baron

Auckland. He was educated at Oxford, succeeding to the peerage in 1814. He was a consistent supporter of the Whigs and was

selected by Lord Grey as president of the Board of Trade and master of the Mint in the famous Reform ministry of 1830. He occupied these two posts until Lord Grey’s retirement in 1834, when Lord Melbourne made him first lord of the Admiralty, a post which he lost on the fall of the ministry the same year. On

his return to office in 1835, Lord Melbourne sent Auckland out as governor-general to India. He devoted his attention to the improvement of native schools, to the economic development of India and especially to construction of famine relief works in the north-west; and he would no doubt have been remembered only as a painstaking and successful administrator but for his appalling

error in interfering in the affairs of Afghanistan. Yielding to

mwise advice, he proclaimed in Oct. 1838 the dethronement of

to the Afghan usurper, Dost Mohammed, and sent an expedition

Kabul under Sir John Keane, who victoriously entered the city and placed the rival Shah Shuja on the throne in Aug. 1839. For this victory he was created Lord Eden of Norwood and Earl of Auckland. But at the end of 1841 the insufficient garrison

sea-port, on the east coast of New Zealand; capital of the province of itsname. Population (1927) 202,400. It is beautifully situated at the mouth of an arm of Hauraki Gulf, the Waitemata harbour, and only 6m. from the Manukau harbour on the western coast. Auckland harbour, one of the best in New Zealand, is approached by great vessels at the lowest tides, and has large up-to-date concrete wharves. In 1926 the cargo handled totalled 1,948,079 tons. The Calliope graving dock provides ample accommodation for all kinds of shipping. Queen street, the principal thoroughfare, leads directly inland from the central wharves, and contains the majority of the public buildings. The city has a university, an art gallery and free library containing excellent pictures, and valuable mss., including a collection by Sir G. Grey, and a museum containing fine collections of Maori art. There are many magnificent parks and public reserves, covering in all 9,509 acres, although a considerable proportion of this area is outside the actual city confines. The Zoo, which occupies 29 acres, is justly famous. Of the suburbs, Newton, Parnell and Newmarket are outlying parts of

the city itself; Devonport, Birkenhead and Northcote are beautifully situated on the north shore of the harbour and are served

670

AUCKLAND

ISLANDS—AUCTION

BRIDGE

hills on bad that, when the laws were revised in 1914, the lower Value Epsom. the spade was done away with altogether, leaving it at 9, and : the popula- suits were all brought closer together—clubs 6, diam that of hearts 8, spades 9, no trumps 10. These are the values at the i any other New Zealand city, owing to the rapid settlement of the ent time. The great advantage of this scale over the old one ; magnificent dairying lands to the north and south, and to its grow- that it is possible to win the game on any call. “Five clubs” s ing popularity as a residential city. Auckland was founded as the it as effectively as “three no trumps.” “No trumps” isstill k original capital of New Zealand in 1840 by Governor Hobson, but most valuable call, but its power is not overwhelming, The scoring at auction bridge runs much higher than at ord} the seat of government was removed in 1865 to Wellington. ‘There are regular steamships to other parts of the dominion, the Pacific bridge, owing principally to the amounts scored above theline { penalties; also the bonus for winning the rubber is increased a Islands, Australia, Vancouver and Eastern ports. AUCKLAND ISLANDS, 2 group of islands in the southern 100 to 250 points. The average value of a rubber at ordinary Pacific Ocean in 50° 24’ S., 166° 7’ E., discovered in 1806 by bridge is 170 points, at auction bridge it is nearer 40o, The original laws of auction bridge were drawn up by a ig Capt. Briscoe. The islands are of volcanic origin, with fertile soil and are forest clad. They were granted to a private company committee of the Portland and Bath clubs in 1909, and ae by the British Government as a whaling station, but the estab- vised in 1914 by a special committee consisting of members of the lishment was abandoned in 1852. The islands belong politically Portland, Bath, Turf, St. James’s, Baldwin, and White's clubs, to New Zealand, which maintains there a depét of food and cloth- These laws governed the game in Britain for ten years. but after ing for shipwrecked sailors. They are uninhabited. Area of the a time, and after further experience, a demand arose for fresh revisions, and the Portland club, in 1924, drew up a new code of largest about 330sSq. miles. laws for the use of its own members. The code was accepted and memThree India. in originated this BRIDGE, AUCTION bers of the Indian civil service, Mr. F. Roe (“John Doe”), Mr. adopted by all the other clubs. In the meantime, the Americans, Hudson, and another, all keen bridge players, were staying at a far- who had adopted the English laws in toto at first, began to make away hill station, where it was quite impossible to find a fourth. alterations here and there, until, in 1925, the Whist club of New They played “Cut Throat” for a time, but they soon got tired of York, in conjunction with the Whist League of America, drew wD that, and then they set their wits to work to invent some better an entirely new code of their own. The principal difference between the two systems is in the hid. three-handed form of bridge. They tried all sorts of variations, without success, until one of them hit on the idea (probably bor- ding. In Britain, the bidding is governed by value. A bid of two rowed from Vint) of bidding for the declaration, and it caught on no trumps, counting 20 points, takes precedence of a bid of three at once. On that basis a new game was formulated, and it was, clubs, counting only 18, and a bid of four spades, counting 36, is then and there, christened “Auction Bridge.” The exact date of its higher than five diamonds counting 35. In America a bid of a birth is uncertain. The first record which we have of it is a letter greater number of tricks takes precedence of a less number, ire from the late Mr. Oswald Crawfurd, which appeared in the Times spective of the value. Thus, three clubs is higher than two no

by steam ferries; other residential suburbs lie among the the mainland, such as Mount Albert, Mount Eden and Onehunga is a port on the Manukau harbour. Auckland's tion increase has been greater in ratio in recent years than

of Jan. 16, 1903. This letter gave a brief outline of the game, and described it as “the new game of Auction Bridge for three players.” Mr. Crawfurd had just returned from India, and had, no doubt, seen the game played in that country. The next thing that happened was the publication of a short treatise by “John Doe,” entitled “Auction Bridge,” which was published by the Pioneer Press at Allahabad in 1904. The game was still confined to three players, but it had grown considerably. A further, and much fuller, description of it appeared in the Daily Mail of April 24, 1906, again by Mr. Oswald Crawfurd who seems to have been the real pioneer of the game in Britain, but it was the card-playing members of the Bath club who converted it from

a three-handed game into a four-handed one, and who put it on a sound basis. The Bath club was the original home of the game in Britain, and for some considerable time it spread no further. Then, in 1907, the Portland club took it up, and after that its circle widened very rapidly, so much so that in about a year’s time ordinary bridge was a thing of the past. Whist still clung on, and still does in some few places, but straight bridge is practically dead.

Auction bridge is played on the same lines as ordinary bridge with one or two important variations. The point where auction bridge diverges most widely from its parent game is in the declaration, which is no longer confined to the dealer and his partner, but every player in turn has the right of making a declaration, or as it is now termed “a bid,” by overcalling any previous bid which has been made. Another notable point of difference is that when the declarer fails to fulfil his contract, his adversaries do not score below the line as at ordinary bridge, but they score a penalty of 50 points, or 100 if doubled, above the line for each under-trick, whatever the call may have been. Under no circumstances can the adversaries of the declarer score anything towards game. Doubling may take place as in straight bridge, but no bid that has been redoubled may again be doubled. When auction bridge was first introduced the old bridge values were used, but it was soon recognized that the game was spoilt by the overwhelming value of the no trump call. The Americans introduced a variation by inventing a new suit, “Royal Spades,” or “Royals,” which gave spades an alternative value of 2 or 9 per

trick. This was tried in Britain for a while, but it was so obviously

trumps, and five diamonds beats four spades. This American system is known as “Majority calling.” It is adopted almost universally on the Continent, and some British players were so strongly in favour of it that in the summer of 1927 a conference of representatives of all the principal card-playing clubs in London was called together to consider it. Such a wide difference of opinion was expressed, that, in order to ascertain the general feeling in the country, all British bridge players, both in London and in the provinces, were asked to give the majority calling four months’ trial and to report to the conference at the end of that period. The conference met again on Nov. 7, 1927, the clubs rep-

resented being Almack’s, Baldwin, Bath, Carlton, Conservative, Devonshire, National Liberal, Portland, St. James’s, St. Stephen's, Turf, and White’s. The reports received were fairly evenly divided. In London clubs there was a strong feeling against making any

change, but a small balance of country clubs were in favour of

majority calling. As there was no strong mandate for any change, the conference decided by 9 votes to 3, voting by clubs, to retain

our old system of value calling in the revised laws, but to describe the principles of majority calling in an appendix, so that anyone

who liked could use it. The card committee of the Portland cub had in the meantime carefully revised the laws, which were submitted to the conference, and passed with a few minor alterations, and they became law on March 1, 1928. Apart from questions of law, auction bridge has been considerably influenced by American principles and American conventions.

British players, as a rule, like a plain straightforward game, with as few conventions as possible. Americans, on the contrary, love conventions and are constantly inventing new ones, some of which

have found their way to England. The most notable one is the “Informatory Double.” When a player doubles an adverse bid of one no trump, his partner is bound to take the double out by bidding “Two” of his best suit, however, weak it may be,giving preference to the major suits over the minor ones. In the same way, if

a player doubles a suit bid of “One” or “Two,” it does not meat that he is strong in that suit, but just the opposite; it means that he is strong in the other three suits, but too weak in the suit declared to bid no trumps. His partner must make a bid in his owt best suit, or bid no trumps if he has the declared suit stopped twice.

AUCTION BRIDGE

671

is convention met with strong opposition for many years in meaning, in this instance, the United States and Canada—is a

England, but it gradually crept in, and in 1925 became general. , record of European

importations

and domestic modifications.

directly from France; On the completion of the deal, the dealer has first call. He; “Contract” appears to have been derived original place of birth, un-

caneither pass OFmake abid of some kind. If he elects to pass it | but the other three, whatever their is better to Say, NO bid” than “Pass,” as the latter call is apt to |doubtedly came to America from England. To-day (1928) auction widely played and pe mistaken for Hearts. Then each player in turn, commencing | bridge is the prevailing game, with contract and bridge is virtually abandoned, with the one on the dealer’s left, can either pass or can overcall | growing rapidly in popularity; the annual sessions of the Amerat enthusiastically played whist | or adversaries the by either made been has that bid any previous

by his own partner. When a bid has been passed by three players | ican Whist League, but rarely elsewhere. it becomes the declaration, and the player who made it, or in the | The Whist Club (New York) promulgated the first American

ease of the same suit having been bid by both partners, the player | code of auction bridge laws in 1910; these laws were immediately has who made the first ofsuch bids, plays the combined hands, and is| adopted by all American players and since then that club

termed “the declarer,” his partner becoming “dummy.”

been recognized as the supreme legislative authority for auction

When the declarer fulfils his contract, he scores, below the line, | bridge in America.

The 1910 code was amended in IgIt, and

of the value of as many odd tricks as he makes. When he fails to ful- | revised and rewritten in 1912. In 1911, the Racquet Club per points 6 of count the use own its for adopted Philadelphia | if 10o or line, the al his contract his adversaries score 50 above 9 for “royal” doubled, for every under-trick. Honours are scored above the| trick for the club suit, 7 for diamonds, 8 for hearts,

of 2 being retained for lineby either side which holds them. A game consists of 30 points | spades and 10 for no trump; the count change from the old first the was This defensively. used spades | side either When line. scored by tricks alone, that is, below the haswon two games, the total scores are added up, including scores | bridge count of 12 for no trump, 8 for hearts, 6 for diamonds, 4

adopted for tricks, honours, and penalties, and the difference between the| for clubs and 2 for spades. Early in 1912 the Whist Club embodied 1912, Nov. in and play, club for count Club Racquet the two scores is the amount won and lost. The principle of bidding has undergone a considerable change | that count in its official code. In 1913 the American code was entirely rewritten. This code since auction bridge was first introduced. In the early days players for dummy and refollowed the lines of ordinary bridge and made their bids on nu- | eliminated chicane, created new privileges

In 1915 another new merical strength without top honours, but this has been entirely | duced the revoke penalty to 100 points. of slams and abolished values the increased it issued; was code and aces is it that superseded. Players have learnt by experience giving the single value of 9 to the kings that matter and that win games. An original bid, that is| the dual value of spades, thus either of these was the substitution than radical More suit. spade have to upon depended be always can hand, a on the first bid made the system under which the of place in overcalling” “numerical of responsible a top honours at the head of it, when it is made by this revision, player. Top honours mean ace, king; or ace, queen, knave; or king, values of tricks determined the rank of a bid. Since

bid for always overcalls a smaller numqueen, at least. Subsequent bids after the first original one are | @ larger number of tricks trumps); the declarations made on numerical strength with outside support to back them ber (e.g., four clubs overcalls three no of tricks is bid for— number equal an when only rank assuming | numerical on supported be can partner wo, or an original bid of a strength, but the one outstanding principle of modern declaring | no trump highest and clubs lowest. This change proved popular. made in 1917 and 1920, involving no isthat an original suit bid must have top honours at the head of it. | Further revisions were an exhaustive study was made 1925-26, in but changes; radical king, on “Hearts” call always would At ordinary bridge the dealer with Knickerbocker Whist collaboration in Club ten, to five or six, with little else in his hand, but no sound auction | by The Whist League. This resulted Whist American the and York) (New Club | original an as hand that on heart” “ane bridge player would call al. He might call “two hearts” on it on the second round, but | in March, 1926, in the promulgation, by the Whist Club, of the of that is quite a different thing from calling it originally.

There are two entirely different departments of auction bridge—

present (1928) American auction bridge code. Three features

this final code are radical departures from all that has gone before:

uniform the declaration and the play of the cards. There is considerable | (1) The rank of cards from ace down to deuce is made deal and for drawing in low was ace (formerly purposes all for | Some two. these of value relative the to as opinion of difference honour(2) wins); high and high is ace now won; low and seats, | 80%, as high players estimate the value of clever declaring as

of ten instead of being based on trickothers, including Lenz of New York, think that they are values are made multiples are payable in tricks, which are penalties revoke (3) values; is cards the of play scientific that and nearly, if not quite, equal, they had been won in play. if as exactly scored and utilized | correct as important as clever declaring. Both are important, but The outstanding differences between the American and English declaring is easier to acquire. It is not given to everybody to have

bridge lie: first, in the laws relating to rank of the card sense and to be able to play the cards well, but anyone | 8ames of auction deal and choice of seats, rank of bids in overfor drawing in cards The of ordinary intelligence can be taught to declare correctly.

and the revoke penalty; most valuable declaration which can be made is no trumps, because | Calling, method of counting honours, in America to try and adopt new three by cards will win the game from a love score at no trumps, second, In the greater readiness America of but it takes four or five by cards to win the game on a suit declara- “conventions”; and third, in the greater popularity in of luck and element the reduce to tend which contests, duplicate spades is that call, suit major strong tion, but nevertheless a really or hearts, is safer and better than no trumps. Some players are so obsessed with the glamour of the no trump call, that they seem to think it is the only road ta success at the bridge table, and they

make skill the important factor. Most of the special and conventional tactics of bidding and play, prominently the “informatory double,” are of American origin; many of these conventions

, , England. call it on every possible occasion, and sometimes on very inade- have been adopted ofin auction in America has grown until bridge popularity The . | hand trump no genuine A mistake. great a is quate material. This of intelligent people; the number of its should be well guarded in at least three suits, and should have a it is played by all classes estimate; but the demand for playing to impossible is queen over the average—nothing weaker than this is justifiable at devotees and all kinds of bridge literature text-books pads, score cards, BRIDGE.) CONTRACT BRIDGE; the score. of love. (See also enormous. Brsriocrapuy.—“John Doe,” Auction Bridge (1904); W. Dalton, | proves it to be

Auction Bridge (1908); A. E. Manning Foster, Auction Bridge made |

Over 40 years ago the teaching of whist was inaugurated by

successful but not until auction ao(1921)5 E. Bergholt, Modern Auction Bridge (1925); Milton C. | Miss Kate Wheelock. She wasdid the demand for instruction befad popular a became bridge a oe porate pleteMetin Bader Pus |pa come wide-spread. Of late, however, bridge players have furoe eee of their desire to learn how to play nished conclusive evidence UNITED STATES scientifically; in 1928 there were over one thousand American bridge, of offspring the as designated be may Auction bridge of whom were unable to meet the demands made the grandchild of whist and the father of contract. The history | teachers, many lessons. of whist, bridge, auction bridge and contract bridge in America— | upon them, for

672

AUCTION

PITCH—AUCTIONS

Bridge by radio was introduced in Nov. 1925 and continued | the Praetorians proclaimed from their ramparts that the R weekly during the winter seasons of 1926-27 and 1927-28 | world was to be disposed of by public auction to the best bidder (November to March inclusive). A bridge hand is widely adver- Thereupon Julian proceeded to the foot of the ramparts and outbid tised in advance and the correct bidding and play are described his competitor (Gibbon, vol. i. ch. v.). Though, however aucti with expert comment from approximately one hundred broad- were undoubtedly common among the Romans both in publicand casting stations at a designated hour. It is estimated that ten private transactions, the rules whereby they were governed a a million players listen in each week, in most cases actually playing by no means clearly enunciated in the Corpus Iuris Civilis. In England the method of conducting auctions has varied la the hand in concert with the announcement as it comes to them some places it has been usual to set up an inch of lighted ca; through the air. person making the last bid before The American Auction Bridge League was formed in 1927 with the Jeij the fall of the wick becom,Om:

R. R. Richards of Detroit as its first president.

It manages

largely attended duplicate contests and awards national championships. The Auction Bridge magazine, a monthly publication, which started its career in 1922 has steadily increased the number of its subscribers; it has a large and representative editorial board. (M. C. W.)

AUCTION PITCH, a card game (a variation of All Fours,

g.v.) for from four to seven players. A complete pack is used. All the players cut for deal, the highest winning. Ace is the highest card, deuce the lowest. The dealer shuffles, and his opponent at the right cuts. The deal passes to the left. The cards are dealt in rotation, three at a time, to the players, beginning at the dealer’s left. Six cards are dealt to each player. If an exposed card or a wrong number be dealt to a player there must be a new deal. The choice of trump is auctioned. Each player has one chance to bid. The player at the dealer’s left has the first chance; he may pass or bid from one to four. Each succeeding player must pass or exceed the preceding bid; in addition, the dealer may refuse to sell for four, by bidding four. The winner of the auction pitches the trump by leading a card; the suit of the card led becomes trump. If no bid is offered, the player at the dealer’s left pitches the trump, without the obligation to fulfil any contract. The winner of one trick leads for the next. Each player who is able must follow suit or trump. A player unable to follow lead to a plain (non-trump) suit may discard or trump. A revoke penalizes the offender the amount bid. Other players score what they make. In addition, tke pitcher cannot be penalized. for failure to fulfil contract when another player revokes. The highest card of the suit led or the highest trump played wins the trick. One point is scored by the player dealt the highest trump out; one point is scored by the player dealt the lowest trump out. The player of a trump may ask if it is high or low. Jack (Knave) counts one point for the player winning the trick containing the Jack of trumps. Cards count one point for the player scoring most, each ro scoring 10, each Ace 4, each King 3,

ing the purchaser. By an act of William IIT. (1698), this method

of sale was prescribed for goods and merchandise imported fy, the East Indies. Lord Eldon speaks of “candle-stick biddings”

where the several bidders did not know what the others had

offered. A “dumb bidding” was the name given to a Proceeding at which a price was put by the owner under a candlestick with a stipulation that no bidding should avail if not equal to it. In 2 “Dutch auction” property is offered at a certain price and then successively at lower prices until one is accepted. According to the practice now usual in England, a proposed auction is duly advertised, and a printed catalogue in the case of chattels, or particulars of sale in the case of land, together with conditions of sale, are circulated, Sometimes, in sales of goods the conditions are merely suspended in the auction room. At the appointed time and place, the auctioneer, standing on a desk or rostrum, “puts up” the several lots in turn by inviting biddings from the company present. He announces the acceptance of

the last bid by a tap with his hammer and so “knocks down” the lot to the person who has made it. Sometimes property is offered on lease to the highest bidder. “Roup” is the Scottish term for an auction. A bid in itself is only an offer, and may accordingly be retracted at any time before its acceptance by the fall of the hammer or otherwise. Puffing is unlawful. Unless a right to bid is expressly reserved on behalf of the vendor, he must neither bid himself nor employ anyone else to bid. Whena right to bid has been expressly reserved, the seller or any one person (but

no more) on his behalf may bid at the auction. If it is simply announced that the sale is to be subject to a reserved or upset

price, no bidding by or on behalf of the seller is permissible: it is only lawful to declare by some appropriate terms that the property is withdrawn. Where a sale is expressed to be without reserve, or where an upset price has been reached, the auctioneer must, after the lapse of a reasonable interval, accept the bid of the highest bona fide bidder. By not doing so he would render the vendor liable in damages. The auctioneer must not make a pretence of receiving bids which are not in fact made, as it would each Queen 2, and each Jack found in the tricks won by him be fraudulent to run up the price by such an artifice. A “knockscoring 1. The claimant of cards turns his tricks face up, so that out” is a combination of persons to prevent competition between all may count his score. A tie for cards is won by the non-pitcher themselves at an auction by an arrangement that only one of of trumps; a tie between two other players cannot be scored. their number shall bid, and that anything obtained by him shall Should two players be able to score game, the pitcher has prece- be afterwards disposed of privately among themselves. With a dence; between two non-pitchers able to score game precedence view to the suppression of such “rings,” the Auctions (Bidding is given; first, to the holder of igh, second to low, third to Jack, Agreements) act, 1927, was passed by the British parliament. A “mock auction” is a proceeding at which persons conspire by last to cards. If the pitcher of trumps fails to fulfil his contract, the amount of his bid is deducted from his score. A minus score artifice to make it appear, contrary to the fact, that a bone fae puts him “in the hole,” his shortage being indicated by a circle sale is being conducted, and so attempt to induce the public te purchase articles at prices far above their value. Those who about his score. Game is 7 or ro points, as agreed. (E. V. S.) AUCTIONS AND AUCTIONEERS. An auction (Lat. invite the public to enter the room where the supposed auction is auctio, increase) is a proceeding at which people are invited to proceeding, or otherwise endeavour to attract bidders, are called compete for the purchase of property by successive offers of ad- “barkers.” A conspiracy to defraud in this way is an indictable vancing sums. The advantages of conducting a sale in this way are offence. The Auctioneer’s Licence——By a charter of Henry VIL, obvious, and we naturally find that auctions are of great antiquity. Herodotus describes a custom which prevailed in Babylonian confirmed by Charles I., the business of selling by auction was villages of disposing of the maidens in marriage by delivering confined to an officer called an outroper, and all other persons them to the highest bidders in an assembly annually held for the were prohibited from selling goods or merchandise by public claim purpose (Book i. 196). So also among the Romans the quaestor or outcry (see Henry Blackstone’s Reports, vol. ii. p. 557): sold military booty and captives in war by auction—sub hastae— only qualification now required by an auctioneer is a licence @ the spear being the symbol of quiritarian ownership. The familiar- which a duty of £10 has to be paid, and which must be renewed

the Praetorian Guard when Sulpicianus was treating for the imperial dignity after the murder of Pertinax. Apprehending

before the sth of July in each year. A liability to a penalty of £100 is incurred by acting as an auctioneer without being dw licensed. An auctioneer is bound under a penalty of £20 to se

that they would not obtain a sufficient price by private contract,

that his full name and address, together with a copy of the

ity of such proceedings is forcibly suggested by the conduct of

AUCUBA—AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER

am

A

fo

Auctions (Bidding Agreements) act, 1927, are displayed before | arated from the sea by spite. Climate and vegetation are Medi-

the commencement of an auction and during its continuance in terranean, the average winter temperature 44°-45°, and summer the place where he conducts it. He is the agent of the vendor

temperature 7o°~71°, the rainfall is less than 24in. save on the

only, except in so far that, after he has knocked down a lot to hills. The department is agricultural, growing maize and other the highest bidder, he has authority to affix the name of the latter to a memorandum of the transaction, so as to render the contract of sale enforceable where written evidence is necessary.

An auctioneer does not by merely announcing that a sale of certain

articles will take place, render himself liable to those who, in consequence, attend at the time and place advertised, if the sale is not in fact proceeded with, provided he acts in good faith.

One of the chief risks run by an auctioneer is that of being held liable for the conversion of goods which he has sold upon the ‘structions of a person whom he believed to be the owner, but

who in fact had no right to dispose of them. The number of auctioneers’ licences issued during the year ended March 31, 1926, was in England 7,194 and in Scotland 773.

A central organization having its headquarters in Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London, and now styled the Auctioneers’ and Estate

Agents’ Institute of the United Kingdom, was founded in 1886. It has nearly 6,000 members.

(H. H.)

In the United States the same general principles underlie the control of auctions as in Great Britain. Specifically, they are regulated by states. A survey conducted by the Better Business Bureau of Milwaukee, Wis. (1924) in 52 principal cities illustrates this, Eleven did not permit auctions after 6 p.m, the rest closed them from 6 to 12 P.M.; some required no license fee, a few de-

manded a percentage, others a fixed amount for a specified time, ie, Tacoma, Wash., $1,000 a year, $50 a day. A majority per-

mitted more than one jewelry auction in a given store the same

year, and allowed auctions to run any number of successive days; a few fixed 30, Pittsburgh, Pa., 7-10 days as the limit. About 50% demanded from short, indefinite periods to 1 year of residence from merchants of jewelry auctions. Control of fraud and switching varied from requiring bonds or stock permits, imposing fines or revoking licenses to applying false pretences laws or merely “watching.” Several cities demanded $2,500 bonds to ensure auctioneer’s good faith, some $100 annual license fee, others twice the amount sold. Street auctions are limited or barred entirely. Some cities enforce transient merchant laws; others are drafting ordinances; St. Louis, Mo., already has a fairly drastic one. The Mastick-Goodrich law, New York (1927) may have a salutary efect. In 1928 efforts against fraud centred on jewelry sales, the greatest breeders of fake and mock auctions.

AUCUBA, the Japanese name for a small genus of the Dogwood family (Cornaceae). The familiar Japanese laurel of gardens and shrubberies is Aucuba japonica. It bears male and female flowers on distinct plants; the red berries often last till the next season’s flowers appear. There are numerous varieties in cultivation, differing in the variegation of their leaves.

AUDAEUS or Avotvs, a church reformer of the 4th century, by birth a Mesopotamian.

He was banished into Scythia, where

he worked successfully among the Goths. The Audaeans celebrated the feast of Easter on the same day as the Jewish Passover, and they were also charged with attributing to the Deity a human shape, an opinion which they appear to have founded on Genesis iL 26. Theodoret accuses them of Manichean tendencies. The main source of information is Epiphanius (Haer. 70). AUDE, department of south France formed in 1790 from part of the old province of Languedoc. Area 2,448sq.m. Pop. (1926) 291,951. It consists of the east side of the Carcassonne gap between the Montagne Noire as an outer rampart of the Plateau

Central and the outer ramparts of the Pyrenees, and it includes

grains, while, with Hérault, it produces most of the cheapest wines of France, though those of Limoux and Narbonne are highly esteemed. The olive and chestnut are also grown. There

are salt-producing marshes, some manganese, and stone quarries.

mines of mispickel, iron and

The Canal du Midi, coming from the west via the Carcassonne gap, follows the Fresquel tributary to the Aude and a branch, Canal de la Robine, passes out to sea through Narbonne. The Southern Railway (Midi) serves the department. The three arrondissements are named from the chief towns, Carcassonne (capital of the department}, Limoux and Narbonne, and they are divided into 3r cantons. Aude belongs to the r6th military region and to the académie (educational division) and court of appeal of Montpellier. It forms the diocese of Carcassonne under the archbishopric of Toulouse.

AUDE, river of south-west France, rising in the eastern Pyrenees near the P. Carlitte and flowing into the Gulf of Lions. The upper course, except near Axat, is through deep gorges. Below Carcassonne its course, from north, turns due east, skirting the Corbières, to enter the Mediterranean some 12m. E.N.E. of Narbonne. The Aude gap, between the Pyrenees and the Montagne Noire, is one of the great historic thoroughfares of western Europe. The Aude is 140 m. long, with a basin of 2,061 sq.m. AUDEBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE (1759-1800), French artist and naturalist, published in 1800 L’Histoire naturelle des singes, des makis et des galéopithèques, illustrated by 62 folio plates drawn and engraved by himself. Two posthumous works appeared in 1802 under the general title Oiseaux dorés ou ù reflets métalliques.

AUDEFROI

LE BATARD,

French żrouvère, flourished

at the beginning of the 13th century and was born at Arras. The seigneur de Nesles, to whom some of his songs are addressed, is probably the chatelain of Bruges who joined the crusade of 1200. Audefroi was the author of at least five lyric romances: Argentine, Belle Idoine, Belle Isabeau, Belle Emmelos and Béatrix. These romances are an attempt to put new life into the lyric romance which was already dying out. See A. Jeanroy, Les Origines de la poésie lyrique en France au moyen dge (1889).

AUDIENCE.

Ina technical sense, the term is applied to

the right of access to the sovereign enjoyed by the peers of the realm individually and by the House of Commons collectively. More particularly it means the ceremony of the admission of ambassadors, envoys, or others to an interview with a sovereign or an important official for the purpose of presenting their credentials. In France, audience is the term applied to the sitting of a law court for hearing actions. In Spain, audiencia is the name given to certain tribunals which try appeals from courts of first instance. The audiencia pretorial, i.e., of the praetor, was a court in Spanish America from which there was no appeal to the viceregent, but only to the council of the Indies in Spain. In England the Audience-court was an ecclesiastical court, held by the archbishops of Canterbury and York, in which they once exercised a considerable part of their jurisdiction. It has been

long disused and is now merged in the court of arches. AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER, EDME ARMAND GASTON, Duc D’ (1823-1905), French statesman created duke in 1844, and became auditor at the council of State in 1846. After

the revolution of 1848, he retired to private life. In Feb. 1871 he was elected to the National Assembly, and became president of the right centre in 1873. After the fall of Thiers, he directed the negotiations between of the much smaller Berre, the department’s two chief rivers. Aude is bounded on the north-east by Hérault, north-west by the different royalist parties to establish a king in France, but as Tam, west by Haute-Garonne, south-west by Ariége, south by he refused to give up the tricolour for the flag of the old régime, Pyrénées-Orientales and east by the Mediterranean, and it is the project failed. Yet he retained the confidence of the chamber, formed mainly by the basin of the Aude which runs out at its and was its president in 1875 when the constitutional laws were north-east corner. The coast, like that of Hérault, has large being drawn up. He likewise was president of the senate from lagoons (Bages et Sigean, Gruissan, Lapalme and Leucate) sep- March 1876 until 1879, when his party lost the majority.

portions of both as well as the north-eastward projection of the latter in the Corbiéres between the valley of the Aude and that

I4 AUDIO

AUDIO FREQUENCIES,

FREQUENCIES—AUDIT

BUREAU

in radio communication, the; expenditure. So far as regards the work which auditors discharye

in connection with the accounts of joint-stock companies, buig. frequencies corresponding to normally audible sound waves. The | ing societies, friendly societies, industrial and provident Societies upper limit ordinarily lies between 10.000 and 20,000 cycles. The savings banks, etc., the word auditor is now almost synonymoyy lower limit is about 16 cycles.

a trans-

with “skilled accountant,” and his duties are discussed in th

former used with electric currents of audio-frequency. An example of such use is in the audio-frequency amplifier forming part of a radio receiving set.

In Scotland there is an “auditor’’ who is an official of the cou of session, appointed to tax costs in litigation, and who correspond.

AUDIO-FREQUENCY

AUDIT

TRANSFORMER,

ALE, a special quality of strong ale brewed at

certain colleges in the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge, so called because it was drunk at the feasts held on audit-day. AUDIT AND AUDITOR. An audit is examination of the accounts kept by the financial officers of a state, public corporations and bodies, or private persons, and the certifying of their accuracy. In the British Isles the public accounts were audited from very early times, though until the reign of Queen Elizabeth in no very systematic way. Prior to 1559 this duty was carried out, sometimes by auditors specially appointed, at other times by the auditors of the land revenue, or by the auditor of the exchequer, an office established as early as 1314. But in 1559 an endeavour was made to systematize the auditing of the public accounts, by the appointment of two auditors of the imprests. These officers were paid by fee and did their work by deputy, but as the results were thoroughly unsatisfactory the offices were abolished in 1785. An audit board, consisting of five commissioners, was appointed in their place, but in order to concentrate under one authority the auditing of the accounts of the various departments, some of which had been audited separately, as the naval accounts, the Exchequer and Audit Act of 1866 was passed. This statute, which sets forth at length the duties of the audit office, empowered the sovereign to appoint a “comptroller and auditor-general,” with the requisite staff to examine and verify the accounts prepared by the different departments of the public service. In examining accounts of the appropriation of the several supply grants, the comptroller and auditor-general “ascertains first whether the payments which the account department has charged to the grant are supported by vouchers or proofs of payments; and second, whether the money expended has been applied to the purpose or purposes for which such grant was intended to provide.” The treasury may also submit certain other accounts to the audit of the comptroller-general. All public moneys payable to the exchequer (q.v.) are paid to the “account of His Majesty's exchequer” at the Bank of England, and daily returns of such payments are forwarded to the comptroller. Quarterly accounts of the income and charge of the consolidated fund are prepared and transmitted to him, and in case of any deficiency in the consolidated fund, he may certify to the bank to make advances. In the United States the auditing of the federal accounts is in the charge of the office of the Comptroller General, who is the head of the General Accounting Office, an agency independent of the executive departments of the government and responsible directly to Congress. In the performance of this function, the Comptroller General operates through a technical unit or bureau called the Audit Division under which are the following subdivisions: (1) Contract Examining Unit; (2) Receiving and Computing Section; (3) Check Section; (4) Contract Voucher Section; (5) Miscellaneous Section; (6) Civil Pay and Travel Section; (7) Military Pay Section; (8) Receipts and Deposits Section; (9) Audit Review Section; (10) Accounting Section; (11) Indian Tribal Claims Section and (12) Veterans’ Bureau Section. This covers all government activities except those of the Post Office which are audited by the Post Office Division, a co-ordinate bureau with the Audit Division under the Comptroller General. Provision is made in all the state and local governments for the exercise of the audit function in some form. In practically all European countries there is a department of the administration, charged with the auditing of the public accounts, as the cour des comptes in France, the Rechnungshof des deutschen Reiches in Germany, etc. All local boards, large cities, corporations and other bodies have official auditors for the purpose of examining and checking their accounts and looking after their

article ACCOUNTANTS.

to the English taxing-master.

In France there are legal officers

called auditors, attached to the Conseil d'État, whose duties con. sist in drawing up briefs and preparing documents.

On the con-

tinent of Europe, lawyers skilled in military law are called “audi. tors” (see MILITARY Law). Auditores Rotae.—Auditor is also the designation of certain officials of the Roman curia. The auditores Rotae are the judges of the court of the Rota (so called, according to Hinschius, prob. ably from the form of the panelling in the room where they orig. inally met). These were originally ecclesiastics appointed to hear particular questions in dispute and report to the pope, who re.

tained the decision in his own hands. In the Speculum juris of Durandus (published in 1272 and re-edited in 1287 and 1291) the auditores palatii domini papae are cited as permanent officials appointed to instruct the pope on questions as they arose. The court of the Rota appears for the first time under this name in the bull Romani Pontificis of Martin V. in 1422, and the auditores by this time had developed into a permanent tribunal to which the definite decision of certain disputes, hitherto relegated to a commission of cardinals or to the pope himself, was assigned. From this time the powers of the auditores increased until the reform of the curia by Sixtus V., when the creation of the congregations of cardinals for specific purposes tended gradually to withdraw from the Rota its most important functions. It still, however, ranks as the supreme court of justice in the papal curia, and, as members of it, the auditores enjoy special privileges. They are prelates, and, besides the rights enjoyed by these, have others conceded by successive popes, e.g., that of holding benefices in plurality, of non-residence, etc. When the pope says mass pontifically the subdeacon is always an auditor. The auditores must be in priest’s or deacon’s orders, and have always been selected—nominally at least—after severe tests as to their moral and intellectual qualifications. They are 12 in number, and, by the constitution of Pius IV., four of them were to be foreigners: one French, one Spanish, one German and one Venetian; while the nomination of others was the privilege of certain cities. No bishop, unless m partibus (see Bishop), may be an auditor. On the other hand, from the auditores, as the intellectual élite of the curia, the episcopate, the nunciature and the cardinalate are largely recruited. The auditor camerae (uditore generale della reverenda camera apostolica) is an official formerly charged with important executive functions. In 1485, by a bull of Innocent VIII., he was given extensive jurisdiction over all civil and criminal causes arising in the curia, or appealed to it from the papal territories. In addition he received the function of watching over the execution of all sentences passed by the curia. This was extended later, by Pius IV., to a similar executive function in respect of all papal bulls and briefs, wherever no special executor was named. This right was confirmed by Gregory XVI. in 1834, and the auditor may still in principle issue letters monitory. In practice, however, this function was at all times but rarely exercised, and, since the 1847, has fallen to a prelate locum tenens, who also took over

auditor’s jurisdiction in the papal states (Hinschius, Kathol.

Kirchenrecht, i. 409, etc.). Auditores (listeners), in the early Church, was another name

— for catechumens (g.v.). AUDIT BUREAU OF CIRCULATION, an organization

of publishers, advertising agents and advertisers.

Its chief activ

of its ity is to audit the circulation books of the publications

various members. In 1928 the membership consisted of approxmately goo newspapers, 165 magazines and periodicals, 250 bust ness publications, 75 agricultural publications, 275 advertisers and 150 advertising agents. The association came into existence ts to correct the evil of false and deceptive circulation statemen

AUDITION—AUDREHEM hat were common among publishers. It was felt that the honest fisher was at a disadvantage in stating his circulation accu-

rately when his competitor was less scrupulous. The only solution

gtisiactory tO all concerned was that some impartial agency

should be employed to audit the circulation books of the various publishers and supply a statement of this circulation to other members. The association has been in existence for nearly 15 and, in that time, it has achieved so much prestige that a ication in the United States or Canada is distinctly under a

icap in soliciting advertisements if it is not a member. In addition to establishing an honest and accurate audit of circula-

tion, the association Standardized the report blanks for the variat ublishers and, by so doing, made the information concerning all publishers in the same class uniform and easily comparable. Also such terms as “net paid circulation,” “bulk sales,” “mail subscribers,” “counter,” and “street sales” were standardized so that

meant the same thing wherever used by members of the

Audit Bureau of Circulation.

The operating procedure of the bureau is briefly this; twice a it furnishes its publishers blanks upon which to make a cir-

culation statement covering the previous six months.

These re-

ports are sent to the central office of the bureau where they are printed and distributed to members. Once a year expert auditors

from the bureau audit the circulation books of each member, and this official audit is printed and distributed to all members. This

675

April 21 1544, and died on April 30. His subservience to Henry VIII. was rewarded by the gift of many monastic estates. He re-endowed Buckingham College, Cambridge, under the new name of St. Mary Magdalene.

AUDRAN, the name of a family of French artists and en-

gravers. The first who devoted himself to the art of engraving was Claude Audran, born 1597, and the last was Benoit, Claude’s

great-grandson, who died in 1772. The two most distinguished members of the family are Gérard and Jean. GÉRARD or GIRARD, AUDRAN, engraver, was the third son of Claude Audran, and was born at Lyons in 1640. He was taught the first principles of design and engraving by his father, and continued his studies in Paris. He there, in 1666, engraved for Le Brun “Constantine’s Battle with Maxentius,” his “Triumph”

and the “Stoning of Stephen,” which placed Audran in the very

first rank of engravers at Paris.

He spent the years 1667—70 in

Rome, where he engraved several fine plates. J. B. Colbert was so struck with the beauty of Audran’s works that he persuaded

Louis XIV. to recall him to Paris. On his return he was appointed

engraver to the king, from whom he received great encouragement. He died at Paris in 1703. His engravings of Le Brun’s “Battles of Alexander” are regarded as the best of his numerous works. Jean AupRAN, nephew of Gérard, was born at Lyons in 1667.

He was 80 years of age before he quitted the graver, and nearly go when he died. The best prints of this artist are those in which the etching constitutes a great part; and he has finished The expenses of the bureau are defrayed by dues from the mem- them in a bold, rough style. The “Rape of the Sabines,” after bers, By far the larger part of these dues is collected from the Poussin, is considered his masterpiece. AUDRAN, EDMOND (1842-1901), French musical compublishers, although the information is of primary importance to a sivertising agents and advertisers. According to the rules of the poser, was born at Lyons. He made his first appearance as (1862), Pacha le et L’Ours with Marseille at composer dramatic circulation own their form bureau, members may publish in any he made gatements but they may not make public those of another mem- a musical version of one of Scribe’s vaudevilles. Later but music sacred of writer a as fame win to attempts various supply that directories advertising leading br, However, the drculation figures for the publications of the United States and eventually became known almost entirely as a composer of the Canada give the summaries of the A.B.C. (Audit Bureau of Cir- lighter kinds of opera. His first Parisian success was made with ciation) statements for all its members. This makes the in- Les Noces d’Olivette (1879), a work which speedily found its way formation available to every advertiser and advertising agent. to London and (as Olivette) ran for more than a year at the Advertising circulation is now bought with the same accuracy and Strand theatre (1880-81). Later works from his fluent pen which enjoyed exceptional certainty as prevails with stocks, bonds and most kinds of favour included Le Grand Mogol (Marseille, 1876; Paris, 1884; merchandise. (H. E. A.) AUDITION, also known as auditory sensation, is the principle London, as The Grand Mogul, 1884), La Mascotte (Paris, 1880; of the division of sensations of hearing, according to which two London, as The Mascotte, 1881), Gillette de Narbonne (Paris, meat groups are formed. The first is that of sensations of tone, 1882: London, as Gillette, 1883), La Cigale et la Fourmi (Paris, which are musical and smooth; the second that of sensations of 1886; London, as La Cigale, 1890), Miss Hélyett (Paris, 1890; mise, which are abrupt, harsh and rough. The physical stimulus of London, as Miss Decima, 1891), La Poupée (Paris, 1896; London, provides a means by which to test the accuracy, sincerity and faimess of the members in making their circulation statements.

audition is the vibration of some material body; this vibration is 1897). Audran was one of the best of the successors of Offennmmally transmitted to the ear by a wave-movement of the air bach. He had little of Offenbach’s humour, but his music is distinguished by an elegance and a refinement of manner which lift particles. See Acoustics; Helmholtz, On the Sensations of Tone (Eng. trans. it above the level of opéra bouffe to the confines of genuine opéra comique. He was a fertile if not a very original melodist, 1895); Titchener, Text-book of Psychology (1910). AUDLEY or Avvetey, SIR JAMES (c. 1316-1369), one and his orchestration is full of variety, without being obtrusive of the original knights, or founders, of the Order of the Garter, or vulgar. AUDREHEM, ARNOUL D?’ (c. 1305-70), French soldier, vas the eldest son of Sir James Audley of Stratton Audley in Oxfordshire. He served under the Black Prince in France, and was born at Audrehem, in the present department of Pas de was made governor of Aquitaine and great seneschal of Poitou. Calais, near St. Omer. In June 135z he became marshal of In March 1352 he was appointed lieutenant for the Berrocrarnmy.—See Jean Froissart, Chroniques, Tr. by T. Johnes France. (Hafod, 1810); G. F. Beltz, Memorials of the Most Noble Order of King in the territory between the Loire and the Dordogne, in ike Garter (1841). June 1353 in Normandy, and in 1355 in Artois, Picardy and the AUDLEY, THOMAS AUDLEY, Baron (c. 1488-1544), Boulonnais. At Poitiers he was one of those who advised King lord chancellor of England, entered Parliament in 1523 for the John to attack the English, and, charging in the front line of county of Essex. In 1529 he was Speaker of the House of Com- the French Army, was slightly wounded and taken prisoner. He mons, presiding over the famous Black Parliament which abol- took an active part in the negotiations for the treaty of Bretigny, ished papal jurisdiction in England. He supported Henry VIII. recovering his liberty at the same time as King John. In 1361, as the King’s lieutenant in Languedoc, he prevented in seeking a divorce from Catherine of Aragon, and became lord chancellor on Jan. 26 1533. He presided at the trial of Bishop the free companies from seizing the castles, and negotiated the Fisher and Sir Thomas More in 1535, and in 1536 he tried Anne treaty with their chiefs under which they followed Henry, count Boleyn. He was raised to the peerage in 1538, and received the of Trastamara (later Henry IT. of Castile), into Spain. In 1365 gter in 1540. He presided at the trials of Henry Pole (Lord he himself joined du Guesclin in the expedition to Spain, was

Montacute) and the marquess of Exeter, managed the attainder

ofThomas Cromwell, and the dissolution of Henry’s marriage wth Anne of Cleves. He resigned the lord chancellorship on

taken prisoner with him by the Black Prince at the battle of Najera (1367), and was unable to pay his ransom until 1369. In 1368, on account of his age, he was relieved of the office of

AUDUBON—AUERSPERG

676

1370 by Charles V., to urge marshal, but he was sent to Spain in e, and in spite of his Franc to n retur to lin his friend du Guesc (Dec. 1370). n allai Pontv age he took part in the battle of d'Audrehem, la vie d'Arnoul See Emile Molinier, «Étude sur présentés par divers savants es émoir M in e,” Franc maréchal de es, 2€ série, iV. (1883). Pacadémie des inscriptions et belles-lettr

AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES

(1785-1851), American nat-

o Domingo, now Haiti, April uralist, was born at Les Cayes, Sant Audubon, a French naval Jobn . Lieut r, fathe his 26, 1785. By to the United States and taken was officer and planter, the boy ood he was fond of boyh then to France. Even in his petted attended a military He s. ction colle ng nature and began maki ed drawing in Paris. studi od peri school for a time, and for a brief ver, came when he howe , work e futur his for ion arat His chief prep delphia, and some Phila near farm r’s spent a year on his fathe ing and drawing birds. hunt e, Franc in n, retur his after months in the West Indies and the The loss of his father’s property ed Audubon to engage in caus unsettled conditions in France made various unsuccesshad he After . world new business in the Bakewell Audubon, Lucy wife, loyal his ful ventures in the west, and practically astion voca insisted that his avocation become a devoted himself bon Audu while ly fami the of sumed the support This impos-38). (1827 ca to his great work, The Birds of Ameri with 1,065 life-sized plates red colou hand435 ined conta ing series of birds. In spite of the figures of 489 supposedly distinct species service in making on’s later criticisms of his drawing, Audub the new world is of birds the on fashi a some known in so hand exhibited at the were res pictu his of inestimable value. When talk of the town; the e becam they urgh, Edinb of n tutio Royal Insti of the deep influence and in many writers traces may be found ” exerted upon his sman the productions of the “American wood ducing birds in repro in er pione a was bon Audu contemporaries. ed on by subcarri was which their natural poses. His work, ing, teaching, paint from e incom his by ed ement suppl scriptions, assisting him John son his , affair y famil etc., became in time a g charge takin r Victo son in his collecting and drawing, and his gh the throu going were es volum the While s. of business affair ca, Ameri and nd Engla en betwe time press, Audubon divided his and supervising pubngs, drawi g makin mens, speci new ring gathe e matter, Ornitholication. After the publication of the descriptiv

logical Biography

AUE, town of Germany, in the republic of Saxony at the con.

fuence of the Mulde and Schwarzwasser,

21m. S.W. of Chem

nitz. Pop. (1925) 21,296. It has the Erzgebirge in the backeround

to the southward. It manufactures machinery and metal objects (1722-1809), Viennese AUENBRUGGER, LEOPOLD 1722. He

physician, was born at Graz, Steyermark, on Nov. 19, studied at Vienna and was placed in charge of the Spanish mili

New tary hospital and the hospital of the Holy Trinity. HisPercys. Invention for Discovering Obscure Thoracic Diseases by

sion of the Chest (1762) first introduced percussion as a means of

detecting chest diseases but his method was not taken up until

after his death, being introduced largely by the influence of the physician Piorry (d. 1879). See M. Neuburger, Leopold Auenbrugger (1922).

AUER,

(1845-

), violinist

and famous

1845. He was teacher, was born at Veszprim, Hungary, June 9, trained at the Vienna conservatoire and later studied with Joachim, making the acquaintance at the same period of Brahms

and Liszt, with both of whom he played. His début he made at Leipzig at one of the Gewandhaus concerts. In London later he

met Anton Rubinstein, who in 1862 had founded the Imperial Conservatoire of Music, St. Petersburg, and at his suggestion he

succeeded Wienavski as professor of the violin there in 1863 becoming two years later solo violinist to the Imperial court.

|

When the Russian Revolution occurred in 1917 he was in

Scandinavia.

At the age of 73, with two trunks, his Stradivarius

violin and $1,000 as his total of possessions, he sought refuge in

America in Feb. 1918. Among his more famous pupils are Jascha

(183 1-39), in which William Macgillivray

of North America assisted him, and of A Synopsis of the Birds his adopted counto y nentl perma ned (1839), the naturalist retur York he threw New in ement settl his after y iatel Immed try. ion in “miniarevis —the tasks new two into lly himself energetica -44) and (1840 ca Ameri of ture” or octavo form of The Birds America North of upeds Quadr arous Vivep The of ction the produ John Rev. the , friend ul faithf his on which he collaborated with folio plates of Bachman, the father-in-law of his two sons. The but Audubon the Quadrupeds appeared in parts from 1842 to 1846, spite of his lived to see only one volume of the text finished. In e his death, befor ailed f h healt and mind both ty, vitali rful wonde on still Jan. 27, 1851. The house which he built by the Huds Street. stands in New York City, near Riverside Drive and 158th

(1917), BIBLIOGRAPHY. —F. H. Herrick’s Audubon the Naturalist and AdLife contains a full bibliography. Robert Buchanan’s The published ventures of John James Audubon, the Naturalist (1868), is a conIt in Everyman’s Library, although readable, is inaccurate. the return densation of Mrs. Audubon’s manuscript. Unable to secure n life of this manuscript, she published in America (1869) the Buchana and a prepassages, nable objectio of s omission , additions some with always face by J. G. Wilson. Although Audubon’s facts are motday. For accurate, he gave some vivid pictures of the America of his Maria R. by these see Audubon and His Journals (1897), edited and Audubon and Elliott Coues; also Delineations of American SceneryAuduCharacter (1926), edited by F.H. Herrick. See also F, H. Herrick, (1929). bonihe Naturalist (1917) ;E.A.Muschamp, Audacious Audubon

AUDUBON, a rapidly growing residential borough of Cam-

LEOPOLD

den county, New Jersey, U.S.A., 5m. S.E. of Camden, on the Atlantic City railway (Reading System) and Federal highway 30. The population was 1,343 in I910; 4,740 in 1920 (90% native white), and was 8,904 in 1930 by the Federal census. Wire, cloth and concrete block are manufactured. The borough was incorporated in 1900.

Heifetz, Efrem Zimbalist, Mischa Elman and Toscha Seidel w while the high esteem in which he is held was illustrated by a York, New Hall, Carnegie at honour his in given concert markable in 1925, in which Rachmaninoff, Josef Hofmann, Gabrilowitsch,

Zimbalist and Heifetz all took part. He is the author of Violin and Playing as I teach it (1921); My Long Life in Music (1923) Violin Master Works and their Interpretation (1925). AUERBACH, BERTHOLD (1812-1 882), German novel-

ist, whose fame rests on his tales of village life, was bom on at Feb. 28 1812, at Nordstetten in the Black forest, and died Munich n, Tübinge at d educate was He 1882. Cannes on Feb. 8 Scheland Heidelberg, and studied philosophy under Strauss and the enter to him d intende Jews, were who , parents ling. His y orthodor Jewish from ed estrang Jewish ministry, but he was s life by the study of Spinoza, and turned to literature. Spinoza’ fonn formed the basis of his first novel, Dichter und Kaufma in 1841. Tn lowed in 1839, and a translation of Spinoza’s works stories of 1843 he published the S chwarzwilder Dorfgeschichten, the same in novels on later and peasant life in the Black forest, others. These genre, Barfiissele (1856), Edelweiss (1861), and They are not works found a wide public and many imitators. and probably sense, modern realistic studies of rural life in the refecphical philoso the to ity popular their of some they owed subjects the to lent ch Auerba which tions and romanticism treated. ed in 1863-

ten appear The first collected edition of Auerbach’s Schrifch’s Briefe an seiner Auerba 64; the best edition is that of 1892-95. agen) were published in 2 Freund J. Auerbach (preface by F. Spielh ; E. Lasker, B. Auer(1882) ach Auerb B. Zabel, E. See (1884). vols. bach, ein Gedenkblatt (1882). ic of

of the republ AUERBACH, a town in the south-west the Erzgebirge, east under level sea above t. y, lying x,500f

Saxon idery, carpets of Plauen. Pop. (1925) 19,408. It produces embro and textiles.

DER, GraF VON AUERSPERG, ANTON ALEXAN the pseudonym 0 under wrote who (1806-1876), Austrian poet, at Laibach, an ANASTASIUS GRtN, was born on April rz 1806 of the Thurm-amhead was and 1876, 12, died at Graz on Sept. house of Auersperg. Hart branch of the Carniolan cadet line of the er of the estates memb a As a. Vienn and Graz at law He studied Laibach, be was 88 of Carniola on the Herrenbank of the diet at

of the Austrian Government, leading the oF

outspoken critic the central power. position of the duchy to the exactions of represented for 2 he After the revolution of 1848 at Vienna the German nation short time the district of Laibach at *

AUERSTADT—AUGHRIM

677

on five miles to the north-east, was probably the post-station the road between Sulmo and Aesernia in the Roman period. AUGEAS, AUGEIAS or AUGIAS, in Greek legend, a son of Helios the sun-god, and king of the Epeians in Elis. He possessed an immense wealth of herds, including 12 white bulls, aus). Eurystheus imposed upon Heracles the task first publication was a collection of lyrics, sacred to Helios. EA his stalls unaided in one day. This Heracles all out clearing of letzte Der , -er der liebe (1830). His second production rivers Alpheus and Peneus through them. the turning by of the did Ritter (1830), celebrates the deeds and adventures him a tenth of the herd but refused this, promised had Augeas written poems of Emperor Maximilian I. (1493-1519) in a cycle acted only in the service of Eurystheus. had Heracles that alleging in the strophic form of the Nibelungenlied. But Auersperg’s army against him, and finally slew an sent poetry; two col- Heracles thereupon fame rests almost exclusively on his political Olymp., x1. 24; Diodorus, iv. 13; (Pindar, sons. his and Augeas and (1831) ctions entitled Spaziergänge eines Wiener Poeten originality Theocritus, Jdyll, 25.) Schutt (1836) created a sensation in Germany by their AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANÇOIS CHARLES, DuKE foreand bold liberalism. These two volumes of poems were the CASTIGLIONE (1757-1816), marshal of France, was born in oF His nmners of the German “Freiheit” poetry of 1840-48. epics, Paris in a humble station of life. In his early manhood he was a his Gedichte (1837), if anything, increased his reputation; soldier of fortune, serving in the Russian, Prussian, and Neapolitan Kahlenberg vom Pfaff Der and (1843) Frack im Die Nibelungen armies; but the events of the French Revolution brought him (1850), are characterized by a fine ironic humour. He also pro- back to his native land. He served against the Vendeans and then current songs duced masterly translations of the popular Slovene joined the troops opposing the Spaniards in the south. There he in Carniola (Volkslieder aus Krain, 1850), and of the English rose rapidly, becoming general of division on Dec. 23 1793. His pems relating to “Robin Hood” (1864). division distinguished itself in the Italian campaign, and under pubwere BruiocraPHy.—Anastasius Griin’s Gesammelte Werke A. Frankl L. mit Bonaparte he had a share in the battle of Millesimo and in taking ibed by L. A. Frankl (1877); his Briefwechsel has been the castle of Cosseria and the camp of Ceva. At the battle of (1897). A selection of his Politische Reden und Schriften „sembly at Frankfurt, to which he tried in vain to persuade his In 1860 he was Slovene compatriots to send representatives. who next emperor, the by t reichsra ed remodell the ggmmoned to house r nominated him a life member of the Austrian upper

s Grün published by S. Hock (1906). See P. von Radics, Anastasiu

Lodi (May ro 1796), the turning movement of Augereau and his helped to decide the day, and at Castiglione he rendered EONIC division AUERSTADT, Battte oF, Oct. 13, 1806: see NAPOL signal services. Bonaparte thus summed up his military qualities: : CAMPAIGNS. “Has plenty of character, courage, firmness, activity; is inured to R war; is well liked by the soldiery; is fortunate in his operations.” RITTE Z, MORIT OW, OMAR RG-K ENBE AUFF In 1797 Bonaparte sent him to Paris to encourage the Directors, VON (1852-1928), Austrian general, was born May 22, 1852, at Auffen- and it was Augereau and the troops led by him that coerced the Troppau and died on May 18, 1928. A most able soldier, herg was one of the leaders of the Austrian military party which “moderates” in the councils and carried through the coup d'état of r 18 Fructidor (Sept. 4 1797). He took no part in the coup @ état centred round the Archduke Franz Ferdinand. He was ministe re- of Brumaire, 1799, and did not distinguish himself in the Rhenish of war from Sept. rg1z until Dec. 1912. In the course of his organization of the army, especially of the supply department, he campaign which ensued. Nevertheless, owing to his final adhesion . to Bonaparte’s fortunes, he received a marshal’s baton at the bemade many enemies who compelled his dismissal by the emperor rea won and Army 4th n Austria the ded comman he In 1914 ginning of the empire (May 19 1804). In the campaign of 1805 markable victory at Komaréw, Aug. 26-Sept. 3, 1914. he did good service around Constance and Bregenz, and at Jena After the victory Auffenberg succeeded in the difficult operation (Oct. 14 1806) his corps distinguished itself. Early in 1807 he fell of completely changing the front of his entire army, with which ill of a fever, and at the battle.of Eylau he had to be supported hemoved southward in time to take part in the second battle of on his horse, but directed the movements of his corps with his Lemberg; but the superior strength of the Russians and the wonted bravery. His corps was almost annihilated and the marshal failure of his colleagues to maintain the front farther south made himself received a wound from which he never quite recovered. itimpossible for him to avert defeat. He was then called on to When transferred to Catalonia, he gained some successes but resign his command, and in April 1915 was arrested for alleged tarnished his name by cruelty. In the campaign of 1812 in inegularities during his tenure of the war ministry. There was Russia, and in the Saxon campaign of 1813, his conduct was little no real evidence for the charges and he was acquitted; but he more than mediocre. Before the battle of Leipzig (Oct. 16 to 19 took no further part in public life. He wrote Aus Oesterreichs 1813), Napoleon reproached him with not being the Augereau of Hohe und Niedergang (1921); he also contributed to the Encyclo- Castiglione, to which he replied, “Give me back the old soldiers pedia Britannica (12th ed.) an important article on the battles of Italy, and I will show you that Iam.” In 1814 he had command around Lemberg (Lwow) and some biographies. of the army of Lyons, and his slackness exposed him to the charge AUFGESANG, a division of the verses or stanzas of the of having come to an understanding with the Austrian invaders. ancient German Minnelieder. The stanza was usually divided Thereafter he served Louis XVIII., but after reviling Napoleon, into three sections. The two first, which were similar in con- went over to him during the Hundred Days. The emperor resuction, formed the introduction or Aufgesang, and the third pulsed him and charged him with being a traitor to France in was known as the Abgesang or conclusion. The form is still in 1814. Louis XVIII., when restored to the throne, deprived him of we for hymns., his military title and pension. He died at his estate of La HousAUFIDENA, ancient city of the Samnites Caraceni, just saye on June 12 £816. In person he was tall and commanding, wrth of modern Alfedena, Italy, a station on the railway between` but his loud and vulgar behaviour frequently betrayed the soldier Sulmona and Isernia, 37m. from the latter. Its remains are de- of fortune.

(nd ed., Leipzig, 1879).

ribed by L. Mariani in Monumenti dei Lincei (1901), 225 seg. ; See Kock’s Mémoires de Masséna; Bouvier, Bonaparte en Italie; ej. Notizie degli scavi (x901), 442 seg.; (1902), 516 seq. The Count A. F. Andréossi, La Campagne sur le Mein, r800-01; Baron A. the ancient city occupied two hills, both over 3,800ft. above sea- Ducasse, Précis de la campagne de l'armée de Lyon en r814; and kvel (in the valley between were found the supposed remains of Memoirs of Marbot. AUGHRIM or AGHRIM, a small village in Co. Galway, thelater forum), and the walls, of rough Cyclopean work, were oe. It is rendered memorable over a mile in circuit. Fourteen hundred tombs have already been Ireland, 4m. W. by S. of Ballinasl on July 12, 1691, by the here gained victory decisive the only by be may this and town, the below necropolis famined in the over those of James Ginkel, General under III. William of forces asixteenth of the whole. They are all inhumation burials, of the atvanced iron age (7th to 4th century B.c.), falling into three II. under the French general St. Ruth, who fell in the fight. The

—those without coffin, those with a coffin formed of stone and those with a coffin formed of tiles. The objects dis"labs, | || covered are preserved in a museum on the spot. Castel di Sangro,

Irish, numbering

25,000

and strongly posted behind

marshy

ground, at first maintained-a vigorous resistance; but Ginkel having penetrated their line of defence, and their general being

AUGIER—AUGSBURG

678

were | view cannot be sustained. It is believed by some investigator, struck down by a cannon ball at this critical moment, they loss that alumina and ferric oxide (above that needed for the acmita. The r. slaughte terrible with routed at length overcome and ; jadeite molecules) enter as such in solid solution with diopside of the English did not exceed 700 killed and 1,000 wounded and hedenbergite. Thus interpreted an analysis of an augite from men, 7,000 about lost flight, us disastro their in while the Irish, Hawaii and 6-32% AlO; and 3-36% Fe:0s, has the molecular the d rendere defeat This army. besides the whole material of the efforts, and composition as follows: CaMgSi:0s, 69-12%; CaFeSinOg, 15.130. further of le incapab Ireland in James of ts adheren NaFeSi:Os (acmite), 5-089; MgsSiOs, 1-90%; FeSiOs, 0.40% was speedily followed by the complete submission of the country.

AUGIER,

GUILLAUME

VICTOR

EMILE

(1820-

on Sept. 1889), French dramatist, was born at Valence, Drôme, ed to belong and , Lebrun Pigault of on grands the was He 17 1820. as well as t though in and les princip in the well-to-do bourgeoisie for the by actual birth. He received a good education and studied La Ciguë, bar. In 1844 he wrote a play in two acts and in verse, Thenceforproduced with considerable success at the Odéon. oration ward, at fairly regular intervals, either alone or in collab Ed. e, Labich -Marie Eugéne u, Sandea s with other writers—Jule eventful. Foussier—he produced plays which were in their way 1878. His last comedy, Les Fourchambault, belongs to the year able After that date he wrote no more, restrained by an honour 25 fear of producing inferior work. He died at Croissy on Oct. 1889.

(AL Fe)203,8-659. Common augite is usually non-pleochroic, but

varieties containing significant proportions of soda (aegirine. augite) or titania (titan-augite) are noticeably so, the former be

ing characteristically green and the latter violet in thin section

Augite is a common mineral of igneous rocks of medium and low

silicity such as porphyrites, gabbros and basalts while the varieties aegirine-augite and titan-augite are characteristic of alkaline ig. neous rocks, nepheline- and leucite-bearing lavas and intrusions (C. E. T) À monchiquites, limburgites, etc.

AUGMENT, in Sanskrit and Greek grammar the vowel pre-

fixed to indicate the past tenses of a verb; in Greek grammar it is called syllabic, when only the € is prefixed; temporal, when it causes an initial vowel in the verb to become a diphthong or long vowel, (Lat. augere, to increase).

AUGMENTATION, or enlargement, a term in heraldry for Augier, with Dumas fils and Sardou, may be said to have held an addition to a coat of arms; in biology, an addition to the normal d respecte man The Empire. Second the during stage the French did not number of parts; in Scots Law, an increase of a minister’s stipend himself and his art, and his art on its ethical side—for he by an action called “Process of Augmentation.” The “Court of disdain to be a teacher—has high qualities of rectitude and selfAugmentation” in Henry VIII.’s time was established to try cases honesty, generous heart, of and mind of ness Upright restraint. affecting the suppression of monasteries, and was dissolved in his all of soul very the ted as Jules Lemaître well said, constitu of Mary’s reign. In music, augmentation is a term signifying that the first the verse, in (1848), uriére L’Avent work. dramatic from notes to which it applies are doubled in length, quavers becoming Augier’s important works, already shows a deviation crotchets, crotchets minims, and so on. courthe (1855) romantic models; and in the Mariage d’Olympe aus AUGSBURG, a city and episcopal see, Bavaria, Germany, Dame Dumas’s in as glorified not is, she as tesan is shown Camélias. In Gabrielle (1849), in verse, he declared war on romanticism; and in tbe comedies that followed he showed no r sympathy for the nervous and melancholy types of characte hitherto in favour. But it is difficult to comment on contemporary life in verse, and Augier found fuller expression for his criticism of the Paris of his day when he turned to prose-writing. Le Gendre de M. Poirier (1854), written in collaboration with Jules

Sandeau, is still a classic. Others of his nine successful plays are Le Fils de Giboyer (1862), Lions et renards (1869), Jean de Thommeray (1874), Madame Caverlet (1876), and Les Fourchambault (1878). The two last-named are pièces à thèse on the strict Dumas model. Augier’s first drama, La Ciguë, belongs to

a time (1844) when the romantic drama was on the wane; and his almost exclusively domestic range of subject scarcely lends itself to lyric outbursts of pure poetry. His verse, if not that of a great poet, has excellent dramatic qualities, while the prose of his prose dramas is admirable for directness, alertness, sinew and a large and effective wit. René Doumic has said of his plays that in their ensemble they form the most complete expression of the bourgeois society of the time, and that they are one of the most important manifestations of the bourgeois spirit in the whole of French literature.

AUGITE, an important rock-forming mineral of the pyroxene

(g.v.) group. The name is now applied to aluminous pyroxenes of the monoclinic series, which are dark-green, brown or black in colour. The habit of well-shaped crystals in lavas is simple and very characteristic, consisting of the forms a (r00), b (oro), m (110), and s (111). Twins with the orthopinacoid (100) as twin plane are common.

Chemically, augite is an isomorphous mix-

chief town of the district of Swabia. Pop. (1925) 165,522. Lying

on a plateau 1,500ft. above sea, between the rivers Wertach and

Lech, which unite below the city, it consists of an upper and a lower town, the old Jakob suburb and various modern suburbs. Augsburg (Augusta Vindelicorum) is named aiter Augustus, who established a Roman colony here about 14 B.c. Sacked by the Huns in the sth century it afterwards came under the power of the Frankish kings. It suffered in the war of Charlemagne against Tassilo III., duke of Bavaria; and later became part of the dukedom of Swabia, when it became important as a manufacturing and commercial town, becoming, after Nürnberg, the centre of the trade between Italy and North Europe; its merchant princes, the Fuggers and Welsers, rivalled the Medici of Florence; but with the discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries trade declined. In 1276 it was made a free imperial city, until its annexation (1806) to the kingdom of Bavaria. It was besieged and taken by Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, and in 1635 surrendered to the imperial forces; in 1703 it was bombarded by the electoral prince of Bavaria, and also suffered severely in the war of 1803. The Augsburg confession (1530) and the Augsburg alliance (1686) were decided here. Its fortifications, dismantled in 1703, are public promenades. Maximilian street is remarkable for its breadth and for the Fugger Haus, of which the entire front is painted in fresco. The Renaissance town-hall (1616-1620) is one of the finest in Germany, and contains the “Golden Hall,” 113ft. long, soft. broad and 53ft. high. The cathedral, with two Romanesque . towers, dates from the roth century. The church of St. Ulrich is Late Gothic (1474-1500), finely proportioned, with a high tower

(300ft.). The church contains, besides fine ironwork, the montments of the Fuggers. The newer buildings, in the west quarter of the city, include law courts, a theatre, and a municipal library. The “Fuggerei,” built in 1519 by the brothers Fugger, 1s a miniature town, with six streets or alleys, three gates and a church, and:«consists of 106 small houses let to indigent Roman Catholic

ture in which the compounds diopside (CaMgSi:Os) (g.v.) and hedenbergite (CaFe’Si:Os) preponderate, but containing also alumina and ferric oxide and variable amounts of the (Mg,Fe”) SiO; (clinoenstatite) molecule. The small amount of sodium usually present in the mineral occurs in solid solution as the acmite-jadeite molecule. The interpretation of augite analyses citizens. Augsburg, the chief seat of the textile industry in south Geris not simple, and it is at present not possible to state the has bleaching manner in which the sesquioxides (Al,Fe””):O3 are disposed in many, produces woollen, linen and cotton goods and industrial maural and the constitution of the mineral. According to G. Tschermak’s and dye works. Its production of agricult view, these enter in the form of the hypothetical silicate chinery and its chemical works are important. important AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF, the mostReformation, (Mg,Fe)O.(Al,Fe)203SiO2 sometimés known as Tschermak silithe at up drawn belief of statement Protestant this that shows cate, but a study of superior analyses of augite

AUGSBURG—AUGURS ted in Latin and German to the emperor Charles V. at the piet of Augsburg, June 25, 1530. It was compiled by Melancthon,

hased on articles previously drawn up by Luther, and in parr on those presented by him at the Marburg conference (see

679

out {those from the sky and from birds) were taken, to mark with his staff the templum or consecrated space within which his i observations were intended to be made. At midnight, when the in sky was clear and there was an absence of wind, the augur, the presence of a magistrate, took up his position on a hill which

yagsvxc, COLLOQUY OF); Melancthon being in constant Itcorrehas afforded a wide view. After prayer and sacrifice, he marked out dence with Luther while compiling the Confession. in the templum both in the sky and on the ground and dedicated it. is and n doctrine,

a the classical statement of Luthera dect the official creed of the Lutheran Churches. The 21 articles

g its frst part state the main doctrines held by Lutherans: (e) a common with Roman Catholicism, the doctrine of the creeds af the Catholic Church; (b) in common with Augustine and his illowers, against Pelagianism and Donatism

(gg.v.); (c) in

ition to Roman Catholicism, affirming justification by faith

md the exclusive mediatorship of Christ; also on the Church, the

pinistry, and rites; (d) in opposition to Anabaptism, on the meaning and administration of sacraments, on confession, and on the millennium. The seven articles of the second part condemn what Lather and his followers believed to be the chief Roman abuses:

(1) withholding the cup; (2) compulsory celibacy of the clergy; (3) the Mass a sacrifice; (4) compulsory confession; (5) festivals

ind fasts; (6) monastic vows; (7) secular authority exercised Gee Hastings, Encyclopaedia af Religion and Ethics, art. “Con-

by bishops.

sions,” § 13, “Confessions in the Lutheran Churches”; Lindsay, History of the Reformation, vol. i, bk. ii., ch. v.; Beard, The Ref-

omation in Relation to Modern Thought and Knowledge; Herzog-

Hauck, Realencyklopadie, art. “Augsburger Bekenntniss,” with referof the mes to Continental writers. On the history of the text

Confession, see Müller, Die symbolischen

Bücher

der evangelisch-

itkerischen Kirche (1907). The text presented at the Diet is known ws the Invariata, and the edition revised by Melancthon and issued

in144o as the Variata—the former being authoritative for Lutheranism.

AUGSBURG, WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF (the name plied to the European War of 1688-97). The League of Augsburg was concluded on July 9, 1686, by the emperor, the elector of Brandenburg and other princes, against the French. Spain, Sweden, England and other non-German states joined the league, ind formed the Grand Alliance by the Treaty of Vienna (July 12,1689). (See GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE.) AUGURS, in ancient Rome, members of a religious college whose duty it was to observe and interpret the signs (auspices) of approval or disapproval sent by the gods in reference to any proposed undertaking. The augures were originally called auspices, bwt, while auspex fell into disuse and was replaced by augur, suspicium was retained as the scientific term for the observation

of signs. Auspex=avi-spex, “observer of birds”; augur may perhaps=avi-gur, from garrire, to chatter (of birds), but is more probably to be referred to a lost verb augo, tell, so that the ogur would be one who declares the will of the gods. The early history of the college is obscure.

been attributed to Romulus or Numa.

Its “Institution has

It probably consisted

originally of three members, of whom the king himself was one. This number was doubled by Tarquinius Priscus, but in 300 B.C. t was only four, two places, according to Livy (x.6), being vaant. The Ogulnian law in the same year increased the number

to nine, five plebeian being added to the four patrician members. la the time of Sulla the number was 15, which was increased to 16 by Julius Caesar. This number continued in imperial times; the college itself was certainly in existence as late as the 4th century A.D. The office of augur, which was bestowed only upon persons of distinguished merit and was much sought after by reason of its political importance, was held for life. Vacancies

were originally filled by co-optation, but by the Domitian law

(to4) the selection was made, by 17 out of the 35 tribes chosen bylot,from candidates previously nominated by the college. The mignia of office were the litwus, a staff free from knots and bent a the top, and the trabea, a kind of toga with bright scarlet “upes and a purple border. i Thescience of augury was contained in various written works, nduding a manual of augural ritual, and a collection of answers even by the college to the senate. The natural region to look to forsigns of the will of Jupiter was the sky, where lightning and the flight of birds seemed directed by him as counsel to men. It was the duty of the augur, before the auspices properly so called

Within its limit he then pitched a tent, in which he sat down with covered head, asked the gods for a sign, and waited for an answer.

As the augur looked south he had the east, the lucky quarter, on his left, and therefore signs on the left side were considered

favourable, those on the right unfavourable. The practice was the reverse in Greece; the observers of signs looked towards the north, so that signs on the right were regarded as the favourable ones, and this is frequently adopted in the Roman poets. The augur afterwards announced the result of his observations in a set form of words, by which the magistrate was bound. Signs of the will of the gods were of two kinds, either in answer to a request (auspicia impetrativa), or incidental (auspicia oblativa). Of such signs there were five classes: (1) Signs in the sky (caelestia auspicia), consisting chiefly of thunder and lightning, but not excluding falling stars and other phenomena. Lightning from left to right was favourable, from right to left unfavourable; but on its mere appearance, in either direction, all business in the public assemblies was suspended for the day. Since the person charged to take the auspices for a certain day was constitutionally subject to no other authority who could test the truth or falsehood of his statement that he had observed lightning, this became a favourite device for putting off meetings of the public assembly. Restrictions were, however, imposed in later republican times. When a new consul, praetor or quaestor entered on his first day of office and prayed the gods for good omens, it was a matter of custom to report to him that lightning from the left had been seen. (2) Signs from birds (signa ex avibus), with reference to the direction of their flight, and also to their singing, or uttering other sounds. To the first class, called alites, belonged the eagle and the vulture; to the second, called oscines, the owl, the crow and the raven. The mere appearance of certain birds indicated good or ill luck, while others had a reference only to definite persons or events. In matters of ordinary life on which divine counsel was prayed for, it was usual to have recourse to this form of divination. For public affairs it was, by the time of Cicero, superseded by the fictitious observation of lightning. (3) Feeding of birds (auspicia ex tripudiis), which consisted in observing whether a bird—usually a fowl—on grain being thrown before it, let fall a particle from its mouth (tripudium sollistimum). If it did so, the will of the gods was in favour of the enterprise in question. The simplicity of this ceremony recommended it for very general use, particularly in the army when on service. (4) Signs from animals (pedestria auspicia, or ex quadrupedibus), 1.¢. observation of the course of, or sounds uttered by, quadrupeds and reptiles within a fixed space, corresponding to the observations of the flight of birds, but much less frequently employed. (5) Warnings (signa ex diris), consisting of all unusual phenomena, but chiefly such as

boded ill. Such were various noises, the fall of a stick in a temple, the squeak of a mouse, stumbling, sneezing, or the seizure of anyone in the comitia by an epileptic fit (morbus comitialis).

Being accidental in their occurrence, they belonged to the auguria oblativa, and their interpretation was rather a matter for the pontifices than for the augurs, when the incident was not already provided for by a rule.

Among the other means of discovering the will of the gods were the casting of lots, oracles of Apollo (in the hands of the college sacris faciundis), but chiefly the examination of the entrails of animals slain for sacrifice (see Omen). Anything abnormal found there was brought under the notice of the augurs, but usually the Etruscan aruspices (g.v.) were employed for this. The persons entitled to ask for an expression of the divine

will on a public affair were the magistrates.

To the highest

offices, including all persons of consular and praetorian rank,

belonged the right of taking auspicia maxima; to the inferior

AUGUST—AUGUSTA

680

offices of aedile and quaestor, the auspicia minora; the differences between these, however, must have been small. The subjects for which auspicia publica were always taken were the election of magistrates, their entering on office, the holding of a public assembly to pass decrees, the setting out of an army for war. They could only be taken in Rome itself; and in case of a commander having to renew his auspicia, he must either return to Rome or select a spot in the foreign country to represent the hearth of that city. The time for observing auspices was, aS 2 rule, between midnight and dawn of the day fixed for any proposed undertaking. The founding of colonies, the beginning of a battle, the calling together of an army, sittings of the senate, decisions of peace or war, were frequently occasions for taking auspices. The place where the ceremony was performed was not fixed, but selected with a view to the matter in hand. A spot being selected, the official charged to make the observation pitched his tent there some days before. A matter postponed through adverse signs from the gods could on the following or some future day be again brought forward for the auspices. If an error (vitium) occurred in the auspices, the augurs could, of their own accord or at the request of the senate, inform themselves of the circumstances, and decree upon it. A consul could refuse to accept their decree while he remained in office, but on retiring he could be prosecuted. Auspicia oblativa referred mostly to the comitia. A magistrate was not bound to take notice of signs reported merely by a overlook such a report from a if a quaestor on his entry to nounced it to the consul, the sembly for the day. BretiocrapHy—On

private winter homes.

Horseback riding is popular, as well a

‘tennis and golf, and the annual Winter horse show is a brilliant

| event.

The city extends along the river, from Lake Olmstead on the north, for more than 3m. On its outskirts are the residentia

|suburbs of Lakemont and Forest Hills; the Country Club with two 18-hole golf courses; the aviation field; the U.S. Veterans

private person, but he could not brother magistrate. For example, office observed lightning and anlatter must delay the public as-

the subject generally, see A. Bouché-Leclercq,

Psychiatric hospital No. 62; and Pendleton camp, aprivate bene. faction for disabled veterans of the World War (1ooac. of virgi woodland, with cottages built as required), given and endowed

(1919) by his parents as a memorial to Lieut. John Pendleton

King. Across the river in South Carolina are the residential suburbs of North Augusta. Three miles down the river is the new Sand Bar Ferry bridge. The giant oaks which shade its approach mark

the site of the most famous duelling ground of South Caroling and Georgia, where the last duel on record was fought in 1875,

The main business thoroughfare of the city (Broad street) is r7oft. wide, and in it stands the Confederate monument, a shaft of marble surmounted by the figure of a private soldier, Oy

beautiful Greene street are the city hall and the county com

house, and several monuments of interest: to the poets of Georgia

who include Sidney Lanier; to Samuel Hammond, a revolutionary

soldier and statesman; to the men of Richmond county who fell in the war between the States; and to the three Georgia signers of the Declaration of Independence. Over the canal is a bridge erected as a memorial to Archie Butt, who went down with the “Titanic.” The city is famous for its beautiful private gardens, There are many buildings of historic interest: e.g., St. Paul's Episcopal church (founded 1750); the First Presbyterian church (1804) and the manse where Woodrow Wilson passed his boyhood: the United States arsenal, the only one in the south-east of the Mississippi, which was established in 1816, and has ocupied its present site since 1826; the chimney of the Confederate

Histoire de la divination dans Vantiquité (1879), and his articles, with bibliography, in Daremberg and Saglio’s Dictionnaire des antiquités; J. Marquardt, Rémische Staatsverwaltung (iti. 1885); articles “Aug- powder mill, which was the principal source of supply for the ures,” “Auspicium,” in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyklopadie (II. pt. ii., Confederate army; and many homes of men who were prominent 1806); G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer (1912), and by in the history of state and nation. A Celtic cross in St. Paul's L. C. Purser (and others) in Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman (3rd ed., 1890). (See also DIVINATION, OMEN, ASTROLOGY, churchyard marks the site of Fort Augusta, built by Oglethorpe oe

etc.

in 1735. It was near Augusta that Eli Whitney set up and operated his first cotton-gin. AUGUST The medical department of the University of Georgia (see Julian Roman year, which received its present name from the been had founded in 1829 as the Georgia Medical college, ocQuintilis, Aruens), month, preceding The Augustus. Emperor of 45ac., on which are located also the University August campus a chose cupies emperor called “July” after Julius Caesar, and the to be renamed in his own honour because in that month he had hospital (built and maintained by the city) and the Wilhenford and been admitted to the consulate, had thrice celebrated a triumph, hospital for children, both of which are under the medical The State had received the allegiance of the soldiers stationed on the Jan- surgical control of the university medical department. The iculum, had concluded the civil wars, and had subdued Egypt. school for mentally defective children is rom. from the city. of Academy the for erected building a occupies school high Syracuse boys’ AUGUSTA, a seaport of Sicily, 19m. N. of by rail. Pop. (192) 17,672 (town); 20,254 (commune). It Richmond county (founded 1783). Paine college (incorporated supported occupies a part of the former peninsula of Xiphonia, now a small as Paine institute, 1883) is an institution for negroes island, connected with the mainland by a bridge. Founded by the by the Methodist Episcopal Church South. Augusta has a large wholesale and retail trade. It is one of the Emperor Frederick II. (1232), it was almost destroyed by earthinland cotton markets in the country, handling over 400,000 largest quake (1693) after which it was rebuilt. The castle is now a large prison. The fine fortified port is used only as a naval har- bales yearly. Bank clearings in 1925 amounted to $345,121,000. The city owns a canal which furnishes water-power to six cotten bour. There are considerable saltworks at Augusta. power is available from AUGUSTA, a city of Georgia, U.S.A. 171m. E. by S. of mills and other industries, and additional several Atlanta, at the head of navigation on the Savannah river; the the hydro-electric development at the Stevens Creek dam, goods, cotton are res manufactu leading The city. the above miles county-seat of Richmond county. It is on federal highways 1, 25, ‘The and 78; is a pivoted point for other south-eastern roads; and is cotton waste, brick, automobile tires, fertilizers, and lumber. ents withia establishm ring manufactu 75 the of output ageregate served by the Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line, the Central of Georgia, the Georgia, the Charleston and Western ‘Carolina, and the city limits in 1927 was valued at $27,799,755. The assessed the Georgia and Florida railways, and by steamboats to Savannah valuation of property in 1926 was $51,688,891. Augusta was founded in 1735 by James Edward Oglethorpe, at the mouth of the river. It has an airport, the Raleigh H. The Daniel Air Field. The area is 9-68 sqm. The population was and was named after the contemporary princess of Wales.

(originally Sextilis), the sixth month in the pre-

52,548 in 1920; and was 60,342 in 1930 by the Federal census. About 40% are negroes. Augusta has a delightful climate, with an average monthly temperature ranging from 47° F. in January to 81° in July, and an average of 8 hrs. of sunshine daily throughout the year. This, combined with its accessibility, and with the natural beauties of pine forests, dogwood, jasmine, azaleas, and other characteristic flora, has given it an established reputation as a winter resort. There are hotels of charm and distinction, and many beautiful

Carolina colonists had a trading post in the vicinity before Oge-

thorpe, and earlier still it had been the chief trading centre of the

seven Cherokee nations. During the colonial period it was the

scene of several parleys and treaties with the Indians. At the most important of these, in 1763, the Choctaws, Creeks, Chicasaws, Cherokees, and Catawbas, meeting with the governors

North and South Carolina, Virginia, and Georgia, agreed tothe terms of the Treaty of Paris. At the opening of the Revolution the prevailing temper of Augusta was loyalist. The town was

AUGUSTA—AUGUSTINE ihe British for a month in 1779, and again from May 1780,

rg June 1781. Except for these periods it was the seat of the state

ent in 1779-80 and again from 1783—95. Here met the of Land court which confiscated the property of the loyalists

ia; and also the convention which ratified the i gf the United States. The town was incorporated in 1798 and secured a 3117. A steam packet to Savannah was established - stimulated the commercial development.

constitution : city charter in 1817, and

By 1860 the popu-

pion had grown to 12,493. Throughout the Civil War the city was important centre for the manufacture of military supplies.

AUGUSTA, the capital of Maine, U.S.A., and the shire-town

c of Kennebec county, at the head of navigation on the Kennebe river, 60m. N.E. of Portland.

It is served by the Maine Central

milroad, and in every direction radiate hard-surfaced highways, wd historic trails. The population in 1920 was 14,114, of whom 1930. 1281 were foreign-born, and 17,198 in

The State capitol is a fine building of native granite, which still the original front designed by Charles Bulfinch in 1829.

It houses the State museum, which contains many exhibits of Maine fauna. The executive mansion is the former home of

James G. Blaine, who lived here during most of his public life. Fort Western (erected 1754) was restored in 1919 as a historic

nonument. Across the river on a farm of Sooac. is a State hospital foc the insane, which was established in 1834. Lake Cobbosgecontee, one of the best fishing waters in Maine, is about 4m.

681

work, both as history and as literature. In form, the biographies

are plainly modelled upon Suetonius; the sources are obscure, the authorities quoted mostly unknown, if not imaginary. © Marius Maximus and Aelius Junius Cordus, to whose qualifications the Historia Augusta itself bears no favourable testimony, are oftenest cited, and are mere names for us. The earlier lives, however, contain a substratum of authentic historical fact, which recent critics have supposed to be derived from a lost work of an annalistic nature. Another and less good source was a series of biographies of the emperors. As to the alleged extracts from public records, private letters, etc., of the emperors, and so forth, they are to be received with the utmost caution, so many being palpable forgeries as to create a prejudice against them all. No biographical particulars are recorded respecting any of the writers. From their acquaintance with Latin and Greek literature they must have been men of letters by profession, and very probably secretaries or librarians to persons of distinction. There seems no reason to accept Gibbon’s contemptuous estimate of their social position. They appear particularly versed in law. Spartianus’s reference to himself as “Diocletian’s own” seems to indicate that he was a domestic in the imperial household. They address their patrons with deference, acknowledging their own deficiencies, and seem painfully conscious of the profession of literature having fallen upon evil days.

BreriocrapHy.—Editio princeps (1475). Casaubon (1603) showed great critical ability in his notes, but for want of a good ms. left the restoration of the text to Salmasius (1620), whose notes are a most remarkable monument of erudition, combined with acuteness in verbal criticism and general vigour of intellect. Of recent years considerable attention has been devoted by German scholars to the History, especially by Peter, whose edition of the text in the Teubner series (1884) contains (praef. xxxv.—xxxvii.) a bibliography of works on the subject preceding the publication of his own special treatise. For the latest comment, see Norman Baynes, The Historia Augusta, its Date and Purpose (1926, contains bibliography of earlier works).

W. of the city. The bridge across the Kennebec is 1,1ooft. long, ai the Kennebec dam (first built in 1837) develops electric energy to the amount of 4,500h.p. The principal industries are the manufacture of paper, cotton goods and shoes. Printing and publishing also are important, acuding the publication of periodicals which have a combined drulation of nearly 3,000,000. The post office handles daily 40 AUGUSTA PRAETORIA SALASSORUM (mod. Aosta, ms of outgoing second-class mail. There is a paper-mill with a ancient town of Italy, district of the Salassi, founded by g.v.), daily output of 126 tons of newsprint; a cotton-mill with 2,000 about 24 B.C. on the site of the camp of Varro Murena, Augustus capacity daily a with l boms and 70,000 spindles; a lumber-mil this tribe in 25 B.C., and settled with 3,000 praetosubdued who of sooooft. of long lumber, 40,000 laths and 30,000 shingles; it the last town of Italy on the north-west, and calls Pliny rians. and factories making shoes and shirts. The output of the 31 confluence of two rivers, at the end of the Great the at position its at valued was 1927 in establishments within the city limits and Little St. Bernard, gave it much military importance, which $11,444,371. for by considerable remains of Roman buildings. The Augusta occupies the site of an Indian village, Koussinoc, is vouched walls, enclosing a rectangle 793 by 624yd., are 21ft. town ancient viere the Plymouth Colony established a trading-post about 1628. faced with small blocks. There are towers at the concrete ln 1754 a fort was erected. A post office was established in 1794. high, and others at intervals, and two at each enceinte, the of angles in Harrington of name The town was incorporated under the a total of 20 towers altogether. They making gates, four the of 1797, and became the-shire-town in 1799. It was chosen as the project 14ft. from the wall. The east and square, 32ft. roughly are government of seat the became and 1827, wpital of the State in a double gate with three arches latter, (the exist gates south and charter n 1831, on the completion of the State house. The city flanked by two towers, is the Porta Praetoria, and is especially was obtained in 1840. while the rectangular Roman street scheme divides the town AUGUSTA BAGIENNORUM, chief town of Ligurian fine), blocks (insulae). The main east to west road, 32ft. wide, 16 into Bagienni, identical with modern Bene Vagienna, on the upper divides the city into two equal halves, showing that the city guardremained It Italy. Turin, of S. course of the Tanaro, about 35m. (diameters 282ft. atribal centre in the reorganization and replanning under Augus- ed the road. Some arcades of the ampbitheatre the south wall of the theatre are also preserved, and 239ft.) and buildings, public of remains are There bears.. it name ius,whose of over 7oft., and a market-place some 3ooit. m concrete faced with small stones, with bands of brick at the latter to a height storehouses on three sides with a temple by surrounded square, niervals, an amphitheatre with major axis 39oft. and minor the open (south) side, and the thermae, on two and centre, the in the it near and length, ais 30sft., a theatre with stage 133ft. in the town is a handsome triumphal Outside discovered. been have foundations of what was probably a basilica, an open space (no Augustus. About 5m. to the west is a singleof honour in arch gates, city the of one also baths, aqueduct, an doubt the forum), arched Roman bridge, the Pondel, which has a closed passage, tanked by two towers 22 feet square. by windows for foot passengers in winter, and above it an AUGUSTAN HISTORY, the name given to a collection of lighted open footpath, both being about 3}ft. in width. There are con>

the biographies of the Roman emperors from Hadrian to Carinus (AD, 117-284). The work, which, as we have it, is mutilated, the Preface and a few lines being lost, professes to have been written during the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine, and to be the composition of six authors—Aelius Spartianus, Julius Capitolinus, Aelius Lampridius, Vulcacius Gallicanus, Trebellius Pollio and

Flavius Vopiscus. Who really wrote it is unknown; the date is perhaps the reign of Julian; the whole tone is interpreted by

ynes (see below) as one of disguised propaganda in his favour.

The importance of the Augustan history as a repertory of in-

emation is very considerable, because it is frequently our only authority for the period it covers. It is, however, a most wretched

siderable remains of the ancient road from Eporedia (mod. Jurea) to Augusta Praetoria, up the Valle d'Aosta, which the modern railway follows.

See C. Promis, Le antichità dì Aosta (Turin, 1862); E. Bérard in Atti della Societa di Archeologia di Torino, iii. 119 seg.; Notizie degli Scavi, passim; A. d’Andrade, Relazione dell’Ufficto Regionale per la conservazione dei Monumenti del Piemonte e della Liguria, 146 seq.

(Turin, 1899); F. Haverfield, Ancient Town Planning (Oxford, 1913).

AUGUSTINE, SAINT (AURELIUS AUGUSTINUS)

(354-430), bishop of Hippo in Proconsular Africa, A.D. 396-430,

was born at Tagaste, a small town in the eastern part of the adjacent province of Numidia, in the year 354. His father Patricius

AUGUSTINE

682

In reminiscence Arup became Christian late in life; his mother Monica seems to have |where she joined a religious community. her grief, but is much mon been Christian from her girlhood. Both were probably of pure , tine betrays some sympathy with The result was a renewed convicio Roman birth, but it is seldom possible to examine the racial ante- occupied with his ownof loss. continence, which he freely discussed wi, y cedants of provincials at that date, and there may well have been of the impossibilit Alypius, doing the young man m some Numidian or Punic blood in the family. In any case they | his pupil, the naturally chaste may refer the ejaculatory prayer we period this To harm. little perare country the of influences were Africans, and the climatic me chastity, but not yet!” The “Give memory, his on branded | be may It ceptible in the natural bent of Augustine's character. to Manichaeism noted that he wrote sympathetically of the last struggle of Carth- | struggle of flesh and spirit, which had driven him He took another soon decided. age, and, addressing the Romans of his own day, called the con- | was again active. The issue was time before his marriage, and was probably queror “ille Scipio vester.” (Civ. Dei. i. 30. ili. 18.) He was ac- concubine for the but himself. none by blamed | with affinity its of aware and language, quainted with the Punic

Hebrew; when a bishop, he insisted on the appointment of priests who could

(2) Ponticianus, an officer of the palace, called on Augustine and Alypius one day, and, a Christian himself, was surprised to

was sent to a school of grammar at Madaura, an ancient colony of veterans

ensuing conversation led him to speak of two officers of the im. perial staff at Tteveri who casually found in a house which they

find a volume of St. Paul's Epistles lying on their table. The ep.

speak it. At barely 12 years of age he where all was traditionally Roman.

visited a copy of the Life of St. Anthony, the great Egyptian her.

Five

years later, steeped in Latin literature, but imperfectly acquainted with Greek

mit; they read of his austerities, and were moved to embrace the same mode of life. Augustine was overwhelmed with shame

Carthage, partly at the cost of his wealthy townsman Romanianus, for a course of rhetoric. Formally made a

ent and philosopher pledged to contempt of the world, could not compass. (3) The weakness of the spirit against the flesh was enhanced

his mother’s teaching to feel dissatisfied

describes as inflated with conceit introduced him to the works oj

and actively disliking it, he passed to

Those soldiers could make an act of renunciation which he, stud-

catechumen in childhood, he was not a Christian. He still retained enough of

by the intellectual weakness of scepticism. From this Augustine passed at a bound to Neoplatonism. A man whom he unkindly

with the Hortensius of Cicero, for the strange reason that it contained no refer-

Plotinus, translated into Latin by Marius Victorinus, the eminent rhetorician practising at Rome. He read them with a personal

curiosity. The self-reproaches of his maturity afforded no reason for attributing to him any plunge into gross licentiousness during his student days, and the constant temptations to such conduct seem

of the immediate effect, as narrated in the Confessions, may be coloured by later studies, for he says that he found in them a AFTRA) Sravenent Ne contact with the doctrine of the Word as taught in the fourth eraziz, aT arezzo ST. AUGUSTINE, THE gospel; but the effect was certainly great, and he was, in a sense, GREAT CHRISTIAN BISHOP | Platonist from that time onward.

ence to Jesus Christ, but this was probably an interest of nothing more than

disgusted him, though he “SNP PHILOSOPHER

interest when he heard from Simplicianus the story of the conversion of Victorinus to Christianity in his old age. His memory

(4) The scene in the garden is one of the great loci classici of

rather to have day with Alypius, who experienced their full force; but his moral standards were those | religious psychology. He was sitting one torn by the bitter conflict goof the time and place, even if he were temperate in practice. knew most of the trouble, his soul sudden gust of tears drove him from the Continence seemed to him out of the question; he formed at once | ing on within him. A went into the garden, and flung himself he friend; his of presence | one of those engagements of concubinage which were reckoned to-morrow and to-morrow!” He then long! “How sobbing was down, he before himself found and Christians, for even tolerable in the next garden “Tolle lege, singing child a of voice the heard pious the gave he whom to 20 years old the father of a boy moment, to know whether the that at even Curious, name Adeodatus. Shortly afterwards he came under the influence tolle lege.” he could remember noth game, childish some to belonged words critical hearer, a was years nine for and teachers, of Manichaean to himself as a divine them applied he once At kind. the of ing | possible but not scornful, looking forward to the remotely the house, took up a volume of St. to returned calmly command, | what showing significant, is attitude The elect. the of asceticism read the words’ that first met his was already the bent of his spirit. Intellectual difficulties, he was Paul’s Epistles, opened it and , not in chambering and drunkenness and rioting in “Not eyes: | told, would be solved when he had heard Faustus, the great master. envying: but put ye on the Lord ` and strife in not wantonness, | unpoor, a him thought Augustine Carthage; to Faustus came provision for the flesh in the lusts ` scholarly creature, contemptuously cast aside the whole system, | Jesus Christ, and make not l to Alypius, who read further, passage the thereof.” He showed and fell back on the scepticism of the Academy. is weak in the faith rethat “Him words, next the to pointed | with Rome to sea the crossed he mood this .—In Conversion Together they went to his small family, hoping to find employment there as teacher of ceive ye” and applied them to himself. i happened. what had and her Monica told year a and him, awaited disappointment and Failure rhetoric. himself with extreme (s) This narrative, written by Augustine He arrived and the whole story of his mental anguish, have been simplicity, | mother, his by joined soon there in the autumn of 384, and was One of the few now a widow. The crisis of his life was approaching. He soon questioned as inconsistent with what followed. after these soon that shows available chronology of notes clear | of came under the influence of Ambrose, the statesman-bishop later he accepted an invitation to lecture at Milan.

summer and of bis the city, who was engaged in a sharp struggle with Justina, the events Augustine, sick with the heat alike of country house pleasant a to party reading a took conflict, internal Arian mother of the young emperor Valentinian, but the influcan be dated This Verecundus. friend his by lent ence seems to have been rather moral than intellectual. He was | at Cassiciacum, had been they what discussed and read, they Here. 386. Aug. | escape an seek to him taught who Cicero, deep in the study of and interludes of rustic labours. from pyrrhonism in the practical certitude of moral judgments. | reading with youthful high spirits It is not easy to disentangle the events of the next two years, for |Monica, the only Christian of the party, occasionally inter-

the chronology of the memories written in his Confessions ap- | vened with modesty pears to be confused. It will be more serviceable to distinguish | notes of everything, ratives modelled on concurrent movements. (x) Monica was determined, in a way which seems curiously | the Dialogues Contra

and good sense. A shorthand writer took which Augustine reduced to connected narCicero’s Tusculan Disputations. These arè Academicos, De Beata Vita, and De Ordin.

with occasional glances at Christian modern, to settle him in marriage, and a suitable bride was found | They are purely philosophic, but imperfectly known in the world. Critics whọ was not quite of marriageable age. The most unpleasant in- | doctrines currently here to be foun cident of his life follows. As a preliminary, his faithful companion such as Gourdon and Alfaric ask what traces are ge described m Augustine which soul penitent stricken the the mother of Adeodatus was dismissed and sent back to Africa, | of

AUGUSTINE

683 he was

before his own death (Aug. 28, 430) If that picture had been true, Hippo. Four years Confessions 13 years afterwards. renou successor, but he would not then allow the his te nomina to asked ic, nced his chair of rhetor a is urged, he must at once have the interval that it was fornor ineking the ascetic life which SO strongly attracted him;

h have would his new friends within the Christian Churct. The

sion by a conver tolerated the retention of so pagan a profes ians in general shared Christ that imply to seems jatter objection the emperor Julian; by ity hostil open in affected

the sentiments had not þut Ausonius and Sulpicius Severus in recent years ation. for examin thought it necessary so to act. The former calls

we have to remember To understand the tone of the Dialogues was an instructed party the of men young the of that not one ng with the old breaki of t though no Christian, and some had heart on his religion: Augustine the penitent would not wear his

bear in mind that deeve with them. It is even more important to he found himgarden the in nt from the moment of the incide in a profound ed wrapp cases, such in s happen ntly freque gif, as at Cassiciagaiety his that e suppos to peace. We have no reason Confessions cm was either forced or affected. When writing his on the tions medita his except e episod that in g he cared for nothin mere as sed dismis he ues Dialog Psalter in hours of solitude; the lingerthe in ed finish were, they indeed which es, academic exercis afterwards he ing darkness of his unregenerate days. Many years

noted in his Retractations their inevitable faults.

received From Cassiciacum he wrote to Ambrose asking to be

asa convert, and at Easter, 387, the bishop himself baptized him

but wih Alypius and Adeodatus. He now resigned his chair, also and es, Dialogu the editing Milan, at fingered some months

he writing the two unfinished books of S oliloquia (a word which

same procedure, having learnt in

evidence that bidden by the Council of Nicaea. It is interesting 70 years Africa in current yet not were Nicaea of the Canons after their enactment.

strictly obThe rule forbidding translations of bishops was at

for life, served in Africa, and Augustine was therefore fixed . Durfamous it made He . 40 years of age, in that small seaport voices In ding resoun most the ate episcop his half than ing more was gone. the Catholic Church were Latin voices. Chrysostom Jerome, the Cyril was not yet come to his own. Augustine and at Bethlehem bishop of a provincial town in Africa and the monk been forced had which hood who would not minister in the priest upon him, had the weight of a whole hierarchy.

Both ruled by

Africa and the pen. Augustine never went beyond the confines of ial council Numidia; his voice was heard occasionally in a provinc Hippo; his at Carthage, constantly from his apostolic chair at everyletters, weighty and powerful like those of St. Paul, went them of number the tous; porten was some of length where. The all almost , twenty and d hundre must have been immense. Two ed by dated during his episcopate, have been preserved and collect d by the piety of subsequent ages to fill, with some so receive seem to him, a large volume in folio. His sermons, usually brief, form they ed, collect ; writers and shorth by ved preser have been y running commentaries on considerable parts of the Bible, notabl the the Psalms and the fourth gospel. Of all these, thrown off in es and day’s work, he took little further notice. Of formal tractat

224)

of his life (Ep. xamined larger works he calculated towards the end seems to have invented) in which he rigorously cross-e which he “retracted” of many 230, than more written had too that he bis consciousness. These he condemned in his old age as catalogue of great importance. ogical chronol a in zed ‘critici or cony’s Porphyr Platonic, echoing the theory of anamnesis and g. The greater treahe was al- Something is known of his manner of workin tempt for objects of sense. It was perhaps because the case of the 15 in ing extend ls, interva at un- tises were written ready getting free from those Platonisms that he left them of these were Twelve years. several over te Trinita De books , fnished. Another writing of this date De Jmmortalitate Animae final’ revision, before tion circula into put and him from d dragge which got into circulation against his will, he found even more with consequences which made him hasten to complete the work. to return to d objectionable on the same score. He then resolve The 22 books De Civitate Dei, begun three years after the sack Africa, with Monica and some intimate friends, planning a new of Rome by Alaric in the year 410, were issued separately as ge. marria ed project the of mode of life. Nothing more is heard written, and finished in 426. This mode of composition led to He did not yet, however, abandon his literary studies, and he excessive digressions, and reflections on current events, many of fnished the six books De Musica in Africa. which appear also in the epistles. Apart from these great works On the way thither Monica died, waiting at Ostia for embarkand the Confessions, almost all his writings bear the stamp of ation. In the Confessions Augustine unveiled his passionate their occasion. is grief, and the consolation that followed. Equally interesting Literary Style—Professor Souter’s judgment on Augustine the story of his last conversation with her, in which he follows that “even if he be not the greatest of Latin writers, he is almost verbally the method of Plotinus (Ennead. V. 2) for enterassuredly the greatest man that ever wrote Latin,’ may seem Plotinof elements ingon the Mystic Ascent. It may show what excessive. More critically we may say that this African of the ian theory had most affected him. 4th century might have been as Ciceronian as Jerome had he the on friends his with settled Life in Africa.—Augustine Jerome he would not have pretended to be small estate of his family at Tagaste, where they lived a common wished, and unlike the use of a more vulgar style in preachAvowing it. of ashamed a died, Adeodatus year a Within devotion. life of study and language current among the educated the write to elected he ing, diaa in brilliant boy of 17, whom his father made interlocutor flexible idiom than that of the more a was It day. logue De Magistro, the gist of which is that all knowledge comes of his own master of its possibilities. consummate a was he and classics, of great years three than less After God. directly or indirectly from sometimes controlled which phrases, of coiner great a was He this life, he happened to visit Hippo Regius, where his reputation more often did the same disservand powerfully too thought his years many of friend and disciple a Possidius, him. had preceded ejaculation of the Confessions, “Da standing, narrates as from his own mouth what happened. The ice to a reader. The famous became the starting point of the vis,” quod iube et aged bishop Valerius addressed his flock assembled in the church, quod iubes, from their context have been torn Phrases controversy. Pelagian laid they priesthood; the urging them to find a candidate for but mystical description simple His catchwords. dangerous made hands on Augustine and brought him forward; the bishop thereelementum et fit sacramentum,” ad verbum “Accedit baptism, of sevwhich of fashion tumultuous upon ordained him priest in the peripatetic distinction of matter eral examples are recorded in that age. This was early in the year isolated and supplemented by the whole chapter of theology. He a of foundation is the 391. His reputation continued to grow, chiefly because of his and form, the ambiguous persona as disliking words, about fastidious was afraid Valerius, and Donatists, conduct of controversy with the it was customary, and because it employed he theology; in of losing him to another church as bishop, wrote to Aurelius of used ut illud diceretur, sed ne “non better, none find could he because conbe should he that suggesting Carthage as primate of Africa, about Jerome’s resecrated bishop at once with right of succession to Hippo. Writ- taceretur.” (De Trin. v. 9.) He was uneasy his warnings were and Scripture, of text Latin ing to Paulinus of Nola (Ep. 31) Augustine described his hesi- vision of the Old Mr. tation about this unusual procedure, but precedents were quoted, treated by that irascible scholar as impertinent; but, as Dialogues His it. to reconciled became soon he shown, has m Africa and elsewhere, and it was decided so to proceed. Early Milne are among the lightest and best of their rather heavy kind. m the year 395 Megalio, the primate of Numidia, was at Hippo Theology.—In the space at our disposal it is impossible to With some other bishops, and Augustine was consecrated. In the an adequate account of Augustine’s contribution to theology. give of bishop became he Valerius, of death year, on the

following

t

684

AUGUSTINE

It is the more difficult because he was not himself—except when | these aside, to the conception of a world-wide society influens

writing De Trinitate, and then only at intervals—a systematic thinker. To find in his Civitas Dei an adumbration of the respublica christiana of the middle ages, would be equivalent to putting it there. The book contained valuable materials for the exponents of that polity, but for Augustine himself the empire under Theo-

dosius, though it might by the advent of justice have ceased to be grande latrocinium, remained none the less civitas terrena. Though he could bring himself after long resistance to accept its aid against the African schismatics, and though he could twist a text of the gospel into a justification of that attempt to “compel them to come in,” he remained unhappy in conscience. It was a hateful expedient, and one of the weak spots in his greatness was a tendency to fall back on expedients, alike in argument and in action. In consequence of all this, we have to seek most of his theology in occasional writings, and to sift it out of a mass of irrelevancies. It says much for the solidity of his habitual thought if we can arrive in this way at anything coherent. That can be done, but only in fragments. It may be said that Augustinianism is a close-knit system. It is; but Augustine was not an Augustinian. The close-knit system was formed out of elements gathered from ‘his writings and put together without regard to other elements no less proper to his thought. Almost from the time of his conversion he was entangled in one or another of three great controversies. As priest and bishop he found himself at grips with Donatists. He had already, before leaving Rome for Africa, undertaken as a personal task the refutation of Manichaeism. The publication of his Confessions brought upon him a challenge from Pelagius which was not disposed of while he lived. Each dispute in which he engaged led him to certain theological conclusions. The Donatists.—The Donatists had at first a fairly good case. They were the true inheritors of Cyprian’s doctrine of the Church, which they reduced to absurdity by pressing it relent-

lessly to a logical conclusion. A faction, though amounting to a

majority, of the African Church, they concluded that all the rest of the Church had fallen away to apostasy because not in communion with themselves. The schism was the stupidest, and the controversy about it the most wearisome, that has ever troubled the Christian Church, but Augustine drew from it some important points of doctrine. When he appeared on the scene, it had lasted for 70 years, and was become inveterate. He took up the argument of Optatus of Mileum, which he reduced to doggerel verse for the benefit of the unlearned. Optatus had boldly thrown over Cyprian’s theory, and argued that separation did not necessarily amount to apostasy; he therefore insisted, with some rough humour, on calling the Donatists his brothers, to their great annoyance; he maintained that he himself and they were alike sons of the one Church, held the same faith, and possessed the same sacraments. Augustine shrank from, dismissing so rudely the great African saint, and laboured at an accommodation. He met the difficulty about the sacraments by drawing a distinction between a sacrament and its effect, which has been fruitful in later theology. He argued that a sacrament is valid, whoever the minister may be, if administered in accordance with the institution of Christ, but the proper effect of the sacrament does not reach the soul of a recipient who interposes an obstacle of faithlessness, of heresy or of schism. Yet the proper effect is produced by the divine operation, even if it lie dormant, and the removal of the obstacle by the conversion of the recipient will release it for the work of grace. The more fundamental difficulty he treated with less subtlety, arguing that the whole Church throughout the world was properly called Catholica, while local churches were so called only because they were, broadly speaking, in communion with the whole. The whole Church, on this ground, condemned the Donatists as not Catholic, and acknowledged their opponents as Catholic. It was to beg the question; for the claim of the Donatists was that they, and they alone, were precisely the whole Church. But this dialectical weakness does not obscure the great addition made by Augustine to current conceptions of the Catholic Church. From the atomic episcopate of Cyprian and the earlier reliance on the traditions of apostolic sees he advanced, without putting

all its parts and all its members.

“Consensio populorum at

gentium,” he says, was one of the strands binding him:

G

same connection (Contra Ep. Fund. 5) he makes the memo statement, “I should not believe the gospel, did not the authorit of the Catholic Church move me thereto.” This authority should

be strictly understood; it was not in the nature of dominion

jurisdiction, but was the true Latin auctoritas.

Manichaeism.—He first attacked Manichaeism on the side of its determinism in the dialogue De libero Arbitrio. The conduct of the argument is rather sophistical, depending on the difficulty of expressing in Latin the distinction which we can easily make in English between wish and will.

The purpose is to affirm 4

valid experience of freedom and power. For Augustine what given in experience is the basis of all certainty. On this ground ly had further to combat the Manichaean dualism of light and dark. ness, good and evil, equally unalterable and eternal. The Platonic dualism of mind and matter, soul and body, was dangerously akin to this; he escaped from it by the way of the emanation. theory of Plotinus, in which all things that exist emanate from the eternal One, the source of all, partaking of existence in a meas. ure diminishing with distance. But he was not satisfied. For the

jejune idea of emanation he substituted the Hebraic conception

of Creative Will, drawn from the Sapiential Books of the Oj Testament. This gave him his monistic basis. But absolute trans. cendence of the First Cause would induce another absolute dualism of creator and creature. The argument drove him to the conception of a continuous Nature extending from Supreme Being—

ab eo qui summe esi—to the lowest grade of existence. The word natura became equivocal; there is the one continuous cursus naturae, and there are the several naturae

of existing things,

He could see subdivisions. The deacon Caelestinus, in diffculty with some Manichaeans, was instructed to see nature in triplicate: a nature mutable in time and space, which is body; a nature mwtable in time but not in space, which is soul; and a nature wholly immutable, which is God. Augustine was certainly not immanentist in the sense of making the creature constituent of the Creator, but his whole thought was of God immanent in the world, ordinator as well as creator, controlling all things “aut faciendo aut sinendo.” And God is Love. Therefore all that is in nature is essentially good. Where then is evil? Augustine was not the sort of optimist to explain it away as a lesser good. He had the beginnings of the scientific mind, an insatiable curiosity about the most trifling

facts of nature, which he sometimes deplored as a distraction from things of greater moment. Hence a firm adhesion to ascertained fact was one of his characteristics. He knew evil as a fact of his own experience. But a positive fact? That would meana return to dualism. Plotinus taught him that it was negative, a lack of something, a defect in that which is fundamentally good, due to remoteness from the Source. He accepted the description but not the explanation, for he had abandoned the emanationtheory. He found the cause in natures which are nearest in the

scale of being to the Creator; men, whom we know, and others perhaps higher, whose existence we assume. These have received the splendid gift of reason and a limited freedom, so that they ate capable of resisting control. Such lack of conformity to creative will is evil, and the only evil that he can find in the world, all other natures being constrained to obedience. Mala voluntas is the only malum. But the creature whose will is thus depraved remains naturally a good thing. Hence the affirmation which he

unweariedly iterates: “Omnis natura, inquantum natura est, bo-

num est.” Even evil actions, regarded merely as actions straction from the directing will, are not in themselves evil. Ina case of murder it is right to admire the strength and skill with which the fatal blow is delivered. The completeness of his morism is illustrated by his treatment of miracle. He took no account of “supernatural” causes. The word was not yet invented, and the idea was foreign to his mind. A miracle is simply an unusual event occurring in the course of nature, the immediate cause which is unknown: it is done “non contra naturam, sed contre quam est nota natura.” i

AUGUSTINE Pelagianism.—It might seem impossible to accuse Augustine in of reverting to Manichaean dualism, but the charge was made

his lifetime and has often been repeated. In yroversy he was constantly on the defensive. attack at Rome, scandalized by the words ibe quod vis,” which he took to involve freedom and responsibility.

his third great conPelagius opened the “Da quod iubes et

a denial of human

Augustine heard of the criticism, but

for some time took no public notice of it, though it was being freely discussed in correspondence. At last he wrote in general defence of his teaching the three books “De peccatorum meritis

Not ei remissione,” in which he avoided mention of Pelagius. at council a by 412 in Coelestius of n condemnatio the after mtil Carthage, from which he was wisely absent, did he come into the n with a book De Natura et Gratia in answer to one De Natura by Pelagius, whose zeal for human liberty and moral responsibility

he warmly commended.

The regions ecclesiastically dependent

on Rome were the stronghold of the new teaching, and when

Innocent I. in 417 confirmed the sentence on Coelestius, adding

a milder censure of Pelagius, he thought the trouble was at an end.

“Cqusa finita est,” he announced in a sermon at Hippo. For him i was only beginning. Within a year Zosimus, Innocent’s successor, reversed the judgment. A very large African council protested, and the imperial power was once more unhappily invoked. Honorius compelled Zosimus to cancel the reversal, and to pubish a more formal condemnation of the two leaders, which should he signed by all the bishops of the Roman province. Eighteen of

them refused to sign, and were banished from Italy by imperial rescript. From the broken ranks of the party a brilliant champion emerged. One of the banished bishops was Julian of Eclanum, 3 kinsman of Paulinus of Nola. Finding shelter in the East with Theodore of Mopsuestia, he opened a personal campaign against Augustine, who had beyond question laid himself open to criticism by his doctrine of sin. Maintaining always the essential goodness of every creature, inquantum natura est, he measured the effect

of sin upon human nature by his own experience of impotence in the face of sinful habit, without considering how far that experience was exceptional. He found the same weakness confessed by St. Paul in circumstances quite unlike his own. It amounted to a paralysis of the will, leaving him at the mercy of instincts, summed up comprehensively as concupiscence, which ought to be kept under control. A curious study of childpsychology convinced Augustine that this weakness was congenital, and here again he could Jean on St. Paul, though with less assurance. It was therefore inherited. Still with St. Paul he tumed to the myth of Eden, regarded as an adequate though

symbolical account of human origins, and the source of trouble was found in the sin of the first parents, causing a weakening of the will to do good, transmitted to all their offspring. Augustine attempted three explanations of this transmission, physiological identity of parent and offspring, solidarity of race, and a fouling of the act of generation by the presence of concupiscence. The result was that all humanity is a massa perditionis, in a state of moral death, out of which individuals are lifted to renewed life and liberty by a special fayour or grace of God perfected in the sacrament of baptism. The massa perditionis must not be

understood in the sense of the “total depravity” imagined by later Augustinians, for that was ruled out by his metaphysical requirement of a remnant of good in every creature. The doctrine of original sin was not invented by Augustine. It was in St. Paul, and more or less in all Christian teaching before him. What he added was the forensic idea of reatus, of guilt attaching even to a new-born child by reason of the depravation of nature. He argued this against Pelagius from the practice of infant baptism, allowed and even encouraged by the Church, since baptism was for the remission of sin. The answer of the Pelagians seems to be complete; remission of sin is not the only gift of grace in

baptism.

Julian began with a complaint that the part assigned to con-

cupiscence in this teaching involved a denial of the sanctity of marriage, which Augustine rebutted without much difficulty. He further alleged that it involved the Manichaean conception of the

685

flesh as intrinsically evil, and that the massa perditionis was noth-

ing else but the Manichaean Kingdom of Darkness. If Augustine no had been content to ignore these allegations, it is probable that great harm would have been done, but he insisted on answering at length every question that was raised, with the result that he was engaged for the remaining 12 years of his life in a constantly developing controversy, obstinately defending every doubtful position. It is generally agreed that he was dialectically no match for his opponent, who drove him from point to point, from exaggeration to exaggeration. Thus in the difficult doctrine of predestination the fact of God’s apparently arbitrary election of individuals to receive the gift of grace was twisted into a conclusion that by similar election the gift is refused to many for whom it is desired: “tam multos volentibus hominibus sed Deo nolente salvos non fieri.” (Ep. 217.) The proposition that fallen man cannot without the help of grace fulfil the purpose of God was stretched to mean that he cannot do anything well-pleasing to God. This extension is found elsewhere than in expressly controversial writings; in the earlier books De Civitate Dei Augustine could say that God gave the empire of the world to the Romans as a reward for their virtues; in the later he did not indeed say, as he has been accused of saying, that the virtues of unbelievers are splendida vitia, but he came very near doing so. (C.D. v. 153 xix. 25.) It was during this time of stress that he emitted those extravagances, inconsistent as he himself knew (Reéract. ii. 1) with the saner thought of his maturity, which have been made the core of the system known as Augustinianism. Four years after his death Vincent of Lerin wrote in the Commonitorium a travesty of these, as an example of the novelty which is heresy; but he did not venture to put to it the name of Augustine. BrsuiocrapHy.—The

Benedictine

edition

of the works

of St.

Augustine, in 11 vols. (1679-1700), reprinted in J. P. Migne’s Patrologia, remains necessary for reference, except where superseded by the volumes now published in the Viennese Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasttcorum Latinorum. See also J. B. Mozley, The Augustinian Doctrine of Predestination (1855); J. von Kuhn, Das Natiirliche und das bernatiirliche (Tiibingen, 1860) ; A. Naville, Saint Augustin (Geneva, 1872); A. J. Dorner, Augustinus, sein theologisches System (1873); J. Gibb and W. Montgomery, The Confessions of Augustine (1899) ;

L. Duchesne,

Histoire

ancienne

de l'Église, tome

iti. (1908);

W.

Thimme, Augustins geistige Entwickelung (1908); J. Mausbach, Die Ethik des Heiligen Augustinus (Fribourg, 1909); T. A. Lacey, Nature, Miracle and Sin: a Study of St. Augustine’s Conception of the Natural Order (1916); P. Alfaric, L’Evolution intellectuelle de Saint Augustin (1918); W. J. Sparrow-Simpson, The Letters of Saint Augustine (1919); Dom C. Butler, Western Mysticism (1922); C. M. Milne, 4 Reconstruction of the Old Latin Texts of the Gospels used by Saint Augustine (1926) ; A. Souter, The Earliest Latin Commentaries on the Epistles of St. Paul (1927). (T. A. L.)

AUGUSTINE, ST. (died c. 613), founder of the Christian

Church in southern England, and first archbishop of Canterbury, occupied a position of authority in the monastery of St. Andrew at Rome, when Gregory I. summoned him, probably in A.D. 595, to lead a mission to England. The apprehensions of Augustine’s followers caused him to return to Rome, but the Pope furnished him with letters of commendation and encouraged him to proceed. He landed in Thanet in a.p. 597, and was favourably received by Aethelbert, king of Kent, who granted a dwelling-place for the monks in Canterbury, and allowed them liberty to preach. Augustine first made use of the ancient church of St. Martin, at Canterbury, which before his arrival had been the oratory of the Queen Berta and her confessor Liudhard. Aethelbert, upon his conversion, employed all his influence in support of the mission. In A.D. 597, Augustine was consecrated bishop by Vergilius at Arles, and in 6or received the pallium from Gregory and was given authority over the Celtic churches in Britain, as well as of all future bishops consecrated in English territory, including York, which was to be independent after Augustine’s death. In ap. 603 he consecrated Christ Church, Canterbury, and built the monastery of SS. Peter and Paul, afterwards known as St. Augustine’s. At a conference with the British bishops at Augustine’s Oak he endeavoured in vain to bring about a union between the Celtic and the Roman

churches. In a.D. 604 he consecrated Mellitus and Justus to the sees of London and Rochester respectively. He died soon after-

686

AUGUSTINIAN

CANONS—AUGUSTUS

wards. though the Saxon Chronicle records the date of his death as A.D. 614, and the Annales Monasterienses as A.D. 612. See Bede, Ecci. Hist. (ed. by Plummer), i. 23-1. 3.

AUGUSTINIAN CANONS, a religious order in the Roman

Catholic Church, called also Austin Canons, Canons Regular, and in England Black Canons, because their cassock and mantle were black, though they wore a white surplice; elsewhere the colour of the habit varied considerably. The Lateran Synod of 1059 had urgently exhorted the clergy of every cathedral and collegiate church to live together and adopt some form of regularized common life. The clergy of some cathedrals (in England, Carlisle), and of a great number of collegiate churches all over western Europe, responded to the appeal; and the need of a rule of life suited to the new régime produced, towards the end of the 11th century,

the so-called Rule of St. Augustine (see AUGUSTINIANS).

This

Rule was widely adopted by the Canons Regular, who also began to bind themselves by the vows of poverty, obedience and chastity. In the 12th century this discipline became universal among them; and so arose the order of Augustinian Canons as a religious order

in the strict sense of the word. They resembled the monks in so far as they lived in community and took religious vows; but their state of life remained essentially clerical, and as clerics their duty was to undertake the pastoral care and serve the parish churches in their patronage. They were bound to the choral celebration of the divine office, and in its general tenor their manner of life differed little from that of monks. During the later middle ages the houses of these various congregations of Canons Regular spread all over Europe and became extraordinarily numerous. They underwent the natural and inevitable vicissitudes of all orders, having their periods of depression and degeneracy, and again of revival and reform. In the rs5th century grave relaxation had crept into many monasteries of Augustinian Canons in north Germany, and the efforts at reform were only partially successful. The Reformation, the religious wars and the Revolution have swept away nearly all the Canons Regular, but some of their houses in Austria still exist in their mediaeval splendour. In England there were as many as 200 houses of Augustinian Canons, and 60 of them were among the “greater monasteries” suppressed in 1538—40. See the Catholic Encyclopaedia, art. “Austin Canons”; Gasquet, English Monastic Life; Heimbucher, Orden und Congregationen (1896), vol. i, with references there given.

solved in 1526. The Reformation and later revolutions have de.

stroyed most of the houses of Augustinian Hermits, so that now

only about roo exist in various parts of Europe and America. +. Ireland they are relatively numerous, having survived the penal times. (See AUGUSTINIAN CANONS.)

AUGUSTINIANS, in the Roman Catholic Church, a gener

name for religious orders that follow the so-called “Rule of St

Augustine.” The chief of these orders are: Augustinian Canons (qg.v.), Augustinian Hermits (q.v.) or Friars, Premonstratensians

(g.v.), Trinitarians (g.v.), Gilbertines (see GILBERT of SEMPRING. HAM, ST.). St. Augustine never wrote a Rule, properly so called: but Ep 211 (al 10g) is a long letter of practical advice to a community of nuns, on their daily life; and Serm. 355, 356 describe the common life he led along with his clerics in Hippo. When, in the second half of the r1th century, the clergy of a great number of collegiate churches were undertaking to live a substantially mo. nastic form of life, it was natural that they should look back io this classical model for clerics living in community. And gp attention was directed to St. Augustine’s writings on community

life; and out of them, and spurious writings attributed to him the “Rule of St. Augustine” was compiled towards the close of the r1th century. See Dugdale, Monasticon Anglicanum under AUGUSTINIAN CANONS.

(1846), vol. vi. and ref. as

AUGUSTOW, a small town of Poland, in the province of Bialystok, 50m. north of the town of that name, on a canal (65m) connecting the Vistula with the Niemen. It was founded in 1557 by Sigismund IT. (Augustus), and is laid out in a very regular manner, with a spacious market-place. It carries on a large trade in cattle and horses, manufactures linen and huckaback, and is a

centre for the transport of timber from the large forest of the same name.

AUGUSTUS, the title given by the Roman senate, on Jan. I7, 27 B.C., to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (63 B.c.—AD. 14), or, as he was originally designated, Gaius Octavius, in recognition of his eminent services to the state (Mon. Anc. 34), and borne by him as the first of the Roman emperors. The name is derived from the Latin augeo, increase (see Neumann in Pauly-Wissowa’s Realencyklopédie s. v.), i.e., venerable, majestic, Gr. DeBacrds, The title was adopted by all the succeeding Caesars or emperors of Rome long after they had ceased to be connected by blood with the first Augustus. Gaius Octavius was born in Rome on Sept. 23, 63 B.C., the year of Cicero’s consulship and of Catiline’s conspiracy. He came of a family of good standing, long settled at Velitrae (Velletri), but his father was the first of the family to obtain a curule magistracy at Rome and senatorial dignity. His mother, however, was Atia daughter of Julia, the wife of M. Atius Balbus

AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS or FRIARS, a religious order In the Roman Catholic Church, sometimes (but improperly) called Black Friars (see Friars). In the first half of the 13th century there were in central Italy various small congregations of hermits living according to different rules. The need of coordinating and organizing these hermits induced the popes towards 1250 to unite into one body a number of these congregations, so and sister of Julius Caesar, and it was this connection with the as to form a single religious order, living according to the Rule great dictator which determined his career. In his fifth year of St. Augustine, and called the Order of Augustinian Hermits, (58 B.c.) his father died; about a year later his mother remarried, or simply the Augustinian Order. Special constitutions were drawn and the young Octavius passed under her care to that of his up for its government, on the same lines as the Dominicans and stepfather, L. Marcius Philippus. At the age of 12 (51 B.c.) he other mendicants—a General elected by chapter, provincials to delivered the customary funeral panegyric on his grandmother rule in the different countries, with assistants, definitors and Julia, his first public appearance. On Oct. 18, 48 (or ? 47) B.C. visitors. For this reason, and because almost from the beginning he assumed the “toga virilis” and was elected into the pontifical the term “hermits” became a misnomer (for they abandoned the college, an exceptional honour which he no doubt owed to his deserts and lived conventually in towns), they ranked among the great uncle, then dictator and master of Rome. In 46 B.c. he friars, and became the fourth of the mendicant orders. shared in the glory of Caesar’s African triumph, and in 45 he The reaction against the inevitable tendencies towards mitiga- was made a patrician by the senate and designated as one of tion and relaxation led to a number of reforms that produced Caesar’s “masters of the horse” for the next year. In the autumn upwards of 20 different congregations within the order, each of 45 Caesar, who was planning his Parthian campaign, sent his governed by a vicar-general, who was subject to the General of nephew to study quietly at the Greek colony of Apollonia, m the order. Illyria. Here the news of Caesar’s murder reached him and he About 1500 a great attempt at a reform of this kind was set crossed to Italy. On landing he learnt that Caesar had made on foot among the Augustinian Hermits of northern Germany, him his heir and adopted him into the Julian gens, whereby he and they were formed into a separate congregation independent acquired the designation of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus. of the general. It was from this congregation that Luther went The inheritance was a perilous one; his mother and others would forth, and great numbers of the German Augustinian Hermits, have dissuaded him from accepting it, but he, confident inhis among them Wenceslaus Link the provincial, followed him and abilities, declared at once that he would undertake its obligations embraced the Reformation, so that the congregation was dis- and discharge the sums bequeathed by the dictator to the Roman

AUGUSTUS

687

destruction ; on the Epirot coast and resulted in the almost total le. Mark Antony had possessed himself of Caesar’s papers Not quite forces. land his of er ons. of Antony’s fleet and the surrend and effects and made light of his young nephew’s pretensitheir | a year later (Aug. 1, 30 B.C.) followed the capture of Alexandria Brutus and Cassius paid him little regard and dispersed to by their own hands, of Antony and Cleopatra. ctive provinces. Cicero, much charmed at the attitude of | and the deaths, the restoration of peace was marked by the B.c., 29 11, Jan. On | to the Octavianus, hoped to make use of him and flattered him of Janus for the first time for 200 years. temple the of utmost, with the expectation, however, of getting rid of him as closing returned to Italy, and in August celeOctavian summer the In | himd conducte soon as he had served his purpose. Octavianus He was welcomed, not as a suctriumph. days’ three a gif with consummate adroitness, making use of all competitors | brated civil war, but as the man who had vindia in t combatan cessful | themattached forces able Consider for power, but assisting none. as the | cated the sovereignty of Rome against its assailants, gives to him. The senate, when it armed the consuls against as the all above tizens, fellow-ci his of and republic in the | saviour of the Antonius, called upon him for assistance, and he took part B.c.). | restorer of peace. (43 Mutina at defeated campaign in which Antonius was He was now, to quote his own words, “master of all things,” The soldiers of Octavianus demanded the consulship for him, the Roman world looked to him for some permanent settleand the senate, though much alarmed, could not prevent his | and of the distracted empire. His first task was the re-estabment | Lepidus, election. He now effected a coalition with Antonius and of a regular and constitutional government, such as had and on Nov. 27, 43 B.c. the three were formally appointed a| lishment since Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon 20 years existed not | commonthe of triumvirate for five years for the reconstitution task he devoted the next 18 months (Aug. 29this To before. | the wealth. They divided the western provinces among them, 3.c.). In the article on Rome: History (q.v.), his East being held for the republic by Brutus and Cassius. They | Jan. 27 are described in detail, and only a brief summary ents achievem | tion assassina the drew up a list of proscribed citizens and caused here. The “principate,” to give the new form of given be need | of goo senators and 2,000 knights. They further confiscated nt its most appropriate name, was a compromise thorthe territories of many cities throughout Italy and divided them | governme istic of the combination of tenacity of purpose character oughly of among their soldiers. Cicero was murdered at the demand respect for forms and conventions which distinAntonius. The remnant of the republican party took refuge | with cautious The republic was restored; senate, magisauthor. its guished | Sextus with either with Brutus and Cassius in the East or resumed their ancient functions; and the y assembl and trates, Pompeius, who had made himself master of the seas. began to run once more in the familiar Rome of life public to B.C. 42 in Adriatic the Odtavianus and Antonius crossed with its irregularities and excesses was ate triumvir The grooves. Cassius and the republic. Brutus

reduce the last defenders of

, which Octavian himself soon broke | at an end. The controlling authority were defeated and fell at the battle of Philippi. War d with. But hencedispense could not indeed be safely out between the victors, the chief incident of which was the wielded, ional forms and constitut under it exercise to was he forward | siege and capture by famine of Perusia and the alleged sacrifice the express sanction of the senate and with and ns, limitatio his of altar the at Caesar young the by of its defenders

of