Encyclopaedia Britannica [1, 13 ed.]

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THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA THIRTEENTH EDITION 1926

VOLUME | AALANO ISLANDS - EYE

THE ENCYCLOPADIA

BRITANNICA

First SECOND THIRD FOURTH FirTH SIXTH SEVENTH EIGHTH

EDITION EDITION Epirion EDITION Evition EDITION EDITION EDITION

. . . . .

NINTH

EDITION EDITION EDITION Eprrmon EDITION

. . . .

TENTH ELrevenrta Twetrra THIRTEENTH

. «

.

. . = « 2...) . . . . . . . . e .

1768 3797 1788 1801 1818 1823 1830 1853

2. . . . .

1875 1902 Igo 1922 1926

. . . .

THE ENCYCLOPADIA

BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS,

SCIENCES, LITERATURE & GENERAL INFORMATION The Three New Supplementary Volumes constituting with the Volumes of the -= Latest Standard Edition

THE THIRTEENTH EDITION. VOLUME AALAND

I

ISLANDS

zo EYE

LONDON. THE

ENCYCLOPADIA

BRITANNICA

NEW THE

ENCYCLOPÆDIA

COMPANY,

YORK, BRITANNICA,

INC.

LTD.

DEDICATED

BY PERMISSION TO

THE TWO HEADS OF THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING

HIS MAJESTY

GEORGE

KING OF GREAT AND OF THE BRITISH

THE

BRITAIN AND DOMINIONS

EMPEROR

PEOPLES

FIFTH IRELAND

BEYOND

THE SEAS

OF INDIA AND

CALVIN

COOLIDGE

PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED

STATES OF AMERICA

PREFATORY

NOTE

HE present Supplementary Volumes of The Encyclopedia Britannica are an entirely l new survey of the march of events, the progress of knowledge and the innumerable changes of the world’s aspects, thoughts, activities, in the years from 1910 to 1926. There have been no more momentous and transforming years in the experience of mankind. Formerly that space of a decade and a half would have been called at best a period. We may justly term it an epoch. It crowds into itself more historic drama and social significance, more economic energy and moral ferment, more destructive force, yet more constructive effort and idealism in every sphere, than have been known in most centuries. In wide regions the former political structure and lines of the map have been altered in a manner that would have surpassed all powers of belief if prophesied beforehand. Old Empires and dynasties have vanished; new nations and systems have appeared. With this, science and invention have gone forward with accelerating speed to wonderful results. All industrial life is searched by questioning and full of new developments. In this short epoch the former fundamental conceptions of time, space, matter and energy have been dissolved or modified. Speculation on the possibilities of further scientific discovery and of its practical addition to human power never was more daring. Medicine and surgery have made at least an equal advance in their resources for the defence, repair and prolongation of human life. Civilised taste, fashion and habit present very visibly a thousand interesting contrasts with the former modes. The new generation differs quite radically in many ways from the pre-War notions of its elders. Philosophy, literature and art re-examine | with more unsparing scrutiny the mysteries of human being and purpose and the problems of human relations. Wide and signal as have been the changes in the world’s external circumstances, still more general and profound have been the changes in the world’s thought and feelmg. In 15 years, as a result partly of physical conflict unparalleled for scale, violence and intensity; partly of the subsequent mental reactions; partly of the full and manifold working of influences which had begun to appear before the War, there has occurred a universal revolution in human affairs and the human mind. After the War, when the extent of this revolution began to be seen, The Encyclopedia Britannica made a first attempt to supply the new storehouse of needed information. In this enterprise it followed its own great precedent of over 100 years ago, when Archibald Constable began to issue immediately after the long Napoleonic Wars his splendid six volumes. In one way the supplementary three volumes issued after the World War will always keep irreplaceable value as an aid to the future historian and social investigator. They are exhaustive as a record in minute detail of the War itself and every subject connected with it. They reflect the overpowering extent to which people’s minds were still possessed and absorbed by the recent convulsion and its more immediate consequences. We may say that, while the tempest was past, the ocean still heaved and surged on all sides and the air was still obscure. There was as yet no clearness, no repose. There was vil

viii

PREFATORY

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no restoration of ordinary understanding between nations and classes, nor even of civilised community in the sphere of knowledge and scholarship. The international collaboration conspicuous in The Encyclopedia Britannica for generations before was not sufficiently available. And, above all, the proportion of matter occupied by the War and related references bulked so mightily as to allow no adequate space for very many other subjects essential to a general survey of recent information. Every day during the last five years has emphasised the need for that more comprehensive undertaking. The present writer was invited to frame a plan, to devise the proportions of this more extended design, and to supervise the construction. These three latest volumes of The Encyclopedia Britannica are the result. While the verdict on the merits of the execution must belong to the reader, several things may be stated with confidence. | First, this Supplement, as was remarked at the beginning, is an entirely fresh survey of the requirements of common knowledge concerning all the important and interesting additions to human experience and thought equipment and ideas, knowledge and speculation, made during the short but tremendous epoch from 1910 to this present day. Second, no pains have been spared, no resource of inquiry has been neglected, in the endeavour to make the range of the subjects as inclusive and the authority of the contributors as conclusive as some 3,000 pages can permit or the efforts of an editor and his colleagues can secure. Third, the subjects of reference are in fact more numerous and offer a wider range of information than has hitherto been achieved in encyclopaedias proper as distinguished from works of a different kind where very many of the references are as brief as dictionary definitions and no more illuminating than the statement that ‘‘an archdeacon is one who performs archidiaconal functions.” Fourth, the writers in these volumes do, in fact, represent a larger array of celebrated persons of many nations, and of established repute _ beyond their own nations, than have ever before been assembled as a band of contributors to any composite work of importance. Fifth, the record of information and ideas is more generally and fully brought up to the time of publication than in any other work existing in any language. This is not to say that achievement satisfies ideals; the Editorial Boards in London and New York are too conscious of the opposite. “The ample proposition that hope makes . . . fails in the promised largeness.” A perfect encyclopaedia compiled with no regard to the brevity of human existence would extend to at least 100 volumes exclusively written by experts of genius. On the same principle, a Supplement would be better in ro such volumes than in three. Happily these perfections are unattainable. Some account of the spirit and method of the present New Volumes must be given. The Editor and his colleagues had to grapple at the outset with those problems of unity and multiplicity which have beset the architects and builders of encyclopaedias from of old. How to construct the “mighty maze” yet keep it to the plan? How to treat main subjects as a whole and yet facilitate reference by dealing with their subdivisions under separate headings? How to provide for an unprecedented diversity of information—life and thought becoming every day more complex—and for an equal diversity of contributors, yet impress some distinctive spirit on the work as a whole? In the first approach to the solution of these questions a series of circles was drawn. The first allocated the proportions of space to be occupied by the chief departments of knowledge as broadly distinguished.

PREFATORY

NOTE

ix

It was agreed in the discussions of the Editorial Board that tradition must be modified in one respect. Tradition demanded excessive space for all those aspects of life and thought which lend themselves to literary description; whereas, every day, science, invention and economics are becoming relatively a larger part of living interests. It was accordingly decided to give a quarter of the 3,000 pages available in the three Supplementary Volumes to science, theoretical and technical, including medicine and surgery—a larger proportion than has hitherto been devoted to this side-of knowledge. History and politics, formerly overflowing all reasonable margins and submerging the more modern developments of civilised life and its apparatus, were dyked back; but over half the whole space is still given to history and politics, with their inseparable adjuncts of biography and geography. Main scctions of the great circle having been demarcated in this way, the arrangement of related subjects belonging to each main section, and then the necessary subdivision of each compartment—as literature, economics, agriculture and so forth—were similarly plotted out in a long series of subsidiary and more subsidiary circles, until the whole space of some 3,000 pages was allocated methodically on principles of proportion very carefully considered. On the relative claims of different subjects to space, the discussions of the Editorial Board were continually interesting; and as the points arising were well argued, the decisions were well weighed. Then came the far more difficult matter of breaking up each distinctive group of subjects into hundreds of separate encyclopaedic headings while steadily holding to the proportions of the original plan in the broad. Necessarily all the obvious appearances of such a plan disappear amidst the details of the execution. Proportioned design could only be discovered by a very curious and exceptional reader taking as much pains to trace it as the Editorial Board took to form it. None the less, the plan is there; and while all manner of miscellaneous subjects neighbour each other in alphabetical order, as between the large categories—like national histories and literatures; war; post-War controversies and settlements, political and financial; science and mechanism in all their aspects; economics proper and social movements of a more political kind—the

distribution of space is controlled by a reasoned though invisible adjustment. But however assiduously managed, these after all are only the orderly mechanics of encyclopaedic arrangement. To what spirit have they been subordinated? The whole endeavour has been guided by a few definite purposes. The first purpose has been to reveal what has really happened throughout the whole range of the outward life and the inward being of human kind since 1910, during that decade and a half whereafter nothing in the world can ever be the same again. The second purpose has been to escape from the passions and prejudices and shattering discords of the War period—to revive and enhance that intellectual co-operation between distinguished authorities of every nation, that civilised community in the sphere of intellect, which the War temporarily destroyed but which throughout the century before 1914 it was the increasing object of The Encyclopedia

Britannica to nourish. Vitally the progress of knowledge and that of its application depend upon the free and ceaseless interchange of ideas between each people and every other. International collaboration—though in politics the views of equally sincere writers belonging to different countries exhibit wide disagreements—plays a more remarkable part, and if dispassionately received, a more enlightening part, in these Three Volumes than in any of their predecessors throughout the long history of The Encyclopedia Britannica. The

x

PREFATORY

NOTE

third purpose has been to interpret the life of the English-speaking communities to each other. In their common tongue this work is written, and that tongue has become more definitely than ever during the “short but tremendous” epoch with which this supplement is engaged the leading language of mankind. It is now familiarly spoken by at least 200,000,000 of people spread about the whole globe. No good thinker supposes that community of speech implies community of thought and feeling. That assumption is amongst the most superficial and dangerous of fallacies. For instance, the relations between Great Britain and America are of decisive significance for the general future of the world and are well capable of determining either way for all mankind the choice between peace and chaos. But for the sake of the best relations between America and Britain under present conditions, it must never be forgotten that though England is the mother country of the language and law of the United States, all Europe is the mother-region of the racial blood and feeling of the United States—now the strongest society relatively to others that has arisen since the Roman Empire. A good judgment in Anglo-American affairs will always remember this fact, and that Great Britain cannot promote Englishspeaking solidarity by identifying itself wholly with one or the other side in the controversies between the nations and groups of continental Europe. In that regard, from the standpoint of English-speaking community, the steady policy of Great Britain should be mediating, reconciling and full of understanding of opposite European views. Bya settled temper in that sense the preparation of these volumes has been guided. Some difficulties and the method of dealing with them must be explained. The treatment of the World War itself was one difficulty but perhaps the least. Its more compact handling in these New Volumes, by comparison with the first post-War supplement, excludes a mass of insignificant detail but throws into bolder relief all those essentials with which the good general reader of history is concerned. The Editorial Board believes that the information concerning the Treaty of Versailles and the connected treaties, the birth and working of the League of Nations, the movements of diplomacy before the War, during the War and after the War in all the international questions arising from the disputable principles and arrangements of the Peace, is given with a clearer method and in a more impartial temper than have been hitherto placed at the disposal of the general reader in any comprehensive work of this kind. It must be remembered that since 1921 when the previous Supplement was completed a flood of new light has been thrown upon the origins and conduct of the World War, upon the personal and circumstantial influences which determined the character of the Peace Treaties, and upon the subsequent international struggles and negotiations. From this fullness of new light the present volumes derive advantage. How to deal rightly with the political history of nations was a knotted doubt. Here the traditions of The Encyclopedia Britannica were no guide, because the nature of the probfem was without precedent. From the ruin of former Empires many new States have arisen. Each of them defends its antecedents and position. The peoples defeated in the World War repudiate the charge of exclusive guilt, and protest partly that the tragedy sprang from causes beyond the control of any belligerent, partly that the victors were in fact more culpable. This latter view is as egoistical and self-righteous—like too many claims for the Allies—as the former is impressive. Particularly the vanquished nations,

PREFATORY

NOTE

xi

with Russia, with a wide extent of neutral judgment, and with a large degree of opinion amongst the victorious peoples themselves, deny the justice of the Peace Treaties and declare that these without revision will be fatal to the future. In this situation, to seek to enforce an editorial judgment on all contested issues would be premature and presumptuous. For instance, no finally impartial view of the Russian revolution can yet be formed when Russians themselves still differ violently or are silently perplexed, drifting with events, shunning convinced opinion. Upon the chaos in China, the narratives and views of two equally intelligent and honest Chinese, one let us say from Peking and the other from Canton, may be found irreconcilable. What thoughtful person can yet draw up the balance-sheet of Fascism in Italy or of Kemalism in Turkey? Who can predict the future of France or of Germany? In these circumstances, it seemed to the Editor almost unquestionably right to depart from the principle of Olympian judgment practised by The Encyclopedia Britannica at long leisure in more stable times. The Editorial Board determined instead to interpret all the variations of national opinions and to have each nation’s account of its action and motives since rg1o stated, as a rule, by some leading spokesman of its own. When the narratives are compared the contradictions cancel out; and to an intelligent user of these volumes this method is far more illuminating than would have been any attempt by the Editor to “tune the pulpits” and make them sing one song. To know what are the differences of national views, whether justified or not, is a vital matter of political information. This edition adds to the The Encyclopedia Britannica an entirely new feature—a chronology of the world showing the dates of important events of all kinds since 1910. The universal usefulness of this addition needs no emphasis. The thanks of the Editor and his colleagues are due to friends and helpers so numerous on both sides of the Atlantic that it is impossible to mention them all. To a still larger extent than in connection with any former edition or supplement, nearly all existing Governments have aided in amassing material, and it must be put on record especially that various embassies and legations in London have taken infinite trouble to assist. Particular acknowledgment must be made in the first case to statesmen and other national leaders who have furnished authoritative contributions—to President Masaryk of Czechoslovakia; to Count Bethlen, Prime Minister of Hungary; to two other Prime Ministers, Sir James Craig of Northern Ireland and the Hon. J. G. Coates of New Zealand; to three Ministers for Foreign Affairs, Dr. Stresemann (Berlin), Dr. Benesh (Prague) and M. Emile Vandervelde, who was still in office when this preface was written; to Mr. Andrew W. Mellon, U.S. Secretary of the Treasury; to Mr. Dwight I. Davis, U.S. Secretary of War; to Mr. C. D. Wilbur, U.S. Secretary of the Navy; to Mr. William M. Jardine, U.S. Secretary of Agriculture; to Mr. James J. Davis, U.S. Secretary of Labor; to Viscount Cecil and the Duchess of Atholl, members of Mr. Baldwin’s present administration in Great Britain; while Commissary Trotsky himself has been persuaded to write the biography of Lenin, whose career, whatever else may be thought, has been one of the astonishing features of modern history. We must add Sir Arthur Salter, Director of the Economic and Finance Section of the League of Nations, and Monsieur Albert Thomas, head of the International Labour Office. Amongst contributors who have held high office or position are Dr. Gustav Ador,

xii

PREFATORY

NOTE

ex-President of the Swiss Republic; three former Prime Ministers, of Britain, Canada and France respectively—Mr. Ramsay MacDonald, Sir Robert Borden and Monsieur Edouard Herriot; Mr. Elihu Root, Secretary of State in the administration of President Roosevelt; Mr. Bernard M. Baruch, who was Chairman of the U.S. War Industries Board; Monsieur Joseph Caillaux and Monsieur Louis Loucheur, French ex-Ministers of Finance. Colonel House must be included with these, for his semi-official position under President Wilson was not less powerful though less formal. But amongst these, two must be singled out for repeated thanks. Lord Haldane and Sir Arthur Salter have been more than contributors. Above all others they have given in various ways generous and invaluable assistance. Marshal Foch, Adml. von Scheer, Sir Frederick Maurice, Air-Vice-Marshal Sir Sefton Brancker, British Director of Civil Aviation, and Gen. Sir Jan Hamilton are amongst men who held command in the world-changing struggle which fills so many of the ensuing pages; and they write on various aspects of war and arms. On technical subjects distinguished authorities have given assistance and advice here gladly recognised—in economics Sir Josiah Stamp, Sir William Beveridge of the London School of Economics, and his colleagues Dr. T. E. Gregory and Mr. C. M. Lloyd; in political history and matters entering into its making, Lord Meston, Sir George Aston, Sir William Goode, Mr. H. W. V. Temperley, M. Auguste Gauvain of the Journal des Débats, Dr. F. Silberstein of the Allgemeine Zeitung, Mr. H. B. Butler of the International Labour Office and Monsieur Henri Davray; in agriculture Sir A. D. Hall; in different sciences Sir J. J. Thomson, Sir W. Bragg, Professor J. T. Hewitt, Professor C. H. Lees, Professor E. N. da C. Andrade, Dr. Reginald Clay, Sir Charles Sherrington, Dr. Hartridge and Dr. C. S. Mycrs; in medicine and surgery Sir Humphrey Rolleston, Dr. W. BroughtonAlcock, Dr. W. S. Lazarus-Barlow and Colonel MacArthur; in engineering Sir Alexander Gibb and Sir Richard Glazebrook especially, and also Professor J. A. Fleming, Sir Charles Parsons and Sir John Denison-Pender; while in anthropology and archaeology this work owes much to the staff of the British Museum, Dr. H. R. Hall, Mr. T. A. Joyce, Mr. E. J. Forsdyke and Mr. R. K. Granville, and equally to Sir Flinders Petrie, Mr. Myles Burkitt,

Dr. A. C. Haddon, Mr. A. J. B. Wace and Dr. R. M. Wenley. In various other fields the following are amongst those who have read over articles and furnished suggestions: Sir Maurice Hankey, Mr. Lionel Curtis, Professor A. J. Toynbee, Colonel H. Carslake, Lord Morris and Sir Archibald Montgomery. In settling the spelling of place-names good assistance was received from Lord Edward Gleichen and Mr. J. H. Reynolds, respectively Chairman and Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society’s Permanent Committee on this subject. We owe assistance likewise to the Royal Statistical Society and the British Institute of International Affairs. In some matters of biography and literature we have been aided also by Mrs. W. L. Courtney, Mr. G. H. Johnstone of The Times office in Paris, Baron George de Ottlik of The Pester Lloyd and Hussein Bey of Robert College, and by Madame Vengerova in Russian details. As to the services of the Editor’s principal colleagues, no tribute can be too high. No work known is more arduous and exacting than that of making an encyclopaedia—a task demanding constant resource in dealing with contributions and contributors, as well as minute supervision of innumerable details. Mr. A. W. Holland has been at the head of

PREFATORY

NOTE

xiii

the daily administration; Miss Margaret Bryant and Colonel T. C. Hodson, in charge of different groups of articles, have organised the larger part of the Three Volumes; Mrs. D. Harwood has been responsible for other groups, and Mr. J. R. Thompson for art; while

Miss Hollowell, as secretary of the Editorial Board, has shown ceaseless efficiency in aiding every part of the work. Closely associated with the Board itself have been Capt. B. H. Liddell Hart on military questions, Capt. A. C. Dewar on naval; Mr. C. W. Guillebaud on economics; Mr. George Glasgow on foreign politics; while Capt. F. A. M. Webster has helped in arranging the extended treatment of sports and games. But, above all, it must be recorded here that without the collaboration of Mr. Franklin H. Hooper, the American Editor, in an inseparable partnership with the Editor-in-Chief, the making of these volumes as they stand would have been impossible. Amongst those connected with The Encyclopedia Britannica Mr. Hooper is by far the most experienced. He has been its mainstay for many years. In the present undertaking, he has not only brought to the work an endless suggestive fertility and vigour of execution, but has been personally responsible for the array of American contributors. ‘These include four of five living Americans who have received Nobel prizes; the Secretaries of the Treasury, War, the Navy, Agriculture and Labor in the Cabinet of President Coolidge; men of like authority through the whole range of the arts and the sciences; and men dominant in industry and business, as the heads of the Ford industries, the American Telephone and Telegraph Company, the Eastman Kodak Company, the General Electric Company, and the National City Bank of New York—a group of distinguished Americans such as hitherto no enterprise of peace has assembled. To all these Mr. Hooper expresses his thanks and in particular to his assistants in the New York office, Mr. John W. Taylor and Mr. C. F. Ansley. To the Editor-in-Chief this particular example of co-operation and friendship between America and Britain has been by far the most attractive part of his task. A century and a half after the political severance of the two great English-speaking peoples, The Encyclopedia Britannica remains what it was then, and more than ever, a common institution. Once more, by express permission, its volumes are dedicated jointly to His Reigning Majesty King George and to the President of the United States, Mr. Calvin Coolidge. May the day never come when that symbol of kinship and friendship will disappear. ,

J. L. GARVIN.

LONDON, September 1, 1926.

ABBREVIATIONS À anti-aircraft; Army Act; Automobile Association. Assistant Adjutant-General. Argentina, Brazil, Chile. acre; acres.

Army Council Instruction.

Assistant Chief-of-Staff. Anno Domini =in the year of our Lord (Latin). Admiral. American Expeditionary

Os |

S

hy il

i

Force. Air Force (British). Air Force Cross. Air Force Medal.

I abit bsQ gBP

American Federation of Labor. Adjutant-General. Aircraft Inspection Depart-

eee oe.

Australian Imperial Force.

IIltI

Cal. = Cambs. = Capt. = Cav. = .B.E. = c.c. = C.F. = cf.= C.G.E.A.=

C.G.S. = C.H. = C.I.D. = C.LD.N.A.=

pi>>> llli pm pppp pp D

ZEER

A NEY ? P> Y)O° li

OOD id b> >> >>> aan)

H» =t

>

aA

i

l!

WOND Ane W DAD waw AAW Saa wi

Ez P>mojÀliIlA il

2'2 22 Z > aWEWE Vr ai | ig Bl iwm a l

w4O l

percussion (fuse). Pennsylvania. per annum. pounder (gun designation}. Prince Edward Island. Post Office. population. President. Professor. pint; pints; part.

Royal Field Artillery. Royal Flying Corps. Royal Garrison Artillery. Royal Horse Artillery. Rhode Island. Royal Institute of British Architects. Royal irish Constabulary. Royal Marines. Royal Military Academy (Woolwich); Royal Marine Artillery. Royal Military College (Sandhurst). Royal Marine Light Infantry. Royal Navy. Royal Naval Air Force. Royal Naval Air Service Royal Naval Reserve.

Roya! Naval Volunteer Re serve. revolutions per minute.| rupees. Russian Soviet Federal So-

cialist

(Rus-

Railway Transport Officer (British and U.S.A.).

Il |> 7 l

Ers

Il H

NAN NN NNN

Som. = S.0.8.=

south. shilling, shillings.

Society of Automobile gineers. Shropshire.

S.P.R. = S.P.V.D. =

S.S. F.A.=

Staffs.=

ee

Saskatchewan, simultaneous broadcast (wireless). South Carolina. South Dakota. seconds. sequens, sequentia =the following (Latin). senior. shaft horsepower. Senior Medical Officer of a formation or station. Senior Mechanical Transport Officer of a formation. Somerset.

u

ats

Q.A.I.M.N.S. Queen Alexandra’s Imperial Military Nursing Service. Q.A.M.F.N.S. Queen Alexandra’s Military Families N ursing Service. Q.A.R.N.N.S. Queen Alexandra’s Royal Naval Nursing Service. Q.F.= quick firing (artillery). Q.M.A.A.C.= Queen Mary’s Army Auxiliary Corps (W.A.A.C.). Q.M.G. = Quartermaster-General.

Republic

sian}.

S

P P. = Pa. = p.a. = pår. = P.E.I. = P.O. = pop. = Pres. = Prof. = pt. =

Royal Air Force. Royal Army Medical Corps. Royal Army Ordnance Corps. Royal Army Pay Corps. Royal Army Service Corps. Royal Army Veterinary Corps. Royal Corps of Signals (since 1919).

call for life-saving

a for Psychical

Re-

search. Society for the Prevention

of Venereal Disease. square feet. Squadron. steamship. Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Fan lies Association. Staffordshire.

ABBREVIATIONS

V

T Territorial (British Army).

ll Ea II | o> 5

fa Moy?

Baas eee WooAgM«e GHon

time (fuse). Territorial Army. torpedo-boat destroyer. Territorial Officers’ Decoration. ‘Tennessee. Texas, Territorial Force. trench mortar. trinitrotoluene (high explosive). torpedo tubes. Trades Union Congress (British).

U

NNNMNN

United States Ship. Union

Virginia. Voluntary Aid Detachment; nursing service, Territorial Force. Victoria Cross. Volunteer Officers’ Decoration.

of

Soviet

Socialist

Republics (Russian).

VOLUMES

a3

ae Y Spam

il idi

Women’s Women's

Royal Air Force. Royal Naval

Service. Women’s Social and Political Union.

Wireless Telegraphy.

|i Um

volts per metre. Vermont.

Volunteer Training Corps.

Wi n

nn

IN THESE

USED

Army

Auxiliary

Corps (Q. M.A.A.C.). West Mri rica Frontier Force. Washington. War Department.

yard; yards. Young Men’s Christian As-

sociation, Yorkshire. Young Women’s Association,

| Christian

INITIALS

USED IN THIS VOLUME TO IDENTIFY CONTRIBUTORS, THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES TO WHICH THESE INITIALS ARE SIGNED

A. ABBOTT, Formerly Assistant Secretary, Department of Scientific and Industrial Researcn,

South Kensington, London. ARTHUR BERRIEDALE Keitu, D.C.L., D.Litt.

Regius Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology, Edinburgh University. Secretary to the Crown Agents for the Colonies, 1903-5. Author of The Belgian Congo and the Berlin Act; Dominion Home Rule in Practice; War Government of the British Dominions; etc.

WITH

Continuation Schools (in part).

Belgian Congo; British Empire: History.

ALBERT CALMES. Professor at the University of Luxembourg. Member of the League of Nations Commission of Inquiry into Albanian Affairs. LIEUTENANT-COMMANDER ARCHIBALD COLQUHOUN BELL, R.N. Naval Assistant to the Official Historian of Naval Operations during the World

War. Formerly Editor of The Journal of the Royal United Service Institution. ALFRED C. Dewar, R.N. (RET.), B. LITT. Gold Medallist, Royal United Service Institution. Late of the Historical Section, Naval Staff, Admiralty, London. ANDREW Conway Ivy, Pu.D., M.D. : Nathan Smith Davis Professor of Physiology and Head of the Division of Physiology and Pharmacology, Northwestern University Medical School, Illinois. A. C. THAYSEN, Pu.D. Member

of the Staff of the Bacteriological Laboratory, Royal Naval Cordite

Factory, Holton Heath, Wareham, Dorset. CENERAL SIR ARTHUR WILLIAM CurRIF, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., LL.D. ` Principal of McGill University, Montreal. Formerly General Officer command-

ing the Canadian Corps in France. Sir A. DanteL Hatt, K.C.B., F.R.S. Chief Scientific Adviser and Director General of the Intelligence Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, London. Author of The Soil; Fertilisers and Manures; A Pilgrimage of British Farming; Agriculture after the War; etc. ALEXANDER DUNLOoP LINDSay. Master of Balliol College, Oxford. Professor of Moral Philosophy, Glasgow University, 1922~4. Author of The Philosophy of Bergson; etc. A. Du.

ALBERT DUBARRY.

A. E. A.

Editor of La Volonté (Paris). ALGERNON EDWARD ASPINALL, C.M.G., C.B.E. Secretary to the West India Committee and to the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture. Author of The British West Indies; The West Indies and Guiana;

Albania.

Blockade.

Admiralty, Board of; Coronel,

Battle

of;

Anaemia,

Bacteriology (i part).

Canada: Defence and Education.

Agriculture: General Survey,

Adult Education: Britain.

Great

Caillaux, Joseph.

Bahamas.

etc.

A. E. M.F.

ALFRED EDYE MANNING FOSTER. Late Proprietor and Editor of The Country Gentleman, and Land and Water Illustrated. Author of Auction Bridge Made Clear; Auction Bridge and Variations; etc.

Bridge, Auction (in part).

A. E. Mo.

ARTHUR E. MORGAN. President of Antioch College. Formerly Chief Engineer of the Miami Conservancy. Author of Education—The Mastery of the Arts of Life; New Light on the Boyhood of Lincoln, The Human Goal of Education.

Antioch College.

XIX

,

Dogger Bank, Battle of the

eon eer err". oon Ooo Oo ee co. eee ele sen sees ee ee ee eee see eee ee i ees = een

INITIALS AND

XX

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

A. E. T.*

A. E. TWENTYMAN. Formerly Librarian and Information Officer, Board of Education, London.

A. FI.

ALEXANDER FLEMING, M.B., F.R.C.S.

A. F. P.

ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A. Professor of English History and Chairman of the Institute of Historical Re-

fEducation: Literature.

Director of the Department of Systematic Bacteriology, St. Mary’s Hospital, 4 Antiseptics. London.

search, University of London. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Assistant editor, Dictionary of Natural Biography 189371901. President of Historical Association 1912-5. Author of Fhe Reign ef Henry VIE. from Contemporary

‘ . English History.

Sources; A Short History of the Great War; The Evolution of Parliament; etc.

A. F. Pr.

A. F.S.

ALFRED

FRANCIS

PRIBRAM,

Pu.D.

Europe (in part); ete.

Professor of Modern History In the University of Vienna.

= ÅLEXANDER FAULKNER SHAND.

Character.

Author of The Foundation ay Character.

A.F. W.

ARTHUR F. WoopwarpD. Editor of The Produce Markels RavJew (London).

A. Fy.

ALEXANDER Fiınpray, D.Sc., F.[.C. Professor of Chemist ry, University of Aberdeen: Formerly Piece

Canning (in pari).

istry, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth.

of Chem-

Author of The Phase Rule

Colloids.

and its Applications; Practical Ph ysical Chemistry; etc.

|

Atrrep Goopman Levy, M.D., M.R.C.P., M.R.C.S.

A. Ha.

Pile

Physician to the City of London Hospital for Diseases of the Chest. Late 4 Anaesthetics. Anaesthetist, Guy’s Hospital, London. ÅRTIHUR GEORGE PERKIN, F.R.S., F.R.S. (ŒEdin.), F.I.C. Professor of Colour Chemistry and Dyeing and Dean of the Faculty of Tech- Dyeing (in part). nology, University of Leeds. Davy Medallist of the Royal Society, London, 1925. Joint Author of The Natural Organic Colouring Matters. ARTHUR Harpes, D.Sc., PH.D., F.R.S. Professor of Bio- Chemistry and Head of the Bio-Chemical Department, Lister Bacteriology (in pari). Institute, University of London. Author of Alcoholic Fermentation; Inorganic Chemistry for Advanced Students; etc. 7

A. H. B.*

A. H. P.*

A. J.B. W.

A. J. GI.

A. J.T.

ALFRED H. Brooks, B.S., D.S. Formerly Geologist with the U.S. Geological Survey, in Charge of Geologic Alaska (in part). and Topographic Surveys and Investigations of Mineral Resources in Alaska. Vice-Chairman of the First Alaska Railroad Commission. ArtHUR Josepn HuNGERFORD POLLEN. Beatty, Earl. Director, Birmingham Small Arms Co. and other companies. Pioneer of naval fire control and writer on naval matters. ALAN JonĒļ Bayard Wace, M.A. Archaeology: Greece and a ——Ne ee ea e a Deputy Keeper V ictoria and Albert Museum, London. Late Director, Britishee Fastern Aflediterrancan; School of Archaeology at Athens, and Norton Lecturer, American ArchaeologiAthens. cal Institute. Author of -4 Catalogne of ihe Sparta Museum: Prehistoric Thessaly; The Nomads of the Balkans. ARTHUR JAMES GLAZERROOK. Canada: Finance. Lecturer on Finance, University of Toronto, ARNOLD JOSEPH TOYNBEE, Professor of International History, University of London. Member of Middle Aaland Is.; Eastern Section, British Delegation to the Peace Conference at Paris. RKoraes Asia Minor; Professor of Byzantine and Modern Greek Language, Literature and History at the University of London, 1919-24. Author of Nationality and the War; A Survey of International Affairs, 1920-24; etc.

A. L. Bo.

Professor of Statistics at the London School of Economics.

of Mathematics

A. L. D. A. Le.

A. Lo.*

A. Ly.

|

ARTHUR Lyon Bowrey, Sc.D., F.B.A. and

Economics,

University

Elements of Statistics; .tn Elementary Social Phenomena; etc. ARTHUR L. Dakyns, M.A. Barrister-at-law.

Manual

=

Formerly Professor Author

of

of Statistics; Measurement

of

College,

ANDRE LEVINSON. Lecturer on Art at the Louvre and the Sorbonne, Paris. ADOLF LORENZ.

Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Vienna.

Dardanelles; etc.

Readin

both commercial and war aeroplanes and seaplanes. Some of | the speed of flight, it is desirable that the relative position of these naturally exist only in small numbers, and some may be wings and body shall be such that in horizontal flight at cruising confined even to one experimental machine, but there is evi- speed the body may be nearly horizontal. But the attitude of the dence that all have actually been made and flown. There is no body in relation to the wings has no effect whatever on their angle of incidence relative to the direction of flight. Failure to room for doubt that had the above analyses dealt with numbers of aeroplanes, instead of types, the preponderance of the biplane realise this has been responsible for many fruitless inventions of wings whose angular position on the body can be varied. . would have been much greater. The Monoplane-—Confining attention to monoplanes and The vertical stabilising and controlling surfaces, a fixed fin anda biplanes, the chief variations in front elevation are shown in movable rudder, connected to a rudder bar on which the pilot’s ñg. ro. The parasol monoplane (a) is used mainly where it is feet rest, are situated near the tail plane. They perform practically the same function as the rudder of a boat and can be seen desired to have some of the advantages of external bracing. The monoplane with body above the wing (b) has rather less in more detail in fig. 8. Position of Airscrews and Engines——In the above sketches resistance and is less liable to damage by wind when on the the airscrews indicate the position of the engines. In modern ground, an important advantage. The former type is the more acroplanes the pusher position of the airscrew is seldom used numerous, and the ratio about 3 to 1, but the latter is favoured by the German firm of Junkers which has supplied a large proportion of the machines used on German air lines. The Biplane —The biplane with wings of equal span (c) is the most common form of aeroplane, but wings of unequal span

except in single-engined flying boats, the vast majority of modern aeroplanes using tractor airscrews. When two or more engines are used, it is customary to distribute them along the wings, as the transmission of their power by means of shafts and

Bracing Wire

aa

z

eN ES i z at

ey

a

BS

i

Rudder Fic. 8.—Tractor

biplane of typical composite

(wood and steel) construction.

surfaces is removed

(Part of the covering of the wings, body and control

to show the internal construction.)

(d) (sometimes called sesquiplane, 7.c., 17 plane) have many advantages. The proportion between types (c) and (d) is about 3 tor. Fig. 10 (e) shows a large biplane with two or more engines. In all these the right and left hand wings are not in line, but form a very flat upward Vee. This dihedral angle (which is generally given as the angle between either wing and the horizontal, and varies from o° to 5°) is introduced in order to improve the lateral stability of the machine. The corresponding side elevations of these aeroplanes are given in fig. rr. Ina biplane the relative position of the planes as seen in this view varies as shown in (c), (d) and (e). In (c) and (d) the planes are staggered, i.c., the line joining the leading edge of the upper and lower planes is not perpendicular to their chords. The angle of stagger is generally between 0° and 30° and a variation over this range has little if any effect on the efficiency of the wings. In (d) the chord of the lower wing is smaller than that of the upper wing, a common variant, especially when the spans are also unequal (fig. 10). In (c) the wings have equal chords and no stagger. The tail plane is here shown as a biplane, in which form its weight can be made low for a considerable area. Set of the Wings.—The angle at which the chord of the wings is set in relation to the centre line of the body is generally about s degrees. Though often termed the angle of incidence, it has no connection with the accepted sense of that word. Its magnitucle is the result of a compromise between a number of conflicting requirements, a not unimportant one being the comfort of the passengers. The true angle of incidence being determined by

gearing from a central engine-room to airscrews in suitable positions involves a prohibitive weight, which is generally not less than 13 |b. per H. P. transmitted, or about half the weight of the engine itself. As seen in front elevation the arrangements shown in fig. 12 have been used. Considerations of rudder control in the event of the failure of one engine make it desirable to place the engines as near to one another as the airscrews permit. Overlapping airscrews have been used, but have generally given rise to troublesome vibrations. It is also desirable that the axes of the airscrews should be, as far as possible, on the same horizontal level as the centre of gravity, in order to avoid giving rise to couples tending to make the aeroplane rotate in a vertical plane when the throttles are altered. STABILITY

AND

CONTROL

The general principles of stability and control are dealt with in the article AERODYNAMICS and the stabilising and controlling surfaces have been referred to above. The necessary disposition and dimensions of these surfaces are decided in practice chieily by direct comparison with previous designs. Since, however, acroplanes are not merely scale copies of one type, some rational means of using the accumulated experience of previous work is essential, and it is this that research into the fundamentals of stability and control is able to supply. Needless to say, even these methods break down when the aeroplane in question is not broadly similar to those from which the data are derived, and then nothing short of a thorough investigation, assisted by model

AEROPLANE experiments, will suffice. Very often, even with the best that can be done in this way, uncertainties remain, and the designer is forced, as in other branches of engineering design, to rely upon his ability to draw conclusions from insuftlicient premises. Stability.—Stability, the property of returning to a steady state of motion when deliberately or accidentally disturbed, implies as a necessary preliminary the existence of equilibrium of trim in that state. An acroplane is trimmed for a stated steady condition of flight by an adjustment of its tail plane, the elevators being left free. The degree of stability generally considered desirable for a commercial acroplane can be attained by arranging the size of tail plane and the fore and aft position of the centre of gravity within certain limits. The further back the centre of 1922

1925

6 9 6027 26

22%

N N

497

32h;

yJ N

R

`

N

N

NN

: Biplanes

NE 1

94 9} 40 73 74

78h

& =SETEN © SS sees SISS

9 Q

z

=

sigg

S

Į

TUS

KR

i

K froportion of O Worlds Aeroplanes

| | | „

28 24 14 18 16h

-

88 67 22 87 53

S

SESSE &i Qj W S

i

produced in each Country

Q

=

ce

N

area of rudder and fin area of wings

and

distance of rudder from centre of gravity semi-span of wings

is above 1/20, a satisfactory control is obtained. The latter ratio is usually about 1, so that the former should not be less than one-twentieth. The area of the rudder is generally about 23 that of the rudder and fin combined.

ORIGIN OF AERODYNAMIC Data OF DESIGN The designer bases his calculations on data derived from four main sources: (1) Theoretical investigations, such as the LanchesterPrandtl theory of the action of wings. (2) Experiments on

Monoplanes

N

N

12 33 7813

39

Committee means of curing this vice are now available. The most successful device so far developed involves the principle of the Handley Page slotted wing (see fig. 3). | Rudder Control—aAn effective rudder is as essential for safety at low speeds as effective ailerons. The efficiency of any given rudder depends on its being arranged so that the body does not shield it, but it is generally found that when the product of the ratios

68h

8

Q S

&

SESS gN y 5 x% 3 Ss

X

| M

|

RS S

32 27 [5 %2 14%

Fic. 9.—Diagram illustrating world production of aeroplanes. (N.B. The analysis refers to fypes of aeroplanes, not numbers of machines.)

gravity, the larger is the necessary tail area. The fore and aft position of the centre of gravity in relation to the wing is defined by its distance from a plane passing through the Jeading edge of the wing perpendicular to the chord for a monoplane; for a biplane an equivalent monoplane wing is substituted. In normal aeroplanes this distance is usually about one-third the chord, though it has varied between one-quarter and one-half. The height of the centre of gravity of an aeroplane in relation to the wings has a secondary effect on its stability. In particular a low position of the centre of gravity is not necessary for stability. With the first position stability will be secured providing the product of the ratios area of tail plane! — and

Fic. 10,—Variation in front elevation of monoplanes and biplanes.

models in wind tunnels. (3) Experiments on full scale aeroplanes in flight. (4) Analysis of the measured performance of acroplanes. References to the first of these divisions will be found in the article on AERODYNAMICS, where also the principles underlying experiments on models are dealt with. The Wind Tunnel.—The wind tunnel has played a great part in the development of aeronautics. Many manufacturing firms possess their own tunnels, used mainly for measurements of the resistance of acroplane bodies, etc., with a view to improving performance. National wind tunnels exist in many countries, gencrally reserved in ptinciple for research on problems of wide

arca of wings distance of tail plane from centre of gravity chord of wings

is greater than about 0-35. The latter ratio is usually about 3, and the former one-eighth. The fore and aft control required can generally be obtained area of elevator if the ratio is about two-fifths. area of fixed tail plane Lateral stability depends mainly on the provision of an adequate fin and dihedral angle. While desirable for the comfort of the pilot, lateral stability is of minor importance compared with lateral control. Aileron Control.—Ailerons of an area between t and 1g of that of the wings are usually provided, and give adcquate control at all normal flying speeds. At low speeds, however (more accurately, at angles of incidence of the wings In the neighbourhood of stalling), not only are normal ailerons ineffective, but they may actually be a source of danger, their use aggravating an inherent tendency of the stalled wings to force the aeroplane into a spiral dive or spin. This has undoubtedly been a prolific cause of accidents, of a type which generally involves the deaths of all on board. As the result of research carried out in Great Britain under the auspices of the Aeronautical Research 1 Including that of the elevator.

Fic. 11.—Side elevations of aeroplanes shown in Fig. ro.

interest and application. In Great Britain such tunnels exist at the National Physical Laboratory and the Royal Aircraft Establishment, while, as part of the equipment of university institutions where the scientific problems of aeronautics are investigated, wind tunnels were constructed as at East London College in Ioro.

The main advantage of model experiments is the ease with which the experimenter can control the conditions. They enable suggestions for improvements to be developed to the stage at

which a trial on the full scale is possible.

:

AEROPLANE

40

Most of the leading aircraft-producing countries carry out full scale experiments. In Great Britain they are made at the Royal Aircraft Establishment under the control of the Director

of Scientific Research at the Air Ministry. Owing to the expense involved, private firms can do little work of this kind, but there is active co-operation between them and the Air Ministry, with great benefit to aeronautics. The results of such work will be found in the annual Technical Reports of the Aeronautical Research Committee. The measurements of speed and climb which are made during the acceptance tests of all aeroplanes are a valuable source of

s

OO

OQA

of the apparent increase in the aeroplane’s speed as the ground is approached,! lead him to carry out the manoeuvres at a low speed, where the inherent characteristics of the aeroplane are least favourable and the controls least powerful (see above). The dangers associated with a forced landing may be reduced in three ways: (1) The probability of complcte failure of the power plant may be reduced by subdivision. Machines with three engines (see above) are now coming into favour, capable of maintaining their height with any two engines and of greatly prolonging the time of descent with one engine only working. (2) The controls may be so arranged that they give the pilot complete command over the attitude of the aeroplane right down to the stalling speed (see above). (3) The stalling speed may be reduced (see above), so that the space required for landing, and the consequent need for sharp turns, etc., are also reduced.

Reference arrangement

— To

—.oe—

Fic. 12.—Arrangements of two or more engines,

information for the designer. Their analysis enables an overall comparison between various types to be made on a rational basis, but necessarily lacks something in precision. Tor each type differs from the others in many features, so that, for example, an observed difference in speed cannot safely be ascribed to any one peculiarity. But with suitable precautions reliable information can be obtained in a convenient form. It is found that the factors which have the greatest influence on the speed and climb of an aeroplane are the horsepower per unit of total weight and the total weight carried per unit of wing surface. For further details of the method, and its limitations, references given should be consulted. SAFETY

OF AIR TRAVEL

The risks to which those who travel by air are exposed are probably the chief influence which hinders the development of air transport. These risks are associated with the following causes: (1) physical failure of the pilot, (2) fire when in flight, (3) collision when in flight, (4) breakage of the structure, (5) forced landing. Dangers of the first four types are not peculiar to aircraft and the precautions they involve are common to transport by road, rail and sea. The measures adopted in air transport have practically eliminated them. It is mainly the dangers which may arise when an aeroplane is forced to land that loom large in the minds of those who might otherwise travel by air. While it cannot be said that these fears are unwarranted, yet in so far as the design of aircraft is involved the position was rapidly improving in 1926. Forced Landings —The need for a forced landing arises primarily from failure of the power plant, generally due to a defect developing in some minor part and not to a breakage in the engine itself. Deprived of its power an aeroplane must eventually descend. In practice, from the height at which most civil flying takes place (about 3,000 ft.), about three minutes are available in which the pilot may choose a landing place. If the failure occurs before the aeroplane has reached its working height, the time, and the corresponding area of ground in which this landing placeistobefoundarereducedinproportion. Theseconsiderations unfortunately result in the pilot having to execute somewhat sharp turns in order to place the aeroplane correctly, and it is during these that the control ability of the machine is most severely tested. The ultimate danger lies in the fact that the speed of horizontal travel at the moment of landing cannot possibly be less than the stalling speed. In practice with a typical commercial aeroplane it will be between 65 and 75 m.p.h. The pilot, therefore, endeavours to make the most of what space is available. This consideration, combined with the psychological effect

has been made of controls.

to what

is now

possible in the

But even with controls as

normally

arranged, there is little room for doubt but that a limitation of the stalling speed of civil aircraft to some 45 m.p.h. would greatly reduce the principal danger of flying. A reduction in stalling speed reduces the space required for landing and therefore increases the proportion of the accessible ground which is suitable. It reduces the danger in the event of over-running the selected landing ground, and it reduces the psychological effect on the pilot of the approach of the ground, in the opinion of some by no means the least valuable advantage. Such a limitation would probably involve for a time an increase in fares, since the aeroplanes would be more costly. This might temporarily retard the development of flying, but in the end the gain in safety could react only to its advantage. STRUCTURAL

DESIGN:

THE

GENERAL

PROBLEM

The aeroplane shown in fig. 8 was designed about rgr4, but in its general acrodynamic and structural design it is not fundamentally different from the majority of modern aeroplanes. Regarded as a problem in structural design, a normal aeroplane wing, such as that shown in fig. 8, is a double cantilever, 7.c., two similar cantilevers joined at their roots, carrying a load distributed approximately uniformly over its span. The intensity of the loading begins to diminish appreciably at about one chord from the tip, but is still 2 of its value at the centre, at a distance of 1g chord from the tip. The wing itself is essentially a lamina, the wing sections most commonly used (see fig. 2) having a greatest depth of from !/,4 to ? chord.

The resultant

loading is nearly perpendicular to the chord, but its line of action (as seen in side elevation) intersects the chord at a point (the so-called “centre of pressure ’’) whose distance from the leading edge of the wing varies from 4 to § chord in normal flight, but may travel much further to the rear, even beyond the trailing edge—in special conditions. As a whole, therefore, the wing structure must be capable of taking torsion. From general principles it would appear that the lightest way of bracing such a lamina would be to stiffen it internally by longitudinal and transverse beams, spars and ribs, and to support these by external bracing. The arrangement of two planes, one above the other, connected by struts and wires to form a braced tubular girder, suggested itself to the earliest experimenters in flight. Such a solution is seen in fig. 8 and is typical of the majority of modern aeroplanes. Alternatively, by tapering the wing in plan (fig. 7b) and thus both reducing the intensity of loading outwards from the centre, though not, it appears, in proportion to the reduction of the chord, and increasing the available depth at the root, the whole of the necessary structure could be contained inside the covering. This is the principle of the internally braced wing characteristic of many foreign designers. It has the advantage of avoiding the resistance of the exposed bracing which is characteristic of the first solution. Comparison of Monoplane and Biplane—Many variants of these two main schemes have been used, but in general there is a

clear division between them.

The first undoubtedly produces a

1 Toa passenger in an acroplane 1,000 or 2,000 ft. up, there is gen-

erally no sensation of speed relative to the ground.

AEROPLANE lighter structure and a more compact acroplane. For, with the same total weight and wing area, the biplane has a smaller span and chord and requires a shorter body and smaller tail. With the aid of the Prandtl theory it is possible to arrive at comparative overall dimensions for a normal biplane and a monoplane of otherwise similar characteristics. Such a comparison is shown in fig. 13. The span of the monoplane, (full lines) is about

10% larger than that of the biplane (broken lines),

and its chord 65% larger. The length of the body and the tail area required are each increased about 28°%. Each type has other advantages and disadvantages, but the mere existence of many examples of each indicates that technical opinion is divided on

AI

This number, the ratio between the effective and the normal value of gravity, 1s termed the load factor for the whole machine

under the stated conditions. A normal commercial aeroplane need never experience a load factor of as much as 2 in flight. In practice it is designed to bear a factor of from 4 to 6, dependent on its size and class. (See R and M 673, the report of the Load Factors sub-committee of the Aeronautical Research Committee.) This is the basis of the specified strength of modern commercial aeroplanes. The ratio between the maximum load factor considered in the design, for any stated form of distribution of air pressure, and the factor in any actual condition of flight appropriate to that distribution, is the nearest approach to the factor of safety commonly used in engineering. For a commercial aeroplane the factor of safety, as thus defined, seldom falls below 3. In normal level flight it 1s of the order of 5. For a war aeroplane it may fall to 13, so that the most highly

stressed member is loaded to two-thirds of its breaking load, or even less, but only in extremely rapid manoeuvres. A commercial aeroplane has a true factor of safety, a margin of strength not called upon under the worst conditions which it normally experiences. The load factors corresponding to irregularities in the air are very small. So long as it is in the air, an aeroplane is exposed to much smaller risk of the failure of its structure by stress of weather than Is a ship at sea. Any commercial aeroplane which conforms to the official criterion of strength, and has thereby secured an air-worthiness certificate without which it may not carry passengers, is capable of performing many manoeuvres such as looping and spinning with complete safety. Fic, 13.—Comparison

of plans of normal monoplane and biplane.

their merits, and to a great extent experience in the design and manufacture of one or the other is a dominating factor in the choice between them. Refinement in Details —The details of the structural design depend largely on the materials used (see below). But the main problems are not essentially different from those of the design of ordinary engineering structures, except in one particular. The importance of saving weight in every item of an aeroplane makes it economically possible to carry refinement in design to a point not usually attempted in any other structure. For the same reason elaborate calculations are made during the design,

and the effect of every minor strengthening is carefully considered. All aeroplane structures are highly redundant and initial stresses arc imposed on the members by tightening the bracing wires, In order to increase the stiffness of the structure. The design of modern aeroplane structures takes account of these features as far as it is possible to do so, in contrast to the general tendency of modern bridge design, for example, which tends to avoid them as sources of uncertainty (sce BRIDGES). Where saving of weight is a prime consideration such a course Is not possible. Strength of Aeroplane Structiutres.—Since an aeroplane must be able to manoeuvre rapidly, many systems of air pressure, differing both in distribution and in intensity, must be taken into account. How rapidly it should manoeuvre depends on its class, e.g., a small war machine

must be able to execute safely any

manoeuvre of which an aeroplane is capable, whereas less exacting conditions suffice for a large commercial machine. Spins, rolls, loops have all to be considered and experiments have been mace in order to ascertain the distribution of the air pressure in such manoeuvres. The fundamental manoeuvre 1s, however, that of rapid recovery from a steep dive at a high speed, and here the combined effect of centrifugal force and gravity produces an equivalent gravity (see AERODYNAMICS) several times the normal. It can be shown that, given the necessary control power and indifference to his own safety, the pilot of an aeroplane could impose in this way forces up to 10 or 12 times those which the structure has to bear in the normal flight. As much as seven times normal gravity has been recorded in experiments under war conditions.

MATERIALS

USED IN CONSTRUCTION

Composite Structures —The materials which have been most commonly used hitherto for the main structural members of aeroplanes are wood and steel, with a fabric covering for the wings. The wood used is chiefly spruce of the highest grade, and in many aeroplanes the whole of the main structure, with the exception of ties and Joints, is of this material. Ties and the joints or fittings by which they are attached to the other members are generally of steel. Steel tubes are used in some parts, either, as in the undercarriage, on account of their robustness, or, as in the control mechanism, because of their efficiency in transmitting torsion. The general arrangement of the members of a conventional acroplane structure of this composite character will be seen in fig. 8. The cross section of the wing spars has the I section commonly used in general structural enginecring, though the thickness of the web and tlanges is much larger in proportion to the overall dimensions of the section than is usual in steel I girders. The wings of the aeroplane shown in fig. 8 are in biplane form with external bracing. Composite construction has also been applied to wings with no external bracing, generally, but not invariably, monoplanes. The Dutch firm of Fokker is the chief European exponent of such methods. Their wing structures are built mainly of wood, the spars being box girders. The covering of the wings is of three-ply wood, which also enters largely into the ribs and spars. In aeroplane construction the primary requirement is lightness, and a modern composite aeroplane structure is on the whole nearly as light as one of any other type of construction so far developed, for the same strength. At present it is also very much cheaper. Nevertheless, in so far as it embodies wood it suffers from the following disadvantages:— (1) Wood of a suitable grade cannot be freely obtained. (2) When

exposed to the atmosphere, particularly to large changes in temperature and humidity, wood deteriorates more rapidly than steel or other metals. (3) Wood is not a reliable material. Its external appearance is often misleading as an indication of its internal condition. (4) In aeroplane structures glue and woodscrews cannot be entirely avoided. Both are sources of weakness and uncertainty. (5) When a wooden structure is involved in an accident, many of its members break completely, and splinter and the structure disintegrates, whereas metal members often merely bend, and an allmetal structure generally preserves much of its original shape. The

AEROPLANE

42

passengers in a wooden aeroplane are thus exposed to greater danger in case of an accident.

(6) Wood has no inherent resistance to fire

and cannot be rendered fire resisting. These disadvantages of wood have been the chief incentive to the development of all-metal construction for aeroplanes. All-Metal Structures—The development of all-metal structures by British designers has been mainly confined to replacing each of the wooden members of the composite structure described above by a metal member, using either steel or duralumin. In such a structure the load to be borne by each member is of a fairly simple character and can be estimated fairly closely. Hence a comparison of the merits of a composite and an allmetal structure on these lines can be reduced to a comparison of typical members. On the other hand European and American designers have used all-metal construction chiefly for monoplanes with no external bracing. The most prominent example is the German firm of Junkers.! A wing of this kind cannot readily be considered in detail. In fact it is definitely regarded by its designer as a structural whole. Its structure is highly redundant in character and the corrugated metal covering combines the function of the ribs and fabric found in most other aeroplanes, andin addition contributes largely to the torsional stiffness of the whole wing, a function which in a biplane is performed mainly by the wire bracing. The relative advantages and disadvantages of these two distinct types of aeroplanes are concerned more with thcir general characteristics than with the materials of their structures. Relative Cost of Wood and Metal. —The world’s present demand for aeroplanes is uneconomical in character. The total volume of the demand is small and it is spread over a large number of types. This reacts to the disadvantage of all-metal aeroplanes in particular. Wood is an economical material when small quantities of many types of articles have to be manufactured. The same raw material is required, and it can readily be shaped to efficient sections by the same simple tools and equipment. With metal, the raw material must be prepared by special plant into the necessary forms (tubes, strip, wire, etc.) and these processes are economical only when large quantities of one form are required. But given the demand for a standard article, metal is cheaper than wood. Many of the metal details of acroplanes have been standardised since early in the War, and nearly all the raw materials are now the subject of specifications issued by the British Engineering Standards Association. But there is nothing as yet to correspond with the standard sizes of steel beams (I, angle, 1See H. Junkers, Journal of Royal Aeronautical Society (Sept. 1923).

channel, etc.) which are essential to economy in general structural engineering, though design is now approaching the stage when such a step will be possible. Against the high first cost, however, must be offset the longer life and greater reliability of metal, and it cannot be doubted that wood as a material for the construction of aircraft is rapidly becoming obsolete.

Physical Properties of Materials ——TVhe disadvantages of wood as a material for the structure of an aeroplane, outlined above, give an idea of what should be the characteristics of a satisfactory material. There is the usual difficulty, common to most problems of engineering design, of assessing the relative importance of each of these characteristics. In fact, their relative positions in the scale change with time and circumstances. But, owing to the low weight of the composite structures characteristic of modern aeroplanes, the technical problem is simplified into that of finding means of making, at the worst equally light, and preferably lighter structures from materials that do not share with wood the disadvantages mentioned. In Table I. are given the strength and specific gravity of various materials which have been, or are likely to be, used for the main structural members of aircraft. They fall into three classes: wood, steel and light non-ferrous metals. The comparatively short life of wood has been quoted as one of its main disadvantages. Both steel and aluminium alloys need protection against corrosion (probably the most promising metal from this point of view being stainless steel). Although it would be misleading to suggest that all the problems of protection of metal structures have been solved, the experience gained suggests that effective protection can be given against all the ordinary causes of corrosion. It is customary to regard the single figure obtained by dividing the strength by the specific gravity as a figure of merit on which the material can be judged. Such figures are not given in Table I. as they are not, in fact, a reliable criterion for all types of structural members. Struts and Beams of Thin Metal—The types of members responsible for the larger part of the weight of the structure of an acroplane are two, struts and beams, the latter very often having to serve also as struts. Such members have essentially a variation of stress over their cross section, so that when the most heavily stressed point reaches the limiting stress of the material (this may be taken to mark the failure of the member as a whole), the majority of the material is under a lower stress. Hence the density of the material divided by its limiting stress is not in general proportional to the weight of the member. In general, for a given area of cross section and a given limiting stress, the more the material can be spread out, e.g., in the

steel spar, showing (b) Inner end of wing in stecl, showing wide rib and attachment of wing to aeroplane. (c) Corrugated steel spar, using transverse tubes to stiffen webs, and duralumin strips to stiffen flanges. (d) Internal construction of wing in duralumin. Spar built up from sheet and angles. Ribs made from tube and channels. (ec) Simplified wing spar in duralumin. (N.B. The greatest depth of each of the spars shown is about 5 inches.)

Fic. 14.—Examples method

of metal

construction

of attaching rib by means

of spring

of spars and

ribs for aeroplane

steel clips rivetted

to struts,

wings.

pressing

(a) Section

into corrugations

of corrugated in the spar.

AEROTHERAPEUTICS TABLE

; Material

a ific TAVUY

Wood Spruce

O-45

Steel Mild (soft) . ; Plain carbon stee bar for ties (coldrolled) ' ; Plain carbon stee strip (cold-rolled and blued) . 34% nickel steel stri (hardened

and

tempered)

Light Metals Aluminium rolled)

Duralumin

I. Aea

a

Ultimate

Effective

Strength

Tensile in CompresStrength Son (tons/sq. in.) (tons/sq. in.)

about

3

2

7'8

26

15

7'8

70

7'8

60

50

7-8

90

Go

sary. The resulting shapes (fig. 14) resemble those used in bridge construction, though the lattice girder seen in fig. 14d is found in practice to be heavier than the simpler shape in e. It is probable that, for the size of spar required in the largest present-day aeroplanes of the type under discussion, it 18 more

economical of weight to use a spar composed of a few parts (such as a, c and e) than to build it up from many pieces. On the other hand for larger beams, such as are used in airships, a lattice construction is lighter. Probably the lightest all-metal construction for a wing structure using spars and ribs, etc.,

(cold-

.

2-6

2°85

IO

27

8

17

|

form of a circle, the greater will be the strength of the strut or beam, but the thinner will the material become. It appears, however, that a limit is reached for steel when the thickness is about 1/50 the radius beyond which an increase in the radius causes a decrease in strength. The member will then fail owing to local buckling of the material, at a load which corresponds to a maximum stress in the material, as calculated in the conventional way, which is below the limiting stress. The design of metal structures for aircraft hinges round the discovery of shapes of cross section which will enable the limiting stress of the material to be reached, and will be convenient for manufacture. The members must also be robust enough to ensure that ordinary handling does not damage them, a serious problem with thin sheets or tubes. Limiting Stress.—The limiting stress in question is probably what is termed the yield’ point In compression, the stress at which plastic strain begins, for materials such as mild steel. For high tensile steel and light alloys, in practice the aluminium

alloy known as duralumin is the only one used, there is no cefinite yield point and the limiting stress is accordingly somewhat uncertain. Shapes for members (see fig. 14) have been devised in which the greatest stress at failure is some 60 to 70% of the ultimate tensile strength of the materials (see Table [., column headed “ Effective Strength in Compression’’) and there is reason to suppose that this is not far from the best that can be achieved. Some improvement may be anticipated from an extension of these results to still higher grades of steel, or from the development of a light alloy stronger than duralumin, but at the present time attention is concentrated mainly on the improvement of manufacturing methods. The ruling principle in the shapes of cross section which have achieved these results with steel is corrugation of the thin sheet material used. The theory of the collapse of corrugated material awaits development, design being at present largely empirical. But the general nature of the strengthening effect of corrugation is well understood. A flat sheet of thin metal buckles readily uncer compressive stresses. Corrugation, in any direction which does not make too great an angle with the direction of the stress, stiffens 1t against such buckling. Moreover, it greatly reduces the influence of the inevitable local irregularities in actual materials, and gives robustness to what would otherwise be a very easily damaged member. It has been found essential in struts and beams of thin metal, to corrugate longitudinally. Transverse corrugations have proved ineffective. Steel strip of thickness as low as 1/100 in. has been used in aeroplane spars. The material is either cold-rolled medium carbon steel, whose essential properties have been improved by a process known as blucing (heating to some 350° C.), but is otherwise not heat treated, or a nickel chromium alloy steel, hardened and tempered. Hitherto the strip has been formed

43

into the final shape cold and without any subsequent treatment. This restricts the sections which can be produced and the materials which can be used owing to the need for ductility in order to avoid cracks. Progress has been made in the direction of forming the shapes while the material is in an annealed state and heat treating subsequently. This method will probably supersede *“‘ hard ”’ drawing and rolling. For spars of the size shown in fig. 14, it has been found that the low specific gravity of durajumin makes it possible to use material of such a thickness that corrugation is not always neces-

combines both steel and duralumin, the former for the main members (spars and struts) and the latter for the subsidiary ribs and edges. With the methods outlined above it is now possible to make an all-metal aeroplane certainly as light as, and sometimes lighter than, the corresponding composite machine. | (W. S. F.)

AEROTHERAPEUTICS.— (see 1.270).—In

addition

to

the

general use of open air and sunshine, there are several particular ways of using air for therapeutic purposes. Thus oxygen enriched air is used for those made ill through breathing irritant gases such as were used in warfare. These gases evoke oedema of the lungs and danger of suffocation through want of oxygen. So, too, in cases of pneumonia, shock and failing circulation, oxygen inhalation is useful. It is administered either by a mask or in a special chamber in which the patient is put. In the latter case great precaution must be taken against the danger of fire. Oxygen containing 5° of carbon dioxide provokes deep breathing, and is useful in cases when the lungs require expanding, as after operations for empyema, when hypostatic congestion of the lungs threatens, and in cases of poisoning by carbon monoxide, as in ordinary coal-gas poisoning, etc. This mixture is particularly useful for breathing during induction of and after

anaesthesia with ether, the deep respiration inducing on the one hand anaesthesia quickly, and washing the ether out of the body on the other hand at the end of the anaesthetic period (sce ANAESTHETICS). Compressed Atr.—The breathing of compressed air in a special chamber has been used but this probably has no other action than that of increasing the concentration of oxygen in the air breathed. The breathing of nitrous oxide and oxygen in a compressed air chamber at half an atmosphere extra pressure gives deep and safe anaesthesia; an operating theatre constructed as such a chamber would be valuable. Air Contamination —The contamination of the air with certain dusts is important in those affected with hay fever and asthma, e.g., the pollen of plants, spores of aspergillus mould, dandruff of horses, cats, dogs, feathers, to one or other of which dusts certain people have a sensitivity similar to that in anaphylaxis. It has been found possible to relieve such patients by sending them to the high Alps, to sea or by having them sleep in a special dust-proof chamber. Some may be relieved by vaccination with the specific exciting substance (sce THERAPEUTICS). Air may be cooled so as to resemble alpine air, but such a method is difficult and of little utility in the sick-room compared with the advantages of natural breathing of open air. Warming and drying air for respiration is of no advantage, but steaming the air is useful in cases of bronchitis. In a mercurial or sulphur bath, the patient, enveloped in a sheet, sits on a chair beneath which a lamp is placed both to volatilise the drug and produce a.steamy atmosphere. The vapour is absorbed by the skin. This treatment is used for syphilis and also for scabies and other affections of the skin.

44

AESTHETICS

Rarefied Air.—Rarefied air is used locally for cupping and thus producing local congestion, the blood being drawn into the part to which the cupping apparatus is applied at the expense of other organs. A similar result is got by local application of heat, poultices, etc. In operations where the chest cavity is opened airis blown into the lungs through a tube introduced through the larynx in order to keep the lungs distended. Ozonised sltr.—Ozonised air has been used in treatment of phthisis and wounds. Ozone is an irritant to the lungs and can be used safely only in very weak concentrations, e.g., in a concentration just perceptible to the smell. It takes away the power to smell bad odours, but otherwise has no valuable properties which have been proven. Its chief use, then, is for deodorising offensive smells. (e BH) AESTHETICS (see 1.277).—The chief advances in aesthetics since Prof. Sully’s survey—which remains the best statement in the English language—was published in the Encyclopedia Britannica (1911) have been applications of psychological discoveries. Though there is still “nothing answering to the German conception of a system of aesthetics in literature,” Sully’s central postulate (derived through Kant from Hume, who declared that “ beauty is no quality in things themselves; it exists merely in the mind which contemplates them ”’) now finds few dissentients. But the primary task of aesthetics is to describe and analyse

the states of mind which give rise to ascriptions of aesthetic qualities, rather than to correlate these states with characters of the physical objects said to be beautiful, ugly, pretty, pleasant and so forth. The latter inquiry can rarely be carried to a useful conclusion, owing to the too great complexity of the factors involved. None the less, great efforts continue to be made to arrive at formulae and measurements which would explain the effect that different kinds of art have on us. But, as Edmund Gurney in The Power of Sound showed so conclusively for music, there is no likelihood that we shall ever discover a sufficiently wide formula for what is effective which does not also cover the ineffective. Such researches as those which claim that there are certain fundamental proportions in Greek architecture (J. Hambidge) may, like the printer’s standard proportions for book margins, provide rules of thumb for the avoidance of certain crudely displeasing effects. . But the goal of aesthetics, regarded by Sully as the study of certain assignable characteristics by means of which an object ‘is fitted to affect us in a certain way,’ must now be recognised to lie rather in the evaluation of the different ways in which we are found to be affected. Very little can be done towards correlating aesthetic experiences with simple characters of their objects, in spite of the mass of material as to the improvised preferences of laboratory-subjects which have been accumulating since 1900, but a good deal can be said about the experiences themselves, and also about their value; t.e., our considered preferences for one rather than another. Opposing Theories—Another fundamental assumption made by Sully is, however, being challenged, namely the existence of a distinctive aesthetic state, mood, or attitude, whether regarded as a unique effect of beauty, or as a necessary condition for its perception. Beautiful objects, it was held, either caused this state, or were only perceived to be beautiful when approached with an attitude opposed to that of the practical man, the scientist, or the moralist. This view has been attacked from two sides. In the first place, the so-called aesthetic state is really not one state but a number of superficially similar states, actually very different in origin and nature. Compare, for example, the “ detachment ” due to the fact that it is a picture we are looking at, and notia tree, with the “ detachment ” of the contemplation which is part of the final goal of tragedy. And, on the other hand, states similar to these often occur under conditions with which aesthetics would not seem to be concerned; for example, in the nitrous-oxide trance and in incipient stages of dissociation. This re-orientation is largely due to a heightened sense of the

analysis has made it clear that different states are in question on different occasions. Further experimental work bearing on this question makes such a result on the whole more probable, though the positive outcome is as yet slight. Some tempting minor theories have been disproved, such as the view that the pleasurableness of certain visual forms is derived from the relative ease of the eye movements by which we perceive them. It has been shown by Stratton and by Judd that the eye does not ‘ follow lines ”’; it Jumps about and its movements do not correspond to the course of the line. Perhaps the most interesting general result has been the demonstration of the great range of difference between individuals, both as to their preferences, for example among colours, and as to the motives which govern such choices. . The experiments of Bullough with colours! and of Myers and Valentine with tones? would seem to show that individuals fall into four distinct types with regard to their dominant attitude towards such objects: (1) the objective, by whom the colour is liked, e.g., because itis“ pure ”; (2) the intra-subjective, by whom it is liked, e.g., because it is “ warming ”; (3) the associative, by whom it is liked, e.g., because it is the colour of wine; (4) the character type, who judge the colour to be “‘ bold,” “ timid,” ete. Further experiments are needed, however, before these types can be accepted as established, and they lend themselves, in any case, to a variety of interpretations. Value of Experiences.—Another re-orientation concerns the value of the experiences studied by aesthetics. The most obvious point about them is their value, and any theory which leaves this unexplained must be defective. A theory of value in general is therefore necessary for aesthetics, and a thorough attempt to formulate and apply such a theory has been made by Richards,’ with special reference to literature; an endeavour which represents a return to Socrates no less than to Tolstoi (see 1.285). Aesthetics considers experiences with a view to their valuation; but aestheticians have tended to single out as the distinctive “aesthetic mood” that particular kind of experience in which they were most interested, and, since Kant, attention has been focused chiefly on the mood of detached and impersonal contemplation. This state of contemplation has, however, often been misdescribed, probably through the influence of the now abandoned “faculty ” psychology, as well as through the confusions noticed above. Every experience, no matter how detached or serene, arises only through the play of desires and activities. It is the peculiar direction of desire and will, not their absence, which marks off the contemplative state. They are directed, in fact, towards the maintenance and development of the state ttse/f, in all its aspects, not towards the development of one special aspect (as in thinking), nor towards a change in the situation (as in practical activity}. But there is nothing dreamlike or indifferent about this state. Sully looked forward to a deeper inspection of the contemplative mood, and its further analysis has since yielded interesting results. Thus W. M. Urban (Valuatioi, p. 219), based in part on the theories of Meinong and Baldwin, sums up much useful analysis, by French aestheticians such as Paulhan and art historiars such as Hirn, in “ the concept of the widened ground of diffused stimulation, the balance of impulses.” E. D. Puffer in 1907 (Psychology of Beauty, p. 5o), developing one aspect of Schiller’s view, had already described the calm or repose of contemplation as a tension, equilibrium or balance of forces; and according to Urban, who remarks that in primitive dances the object of desire, whether martial, erotic or religious, is “ distanced,” it is this equilibrium of impulses which “ prevents the fundamental tendency from breaking forth into overt action.” One of the most interesting results of such an analysis has been 1 British Journal of Psychology, 2 (1906-8), 3 (1908-10). 2 Jbid., 7 (1917). 8 Principles of Laterary Criticism (1925), especially chap. 5, pp. 35-38. SeealsoC. K. Ogdenand I. A. Richards, The Afeaning of Afean-

verbal ambiguities involved. It has been customary to assume aig (1923), in which the verbal ambiguities involved in all discussions a common property in things called by the same name, and this of art and beauty are dealt with in relation to the general psychology tendency has been misleading here, for stricter psychological i of language and symbolism.

AESTHETICS

45

to dispose of the theory of pure or aesthetic value which so easily springs from the assumption of the “ aesthetic state.” Another erroneous corollary has made the contemplative state a rare occurrence, unknown to savages, children and the uneducated. This has given rise to “ aestheticism ”’ with the implication that art is a monopoly of the leisured dilettante. A return

naturally turned to the critics and the artists themselves for guidance. Clive Bell's Art (1914) endeavoured to combine the theory of a specific aesthetic emotion with the then prevalent Cambridge Realism, but on closer examination the doctrine of “ significant form ” was seen to be baseless. The not dissimilar views of Roger Fry also enjoyed a wide vogue, and the more

to Tolstoi, who defined art as the communication

been

stimulating reilections of Kandinsky, Corbusier and Wyndham Lewis are still deservedly attracting attention. In the literary

that very much

field, too, the critic has occasionally led the way, and such a

experiences inevitable.

from

one

It must

mind

to another,

be recognised,

has

moreover,

of valuable

therefore

which seems to be purely aesthetic criticism is in reality comment upon a lack of social opportunity (particularly the absence of an expensive education) and upon acquired mannerisms; the parallel case in which a man is judged by his dress is obvious. An important influence leading in the same direction has been that of psycho-analysis (see PSyYCHO-ANALYSIS) with its fresh light on the growth and development of preferences. Though at present easily misapplied in criticism, its consequences, especially for the study of creative imagination, are likely to be fundamental.! The work of the Gestalt school with its stress upon the unity of psychic processes, especially in the study of the perception of form, is also? promising, since this unity is certainly an essential consideration both in creation and in appreciation. A more specific problem which awaits development is that raised by the systematic analogical analysis of the emotional effects of sounds and colours.’ | Philosophy of Aesthetics —In addition to the endeavors of science to elucidate aesthetic experiences mention must be made of recent developments on the philosophical side. English writers, among whom Bosanquet, Wildon Carr, Carritt, and Collingwood may be cited, have been chiefly influenced by the work of the Italian idealist Benedetto Croce (g¢.v.). In discussing Croce’s views it must always be remembered that his aesthetic doctrine forms an inseparable part of his general system of subjective idealism, which includes the denial of the reality of the physical world. It can only be accepted by those who are satisfied with that position, and the attempt to use his formulae by those who do not subscribe to the whole of which they form parts has led to much confusion. In brief, Croce identifies art with intuition, or imagination, the formulative activity of the mind which is prior to thinking in its narrower sense. At the same time he sharply distinguishes it from the practical activity of the mind. Intuition he again identifies with expression, thereby bringing out the necessity for the formation activity to give form to what it is handling. The work of art, he holds, exists complete in the mind of the artist, the technical work of writing the poem or painting the picture being but a secondary practical activity of “ extrinsication.’’ Ugliness is thus regarded as incomplete, or partial beauty, the result of a failure to intuit or imagine with the necessary thoroughness. A psychologist who dissents from this philosophy will remark that the psychology of perception and imagination which Croce’s formulae suggest to him seems to be mistaken. But to this the school of Croce have a ready answer, by which the objection is “surpassed.” They reply that the methods and results of psychology are either illegitimate or have no bearing upon their position. So the matter must be left until the rival claims to authority of philosophy (in this sense) and of science (in the generally accepted sense) are adjudicated upon. A new tendency of the past two decades has been the attention received by non-professional theorists. Recent violent revolutions in the arts left professional aestheticians temporarily at a loss, and, especially in England, the younger generation 1 See A. Adler’s essay on Dostoevsky in chap. 23 of his Individual Psychology (1924); C. G. Jung’s many contributions are often suggestive, though S. Freud's studies in this field (cf. Der Wahn und die Träume; Eng. trans., Delusion and Dream, 1917) have perhaps not the outstanding merits of his other work. 2 The columns of Psychologische Forschung (see for example, the contributions of von Allesch in vol. vi., 1924-5) contain the best work of the Gestalt theorists. C. Koffka's remarks on melody in his Growth of the Mind (1924) also merit attention. Cf. C. Fox, Educational Psychology (1925), chap. 10.

Psyche, vol. ii., Jan

theory of the analogy.

1922, for an outline of the Tudor-Hart

work as T. S. Eliot's Tke Sacred Wood (1920) is a worthy successor to A. C. Bradley’s Oxford Lectures on Poetry (1909). In different fields, also, the Futurist manifestoes of Marinetti, Vernon Lee’s Studies in Empathy, the contemplative Hedonism of Santayana and the reported aphorisms of Cézanne have influenced contemporary aesthetic enquiry. Conclusions —We have first two views of objective beauty: (1) that there is a simple quality of beauty; (2) that beauty isa complex quality, namely the possession of aesthetic form. The improbability of the second of these has been commented on above; the progress of psychology has rendered the first obsolete.

(3) That beauty consists in the imitation of nature.

(4) That it is

due to the successful technical exploitation of the artist’s materials; this view has its relevance in connection with the applied arts. (s) That beauty is the product of ‘‘ genius’’; often an alternative formulation of other views. (6)That beauty is the revelation of (2) truth (in some sense), (b) the ideal, (c) the universal, (d) the typical. (7) That beauty consists in the creation of illusion; this has relevance in connection with hypnosis and suggestion theories of art, and in relation to the use of art as a drug (novel

reading). (8) That beauty is to be judged in terms of desirable social effects. (9g) That the beautiful is the expressive. The rise of the Expressionist school, particularly in Germany, has brought this theory back into prominence. The last seven views may be contrasted as a group with the remaining seven, which are all psychological in a narrower sense. (10) The beautiful is the pleasant. A subsidiary science, which might be termed hedonics, is required to deal with the special problems raised by “ pleasure.” (11) Beauty is what excites emotion; (12) promotes a specific emotion (e.g., “ aesthetic ’’ emotion); (13) involves the processes

of empathy; (14) heightens vitality; (15) brings us into touch with exceptional personalities; (16) conduces to an equilibrium of impulses. | ; BisLroGRAPity.—There

is still no comprehensive

treatment

of

aesthetics in English. I. A. Richards’ Principles of Literary Criticism (1925) provides the best orientation. E, Meumann in his A sthetik der Gegenwart (1919) and his System der A sthetik (1919) has compiled a useful introduction, and R. Miiller-Freienfels’ Psychologie der Kunst (1912) covers a good deal of ground from the psychological angle. A condensed survey, with illustrations, of the 16 main types of theory will be found in C, K. Ogden, I. A. Richards and J. Wood, The Foundations of Aesthetics (1922). The writings of V. Basch, ‘Le maitre-probléme de l’esthétique,”’ Revue Philosophigue (July-Aug. 1921), of C. Lalo, L'Art ef /a Wie Sociale (1921), L'Art et la Morale (1922), La Beauté et UInstinct Sexuel (1922), Esthétique (19253); and of Fr. Paulhan, L' Esthétique du Paysage (1913), will give a good idea of French points of view. B. Croce’s slesthetic (Eng. trans., 2nd ed., 1922), and his Essence of Aesthetic (Breviario di Estetica, 1924) are now available in English:

the

former

contains

an

extensive

historical

survey.

Eng-

lish followers of Croce are B. Bosanquet, Three Lectures on Aesthetics (1915), E. F. Carritt, The Theery of Beauty (1923), and R. G. Collingwood, Speculum Mentis (1924), Outlines ofa Philosophy of Art (1928). Criticism of Croce’s system will be found in Albert Cock, Proc. Arist. Sec. (1914), and H. R. Marshall, The Beautiful (1924), chap. 14, the latter being an informative treatment from the hedonistic standpoint, which is also well represented, with a difference, by G. Santayana’s The Sense of Beauty (1918). Since vol. iii. of J. Volkelt’s System der Asihettk (1924), Theodor Ziehen's Vorlesungen über Ästhetik (1925) is the most formidable continental attempt to construct a system. In addition to the experimental work already cited, C. W. Valentine, An Lutreduction to the Experimental Psychology of Beauty (1913) may be mentioned. Max Eastman, The Enjoyment of Poeiry (1913) and The Sense of Humor (1921), J. C. Gregory, The Nature of Laughter (1924) and F. A. Beaumont, The Hero: a Theory of Tragedy (1925), deal with the literary aspects of Aesthetics. Lucien Bourguès, La Musique et la Vie Intérieure (1921), G. Révész, Erwin Nytregehdst (eng. trans., The Psychology of a Musical Prodigy, 1925) and H. J. Watt, The | Foundations of Music (1920), serve to indicate the material accumu-

46

AFFORESTATION— AFGHANISTAN

lating in one province alone, since the earlicr work of Helmholtz, Moos and Hanslik on music; while M. Dessoir’s Zeztschrift fiir Asthetik und aligemeine Kunstwissenschaft (vol. v., IQ10, ef seg.) covers the whole field of reference. (C. K. O.)

AFFORESTATION: see FORESTRY. AFGHANISTAN (sce 1.306), an independent state in Central Asia. The portion of the frontier between Afghanistan and India to the west of the Khyber was demarcated in ro1g and yo21. The full sovereign rights of Afghanistan were recognised by Great Britain in the Treaty of Peace between the two countries signed on Nov. 22 1921. Estimated area, 245,000 square miles. Population about 10,000,000. The War Period. ak of the World War, Amir Habibulla had to face only one serious crisis—the Khost rebelhion of 1912, which was caused by the rapacity and exactions of the local governor. After considerable trouble the rebellion was put down on terms unexpectedly favourable to the rebellious Ghilzais and Mangals. Amir Habibulla’s clemency was prompted both by a desire to conciliate the Ghilzais, the hereditary enemies of the Durrani dynasty, and by the knowledge that his acceptance of Western ideas and encouragement of modern technical improvements had undermined his own popularity. Among the many mixed blessings of modern civilisation which he had introduced in a conservative and unappreciative country were motor-cars, telephones, newspapers, a hydro-electric scheme

and a superior high school, the Habibia College staffed chiefly by teachers from India. With the protraction of the World War, Amir position grew increasingly difficult. At its outset clared his intention to abide by his engagement with

in Kabul,

Habibulla’s he had dethe British Govt. and keep his country out of the turmoil. But the entry of Turkey, the protagonist of Islam and the holder of the Caliphate, into the War on the side of the Central Powers gave strength to the anti-British party in Afghanistan and paved the way for the dispatch of a Turco-German mission to Kabul in 1ọ15-6. An interesting account of the mission is given— unfortunately for the historian, with admirable discretion—by W. O. von Hentig, its German head, in a book published during the War. The mission had a paper success which did not deceive even von Hentig, who was chieily responsible for it; and Amir Habibulla had the satisfaction of seeing the War close with his promise to Great Britain fulfilled. There was much speculation, not confined to India or Afghanistan, over the nature of the War reward he was likely to receive, and belief was general that

it would take a political as well as a financial form. Third Afghan War.—All expectations, however, were upset, first, by his assassination on Feb. 20 1919, and then by the Third Afghan War,! which was thrust upon India in the following May by his second son, Amanulla, who had ousted his uncle Nasrullah from the throne after a six-day Amirate. The concentration of the British forces was hardly completed when peace overtures, precipitated by the appearance of the first aeroplane over Kabul, were received from the young Amir. The negotiations that followed ended in a Treaty of Peace, signed at Rawal Pindi on Aug. 8 1919, which proclaimed the resumption

of peaceful relations, the annulment of the annual subsidy which the Amir had been granted from 1879 onwards, and (more or less as a corollary and for this reason perhaps in a separate letter) Afghanistan’s release from Great Britain’s control of her foreign relations. This was followed by a Conference at Mussoorie in 1920 at which outstanding differences between the Indian and Afghan governments were freely discussed and the ground cleared for a treaty of neighbourly relations signed at Kabul on Nov. 22 1921 (British White Paper Cmd. 1,786 of 1922). Independent Afghanistan.—Afghanistan lost no time in making good her foothold within the circle of fully independent nations. Treaties or agreements were made with several of the leading Powers; ministers were sent to Moscow, Berlin, Paris, Rome,

Teberan, Angora, and later to London;

foreign legations were set up in Kabul.

and as many

The establishment of a

1For this campaign see Papers regarding hostilities with Afghanistan, 1919 (Cmd. 324 of 1919) and a despatch from Gen. Sir C. C.

Monro printed in The London Gazette, March 12 1920.

British legation in Kabul put the final seal on Afghanistan’s emergence from her old hermit condition. In view of the fate of the British Residency in 1879 it was not entered upon lightly.

It was perhaps the most notable feature in the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of Nov. 22 1921, which was only concluded after to

months of patient negotiation between Sir Henry Dobbs, then Foreign Secretary to the Govt. of India, on the part of Great Britain, and Sardar-i-Ala Mahmud Tarzi, the Amir’s father-inJaw and Foreign Minister, on the part of Afghanistan. Chief among the difficulties responsible for drawing out the negotiations was a clause in the Russo-Afghan Treaty of Feb. 28 1921, under which Russia had acquired the right to establish consulates at Ghazni and Kandahar—localities admittedly remote from all prospect of Russian trade, and useful to Russia only as jumping-off grounds for intrigue on the Indian frontier. Indeed, Great Britain from the outset declined to negotiate a treaty unless Afghanistan found a way out of a commitment so mani-

festly hostile in design. Afghanistan’s success in doing so was noted in the European Press at the time as a sign that she was not entering the comity of civilised nations altogether unequipped with the weapons of modern diplomacy. And in the next three years there were at least two international crises that attracted attention in the world’s Press, from which, after what were apparently false steps at the beginning, she extricated herself with a diplomatic skill and a robust common sense that commanded general respect. The first arose in 1r923~4 out of the murder of two British officers by two Afghan subjects within a mile or so of toe Afghan border, which was closely followed by the flight into. Aighanistan of some rufhans who had murdered an English officer’s wife and abducted her young daughter. The second and in some ways even more sensational crisis (for it all but ended in a rupture with Italy) arose out of the shooting of an Afghan policeman by an Italian named Piparno in Afghan

Government employ. The procedure adopted in the trial was according to Western ideas highly prejudicial to the accused, and even ran counter to one school, at any rate, of Moslem jurisprudence, in that it ignored the prior settlement of the case with the cognisance of the state by blood-money paid to the relatives. After a protracted incarceration Piparno was summarily executed, and feeling in Italy at once grew tense. In both crises the young Amir took charge of affairs himself when the crisis was at its height, and proved that the Amirate had lost little if anything in strength with Afghanistan’s political development, and that when his country’s honour was at stake Amir Abdur Rahman’s grandson had an ample share of that political sagacity which had been among his grandfather’s most marked characteristics. Modern Development.—In other spheres Amir Amanulla has broken away from his great ancestor’s policy, notably in his determination to open up his country to Western civilisation. Here and there indeed he seems to have been dangerously in advance of his time, as in his schemes for the emancipation of women through female education—schemes which were apparently the cause or chief among the causes (under the agitation of the Mullas) of the dangerous rebellion that broke out in Khost in the spring of 1924 and was only suppressed in the following spring after the Afghan Govt. had organised considerable forces to cope with it. But even clerical conservatism seems unlikely to be able to obstruct the more material of Amir Amanulla’s schemes for the development of his country, such as much-needed improvements in communications. In addition to a wireless station at Kabul which is in regular communication with Peshawar and Tashkent, Kabul and the more important localities in its neighbourhood are linked up with the Indian telegraph system, and a project has been on foot ever since the Russo-Afghan Treaty of 1921 for linking up Kabul with the Russian system through Kandahar and Herat. Road communications have improved very greatly during the period ro1o-25, for the introduction of motor-cars has necessitated the reconstruction of the principal roads, especially in the neighbourhood of the capital itself. The pros? Translation of the text in L'Europe Nouvelle, May 28 1921.

AFRICA pect of a really well-aligned motor-road from Kabul to the Khyber, and from Kabul to Kandahar and thence to Chaman, is not, perhaps, far distant, and when realised must havea profound effect on the economic and political development of the country. Trade between India and Afghanistan, especially by the Quetta route, has increased considerably of late years, and cannot fail to be greatly enhanced by the construction of roads fit for motor transport. The barrier of the Hindu Kush range, with its steep

47

known, making a journey through the Libyan desert, during which he examined two “ lost ’’ oases, into Darfur and Kordofan. Work of the French.—Previous explorations by the French (1912-7) had greatly increased knowledge of the eastern limits of the Chad basin, and had definitely proved the distinction and disconnection of the Chad-Niger basin and the western basin of the Nile. In this region the name of Col. Jean Tilho remained predominant owing to the greatness of his discoveries, though the spelling assigned by his and other expeditions in the Tibesti ascents and numerous passes, effectively blocks communication by mechanical transport between Kabul and the north for the and Ennedi mountains requires careful revision. Col. Tilho’s expeditions had revealed altitudes in Tibesti of 11,200 ft. and present. the height of Mt. Tuside as 10,700 ft.; lesser altitudes of 9,800 Against the Amir’s extensive employment of Europeans on ft. were determined at Jebal Marra, in Darfur, and of 4,000 to technical, educational and other work, there are some murmurings. And whether clerical conservatism or politicians of 5,000 ft. on the western borders of the Sudan, while there are the Abdur Rahman school will continue to acquiesce in the other indications of high land on the northwestern edge of the great Nile basin. Further to the south in the Nilotic Sudan, to Russification of some of the essential services and in particular of the tiny air force that Afghanistan is trying to build up, the east of the main Nile, altitudes of to,ooo ft. were discovered in 1911-2 by Col. H. D. Pearson. Maj. Cuthbert Christy made seems very doubtful. an interesting journey in 1916 along the southwestern limits of Trade with India.—The foreign trade of Afghanistan is mainly the Nile basin, which in places traversed the ironstone region with India. The construction of motor-roads and the completion in 1925 of the Khyber Railway from Janrud to the head of the pass are whercin waters within sight of the explorer flowed either southof great importance to the trans-frontier trade between Afghanistan wards into the Mbomu and its affluents (Congo basin), or northand India. Fhe only figures available for the trade of Afghanistan east into the Nile basin. are those issued by the Govt. of India and by the governments of the French officers, among whom may be named Gen. Laperrine, provinces bordering the Afghan frontier. The following table gives the value in rupees of the trans-frontier trade for the average pre-War Capt. Martin, Capt. Mougin and notably Capt. Augiéras, had year and for 1921-2 and 1922-3:— begun as early as 1904 to continue, in an energetic and scientific manner, the survey of the western Sahara, from the southern Exports to | Imports from confines of Morocco to the basin of the Senegal river and the Inclia India northern and northwestern Niger. The great depression (the Pre-War average . 1.07.00.000 | 1.53.00.000 bed of a dried-up sea), known as the Juf, remained unexplored up 1921-2. 81.00.000 || 1.35.00.000 to 1922; but since then its northeastern fringe has been made a 1922-3. 1.61.00.000 | 1.58.00.000 little more known by the adventurous journeys of the Citroén cars across the desert from the latitudes of Insalah and Ahaggar The chief exports to India are raw wool, manufactured woollen in southern Algeria. A little has been added to the knowledge piece goods, shawls, fruit, nuts, vegetables, ghi, asafoetida and hides. The principal imports from India are cotton piece goods, twist and of the mysterious area, traversed by many great rivers, of yarn, indigo, manufactured leather, wheat, sugar, tea and liquors. Portuguese Guinea, and since 1921 the vast southern part of the A trade convention signed at Kabul on June 5 1923 provided for Niger basin, and the Black and White branches of the mighty three transit routes across British India for the ardo of goods Volta river, which flows into the sea in the British Colony of the to and from Indian posts. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Imperial Gaz Afghanistan and Gold Coast, have become better known in detail and in general Nepal (1908); B. de Lacoste, taal ee (1909); Sultan features. At the same time, northern Togoland, Dahomey, Mahomed Khan (Mir Munshi) ed. Constitution and Laws of RT Southern Nigeria and the basin of the great Benue river were istan (1910); G. P. Tate, The Kingdom of Afghanistan (1911); T. Pennell, Among the Wild Tribes of the Afghan Frontrer (1911); W. 6 mapped in detail. von Hentig, Meine Diplomatenfahri ins verschlossene Land (1918); East and Central Africa—Much good work was done in East L. A. Starr, Frontier Folk of the Afghan Border, An Album of and Central Africa. Mr. I. N. Dracopoli in 1912-3 explored Illustrations {Q 921). part of southern Jubaland; he reached the Lorian swamp, which receives the waters of the Uaso Nyiro, and solved the problem of AFRICA (see 1.320).—The period roro-25 witnessed many its outflow, showing that its waters eventually reach the Juba important developments in Africa. Territorial changes were river. In April 1912, Mr. (later Sir) G. F. Archer completed, numerous and had a marked effect upon political, social and after over two years’ work, surveys connecting the triangulation economic conditions. Many pages were added to the history of discovery, while the newly gained knowledge of the conti- of British East Africa with Maj. Gwynn’s Abyssinian boundary survey. In East Central Africa a survey by Capt. E. M. Jack, nent has greatly affected past conceptions of the development of the higher forms of vertebrate life, especially of the in rgii, of the region northeast of Lake Kivu and west of Lake Victoria added to the knowledge of the Mufumbiro range of mammals of the Old World from Morocco to China, and even across the Atlantic to South America. South America and the active volcanoes; Karisimbi was found to be 14,780 ft. high. In Dee. 1912, Sir A. Sharpe and Mr. M. Elphinstone witWest Indies, it is now clear, were once united with West Africa nessed the formation of a new volcano, named Katarusi, which, by a broad belt, across which vertebrates from the Old World following an earthquake, rose out of an old grass-covered lava in the Eocene, Oligocene and early Miocene formations poured feld, sending into the northeast corner of Lake Kivu a river of westward and gradually peopled cis-Andine South America. lava which filled up a large bay. Since that time the Mufumbiro _I. EXPLORATION region and western Uganda have been surveyed in considerable detail. The largest unknown area of Africa in 1910 was in the Sahara, The first survey along its whole length of the Congo-Zambezi including the Libyan desert. Only the central part of the Sahara watershed was made in ro11-4 by Anglo-Belgian and Anglohad been adequately explored, while the greatest gaps on the map were in the Libyan desert. This region may be considered first. Portuguese boundary commissions. As in the Congo-Nile watershed, it was found that many rivers ran for considerable distances Here in 1920 Hassanein Bey (Ahmad Muhammad Bey HasMaj. sanein), an Egyptian officer, made a somewhat remarkable jour- parallel to the divide, which is largely bush-covered. Reginald Walker, one of the British commissioners, discovered ney from the confines of Cyrenaica to the Kufara oasis, the headthat the Luapula, the main eastern headstream of the Congo, quarters of the Senussi sect. He was accompanied on this journey did not, as was believed, issue from Lake Bangweulu, but was a by an English woman, Rosita Forbes, who has since made continuation of the Chambezi, which passes through the great further adventurous journeys in the northern part of Morocco, swamp south of Bangweulu. Abyssinia and the lands east of the Nile. Hassanein Bey in 1923 Results of the War.—During the W orld War, exigencies of accomplished a still more remarkable penetration of the un-

AFRICA

48

campaigning led to many additions to the knowledge of the topography of tropical Africa, partly through the use of aircraft for survey purposes. Thus very useful maps, showing routes unsuspected from the ground, were made by airmen of the northern

part of Portuguese

East Africa.

In 1920 Dr. P. Chalmers

Mitchell, who passed over the Nile basin in an aeroplane, proved the value of air reconnaissance to geology by the discovery in the Bayuda desert, north of Khartoum, of the volcanic character of a range of hills. A little later the French began to use aeroplanes for survey purposes in the Sahara. After South-West Africa was taken over under mandate by the Union of South Africa much attention was given to Ovamboland (Amboland), that very interesting northern part of the territory. The strenuous efforts, made for over 1o years, of E. H. L. Schwarz, professor of geology, Rhodes University College, Grahamstown, have led to a more persistent and scientific attempt, during which in 1925 air surveys were made, to explore the western part of the region lying between the Kunene river, Lake Ngami and the southern part of Bechuanaland. The urgent need of saving the country between the basin of the Orange river in the south and the western Kunene on the north from complete desiccation impelled Schwarz to recommend the diversion of the Kunene river from its present route to the sea to its former connection with the half-dry Lake Etosha (Etosha Pan). He hopes, by reuniting all these waters in the northwest of Bechuanaland, to reopen communication both with the Orange river in the south and with the Zambezi in the east.

Il. COMMUNICATIONS The first railway and steamer route across Africa was com-

pleted by the opening, in March rors, of a railway from Kabalo on the Lualaba river (Upper Congo) to Albertville on the west shores of Lake Tanganyika. The vear before (1914) the German railway from Dar-es-Salaam had reached Kigoma, on the east shores of Lake Tanganyika. A part of this trans-African route is by the Congo, the navigable stretches of the river being linked up by railway. An all-rail east-west route across South Africa had also been completed. In 1915 a line was built from Prieska to Kalkfontein, connecting the system of the Union of South Africa with that of South-West Africa, and in the same year a short line of 21 m. was constructed joining Walvis Bay with the South-West African system. By this means Walvis Bay and Delagoa Bay were linked by railway. A second east-west allrail route across Africa will be provided by the railway from Lobito Bay, on the coast of Angola, to Katanga, where it will join the lines to Beira and other east coast ports, as well as to Cape Town. In 1925 some 500 m. of this line remained to be completed, but the whole route had been surveyed, and its construction, after many delays, had been resumed. While the Cape-to-Cairo scheme still exercised men’s imaginations, it was increasingly recognised that the true function of cross-Africa routes was to bring the produce of Central Africa direct to the nearest seaport. The railway from Cape Town via Bulawavo and the Victoria Falls, which had reached the Belgian Congo frontier in r909, was, however, continued northwards across Katanga to Bukama on the Lualaba river; the line was completed in May 1918, an addition of 442 m. in 10 years, making a through service from the Cape, on the same gauge (3 ft. 6 in.), of 2,598 miles. In order to compete for the copper output of Katanga, the Belgians, in 1922, began the building of a railway from Bukama to Ilebo on the Kasai river, this being a modification of a scheme for a through railway from Bukama to the lower Congo. East and West Africa.—In East Africa, an extension of the Uganda Railway was begun in Dec. 1921. A line was constructed from Nakuru to Eldoret, and in 1923 loans were raised to carry the line to Mbulamuti on the Busoga Railway, running from Jinja to Namasagali, which is on the first navigable stretch of the Nile. The new line opened up rich cotton growing regions. In Tanganyika Territory a branch line from Tabora, on the

Dar-es-Salaam-Kigoma line, with Mwanza

its ultimate

terminus

at

on the southern shores of Lake Victoria, was under

construction in 1025, the section to Kahama having been completed. In the same year the British Govt. announced its approval of a proposal to raise loans up to {10,000,000 for the further extension of railways and the improvement of harbours in British East Africa. |

In West Africa the French drew up plans to connect the middle Niger with the Guinea Coast by railway. The principal line, from Thies, on the Dakar-St. Louis Railway, to Kayes on the Senegal river in the French Sudan—whence a railway already ran to Bamako and Kulikoro on the Niger river—was begun in 1907, but was not completed till 1923. It is 682 m. long. In British West Africa a railway from Accra in the Gold Coast Colony to Kumasi in Ashanti was completed in 1923. In Nigeria the bridging of the Niger river at Jebba, completed in 1914, gave the railway from Lagos to Kano, 7043 m. long, an uninterrupted service. In rorz arailway was begun from Port Harcourt, at the mouth of the Bonny river; it was completed to the Udi coal-fields, a distance of 151 m., by May 1916. From Zaria, on the LagosKano Railway, a branch line, 143 m. long, built across the tinfield area to Bukuru, was completed in Dec. 1914. The extension of the Port Harcourt-Udi line northward, via Makurdi on the Benue river, to Kaduna, on the Lagos-Kano line, was begun in 1921 and was nearing completion at the end of 1925. ‘This extension is some 450 m. in length.

During the 16 years 1910-26 the railway mileage in South Africa was greatly increased. The new railways were mainly of local interest, but a line from Beira to the Zambezi, completed in 1922, gave Nyasaland direct access to the ocean, save that the Zambezi remained to be bridged. Trans-Saharan railway schemes had not, up to 1926, got beyond the stage of preliminary survey, unless the extension of the railway from Biskra to Tuggurt, opened in 1914, be taken as the first section of such a route. The surveys had shown, however, that there were no serious engineering difficulties to be overcome. Political interest in Morocco led the French Govt. to build lines traversing that country from Casablanca, on the Atlantic Ocean, via Fez and Taza to Ujda, where a junction is made with the Algerian railways. The rising against the French and Spanish governments in Northern Morocco had, however, up to 1926, paralysed any efforts to connect Tangier and Tetuan with the French railway system, though there was then hope that such work might soon be undertaken. In the Suez Canal zone a railway from El Qantara, on the Canal, to Gaza, in Palestine, was constructed in 1916-8 by the British for military purposes, thus giving railway connection with the systems of Palestine, Syria and Asia Minor. Roads and Air Routes.—Road building, ancillary to, or in substitution for, railways, made great progress, notably in West Africa, the Belgian Congo and Uganda. Since roro powerful wireless telegraph stations have been established at many ports and inland centres, while motor-cars and aeroplanes have achieved a conquest of blank and unmapped Africa with a degree of rapidity which would have been deemed marvellous at the beginning of the zoth century. The first flight from Cairo to Cape Town was made in t920; in 1925 the continent was first traversed from end to end (Algeria—Sahara—Belgian Congo— Uganda—Tanganyika—Cape Town) by motor-car. Wi. ETHNOLOGICAL

DISCOVERIES

One direction in which Africa has greatly increased its importance and interest in the eyes of reflective persons lies in the past history of the human and sub-human species within its domain. We are gradually coming to understand that, subsequent to the complete severance of West Africa from Brazil, which took place, we may guess, somewhere early in the Miocene epoch and, at a later date, of East Africa from Madagascar and the broken sub-continent of which Mauritius, Réunion, the Amirante Is. and the Seychelles are now the only remains, some further changes took place during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs in the western Sahara and in the Libyan desert between the Tibesti heights and the Nile.

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AFRICA The Congo basin, like Lake Chad, had become a great shallow inland sea, and before the advent of man these western portions of the continent contained vast areas covered with shallow water. In any case, from the evidence offered by the prehistoric and historic distribution of mammals and birds, a striking dissimilarity has been shown between the prehistoric mammalian fauna of the north of Africa, Egypt, Abyssinia, the Nilotic Sudan, and east, south-central, southwest and southernmost Africa on the one hand, and the western portions of the continent on the other. Over an increasingly narrow belt, which stretches westward from the Nilotic Sudan to the Cameroons, there still continues a certain affinity in beasts and birds; this affinity extends to the southern part of Senegambia, though even here, and in Nigeria and the Congo basin north of the main Congo, there still exists a strange dissimilarity in the distribution of the mammalian fauna.

In the same way South Africa exhibits a wealth of

mammalian life which, so far as present discoveries go, is absent from West Africa.

|

Evidences of Early Man.—The most remarkable development in African discovery has taken place since 1922. Before that date no discovery, of an unchallengeable character, showing the existence there of any human race earlier than the negro, the term negro including Bushman and Hottentot, had been made in Africa. There were faint evidences in the rocks and caves of southernmost Africa of the co-existence there at a relatively remote period—though there was little in the remains which assigned the date with tolerable precision—of some Bushman-like race with mammals now extinct, such as a lingering type of mastodon. But all the human remains of any antiquity in East, North or South Africa seemed to be of negro type, and therefore within the range of close kinship with Homo sapiens. But in 1921 a fine specimen of a male skull, which has been subsequently named Homo rhodesiensis, was discovered in the Broken Hill mine, in the central part of Northern Rhodesia. There were also traces of accompanying bones of the limbs. This type bore suggestive resemblances to Homo neanderthalensis, whose former existence in North Africa had been suspected for some 30 years, though until then it had left unquestionable remains only at Gibraltar and in Palestine. At the beginning of 1925 a further discovery was made at Taungs in Bechuanaland, in what is now an almost desert region. Here, embedded in the rocks of the surface, the bones of a young individual, perhaps 10 years old, were brought to sight, so clearly significant as to be unmistakable. Hitherto, though the negro sub-species offers, like the Australoid, indications of ape-like features lost by the white man and the. Mongol, it was difficult to extrude either negro or Australoid from specific kinship with the rest of existing humanity. But the human remains found in south-central Africa near the Kafue river, and this truly remarkable man-ape from the heart of Bechuanaland, show that at some period of uncertain remoteness there lingered an ape-like human being with close affinities to the man of Neanderthal, and also, in an upward direction, to the Australoid sub-species of Tomo sapiens; and further, that the chimpanzecs had penetrated to South Africa, and there had left behind, perhaps 500,000 years ago, under altogether different climatic conditions, an ape-like form very near to the human family.

IV. POLITICAL

HISTORY

The political map of Africa changed very considerably between toro and 1925. In 1910 the British self-governing colonies of the Cape, Natal, Transvaal and Orange Free State were formed into the Union of South Africa, with a single government and one Legislature. In 1911 a considerable area of French Equatorial Africa was transferred to German Cameroons and in return Germany acknowledged a French protectorate over the greater part of Morocco. In Nov. 1912 a Franco-Spanish treaty defined the Spanish zones in Morocco. In ro12, also, Italy annexed the Turkish vilayets of Tripoli and Benghazi (Cyrenaica) to which the common name of Libya was given. In Dec. 1914 a British protectorate over Egypt was proclaimed, but by a declaration of Feb. 1922 Great Britain acknowledged the in-

49

dependence of Egypt. The status of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan remained unchanged. In June 1919, by the Treaty of Versailles, Germany renounced possession of all her oversea protectorates in favour of the principal Allied and Associated Powers. These territories, which had all been conquered by the Allies during the World War, were placed under mandatories. The Union of South Africa became mandatory for German South-West Africa; Togoland was divided between France and Great Britain; and France became mandatory for Cameroons, except for a small portion which was placed under the administration of British Nigeria. Britain became mandatory for German East Africa, renamed the Tanganyika Territory, but by subsequent Anglo-Relgian agreements Belgium became mandatory for the provinces of Ruanda and Urundi. In 1920-5 Italy gained additions to Tripoli and Cyrenaica by arrangements with France and Egypt and to Italian Somaliland by arrangement with Great Britain. As a result of these changes Africa was divided among the following Powers. The territories governed under mandate are reckoned in the possession of the Power named:— France ' Great Britain Belgium , Portugal . Italy .

Egypt

Sq. m. 4,200,000 3,984,000! 930,000 788,000 680,000

350,000

Abyssinia

350,000

Spain

140,000?

Liberia 40,000 These figures give a total of 11,462,000 sq.m. as the area of Africa. In the absence of definite surveys of large areas of the continent this may be regarded as a close approximation to accuracy.

German Policy.—The extinction of Turkish rule in North Africa had long been foreseen and was no matter for regret. It ended a connection which had lasted five centuries and had been almost wholly evil in its effects. German sovereignty in Africa had only dated from 1884 and had been rapidly enlarged. Endeavours to extend it further had been a prominent factor in German policy for a decade before the World War. Germany desired a footing on the African coast of the Mediterranean and a port on the Atlantic coast of Morocco. These desires conflicted with Italian and French ambitions, and in 1o1r the issue on both points was decided against Germany. As to Morocco, the Iranco-German convention of Feb. 9 1909 had recognised the privileged position of France in Morocco, but not a French proicctorate over that country, and the sending of the German gunboat, “ Panther,” to Agadir, in July rọrr, was a protest against what Germany considered an unwarranted extension of French influence in Morocco, and an intimation that if German treaty rights in Morocco were to be renounced, France must make compensation. The intervention of Great Britain on the side of France put an end to a dangerous situation; Germany, by a convention concluded Nov. 4 rọr1, accepted compensation in Central Africa and withdrew opposition to the establishment of a French protectorate in Morocco. While the Franco-German negotiations were in progress, Italy abruptly declared war on Turkey and invaded, and held, Cyrenaica and Tripoli. Thus Germany, who had designed to exploit those vilayets through the medium of an AustroHungarian chartered company, was deprived of her last opportunity—short of war—of gaining a foothold in the Mediterranean. She turned her attention to the development of a Mittel Afrika policy. This policy aimed at securing Germany’s supremacy, primarily economic and ultimately political, in central equatorial Africa. The aim was to reserve the Belgian Congo, Angola and Mozambique, north of the Zambezi, as a German sphere, and thus to link up Cameroons with the South-West and East Africa protectorates. German industries had need of the raw material tropical Africa produces, and, moreover, southern Angola was a good field for European settlement. 1 Including Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 2 Including the Spanish zones in Morocco.

50

AFRICA

British statesmen were not unfavourable to German expansion in equatorial] Africa, so long as it was confined to the economic sphere. In 1898 an agreement, signed by Mr. A. J. Balfour and Count Hatzfeldt, had divided Angola and Mozambique into spheres in which Great Britain and Germany respectively were to give financial and economic help to the Portuguese. This was followed in 1899 by the Treaty of Windsor, the object being to reassure Portugal that the Balfour-Hatzfeldt agreement was not in derogation of her sovereign rights in Africa. Neither the agree- ment with Germany, nor the treaty with Portugal was published. After the settlement of the Morocco crisis, Germany reopened negotiations with Great Britain in respect of Portugal's African colonies, and Prince Lichnowsky (the German Ambassador) and Sir Edward Grey reached a new agreement, which was ready for signature in r913. Nearly all Angola was recognised as a German economic sphere, as well as the northern part of Mozambique. The rest of Mozambique, including Delagoa Bay and the Zambezi valley, was to be a British economic sphere. Sir Edward Grey made it a condition of signing that the 1898 and 1899 documents should be published. The German Foreign Office raised objections, Herr von Jagow (then Foreign Minister) stating that the German Press would regard the terms of the Treaty of Windsor and the Lichnowsky agrecment as contradictory. By July 1914, however, German consent to publication had been given, but before the new agreement could be signed the World War had broken out. : The World War—During the progress of the campaigns in Africa the whole of the continent, except Abyssinia and the Spanish protectorates, became involved in the struggle. The conquest of the German colonies was foreseen in the negotiation which preceded Italy’s entry into the War, and Article 13 of the agreement signed in London on April 26 r915, between France, Russia, Great Britain and Italy, laid down that:— In the event of France and Britain increasing their colonial territories in Africa at the expense of Germany, those two Powers agree in principle that Italy may claim some equitable compensation, particularly as regards the settlement in her favour of the questions relative to the frontiers of the Italian colonies of Eritrea, Somaliland and Libya, and the ncighbouring colonies belonging to France and Great Britain.

Italian Ambitions.—Italian ambitions had gone beyond the readjustment of frontiers; in particular Italy wished to acquire Jibuti, the port of French Somaliland and the starting place of a railway to Abyssinia. As Jibuti was the only French port on the Suez Canal route to the East and to Madagascar, as well as the only approach to Abyssinia that France possessed, she declined to entertain proposals for its surrender. Italy, however, obtained from France a welcome rectification of the Tripoli-unisia frontier, as well as valuable railway and commercial concessions in Tunisia. In regard to the Cyrenaica-Egyptian frontier, the British Govt., in 1919, offered Italy a readjustment of territory in the Libyan desert. The negotiations had not been concluded when Egypt was granted independence and after that time they were conducted directly between Italy and Egypt. They turned largely on the possession of the oasis of Jaghbub, a place of some strategic importance, where is also the tomb-mosque of the founder of the Senussi sect. On Dec. 6 1925, an Italo-Fgyptian agreement was signed, by which Jaghbub was included in Cyrenaica. The wells to the west of El Sollum were included in Egyptian territory, thus giving El Sollum a needed water supply. South of Siwa the frontier was drawn along longitude 25° E. to the boundary of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in latitude 22° North. In 1925 the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was verging on the position of a clearly defined British protectorate; the tributary sultanate of Darfur had been conquered in 1915, and in 1922-3 the frontier separating it from French Equatorial Africa, which had been in question since 1899, had been delimited on the spot. France and Spain.—In the same year (1912) that France obtained her protectorate in Morocco, she concluded an arrangement with Spain whereby a Spanish protectorate was set up in the northern part of the sultanate, the port of Tangier and a small area around it being made however an international zone.

In the French protectorate Marshal Lyautey, the ResidentGeneral, adopted a bold and conciliatory policy and won the confidence and respect of the Moors. In their zone the Spaniards met with determined opposition, largely owing to the uprise of a Moor, styled Abdel-Krim. In the territory known, somewhat vaguely, as Er-Rif, there seems to have been, as in the coastward portions of Algeria and Tunisia, a much more marked Iberian element in the population than there is in the south of Morocco, and this part of northern Morocco had shown a great hatred of European interference. The Spaniards suffered a severe reverse in 1921 and there was again heavy fighting in 1924 and 1925. In the last-named year the Rifs invaded the French zone, but were defeated and driven back, while the Spanish forces gained some

successes In the northeastern

area.

.

Recent Developments.—Abyssinia under Ras Tafari has been making strenuous efforts to attain the position of a civilised power and has joined the League of Nations, but evidence is still needed to show that she possesses in her yellow, brown and black people the elements of real and lasting progress without extraneous European support. In Southern Rhodesia the growth of a vigorous white community led to that country being made, in 1923, a self-governing colony of the British Empire, and with the assumption of direct Imperial control of Northern Rhodesia in 1924 chartered-company rule in British Africa came to an end. In East Africa another vigorous and local white community made its influence felt, namely the settlers in the British East Africa Protectorate, which protectorate was annexed to the British Crown in 1920 and renamed Kenya Colony. A subject which raised large issues was the position of Indians in South and East Africa, but it was of less importance than the growth of race consciousness among the negroes. Increase of education and of Christianity, the employment of large numbers of Africans in industries and the lessons taught by the World War, were among the factors which intensified the feeling of racial unity and led to manifestations of a new anti-white movement. This movement was different to the simple objection to interference by Europeans, or Arabs, previously displayed, and had a consciousness of the need of self-development and progress. Not all the ferment among the negroes was anti-white, however, and an encouraging feature was the growing recognition, in South Africa as in the tropical regions of the continent, of the duty of the white man to help the negro in his efforts to attain a higher status. For further information, see the articles on the various countries of Africa, g.g., ABYSSINIA; BELGIAN Conco; CAMEROONS; Ecypt; KENYA; MOZAMBIQUE; SOUTH AFRICA. See also MANDATE; NILE. BrscroGrarny.—(1) Exploration.—F. R. Cana, “ Problems in Exploration: Africa,” Geo. Jour., vol. 38 (1911); I. N. Dracopoh,

Through Jubaland to the Lorian Swamp (1914);

F. R. Cana, “ The

Sahara in 1915,” Geo. Jour., vol, 46 {1915); Col. Jean Tilho, “ The Exploration of Tibesti, Erdi, Borkou and Lnnedi in 1912-7,” Geo. Jour., vol. 56 (1920); Rosita Forbes, The Secret of the Sahara Kufara (1921); Sir A. Sharpe, The Backbone of Africa (1921); T. Alexander Barns, The Wonderland of the Eastern Congo (1922); F. Migeod, Across Fquatorial Africa (1923); A. M. Hassanein Bey, The Lost Oases (1925). (2) Communications, Geography, ete. Documents Scientifiques de la Mission Tilho (1910-4); A. Knox, The Climate of Africa (1911); H. Hubert, Mission Scientifique au Soudan (1916); J. W. Gregory, The Rift Valleys and Geology of East Africa (1921); E. H. L. Schwarz, The Kalahari Desert (1922). (3) Peoples and Languages.—Sir H. H. Johnston, A Comparative Sindy of the Bantu and Semi-Bantu Languages (vol. 1., 1919; vol. 2., 1922); A. Werner, Introductory Sketch of ihe Bantu Languages (1919; 1925); C. K. Meek, The Northern Tribes of Nigeria, 2 vol. (1925). (4) History, Politics, ete —Sir H. IL. Johnston, The Opening up of Africa (1911); J. H. Harris, Dawn in Darkest Africa (1912); Fr. Stuhlmann, Ein kulturgeschichilicher Ausflug in den Aures (Atlas von Stid-Algerien) (1912); Sir H. H. Johnston, A History of the Colonisation of Africa (1913); C. H. Stigand, Administration in Tropical Africa (1914); Sir H. H. Johnston, “ The Political Geography of Africa Before and After the War,” Geo. Jour., vol. 45 (1915); F, Baltzer, Die Kolonialbahnen mit besonderer Berücksichtigung Afrikas (1916); L. Woolf, Empire and Commerce in Africa (1920); Sir F. D. Lugard, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa (1922). The officials of the British Museum Natural History Dept. have

published some very interesting works on Africa since 1904.

Prom-

AGA

KHAN— AGRICULTURE

inent among them is Dr. C. W. Andrews, A Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of the Fayum, Egypt (1906). P. L. Sclater, Oldfield Thomas and others, Tke Book of Antelopes, in 4 vol. 18941900); Dr. Rudolf Marloth, The Flora of South Africa (1913-5). Similarly a good deal of light is thrown on the palaeontology of Africa in the works and the pamphlets issued by Dr. Peringucy and Dr. Robert Broom in South Africa, and in the United States by Henry Fairfield Osborn. For current affairs consult The Geographical Journal, The Journal of the African Soctety and L’ Afrique Francaise (Paris, monthly). See also the bibliographies under SOUTH

AFRICA, EGYPT, etc.

(Vic. Hh yo

Rees)

AGA KHAN (1877), Indian Moslem leader (see 1.363). During rgro-21 his influence both on Indian and international affairs was shown in various directions. He was president of the All-India Moslem League and initiated the fund for raising the Mahommedan college at Aligarh to university status, which was effected in r920. During the World War he endeavoured to secure the support of the Moslems of the Empire for the British cause. In 1918 he published India in Transition which was not without considerable effect in the final shaping of reforms under the India Act of r9r9. At the Peace Conference in 1919 and subsequently in 1921 before the Treaty of Sévres, and in 1923 before the Treaty of Lausanne he advocated a less stringent attitude towards ‘Turkey. His manifold services to the cause of international peace led the council of state in India to recommend, Feb. 5, 1924, that he be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

AGLIARDI, ANTONIO (1832-1915), Italian cardinal and diplomatist (see 1.377), died in Rome March 19 rors. AGRAM: sce ZAGREB. AGRICULTURE (see 1.388a).—This article is divided into four main sections: I. a general sketch of the progress of agriculture from ro1o; II. an account of the scientific developments; III. the economics of agriculture, discussed under the three headings of credit, insurance and prices; IV. the use of electric power for agricultural operations.

I. GENERAL SURVEY The last quarter of the 19th century witnessed an unprecedented fall in the prices of all agricultural produce, especially of wheat and meat. This was due to the opening up of new areas, particularly in America; in the United States alone 300,000,000 acres of land were brought under cultivation between 1870 and tooo, an area greater than that which was being farmed in Europe during the same period. It was Great Britain with its open markets, with its great emporium trade, with its increasing population already far out of proportion to the productive capacity of its land, that experienced the full brunt of the competition; other European countries protected their farmers by tariffs; one country alone—Denmark—seized the opportunity to expand her agriculture. To the Danish farmer, educated and adaptable, cheap corn and feeding stuffs afforded a means of producing butter, bacon and eggs for the ever-growing English market, and of making a profit on the conversion. The opportunity was equally open to the British farmer, but he did not display the same adaptability in taking advantage of it. With industries near at hand competing for men and capital, the English farmers and their men were not prepared to give the high level of ability and labour for the possible returns that contented the Danish small farmers; moreover, the latter had worked out a system of co-operative marketing which for the first time enabled the agricultural community to hold its own in international commerce. The growth of agricultural co-operation in the last quarter of the roth century may be regarded as the other great discovery of that epoch, which will rank with fertilisers and machinery in recasting the agriculture of the future. Prices —Despite the inroads the farmers of America and of the other new countries were making upon the welfare of European agriculture, it cannot be said that this period of expansion was one of particular prosperity for them. They lived and multiplied exceedingly, but it has been stated that in the aggregate the only profit they made came from the rising values of their land as the community grew round them. On the whole wheat

and the other staple crops were being sold at below the cost of

SI

production measured in terms of labour, which is the only ultimate standard. The later period down to the outbreak of war in 1914 saw a gradual rise of prices and the restoration of mild prosperity to British farmers, though any general confidence in the future of agriculture was slow of growth. They had modified their methods to mect the conditions, they were paying more attention to education and scientific developments, they were adapting themselves to the special market at their doors and though all too large a proportion were contenting themselves with an unenlightened routine of cutting expenditure to the bone so as to take a profit out of what the land itself would give, the ever diff-

cult situation was being met.

Then

followed

the World

War

with a few years of exalted prices and undreamt of profits for all farmers with a well-ordered business. The reaction was equally sudden, and the pit into which agriculture fell was deeper than the peak to which it had temporarily ascended. The War had caused a great stimulus to wheat production, in particular in the Americas (22,000,000 ac. in the United States, 13,000,000 ac. in Canada, 2,000,000 ac. in South America). Markets began to be temporarily overstocked, and if the great break in prices in 1921 was mainly financial in origin, to the farmer it was accentuated by an existing surplus. Moreover, the War had forced up wages to double or treble their former level, to one more nearly comparable to that pre-

vailing in the industries, while the standard of work rendered had fallen. If to these causes we add a succession of bad seasons from 192r to 1925, seasons that would have hit the arable farmer hard under the most normal of price conditions, it is small wonder that British agriculture is still staggering under the blow and doubtful which way to take for safety. American farmers have been little less severely hit. In the Agriculture Yearbook for 1923 it is reported that in 15 corn and wheat producing states in 1922 8-5°> of owner farmers lost their farms with or without legal proceedings, and the percentage of tenants who lost their properiy ran materially higher. The bankruptcy cases among farmers rose 10 14% of the total as compared with about 5%, which was the figure for pre-War years. But American agriculture is chiefly suffering from the disparity of reward that it offers as compared with the industries; no single-handed farmer working even a well-established 160-ac. farm can hope for the cash returns that a bricklayer can earn, after all allowance has been made for board and lodging. Prices of agricultural produce are high as judged by old standards, but the farmers’ outgoings have risen in a much greater proportion. Particularly where there is a surplus of production above home requirements, a surplus that has to be sold in European markets, the price at home is forced down by competition to a parity with this European level, one which is below the average cost of production, Tu European countries, where as a rule peasant farming and protection tariffs prevail, the agricultural community is comparatively speaking prosperous; the farmers’ expenditure on raw materials or equipment is small, he and his family supply the labour, so that he reaps almost the full advantage of the higher prices and the depreciated currencies. Live Stock —Two types of livestock production exist: grazing on ranges of natural pasture, and more intensive production under artificial feeding. As regards cattle the two systems intermingle; the cattle may be raised on the pastures and sold thence to other districts for finishing. For example, much of the beef produced in Great Britain begins as store cattle raised in the west or north or imported from Ireland or Canada, and then fattened on the rich pastures of the Midlands or the coast, or in the yards of the arable farmers. Similarly feecler cattle from the

ranges In the United States travel to the middle west in order to be fattened. The tendency throughout the world is for ranging to be exchanged for cultivation, consequently the number of range cattle tends to diminish, and this tendency is not compensated for by corresponding increase in cattle raised on the mixed farming that succeeds the ranging. Milch cattle always then begin to

AGRICULTURE

52

grow at the expense of beef cattle. In Australasia an increase in cattle production is still possible, chiefy in Queensland, but there is no great unstocked area available as there was 50 years ago. South Africa is still an undeveloped country as far as the international meat trade goes; a few live cattle are being exported to Great Britain for slaughter, but ranging in South Africa ts subject to much greater risks from disease than in America or Australasia. So far, no freezing works have been put up to develop a trade, and until this is done and communications are improved, the capabilities of South Africa and of the highlands of Central Africa to add to the beef supply of the world will remain obscure. Beef.—Nor is it quite clear to what extent the demand for beef from European countries will persist, stimulated as it has been by the supplies poured in from America in 1918 and 1919. Prior to thé War, European countries other than Great Britain were not great consumers of beef but rather of pork and dairy products, their agriculture being founded upon milk and pork production. When cheap grazing is not available the production of beef requires a larger consumption of food than that of pork; in consequence the agriculture of arable countries like Germany tends toward the more economical production of milk and veal, or of pork. The beef consumed is cow or ox beef rather than that of steers or heifers deliberately fattened for the purpose; in fact the purely beef breeds of cattle are little known in Europe. Thus beef is somewhat of a luxury article of consumption compared with pork. If the dietaries of Germany and the United States before the War are compared, with an equal supply of energy the American obtained 39-6°% from animal foods, of which 5-3 °% was beef, whereas the German obtained only 32-493 from animal products, of which 3:2% was provided by beef.

Thus the supply of beef in the world may be expected to decline with the diminution of range conditions, while the price must rise to meet the more expensive methods of production. Sheep.—Specially marked, however, has been the reduction in the number of sheep that took place during the War and since. The following table shows a comparison for some of the chief sheep-producing countries between r913 and the most recent year for which statistics are available. Sheep

TOT3 Germany Spain France Great Britain United States of America

Argentina Uruguay . . . Union of South Africa Australia New Zealand

4,987,000

16,441,000 16,176,000 24,279,000 51,482,000 43,225,000 26,286,000 35,808,000 85,057,000 24,182,000

1924 (or latest available) 5,717,000 15,460,000 10,172,000 22,239,000 38,300,000 36,209,000 14,514,000

31,224,000 80,110,000 23,776,000

Percentage

change

+15

-I2 —37 — 8 — 26 —I16 —45

—I3 6

327,923,000 | 280,721,000

The reduction has been in part due to encroachment on the pastures for cultivation when corn prices were so high, and in Australasia to the lack of a market when transport was no longer available. Great Britain lost 4,542,000 sheep between 1g14 and 1920, a loss which has only been repaired since to the extent of 3,350,000. The decline in Britain took place in great measure in those districts where arable sheep farming prevailed, where the sheep are kept for the greater part of the year in folds on turnips and green crops. During the War the arable land was wanted for corn, and both then and since the heavy labour costs incurred both in growing the green crops and in working the folding have made this form of intensive sheep farming unprofitable. It is only in England that this form of sheep raising is general; in all other countries sheep are grazing animals generally reserved for the poorer and drier lands. For this reason sheep farming does not bulk large in the farming of any other European country, except in Spain where there are great tracts of poor and mountain pasture, not utilisable otherwise. Sheep in-

deed rarely play any considerable part in peasant farming on cultivated land, even under the most intensive system of folding upon green crops. The finest wool is that provided by the Merino sheep, which originated in Spain but had become widely diffused toward the close of the 18th century. It was with these sheep that the new countries—South Africa, South America, Australia, New Zealand—were at first populated, because wool was the only product exportable, but since the introduction of refrigerated transport they have to some extent given place to Lincolns, Romney Marsh, Leicesters and some of the short-woolled breeds because of their better carcasses. For the really dry countries with rainfalls of 10 in. and less Merinos still hold their own, though a new race, the Corriedales, evolved from crosses between Merino and Lincoln, is coming into favour, On land suitable for cultivation sheep will always give place to more intensive forms of farming, but nothing can well take their place in the hill country, especially where the rainfall is low. Their numbers are not, therefore, likely to grow in the more settled countries, and there does not as yet appear to be any area available for ranching unless it be some of the high land of Central Africa. Pigs-—li sheep are associated with the pastoralist and the open spaces, pigs are presumably the live stock of the arable farmer, and are especially valuable to the dairy farmer turning his milk into butter or cheese. Pigs are the great converters of the maize of the Middle Western states into a more salable form of produce, and the bacon industry of Denmark has been built up on the by-products of the dairy and cheaply purchased cereals. Danish farmers have indeed given a lesson to the whole world in the skill with which they have standardised the production of a type of pig suited to the bacon trade. American pigs are in the main of the wrong conformation for bacon, and run too readily to fat, especially upon the predominating feeding with maize; English pigkecpers are perplexed by an unnecessary multiplication of breeds, often with conflicting ideals. The value of the Danish breeding has lain in the elimination of all other considerations than the requirements of the bacon factory. The great exporting countries of pig products are therefore the United States and to an increasing extent the Argentine, and, in Europe, Denmark, Holland and Sweden. The higher-priced Danish and Swedish bacon goes chiefly to Great Britain, which with Germany takes also large quantities of the considerable American produce. POPULATION

AND

Foop

SUPPLY

At the present time live stock production is the most profitable side of farming. There is still abundant grazing land to produce meat cheaply with a minimum of labour, and cereals are still relatively cheap for the dairy-farmer and pig-feeder, whose business consists of converting these materials into milk and meat. If food supplies begin to grow short the scarcity will first be felt with regard to meat, indeed many observers consider that a definite shortage of meat supplics is already within sight. With a diminishing herd of cattle and sheep flock the time is not far off when the United States will be a competitor for the meat output of Argentina and New Zealand instead of the largest exporter of meat and animal products. Everything, therefore, points to rising prices for meat, so that

increased attention to live stock production is likely to be the most profitable line of business for the British farmer. As civHisation proceeds and the populations grow, meat will become more and more a luxury, because the open grazings on which alone cheap meat production is possible will become settled. Moreover, a community that is outgrowing its food supplies must become more and more vegetarian. Asscarcity approaches, the land must be given up increasingly to the production of direct human food. That day is of course remote, but the indications would point to a gradual tightening of meat supplies and therefore in a country like Britain, accustomed to a high standard of living, to increasing opportunities to the farmer who specialises in live stock production.

AGRICULTURE The growth of population during the 19th century, unprecedented in the world’s history, was rendered possible by the opening up of new lands of America, North and South, of Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. If we exclude from consideration the East (India, China, Japan), where the available land was already utilised to the full and the density of population was already excessive, excluding also tropical countries, we find that the area of land cultivated for the white peoples expanded from about 440,000,000 ac. to over 880,000,000 acres. Now upon the present basis of agriculture something more than two acres of land has to be cultivated in order to maintain one unit of population, man, woman or child, the amount being lower for intensively cultivated countries like Holland, Denmark or Belgium, or Great Britain. Of course maintenance includes other necessary agricultural produce besides food. For example a portion of the cultivated area is given up to fibre crops; and wool and hides are by-products of the livestock industry. Other instances could easily be given. Areas Still for Cultivation —Working upon this basis alone that about two acres of cultivated land are necessary for the maintenance of one person, it is evident that in the temperate regions of the world there is no longer land available for the feeding of any large increase of the present population. In Europe there are still great areas of forest, swamp and heath that might be brought into cultivation, but the process would involve an expenditure both of initial capital and continuing labour out of proportion to the returns. Either the prices to be received for produce must rise greatly, or the cultivators must be content with a lower standard of remuneration, before there is much addition to the European area under cultivation. In fact the present tendency is in the other direction; only Italy with its great pressure of population increase is adding to its farming land and reclaiming wastes. All over the poorer land of Great Britain abandoned holdings and crofts may be traced, abandoned for economic reasons alone, because men would no longer live and work so near to the starvation level. Nothing but the direst need or a new scale of prices whereby agriculture becomes relatively the most paying industry will ever bring such land back into cultivation. Other European countries to a less degree show the same tendency at work. In the United States there are still great areas of potential farming land; for example O. C. Baker (Economic Geography, 1925) estimates a possible increase of the wheat area in the United States of America from the present 80,o00to 130,000 square miles. But little of this, however, is the natural easily farmed land the settler looks for; the efforts to make good the arid lands by dry farming and irrigation show that the good land has mostly been taken up. What remains is land on which capital outlay is required, land on which production will always be more costly than on the great fertile plains of the Middle West. As in Great Britain, the recent tendency in the United States has been to abandon the cultivation of some of the poorer lands and let them fall back to grazing. Canada still presents enormous potentialities for settlement, though the vast areas the map reveals are severely restricted by increasing aridity toward the West and by cold northwards; Baker considers an increase of the wheat area from 25,000 to 120,000 sq. m. as physically possible. But similarly on most of this land the wheat will have to be more dearly bought, by labour, fertilisers and skill, than on the land now being farmed, The potentialities of South America are less easy of estimate, but in this region there is still a great area of rich plain country unsettled, and it is not too much to expect that another 40,000,000 ac. of land are available for farming under present conditions. The potentialities of non-tropical Africa and of Australia are small; in the latter country the arid zone lics so near to the coast that the additional area available for normal cultivation is negligible in considering the world’s need of food. The great unknown factor in this survey is Western Siberia, a natural wheat area, and Manchuria. All that can be said is that the physical possibilities are great, perhaps as high as 300,000,000 ac., but no one can guess when that wiil be realisable, dependent as it is upon the establishment of a stable and ordered government. Moreover, on the flank of these regions hang the vast unsatisfied populations of China and Japan, ever ready to expand as the means of sustenance permit, and on this account the expectation of food from this area for the Western

peoples can be but small. The data are too approximate for an exact estimate, but it is at least clear that the good land still available for settlement in the temperate regions of the world will never permit of an expansion of population such as took place in the roth century and indeed is inadequate to meet the present rate of increase. As potential sources of food there still remain the tropical countries, in particular Brazil and Central Africa, where abundant rainfails and high temperatures render feasible a very high level of production from the soil. The last 50 years have witnessed remarkable examples of organised production of tropical crops under Western direction and management. The growth of sugar in Java, Cuba and Hawaii, of rubber in Ceylon and the Straits, of tea in Ceylon and

53

Assam, afford examples of the possibilities of organised agriculture,

employing the resources of science, the labour-saving power of machinery, the criticism of cost book-keeping, such as can rarely be paralleled in the farming proper of the temperate regions, The same organisation is being extended to the coconut, which, converted into margarine, is becoming one of the chief edible fats of the world. Without doubt the tropics present enormous potentialities of food production for the world, mainly in the direction of oil seeds and edible beans. It must, however, long remain uncertain to what extent the cheap native labour upon which these tropical exploitations are dependent will continue to be available. It does not appear to be possible to maintain a white population itself engaged in the cultivation of the soil in contact and competition with native labour, and Queensland is the only tropical country where agricultural development is being attempted with white labour only.

In this brief survey it is only possible to indicate the broad grounds for supposing that the food production of the world as at present organised is on the point of becoming inadequate for the demands of the growing population. The enormous growth of the roth century was rendered possible in part by the discovery of fertilisers, but in the main by the opening up of the new lands, particularly in the United States and Canada. The United States is already beginning to call for imports, and will soon require all the food she produces and no longer have an exportable margin for over-populated Europe. Under a system that calls for two cultivated acres to support a unit of population there is not sufficient land in sight capable of settlement to provide for much further growth of population. The continual rise of food prices since the beginning of the century—and it would appear that the trend is being resumed after the violent fluctuations caused by the War—is further evidence that the process is at work. The process is being accentuated by the growing disinclination of the civilised peoples to engage in agriculture, because of its small and uncertain returns as compared with other occupations. It appears to be a general experience that wherever by the extension of communications Industries or commerce come close to agriculture the latter declines and begins to lose its best brains, its capital and its men. The lure of the cities is proverbial, but the fundamental factor is economic; unorganised agriculture cannot pay the wages obtainable in the organised industries. The decline in the agricultural population of Great Britain and the United States is the most marked, but it is significant that in France, where of all countries the farmer is most protected and prices have been maintained, the peasants are leaving the land for the growing industries, their places being taken in the south at least by Italian immigrants.! Intensive Production — lIi the land area for cultivation cannot be expanded the production from the existing arca can be intensified, and it is evident from the most cursory examination of the yields of wheat in different countries that a great intensification of yield is easily possible. The select areas of Holland, Belgium, Denmark and Scotland average 40 bu. to the ac.; England produces 32, the world’s average is in the order of r2. Turning to potatoes the British average yield is 6} tons per ac., though good potato growers expect 10, Lhe average in many of the large producing countries, ¢.g., France and the United States, is less than 3 tons per acre. Intensification of production involves, however, increased cost of production per unit unless in some way the system of farming can be changed. The much disputed law of diminishing returns comes into play, which states that if any factor of production be considered separately, e.g., cultivation, fertiliser or water supply, successive increments of the factor give rise to increases of crop that successively diminish. In other words it is the last bushel of corn that costs the most fertiliser to produce, the last hundred pounds of increase in a bullock that involves the largest consumption of food. This expression of the law of diminishing returns is perhaps not literally correct, but of its general truth in relation to agriculture there can be no doubt. The best illustration of its validity on a large

scale may be derived from the course of English farming after 1 France:— 1846 Total population 35,400,000 Igri Total population 39,600,000 1921 Total population 39,200,000

Rural population 26,700,000 Rural population 22,100,000 Rural population 18,200,000

54

AGRICULTURE

the great break in prices that began about 1875. At that time the English level of production as indicated by the yield of wheat, 32 bu. to the ac., was the highest in the world, but the

English farmer could not meet the falling prices by increasing his yield. Instead he lowered his standard of cultivation and cheapened his costs. Fhe average vields obtained remained about the same, 32 bu. per ac., because the acreage under wheat was contracted by more than one-half by the withdrawal of the poorer lands from the plough. To take another illustration, the cheap wheat which was forcing the English farmer out of wheat growing was not the production of heavier crops than he could raise; it was North and South American wheat from lands giving an average yield of about 12 bu. per acre. As Lawes put it “ high farming is no remedy for low prices.” If then intensification of production on the existing farming land of the world is necessary, it cannot be obtained by mercly tuning up farming as it is carried on at present, by employing more fertiliser or more labour, unless there is a general rise in the price of produce to justify the expenditure. There may be adjustments in the system of farming, there may be scientific discoveries or an all-round increase of skill, whereby an increased production is obtainable without increased cost, in which case the law of diminishing returns does not come into play or is disguised. But the probability is that such changes will come slowly; farmers all the world over are naturally conservative and disinclined to alter their proved methods, and under present conditions it would appear that a sharp rise in prices is a necessary antecedent to a wholesale movement in the direction of

intensified production. The introduction of artificial fertilisers and imported feeding stuffs enabled the British farmer between 1840 and 1870 to raise the level of his production by something like one-half; what further advances may be expected from science in the direction of intensification? Conservation of Fertility—-Doubts have been expressed as to conservation of the fertility of the soil, but that fear may be dismissed. The introduction of leguminous crops into the rotation suffices to maintain a stock of nitrogen sufficient for the present average level of production, and from this source alone the soil of the old settled countries has maintained its power of production over many centuries. The latest extension of this principle has been the growth of lupins over the sandy sols of the northern European plain to be ploughed in as a preparation for the rotation of grain and fodder crops, with, as a result, a definite increase in the fertility of German and Polish soils. An intensive agriculture requires more available nitrogen than can be thus obtained, but this is assured by the many processes that have now been worked out for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. Concentrated nitrogenous fertilisers are becoming cheaper and more abundant, and the supply can be made to keep pace with almost any demand conceivable. Phosphates cannot be manufactured, but great deposits have already been revealed, and more will doubtless be discovered. " Most soils under cultivation, however, still remain comparatively deficient in phosphates, and, as Hopkins of Illinois so strenuously preached, if this deficiency be made up and leguminous crops are grown, the production of the Middle West soils can be maintained indefinitely even above its present level. On most soils the needs for potash are less, but the deposits of Stassfurt and Alsace, with the potential supplies from the undeveloped fields of Spain and elsewhere, are so vast as to assure a supply for the most intensified agriculture for a long time to come. The only obstacle to an all-round increase of crops by a greater use of fertilisers is the question of cost; as yet the grain raised on the new lands, cropped extensively at a low level of production without fertilisers is cheaper than that obtained from yields with fertilisers; hence progress depends upon the power of the industrialist to cheapen fertilisers rather than upon the farmer. Nor can much change be anticipated in the allied region of feeding stuffs, since they also are the product of cultivation. Economics in Caonversion.—Great economies are possible in

the conversion of feeding stuffs into meat; a calculation made

in war time showed that the amount of meat, milk and other animal products realised in Great Britain during the five preWar years was only about $ of what might possibly have been obtained from the fodders consumed. But improvement in this respect will be the outcome of exact individual management rather than of any sweeping change of method, and the whole field is influenced by the economic consideration that it is often more profitable to let animals grow carelessly and wastefully on wide pastures rather than to spend labour on husbanding their resources to the full. Still the progress that has been made in America, the Scandinavian countries and Great Britain in the exact rationing of milch cows in proportion to their yield indicates the economies that could be effected. The aim of the agriculture of the future will be to economise man-power as the expensive item in cost of production, and the value of machinery lies in its power of reducing the labour fraction in the cost per unit of the article turned out. Breeding.—Genetics, the science of systematised breeding, has a great part to play. Even amongst crops like wheat and barley, which have been worked at by so many generations of the old empiric breeders and which are therefore less susceptible to improvement, great advances have been made within the last half century, not so much perhaps in gross yield as in adaptability to climatic conditions and disease resistance. The breeding of Marquis wheat has enabled the wheat belt to be pushed miles

to the northward and added millions of acres to the potential wheat area, solely in virtue of its power of ripening a week earlier without loss or quality. The enhancement of the percentage of sugar in sugar beet from something in the order of ro to 18-20% is another example of the breeder's art, and similar improvements may be expected in other fodder crops which are often only the outcome of chance discoveries and accidental crossings. Many of the tropical crops, like the coconut, have never been subjected to selection and are still as nature made them. The immediate task before the breeders is to reduce the old sound doctrine of “ pedigree” to terms of useful performance only, to eliminate “ fancy ” points and to standardise our breeds for production only. But there is nothing basic, nothing immediately revolutionary in these measures; the key to progress lies in the general adoption of more exact measures and in the education of the farmer to be ready to take advantage step by step of the small but cumulative discoveries of the investigators. Assuming that the progress of science is capable of bringing about great enhancement of production by methods that do not immediately bring into play the law of diminishing returns, we may next in-

quire whether the organisation of agriculture is adequate to the demands made upon it. Small or Large Holdings —By far the greatest part of the farming of the world is carried on by peasant holders, using that term to denote men who cultivate their farms mainly by their own labour and that of their families. If we ignore the social and political considerations that commend peasant farming to the statesman,

to what extent can it

be expected to meet the growing demands of the world for food? It may be agreed that the division of a large farm into small holdings is generally attended by increased production, but that is because it involves a change from an extensive to an intensive system of farming, a change which was equally open to the large holder. The efficiency of the peasant is not as a producer but as a competitor who can undersell the large farmer because he 1s content to give a great output of labour, that of his wife and family as well as his own, in return for a somewhat bare living. But the large farm can be the more efficient if efficiency 1s measured in terms of production for the labour expended. On the large farm alone can machinery and other labour-saving devices have full scope, and with the staple crops like wheat or potatoes the economy of large-scale working is obvious. Even allowing for the detailed handling involved in stock feeding, milk production, truck and fruit farming, a higher level can be reached by the organisation and skilled supervision of a team than by

single-handed working.

Large-scale operations for the amelio-

AGRICULTURE ration of the land by drainage and kindred operations are as a rule only applicable to large estates, unless the state exercises a paternal and often uneconomic control over the land. It may be doubted, too, whether peasant communities are going to be as receptive of the advances of science and new developments as large farmers working for profit. However, the physical advantages of the larger farmer are very generally offset by his inability to get out of his men a day’s labour comparable either in quality or quantity to that given by the peasant. Science and the art of management have not so far advanced as to drive the peasant worker to the wall; indeed, by his labour alone he is still able to undercut the large farmer and make him lose confidence in the power of organisation and machinery. It is in agriculture as it was tn the textile industry a century ago, the hand loom weavers can still live alongside the power-mill and even break it by their competition. It is indeed one of life’s ironies that just at the time when the advances of science are putting new powers at the disposal of the entrepreneurs of land, labour should be acquiring a new class-consciousness which renders it reluctant to co-operate in any experiment in large-scale farming. Yet it is only by developments of this kind that agriculture would be enabled to pay industrial rates of wages. At present the vicious circle is complete; low prices and the wage threat hold off the capitalist from any adventure into agriculture, while the same low prices prevent the present-day farmer from paying any higher wages. In despair a solution 1s being sought in a reversion to peasant farming whereby the land is put into the hands of men who have, hitherto at any rate, been willing to give an ample day’s work for an uneconomic return as measured by modern standards. It is often maintained that a peasant community can be united into an efficient agency of large-scale production by means of co-operative organisations, which ensure not only a proper market but also that degree of control of the individual producer that is desirable for his commercial welfare. Co-operation.—A firmly established co-operative society can buy for the farmer the best type of seed and can almost insist on his growing it; it can enforce upon the farmer standards of cleanliness and quality in the milk produced, it can set out the particular type of pig it is prepared to market and say in what way it should be fed. And the Co-operative Society can exercise this wholesome pressure without hurting the independence of the farmer. Co-operative organisation by binding the farmers into efhcient commercial units and by exercising pressure and persuasion in the direction of better technique may outweigh the mechanical disadvantages of the small farm, because it preserves individual initiative and the willingness to work characteristic of the peasant. Some organisation of marketing is essential to the farming of the future, otherwise even the large farmer is powerless against the growing combinations developed by international commerce, powerless also to meet the fluctuations of production that are inevitable in agriculture. Since the farmer cannot regulate his production because he has to make his preparations long before the market is declared, since he has to adopt a routine susceptrble of change only at considerable intervals of time, combination in marketing alone can save him from the damaging effects of seasonal over-production. It may seem idle to take precautions against over-production when the whole world is calling for supplies and a possible scarcity of food has to be contemplated. But it is just these over-productions, temporary, seasonal and local as they may be, that destroy confidence in farming and hinder its orderly expansion. Combination there must be, whether of small farmers moved by the spirit of co-operation or of great agricultural enterprises actuated by business intelligence. Control too may be predicted, whether it is control exercised by farmers themselves from within or by some external authority, for the present haphazard system with its destructive competition bet ween individuals and between nations only results in keeping agriculture at a low level while people want food. See also CO-OPERATION; FARM ORGANISATION; FARMERS’ ORGANISATIONS; FOOD SUPPLY; GRAIN; LAND TENURE, etc.

99

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—E. M. East, Mankind at the Crossroads (1923); T. H. Middleton, Food Production in War (1923); M. Whitney, The

Soil and Civilisation (1924); E. G. Nourse, American Agriculture and the European Market (1924); O. E. Baker, The Potential Supply of

Wheat,” Economic Geography, vol. I, No. 1 (March 1925); see also U.S.A. Dept. of Agriculture, Agriculture Yearbook, 1923 and 1924; International Inst. of Agriculture, Rome, International Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics (1925) and the Final Report of the Agricultural Tribunal of Investigation, Cmd. 2145 H.M. Stationery Office, London. (A. D. H.)

II. SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENTS The period 1910-26 saw unprecedented advances in agricultural science. Until roro the United States and Canada were the only countries possessing adequate organisation for agricultural research. Germany had a number of experiment stations staffed by enthusiastic workers making the most of their means, but Great Britain and France were both badly equipped. In 1909 the British Parliament set up the Development Fund at the instance of Mr. Lloyd George, then Chancellor of the Exchequer, and assigned a capital sum of {2,900,000 for rural development, including agricultural education and research. Under the advice first of Sir A. D. Hall and afterwards of Sir T. H. Middleton, the Development Commission made grants out of this fund to certain institutions each responsible for one or more sections of agriculture. In France, the Conseil d'Administration of the Ministry of Agriculture, under the Presidency of M. Roux, is projecting a National Experiment Station. In the British Empire, Canada has admirable agricultural colleges and experimental farms; India has the great experiment station at Pusa, founded in 1903 with the aid of a generous gift by Mr. Phipps, an American; Australia, besides its older Universities and agricultural colleges, has the Waite Research Institute at Adelaide, founded in 1923; New Zealand has the Cawthron Research Institute at Nelson, founded in 1915; Trinidad has the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, founded in 1924; while throughout British Africa, notably in the Union of South Africa and the Sudan, there are important laboratories and research stations. The tropical research station founded by the Germans at Amani has now passed into British hands. In the United States, agricultural research, already strong, has been considerably strengthened by increased appropriations, the estimates for the Dept. of Agriculture in 1924 amounting to no less than $42,000,000. Side by side with these scientific activities, there have been marked developments in implements, including tractors, cultivating and draining machinery, milking machines, harvesting implements which not only cut, but thresh the grain as they travel, throwing out the sacks of grain on the field; and many other appliances. These implements are not as efficient as good workmen in the performance of individual operations, but they achieve more work in a given time. The results appear rather in the reduction in the hours of labour necessary to secure a given crop, than in any increased production per acre. A few crops show increased yields, e.g., in Great Britain potatoes and wheat, but most do not. The human labour has, however, been greatly reduced without sacrifice of crop. Further, the losses through adverse seasons are diminished; there are now no catastrophes like that of 1879. Insect and fungus pests are distributed all over the world by modern transport, but their activities are being controlled.

Crop PRODUCTION The main advances in crop production are due to: (1) a better knowledge of the properties of soils; (2) greater supphes and greater knowledge of fertilisers and other methods of increasing plant growth; and (3) the introduction of varieties of crops better suited to the local conditions. The Soil Fadors!—The soil provides water and nutrients, but it must also allow liberal access of air to the roots, and be free from any harmful substance or obstruction limiting full root development. The quantity of water needed by the plant is considerable, usually exceeding 300 times the weight of the dry ‘ For further information see Sir E. J. Russell, Set! Conditions and Plant Growth (1926).

AGRICULTURE

56

matter, or 30 times the weight of green crops (grass, cabbages, mangolds, etc.), while the amount of nutrients is less than 1/100 part of their dry weight. Indeed over a great part of the cultivated land of the world deficient water supply is the principal factor limiting crop production. Air supply is equally important; successful root development depends on an easy“interchange of gases between the atmosphere and the soil through the pore spaces which form 30 to 50% of its total volume. But these spaces also contain water, and in a wet soil air movement is much restricted; carbon dioxide then accumulates, and injures the crop when its quantity rises much above the normal (0-2 to os% by volume of soil air). Freedom of root development necessitates an easy passage of the growing rootlets through the soil. This is secured in practice by bringing the soil into the friable, crumbly condition known as a good tilth. These three factors, favourable water and air relationships and a good tilth are closely linked; the connection has now been traced to the soil colloids.

Soil Colloids.—Soil consists mainly of mineral particles ranging from t mm. diameter to -oor mm. or less; a fraction, usually

about 10% or less, has colloidal properties. is organic, part inorganic.

Part of this fraction

The organic part is humus derived from decaying plant residues, principally from the lignin by oxidation. Part of this is an acid, humic acid; much of the remainder is akin to an anhydride, for it 1s transformed into the acid by hot alkali; the acid appears to be tetrabasic and to contain carboxyl groups but no nitrogen (Odén). In the soil it is closely associated with a complex nitrogen compound, probably protein. The inorganic colloid is the ultra clay or colloidal clay isolated by the Sharples or other super-centrifuge. No sharp line divides this from the clay and fine silt of the older mechanical analysis; usually 0-001

mm.

(=I)

is taken as the conventional

upper limit.

R. Bradfield (Missouri Experiment Station) shows that the clay is a salt of a complex alumino-silicic acid. In normal soils the base is calcium; the clay is then readily flocculated and conducive toa satisfactory tilth. But the calcium can be replaced by hydrogen forming an acid clay not conducive to good tilth, and having the undesirable property of combining with, and therefore taking from the plant, bases needed for plant nutrition. The calcium is replaced by sodium when sea water floods the land; or, in dry districts, where the irriga-

tion water contains sodium salts (as it commonly does); or in ordinary practice where sodium nitrate is used too intensively on heavy soils. These base exchanges had long been known but not understood; they were discovered by the English chemist, Way, in 18530, and studied in recent years by Gedroiz at Petrograd and Hissink at Groningen; but the reactive substances were not isolated from the soil. Whether the colloidal clay is the only reactive body is not known. The colloidal clay has the properties of an electronegative colloid. It can be flocculated by acids or by salts, but is dispersed or detlocculated by the negatively charged hydroxy! anions (e.g., alkalis), The phenomena are complex. The sodium clay is the most easily and the calcium the least easily dispersed of all the clays. Calcium clay is the normal clay. In the course of their evolution plants have become adapted to it, and it is therefore the most fertile of all clays, conferring on soils the desirable water relationships. Sodium clays, on the other hand, are the least suited to plants. Their easy deflocculation causes resistance to plant roots and filling of the pore spaces of the soil with water. Worst of all, they readily hydrolise

in the presence of carbonic acid and water to form sodium carbonate, a dreaded plant poison, the black alkali of irrigated soils. The remedy for these evils, adopted by the California experts, is to convert the sodium into a calcium clay by treatment with calcium sulphate (gypsum); the sodium carbonate and sodium sulphate simultaneously formed is then washed away. The treatment is ineffective, however, unless sodium salts are withheld from the soil. The colloids, both organic and inorganic, are distributed throughout the soil as a jelly-like coating on the surface of larger particles, or coalescing into smaller particles; their great power of absorbing water

is the main factor in determining the water-holding capacity of soils.

These discoveries have found practical application. Dryness in soil, a frequent source of infertility, is associated with lack of colloidal material and is remedied by adding more plant residues, either farmyard manure or green manure, the alternative of adding more clay being usually impracticable. In irrigation schemes care is ‘taken to exclude sodium salts, not always an easy operation, because sodium chloride and sulphate occur widely in the dry regions of the world, no doubt as the residue of former seas. Irrigation is combined with drainage to wash

out sodium salts and facilitate re-formation of the calcium clay should the sodium clay arise. | | Acidity or ‘ sourness ” in soil is now traced to the humic and clay acids; its quantily is'‘measured by a “ lime requirement ”’

method based on the power of the soil to absorb calcium from a solution of calcium oxide or bicarbonate; and its intensity by determinations of the hydrogen ion concentration in the soil. Comparison between the two methods is complicated by the fact that the colloidal or other substances in the soil have a considerable ‘‘ buffer ”’ effect, but an expert analyst can form a fair estimate of the quantity of lime or of calcium carbonate needed to bring about a given degree of improvement. The organic matter of the soil is more than a source of colloids. Being the remains of previous generations of plants it contains all substances necessary to the life of the plant, and, in addition, material synthesised by the plant during its life and still containing energy fixed by chlorophyl from the sun’s rays. In the soil this energy material supports a multitude of micro-organisms: bacteria, fungi, algae, also protozoa feeding on the bacteria, and numerous insects feeding on the organic matter or preying on each other. In obtaining food and energy these organisms decompose the complex organic matter and liberate the energy stored therein, the final products being CO2, water, simple compounds of potassium, calcium, etc., phosphates and nitrates, all essential plant nutrients. Thus the remains of one generation of plants afford food for a later generation; the transforming agents are the soil organisms which live on the energy and nutrients still remaining in the residues. The production of plant nutrients, while the usual result of the activities of the soil organisms, is not an essential consequence of their existence. In their search for food and energy they may leave nothing for the plant, or even take up some of the plant nutrients already in the soil. Protein contains more nitrogen than the organisms need even after multiplying as much as the energy content allows; ammonia is therefore left for the plant. Carbohydrates and cellulose on the other hand contain no nitrogen, and the organisms, in multiplying up to their energy content, absorb nitrates from the soil; the plant therefore suffers. This explains why addition of sugar to the soil lowers crop yields, and why straw, in spite of its fertilising constituents, does not increase, but may diminish crop yields. The realisation that the organisms do not always or necessarily produce ammonia has caused the abandonment of the old division of soil bacteria into ammonifiers and non-ammonifiers. While most, if not all, of the soil organisms can effect alternative reactions for obtaining food and energy, certain reactions can be brought about only by a few specific organisms, among them the oxidation of ammonia to nitrate, which provides energy for the organisms, and the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen and its conversion into protein by Azotobacter and Clostridium, though these organisms, by preference, assimilate nitrate if they have the chance. Other nitrogen fixing organisms live in the nodules on the roots of leguminous plants; the association is mutually beneficial because the plant receives nitrogen compounds from the organism and the organism receives carbohydrates from the plant. The number of organisms in the soil varies continuously. | There are great seasonal changes, the numbers being high in spring and autumn, low in winter and summer, as happens also for plankton in the sea and in fresh-water lakes and for algae in a pond. There are also great daily fluctuations. D. W. Cutler and L. M. Crump have shown that these are determined by fluctuations in the numbers of amoebae, thus confirming Russell and Hutchinson’s discovery of the importance of protozoa in the soil economy. ‘The meaning of these changes is not clear. Three applications of soil microbiology are made in agricultural practice. Simplification of the population by partial sterilisation results in a greater production of nitrate and consequently greater productiveness; the soil can simultaneously be rid of some insect or other pest. In glass-house practice soil may be heated by steam or treated with poisons such as cresol, carbon-

disulphide, chlorpicrin, etc.

These do not long remain in the

AGRICULTURE soil, but are attacked by certain soil organisms and oxidised, presumably for the sake of the energy liberated. None of these methods is applicable to field conditions, but examples of the action are found in hot countries.

A second application of soil microbiology is the inoculation of the seed of a leguminous crop with the organisms associated with it so as to ensure more vigorous or greater growth. This was attempted as far back as 1890, but without success. Subsequent laboratory investigations showed that the organism passes through several stages in the soil, only one of which is motile. Tor maximum effectiveness it is necessary to ensure motility;

this is done by adding milk and phosphates to the cultures. Difficulties of storage and transport of the organisms, which caused many of the best cultures to die before they reached the farm, have been overcome by storing the organisms in sterilised soil and transporting them on agar. The technical details have been worked out by Bartel of Stockholm, Christensen of Copenhagen and Thornton of Rothamsted. Inoculation of lucerne is now a recognised practice in Scandinavia, and is spreading in Great Britain, the empire and the United States. The third application of microbiology is in the ratting of plant residues to produce a humus manure. The heap is soaked with water and mixed with an ammonium salt and calcium carbonate; the organisms are invariably present, and need only the added nitrogen to set them working vigorously. A fertiliser resembling farmyard manure is thus produced from otherwise waste substances.

57

is greatly in excess of her pre-War consumption (225,000 tons!) and is more than one-third of the whole world’s consumption. New methods of manuring crops are being tried (see below, under Sil phate of ammonia), in order to secure the maximum agricultural output as a rapid means of increasing wealth. Nitrate of Soda.-~The fears once entertained of an early exhaustion of the Chile nitrate deposits (1921 had been mentioned as a final date) have been dispersed by improved methods of extraction; in 1925 the prospects were so good that Messrs. Guggenheim, of New York, purchased large nitrate grounds and began erecting a plant for the operation of a new process not yet published. Most companies

still employ the old Shank’s system; some use the more

processes of Gibbs or Butler, with what success, however,

modern

is not

known. The price still remains above pre-War levels, while that of sulphate of ammonia has fallen; in consequence the consumption in Great Britain and Ireland, which before the War was 80,000 tons per annum, has now fallen to 40,000 tons. Nitrate of Lime. —Yhe Norwegian product is entirely satisfactory; its calcium is useful on many soils and its solubility quickens its action. It usually contains 13% of nitrogen, and is thus somewhat less concentrated than nitrate of soda, which contains 15-59%. Inthe pure state it is hygroscopic, but this difficulty is now overcome. Ammonium Niirate.—This has the advantage of concentration, containing asa rule 34-8°) nitrogen. Its deliquescence was overcome by erystallising in a special way. But it suffers from the insuperable disadvantage of being highly explosive when detonated, so that it is not likely to become popular as a manure. Sulphate of Ammonta.—This is now made neutral and is drier, more friable, less sticky and more easily drilled than the old, which contained 0:03 to 0-05 % acid; it is also slightly more concentrated, containing 21-1 °% nitrogen or 25} °% ammonia against 20-8 % nitrogen or 254%) ammonia. In the export trade it tends to cake, a disadvantage that can now apparently be overcome. New methods of using it on grass land are being studied at Hohenheim; large dressings are given to force an early growth of grass, which is frst grazed, then cut for hay and finally grazed again. The system necessitates increaset! dressings of potassic and phosphatic fertilisers and also of lime. It is being tested at the Dairy Rescarch Institute, Reading. Great Britain is the chicf exporting country and the United States comes second; Spain, Japan, Java and France are the chief importers, using it for oranges in Spain, rice in Japan and sugar in Java. Consumption in Great Britain has risen from 40,000 and 50,000 tons in 1913 and 1914 to 153,000 tons in 1924. The price is now nearly at pre-War level and may fall lower. Cyanamide is inconvenient and uncertain as a direct fertiliser; it is therefore usually converted into ammonia though attempts to overcome its disadvantages are still being made. Urea is the richest fertiliser in nitrogen (46:7 96), a great advantage for export. It is also neutral, and unlike sulphate of ammonia, leaves no acid residue in the soil. As a fertiliser it is slightly inferior to nitrate of soda but not to sulphate of ammonia; it is better applied with the seed than used as a top dressing. Superphosphate of Lime.—One ton of sulphuric acid reacts with approximately one ton of mineral phosphate to give superphosphate, The enormous consumption of sulphuric acid during the War caused a great expansion in productive capacity, which it was hoped would bring down the cost of the acid and therefore of superphosphate after the War. This hope has not been fulfilled; acid prices are still 50 to 100°, higher than the pre-War level. The pracess of manufacture has become greatly improved by the instalment of labour-saving devices and of fans to remove the fumes. +

THE

USE

OF FERTILISERS

Where water supply is not a limiting factor, crop ytelds can be considerably increased by the proper use of fertilisers. The problem of fertiliser supply, formerly urgent, has been profoundly altered by the World War, one of the chief agents with which it was fought—combined nitrogen—being also an important fertiliser. Prior to the War Chile was the main source of nitrate and coal of ammonia; synthetic nitrogen fertilisers were obtainable, the industry having been founded as the result of Sir William Crookes’ impressive address at the British Association in 1898, but they played only an insignificant part in farm practice. During the War extensive factories for the preparation of ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen were erected in central Europe and, since the War, in other countries also. Three processes are used: the arc process, yielding calcium nitrate, almost limited to Norway where water power is abundant; the cyanamide process, used in Switzerland and other countries near a source of coal; and a catalytic process now becoming the most popular, usually a modification of Haber’s, yielding ammonia

which can be converted into the chloride by combining the process with reaction with The effect estimates of

the manufacture of soda, or into the sulphate by gypsum, or into nitric acid by oxidation. of post-War developments is seen in the following the world’s production of nitrogen compounds:—

Compounds in Tons (2,240 1b.) of Pure Nitrogen

1924-5 Chile Nitrate . : ; ; Sulphate of Ammonia Byproduct ; . . s Fixation Industry -— Arc Process (Nitrate of Lime) . i

Cyanamide. . . Catalytic Sulphate of Am-

monia . ; ; ; Other Nitrogen Compounds

IgI2

its solubility and fertilising value.

1903

363,000 | 401,000

221,000

290,000 | 247,000

108,000

25,000 115,000

Nil Nil

10,000 19,000

255,000 } Nil 60,000 | Nil

1,108,000 | 677,000

Basic slag has greatly altered since the War because of the dis-

placement of the Bessemer converter by the open-hearth process which yields a slag containing little more than half the phosphate formerly present. Further, the fluorspar used in making much of the slag reacts with the phosphate—yielding a fluorapatite, thus lowering

Nil Nil

329,000

Mineral Phosphates.—Ground mineral phosphate was generally unsuccessful as manure before the War. The failure is now explained; the grinding was not sufficiently fine. Good results are now obtained both on arable and on grass land with phosphate passing through a sieve having 120 apertures to the linear inch, instead of the old one with roo apertures only. Even so, however, the mineral phosphate appears to be inferior to superphosphate on arable land and to high soluble basic slag on grass land. Potassic Fertilisers. —Prior to the War potassic fertilisers were obtained only from Stassfurt. Three salts were worked: the sulphate; the chloride or muriate

and

kainit, a mixed salt containing

potassium and sodium chlorides and magnesium sulphate standof K2O. During ardised to contain potassium equivalent to 12-5 the War the cutting off of German supplies led to exploitation of alternative sources, some of which were good. Since the War

The productive capacity is considerably higher than this; hence all fears as to supplies of nitrogenous manures have been banished.

Stassfurt

Some of the nitrogen is used for industrial purposes and explosives, but agriculture took about 595,000 tons in 1913, of which 290,000 tons was supplied by Chile nitrate, while it took 983,100 In 1924 5. Germany uses more nitrogenous manure than any other country in the world, her consumption in 1924-5 being estimated at 335,000 tons of pure nitrogen, almost all of which was for agriculture; this

1On_ the pre-War territory with 35,000,000 hectares of‘ arable land: the post-War territory contains only 30,000,000 hectares arable land. 2 See J. B. Hobsbaum and J. L., Grigioni. Jour. Chem. Ind. (Jan. 1917).

no jonger

monopolises

the world

markets,

the French

AGRICULTURE

58

having opened up the mines of Alsace. These deposits differ from those at Stassfurt in containing neither potassium sulphate nor magnesium salts; hence they supply only the muriate or chloride of potassium and * French kainit,’’ a mixed salt of potassium and sodium chlorides; Stassfurt still therefore has the monopoly of the sulphate and of magnesium salts. The sulphate and the chloride of potassium are on the whole equally effective in promoting plant growth (though in certain circumstances one is more effective than the other), but the sulphate is rather better for improving quality of potatoes, one of the most important crops for which potassic fertilisers are used. The consumption of potassic fertilisers has greatly increased since the War. Other Suggested Fertilisers —Magnesium sulphate has on occasion increased the yield of crops, but the conditions are not sufficiently well known to justify recommending its use by farmers. Silicates have been tried as fertilisers, especially in Germany, where it was hoped that they might partially replace phosphates and so reduce the need of importation, Germany having no phosphate deposits; but these hopes have not yet materialised. Manganese and boron are both essential to the growth of certain plants, but neither can yet be used by farmers.

Quality in Crops —While quality is easily recognised by experts, it cannot vet for any crop except sugar beet be expressed in chemical terms. Quality is mainly determined by varietal factors, some varieties possessing it in greater degrees than others, but it is considerably influenced by temperature, water supply and soil type. Increasing efforts are made by experts to improve quality. In sugar beet, the percentage of sugar has been steadily increased by using as seed producers only those roots found by analysis to possess unusually high sugar content. In 1871 the average percentage was 10; now it varics about 18 or 19. The roots can be sampled without impairing their value for seed production. In potatoes, cooking quality cannot yet be explained in chemical terms, but it is associated with variety and with soil conditions, the black fen soils giving high yields but not high quality, while the silts of the Eastern counties and of the Lothians give both high yields and high quality. In barley, malting value also is not expressible in chemical terms but is associated with variety, with seasonal factors and with soil conditions. Milling value of wheat seems to be mainly varietal; for long it was confined to the hard spring wheats of continental regions (e.g., Red Fife in Canada), but it has now been bred into autumn wheat by Biffen in his “ Yeoman.” The effect of fertilisers on the quality of crops is less than was at one time supposed; nevertheless, fertilisers influence the character of the growth, and this reacts on the quality. More important effects are acceleration or retardation of ripening, tendency to strengthen or weaken the straw, and certain changes in the composition of leaf or seed. PLANT

DISEASES

AND

PESTS

Striking advances have been made in our knowledge of plant diseases and pests, and of measures by which they may be controlled. Three general methods are adopted :— Varieties of plants are sought which are immunc or highly resistant

to the disease; if, as usually happens, these varieties lack some necessary or desirable character, they are crossed on Mendelian lines with others possessing it. This method is being adopted in the canipaign against rust in wheat, one of the worst pests of this crop. It is also used against wart disease in potatoes, a fungus pest (Synchytrium Findobioticum) which threatened terrible damage to the crop but has been rendered almost harmless by the introduction of immune varieties. The second method is to modify the conditions of growth so as to give the plant more vigour to overcome the disease. This has been successful in glasshouse practice in dealing with diseases of the cucumber and the tomato.! The third method is to attempt a cure. Fungi are commonly controlled by spraying with finely powdered sulphur, polysulphides or Bordeaux mixture (copper sulphate and lime}, the sulphur or polysulphides being used for the various mildews, and the Bordeaux mixture for other fungi, e.g., potato blight caused by Piytephihera infestans, and “leaf curls”? on peach, almond and other trees caused by fxeascus defermans. Insects are controlled by various sprays, the composition of which is determined by the nature of the insects and the state of the trec, ie., whether carrying tender foliage or in its winter resistant state. Eggs and sucking insccts, e.g., aphids, are killed by “ contact ” insecticides: alkali washes and coaltar fractions or synthetic products in winter, nicotine and the various

1 See W. F. Bewley, Diseases of Glasshouse Plants (1923).

tropical plants used by natives as fish poisons (Derris, Tephrosia, etc.) in summer. Biting insects, e.g., caterpillars, are killed by spraying lead arsenate on to the leaves; this treatment should never be used after the fruit has begun to form, especially in dry conditions, as nothing more readily causes a scare than the discovery of arsenic on fruit exposed for sale. Systematic studies of insecticides at Rothamsted and elsewhere are bringing out effective organic compounds producible on the large

scale.

Other methods of control are to find weak points in the life

history of the pest, the destruction of alternative hosts, and the search for hyperparasites which will greatly weaken the pest; this last is attractive but not yet successful except to a limited extent in certain islands, e.g., Hawail.

Much trouble is threatened by mosaic and other diseases caused by unknown agents and therefore vaguely attributed to a virus. Mosaic is transmissible by injecting a very small quantity of the juice of a diseased plant into a healthy one, and possibly by aphids in their passage from plant to plant. Weed Control.—TVhe growing cost of labour has compelled farmers to omit some of the cultivations by which in past days weeds were kept down. Four methods of control are adopted:— (1) Certain free-seeding objectionable weeds are proscribed by law; farmers can be prosecuted for having them on their land, (2) Threshing and seed-cleaning machinery have been greatly improved, so that seeds are now obtainable of a high degree of purity and entircly free from specified weed seeds. (3) Effective machinery

has been devised

on the model

of the

horse-hoe for uprooting weed sceclings. (4) Where the crop is already up and the weeds cannot be hoed except with difficulty, the whole ficld can be sprayed, at the rate of 50 gal. per ac. ,with a solution of either copper sulphate (3 to 5%), iron sulphate (10 to 15°), more popular on the continent of europe than in Britain, or ammonium

sulphate (30°), not yet commonly

used; 5°, sulphuric acid has eradicated bracken. These sprays need water, which is not always easily obtainable on the farm; dry sprays are therefore being used, especially finely powdered kainit (4 to 8 cwt. per ac.).

For yellow rattle (Rhinanthus crista-galli) in grass land, 6 cwt. powdered salt is applied per acre, and for daisics on lawns a mixture of dry sulphate of ammonia and sand (t:1 or 1:2) is sprinkled over the plants.2- Once the land is free from weeds it can be kept clean by growing dense crops such as mixtures of oats with vetches, etc., which smother any weed seedlings and can be cut for hay or made into silage. Other Methods of Improving Crop Production —A high tension electric charge has been found to add about 25% to the crop yields, but the process is not yet practicable on the large scale. Radioactive fertilisers on this land are ineffective. Suitable Varicties of Crops.—Modern agriculture is becoming more and more a study in adaptation. Instead of attempting by costly and laborious artifices to alter the soil or mitigate the effects of climate, farmers now seek out new crops or new varieties of old ones better adapted to their conditions than the old ones. This search for new varieties occupies much of the time of the research stations. BipLioGRAPHY.—E, Ramann, Bodenkunde, 3rd ed. (1911); H. J. Wheeler, Manures and Fertilisers (1913); L. 11. Bailey, Cyclopaedia of American Agriculture (1917); Hugh Findlay, Handbook for Practical Farmers (1920); Sir A. D. Hall, Fertilisers and Manures, reprinted (1915); Fhe Soil, 3rd ed, (1920); F. S. Iarris, Sex Alkali, Tts Origin, Nature, and Treatment (1920); Sir E. J. Russell, Soi? Conditions and Plant Growth (1921); A. Wulff, Bibliographica Agrogeologia, (Wageningen 1921); L. H. Bailey, Cyclopaedia of Farm Crops (1922), Cyclopaedia of Farm Animais (1922); T. L. Lyons and H, OQ. Buckman, The Nature and Properties of Soils (1922); W. Schneidewind, Die Ernährung der Landwirtschaftlichen Kulturpflansen (1922); W. F. Bewley, Diseases of Glasshouse Plants (1923); J. R. Bond, Farm Implements and Machinery (1923); A. Bruttini, Uses of Waste Materials (International Institute of Agriculture, Rome) (1923); E. A. Mitscherlich, Bodenkunde, 4th ed. (1923); U. Pratolongo, Manuele di Chemica Agraria (Milan 1923); J. A. 5. Watson and J. A. More, lgriculture the Science and Practice of British Farming (Edinburgh 1924); W. J. Malden, Actual Farming, 3 s a1975)

PLANT BREEDING This ancient art, which by the end of the 18th century embraced systematic cross-breeding, received a great impulse from the rediscovery of Mendel’s laws in 1900. In the past 20 years 2 For further particulars sce W. E. Brenchley Land (1920).

Weeds of Farm

AGRICULTURE few agricultural areas have remained entirely unaffected by its exponents. Three broad procedures are now recognised: introduction of crop varieties from other lands, which still bears fruit in newly developing areas; selection or the search for individual plants of especial merit in field crops, which has brought notable advances; and artificial hybridisation or cross-breeding, which stands first in importance. Higher yield, better quality and resistance to disease have been the foci of effort. Only time can establish the merits of new forms. Official figures of acreage rarely discriminate between varieties, so that it is impossible here to mention more than the few more important but well proved advances. Wheat.—Wheat improvements take first rank, and among them the Marquis wheat of Canada is pre-eminent in point of acreage. In 1892, Dr. William Saunders crossed Hard Red Calcutta, a commercial grade rather than a variety, and Red Fife, then the standard wheat of western Canada. Subsequently his son, Dr. Charles E. Saunders, selected one type from the progeny. This became commercially established in Canada in 1911 under the name of Marquis. In 1917 it constituted 80% of the wheat of the prairie provinces. Imported into the United States in 1913 it had, by ro19, a spread of 11,900,000 acres. Only one wheat is now more wide-spread in America; this is Turkey, which, with twice the area of Marquis, is a striking example of introduction, for it was brought from Russia by Mennonite immigrants. Earlier maturity, the primary distinction between Marquis and the Red Fife and other wheats it has displaced, makes for immunity from rust, drought and frost. India, with great environmental diversity and characteristic impurity of native varieties, has proved a fine field for the breeder. Under Dr. A. Howard, the Pusa Institute has established selected wheats which are ousting the older forms. Pusa 12 and Pusa 4 have an area of 500,coo acres in the United Provinces, while Punjab tr Is grown in the canalised parts of the Punjab on nearly twice this scale. Helped by the provision of good seed, these new products are estimated to represent an annual gain to the cultivators of £1,000,000. Something of romance attaches to the introduction into Argentina of a wheat from the Sze-chuan province of China. It has proved highly resistant to Puccinia triticina, the rust which more than anything else threatened to suppress the great promise of wheat-growing in South America. The introducer, Mr. W. O. Backhouse, has now raised hybrids which, both rust resistant and generally superior, are fast becoming the standard forms. From the Swedish station, Svalöf, have come a number of new wheats, barleys, oats and peas; Swedish Iron wheat has added to its laurels by gaining a hold in England. English millers, however, dislike the thick skin and quality of its grain. New wheats continue to be produced in England, despite the many years of improvement already passed. The Little Joss and Yeoman wheats bred by Prof. Sir R. H. Biffen and introduced in 19t2 and 1917, are shown by an official return to occupy onetenth and one-fifth respectively of the whole wheat area of the 14 principal producing counties. Little Joss, a hybrid from Ghirka (Russian), and Square Head’s Master, is the only form grown in England with a definite resistance to yellow rust (Puecinta glumarunt). It has marked standing capacity and a curiously wide soil adaptation. Yeoman is also a product of pre-

meditated synthetic breeding. The parents were Browick (English) and Red Fife—the world’s best bread-making wheat. Heavy yield and great standing power are merits it shares with the best of the older forms, but its quality or bread-making capacity has set a standard formerly believed impossible in English wheats. None of the older wheats can be used for bread save in admixture with stronger overseas kinds. Inland millers pay heavy freights in bringing strong imported wheats from the docks to their mills. The all-English loaf is now being made commercially from Yeoman flour, and by partial displacement of imported wheats from the inland millers’ blend is effecting a valuable cconomy. Barley.—Barley is of peculiar interest because the quality of beermaking kinds is nearly as important as the yield. At the end of the

59

19th century Chevalier and Standwell were the prevailing forms in Ireland. Archer barley was introduced from England in 1900, and Irish Archer, a selection made by Dr. H. Hunter, soon displaced the older varieties. Spratt-Archer.

An even more marked success attended his hybrid Spratt is an old form specially adapted to peaty

soils: distinguished by high yield, exceptional standing power and

superior quality, it now occupies almost ga“, of the barley area of Ireland. lt is estimated that £40,000 spent on breeding and testing in Ireland during the period 1905-25 has brought an increase equivalent to £250,000 per annum. Contemporaneously the selections,

Archer and Plumage, introduced by Dr. E. S. Beaven of Warminster, have contributed to the prosperity of English growers. The former includes the specially valuable character of short-necked straw by which the loss of ears in tempestuous weather, once very serious, has been much reduced. More recently, Dr. Beaven’s hybrid Plumage-Archer has come into cultivation. Its improved

quality and increased yield have given it an unquestioned preeminence on the heavier barley soils of Fngland and Scotland. Roots.—Roots, such as potatoes which flower uncertainly and mangolds whose varieties freely intercross in the field, are difficult subjects. But mangolds and swedes have yielded to that systematic patience which has done so much in Danish agriculture.

Helweg, in

Denmark, first made clear that the only sound basis of estimation for mangolds was yield of solid matter per ac. and not mere wet bulk, Next he demonstrated that different forms or strains within any one variety might be widely divergent in gross yicld and percentage of solid matter. Indeed, two strains of the same variety might correspond to a difference of £6-£8 in value of feeding material from one acre. The best strains were picked out, and by persistent teaching all bad strains were forced out of cultivation; good seed was ensured, and roots came to have a greater feeding value per ac. than corn.

In England the area under roots is diminishing. In Denmark it has steadily grown, and when the World War stopped the importation of feeding-stuffs it was roots that saved Denmark. There was a time when wart disease (Synchytrinm endobroticum) appeared to threaten wholesale destruction of English potato crops. But steady production of immune varicties, reinforced by appropriate legislation, may . now be said to have brought security to the one great crop in which that country is still sclf-supporting. Other Staple Craps.—Rice in Malaya and South India, the millets in India, the Fulghum oat of Texas and Kansas, the hybrid roundtipped tobacco of Connecticut, Svaléf's Victory oat, which has

proved the best oat for England since Abundance was introduced,

and Dr. C. A. Barber’s new sugar-canes in [ndia are among many other valuable new products of the last decade. Some of these forms may soon be displaced by better. Some may, in effect, suffer deterioration—a practical man’s belief which the scientist no longer entirely scorns. Improvement is in certain instances largely attributable to general betterment of husbandry and the provision of

good seed. But that all these new forms have advantaged the cultivator is beyond doubt. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A. H. Reginald Buller, Essays on Wheat (1919); H. Faber, Forage Crops in Denmark (1920); J. A. Clark, J. H. Martin and C. R. Ball, “ Classification of American Wheat Varicties,” U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, No. 1074 (1922); A. Howard,

Crop Production in India (1924); The Organtsation, Achievements and Present Work of the Experimental Dominion Farms, Government Printing Bureau (Ottawa, 1924); F. L. Engledow, “ Economic Possibilities of Plant Breeding,” Proceedings of the Imperial Botantcal Conference, 1924, Cambridge University Press ey L. Ex.) eL.

ANIMAL

EN.

BREEDING

It must be frankly admitted that the expectations raised by the rediscovery of Mendel’s laws have not been fulfilled. Nevertheless the conception that a stock animal should be Judged by its progeny rather than by its ancestry or by its individual characters, a conceplion which owes its origin to experimental breeders or statisticians who have worked on Mendelian lines, has given at least three results of first-class economic importance: cows of improved milking capacity, hens which lay more eggs and pigs which reach factory size in less time. It must be added, however, that improved methods of management in feeding, milk recording, trap nesting and egg recording have contributed largely to these achievements.! Vitamines.—The discovery of vitamines has not fulfilled ex-

pectations for animal husbandry. It is true that vitamine enthusiasts have brought to light many cases in which methods of feeding commonly used by owners of livestock result in producing symptoms of malnutrition, and more cases in which they do not yield results as good as the feeder ought to secure. Impartial examination, however, shows (a) that farm animals are 1R,C. Punnett, Heredity in Poultry (1923); F. IT. A. Marshall and J. Hammond, Physiology of Animal Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture (1925).

AGRICULTURE

60

much less affected by vitamine deficiency than are the rats, guinea pigs and pigeons, which were the subjects of the classical vitamine investigations, and (b) that farm feeding stuffs are seldom or never really deficient in vitamines. In short, vitamines are not a burning question in the nutrition of farm animals. Mineral Requirements —The many instances of rations in common use failing to produce the expected result or even causing symptoms of malnutrition, and the failure of the vitamine hypothesis to explain the facts, have focused attention on the much neglected subject of mineral requirements. Close examination of this question, more especially by Orr and his colleagues at the Rowett Institute, Aberdeen, has shown

that most cases

can be explained as being caused by a deficient or ill-balanced supply of ash constituents. ‘There is no doubt that the modern deep-milking cow, the 150- or 200-egg hen and the quick-growing pig which reaches zoo lb. in six months, are excessively sensitive to ash deficiencies. There seems to be no doubt that the good

results obtained by the use of fish meal for young pigs and laying hens are due in large measure to its high content of ash. In defining a balanced ration to-day, it is necessary to state not only the proteins, fats and carbohydrates, but also the ash constituents, and it must not be forgotten that even such elements as iodine and iron play their parts.! Nutritive Value-—About 1885 Kellner showed that the real nutritive value of a feeding stuff was not the sum of the digestible nutrients which it contained. Experimenting with about a dozen typical foods, he was able to measure their net nutritive value, which he expressed as the number of lb. of starch equivalent to 100 lb. of the food. Assuming that the difference between the gross and net nutritive value was due to the work done by the digestive organs in disentangling the nutrients from the fibre, he devised a formula, based on digestible nutrients dis-

counted for fibre content, for calculating starch equivalents of feeding stuffs. His starch equivalents thus calculated have received fairly general acceptance, and in fact are still the accepted basis for modern rationing. Armsby and his colleagues, using quite a different method, have more recently measured net nutritive values, expressing their results in what they call calories of net energy. On theoretical grounds it has been shown that one Ib. of ellner’s starch equivalent is equal to 1,070 calories of Armsby’s net energy. When converted by this

factor into the same terms, Kellner’s starch equivalents and Arms-

by’s net energy for the same feeding stuffs agree in most cases. This is very reassuring, since it confirms the accuracy of both figures.

Cases in which there is significant disagreement are practically confined to coarse fodclers such as hay and straw, and there is no doubt that Kellner’s figures are too low for such materials. Armsby has shown that the difference between gross and net nutritive value is mainly duc to the large outflow of heat following a meal—Rubner’s peo dynamic action—which results from the stimulus given to the animal’s metabolism by the absorption of the products by digestion. This being so, Kellner discounted the gross nutritive value too heavily for the presence of fibre, and his starch equivalents of fibrous foods are in consequence too low. It seems to be necessary to raise the starch equivalent of good hay from Kellner’s figure of 30 to at least 40, which is Armsby’s

other fibrous foods in like proportion.

figure, and probably to raise

Growth.—Comparative slaughter and balance experiments recently carried out have made it possible to calculate the composition of the increase in live weight of sheep, cattle and pigs at various shapes of growth and fatness.? It is quite easy to convert composition into calories, and since one lb. of starch equivalent can produce 1,070 calories in the body, it is possible to set out a table giving the weight of starch equivalent required to produce one Ib. of live weight increase in any animal at any stage of growth or fatness. Such a table forms a logical basis for computing rations, provided of course the maintenance ration of the animal can be ascertained. The idea is the same as that underlying the modern method of milk rationing by computing the ration on the basis of maintenance plus so much per gallon of milk yielded. This method, the scientific basis of which was a paper by Kellner in rorr, is now widely used by progressive milk 1See Dr. J. B. Orr, The Afineral Elements in Animal Nutrition, Presidential Address Section M. British Assn. Report 1925. 211. P. Armsby and C. R. Moulton, The Animal as a Converter of Matter and Energy (1925).

producers, and is perhaps the most valuable and practical outcome of modern nutritive studies. There is only one reason why rationing on the basis of maintenance plus so much per Ib. of increase should not come into equally general use, and that is the lack of accurate knowledge of the maintenance requirement of young animals. Existirg tables of maintenance requirements have been calculated by Rubner’s surface law from the results of experiments on adult animals. That they may be as much as ṣo or even roo% too low in some cases is Indicated by du Bois’ publications on the maintenance requirements of the human child and Deighton’'s measurements of the basal metabolism of the growing pig. From Deighton’s curve for basal metabolism it is possible to estimate the maintenance requirement of the young pig from weaning to factory size. This information and the caloric value of the increase provide a logical basis for rationing. No similar measurements

of basal metabolism

or maintenance

available for growing calves, lambs or foals.

requirements

are

(T. B. W.)

II. AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS This important part of the article on agriculture is divided into three sections, dealing respectively with credit, insurance and prices. AGRICULTURAL CREDIT Systems of agricultural credit may be broadly distinguished according to whether they are based upon a co-operative principle or not. Co-operative credit has been successfully applied in Europe (with the marked exception of Great Britain) and in India. In most of the newer countries the co-operative system has been relatively unsuccessful, and other means of financing agriculture have had to be found. The history of co-operative credit in the last 15 years records, almost without exception, an expansion of this system in countries where it had previously been firmly established; the number of rural socicties has increased, and improvement and consolidation of central credit institutions have been effected. Germany.—Even in Germany (the pioneer country in co-operative credit) which has suffered severely from the monetary disturbance due to the War, considerable expansion has taken place. Out of the 38,coo agricultural co-operative societies registered in 1924, 19,529 were rural banks, as compared with approximately 17,000 in 1912. The difficulties of the post-War period were, however, very considerable. Up to 1922, while prices were rising relatively slowly, the deposit of savings with the rural banks continued. But with the rapid collapse of the paper mark after that date the whole system became disorganised; confidence was destroyed ancl depositors ceased to make the necessary investments. The shortage of capital thus brought about caused acute difficulty in the joint purchase of agricultural requisites, and many co-operative societies were compelied to abandon it. Plans were attempted to obtain working capital; membership was Increased, and endeavours were made to attract capital with high rates of interest. None of these efforts, however, kept pace with the fall in values. Ultimately, attempts were made to stabilise the system by abandoning the basis of the paper mark and placing the business of the co-operative societies on a rye, wheat or gold mark foundation. Stability was ultimately introduced by the establishment of the Renten-mark, but the result was to disclose a shortage of credit in German agriculture, which led to serious difficulties in the sale of agricultural produce and the purchase of agricultural requirements. Since then efforts have been concentrated upon the restoration of the confidence of the rural investor, upon whom the system ultimately depends. Shortage of money and high rates of interest have continued to be one of the chief difficulties of German agriculture, as also is the case with other countries of central and southeastern Europe. France.—The conspicuous feature of agricultural credit in France is the state subsidy which it carries with it. Under the 3 Report of Departmental Commitice on Rationing of Dairy Cows, Ministry of Agriculture (1925),

*T. B. Wood, Animal Nutrition (1924).

AGRICULTURE Méline Act of 1894 all or part of the members of one agricultural “ syndicat ” or more (sce CO-OPERATION, AGRICULTURAL) could constitute a credit society, whose capital was obtained by subscription of members. The credit society became a “ filiale ”’ of the syndicat. A considerable growth of these societies took place with the assistance of a voluntary organisation which prepared model rules. In 1897 it was made a condition of the renewal of the charter of the Bank of Trance that it would place at the disposal of the state without interest 40,000,000 francs together with an annual share in the profits of the bank, for the

assistance of agricultural credit. In 1899 regional banks were created, the members of which were the local credit societies, and the above subsidy enabled the regional banks to reduce their rate of interest to the credit societies and consequently to provide cheap credit to farmers. The number of regional banks in 1921 was 69, with nearly 5,000 credit societies affitated to them. The extension of the system to the provision of long-term credit was made under Acts of 1910 and 1920, which now permit a maximum loan of 40,000 francs to individuals to facilitate the acquisition and management of rural properties. These loans are for a maximum period of 25 years with interest at 2° (or 1% in the case of military pensioners or civil victims of the War). Great Brifain.—Great Britain has no standard machinery of agricultural credit, the ordinary joint stock banks and tradespeople providing the bulk of credit to farmers. In 1923 the Agricultural Credits Act was passed with the objects (1) of enabling persons who had bought their holdings during the currency of the Corn Production Acts—April 5 1917 to June 27 1921, when prices were exceptionally high—io obtain mortgage loans from the state, repayable within a maximum period of 60 years, and (2) of establishing co-operative credit societies empowered to borrow from the state, The latter are based on limited liability, cach member being entitled to hold an unlimited number of £1 shares upon which 5s. is paid up. The societies are empowered to borrow from the state £1 for each share so held. The Act has not, however, been a success. As regards long-term credit for the acquisition or improvement of agricultural land, the principle widely adopted in European countries is one under which credit institutions lend money upon first mortgages on farm lands and buildings, and raise money for the purpose by the issue of bonds to the public secured on these mortgages. Institutions of this character are to be found in Germany (Landschaften and mortgage credit banks), Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Italy, Denmark, etc. In many cases these are of early origin, but since the War, particularly in the countries of central Europe, they have suffered severely from shortage of money, and the high rates of interest have been a scrious handicap to agriculture. In a few cases efforts have been made to sell land bonds in foreign countries. Cinited States —Agricultural credit in the United States has undergone extensive reform as a result of important legislation passed during the period 1910-23. Under the Federal Reserve Act, Federal Reserve Banks (of which there are 12) areempowered

to discount “eligible paper ”’ as defined by the Act for “member ”’ banks in their district. Farmers or other individuals must apply to their local banks which, if they are members of the Federal Reserve System, may rediscount with the Federal Reserve banks the notes, drafts and bills of exchange acquired from their customers. Under the Federal Reserve Act, the term of discount for paper drawn for agricultural purposes was six months as against

a three months limit on commercial paper. The former was extended by amendment of the Act to a period of nine months. The Agricultural Credits Act of 1923 also extended the definition of agricultural paper, particularly as regards co-operative marketing associations. The Act of 1923 extended the facilities for ‘ intermediate ” credit

by establishing 12 intermediate credit banks, the primary function of which is to discount for or purchase from banks, trust companics, livestock companies and other bodies, notes, drafts and bills of exchange, the proceeds of which are to be used for agricultural purposes. They may also make loans direct to co-operative associations. These intermediate loans have maturities between six months and

three years.

In order to increase their loanable funds, these banks

61

are empowered to issue collateral trust debentures which are exempt from taxation, up to ro times their capital and surplus. Lastly, as regards long-term credit, the Federal Farm Loan Act (see FEDERAL FARM LOAN SYSTEM) passed in 1916, established a system bearing some resemblance to the German Landschaften. Twelve Federal Land Banks, each operating in a separate district, are empowered to make long-period loans based on farm mortgages, and to issuc bonds to the public, which are tax exempt, up to 20 times their capital and surplus. The borrower must join a Farm Loan Assn. through which he obtains the loan. The Farm Loan Assn. is essentially co-operative in form—each association guaranteeing its own mortgages. Each Federal Land Bank also guarantees the bonds of the others. In addition to these, legislation has provided for the formation of “ Joint Stock Land Banks” which are empowered to make loans direct to individuals based on specific farm mortgages and to raise money for the purpose by the issue of tax exempt bonds in the same manner as the Federal Land Banks. A certain amount of credit is also furnished through co-operative channels, 19 states having passed legislation providing for the organisation of credit unions. These unions have some resemblance to the co-operative credit societies in Europe, and raise money for making small loans by the sale of shares and by receiving deposits. The organisation of credit unions as separate agricultural institutions has, however, made only a limited progress up to the present. Canada.—In Canada credit unions have been more successful, and over 150 with a membership of more than 66,000 have been organise| since 1906, mainly in Quebec and neighbouring provinces. By a number of Acts the provinces of Canada have also sought to extend the facilities for short-term credit to farmers. ‘These include the Livestock Encouragement Act, 1917, of Alberta, under which persons may form an association and jointly apply to the Livestock Commissioners for a loan; the Livestock Purchase and Sale Act, 1913, of Saskatchewan; the Rural Credits Act, 1917, of Manitoba, and a similar Act in Alberta, both designed to promote co-operative credit. Mention should also be made of the Ontario Farm Loan Act, the Agricultural Development Act and the Agricultural Development Finance Act, all passed by the Ontario Legislature in 1921— designed both to assist land settlement anc to provide short-term loans. As regards long-term credit, legislation has been enacted by the separate provinces. Manitoba passed the Manitoba Farm Loan Act, which became effective in 1917, and was subsequently amended in 1919 and 1921. The Act established the Manitoba Farm Loans Assn., which serves as the lending agency between the provincial government and the farmers, and is governed by a board of five members including a Commissioner of Farm Loans. Loans are secured upon first mortgages on farm lands and are repayable by annual instalment in 30 years. Saskatchewan has passed legislation on similar lines (the Saskatchewan Farm Loan Act, 1917), and Alberta has followed the general lines of the Farm Loan Act in the United States. Australasia The development of agricultural credit has received, and is still receiving, a considerable amount of attention in Australia and New Zealand. Mention should be made of the Agricultural Banks Act, 1923 (Queensland), the object of which was to make provision for state advances to co-operative companies and associations and to farmers and others; the Co-operative, Community Settlement

and Credit Act, 1923

(New South

Wales), which

amended the law in regard to co-operation and made provision for the formation and management of co-operative socictics, including rural credit societies, and the Rural Credit Associations Act, 1922 (New Zealand). More comprehensive legislation is contemplated. India,—-The development of agricultural credit in India has mainly followed the I-uropean model, and has made consistently steady progress. The first Act legalising co-operative credit societies was passed in rgo04. This Act was replaced by an Act in 1912 which closely followed the English Friendly Societies Act and permitted other forms of co-operation. The number of rural credit societies under this Act excecds 40,000 and these are mainly modelled en the Raiffeisen plan.

AGRICULTURAL INSURANCE The risks against which farmers are mainly concerned to provide are those incurred in growing, harvesting and storing crops, animal diseases, condemnation of carcasses in slaughter-houses and those risks commonly covered by ordinary life, accident and property insurance. The nature of the risks to which farming is exposed vary between one country and another according to its situation and climate. ‘Thus losses from windstorms are more common in North America than in many countries of Europe (it has been stated that between 10916 and 1923, 752 tornadoes occurred in the United States—an average of 94 annually); in Great Britain animal diseases, and in Scandinavia forest fires, are more important risks, while in Canada damage by hail causes heavy losses to farmers. Insurance against these risks may be carried out either through ordinary joint-stock insurance companies, or through farmers’

62

AGRICULTURE

mutual insurance societies. Both methods are used, but the latter is held to have certain advantages. Many agricultural risks are, however, of a kind which differ from the risks of fire

their members’ livestock. It should be mentioned that under the Diseases of Animals Act, 1894, compensation is payable by the state to the owner of cattle slaughtered under the Act, in cases of foot-

and accidents, in that the loss of a relatively large amount of property may occur at the same time. This is the case with windstorms which may affect a large area, with hail and with animal diseases which often take the form of epidemics, causing the loss of a large number of livestock within a short period. For this reason local mutual insurance societies operating in a small area frequently cover the risk by re-insurance.

Fire Insurance.—This is almost universally undertaken by the ordinary joint-stock companies but in some countries, notably the United States, it has also been largely developed on a co-operative basis. Indecd mutual fire insurance is one of the most successful as well as one of the oldest co-operative services which has grown up in that country. In 1924 there were about 2,000 farmers’ mutual fire

Crop Insurance.—The insurance of crops after harvest is a relatively simple matter, and the risk—mainly a fire risk—is often covered by ordinary joint-stock insurance companies. The insurance of growing crops is a more specialised business. Under this head the most successful development is that in respect of hail insurance. In the United States 43 joint-stock fire insurance companies, 41 mutual companies and four state insurance departments carried hail risks estimated in 1919 at $560,000,000. In Canada the Hail Insurance District of Alberta was formed under the Municipal Hail Insuranee Act of 1918, having in 1919 67 municipal districts. Hail taxes are paid by ratepayers to the municipal districts which in turn pay to the municipal board. The total risk borne by the Hail Insurance Board for the four years I919-22 amounted to $72,000,000. In Saskatchewan the Municipal Hail Insurance Assn. carried an insurance of about $25,000,000 in 1921 and 1922. Hail insurance in Europe has been developed to a less degree, but organisations to cover this risk are to be found in Germany, Austria, Denmark, Switzerland, France, Spain, Italy and elsewhere. In France 29 mutual societies existed for this purpose in 1921, and Italy had 51 socicties in 1922. A certain amount of hail insurance was effected in England in the counties of Bedfordshire and Huntingidonshire after severe storms in 1906, but since then the matter has been allowed to decline. While hail insurance is the outstanding example of successful crop insurance, some progress has been made, particularly in the United States, in the provision of frost insurance. But more hope is attached to the development of comprehensive crop insurance policies, covering all the principal hazards. Several attempts have been made by joint-stock fire insurance companics and others in the United States to develop a system of comprehensive crop insurance, but it is still in an experimental stage. There appears at present to be little development in this direction in Europe. Livestock Insurance. Farmers in aggregate have large sums invested in livestock which is Hable to suffer loss by discase and other causes. Insurance against these risks through mutual insurance socicties or otherwise has made greater progress in certain European countries than elsewhere, although the United States has some 30 mutual livestock insurance companies. France provides perhaps the leading example of European livestock insurance; its development has depended partly on state subsidies. Out of the 14,896 subsidised co-operative insurance and re-insurance socictices in France in 1921, over 10,000 were socicties for the livestock insurance, and 78 for reinsurance. The annual premiums are fixed by rules of the societies at not less than 1° of the value of the animals in the case of socictics which insure cattle only, 1-5 % for societies insuring horses, mules, etc., 1:25» for societies insuring cattle and horses, 3-5> for societies insuring pigs. The amount of compensation varies between 50", ancl 80° of the net loss—.e., the value of the animals affected after deducting the value of the carcasses. In certain

and-mouth disease, swine fever and other diseases.

:

insurance companies carrying risks amounting to over $8,000,000,000. These societies operate largely on an unlimited liability basis, a

relatively small number only limit the liability of members toa fixed sum per annum. The first mutual fire insurance companies in the United States were formed more than a century ago. An interesting branch of agricultural insurance is that connected with forest fires in Scandinavia. Organisations for covering this risk have been formed in Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland. The Norwegian Society for Mutual Insurance against Forest Fires formed in 1911, covered risks in 1923 amounting to 335,000,000 crowns, while a similar society in Finland issued policies up to 653,000,000 crowns. AGRICULTURAL

PRICES

The outstanding event in regard to prices of agricultural commodities during the years under review is the upheaval due to the War. In practically every agricultural country, the prices of farm produce rose rapidly from ior4, during the War, and up to 1920, and fell—even more rapidly—between the spring of 1920 and the end of 1922. Although other factors entered into it, the primary cause of this movement is widely recognised to have been monetary, that is to say, it was due to the almost universal monetary inflation which took place between 1914 and 1920, and to the monetary deflation which followed it. This is illustrated by the fact that the prices of agricultural produce, as measured by index numbers, have moved over the whole period in close harmony with prices of general commodities. Thé following table shows for the years 1914-22 Inclusive, the percentage rise and fall of British agricultural prices (Alin-

istry of Agriculture and [Fisheries index number) and the percentage rise and fall of general wholesale commodities (the Stafist’s index number) in each case based on the average of 1911-3 as zero:— Agricul-

Wholesale

tural Produce

Commoities

IQt4 I9I5 1916 IQI7

I 27 60 IOI

IQIS

132

Year

|

Agricul-

| Wholesale

Year

tural Produce

Comimodities

2 30 63 Ito

1919 1020

158 192

1921 1922

130

et

119 60 ict

147 201 86 57

|

i

After r922 prices have remained relatively steady. The general form of the price movement illustrated in this table is to be found in the case of most other civilised countries. The exceptions are Germany, Russia, Poland and some of the minor

circumstances other methods of calculating the compensation are allowed. European countries, where the general price level continued to The re-insurance socicties cover certain defined areas, and may rise after 1920 In consequence of the continuance of monetary either contribute to the settlement of all losses falling upon the affiliated socicties, or limit their contribution to such local societies inflation. In Russia there was a great disparity between the as have had to pay compensation up to a sum in excess of a given two price levels owing to special considerations, the level of rate. The affiliated societies contribute a certain proportion of the wholesale prices rising out of all proportion to the prices of agripremiums to the re-insurance societies. Jocal societies may obtain cultural produce. But elsewhere the gradual rise of prices, infrom the Ministry of Agriculture grants of two kinds (1) establishment grants, made to societies in the course of formation, and cluding those of agricultural commodities, from ror4, reaching (2) grants for losses incurred, made to societies in full working order a peak during 1920, followed by a rapid decline ending in most which have suffered unusual losses. Similar grants may be made to cases IN 1922, was the common experience of each of the followre-insurance societies. ing countries: the United Kingdom, France, Sweden, Norway, Co-operative insurance in Germany has not made progress comparable with that of other forms of agricultural co-operation. Only Denmark, Switzerland, Holland, Spain, Italy, the United States, a small fraction of the livestock in the country is covered by insurCanada, India, Egypt, Japan, South Africa, Australia and New ance. In certain states, notably Baden and Bavaria, cattle insurZealand. Although this was the form of the price movement, ance has received state assistance, and insurance of carcasses against its extent and also the rapidity with which prices rose and fell condemnation by the sanitary authoritics has also been adopted ona smali scale. differed between one country and another; the agricultural conIn Great Britain certain joint-stock companies specialise in live- sequences of the price movement have therefore also differed. stock insurance in addition to covering ordinary accidents and fire The upward price movement was accompanied by general risks, while there are also a number of mutual societies for the insuragricultural prosperity; in the United States of America it was ance of livestock. There appears, however, little inclination on the part of British farmers to take advantage of these facilities except in a prosperity without parallel in its history. The downward the case of pedigree cattle or other valuable stock, the number of movement was accompanied by serious and in some cases disasmutual societies registered and the membership having declined since trous depression. In Canada, the United States and certain 1913. There are, however, a considerably larger number of unregistered societies, such as pig clubs and cow clubs for the insurance of other countries, however, agricultural prices fell during 1920 and

AGRICULTURE I92r more rapidly than the prices of general commodities; in Great Britain they fell less rapidly. This meant that in addition to suffering the disabilities inseparable from afalling price level, agriculture in the former countries experienced a further difhculty by reason of the decline in the purchasing power of agricultural produce—the amount of other commodities which could be exchanged for a given amount of agricultural commodities. Tor example, in 1919 prices of farm produce in America stood at 131% above the level of 1913, while prices of all commodities were 106% above 1913. In 1922 the former figure had fallen to 33 and the latter to 49. The fallin the purchasing power of the “ farmer’s dollar,” was therefore a potent factor in the agricultural crisis which developed in America after the spring of 1020.! The curve in the general price movement of 1914-22 was partly due to the fact that the rise and fall of the prices of goods and services which the farmer had to buy—land (rent), labour, transport, seeds, fertilisers, feeding stuffs, ete-— lagged behind those of farm products, and secondly, that in agriculture the period of turnover is long.

Thus in the case of Great Britain, in 1919

the prices of agricultural produce were 158% above the pre-War (1911-3) level. In the same year agricultural wages were 96°%, fertilisers approximately 100%%, feeding stulls 1537°% above preWar level, while the cost of rent and of rail transport had hardly begun to advance. In 1922 when agricultural prices were 69°% above pre-War, wages were 74%, fertilisers approximately 52°, feeding stuffs 49°, railway transport about 73°64 above pre-War, while rents had advanced roughly by about 15°. In addition to this many of these costs of production were incurred many months before the produce was sold, and the effect of this was to increase the margin of profit in the upward movement and to decrease it in the downward. In actual fact these conditions led to a very large volume of agriculiural produce being produced during 1920-2 at a loss, not only in Great Britain but in many countries overseas. This was the primary cause of the almost world-wide depression of agriculture which began in the spring of 1920. But other factors contributed. The stimulus of high prices and increased profits during and immediately after the War, reinforced by the failure of Russia and Danubian countries, led to a rapid extension of the area under arable crops in certain countries. Taking the principal wheat exporting countries—the United States, Canada, the Argentine, Australia and India—the total area under wheat in rg18-9 had increased by nearly 33,000,000 ac. above the average figures for 1909-13; in 1923 they were about 28,000,000 ac. above this average. During the general decline of prices, there was both a falling off in consumption and recovery in European production. In addition to this the world’s harvest of 1923-4, particularly in Canada, was an exceptionally good one. The result was that supply exceeded demand, and the general depression of prices consequent upon monetary deflation in 1920-2 was succeeded by a further depression of wheat prices due to increased production. The same applied in a greater or less degree to the other corn crops. Asa consequence, a very acute situation developed amongst farmers of arable towards the end of 1923; in the wheat belt of the United States the crisis reached alarming proportions, and many of the banks concerned with financing farmers in this area, being unable to stand the strain, failed to meet their liabilities. The general level of agricultural prices in Great Britain remained fairly steady in 1924, the chief event being the upward movement of grain prices towards the end of the year. The world’s wheat area in 1924 showed a slight decline over that of the previous vear, but the world’s crop was substantially smaller,

the average yield being only 88° of the 1923 crop. The result was to correct the abnormally low level of grain prices in 1923 and to bring the price of wheat approximately to the level of other agricultural commodities. This improvement in prices brought considerable relief to the great wheat-growing countries, 1 The subject is discussed in The Agricultural Situation by Warren & Pearson, Ch. 8, Wiley & Sons, New York, and in Report of the Joint Commission of Agricultural Enquiry, Part I.

63

particularly the United States, notwithstanding the fact that the purchasing power of farm produce as a whole still remained below its pre-War value. In regard to the countries which continued monetary inflation after the War, the course of prices was entirely different, and the crisis of 1920-3 was not experienced. But a situation of a different kind developed later in consequence of the degree to which the value of the monetary units ultimately fell. Germany may be quoted as an example. The rise in prices continued comparatively steadily up to 1922, but after that the movement gained enormous momentum. The paper mark sank to a mere fraction of its pre-War value and with it invested savings often disappeared. This is what happened in the case of the rural credit banks, and when stability was ultimately restored by the introduction of the Renten-mark, agriculture was found to be seriously short of working capital. Farmers, in order to raise money for future operations, began to throw large quantities of produce on the market, with the result that prices fell. This in turn brought about a wide discrepancy between the prices of things the farmer had to sell and the prices of those he had to buy. In Jan. tg924, the prices of potatoes were 96%. rye 89%%, fattened stock 73° of pre-War value, while superphosphates were

183°, machinery pre-War prices.

£64%, potash 105% and ammonia

96% of

BIBLIOGRAPHY. —C., R. Fay, Co-operation at Iome and Abroad (1908); R. AT. Cahill, Arn Enquiry into Agricultural Credit and Agricultural Co-operation in Germany (1913); M. T. Herrick and R. Ingalls, Rural Credit (t914); R. R. Enfield, The Agricultural Crisis 7920-23 (1924); G. F. Warren and F. A. Pearson, The Agricultural Situution (1924); H. C. Taylor, Outline of Agricultural Economics

(1925).

Among the numerous official papers, etc., the following may be mentioned: American Commission to Investigate and Study Agricultural Credit and Co-operation, slgricultural Co-operation and Rural Credit in Europe (1913-4); International Review of Agricultural Economics, various numbers (1916-25), gives a large number of references including countries not specilically mentioned in this article; Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Agricultural Statistics (t920 4); Report of the Joint Commission of Agricultural Enquiry (ULS.A.), Part [., The slericultural Crisis and Its Catses (1921); Ministére de l'Agriculture, Législation relative au crédit mutuel et Q la co-opération agricole (Paris, 1923); Agricultural Tribunal of In-

vestigation, final Repori (1924).

(R. E.)

IV. ELECTRIC POWER IN AGRICULTURE The domestic and industrial uses of electric light and power have developed greatly in towns. There has been less progress in the country, owing chiefly to the high relative cost of distribution where the demand is small and scattered over a wide area. Use of Electric Power.—Electric ight and power have been found very useful on farm premises where current is available. Good light is as beneficial in a farmhouse as in an urban dwelling, ina cowstallasina factory. The electric motor is simple, robust and easy to start; it gives a steady pull, and, with the usual charge ranging from 14d. to 3d. an electric unit for power, it is cheap to work. Barn Machinery.—Farmers rely on an oil-engine which is used (roughly in proportion to the acreage of the farm) to drive what is called barn machinery, 7.e., chaff-cutters, root-pulpers, cake and oat crushers, etc. These machines absorb from 1 to 5 H.P. according to size. On a grass farm, the engine, perhaps 13 to 3 H.P., may work only for two or three hours a week in winter and be hardly used in summer when all the stock is out on the

pastures. The annual consumption may be something like Ir H{.P. hour per acre of land or, say, 600 H.P. hours per square mile of country, equivalent to 450 electric units of kilowatt hours. On an arable farm, where there is much preparation of food, including perhaps the grinding of barley-meal, an engine of 5 to 8 H.P. may work several hours a day, and the annual consumption amount to about 12 H.P. hours per ac., that is, about 7,000 II.P. hours or 5,000 electric units per square mile. Ciltivation.—The greatest consumption of power in agriculture is in field cultivators such as ploughing. On most farms, this work is still done by horses. The only places where they have been replaced successfully by mechanical power are in flat areas

with large arable fields.

There ploughing can be done more

64

AGRICULTURE, CENSUS OF

economically by tractors on light land and by steam tackle on the heavier clay. On a farm where three quarters of the area is arable land, the annual consumption of energy in ploughing may amount to 15,000 to 20,000 H.P. hours per sq. m., and half as much again may be used for other cultivations, a total of 22,000 to 30,000 H.P. hours per square mile. Thus, on arable farms the energy needed for field work is considerably greater than that required to drive barn machinery. Electric. Ploughing.—Electric ploughing is being tried in France, Germany, Italy and elsewhere, and is generally carried out by contractors. The most usual method is to haul the plough backwards and forwards by means of a wire rope pulled by a motor mounted on a wagon at each side of the field, just as in steam ploughing. In a modification of this method, a single motor only is used, the wire rope passing round four anchored pulleys, two of which are moved as the plough proceeds. Experiments have also been made in which the motor is placed on a carriage attached to the plough, and current supplied to it through an insulated, flexible cable, which is unwound as the carriage and plough move one way across the field and wound up again as they move back in the other direction. Costs.—It is difficult to get comparable figures of costs. A committee of the Institution of Electrical Engineers (Aug. 1925) quotes the prices of French contractors as 66 to 127 fr. per ac. for ploughing to depths of 6 to 14 inches. This, at a time when the external value of the franc was about 80 to the pound sterling, seems to be equivalent to 16s. to 328. per ac., but internal and external values of a currency are different in times of rapidly varying exchanges. The quotations of East Anglian contractors for steam ploughing range from 17s. to 25s. per ac. according to depth (say 8 to 14 in.) and soil. The cost to a farmer of ploughing with horses is generally reckoned at about 15s. for light and 28s. for heavy land per ac. but, if this too were done by contractors, something must be added for profit. Both steam and oil engines have the great advantage of being self-mobile; they can move about the roads and on to the ficld under their own power. With clectric ploughing, the need of taking wires to each field, the great weight of the motors and carriage, and the cost of hauling them about with horses or tractors, together with the rapid, depreciation of some of the machinery, militate against its success. It seems likely that, unless some new method or improvement is applied, electric ploughing will make no headway, and that the use of electric power in agriculture will be restricted to the driving of stationary machinery. Special Machinery—RBesides the ordinary barn machines, less common implements must be brought under review. For threshing corn, smaller farms mostly rely on travelling threshing machines worked by steam traction engines. Some larger arable farms, however, have their own threshing plants. Where current is available, the machine can well be driven electrically with a motor of from 12 to 15 I{.P. according to size. It is stated that, owing to the steadier pull of the electric motor, better threshing is done than with a steam-engine. On certain farms, power is used in other special ways. For instance, where a tower silo is installed, power is wanted to cut up the fodder and to lift it into the silo. Ensilage is sweet or sour chiefly according as it Is made above or below a temperature of 47° C., and German experiments show that it may possibly be worth while to heat the fodder artificially by passing an electric current through the silo. Artificial Drying —Expcriments have been made with some success, chiefly at Oxford, on the artificial drying of crops by blowing hot air through them. The process is not yet fully under control, but if it becomes common, it will consume power. This can perhaps be supplied more conveniently by oil-engines, but in special cases electric motors may be used to drive the fans which blow the heated air through the stacks of corn or hay. Special Advantage—One advantage of electric current is that power need only be used to the amount actually required. Motors of quite small size are made which will drive light dairy machinery, horse-clippers, fans for incubators, and other imple-

ments which absorb too little power to make it worth while to start an oil-cngine to run them. The number of such implements is sure to increase as electric supply becomes more common. As regards dairies, milking-machines and also separators, clarifiers and butter churns are very suitable for electric drive. Dairymen, and perhaps fruit-growers, may find it profitable as time goes on to install refrigerating machinery. This may give another demand for power on certain specialised farms. Poultyy—To turn on electric light in poultry houses on winter evenings and give the birds an extra feed is found to increase the number of eggs then laid. The rise in the total number laid throughout the year is insignificant, but, since eggs are worth more in winter, the redistribution more than pays for the cost of light, food and extra labour. Incubators can more conveniently be heated electrically than in other ways; by passing heated air through the apparatus by means of an electrically driven fan, uniform temperature and efficient ventilation can be secured. Plant Growth—Expcriments indicate that plant growth is stimulated by a high voltage current of some milliamp¢re per ac. passing as a discharge to the crop from a network of overhead wires, which are kept at 20,000 to 60,000 volts above the earth. Application for six hours a day for one month early in the growth of the crop seems quite as effective as a longer treatment. With certain cereals, an increase in yield of 20% has been obtained, but the results are not always assured, and the matter is still in an early experimental stage. Other experiments, carried out in America and elsewhere, show that electric light, both are and incandescent, in greenhouses, has an effect in accelerating the germination of seeds and hastening the growth of certain vegetables, the effect depending somewhat on the colour of the light. Electric Supply.—In the neighbourhood of towns, and in industrial and mining areas, farms can be and often are supplied with current from central power stations. Most of these stations now produce three-phase alternating current, and the corresponding squirrelcage type of motor is very suitable for farm use. Further developments of this kind may be expected, but the purely agricultural demand is not enough to carry a network of mains over the countryside. Experience shows that the demand for light and power combined varies from 1,900 to 6,000 electric units per sq. m. in good agreement with the estimate for power alone from oil-engines, as given above. In towns, the consumption may be a thousand times more. Again, for long distances, in order to economise copper, high voltages must be used; these are dangerous, and must be transformed to lower pressures for domestic or industrial purposes. Transformers are expensive, and no ordinary sized farm consumes enough power to carry the cost of a high voltage transformer. lence arises the apparent absurdity that a farm with high voltage mains running through it may be unable to get power. But, where a chain of villages creates a considerable demand along a definite line, or where pumping or irrigation needs a steady supply of power, the distribution of central station current in rural areas may become possible, especially if produced by cheap water power. Village Suppites.—Where current froma large power station is not available, a village supply may be feasible; a considerable number have been successfully installed in England, some worked by small waterfalls, others by oil-engines. . If water be plentiful, turbines and dynamos may run day and night, and a very cheap supply be obtained; but in other cases the energy must be stored in batteries of accumulator cells, which are costly and short lived. Whenever ccils are to be charged, alternating current is, of course, inapplicable, and direct or continuous current must be used. Private Installutions.—When no public supply can be obtained, there remains the question of a private installation. If occasional power to drive barn machines alone is wanted, it is obviously better to drive directly from a small oil-engine. But, if good light be wanted, and use can be found for motors of fractional horse power in dairy or house, a private electric plant may be worth consideration. The dynamo is generally driven by a water turbine or oil-engine, but the use of windmills seems now becoming possible. (See also FARM MACHINERY AND TRACTORS.) BrpLioGRAPuy.—A. Hl. Allen, Electricity in Agriculture (1922); R. Borlase Matthews, Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. (July 1922); R. W. Trullinger, Amer. Soc. of Agric. Eng., Lincoln, Nebr. (June 1924); C. Dampier Whetham, Jour. Roy. Agrie. Sec. (1924); Report of a Committee of the Inst. of Elec. Iing., Journal of the Institute (Aug.

1925).

AGRICULTURE,

(C. D. W.)

CENSUS OF.—The nced for an international

agricultural census has been recognised by everyone who has occasion to try to estimate world production, consumption or stocks of any agricultural, livestock or forest product that

AICARD—AIRCRAFT CARRIER enters into international

trade.

Many

countrics have never

taken a census, others have taken censuses only at long and irregular intervals, and there is great diversity and lack of comparability in dates, in methods, in data and in form of publication in different countries. Jn a total of 201 countries, 140 have never taken a complete agricultural census. The date of the last census in Great Britain was 1908; in Germany 1913; in Austria 1910; in Italy 1918; in Argentine 1914; in Rumania 1905; in Cuba 1899; and in France 1892. Lack of uniformity exists in methods of collecting data, in data collected in censuses of different countries, and sometimes even in different censuses taken in the same country. The International Institute of Statistics, at its meeting at Brussels in Sept. 1923, approved an exhaustive report by a group of experts nominated by the League of Nations with Professor Umberto Ricci as chairman, advocating the taking of periodical censuses and the improvement of annual statistics in all countrices. The Pan-American Union, representing all American

governments, which met at Santiago, Chili, in the spring of 1923, and the International Congress of Social Economy, that met in Buenos Aires in 1924, adopted similar resolutions. Each of these international bodies recognised the International Institute of Agriculture as the organisation best situated to promote improvement in national statistical services and the taking of periodical agricultural censuses in all countrics.

In response to this expressed need the Gencral Assembly of the International Institute of Agriculture, in May 1924, adopted a resolution confirming the great utility that would result from a general agricultural census in all the states in 1930-1 under a uniform plan. It also called the attention of the Permanent Com-

mittee of the Institute to the importance of inducing the adhering governments to agree to take such a census, and of preparing a draft basis programme to be submitted in 1926 to a meeting of specialists to be designated by the respective governments, the agreed programme to be transmitted to the various governments. The General Assembly authorised a small allotment of

Institute funds for the expenses of the preliminary work, which _ was supplemented by funds supplied by the International Education Board and by the United States Department of Agriculture. Work of the Institute-—The Institute then communicated the resolution to the adhering governments and favourable replies were received from the majority. In May 1925 a director of the preliminary work was appointed, a small office organised and a programme of procedure prepared. This programme contemies E . The preparation of standard forms of census schedules. - The preparation of a glossary of well-defined terms used in the census.

3. The compilation of data on the taking of agricultural censuses, on production and international trade in agricultural, live stock and forest products in all countrics. 4. Revision of the preliminary draft of questionnaire forms by statisticians of adhering governments, 5.

Discussion

and final revision of the census forms by a com-

mittee of agricultural statisticians in connection with the General Assembly meeting at Rome in April 1926. 6. Explanation and promotion of the census project in all countries through correspondence, publicity and personal visits of the Director and his assistants.

International statistics of agriculture are important in promoting and facilitating international commerce, and constitute a potent factor in the determination of prices of agricultural, forest and live stock products, and of food, clothing and raw materials in every country, because of the universal operation of the law of supply and demand, and of modern facilities for rapid communication and transportation. But to be of real value international statistics must be comparable, and the only way to secure comparability is through international agreement to take censuses the same year and according to a uniform plan. Other important results of the universal agricultural census will be its influence in bringing about improvement in the annual statistics of agriculture in many countries, and the probability that the census of 1930-1 will serve as a precedent for future

world-wide censuses at regular decennial periods.

(L. M. E.)

05

AICARD, JEAN FRANÇOIS VICTOR (1848-1921), French poct and dramatist (see 1.434), died in Paris May 13 1921. AIRCRAFT CARRIER.— Although, previous to the outbreak of the World War, various trials had been carried out with launching devices for flying seaplanes from off the decks of a battleship, the progress made was slow and it was not until just prior to the outbreak of war in 1914 that a vessel was taken in hand for conversion to an aircraft carrier. The British Govt. then took over a tramp steamer which was subsequently named the ‘f Ark Royal” and fitted her with a flying-off deck forward and two cranes for lifting the seaplane inboard after returning from a flight. This vessel was completed at the end of 1914 and proceeded to the eastern Mediterranean where she proved useful as an aircraft depét ship. “ Campania.’—Further seaplane carriers being needed, several cross-channel steamers and passenger vessels were taken over and converted into seaplane carriers. The largest of these, the “ Campania,” was taken up in rors and a large flying-off deck fitted forward for the purpose of flying seaplanes off wheel trollies. These alterations were completed early in 1916 and the vessel proved of such service that a demand arose for further similar vessels to accompany the British fleet at sea. “ Conte Rosso.’—The next vessel taken over was the Italian passenger and cargo ship “ Conte Rosso,” renamed “ Argus ” which was building in 1916 at the works of Messrs. Beardmore & Company. A complete flying deck was fitted fore and aft with a hangar for stowing the machines under this deck. The funnels were carried up to the level of the hangar roof and then turned back to run horizontally beneath the flying deck to the stern so as to discharge all funnel gases abaft the stern of the vessel, fans being fitted to cause a good draught through these funnel ducts. [For transporting purposes lifts were fitted from the hangar to the flying deck and cranes to lift the machines from the water. To enable machines to be carried on the deck in addition, wind-breaking palisades were fitted which could be raised simultancously to a height of 14 ft. above the level of the . flying deck. “ Furious.”’—Whilst the first trials of this vessel were proceeding early in 1917 it was decided to appropriate the “ Furious,” then completing at Messrs. Armstrong’s naval yard for aircraft-carrying purposes. This ship was originally designed as a large light cruiser to carry two 18-in. guns in single turrets, one forward and one aft. The first stage of conversion was to remove the forward turret and fit a flying-off deck and hangar, and from this deck seaplanes and aeroplanes could be flown off successfully. Attempts were later made to land machines on this forward deck, but these were not successful and so later the stern 18 in. gun was removed and a big flying-on deck fitted, the two flying decks forward and aft being joined by a walking way around the mast and funnel. Owing to disturbances set up by funnel gases and eddies around the funnel structure, this flying-on deck was not a great success and the ship was further re-constructed, being finally completed in 1925. This vessel was fitted like the ‘ Argus ” with a clear fore and aft flying deck, the funnel gases being led out over the stern.

“ Hermes?’ —About the same time as the appropriation of the “ Furious ” for conversion, designs were prepared for a carrier named the “ Hermes” and this was the first vessel primarily designed as an aircraft carrier. Some six months after, the Chilian battleship “ Almirante Cochrane,” building at Messrs. Armstrong’s works, was taken over for conversion and renamed the “ Eagle.” In both these vessels a departure was made in the construction of the flying deck since a completely clear fore and aft deck was not fitted, as in the “ Argus ” and “ Furious.” The funnels and navigating positions were incorporated in an “ island ”’ arranged on the starboard side, thus giving a clear deck of a width slightly less in way of the island than just forward or aft of it. Neither of these vessels was completed until 1924, and in the meantime vessels of this type received consideration at the Washingon Conference, being defined as follows:—

AIR FORCES

66

An aircraft carrier is a vessel of war with a displacement in excess of 10,000 tons (10,160 metric tons) standard displacement, designed for the specific and exclusive purpose of carrying aircraft. It must be so constructed that aircraft can be launched therefrom and landed thereon, and not designed and constructed for carrying a more powerful armament than that allowed to it under Article 9 or Article 10 as the case may be. Articles 9 and 10 are as follows:— Article ọ. No aircraft carrier exceeding 27,000 tons (27,432 metric tons) standard displacement shall be acquired by, or constructed

by, for or within the jurisdiction of, any of the contractivg Powers.

ency was to wait and see what the future disclosed rather than to base programmes of development entirely upon past experience.

The nations therefore shaped their aeronautical policies with an open mind regarding the future, and in most cases refrained from radical adjustments and expedients which progress to date might have suggested as desirable. What may in externals appear stagnation is not necessarily so in fact. Every forward step is preceded by much research and experiment before it is presented to the world as a concrete achievement. Even by the

Aircraft Carriers (1925)

| Sout

Date of | Length ee Combetween om" | pletion Perps, —S—

BRITISH Argus

EMPIRE +e

Hermes Eagle . Furious Courageous

i ; ;

Glorious

;

.

rr

|

Breadth ee

ee

Draught aug

|

DisplacePea

Spec

ment

ee

peed

a

Tlorse-

Ar

power

-e_—_—

4

moment

ee

ft: Aly, 535—0

ft. in 68—8

its in 2I— oO

tons 14,450

knots 203

1924 1924 1925 1916 Į [Being | |recon1916 struct-|

548—o 625—0 735—o 735—o

FO—3 105—2 88—o 81—o

18— 7 21— Il 21— 6

10,950 22,799 19,100

25 24

a1

20,000 | 2-4 1n., 4-4 in. A.A. 20 acroplanes 40,000 | 775:5 1n., 4-4 in. ALA, 50,000 | 9-6 in, 5-4 in. ALA, 90,000 | 1075-5 in., 6-4 in. ALA.

22-23

18,600

3I

90,000

735—~o

8I—o

22—

3

18,600

3I

90,000

IQI7

1918

I9I9 1918 IQI6

|

ed

actoteal gis e

aa

UNITED STATES Langley i (converted) Lexington j

;

IQ9I2

1922

520—0

65—o

I9— O

12,700

145

;

I9I9

Bldg.

104—oO

30— 0

33,000

34

Saratoga

;

1925

Bldg.

87 4—0 Extreme 87 4—0 Extreme

104—0O

30— 0

33,000

34

180,000 | { 8-8 in., 12-5 in. A.A. 72 acroplanes 180,000 carries a catapult

1921

1922

510—o

62-0

20— 3

9,500

25

30,000 | 4-755 in., 2-12 in. AA.

i

1925

Bldg.

103—0O

30— 0

33,000

33

:

IQ2I

Bldg.

820—o Extreme 700—O

100—O

28—

0

27,000

27

60,000

1920

Bldg.

560—o

89—0

29—

0

24,800

2T

35,000

Hosho

Akagi

.

JAPAN s

Kaga

Béarn

i

FRANCE

However, any of the contracting Powers may, provided that its total tonnage allowance of aircraft carriers is not thereby exceeded, build not more than two aircraft carriers, each of a tonnage of not more than 33,000 tons (33,528 metric tons) standard displacement, and in order to effect economy any of the contracting Powers may use for this purpose any two of their ships, whether constructed or in course of construction which would otherwise be scrapped under the provisions of Article 2. The armament of any aircraft carriers exceeding 27,000 tons (27,432 metric tons) standard displacement shall be in accordance with the requirements of Article Io, except that the total number of guns to be carried in case any of such guns be of a calibre exceeding 6 in., except anti-aircraft guns and guns not exceeding 5 in., shall not exceed eight. Article ro. No aircraft carrier of any of the contracting Powers shall carry a gun in excess of 8 inches. Without prejudice to the provisions of Article 9, if the armament carried includes guns exceeding 6 in. in calibre the total number of guns carried, except anti-aircraft guns and guns not exceeding § in., shall not exceed 10. H alternatively the armament contains no guns exceeding 6 in. in calibre, the number of guns is not limited. In either case the number of antiaircraft guns and of guns not excecding § In, is not limited.

-The aircraft carrier was thus recognised as a definite and essential unit in a modern fleet by the Washington Conference at the end of 1921, although the first practical vessels of the type had not been commenced until 1916, those previous to this being experimental and at the best only floating aerodromes with repair facilities. The other naval Powers followed the British lead in the building of this type of war vessel, and the aircraft carriers in service and building in 1925 for all Powers are shown in the table above. This table is restricted to aircraft carriers proper, the earlier smaller vessels, which are really aircraft tenders or depôt ships, being excluded. (E. T. D'E.) AIR FORCES.—The World War provided a powerful stimulus to all branches of war flying, and great advances were made in technical equipment and experience. This intensive development led to constant changes not only in the practice but in the application of flying, so that when peace came it was expected

that progress would be as rapid as in wartime.

This led to a

hesitancy on the part of most nations to commit themselves definitely to a rigid line of policy in aviation matters. The tend-

7,160 | 4-5 in. 30 aeroplanes

26 aeroplanes. 170,000 ; Reported stowage for 50-70 acroplanes.

beginning of 1926 many war experiences had not been fully digested, nor their lessons properly formulated. Analysis of available data, research and experiment, although less apparent, equals in importance the more tangible evidence of aeronautical progress. Unlike armies and navies, air forces cannot be judged solely by what is visible to the eye. A policy readily adjustable to whatever changes the future may bring; an elastic organisation that lends itself readily to expansion; adequate provision for research and experiment; training facilities; a husbanding of the resources, industries and trades that subserve the needs of aviation, and the national attitude towards flying give a truer perspective of potential air power than mere numbers of machines. Nor is novelty of type much to go by, since a machine that is ahead one day may be surpassed by others in a little while. Policy and organisation are the most important criteria. Two Theories of Control—Two different schools of thought exist in regard to the general principle that should govern the organisation, administration and development of air forces. One school regards flying as a science that can best be applied to war uses by entrusting armies and navies with its adaptation to their own respective needs. Aviation is, accordingly, constituted a component of these services, and its application in war is governed by naval and military considerations. Although this system has certain advantages, in that it grafts a novel instrument of war upon an existing stem and so avoids the disadvantage of setting up an entirely new organisation, there is no doubt that it exerts a limiting influence. The soldier and the sailor naturally approach aviation from the angle of their own profession, and view its possibilities in their bearing upon naval or military warfare. Such advances as are made are likely to follow divergent courses. An apparently inevitable spirit of competition between armies and navies also leads to duplication and tends to deprive effort of its full measure of results. The other school considers that the air merits a profession of its own, and that untrammelled

AIRCRAFT

CARRIERS

PLATE

TYPES OF AIRCRAFT CARRIERS Fic. 1. H.M.S. “ Eagle,” port quarter view, showing flight deck. Fig. 2. H.M.S. “ Hermes,” bow view. FIG. 3. H.M.S. “ Furious,” latest British aircraft carrier. FIG. 4. Model of U.S. aircraft carrier, of the “Saratoga” type. Fic. 5. H.M.S. ‘ Hermes,” showing aeroplanes parked on flight deck. (Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 5. Pholos by Abrahams,

Devonport.

Fig. 4. Courtesy of U.S. Navy Dept.)

AIR FORCES devotion to the science and art of flying is necessary to do full justice to possibilities, not only in relation to war but as a factor in modern life. It accordingly seeks to concentrate all aeronautical effort into one main channel, with branches to the various departments which flying can serve. Duplication can thus be avoided and the fruits of experience can be adequately considered and properly collated.

I. GREAT

BRITAIN

Great Britain was the first to gather together the threads of aeronautical activity and place them in the hands of a central authority; and at the beginning of 1918 the air branches of the Admiralty and War Office departments were amalgamated into the Air Ministry (g.v.). In April 1918, the flying branches of the navy and army were merged into the Royal Air Force. The idea was not a new one, and, although the impulse of war made obstacles easier to overcome, it was not in war that the conception had its origin. The sub-committee of the Committee of Imperial Defence, charged in rorr with the study of aviation in its relation to defence, mentioned in its report that such a step might be desirable when flying was more advanced. The germ of the idea is also to be found in the constitution of the Royal Flying Corps, formed in 1912, with its naval and military wings. In this instance, however, the measure was too far in advance of the time to survive inter-service jealousies, and shortly before the outbreak of the World War the Royal Naval Air Service was formed, the Royal Flying Corps becoming part of the army. As air warfare grew in volume and importance, the defects of the dual system. under war conditions became more and more apparent. Full use of the nation’s resources was prejudiced, and civilian ministers were not only denied unanimous advice on air matters, but were sometimes forced to choose between discordant views and to settle vital differences of opinion. The drawbacks of this competitive system were particularly glaring in the matter of technical supply. Improvement was sought in the principle of joint naval and military Air Boards to co-ordinate supply for the two air services. These boards had, however, no executive control over policy, and achieved but little. Finally the Air Ministry was brought into being as the only apparent alternative to the existing evils. Although a war measure, the Air Ministry survived the peace, and administers not only the Air Force but controls civil aviation

as well. It has, however, not been allowed to continue its existence as a Department of State without considerable hostility and adverse criticism. Its chief opponents were the navy and army. With their establishments reduced to a minimum, and their budget grants diminishing every year, the older fighting services viewed with misgiving the allotment of funds to the newcomer. They argued that the main use of aircraft in war is to assist directly or indirectly the army and the navy, and that accordingly these services should have entire control of their respective air arms. The reply to this objection is that the conquest of the air has disclosed possibilities which transcend the scope of land and sea warfare; that to narrow the view-point to naval or military problems is to bring their possibilities into a false perspective; and although that acrial assistance to the forces that fight upon the sea and on land is necessary, this need by no means marks the limit that should be set to aerial operations. Moreover, to regard the air merely as an auxiliary to the sea and the land is a dangerous doctrine, since circumstances may render naval and military operations secondary to those carried out by air forces. Another criticism was that a separate air force is extravagant, since it involves additional overhead expenditure. The reply is that this is offset by the economy achieved in having a single authority dealing with air matters. One result of recognising aviation as a profession in its own right has been a breakaway from traditional practice in policing the British mandates in the East. Security in these territories is the responsibility of the Royal Air Force; aeroplanes are recognised as the chief instruments for the support of law and order, and military forces are used as auxiliaries. The measure has been justified by the great economy achieved. The development

07

of this conception and its successful application would not have been possible without an Air Staff. Another result is a reversal of principle governing the air vis-d-vis the land and sea forces in the defence of Great Britain against air attack. Instead of dividing the air into two portions, one above the land and the other above the sea, and making the army and navy responsible for their respective spheres, the air is regarded for purposes of national defence as a single field of activity. The Air Force is accordingly responsible for guarding against air attack, and such ancillary ground forces as may be necessary conform to air defence measures and it carries out its work under the orders of the air commander. | Aviation in Peace and War.—Since it is sometimes claimed that a true appreciation of a nation’s air strength cannot be reached without taking into consideration the civil aspect of flying, it is desirable to note the relationship existing between the peace anc war sides of aviation. Air strength is represented by air forces maintained in peace, ready to function the moment war breaks out. Heavy losses in life and equipment are, however, to be expected in air warfare, especially if the belligerents are at all equally matched. Air power will, therefore, depend ultimately upon the means available for rapidly making good these losses—that is to sav, upon a reserve of flying personnel and on a healthy aircraft industry. It is in respect of these two important factors that civil aviation must make its contribution to a nation’s air strength. Hence the practice of granting government subsidies to commercial air transport enterprises. It may, however, be a long time before civil aviation will occupy, in relation to air strength, a position analogous to that occupied by the mercantile marine in relation to British naval strength. The requirements of civil and war flying differ considerably. For commerce, economy in running and maintenance and paying load are the factors that count most. For war, speed, climbing power, the carriage and use of armament, and fighting qualities in general are the chief factors that control design. Consequently apart from the fact that they connote an aircraft industry and the existence of a potential reserve of pilots, aeroplanes used for civil purposes do not contribute directly to a nation’s strength in the air. TuE

ROYAL

AIR FORCE

The officers of the general duties or military branch of the Royal Air Force are divided into two categories. About 50% of the total are those for whom the Air Force provides a permanent career. Practically all officers in this category must pass through the R.A.F. Cadet College at Cranwell. The remainder consists of officers serving temporarily in the Royal Air Force; either those from civil life who engage for a period of five years on the active list followed by four in the reserve, or those seconded for a period of four years from the army or navy.

The other ranks are

filled either by boys who go through an apprenticeship in a trade at one of the boys’ training establishments, passing into the ranks on reaching the age of 18, or by men enlisted direct from civil life. —The normal period of service is seven years with the Colours and five with the reserve. In addition to the general duties branch of the Royal Air Force, there are the stores, accounting, medical, dental and chaplain’s branches. Units are divided into the following types:— TABLE

I.

Type of unit

Equipment

Fighter squadrons

12 single-seater fighting aeroplanes.

Bombing squadrons .

I2 single-engine bombers, or 10 multiple-engine bombers.

Army co-operation squadrons ; :

12 Army co-operation aeroplanes. —

Navy co-operation

flights

6 aeroplanes,

seaplanes

or flying

boats.

Fleet air arm

6 aeroplaner

flights | carrying ships.

in

aircraft

AIR FORCES

68

_ Directly under the Air Ministry are a number of commands embracing air force activities both at home and overseas. The following table indicates the various areas in question, and the composition of the different commands:— TABLE

IT.

inland Area

2 Fighter squadrons

(directly under area

head-

quarters).

Group I

2 Bombing squadrons; Army co-operation squadron ;! armament and gunnery school; men’s schools ofl technical training. 6 bombing squadrons; 2 flying training schools; experimental establish-

Group 3

ments,

Group 6

. | 8 fighter squadrons.

Group 7

I fighter squadron; 2 bombing squadrons; flying training school; central flying school; electrical and wireless school; 3 army co-operation squadrons; school of army co-operation. Coastal Area

Headquarters

4 fleet fighter flights; 2 reconnaissance flights; marine aircraft experimental establishment; flying boat development flight; R. A. F. units in H.M.S. “ Argus ” (aircraft carrier), and H.M.S. “ Pegasus ” (seaplane carrier).

Group 10 . | Coastal reconnaissance flight; 3 fleet spotter flights; 2 fleet torpedo flights; air pilotage school; seaplane training flight; school of naval co-operation. Overseas Commands

Middle East! 2 bombing squadrons; army co-operation squadron; aircraft depdt; engine repair depot; flying training school; Aden flight. ‘Iraq . Fighter squadron; 6 bombing squadrons; army cooperation squadron; 3 armoured car companies; 4 infantry battalions. India . | 4 army co-operation squadrons; 2 bombing squadrons. Mediterranean. . | I coastal reconnaissance flight; 2 fleet fighter flights; fleet spotter flight; 2 fleet reconnaissance fights; fleet torpedo flight; R. A. F. units in H.M.S. “ Hermes” and “ Eagle,” aircraft carriers.

. | I Army

co-operation company.

Palestine

squadron;

r armoured

car

In addition to the above the organisation includes a cadet

college at Cranwell, Lincolnshire; a school of technical training for boys at Halton, Buckinghamshire; the staff college at Andover, Hampshire; and the Royal Aircraft Establishment at South Farnborough, Hampshire. The following table gives figures relating to the three chief air forces in Europe:— TABLE

III.

oag

PRIMA

Country

Officers} Great Britain

ent air action

ae er

For

os Total be a ee

ation | tron

shines

Other | Fight-|Bomb-| Ma- | Maranks | ers ers | chines} chines

. | 3,000 | 33,000 | 144

France

For

266

g60 | 19,778 | 180 | 256

132 |Obs.

536

118

660

60 | 1,192

Fightters

160 Total

Italy!

.

a e

2,640 | 29,226 702 513 315 l1According to 1926 development programme,

1,530

Although all general duty officers are on a single list and are, with the exception of those in the fleet air arm, available for any form of work, the varied functions performed by the air force result in the division of its units into types, such as the fighter squadrons, {leet air arm, bombing squadrons, etc., according to the duties they perform and the aeroplanes with which they are equipped. Officers, accordingly, become identified with the type of unit in which they have had the most experience, although rigid specialisation is discouraged as a general principle. (A. W. H. E. W.)

Il. UNITED When the United personnel consisted 35 Oflicers and 163 signed, the Army officers, 600 cadets, a strength of 6,716 of war, the United

STATES

States entered the World War, the aviation of 65 officers and 1,120 men of the army and men of the navy. When the Armistice was Air Service had reached a total of 20,000 and 164,000 men, while naval aviation had officers and 30,692 men. At the declaration States possessed about 300 training planes,

of which many were of inferior types. At the time of the Armistice, about 8,500 training planes had been delivered. The Army Air Service had, in addition to these, about 3,300 service type aeroplanes, De Havilland 4’s and Ilandley-Page bombers, while the navy had about 1,600 anti-submarine flying boats. Up tothe Armistice, 15,700 training engines and 13,396 Liberty engines had been produced. The Liberty engine development, in point of rapidity, cost and quality, was one of the most strikingly suc: cessful projects of the War. Post-War Problems —At the commencement of the War, army aviation was under the Signal Corps, but during the War the U.S. Army air service was organised to concentrate the administration of aviation personnel and equipment. In March 1918, the control of naval aviation was centralised in the Office of Operations under the Director of Naval Aviation, where it remained until the organisation of the Bureau of Aeronautics in 1922. The close of the World War found the United States with a large number of aircraft on hand. These were primarily military and naval aircraft unsuited for commercial purposes. Furthermore, in accordance with the war policy laid down, the types of aircraft built by the United States were limited to army observation planes, navy coastal patrol planes and training planes for both the army and the navy. The close of the War found the country therefore with a vast problem of developing and building military aircraft of many other types to meet the special needs of the army and the navy and also the growing demands of commercial aviation. In the meantime it was necessary, not only from the stand-

point of economy but also from that of training, to utilise to best advantage the aircraft on hand. Since the personnel of war-time aviation was recruited largely from civil life and demobilisation deprived the army and navy of the services of this personnel, it likewise became necessary to recruit and train

replacement personnel.

The Government

had the choice of

operating the types remaining at the close of the War and building more of the same types, or of operating war types to a limited degree and spending most of the available funds in the development of new types. Since no war was threatened the latter procedure was followed. Development work progressed to the point where in 1926, in so far as quality was concerned, the United States was not exceeded by other countries, and where superior types might be built in quantities in relatively short periods of time. General Principles. —Military and naval aviation have two primary aspects, which may be characterised as Air Service and Air Force. By air service is meant that portion of the aviation activity which is auxiliary to the military and the naval establishments, such as reconnaissance and the control of gunfire. By air force is meant that branch which contemplates offensive air measures, co-ordinated, of course, with the military and naval establishments. The U.S. national policy requires that naval aviation be maintained in the same degree of readiness as the

fleet and in the same proportion of strength, and this is the theory

AIR MINISTRY—AIR on which the Government has been working. It is a fundamental principle that the best defence is a strong offence, and this implies that naval aviation must be prepared to take the offen-

sive with the fleet.

United

States

air force should

be the naval

air force, not

a

separate air force based on shore or on ships. On the basis of these fundamental conceptions, development has gone ahead -with rapidity. The air forces of other countries (e.g., sce FRANCE; IraLY) are - discussed in the articles thereon under the sub-heading ‘‘Defence.” For commercial aviation see FLYING. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—A,

aircraft and engines; (4) the directorate of equipment, which is responsible for the supply, storage and issue of all equipment for the Royal Air Force. (A. W. H. E. W.)

The country is open to invasion from the

northwest, the northeast and from the southeast by overseas countries. In so far as aircraft are concerned, bases would be require: for such an offensive. With the fleet at sea fully equipped with its surface vessels, submarines and aircraft, no enemy could establish such bases. Again, with the fleet at sea with its own aircraft, the air force could establish its own bases and carry out its own offensive; but this offensive, in so far as aircraft are concerned, must be based primarily on the decks of the carriers of the fleet. In other words, aviation is an integral and important component part of both the military and naval establishments, and its best effort must be directed in conjunction with the army and the navy, and not independently. Strategic considerations based on the present capability of aircraft require that the

Sweetsen,

The American Air Service (1919);

Sir F. H. Sykes, Aviation in Peace and War (1922); Report of the International Air Congress (London, 1923). (W. A. M.)

AIR MINISTRY.—The British Army and Navy at the beginning of the World War in Aug. rọr4 had separate administrative organisations for their air services which were the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service respectively. These were amalgamated early in r918 and the Air Ministry was formed. It is a state department and the Secretary of State for Air is the responsible Cabinet Minister. He is also president of the Air Council, whose functions are analogous to those of the Board of Admiralty and the War Council. The Ate Council—In addition to the president, the Air Council is composed of the Under Secretary of State for Air, who must be a member of either House of Parlament, four service members (the Chief of the Air Staff, the Air Member for Personnel, the Air Member for Supply and Research and the Deputy Chief of the Air Staff) and the secretary, a civil servant. The Air Ministry provides the administrative machinery for giving effect to the Air Council’s decisions and it consists of various main departments. The directorate of civil aviation deals with all matters connected with the regulation of civil flying. It comprises an accident branch, which investigates the causes of accidents, whether to service or to civil aircraft; an air transport branch, and a licensing branch. The department of the secretary is charged with the internal administration of the Ministry and is responsible for the general routine. Included in the department are the directorates of accounts, contracts and lands and the meteorological office. The department of the chief of the air staff includes the directorate of operations and intelligence and the directorate of staff duties and organisation, which, in addition to the functions implied by its designation, controls the signalling branch. ‘This branch deals with questions of wireless communication for both the Royal Air Force and civil aviation. The directorate of works and buildings is also under the chief of the air staff. The department of the air member for personnel deals with the recruitment,

discipline, general welfare and training of officers and other ranks of the Royal Air Force. The directorate of medical services forms part of this department. The department of the air member for supply and research includes the following directorates: (1) the directorate of scicntific research and technical development, divided into branches which deal respectively with design, armament, instruments and scientific research; (2) the directorate of airship development; (3) the directorate of aeronautical inspection, which is responsible for the inspection of all materials used in the construction of

POWER

TuE

UNITED

STATES

In the United States there is no department of the Government corresponding to an Air Ministry as it exists in Great Britain. Instead of endeavouring to administer all aeronautic activities through one central organisation, the Government has divided the administration into three main departments. Miltary aviation is handled by the War Department through the United States Army Air Service. Naval aviation is administered by the Navy Department through the Bureau of Aeronautics. The only extensive commercial aviation activity is the United States Air Mail, administered by the Post Office Department. This department announced a policy of transferring the operation of some of the air mail lines to private contract. Proposed legislation in Congress in 1926 contemplated the establishment within the Department of Commerce, of a bureau whose purpose it would be to foster commercial aviation. The geographic position of the United States largely dictated this general policy. As the country is not within close striking distance by air of any major overseas force, it has been the policy to develop air service and air force within the army and the navy rather than a separate air force with subsidiary branches in the army and the navy. Since the types of aircraft required by the army and the navy must be specially designed to meet the requirements of each of these services, and since commercial aircraft have entirely different characteristics, this policy would appear sound, The aeronautic activities of the different departments have been co-ordinated through joint boards and through the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. There are, then, two policies in the matter of administering aeronautics: the one, the British in which military, naval and commercial aeronautics and the separate air force are all controlled by an Air Ministry; the other, the American, in which military, naval and commercial activities have the initiative in development, each along its own special line, co-ordinating their efforts through co-operation, rather than as dictated by a single organisation. These two different policies are in accord with the methods of government of the two countries and are largely dictated by geography and by policy. (W.A. M.) AIR POWER.—The uses to which ability to fly have been put are threefold: tactical military employment, strategical military employment and social use. All of these may be expected to increase. Prior to the World War, flying was almost entirely selfeducational; its military uses were largely experimental and its commercial value non-existent. Nevertheless, the reconnaissance work carried out by the Royal Flying Corps of Great Britain in 19t4 enabled Sir John French, in his own words, ‘‘ to make speedy dispositions to avert danger and disaster.” But visual reconnaissance was only the first of the new tactical utilities; subsequent developments included aerial photography, artillery observation assisted by wireless telegraphy, attack on ground targets by bomb and, later, by machine-gun from low-flying armoured machines. Air attack upon and protection of these services brought about air battles involving up to roo specialised craft. Special British night-flying fighting squadrons were organised, which, controlling from the air a conjunctive force of

guns and searchlights, sustained an enemy bombing formations. In the plane and airship were successfully spotting and destruction and in the

effective defence against naval sphere both aeroemployed in submarine convoying of mercantile

surface vessels. Torpedo attack on ships was developed; and reconnaissance for the contesting fleets had a marked

influence in the conduct of the naval campaign in European waters.

Yet the million hours flying on the Western Front did not give the fullest opportunity for tactical air employment. This is exemplified by the operations in Palestine in 1918 when air superiority protected and concealed a British independent cavalry

70

AIR RAIDS

strict regularity of service, an essential in successful transport turning movement, and an air attack on retreating columns endeavour, was absent. Conditions of bad visibility still discaused the abandonment of all enemy transport and a complete located air services. Allied to this defect was the inability to dislocation of the Turkish plans of retirement. In short, tactical fly by night, with a consequent loss over long distances of a large air units developed from an assistance to a vital adjunct to land proportion of the time saved by travel by day. These limitations and sea forces. Even so their possibilities are only partially exare not applicable where fog is of rare occurrence, or where the plored and will undoubtedly increase in the future, prominent competition of a highly developed ground transport does not amongst the inevitable extensions being the use of troop-carrying operate. But, with few exceptions, such areas offer no traffic for aircraft to increase the mobility of armies. which speed is essential and its cost economic. The remedy for Air Strategy.—In strategy, however, the air war demonstrated these disabilities is again technical development which will allow in greatest degree the possibility of revolution in military science. Long-range bombing attacks on the industrial centres aimed at for safe flight in conditions of bad visibility. The final limitation is economic. The cost of air transport in the morale of the enemy were first carried out by the Germans; 1925 may be taken as some 5s. per ton mile and 5d. a passenger and, though counter-measures put a stop to these raids, their mile. On very few routes is there a regular commercial trafiic possibility necessitated the retention of considerable defensive forces in Great Britain until a late period of the War. And the for which such a rate is economic. The remedy is to attract effects of subsequent British strategic air power, though it was ‘increased traflic by a more efficient service and to reduce costs of operation. Technical progress is the source of both. not systematically organised until the last year of the War, and Of transport by airship nothing could be said with certainty though the Armistice put a stop to its development, showed both military and political authorities alike that direct attack on the at the close of 1925. For uninterrupted flights of 2,000 m. or more the airship suggests a means of high-speed economic operamorale of enemy civilian population must be an inevitable tion. Such experience as exists shows a series of mishaps, in accompaniment of any future war and that nations must preeach of which an attributable and avoidable cause was present; pare accordingly for this eventuality. Air strength can be easily, cheaply and secretly prepared; its and an unremitting caution in every detail of experimental operation is essential to progress. The military values of air radius of action at the close of 1925 was approaching 1,000 m. at r50 m. per hour, and these figures will increase. It opens a power are demonstrated, but not yet fully developed. Its social value has vet to be proved; but it must be remembered that new phase and sphere in warlike operations and entails a radical rearrangement of the fighting services and the alteration of the civilisation has been spread by the extension and development of means of communication, and there is no authentic record of imcomposition of armies by forcing them to take mechanical forms. In addition to being a vital adjunct to the senior arms it is likely provement in speed of communication being found and abanto play an increasingly important strategic rôle. An air offensive doned. (F. H. S.) Sce W. Mitchell, Hinged Defence. 1926. which is encountered in the air will compel the removal of seats AIR RAIDS.— Directly Great Britain came into the World of government and of defence bases beyond its radius of action. With an increased range of aircraft this zone of ineffectivity will War, the German High Command began to encourage their public with prophecies of the havoc the Zeppelins were about to extend. Power in the air will dislocate all forms of communicawork in England, but it soon became evident that for airships to tion and, if it does not actually cut off the supply of food and raw fly in daylight over enemy territory was to invite disaster. Hence, material, it will render their transit precarious. although reconnaissances over the North Sea towards England Air navigation may go far to assist the avoidance ot conflicts, were begun by airships, the first actual attacks were made by but in time of war, in combination with chemistry, its posaeroplanes. sibilities will only be countered by superiority in the air. The Raids in 1914-5.—In Dec. 1914 a couple of bombs were defence of the British Empire in particular is growing more dropped in the sea off Dover, and three days later, on Dec. 24, complicated. Great Britain no longer depends for its security on the first German projectile hit English soil. A few half-hearted the sea. On the contrary, its geographical position and extent attacks by aeroplanes and seaplanes, made during 1015, were open it to military attack, and air power is essential to its secuineffective, and it was left to the ighter-than-air machines to rity (see BRITISH EMPIRE: DEFENCE). cause the first serious damage. In the evening of Jan. 19 1915 Two Principles —For the full future development of military two naval airships approached the coast between Yarmouth and air power two principles assert themselves; the radical revolution it occasions in the training for and practice of war and the Cromer. ‘They separated and dropped bombs on both towns. | necessity of advancing air power by forwarding the power of Four people were killed. On April 14, Mathy, boldest of all German air commanders, flight. Success in military air forces does not depend on numerical commanding Lo, made a considerable tour over the northern superiority alone. Air efficiency, like naval efficiency, depends on the national aptitude and ordinary use in peace. The best counties. On this occasion he was not particularly successful, most of the bombs falling harmlessly in open country, but the airmen are those who are accustomed as a normal routine following night Lo caused some damage in Suffolk. The next to flying in all weathers, and decisive success in air battles four raids were similar. Capt. Linnarz, very active about this can only come from long training in the air. Air-going services, time in command of one of the military airships, succeeded in both military and mercantile, are the source of air strength, and power of expansion must rest on a widespread civil aerial bringing his ship over the metropolis on the night of May 31 191s. There was on this night only one raider, armed with an activity. Progress and Limitations. —A constantly increasing number of inefficient type of bomb, but there were 41 fires while five people l long-distance demonstration flights since rọ18, including a were killed and 14 injured. Further raids in Yorkshire and Kent on June 4 had little flight round the world in 1924, have shown the technical posresult, but two nights later Mathy again attacked the north. sibilities of aircraft as a means of commercial communication. More practical demonstration is provided by the 30,000 m. of He found Hull, and killed 24 people, besides wrecking some 40 houses. Another airship, LZ37, that attempted to raid on the air routes in regular operation in Europe in 1925, extending from same night, was destroyed by Lt. R. A. J. Warneford, R.N., London to Nijni Novgorod and from Helsingfors to Malaga, and while returning home near Ghent. The first serious military thence to Dakar, and by the 1,000,000 m. flown by British comdamage in England was done by a single ship that raided the mercial air services for every fatal accident. The limitations to the use of this social power at the end of north on June 15. A series of nine raids took place in the latter part of r915. It 1925 appeared to be three in number. First, though the risk of opened inauspiciously for the Germans, a Zeppelin engaged in accident was small, safety comparable with that of other means bombing Dover being hit by a 3-in. gun that had just been of transport had not been obtained. The remedy is further mounted there. She struggled across the Channel, and was technical progress, particularly in securing by mechanical means finished off by bombing aeroplanes. much for which the human factor is still responsible. Second,

AIR RAIDS London was reached on four nights during this period. On Sept. 8 Mathy bombed the city deliberately; the damage done amounted to more than £500,000. Mathy also took part in the raid of Oct. 13, when his ship hombed Woolwich. On this occasion the casualties were 33 killed and 77 wounded. Two buildings were destroyed, 20 seriously damaged, and there were 13 fires, the total damage being estimated at £50,250.

Raids of 1916.—The defences could do no better in the early raids of 1916. Nine Zeppelins manoeuvred over the midland counties on the last night of Jan., one getting nearly to Shrewsbury, and sg people were killed. Out of 16 British aeroplanes that went up in pursuit, 8 crashed on landing. A month later two airships were able to sit over Hull and bomb it from a low height, without any interference from the defence. From this time, however, the defences improved. L15, one of the five ships that attacked on March 31 1916, was hit by the gun at Purfleet; it was then attacked in the air by Lt. A. de B. Brandon, of the Royal Flying Corps, eventually falling into the sea off the coast of Essex. Fifteen airship flights were made over England and Scotland during this April. The British losses were 84 killed during the series. . Further raids at the end of April were organised in conjunction with the naval bombardment of Lowestoft and Yarmouth. A large number of airships took part, but the result was small. London was saved from bombing by its defences on April 25. One Zeppelin was eventually destroyed on the coast of Norway. An abortive raid on Harwich was followed on Aug. 24 by an attack on London by Mathy. A determined attempt on London was carried out by 14 ships on Sept. 2. The metropolis was undoubtedly saved by Lt. W. L. Robinson of the R.F.C., who attacked the military airship SLrr. She fell, a burning mass, near Cuflley, Middlesex. On Sept. 23 1916 rı airships left Germany and the main attack was directed on London by three of the newest super-Zeppclins. Having crossed the Essex coast shortly before rr P.M., L33 was over east London ten minutes after midnight. Were she dropped 20 bombs. London, however, was no longer the helpless mass of former days. The searchlights continually lit up the hull of the airship; she was badly holed by the guns, one of her engines was damaged and she began to lose gas and fly clumsily.

To add to her miseries, Brandon now brought his machine close up to her. For 20 minutes he stuck to her, pumping bullets into the fabric. As she laboured back towards the North Sea, the crew threw out everything on which they could lay their hands. Her commander

crossed the coast at Mersea I., going out due

east. But the certainty that his ship would fall into the sea was too much for him; he turned her about and came to earth three

miles inland near Colchester. Mathy meanwhile brought his ship L31, in company with L32, up the English Channel and, turning in over the Kent coast, passed straight over the centre of London. South London and the extreme north of the metropolis suffered severely; but, for some reason, Mathy threw no bombs in the central districts. The handling of the companion ship, L32, was not of nearly so bold a character. Her commander spent an hour circling about Romney Marshes. As he crossed the Thames near Dartford he was picked up by lights and attacked by guns. Lt. Frederick Sowrey succeeded in setting the ship on fire in several places; she fell at Billericay. The British casualties on this night were 40 killed. On the night of Sept. 25, seven ships raided the north. Mathy, on this occasion, took his ship on an entirely new line; he flew up the Channel as far as the Isle of Wight, where he turned north and went over Portsmouth. He dropped no bombs on the fortress or dockyard. Yet another serious attempt to bomb London was made on the night of Oct. r. Eleven ships started from Germany. Mathy, in L3r, came in over Lowestoft about 8 p.M. and as usual steered an excellent course on London. Soon after-passing Chelmsford, however, he found that the outer defences on that side of the capital were ready for him. He therefore turned and stcered northeast. Turning again he flew southwest, in order to get into

7I

position for his favourite dash down wind over the city. After drifting a few moments towards Ware, he set his engines going and started for north London at full speed. Suddenly a heavy gunfire was opened on him and he decided to abandon his attempt. Sec.-Lt. W. J. Tempest came up to the ship at 12,700 ft. and brought her down in flames at Potters Bar. During the whole of this great raid the only British loss was one man killed. The defence of London had now definitely got the better of the lighter-than-air attack; after this period no German airship ever flew intentionally over the metropolis. Deterred by the victory of the London defences, the Germans turned their attention to the north for the final effort of 1916. They met with no better success. Of the ro ships that left Germany in the course of Nov. 27, 8 came over land. One was destroyed on the coast near Hartlepool before midnight by Capt. J. V. Pyott of the R.F.C. Another raider, L21, after a remarkable journey right across England to Cheshire, was caught in the early morning, when she was leaving the coast at Yarmouth. She fell into the sea from 8,000 ft. and sank at once. During 1916, 18 raids were made on England by aeroplanes and seaplanes. The first aeroplane attack on London itself was made on Nov. 28 1916 by a single machine; the only intimation was the fall of six small bombs between Brompton Road and Victoria station.

Raids of 1917.—Belore the end of 1916 it had become evident to the German command that, if effective bombing was to be kept up on targets that were worth attacking, it would be necessary to try new methods. Early in 1917, therefore, they began equipping a squadron with special machines suitable for bombing England systematically. The first attempt came on May 25 1917. The 3rd Bombing Squadron, 16 machines strong, left Belgium early in the afternoon and made the coast about 5 p.m. There were thick banks of cloud over Essex. The task of navigating to London was found too difficult and the leader had to give up the attempt. He therefore turned south. Bombs were dropped on the Canadian camp at Sherncliffe, where there were too casualties. The worst effect was produced in Folkestone itself. One bomb fell in a crowded street and killed 33 people, mostly women. The second unsuccessful attempt was made on June 5; 18 machines bombed Sheerness with some effect. The guns at Sheerness succeeded in hitting one of the raiders, which fell into the river off Barton’s Point. London Seriously Damaged.—The third attempt on London was more successful. The whole of the 3rd Squadron started in the morning of June 13; London was reached a little before noon. A few bombs were dropped in the East End and near the Royal Albert Docks; then, at a signal from the leader, the formation loosed 72 bombs over a small area having Liverpool Street station as its centre. The station itself was hit by three bombs. The casualties were severe, 104 killed and 423 injured. The next raid on London on July 7 was also successful. Twentyfour machines started. The main body of 22 machines came to London. The city received 76 bombs, one of them starting a fire in the General Post Office; 46 persons were killed and 123 injured, 22 buildings were destroyed, and 87 seriously damaged, the total damage being estimated at over £200,000. The anti-aircraft guns fired a large number of rounds, but produced no effect.

The failure of the defensive arrangements caused considerable agitation, and the British Govt. ordered a complete reorganisation. The London Air Defences were formed as a separate command to include all the means of defence, both from the ground and in the air. Gen. E. B. Ashmore was brought from France to take charge of the new arrangements. The new arrangements were soon tested; on Aug. 12 a party of nine Gothas made the land near Harwich. After following the coast to the Blackwater, they turned inland for London. The communication system of the defence control worked well, and the squadrons immediately defending London were at the required height in time to meet the enemy formation. The German commander turned his formation about before reaching the outer line of guns. A number of bombs were unloaded on

T=

AIR RAIDS

Southend as the enemy made off, and 32 people were killed. An attempt on Aug. 18 was frustrated by bad weather. An abortive attack on the Midlands by 8 airships on the night of Aug. 21 was followed by the last day attack on England on Aug. 22, when Capt. Kleine, commander of the 3rd Squadron, started out with 13 Gothas to bomb Sheerness and Dover. A number of naval machines turned the Sheerness bombers from their objective, and the German formation, harassed by the British pilots, wheeled south by Ramsgate. Here the antiaircraft guns, working with great accuracy, shot down two of the raiders. A third was shot down off Dover. Night Attacks Begin.—The first group of night attacks came in the beginning of Sept. 1917 and one of these reached London itself. On the night Sept. 3-4, about 10:30, hostile acroplanes were reported near the North Foreland, and warnings were sent out by the central control a few minutes later when it was clear that they were coming up the Thames. Unfortunately there was serious telephone delay in getting the warning out at Chatham, and before cover could be taken a bomb had fallen on

a drill hall in which a large number of naval ratings were asleep. No fewer than 107 were killed and 86 wounded. Although on this night the defence was ineffective, certain points gave hope for the future. Three pilots went up in fast scout machines, and found that it was by no means impossible to handle them at night. The idea also was evolved of barrage fire, a curtain of bursting shell put up in the path of the raiders. The last raid of this moon period, on Sept. 4, reached London. The barrage fire, organised since the previous night, turned back some of the pilots, but to raiders reached the metropolitan area. Considering the magnitude of the raid, the damage caused was small, and the total casualties for the night included only 14 killed and 48 injured. Favourable weather produced a sustained series of raids, opening on the night of Sept. 24 with an attack on London by aeroplanes, in conjunction with an airship raid on Hull and the north. Nine at least of the pilots attempted to attack London itself, but considerable improvement had by this time been effected in putting up barrage fire, which was successful in turning back all but three of the attackers. Although 27 English machines went up they failed to find any of the enemy; the gunfire brought down one of the Gothas, which fell in the river near Sheerness. The attack on the north was carried out by ro airships under Capt. Peter Strasser. Although Ifull was found, the raid had very little success. On the following night, Sept. 25, ro aeroplanes attacked, and o people were killed. The attacks were continued on the 28th, when some 20 machines came over; the night was cloudy and a few only approached London; they were all kept off by the barrage fire. The barrage was again effective on the following night, Sept. 209. Out of the 18 or 19 machines that came over only 4 penetrated far enough to bomb London. The Dover guns did well, bringing one of the enemy down in flames. On the next night, Sept. 30, five German pilots got over London and bombed places as far apart as Highgate, Edmonton and Woolwich: 14 people were injured and two killed. The last raid of the series, on Oct. 1, was made by about 18 machines. During these raids a large proportion of the attackers had been turned before reaching their target, but the defences were still far from complete. The barrage fire was expensive in ammunition and there was a doubt if the supply could be kept up. The defending squadrons had not reached the necessary efhciency in machines or pilots. The “ Aprons,” a new defence dev ised after the raid of Sept. 5, were only beginning to be installed. The central control as organised in Sept. 1917 could give no information to pilots when = once they had been sent on their patrols, but schemes to rectify this had already been initiated. The airship raid of the night Oct. rọ—-20 1917, which became known in London as the “silent raid,’ has points of special interest. Eleven airships met on the evening of the roth off the Yorkshire coast for an attack on the industrial centres of the

Midlands. While over England, the ships flew well over 16,000 fect. At this altitude the efliciency of the crews was much impaired by height sickness and the intense cold. Another and fatal condition was produced by the weather. Near the ground the air was misty and there was very little wind, but at the height of the airships a strong gale was blowing from the north, and in this the Zeppelins drifted blindly south. One airship passed over London without recognising it and dropped a few explosive bombs; one of so kgm. fell in Piccadilly near the Circus and caused some casualties. Realising that, on account of the ground mists, searchlights would have no chance of lighting up a high Zeppelin, the defence ordered them to remain covered unless an airship could be heard. London was saved from a combined attack and the raid ended in disaster to the attackers. One airship only returned to Germany in the usual way; six got back after flying over Holland or across the Allicd lines. The remaining four were destroyed during the following day on French territory. Aeroplane raiding was resumed during the moon period at the end of October. An attempt on the 31st was carried out by 24 machines. Considering that a good many of them got over London, the effect of the bombs was small, 8 persons being killed and 21 injured, The weather in Dec. 1917 was E and only three attempts were made on London. The defences showed steady improvement. Two Gothas were brought down by antiaircraft gunfire during a raid in the early morning of Dec. 6. On the night of the 18th one Gotha was so damaged that it fell into the sea off Folkestone and was destroyed. On this night the new Giant aeroplane dropped one 300-kgm. bomb near Eaton Square, making a large crater but doing little serious damage. The whole raid, however, cost London more than £225,000, 42 buildings being seriously damaged and 9 destroyed, while there were 13 fires. On Dec. 22 the last raid of the year was frustrated by unfavourable weather; one Gotha was forced by engine trouble to descend near Margate, where it was destroyed by the crew.

Raids of 1918.—\n the five aeroplane raids of the first quarter of 1918 there was a tendency to replace the smaller Gotha machines by the new Giants. A Gotha was destroved by a defending aeroplane on Jan. 28. During this raid a bomb dropped by a Giant fell on a building in Long Acre that was being used as an air-raid shelter, and 41 people were killed. ‘Three siants attacked on Feb. 16; the only one that penetrated to London demolished a house in Chelsea Hospital with a 300-kem. bomb. The raid of March 7 1918 was remarkable as being the only occasion on which aeroplanes attacked London in the absence of any moonlight. Warrington Crescent was terribly wrecked. To turn to the airships, raiding was not resumed until the nights of March t2 and 13 1918. Both these raids were made at an immense height, and the damage did not amount to much. Five airships of the newest and largest type attacked the Midlands on the night of April 12. The end of the airship raiding came on Aug. 5-6 1918. Five ships came up to the coast of Norfolk, no bombs were dropped on land, but Lyo, the latest word in airship construction, was destroyed. In the great aeroplane raid of May rọ rọr8, the Germans made their maximum effort in this form of attack; between 30 and 40 Gothas of the 3rd Bombing Squadron took part, with at least two Giant machines. Thirteen of the raiders managed to get over London. The casualties included 34 killed and 98 injured, and {130,000 worth of damage was done in the London area alone. But the defence had by now made very real progress. The Germans lost 7 machines, 3 shot down in air combat, 3 destroyed by gunfire, and one from engine failure. This success of the defence was final, and the London area was saved from further bombing. In addition to casualties (1,413 killed, 3,407 injured) and damage, the German raids on England produced actual results by no means negligible. A night raid stopped munition work over a large area. In order to establish a defence, men and material were kept back from France: Two hundred aeroplanes of the

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RAID DEFENCE in 1917-18. The effect of these Aprons was to limit the German London One of the Balloon Aprons covering the approaches to bombers to certain heights, and to make it easier for the defending patrols to obtain contact.

AIRSCREW best performance and 200 highly trained pilots were available about London at a time when they would have been of the utmost value on the Western Front.

(E. B. A.)

European Air Raids—Apart from raids that formed part of the ordinary operations on the various battle fronts, there were raids on towns of France, Germany and elsewhere, similar in intention to those on Great Britain. On Sept. 27 1914 the first bombs were dropped on Paris by a German aeroplane. On March 18 1915 bombs were dropped on Calais, killing 7 French refugees and injuring twelve. On Sept. 22 1915 French acroplanes dropped bombs on Stuttgart as a reprisal for the bombardment

of open towns by the Germans.

In Dec. there were air raids

on Calais, and Salonika was bombed by the Germans. In r916 on Jan. 29 a Zeppelin flew over Paris, dropping bombs which killed and wounded over so persons. In Feb. and March 1917 the Germans raided Salonika, and in April 1917 a large squadron of British and French aeroplanes bombarded Freiburg as a reprisal for attacks on British hospital ships. During the autumn of rory the British and French repeatedly carried out raids on the towns of western Germany, and in particular on Saarbrücken and Kaiserslautern. On Dec. 24 1917 a British squadron dropped a ton of bombs on Mannheim-onthe-Rhine. Early in 1918 the British and French Flying Corps carried out raids against the towns of western Germany. One of the most successiul of these was on Jan. 14 by the British upon Karlsruhe, when the main railway station was heavily bombarded and many buildings set on fire. On March 11 1918 hostile aeroplanes raided Paris. On March 29 1918 Good Friday, a shell from “ Big Bertha ” hit the church of St. Gervais, killing and injuring many of the worshippers. In May of the same year British airmen ‘dropped 33 bombs on Cologne in daylight and also bombed the port of Durazzo in Albania and sank an Austrian torpedo boat. On July 19 r9r8 British seaplanes bombed the Zeppelin sheds at Tondern (Schleswig) and did much damage. BiInLtoGRAPHY.—N. Pemberton-Billing, Azy War (1916); J. Ellacott, Bombing Squadrons: from the Air (1919); Air Ministry, Synopsis of British Air Effort during the War (1919); E. C. Middleton, The

Great War in the Air (1920); The Council and the War County Council, 1920).

(London

AIRSCREW.—The purpose of the airscrew (popularly known as the propeller) in an aeroplane is to transform the power of the engine into a thrust giving a velocity to the aircraft. It consists, usually of two, but sometimes of three or four, blades which have a length about five or six times their width and cross sections of aerofoi] shape. One end of each blade is fitted to, or is integral with, a central boss, which fits on and revolves with a shaft of the engine. The blades are equally spaced round the boss. The motion of any point in the blade is made up of two motions, the first (represented by a b, fig. 1) in a circle around the

73

a maximum at the tip of the blade, this angle varies with the radius.

Each portion of the blade is set at a small angle to its resultant direction of motion. Hence the blade is a portion of an approximately helical surface, the pitch of which is known as the geometrical pitch of the screw. Each portion of the blade is exactly similar to a portion of an aeroplane wing. Like the latter it experiences a “ lift” tending to push the blade at right angles to the resultant direction of motion and a “drag” against that direction. The difference between the components of these forces in the direction of travel of the aircraft is the thrust, and the sum of the components in the plane of rotation of the screw is the torque against which the engine drives. In general the thrust is greatest when there is no forward motion of the aircraft. As the speed of the aircraft increases, the thrust falls until at a certain speed it becomes zero. Further increase of speed would result in a resistance instead of a thrust. The distance travelled forward during one complete revolution of the screw when the thrust is zero is known as the experimental mean pitch.

If T is the thrust, Q the torque, n the rate of rotation in revolutions per unit time, D the diameter, p the density of the air in units of mass, then it can be shown that for geometrically similar airscrews T=p ky Din? Q=p kg D'n? k; and ką are numerical coeficients whose values depend on the

ratio of the speed of translation and the peripheral speed of the tips of the airscrew. These coeficients can be experimentally determined on models of airscrews running in wind tunnels or they may be estimated. The methods by which such estimates are made and the theories on which they are based form the subject matter of much mathematical and experimental research, of which the following is necessarily a very brief outline. The bibliographical addenda gives references to the more important contributions. The Momentum =—Airscrew theory has developed along two independent lines. The first is the momentum theory and is associated with the names of Froude and Rankine. According to this theory the airscrew is assumed to be a disc moving at velocity V and imparting a steady change of pressure to the column of air through which it moves. The thrust or change of pressure is necessarily associated with a backward velocity of the column of air which at some distance behind the disc will have acquired a velocity v which velocity is termed the “ outflow.” A part of this velocity à v is acquired in front of the disc and this part is termed the “ inflow ” and the factor A is called the inflow factor. The velocity of air passing through the disc is thus V+Av and the mass of air is Ap (V+Av) where A is the arca of the disc and p the

density of the air in mass units. Fhe thrust is estimated from the rate of change of momentum thus generated and is equal, therefore, to A p v (V +v).

In the further development of the theory it is shown that the

inflow is one-half the outflow velocity, t.e., A=0-5, and thus T= Apv (V+4v), and also that the efficiency is V/(V+v/2). The velocity v is assumed as a purely axial outflow. In the actual airscrew the creation of a thrust is accomplished by the blade exerting a torque, which sets up a rotation in the outflow, and in a complete solution it is therefore necessary to consider a rotational inflow and outflow.

Thrust

Lift

Blade Element Theory.—The second line of development was pro-

Relative Wind

Velocity

b Fic. 1.—Blade of an Airscrew (see Text).

axis of the engine shaft, and the second the forward speed (b c) of the aircraft which the screw is propelling. This second motion is at right angles to the first. The resultant direction of motion

is thus a c at an angle to the plane in which the screw rotates. Since the forward motion b c is the same for all points in the blade whilst the circular motion varies from zero at the centre to

posed by Froude and developed by Drzewiecki and Lanchester. In this—the Blade Element Vheory—the blade elements are re-

garded as aerofoils. The velocity of the air relative to the blade element is determined. From this the angle of incidence and the lift and drag forces follow. From these the thrust and torque of the elements are deduced and integration over the length of the blade gives the total thrust and torque. In the simple theory as developed by Drzewiecki no account was taken of the inflow and in its application by designers the lift and drag forces of the elementary acrofoils were taken from wind tunnel tests of rectangular aerofoils having a ratio of length to width of about 6. It was further assumed that the clementary lengths behaved as if independent of neighbouring acrofoils, an assumption shown by recent work to correspond closely with fact. Both these two theories are incomplete. The momentum theory takes no account of the turbulent and rotational effects implicit in the blade element theory, which in most airscrews account for a very large proportion of the wasted energy.

The second takes no account

of the inflow shown by the momentum theory.

74

AIRSCREW

Modified Theories.—Efforts are therefore made, notably by Fage, Bothezat, Riach and Bairstow, to combine the two theories. Bothezat and Riach develop closely similar lines of argument. Both take account of axial and rotational inflow and show theoretically that

both are one-half of the additional velocity in the ultimate slip-

stream. It is not clear what aerofoil characteristics are to be used. If characteristics taken from wind tunnel experiments are used, the theories appear inapplicable for practical design, since the angles of

incidence quoted in such experiments are not the angles to the relative air at the acrofoil but to the air unaffected by its action, Fage avoids this ambiguity by using an inflow factor which is frankly empirical and is chosen to obtain agreement between the observed and calculated characteristics of the airscrew. A good exposition of the application of the inflow and blade clement theories to design is given by Bairstow who uses an inflow factor of 0:35.

Glauer?’s Theory— Probably the most complete and successful airscrew theory has recently been proposed by H. Glauert in An Aerodynamic Theory of ihe Airscrew. Glauert has reviewed the whole basis of airscrew theory in the light of the circulation and vortex theory of aerofoils developed by Prandt] and other writers. The theory is based in part on the conception of the slipstream as a cylinder of vorticity, and the relationship between the interference flow at the airscrew and the slipstream velocity is established in a manner more rigorous than that used by other authors. It is shown that it is not strictly correct to equate the thrust to the rate of change of momentum but that the difference is of no practical importance. When this point is neglected the solution given is identical in form with that given by Bairstow and in current use by designers. The essential feature of this theory in which it differs from or amplifies carlicr theories is that the aerofoil characteristics used should be those of an aerofoil having infinite length compared with its width. These characteristics can be deduced from those measured on aerofoils having a finite length to width ratio. The form of the correction follows from Prandtl’s work and is given in a simple and suitable form by Glauert. With such aerofoil characteristics the theoretical inflow factor of one half is used. This relatively new point of view avoids the empiricism of Fage and Bairstow and the uncertainties expressed as regards Bothezat and Riach and brings theory and experiment into close agreement. The theory does not attempt to take into account the effect of the pertodicity of flow inherent in an airscrew which usually has two, and rarely more than four, blades. The author justifies his omission on the grounds of the good agreement shown between observed results and those calculated from his theory but it is this omission which leaves his solution still incomplete and which may therefore give rise to further

developments. Atrscrew Windmtils.—The term airscrew has so far been used as applying to the only type of propeller used on aircraft. The term applies also to what is popularly known asa windmill. The function and working conditions of the airscrew windmill are in general the reverse of those of the airscrew propeller. The latter receives its power as a rotating torque and transforms it into a moving thrust. The former receives power by means of a thrust due to a forced translational velocity through the air and transforms it into a rolating torque. The propeller accelerates and the windmill retards the air passing through the disc of rotation. The various airscrew theories are as valid for windmills as ror propellers, the windmill being regarded as an airscrew propeller with a negative velocity of advance. Between the two states, however, there is a range of working, including that referred to by Bothezat as the vortex ring state, for which the usual equations are inapplicable. There is room, therefore, for development in airscrew theory to cover this gap and to give a complete solution for the thrust and torque of an airscrew under all possible conditions. Work in this direction is proceeding in Great Britain.

Variable Piich Airscrews—When the normal aircraft engine is fitted with an airscrew of fixed pitch designed to allow it to run at normal rate of rotation at maximum flying speed, then at any less speed, the rate of rotation will fall until when stationary on

the ground the rate of rotation is, according to circumstances, from 80-90% of the normal. Thus it is not possible when taking off or climbing to utilise the full power of the engine. The speed of the engine also falls with increasing altitude, but only due to the decreasing speed of the aircraft, carburation, and

frictional losses In the engine.

Apart from the effect of the last

two points, it is correct to say that at any given aircraft speed the rate of rotation is independent of the altitude of Night, since beth the resistance of the airscrew to rotation and the power available to rotate it vary with the density of the air. If the engine is supercharged partially or fully to maintain its power independent of altitude, then this balance is destroyed and such an engine fitted with an airscrew of fixed pitch designed, say, to run at normal rate of rotation at a high altitude, would run much slower at lower altitudes thus preventing the utilisation of the full power of the engine under all conditions. In order to control the rate of rotation under all conditions of speed and altitude and to utilise the maximum power in the most efficient manner, it would be necessary to vary both the pitch and the diameter of the airscrew. The design of such a screw presents almost insurmountable difficulties and has not been seriously considered, Although it does not give the most efficient screw for all conditions, an airscrew of which the pitch only can be varied is considered a practical compromise. Even this presents difliculties and at the time of writing a completely satisfactory solution of the problem has not appeared. In most countries promising designs are under experiment and the problem may be said to be well on its way te solution. A variable pitch propeller is essential to the full success of the supercharged engine, but its advantages for the ordinary engine are very limited. Lhe Ifclicopter —The helicopter is a particular use of an airscrew. It has frequently been proposed and many attempts have been made to build an aireraft in which the direct lift is supplied by the thrust of an airscrew mounted in a morc or less horizontal plane, this airscrew replacing the conventional wings and airscrew. The advantages claimed are a vertical ascent and descent. It is generally believed that the difficulties to be overcome are considerably greater than those presented in the conventional acroplane and that the resulting performance would be distinctly inferior. ‘The theoretical considerations have been dealt

with by Von Kármán and Riach. The Autogiro —Whilst a successful solution of the helicopter is still wanting, a tvpe of aeroplane bearing some resemblance to a helicopter has been developed in Spain by Señor Juan de la Cierva and deserves mention as being the first and only successful fundamental departure from the conventional type of aeroplane, and also as giving rise to new aspects of airscrew theory. This air-

craft to which has been given the name * Autogiro ” is an ordinary aeroplane with its wings replaced by four wings or blades rotating about a vertical shaft fixed at the centre of gravity of the machine. These four wings constitute in effect an airscrew of large diameter. Instead of this airscrew being driven by a power unit as in the helicopter, it is free to rotate and does so under the natural air reactions experienced by the blades when the airscrew moves through the air.

It isin fact a windmill

driven by a wind at small angles to the plane of rotation. The individual blades are hinged at their inner ends, so that they set themselves in a position in which the resultant of the lift and the centrifugal force passes through the axis of the hinge. The blades therefore rise and fall as they pass up wind and down wind respectively in one revolution. The efiective angle of incidence to the relative wind varies therefore throughout a revolution. The net result is that the lft is concentrated at the centre of gravity of the machine without causing the rolling movement involved

with a rigid airscrew. This particular and interesting application of the airscrew-windmill gives rise to new problems which are being closely investigated in Great Britain. BIBLIOGRAPIY.—W. Institute

of Naval

J. M. Rankine

Architects

(1865);

in the

Transactions of the

S. Drzewiecki,

Les

Comptes

Rendus de Académie des Sciences (1892 and 1909); Le Bulletin de l'Association Technique maritime (1892, 1900, 1901, 1910); Riabouschinsky, Bulletin du Laboratoire Aerodynamique de Koutchino (1909 and 1912); L. Prandtl, Handwörterbuch der Naturwissenschaften (1913); A. Betz, Zettschrifi für Flugtechnik und Motorluftschiffahri (1915, 1920, 1924); L. Prandtl, Nachrichten der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Naturwissenschaften zu Gottingen (1918-9); A. Betz, ibid., (1919); M. A. S. Riach, “ Helicopters,” Aircraft Engineering (1920); Th. v. Karman, “ Helicopters,” Zeitschrift fiir Flugtechnik

AIRSHIP und Motorlufischiffahrt (1921); Th. Bienen and Th. v. Karman, Zeitschrift des Wereines deutscher Ingenieure (Dec. 20 1924); G. cae Nouvelles gt).

Recherches

sur

la resistance

de lair

de l’aviation

ia the more important English work see Reports of the Aeronautical Research Committee, 1910-24. These reports include the works referred to H. Glauert and A. Fage. For the more important American work see Reports of the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics ee ee which include G. de Bothezat’s work in Report No. 97 {I92T}.

Ton Bibbs R. Soreau,'2’Helice Propulisive (1911); C. Dornier, Berechnung der Luftschrauben (1912); P. Bejeuhr, Luftschranuben (1912); S. Drzewiecki, Théorie Générale de PIHélice (1920); L. Bairstow, Apphed Aerodynamics (1920); A. Fage, Airscerews in Theory and oe (1920); H. C. Watts, Screw Propellers for Aircraft (1920). A bibliography of modern theory and research will be found at

the end of A. Fage’s text-book. Apart from the text-books which are included for convenience,

only authors and papers are mentioned which are considered 10 contain fundamentally new developments; papers of purely expository value are omitted. For detailed references see ‘‘ Propellers ’’ in the Smithsonian Bibliography of Aeronautics, vol. 1 (to 1908), vol. 2 (1909-16), vol. 3 (1917-9), vol. 4 (1920-1), vol. 5 (1922). (H. C. W.)

AIRSHIP (see 1.260)—Three generally accepted types of airship—non-rigid, semi-rigid and rigid—have been evolved. ach in its own particular way aims at providing a container or envelope which will mect all the conditions described below, and hitherto each type has had its structural limitation which has prevented the choice of an absolutely ideal shape. In the non-rigid and semi-rigid types, the variation of gas volume is

dealt with by providing internal ballonets which are inflated with air, from a blower or scoop or valve in the nose of the ship. They swell up or deflate within the gas space, thus maintaining in the main envelope which contains the gas a constant but verv small excess of pressure above that of the atmosphere. This small excess pressure with the aid of the tensile strength of the fabric serves to preserve the form of the flexible envelope against the distorting forces due to various conditions of static and dynamic loading. Non-Rigid Type—The non-rigid type has an envelope of rubber-proofed fabric from which one or more cars are slung by wire rigging while the stabilising and controlling planes are supported on skids directly attached to the envelope. The chief classes of non-rigid airships are:— (1) Those with a plain envelope of circular cross section, from which the cars, etc., are suspended from special patches on the envelope. This class is exemplified in the British S.S. and small American ships. , , , , (2) The German Parsival type, in which an envelope of circular cross section is reinforced against bending under the rigging tension by special trajectory bands disposed along lines of greatest tension in the surface of the envelope and terminating in a girdle to which

the car is rigged.

a

(3) The French Astra Torres type, trilobe in section, with riggings

Jed inside the envelope and divided into fans secured to points along the two top ridges. This type was developed in England during the War, and is represented in the N.S. class.

Yhe non-rigid type was developed most successfully in Germany and France before the War, in England during the War, and latterly in the United States. It has the merit of great simplicity, and has been most successful in small sizes, say from 1,000 to 10,000 cu. metres capacity, or from r to ro tons gross

lift. The application of these small airships is for such purposes as coastal patrol, where ability to tly for long periods at moderate speeds is required, or for patrol or inspection at low altitudes over tracts of country unsuitable for aeroplane landing grounds. They have been successfully operated from temporary bases constituted merely by a clearing in a wood with a narrow avenue leading to open ground, this shelter proving sufficient in winds of 60 m. per hour. Semt-Rigid Type——The semi-rigid type has been developed

chiefly in Italy. A fabric envelope divided into compartments is employed, stiffened longitudinally by a framework, usually of steel tubular construction, running along the bottom and rigidly connected to the stabilising fins at the after end. It is claimed that a given weight of metal can be more economically

disposed in the form of a frame of fewer members

75 carrying

greater loads than in the form of an exceedingly slender frame completely outlining the hull such as is involved in a small rigid | airship. On the other hand, particularly when mast mooring is contemplated, there is a tendency in the larger ships to extend the structure at nose and tail, and to widen the keel structure, so that the distinction between the types becomes less marked. The range of size for which the semi-rigid type is appropriate, and particularly its upper limit, can, as yet, only be a matter of personal opinion. A ship of about 50 tons gross lift is at present being built in Italy, and will be the largest vet built of the type.

The best existing semi-rigid airship is probably the Italian “ N1,” particulars of the performance of which are given in the table. In these two ships the arrangement of accommodation, power cars, fuel storage, etc., is similar to that of modern rigid airships. The “ Nr” and the Zeppelin rigid “ Bodensee ” are of similar size and similar in performance. These two ships are good representatives of their respective types for this particular size. Rigid Type.—It is, however, in the large, rigid type that the unique possibilities of the airship are fully realised. Development of the rigid airship is largely the outcome of persistent

effort, aided by the state, by the Zeppelin and Schütte-Lanz companies in Germany. Their results have been carefully studied by other nations, active interest being taken principally by Great Britain and the United States. Great Britain built one rigid airship in 1909, and in this and others built during the early part of the World War achieved a measure of success independent of Germany and with little knowledge of her methods. In the latter part of the War details of German design became available, and full advantage of this was taken in British ships built subsequently. There are two assets of the airship which distinguish it essentially from heavier-than-air craft, and may be expected to ensure its continued development. For the first, fundamental principles indicate that as size is progressively increased, range and/or speed will also steadily increase, while they do not indicate any

well-defined limit to such increase in size with known materials. Consequently, larger airships than have yet been built will undoubtedly give greater ranges and speeds than those hitherto realised, quite apart from improvement to be expected in design and metallurgical science. The second is the ability to remain aloft independent of motive power. Developmenis—Although the development of the airship commenced many years before that of the aeroplane, it has never been pursued with anything approaching the intensity applied to the latter. Consistent development over extended periods has taken place in only two countries, Germany and Italy. More recently Great Britain, and, to a smaller extent, the United States have contributed substantially to the sum total of progress. France took a leading part at first, but has done little in the last decade. The small share of aeronautical effort devoted to the airship as compared with the aeroplane, is no doubt largely attributable to the relative size of individual craft of the two classes, which greatly affects the relative cost of each step in development although having no direct bearing on the cost of operation of serviceable craft. The aeroplane, promising so much, has provided since its advent an almost sufficient scope for available talent. In consequence, the airship has not hitherto realised expectations based upon current engineering knowledge to the same degree as craft heavier than air. Lifting Power—An airship derives its static lifting power from the fact that its gross weight is less than the weight of the effective volume of air which it displaces. A large envelope or container, to have a gross weight less than that of this volume of air, must be filled with some very light gas, or its internal space must be vacuous. The latter alternative has not been found possible, since the weight of the walls of the container would have to be very heavy to resist the large difference of pressure which would exist between the outside and the inside. The only suitable gases which exist for the inflation of an airship, in order to give it a reasonable amount of lift, are hydrogen and helium.

76

AIRSHIP

The gross lifting force of an airship is equal to the product of the volume occupied by the gas, and the difference between the densities of the surrounding air and of the gas. The density of pure hydrogen is 7°% of that of air at the same temperature and pressure. Similarly the density of helium is 14% of that of air. Consequently, some 7°% of the gross lift obtainable with hydrogen is lost by exchanging hydrogen for helium. In recent airships filled with hydrogen, about 40% of the gross lift has been available for paving load and fuel together, and as the loss of lift on substituting helium must be borne by these two items, it

can be represented as a reduction of each by (==) °%, that is,

by 173 %.

Neither gas can be obtained or maintained quite free from air in practice, and there is a loss of available lift on this account. The large size and necessarily light weight of the structure not only put the idea of a vacuous container out of court, but actually require that the pressure of the contained gas shall be practically equal to that of the surrounding atmosphere at all times. The temperature of the gas may, however, differ appreciably from that of the surrounding air under conditions referred to below. Regulation of Volume.—Since the volume of a given mass of gas when the pressure and temperature vary is proportional to the ratio of its absolute temperature to its pressure, provision must be made for change in volume of the gas within the envelope when these factors vary, notably with change of altitude. The gas does not fill the whole volume within the envelope and the required adjustment is invariably effected by admitting air to occupy the varying difference between the volume required by the gas, and the total volume of the external envelope. Mixture of this air with the gas is prevented by flexible separating surfaces whose arrangement varies with individual design. A sufficient increase of altitude must clearly result in expansion of the gas bevond the bulk of the external envelope. Gas is then irrecoverably discharged through safety valves, leaving the envelope just full of gas when the ascent ceases. During any variations of height below this limit the mass of contained gas remains constant. Its pressure is always equal to that of the surrounding air, and its temperature approximately so. Consequently, under these conditions the mass of displaced air and the lifting force also remain approximately constant, the only variation being due to difference between the temperatures of the gas and surrounding atmosphere, and a small correction for humidity. The height at which the gas would just fill the envelope is known as the “ pressure height.” An airship may alter its altitude below this limit substantially without change of lift; but must lose gas, and consequently hfting force, if it exceeds that height, and in this event will have, of course, a new “ pressure height.” These considerations are essential for an appreciation of the conditions governing the flight of an airship, yet have been seriously misstated in more than one comparatively recent work, purporting to deal authoritatively with airships. Temperature Varialions.—A dilference in temperature between the gas and surrounding air often results from solar radiation, which heats up the gas just as the air in a greenhouse becomes heated. Such a difference is known as superheating. The same or the reverse effect may also be produced, at least temporarily, when flying through atmosphere of varying temperature. Again, when altitude is changed rapidly, so that the

preserve correct static equilibrium at every moment throughout Night, since a certain departure from static equilibrium is already countered aerodynamically, as explained below. The envelope will be subjected to the lifting forces due to the displacement of air by gas and the gravity forces due to the weight of structure, gas-bags, gondolas, machinery, fuel, etc. The aim in design is to balance these forces at every point along the ship, as nearly as possible. It will be obvious that this idea cannot be realised for every condition of loading, hence the envelope will be subjected to bending and shearing forces in a vertical plane due to what may be described as static causes. The Envclope-—The envelope must be provided with stabilising surfaces or fins which, in all modern airships, are attached to the stern. To these fins are attached hinged flaps. Those on the horizontal fins serve to incline the axis of the ship to the horizontal plane. When thus inclined the envelope acts somewhat in the same manner as the wing of an aeroplane, and in its passage through the air experiences an aerodynamic force urging it up or down, according to the direction of inclination. This is the normal method employed for alteration of altitude during flight. Moreover, if there is any lack of static balance which it may be undesirable to correct by discharge of gas or ballast, then the ship may be flown with its axis inclined, and kept ona horizontal path by means of the acrodynamic up-thrust, or down thrust. (This force may be quite large. In the case of R33, which has a gross lift of about 60 tons, the maximum possible dynamic lift is about 5 tons, 7.e.,8°6.) This inclination, of course, reduces the forward speed. When the nose of the ship is inclined upwards, the general character of the distribution of the acrodynamic up-thrust is that of an upward force on the nose and tail of the ship, and a lesser downward force near the centre. It thus subjects the envclope to additional shearing and bending forces in the vertical plane. In a similar manner the flaps or rudders attached to the vertical fins serve for steering the airship, 7.e., turning her in a horizontal plane. In such a manoeuvre, the centrifugal force on the airship, acting outwards from the centre of the turning circle is balanced by a large aerodynamic force acting inwards on the forward portion, a similar one acting inwards on the tail and fins, and a small one acting outwards about the centre. The envelope is thus subjected to bending and shearing forces in the horizontal plane also. The shape of the envelope should be such as to give the least possible resistance for its volume. The ideal appears to be a bluff nose with a curvature which decreases progressively toward the tail. The shape of the hull in early rigid airships was cylindrical, with more or less pointed ends and a ratio of length to diameter of 10 to 1, or even greater. Research on models in the wind tunnel has shown that a very much reduced resistance to motion for a given volume is offered by a fair shape conforming to certain general principles and from about four to six diameters inlength. ‘This has been borne out in practice. The cylindrical portion was progressively reduced and died hard on account of its cheaper construction, but it has disappeared

completely in recent designs.

The specific resistance does not

vary much over the range of “ fineness ratio’? mentioned, and choice may be determined by considerations other than those of head resistance. At a value of seven, however, the resistance may be expected to show an appreciable increase. Insufficient appreciation of the forces exerted by the air on the gas expands or contracts nearly adiabatically, its temperature hull during various manocuvres was reflected in the historic may vary more rapidly than the usual atmospheric temperature disaster to R38, a British-built airship which broke into two gradient. The maximum lift obtainable at ground level by fill- parts in the air in r921. This accident emphasized the need for ing the ship full of gas, thus rendering the “ pressure height ” more exact determination of the loads imposed on the structure zero, is governed by the density of the air at ground level, and under all conditions of flight, as also of the internal stresses therefore varies with barometric pressure and air temperature resulting from these loads, and led to the carrying out in England of research to fill the more important gaps in the fund of prevailing there. An airship commences a long flight full, or nearly full, of gas, data necessary for precise design. The present airship programme of the British Govt. includes thus realising its maximum lift. The pressure height is small in consequence. As the fight proceeds, fuel is consumed and the extensive research into the distribution of acrodynamic forces ship acquires excess buoyancy. To maintain static equilibrium and methods of determining internal stress distribution in strucgas is deliberately discharged. It is not, however, necessary to | tures such as that of rigid airship hulls.

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“cup-bearer” belonged)

yielded fragments of figures of the

same early style as the “‘ Ladies in Blue.” Many very important paintings were obtained in an area west of the palace, in a house

since named the House of the Frescoes. These pictures, which are not yct fully pieced together, are remarkable both for style and subject. They represent rich landscapes, with great variety of rocks, shrubs and flowers, done in the free naturalistic manner of L.M. 7.a. Among the plants are birds and animals, including a monkey that can be identified as a Sudanese species. One piece shows a jet of water rising from an artificial fountain. Another bears the figure of a Minoan officer accompanied by two negro soldiers (sce fig. 8). The intimate African relations which are illustrated by these paintings became increasingly apparent in Minoan remains. One of the late discoveries at Knossos may throw light upon the beginning of this influence. In the southwest part of the central court, where paving slabs had been removed, wall foundations were discovered, and were thoroughly investigated in 1923 and 1924. Two main strata could be distinguished, though both belonged to the concluding phase of the Upper Neolithic, and in these the ground-plans of two rectangular houses were made out. The accompanying pottery showed some anticipations of E.M.I. forms, such as stemmed goblets, which seem to have had metallic prototypes.

A find was a copper axe on a house floor in a pure neolithic context, probably imported, like the models for the vase-shapes, from protodynastic Egypt. In the same house was the base of a mottled limestone cylindrical pot of late predynastic type, and other fragments show that the local fabric of variegated stone vessels, which culminated in the magnificent specimens of Mokhlos, had already begun before the end of the Stone Age. The

ARCHAEOLOGY house-plans are an agglomeration of rooms like the later palace itself, but an entirely new and unexpected feature in them is the fixed hearth, of which two examples were discovered. These are the only instances in Crete before the latest Minoan period, when the fixed hearth reappears in conjunction with the Mycencan megaron as an importation from the Greek mainland. The fact that throughout the long interval of the Minoan age only portable tripod hearths and chafing-pans are found must be referred to an influence coming from the milder climate of North Africa. The fixed hearth must now be regarded as part of the original Anatolian inheritance of Crete, which persisted until the end of the Stone Age, and was then displaced by a new movement. The African influence, which had previously been noted in many physical and personal characteristics of the Minoan race, has had further confirmation on the sepulchral side. Between 1904 and 1917 a series of beehive tombs (tholoi) were located in the Mesara, and their contents proved to be objects of the same early class as the H. Onuphrios deposit, the Egyptian and possibly Libyan affinities of which were pointed out by Sir Arthur Evans in 1895. Two of the present series were found at H. Triada; most of the remainder were published by their excavator, the Cretan Ephor, S. Xanthoudides, in 1924. The vaults have megalithic doorways and in some cases rectangular antechambers. They were used for communal burial during the whole of the Early Minoan age, and some contained remains of several hundred interments. The associated material consisted mostly of pottery, notably of rare E.M. types, stone vessels, carved ivory seals, copper and silver weapons. One of the most significant foreign elements is a Babylonian cylinder of about 2000 B.C. (=M.M. IL.) The beehive vault and the square entrance enclosure occur, as Sir Arthur Evans has pointed out, in certain tombs of North Africa, where an origin for the form is indicated in the huts of Libyan nomads. On the other side these early Cretan tholot may supply the ancestry of the stately Mycenean tombs, which first appeared in mainland Greece after the Cretan occupation at the end of M.M. III. During the Middle Minoan age such vaults seem to have gone out of use for sepulchral purposes in Crete, but their design and method of building are exemplified in a circular well-house discovered by Evans at Arkhanes near Knossos in 1922, which is contemporary with the earliest mainland tombs. The strange variety in Minoan methods of burial has been

amply demonstrated by recent work. Besides the tholot, which may have been peculiar to Mesara with its close Libyan outlook, Early Minoan communal interments have been found in a cave at Pyrgos! and in rectangular enclosures or rock-shelters at Mokhlos. Cist graves of the same period have been found at Mokhlos, Pseira and Sphoungaras. This Cycladic mode of burial was practised also in the Middle Minoan age, but burial in jars then came into use beside it, and is represented on the same three sites and at Pakhyammos. Jar-burial was usual in L.M.I., when the great square chambcr tombs began (Isopata); the latter persisted with beehive tombs as the typical Late Minoan and Mycenean method. Shaft-graves and pit-caves were frequent in L.M. II. and after (Zapher Papoura), and in L.M. II. the custom arose of using clay chests and bathtubs for cofins, the unearthing of which in classical times doubtless gave rise to the stories that Minos and Agamemnon had been killed in their baths. Rich finds of coloured stone vases and unique gold jewels came from the E.M. tombs of Mokhlos. The same cemetery and those of Sphoungaras and Pakhyammos produced fine examples of painted burial jars, particularly of L.M. I. date. The Knossian chamber tombs opened in 1910 belong to a group situated on the

plateau of Isopata.? Their earliest elements go back to the end

of M.M. III. The Tomb of the Polychrome Vases (L.M. I.) contained two goblets brightly painted in unfixed colours which illustrate the survival of an obsolete technique for sepulchral use. The cult of the dead is more impressively displayed in the neighbouring Tomb of the Double-Axes (L.M. II.), the singular form 1 "Appx. Aedr. (1918). Tomb of the Double-Axes,” etc., Archaeologia 2 AT. Sue

(1914).

177

of which, with central buttress bearing a carved half-column, is a symbolical reproduction of a Minoan columnar sanctuary with its supporting pillar-crypt. There are benches along the walls as in a living-room, and a cist grave cut in a platform on the stone floor has the plan of a double-axe. The tomb, like most of its kind, had been rifled in antiquity, but among the few pieces of jewellery remaining were some amber beads and disks, and several fine specimens of Palace style vases were made up from fragments. Smaller vases were a bull’s-head “ filler ” and a jar of the same shape as the ritual polychrome vases, and there were two bronze double-axes. Similar cult objects were found in the large house west of the palace known as the Little Palace, which is connected by a paved way with the theatral area. In this building a room with sunken balustraded floor approached by steps (such as were once thought to be baths, and are now recognised as sacred chambers) was already known. Further exploration revealed other architectural features which seem universally to have been connected with the Minoan cult. These are basements with heavy square pillars supporting the roof at points where columns above carried the ceiling of an upper hall. Between the pillars in this instance were vats for receiving libations; in other Knossian houses cups have been found holding remains of offerings and the stepped socket of a double-axe.

Here, in the well of a staircase giving

access to one of thecolumnar upper rooms, were found a similar axe-socket, clay vases in the shape of a bull’s head, and other ritual forms, and a magnificent bull’s-head vase carved in black steatite, half natural size. Its nostrils were inlaid with white shell, its eyes painted behind crystal inlay, and the horns were gilt wood.? Very curious finds of cult objects were also made in a large house at Nirou Khani by Xanthoudides in 1919.4 In one room were four colossal double-axe blades of bronze, of which the biggest was nearly 4 ft. long and more than 2 ft. wide. Intwo other rooms 40 or so tripod-altars made of unbaked clay had

been stacked in rows along the walls. It must be supposed that these sacred implements were manufactured here, and that one of the privileges of the priest-kings who lived in the palaces was the sale of such furniture to their subjects. The pottery from this building is mostly of L.M. I. style. Another palatial house of the same date was excavated by J. Khatzidakis, at Tylissos.6 It had been destroyed by fire about the same time as the palace of Knossos. Remarkable objects were found: four gigantic basins, from 43 ft. to 23 ft. in diameter, an obsidian libation-vase (“ filler’’) 9 in. high, fragments of painted plaster, one with a picture of a large ceremonial fan, anda bronze statuette of a praying man. This last figure was the means of identifying a very fine example of the type which had lain in the British Museum for many years. Another bronze statuette, perhaps representing a flute-player, which is said to have been

found near Phaistos, was acquired by the Rijksmuseum of Leyden.? A quite extraordinary piece of Minoan sculpture is a small bronze group representing a man somersaulting backwards over a charging bull. This belongs to an English collector.’ Sculpture in ivory is also illustrated by two exquisite pieces. One, which is now in the Museum of Fine Arts at Boston, is a figure of the Minoan goddess or her votary wearing a flounced robe enriched with gold and holding two golden snakes.? The other,'® obtained by Sir Arthur Evans, represents a boy with arms upraised in adoration, and was apparently the companion figure of the Boston ivory in a group of the goddess and her son-consort. A marble statuette bought by the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge (1926) represents the goddess holding her breasts. It reproduces in detail the costume of the Snake Goddess of Knossos.

Another palace has been located at Mallia, on the north coast

3 Thid. t “Apx.'Ep (1922).

8 ‘Apy.‘E@ (1912). 6 J. I.S. (1921). 7 Jahrb. d. deutsch. arch. Inst. (1915). AJA.

(1915).

:

This will be published in vol. 2 of The Palace of Minos at

Knossos.

ARCHAEOLOGY

178

of Crete, and is now being excavated by the French school at Athens. It was destroyed at the very beginning of the Middle Minoan age, and consequently supplies much valuable chronological information, as, for instance, that the hieroglyphic script of Knossos was fully developed in M.M. I.a. To the same early period belongs the largest bronze sword that has been found in Europe, a splendid weapon with inlaid hilt and faceted crystal pommel. It comes from what may have been a royal tomb on this site. The excavation of the palaces of Phaistos and H. Triada is regarded by the Italian Mission as finished. A final plan and description of Phaistos were published by L. Pernier in 1014.1 A street of houses, described as an agora, of the Late Minoan period was uncovered at H. Triada in roro, and in 1912 an L.M. III. shrine was found there, containing the customary stacks of cups for offerings. Such domestic shrines or the more intimate pillar-cult of houses are represented in every considerable Minoan building. Public places of worship are less common and of different kind. A built sanctuary was found by Sir A. Evans on Mount Juktas,? but other mountain-shrines, sacred to the powers of nature, seem to have been left in their natural state. The Kamares Cave, situated on Mount Ida, in which the first finds of M.M. polychrome pottery (‘‘ Kamares ware”) were made about 1894, was fully explored by the British school at Athens in 1913. This cave is a great hollow in the limestone, nearly 6,000 ft. above the sea, running about 100 yards into the mountain at a downward slope of 30 degrees. At its bottom is a smaller cave with a very narrow entrance. No trace of habitation was found. The place was evidently a sanctuary dominating Phaistos and the Mesara, and the offerings found in it were made “‘ by people coming as far down into the cave as they could, or perhaps as far as they dared, and laying their vases among the great boulders.’ Little was found besides pottery, and that belonged almost exclusively to M.M. I. and II. Most of it was plain ware, but painted shards were numerous, and among the recovered vases are some of the most decorative in Minoan art.

The absence of the kinds of votive offerings, par-

ticularly bronzes, which have been found in other Cretan sanctuaries, must probably be explained as a fashion of the time. In the same year Khatzidakis cleared a very small cave which was nowhere more than three feet high or six feet wide, at Arkalokhori near Lyttos. The predominant offerings were copper daggerblades and double-axes of Early Minoan date. The first examples of E.M. I. stemmed goblets in black pottery with burnished patterns were also found here. The end of the Minoan age is still obscure in detail. Untversal destruction is apparent at the close of L.M. II., and in the island towns of Pseira and Mokhlos there was no subsequent recovery. The Cretan sites, however, were reoccupied at once, and although the palaces were not fully rebuilt their partial inhabitation and the continuous use of towns and cemeteries indicate no cultural or racial change in the last period (L.M. II). But Late Mycenean (Myc. III.) elements were brought from the mainland at this time to Crete, as they were carried to Cyprus, Rhodes and elsewhere in the Aegean, and the last phase of prehellenic culture in Creteseems to have been the same as in the rest of Greece. The following age of transition, which was represented by the offerings in the well-house at Knossos, is best seen at Vrokastro. There, on a series of high hills and ridges near Gournia, has been found an extensive settlement with attached cemeteries of the latest Bronze and earliest Iron Ages. Two distinct funeral rites are recorded: inhumation in chamber tombs, and cremation in the same tombs or in bone enclosures. The style of the pottery in the chamber tombs is Sub-Mycenean or Proto-Geometric; that in the bone enclosures is early and mature Geometric. The pottery in the town is of the latest Mycenean class (Myc. III.8). Different types of fibulae were associated with the three kinds of pottery, iron weapons were found with both kinds of burial, and in one chamber tomb there was a bronze tripod of the kind ? Ann. Scuola Ital., i. (1914). 2 Palace of Minos, i., p. 4

3 R. M. Dawkins in B.S.A., 19 (1912-3). 4B.S.A., 19 (1912-3).

that had been previously found with Transitional material at Knossos, in Cyprus, at Athens, and most recently at Tiryns. Six Egyptian faïence seals were found with the tripod, which had not been precisely dated. But it is clear that the Vrokastro finds cover the period between 1200 and 800 B.C., and display the stages by which Hellenic (Geometric) art displaced Minoan, without, however, offering an historical explanation of that phenomenon. Crete evidently felt the full activity of these momentous changes. Discoverics made by an Italian Mission at Afrati, the ancient Arcadia, in 1924 revealed a remarkable series of vases in the early Orientalising style, which tend to show that the island was prominently concerned with the revival of art in the Archaic Greek period, partly by maintaining the Minoan tradition, partly by resuming its old position of intermediary between Europe and the Middle East. The period was also marked by the publication of many important books. Some of these are final records of excavations made before 1910, but previously known only from provisional reports in periodical publications: such are the late Richard Seager’s accounts of his valuable explorations in Psetra and Mokhlos, the first part of the publication of objects found by the British school of Athens at Palaikastro, and the first volume of Sir Arthur Evans’ great work. Books reviewing the Cretan material in its Aegean or wider Mediterranean relations were written by Dussaud, Fimmer, Glotz, Hall and Mosso; and two useful pictorial surveys were produced by Maraghiannis and Bossert. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Periodicals: American Journal of Archaeology; Annual of the British School at Athens (London); Annuarto della R, Scuola archeologica (italiana) di Atene (Bergamo); Anéfiguartes'

Journal, and Archaeologia (iondon); ‘Apxawoñoyixòv Aedridv, and ‘Apxyatoroyixy ‘'Epnuepis (Athens); Jahrbuch des deutschen archdologischen Instituts (Derlin); Journal of Hellenic Studies (London); University of Pennsylvania Museum Anthropological Publications

(Philadelphia). General and special books: G. Maraghiannis, Antiguités crétotses (1907, 1911, 1915); R. Dussaud, Les Civilisations préhelléniques (1910); Á. Mosso, The Dawn of Mediterranean Civilisation (1910); R. B. Seager, Excavations on the Island of Pseira (Univ. Pa. Mus. Anth. Pub., 3.1); E. H. Hall, Excavations in Eastern Crete, Sphoungaras (Univ. Pa. Mus. Anth. Pub., 3.2, 1912); R. B. Seager, Explorations in the Island of Mochlos (1912); E. H. Hall, Excavations in Eastern Crete, Vrokastro ( Univ. Pa. Mus. Anth. Pub., 3.3, 1914 ); H. R. Hall, Aegean Archaeology (1914); R. B. Seager, lhe Cemetery of Pachyamrzos (Univ. Pa. Mus. Anth. Pub., 7.1, 1916); D. Fimmer, Die kretisch-mykenische Kultur (Leipzig 1921); R. C. Bosanquet

and R. M. Dawkins, Unpublished Objects from the Palaikastro Excavaiions, part 1 (B.S.A., Suppl. Paper No. 1, 1923); A. J. Evans, The Palace of Minos at Knossos, vol. 1 (1921); H. T. Bossert, Alt-Kreta (1923); G. Glotz, La Civilisation égéenne (1923) and Eng. trans. (1925); S. Xanthoudides, The Vaulted Tombs of Mesara CARA

IX.

GREECE

AND

EASTERN

MEDITERRANEAN

Greece.—-In Greece since 1910 the increase in our archaeological knowledge has been great in spite of the cessation of work during the War. It is best to divide the field into two sections—the prehistoric and the historic. ‘The gain to knowledge seems greater in the former than in the latter, because practically every discovery in the prehistoric sphere, where we know so little, adds considerably to our knowledge. On the other hand the historic period is already so well explored that only important discoveries make really serious additions. THE

PREHISTORIC

PERIOD

The Greek and British researches in Phocis and Thessaly in 1912 and 1910 show that a Neolithic and Bronze Age culture flourished all over Northern Greece between 3000 B.c. and the close of the Mycenaean period about 1150 8B.c. Its development shows four periods, of which the first and second are Neolithic. The culture of the first is well advanced and indicates that man had progressed far beyond the palaeolithic stage. The second has connections with similar cultures that centre in the upper Balkans round the Carpathians. The third period is the arly Bronze Age and it also js related to the early cultures of Macedonia and Serbia. The fourth period is the Later Bronze Age and a 5 J.H.S. (1924).

ARCHAEOLOGY time of decline until in the 15th century B.c. Mycenaean civilisation invaded the country. Recent American researches in Corinthia, Argolis and Arcadia have shown that in Neolithic times a similar culture covered Southern Greece. In both north and south brightly painted hand-made and polished pottery is characteristic of the Neolithic periods, and as it is technically good, is in strong contrast to the coarse, incised Neolithic pottery of Crete and the islands. This suggests a racial difference between the islands and the mainland at that time, and since the polychrome pottery of the second period is related to that of the Carpathian area, this might point to the coming of people from East Central Europe into the Peloponnese before the close of the third millennium. During this second Neolithic period a bronzeusing folk akin to the population of the islands and Crete entered Southern Greece, and overran the Peloponnese and ail Central Greece, as far north as Mount Othrys. This probably occurred about the middle of the third millennium.

The Bronze Age-—The remains of the Early Bronze Age in Southern Greece (Early Helladic Period) are well illustrated by the American excavations in Corinthia and by the Swedish at Asine, by the German at Tiryns, by the Greek in Boeotia an¢l Euboea and by the British at Mycenae. The same series of excavations with more recent work by the Americans in Boeotia and the discovery of the “ House of Cadmus” at Thebes by the Greeks have immeasurably increased our knowledge of the Middle Bronze Age and Late Bronze Age (Middle and Late Helladic Periods) in continental Greece. The Middle Bronze Age is marked by the intrusion of people characterised by the use of pottery known as Minyan Ware. The origin of this is not yet

179

THE Historic PERIOD Excavations by the Americans at Vrokastro in Crete and on Mount Hymettus, by the British at Halos, by the Swedes at Asine and by the French at Delos have thrown further light on the early Iron Age and it is becoming clearer that its culture, from which classical Greek art is descended directly, was an age

of transition when the art of the Bronze Age absorbed new elements and so commenced a fresh evolutionary process. The finds on Hymettus hint that the employment of the Greek alphabet may perhaps have to be put back even earlier than the 7th century B.c. This need cause no surprise, for the comparatively high stage of development which it had reached in the 6th century B.c. indicates that it had been used for some time, and we know the art of writing was well known in the Bronze Age. The evidence concerning the rise of archaic art has been enriched by the German and Greek work at Corfu and Thermos in Aetolia. The important discovery of a pedimental group in high relief at Corfu has much enlarged our knowledge of early temple sculptures. In the centre is a great Gorgon being slain by a small Perseus and on either side of her is a large Hon. Other small figures occupy the interspaces and the angles. The primitive

composition of this group shows that early temple sculpture followed the types of the heraldic groups of the Bronze Age like the Lion Gate of Mycenae. A similar composition of a goddess between two lions has been reconstructed from fragments found in the Artemision at Delos. The French researches in the Heraion at Delos, the Greek in the temple of Zeus Thaulios at Pherae, the Italian at Arcadia in Crete, by their richness in pottery and other small objects, well illustrate the gradual development of Greek known and though it is common on the Greek mainland and art from the geometric to the late archaic period. Classical Period.—In the classical period the principal progress occurs also in the islands, none had been found in Crete up to 1925. It would appear that in the Middle Bronze Age, owing to that has been made lies in the attempts to read the early history this intrusion, relations between Crete and the mainland were of famous buildings such as the Parthenon, the Olympieion and broken. Before the beginning of the Late Bronze Age about 1650 the Nike Temple at Athens, the Heraion at Olympia and the B.c., the Cretan civilisation established itself on the mainland Temple of Apollo at Thermos. When these temples were first partly by trade and partly by colonisation. The receptivity of excavated they were regarded as units of one period only. Now the people of the mainland for the more advanced civilisation is the early altar of Nike has been found; also two earlier temples exemplified by the rapid rise of places such as Thebes or Mycenae below the Heraion and at least one earlier temple below the to first-class importance. Then with the Late Bronze Age begins Parthenon and below the Olympieion. The first temple at Therthe Mycenaean Age par excellence and the history of this has been mos was surrounded by a colonnade curved at one end and probcompletely rewritten as a result of the excavations just referred ably dates as far back as the 8th if not the gth century B.c. It to at Mycenae, Tiryns and Thebes. During the 16th and 15th is thus the earliest Greek temple. On the sites of great cities such as Argos, Elis and Corinth centuries B.c. Crete was culturally dominant on the mainland and was possibly politically dominant as well. But before the work has been continued by the Dutch, Austrians and Americans, close of the 15th century B.C. the character of the mainland as- but in proportion to the expense involved and the fame of the serted itself so strongly that when, about the beginning of the cities the results are disappointing except for some interesting 14th century B.c., the Palace of Knossos was destroyed Mycenae classical inscriptions from Argos and a few imperial statues of the Ist century A.D. from Corinth. Similarly the new British excavasucceeded to the artistic and political inheritance of Crete. Mycenaean Culture-——Mycenae in the 16th century B.c. was tions at Sparta, apart from one good archaic marble statue, a ruled by a dynasty of kings who were buried in the Shaft Graves few small bronzes and a crop of Hadrianic inscriptions, have not discovered by Schliemann. They were succeeded by a second been encouraging. On the other hand experimental work by the dynasty about 1500 B.c. and the monarchs of this were buried Americans on the smaller sites of Phlious and Nemea has proved in the nine beehive tombs which are one of the marvels of My- very promising. Fresh work has been undertaken by the French cenae. Brilliant remains have also been found of the frescoes at Delphi which has revealed a shrine of Hermes to the west of the which decorated the palaces of Tiryns and Thebes. About 1400 sanctuary. Buildings previously excavated, such as the Athenian B.C. when Mycenae took the place of Knossos as the centre of and Sicyonian Treasuries and the Temple of Athena Pronoia power and culture, there arose a great king who extended and have been re-examined with valuable results as to their history, refortified its citadel, built the Lion Gate and the Grave Circle, plans and decoration. In Delos the Sanctuary of the Foreign and reconstructed the palace on the summit of the acropolis. Gods was found and cleared and other work done in and around To him may also be assigned the Treasury of Atreus which dates the sanctuaries of Apollo and Artemis and in particular the posifrom the same period. To the same century belong the citadel tion of the tombs of the Hyperborean maidens mentioned by and palace of Tiryns and the latest phase of the “‘ House of Cad- Herodotus is believed to have been identified. A Greek excavamus ” at Thebes. At both sites a quantity of vases bearing tion has found a sanctuary of Herakles on Mount Oeta where, painted inscriptions in the still undeciphered Minoan script have according to legend, was the hero’s funeral pyre. At Koroncia interesting inscriptions of Roman date have been found which been discovered. Well-furnished tombs excavated at Mycenae, Thebes, Chalcis and Asine have yielded a rich series of objects refer to the maintenance of the dikes of Lake Kopais. Study of the Hellenistic remains of Asine and of Mycenae by illustrating the art, customs and religion of the people. The latest Bronze Age stratum at Mycenae seems to indicate that, although the Swedes and the British has provided interesting information Mycenae itself perished by fire during the 12th century B.c., about the life of small townships. The Greeks have begun work there was no sudden break in civilisation at the beginning of the on the important Byzantine ruins at Nicopolis. Balkan Area.—In Balkan lands, owing to the disturbances of Iron Age. The seals, a, b, c, d, (see figs. 1 and 5 on plate) are of war, not so much has been done as might have been hoped. the 15th, 14th, 13th and 12th centuries B.C., respectively.

180

ARCHAEOLOGY

Albania and southern Serbia are still more or less virgin fields,

though the Byzantine monuments of the latter region have been carefully studied by the French. Still, the results achieved are worthy of enumeration. Macedonia.—A distinct advance has been made in Greek Macedonia, where French and British explorers have been at work on the prehistoric mounds. The results are only provisional, but we can estimate the character and connections of its culture in the Bronze Age. Though, as might be expected, there was contact with Serbia to the north, with Thessaly in the south and with Thrace in the east, Macedonia had distinct individuality. Finally in the period just before the beginning of the Iron Age it was subjected to fairly strong Mycenaean influence, especially along the littoral. The Greek and French have begun at Pella, Dium, Thessalonica and Philippi the exploration of the remains of the succeeding Hellenic and Roman periods. At Thessalonica it has been shown that the Arch of Galerius was originally double and built in connection with the round domed building later converted into the church of St. George. At Philippi the shrines of Silvanus and of the Egyptian gods have been identified, and illustrate the variety of cults practised in a city of Greek Macedonia in Roman times. Aegean Islands.—In the Aegean Is. much work has been done. A sign of the times is the beginning of operations in Samothrace by a Czechoslovak expedition. The Greeks have started the exploration of Mitylene and Chios. The French have been at work in Thasos since rg10 though with several intervals due to the War. The city walls, which have been almost completely traced, have several gates marked by the presence of interesting reliefs of the early 5th century B.c. Many other sculptures have been found, including an archaic Apollo Kriophoros over 1o ft. high and the remains of a group of statues representing Dionysus with Comedy, Tragedy and other figures. The foundations of a temple nearly as large as the Parthenon have been cleared, the market place and surrounding buildings explored and the theatre carefully studied. The crop of inscriptions has been large and apart from the art treasures found it is to be hoped that the correlation of the results will provide us with new material for the history of Greek culture in the Thracian archipelago. In Samos the Germans have completed the excavation of the Temple of Hera. This was a very large temple with a double colonnade all round and had 24 columns on the long sides with eight at one end and nine at the other. The existing ruins are those of a temple which

was begun in the first half of the 5th century B.c., but was never finished. To a considerable extent it imitated a still earlier building which was destroyed by the Persians when they raided Samos about 517 B.C. after the death of Polycrates. Near the altar a statue base with the name of Cicero has been found and others erected in honour of the Julio-Claudian imperial family for their help to the temple after it had suffered in the piratical war of the time. The Dodecanese.—The Italians have begun a survey of the Dodecanese and a Museum has been established în Rhodes. Excavations have taken place at several sites, mostly in Rhodes, where perhaps the most interesting results have been obtained at Ialysus. Here many more tombs were opened in the cemetery whence came the Mycenaean vases now in the British Museum. In Cyprus a Swedish expedition has done valuable work. Hitherto most of the evidence for the early history of the island was provided by tombs, too often carelessly excavated. The Swedes have been scientifically investigating the stratification of early

inhabited sites and have determined a chronological sequence by which the-previously excavated tombs can be classified. Thus a satisfactory basis is obtained for the classification of the earlier civilisation of the island, which shows, with native elements, connections with Syria, Egypt, Mycenae and, if the signs are rightly interpreted, with Cilicia. The character of the Mycenaean pottery mentioned from Cyprus, Rhodes and Macedonia reflects the culture of Mycenae and the mainland rather than of Crete. The great expansion of the Aegean civilisation would thus have taken place after the fall of Knossos, when Mycenae was the centre of power. (A. J. B. W.)

X. WESTERN ASIA! Palestine.—In Palestine the most important discoveries of the years 1910-25 have been madein the American excavations at Betsan, the site of the ancient Bethshean or Bethshan. ‘The work has been carried on for the University Museum, Philadelphia, by Mr. Clarence S. Fisher, assisted by various helpers, and is now being continued by Mr. A. Rowe, an Australian archaeologist.! Bethshan was an important place as commanding the fords of the Jordan eastward from Galilee into Syria south of Lake Tiberias. In very early times a route ran past it from the Vale of Esdraelon, which the road from Egypt through Philistia reached at Megiddo, across the Jordan and so northward past the Hauran to the district of Damascus. It was occupied by the invading Scyths in the 7th century B.c., and from them derived its classical name Skythopolis. Seven centuries earlier, under the XVITI.XIX. Dynasties of Egypt, it was an important Egyptian fortress, with which the Egyptians held central Palestine before the Philistine invasion, and after that event ended the Egyptian control, it was one of the chief fortresses of the Philistines till their defeat by the Israelites.

The hope that important discoveries of Philistine remains would be made during the excavations has not been fulfilled. Instead, however, very important discoveries of the Egyptian period have been made, including two stelae of Seti I. and one

of Rameses II., and a locally-made statue of Rameses HI., the art of which is very curious. One of the two stelae of Seti I. has been said to mention the Tuirsha (Mediterranean sea-rovers who invaded and took service in Palestine in the 14th and 13th centuries B.c.) and the ‘Aperiu or ‘Apuri, a people who have often, and probably rightly, been identified with the ‘Ibhrim or Hebrews. The statement that Semitic prisoners are mentioned also on the stela of Rameses IT. as working on buildings in the city of Rameses (Pelusium) in the Delta, which has naturally been taken as confirmation of the Biblical tradition of the Hebrews working under the Egyptian taskmasters at ‘* Pithom and Rameses ” is now known to be erroneous.? Were it correct, it need not have been supposed therefore that his son Meneptah was the Pharaoh of the Exodus, as has often been thought. The Exodus probably took place much earlier than his time, if, as was supposed by Josephus, it is identical with the Expulsion of the Hyksos. In that case Iahmase or Amasis I. will have been the Pharaoh of the Exodus. There may have been, however, a Ramesside oppression, the tradition of which has been transferred to the period before the Exodus, whereas it really refers to three centuries later,’ so that Rameses II. may have been the Pharaoh of an oppression, though the Pharaoh of the Exodus lived long before then. But no confirmation of this view can be derived from the stelae of Bethshan.

Another important excavation in Palestine has been that of Ophel, the site of the most ancient Jerusalem, for the Palestine Exploration Fund, carried out by Prof. R. A. 5. Macalister, assisted and succeeded by the Rev. J. Garrow Duncan.4 Not much that is interesting in the way of antiquities has been discovered, but the architectural and topographical finds have been notable, including the Jebusite Wall with its additions of Solomonic and Nehemian times, and what Prof. Macalister considers to be the remains of the Millo bastion, with the breach made by David when he stormed the city. The oldest Jerusalem probably did not occupy any part of the present city. It lay on the tongue-like hill spur of Ophel between the Tyropoeion Valley and the Vale of Hinnom, overlooking Siloam and the Virgin’s Well immediately south of the Haram or sacred enclosure of the Moslem mosques which occupy the site of the Temple of Zion.

The hill has now no buildings, but a house here and there on it. It was here that the ancient city of Urusalim stood which is mentioned in the Tell el-Amarna letters of the r4th century B.c. A tiny place it must have been, according to modern ideas; but very ancient cities occupied very small sites with extraordinarily narrow streets and closely packed houses, as we see from the remains of the contemporary and earlier towns of Gournia and 1The figures appearing throughout the text of thig section, “Western Asia,” refer to the bibliography at the end of the section.

ARCHAEOLOGY

ISI

Pseira in Crete, where the streets often hardly allowed of two persons passing one another. The Palestine Exploration Fund's work lies astride the shoulder of the hill towards the northern end or root. At its southern end or butt, M. Raymond Weill has carried out excavations for Baron Edmond de Rothschild, which have yielded results of interest,® such as the Greek inscription recording the building of the synagogue of Theodotos, besides some archaeological evidence with regard to the walls, watersupply, necropoles, etc., of the most ancient Jerusalem on Ophel, and a good deal with regard to the antiquity of the quarrymen of Roman times, who probably destroyed tombs and other evidence as to the earliest epoch which we would give our ears to possess now. Other explorations at Jerusalem have been essayed by Mr. Nathan Slousch.

impress, stronger than that of the rival art of Mesopotamia. A very important discovery made by M. Montet is that of an Aramaic or rather Phoenician inscription of the time of Rameses II. (c. 1250 B.c.), the epitaph of a local prince, Ahiram, of that time. This shows that the Phoenician or Aramaic alphabet al-

Petra and Transjordan.—In the south Petra has been investigated again by Sir Alexander Kennedy, and Mr. St. J. Philby has noted archaeological remains in Transjordan, where the Roman ruins at ‘Amman, which had been reported to be in some danger of vandalic interference, are now more carefully supervised. Further north Dr. Hrozný, of Vienna, has been digging near Mzerib,’ at Sheikh Sa’ud, where he discovered near the inscribed monolith of Rameses II. an interesting Canaanite inscription dating before rooo B.c., as well as buildings of the Hittite period. In spite of the fact that Angora had given him full permission to do so, he was not permitted by the local Turkish authority to excavate at Kiil Tepe, near Kaisariyeh, the spot whence have come the “ Cappodocian ”’ tablets of early Semitic immigrants into Anatolia that are in our museums. In the north the most important excavations have been those of M. Montet at Jebeil,® the site of the ancient Byblos or Gebal, on the Phoenician coast. It has of late years become increasingly evident that Byblos had a specially close connection with Egypt. The well-known legend about the stranding of the body of

articles on Philistine pottery by Saussey, and so on.

Osiris at Byblos and the journey of Isis to collect his scattered members in a box or coffin has always shown that the foreign town of Byblos had very early a special connection with Egyptian myth and legend. And in ancient texts it is always mentioned as if it has some special importance for Egypt. M. Montet has now shown by his excavations that not only was Byblos quite Egyptianised as early as the time of the XII. Dynasty (c. 2000 B.C.), but that even so early as the time of the III -IV. Dynasties 1,000 years before, in the time of King Sneferu, it possessed a purely Egyptian temple. We are at once reminded of the record that Sneferu sent ships to the Phoenician coast to bring back the great beams of pine and cedar that he needed for his buildings. In fact much earlier than his time in all probability wood was brought by sea from the Lebanon to Egypt, and the legendary connection of Osiris with Byblos, the enclosure of his body in a wooden coffin there, and the fact that his emblem, the Ded or Tat (usually called ‘‘ the emblem of stability ’’), is nothing but a conventional representation of a coniferous tree with horizontal branches,’ probably refer to the fact that the Egyptians very early obtained from Byblos the wood for the making of the coffins of the dead. Byblos was a holy place in connection with Khentamenti and Osiris, the gods of the dead (afterwards united),

ready existed as early as the 13th century B.c., whereas previously it had not been supposed that it dated very much earlier than the oth to which the famous inscription of the Moabite Stone belongs.!° In the north M. Contenau has continued his excavation at Sidon." Other articles on Syrian and Palestinian archaeology which need not be specified here have appeared in Syria and in the Quarterly Statement of the Palestine Exploration Fund, such as the exploration of Tell Nebi Minduh (Kadesh on the Orontes) by M. Pézard (Syria, 1922), for instance, as well as

An important find was made in the Beirut Museum by Mr. C. L. Woolley in 1921 of sub-Mycenaean pottery that had been found in burials in North Syria.” It can hardly be doubted that these are remains of the Philistine invading horde that made its way about 1200 B.C. from southeast Asia Minor through Anatolia, overthrowing the Hittites, so that ‘‘ no land stood before them,” into Central Syria (Amor), where the horde abode for some time, before continuing its advance through Palestine to the borders of Egypt. There it was defeated by Rameses III., after-

wards settling down in the Shephelah as the historic people of the Philistines, to whom we must ascribe the sub-Mycenaean, ceramic from various excavations in Palestine. They themselves, though not properly speaking Minoan or Mycenaean Aegeans

had been very closely affected by Mycenaean culture, as were no doubt all other ‘‘ Peoples of the Sea.” Speculations as to the influence of Minoan culture on that of Phoenicia, such as those of Woolley, who would ascribe the Phoenician seafaring possibly to the influence of Aegean dynasts in the Phoenician cities," are hardly borne out by the facts, as we have no proof of any such foreign princes having ever existed, and in the Amarna letters all the names of Phoenician princes are

Semitic. Still less probable is the fantastic hypothesis of Autran,” who would establish Minoan culture on the Phoenician coast, a theory for which there is no archaeological warrant whatever, as Woolley himself shows. Anatolia.—In Anatolia the revived Turkish régime has not

been favourable

to archacological exploration

cently, when the veteran

until very re-

Prof. Ramsay and certain American

scholars have once more got to work on the antiquities of the classical period. Hrozný was not allowed to dig at Kül Tepe, as has been mentioned above. As regards the earlier period, work has been confined to the further elucidation of the Hittite documents found at Boghàz-Kyöi, work which has been carried out chiefly by Drs. Hrozný, Forrer and Sommer. Forrer has identified eight different languages as spoken in Bronze-Age Anatolia, of which the royal or oficial Hattie or Hittite (“ Kanisian ”} of the Boghàz Kyöi tablets is, he agrees with Hrozný, IndoEuropean: while “‘ Protohattic,” the original language of the Hittites, is Asianic, and non-Aryan, as are also other Asia Minor languages. “ Luvian,” according to Forrer, was a more distant relation of the original speech of the ‘‘ Wiros ” (as Dr. Peter and before the time of Sneferu became practically an Egyptian colony, as we see from M. Montet’s results. From them too we Giles and others call the original Indo-Europeans) than “ Kanis- . see the effect of the Egyptian connection on the local culture, ian ” Hittite, and has occasional resemblances to Greek, which especially under the XII. Dynasty, when the dead Phoenician in the case of Greek are to be assigned to the Aryan Greeks borprinces were buried in sarcophagi of half-Egyptian form, with rowing from their “ Luvian ”’ predecessors in Greece. For Formany of the ordinary Egyptian accompaniments of the dead at rer, apparently, the Aegeans, and so probably the Minoan Cretans, talked Luvian. (Here is an opening for would-be dethe time, in the shape of stone vases, etc., imported from Egypt. We see too how it was that Egyptian influence was always so cipherers of the Minoan script.) But whether this be so or not, the only epigraphic relics that strong in Phoenicia, from the earliest to the latest times; how it was that under the XVIII. Dynasty the conquering Pharaohs we possess of Eteokretan appear to be entirely non-Aryan, like so easily established their rule there after the expulsion of the “‘Protohattic ” or Lycian. Forrer has followed up his discovery Hyksos, and that the native princes continued faithful to Egypt, of these different tongues in cuneiform, a discovery which is beeven when deserted by the pacificist King Akhenaten and aban- yond cavil by a supposed discovery to which serious objections doned to the attacks of the Amorites and Hittites; how it was may provisionally be taken.!® He thinks he has found in Hittite that under the XXVI. Dynasty Egypt could always find some documents actual mention of Achaian princes of the 14th and 13th centuries B.c., and these specifically the Andreus and Etesupport against Babylon in Phoenicia; and how it was that even to the end Phoenician art always exhibited a strong Egyptian okles mentioned by Pausanias as early rulers of the Boeotian

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ARCHAEOLOGY

Orchomenos and (no less) the famous Atreus of Mycenae. Nobody doubts, of course, nowadays that the heroic princes of Greek legend had their originals in fact, and Atreus may very well have been an historic personage. But when we find him and

others discovered so “ pat ” in [Hittite documents we may well pause. It is like discovering a mention of King Arthur in a Saxon chronicle, and about as probable. The ultimate authority for

the identifications rests on the correctness of Dr. Forrer’s identifications of place-names. Now the A/tiiawa which he so confidently identifies as Achaia is identified by Prof. Garstang, a rival identifier of Hittite place-names, as the classical Anchiale, the Ingira of the Assyrians, in Cilicia.’ And so on. We are not on firm ground yet. As for the names themselves, Astaravas might do quite well for Andreus—it is just how a Cyprian would have translated ‘Avopeus into his syllabic script—but though Attarissivas is an interesting equivalent for Atreus (= A-tresyas, “ untrembling ’’?) it has yet to be shown to be a probable one philologically: it is by no means certain that Atreus does= TA-tresyas, and mean “ untrembling.” Tavagalavas = Eteokles (‘Ereox ens) is open to grave suspicion. However, in the cuneiform equivalents of Greek names, in the list of Cypriote princes who submitted to Sargon of Assyria in 673 B.c., Eteandros (Erefavdpos) is reproduced as Ituwandar. The digamma is given its full force. We should have expected to have seen Eteokles reproduced as ‘f Ituvukalavas.” Where is the initial? There are archaeological difficulties in the way of acceptance of the theory too. Forrer does not take sufficient account of them, and until further discovery has confirmed his identifications it would be as well to be chary of accepting them at their face value. Dr. Kretschmer has identifed Alakshandu, another prince mentioned in these tablets as king of Uilusa, as an Alexandros, of the Pamphylian coast, who, since there were Kedcxes in the Troad as well as in Cilicia, was the original of Alexandros of [lios, otherwise Paris himself!!® His memory had merely migrated from Pamphylia to the Troad. All this seems rather wild. Uilusa has also been identified with Ialysos in Rhodes by Prof. Garstang.!? Dr. Forrer will implicitly have none of all this: for him Uilusa was Elaioussa in Cilicia and Alakshandu was a Cilician. It must be said against Dr. Kretschmer’s view that we should expect to find Alexandros transliterated in cuneiform by Alakshandar, not Alakshandu, as Eteandros was by Ituwandar, and as in fact the name of Alexander the Great was actually transliterated into cuneiform in the 4th century B.c. Thep was an indispensable element in the word. Generally speaking, all these attempts of identifications of names,” whether of persons or places, in the Hittite tablets, do not yet seem to have yielded much positive knowledge.” But that is not to say that they will not do so in the future. We cannot make more than a passing reference here to the very interesting discovery at Es-Salahiye (Bithnanaia) on the Euphrates, in what is now French mandated territory, by British officers in 1920 of frescoes of late-Roman time which have been

published by Prof. J. H. Breasted and M. Franz Cumont,” as they are later in date than most of the archaeological discoveries with which we deal. Mesopotamia.—In Mesopotamia, active archacological work _is in progress. The pre-War work of the Germans at Qala ‘a Shargat (Asshur) and Babylon has not been resumed, but that of the French (de Genouillac) at Tell Oheimir, the site of the ancient Kish, has been taken up by a joint expedition of the University of Oxford and the Ficld Museum, Chicago, largely financed by a British Maecenas, Mr. Weld, and directed by Prof. Stephen Langdon, with the assistance of Mr. Philip Mackay in

the field. Very interesting results have been obtained in the first two years’ investigation of this vast site, including one of the oldest monuments of Babylonian writing, a stone tablet with incised inscriptions in linear hieroglyphics, the original signs from which later on the cuneiform script was developed. This can hardly date any later than 3500 B.c., and is probably older. Fragments of figures of men in mother-of-pearl inlay were found, that are also among the most ancient relics of Sumerian art, and probably belong to the same period. They are of extremely

curious type and archaic aspect, giving the impression of being distinctly older than the oldest relics of historic art from Ur and Lagash. The first volume recording this work has already been published by Prof. Langdon.” At Kish, however, hardly any relics of older prehistoric age have as yet been discovered than have come to light at Tell el ‘Obeid and Abu Shahrein, and to a less extent at Ur. These relics in the shape of painted pottery and flint implements, etc., were first found by Mr. Campbell Thompson at Abu Shahrein (the ancient Eridu)*4 and by Mr. H. R. Hall at Tell el ‘Obeid and Ur, both excavating for the British Museum in 1918-9. In 1922-3 this work was taken up again by a joint expedition of the British Museum and the University Museum, Philadelphia, under the direction of Mr. C. L. Woolley, accompanied by the late Mr. F. G. Newton as architect, Mr. Sidney Smith of the British Museum and Mr. A. W. Laurence in the first year, in 1923-4 by Mr. F. G. Newton and by Mr. C. J. Gadd of the British Museum and Mr. Fitzgerald; and in 1924-5 by the Rev. L. Legrain and Mr. Linnell? Continuing the work begun by Mr. Hall at Ur, Mr. Woolley has there discovered and planned with the help of Mr. Newton a most interesting series of templebuildings and has traced the temenos-wall of the temple of the

moon-god. The ziggurat or temple-tower has also been cleared by him and planned by Mr. Newton. He has also completed the work begun by Mr. Hall at Tell el ‘Obeid, and has found there more relics of the sculpture and toreutic art.of the early Sumerian

period, first discovered by Hall. The copper Lion’s head (see fig. ro on plate) is now published for the first time. The newly found antiquities include an inscribed tablet of the very early king A-annipadda, of the I. Dynasty of Ur, who is to be dated about 3200 B.c., shortly before the time of Ur-Nina of Lagash, whose sculptured tablets, etc., were formerly the most ancient known relics of Sumerian art. A very fine example of the same art of copper plating over a bitumen or clay ore, or an dme of wood covered with bitumen or clay, as exemplified in Mr. Hall’s Lions, is the bull discovered by Mr. Woolley (see fig. 11 on plate) in the British Museum. Mr. Woolley has discovered and explored the prehistoric necropolis from which came the painted pottery and stone implements found on the surface by Hall, and so has added to our knowledge of this earlier culture, which was probably Sumerian, and is certainly now to be dated well before 3500 B.c. It was apparently chalcolithic in character, and so the introduction of metal into Babylonia is probably to be placed before 4000 B.c., perhaps roughly contemporaneously with its introduction into Egypt in the pre-Dynastic period, which also was largely chalcolithic. The question whether Egypt or Babylonia was first in the field with copper is still unsolved, but the possibility that both countries received it from the north at about the same time seems increasingly probable. The prehistoric Sumerian pottery is paralleled by a somewhat similar ware found at Samarra, north of Baghdad, by Sarre and Herzfeld,2” before the War, and by the identical ware discovered by Pézard at Bandar Bushir. All these wares present analogies to those found by the French expedition of de Morgan some years ago at Susa and at Tepe Musyan in Persia, as also to that found by Pumpelly at Anau in Turkistan. And further connections eastward with the neolithic ware from Muhammedabad in Eastern Persia have been adumbrated,?® while wares have been discovered in China that have been compared with the Mesopotamian and with that of Tripolje in Bosnia.*° Whether this is going too far or not remains to be seen. The whole question of the interrelationships of these primitive wares of Asia is treated by Mr. H. Frankfort, in an occasional paper published by the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain, No. 6.3" Mr. Frankfort finds that the Babylonian pottery is most closely connected with the oldest ware of Susa I., which probably dates from c. 4000 B.C. or perhaps somewhat later. The late M. de Morgan also contributed an article on the neolithic age in the Near East to Syria? before his regretted death. Connections wiih India-—A very interesting parallel with Sumerian art has recently been discovered by Sir John Marshall in excavations at Mohenjo Daro in Sindh and at Harappa in the

ARCHAEOLOGY

PLATE IV.

Fic. 9. Figure of Priest or Official; early Sumerian: c. 3200 B.c. From Tell el ‘Obeid. Fic. to, Lion’s head, of bitumen covered with copper. From Tell el ‘Obeid. Fic. 11. Copper bull; early Sumerian: c. 3200 B.c. From Tell el ‘Obeid. Fic. 12. Steatite seals from Harappa, Punjab (British Museum). (Fig. 9 and Fig. ro. Brit. Mus. Excavations,

roro.

Fig. r1. Joint excavations of Brit. Mus. & Univ. of Pa. Mus., Philadelphia.)

ARCHAEOLOGY

183 |

Punjab, in the shape of seals (see fig. 12 on plate) with intagli of in 1923, of M. Jacques de Morgan and of Mr. F. G. Newton, the bulls in, as Prof. Sayce and Messrs. Sidney Smith and Gadd have architect who assisted Mr. Woolley at Ur, and with the plans pointed out, distinctly Sumerian style, and with signs somewhat and restoration of the temple-tower.8 resembling the oldest forms of Sumerian writing. They cerREFERENCES.—(1) The Museum Journal, Phila., xiv. (March and tainly seem to show some art-connection between Babylonia and Dec. 1923). (2) Gardiner, in Jour. Egy. Arch., July 1924. (3) Hall, India in the early third millennium B.C., but whether they are to in Peake, Tke People and the Book. (4) Palestine Expl. Fund, Statement 1924-5. (5) Weill, La Cité de David (Paris, be taken as confirmation of the hypothesis of racial connection Quarterly 1920); Fitzgerald, P.E.F.Q.S., p. 8 ef seg. (Jan. 1921, Oct. 1922). between Sumerians and Dravidians, bringing the Sumerians (6) Geographical Journal (April 1924); Petra, Its History and Monufrom India, put forward by Hall in 1913," or are rather to be menis (1925). (7) The Frmes (April 29 1925). (8) Virolleaud, Syria taken as proof of connection the other way, the Indians having (1922), p. 273 ff.; Les Travaux arch éologiqgues en Syrie (French official 1923; Vincent, Rev. Bibl. (1925), p. 161 ff. (9) Newborrowed elements of art from Babylonia, remains to be seen. The publication), berry, British Association, Presidential Address (Liverpool, 1923). connection is rendered the more certain by the discovery at Kish (10) Dussaud, Syrta, 1924, ii.; H. Bauer, Ortentalistische Literatur-

in I925 of a seal identical in character with those of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa, a find of phenomenal importance. (See Sec-

tion XIII. Inpa.) Since then two other seals of the same type from Babylonia have been identified; one is in the Louvre. An impression of a similar seal has recently been published by Pére Scheil.3% In 1923 two distinguished French Assyriologists, M. ThureauDangin and the Rev. Pére Dhorme, carric:! out excavations for a short time in the Tell of Asharah on the Euphrates, which yielded interesting results.é Recent Publications.—One of the most important recent publications of cuneiform inscriptions has been that by Mr. C. J. Gadd, of the British Museum, of a tablet containing Babylonian annals relating to the period of the final attack on Nineveh by the Medes and Babylonians, which fixes the date of the Fall of Nineveh as 612 B.C., whereas hitherto 606 has generally been regarded as the date.’ There is no doubt however now that 612 is the correct year. Many new and unexpected details of the final war are given, showing that for a year or two after the catastrophe an Assyrian king named Ashur-uballit maintained himself at Harran, and that the Egyptians, then ruled by Psammetichus I., so far from being inimical to Assyria, as had previously been supposed, in reality supported her, and that in 616 Psammetichus had sent an army to Mesopotamia to her help.*8 Pharaoh Necho also apparently marched to Carchemish in order to help Ashur-uballit in the first place, but after the fall of Harran attempted to hold Assyria’s western provinces as his own share of the spoil, till he was defeated and expelled by Nabepolassar.2° Mr. Sidney Smith has pursued his publication of the Cappadocian tablets in the British Museum, and has published

new material dating from of the time of the Persians and the Diadochi.” Chronology—A great deal has been written on Babylonian chronology in the light of new discoveries of king-lists by Legrain, Gadd, Leroy Waterman, Langdon, Weidner. Schroeder, Lehmann-Haupt, Albright, del Negro, Schnabel, Fotheringham and E. Meyer;” but certainty cannot be said to have been reached in the matter except the fact of the uselessness of the lists (as in Egypt) for definite chronological purposes. The volumes of the

Cambridge Ancient History hitherto published have contained interesting contributions by Prof. S. Langdon and Dr. R. C. Thompson on early Babylonian history, and a new American history of Assyria has been published by Prof. A. T. Olmstead,” with the help of new material deciphered from ancient Assyrian letters by Dr. Leroy Waterman. M. Delaporte has brought out an English edition of his book on Mesopotamia in the “ Evolution de PHumanité ” series,“ and Dr. Meissner an illustrated work in two volumes on “Babylonien und Assyrien ” in the Kullurgeschichiliche Brbliotek.“ Finally Sir Ernest Budge has lately published a new

edition of his Babylonian

Life and

History,”

which contains summaries of the most recent discoveries and a work largely devoted to making clear the overwhelmingly British character of Assyriological science which it has maintained since the days of Rawlinson and Hincks, entitled The Rise and Progress of Assyriology.* In Western Persia the French Mission has continued its work at Susa, and some recent results have been published by M. Mecquenem in the Revue Assyriologique.?7 A word of homage is due to the memory of the great French archaeologist, M. Clermont-Ganneau, who passed away, full of years and honours,

zeltung, 1925, pp. 129 ft.; Cook, P.E.F.Q.S., Oct. 1925. 1923-4. (12) La Phénicie et les peuples égéens; Syria, “ Asia Minor, Syria and the Aegean,” Liverpool Annals Anth., etc., ix. (March 1922). (14) Phéniciens; Paris Mitth., deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft, No. 61 (Dec. 1921).

(11) Syria, 1921. (13) of Arch. and (1920). (15) (16) Ibid., No. 63 (1924), “ Vorhomerische Griechen in den Keilschrifttexten von Boghazköi.” (17) L. A. Mayer and J. Garstang, “ Index of Hittite Names,” Brit. School at Jerusalem, Suppl. Papers, i. (1923). (18) “ Alakšanduš König von Vilusa,” Glotta (1924), p. 205 ff. (19) Liverpool Annals, x. (May 1923}. (20) As also that of Götze, Kleinasien zur Iethiterzeit (1924). (21) See Hall, in Jour. Egy. Arch., xl. (April 1925). (22) Syria, 1922; Travaux Archéologiques en Syrie, 1923. (23) Kish, 1. (1924). Cf. Genouillac, Premières Recherches Q Kish (1924). (24) Archaeologia, lxx. (1919-20). (25) Proc. Soc.

Antig. (Dec. 1919);

Jour. Egy. Arch., viii., ix. (1922-3);

Jour.

Cent. Asiatic Soc., 1922; Jour. R. Asiat. Soc., Centenary vol. (1924); Man (Jan. 1925). (26) The Antiquaries’ Journal (Oct. 1923; Oct. 1924; Oct. 1925); Jour. Cent. As. Soc. (1923, 1924). (27) Sarre, in Der Islam (July 1914), p. 190, ff.; Hall, Jour. R. Asiatic Soc., Centenary vol. (1924); p. 112 ff., xiv., xv.; Frankfort, Studies in Early

Pottery of the Near East, iv., p. 60 ff.; Jour. Anthrop. Inst. Occastonal Papers, No. 6 (1924). (28) Mem. Delegation en Perse, xv. (1924). (29) Hall, Jour. R. Asiatic Soc., Centenary vol., loc. cit. (30) Arne in Dagens Nyheter, July 16 1925; and Palaeontologia Sinica, D. 1. 2. (1925); Andersson, Palaeontologia Sinica, D. 1. 1. (1923) and Bull. Geol. Surv. China, No. 5, 1923. (31) Studies in Early Pottery of the Near Fast. (32) “‘ L’industrie Néolithique de la Proche Orient; Syria (1922), p. 23 ff. (33) Iiustr. London News (Sept. 20; Sept. 27; Oct. 4 1924). (34) Ancient History of the Near Fast, pp. 173, 174. (35) Mackay, Jour. R. Asiatic Soc. (Oct. 1925). (35a) Rev, d’Assyriologie, 22 (1926), p. 55. (36) Syria (Sept. 1924). (37) The Fall of Nineveh (1923). (38) C. J. Gadd, in The Expositor (Feb. 1925), p. 85 ff. (39) See Hall, Anc. Hist. Near East (6th ed., 1924), p. 601. (40) Cappadocian Tablet tn the British Museum, ii.-iii. (1921-5); Babylonian Historical Texts (1924). (41) For full references see Hall, 2bid. (6th ed.), pp. 590, 593-4, 595-6. E. Meyer

has recently published a new brochure on the subject, Die ältere Chronologie Babyloniens,

¿Assyriens

u. Agyptens

(1925).

(42) New

York (1923). (43) (1925). (44) Heidelberg (1920-5), (45) London (1925). (46) London (1925). (47) Rev. d’Assyr. (1922); “Fouilles de Suse.” (48) For an appreciation of the late F. G. Newton see the Jour, Egy. Arch. (1925), p. 70 ff. (H. R. H.)

XI.

CENTRAL

ASIA

In Eastern Iran, 7.e., Soghdiana, Bactria (including Gandhara, or the northwest corner of the Punjab), in Chorasmia, Merev and Scistan, lie the keys to the problems of early Iranian culture and its influence on the culture of India and China. Again, southern Siberia, in its gurghans or tumuli, preserves antiquitics, which will, undoubtedly, reveal some day the still obscure relations between its nomad “f Scythian ” inhabitants, the Pontus and China. But excepting the work done in Gandhira, the only scientific excavations on a larger scale have been made in Eastern or Chinese Turkistan, a bowl-shaped depression hemmed in on all sides except the east by enormous mountain-chains with difficult passes, and in the east approached through the Gobi Desert. The only safe trade routes between China and the Hellenistic Orient passed through the rich oases along the northern and the southern margin of the bowl. By them the silks of China reached the West and the products of the Hellenistic Orient, of Iran, of India and the Buddhist religion, the most powerful propagator

of Indian religious thought and of modified reached China and the Far East.

Hellenistic art,

These routes were of the highest importance to China, and whenever a vigorous dynasty ruled that country, they were regularly protected by military garrisons. But, while the Eastern Iranian sites contain relics possibly dating back to early Iranian history, the ruined cities and

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ARCHAEOLOGY

monasteries of Eastern Turkistan (and of Gandhära, which is cul- | must have been mainly artificial, as proved by great masses of turally indissolubly connected with Eastern Turkistan) offer only remains of wicker-lanterns. remains of the period between the last century before Christ, in The commonest type of cave-temple is of Indian origin. It the West, and the roth to 11th centuries of our era. consists of a square, vaulted anteroom, opening on a cella of the However, the archaeological work done in these comparatively same description. The back-wall of the cella has a recess, in which late sites, by Russian, English, German, French and Japanese the cult-statue was placed. To the right and left of the statue, two explorers, has proved that the ultimate basis of Buddhist art in short, low, vaulted corridors were cut into the rock opening into China, as in all other eastern Buddhist lands, is the Hellenistic a third corridor, at right angles to them, and parallel to the backAntique as developed in Gandhara. wall of the cella. The Tokharians —The name Eastern Turkistan does not apply The square or rectangular block of stone thus resulting often to this area in the early period, for until the Uighur Turks began contained, in a hidden receptacle, relics, manuscripts, coins and their conquest, from the northeast, in the 8th century, the many other valuables. These receptacles had always been opened and despoiled. This block stands for the st#ipa. The corridors were oasis-states were occupied by Iranians (Sacae and Soghdians) in the west, southwest and north, and by Indians in the extreme used for processional circumambulation. On the walls of the southwest. From the oasis of Kucha in the north, to that of cella were painted the effigies of the donors, the life-story of the Turfan in the northeast, the ruling race appears to have been a Buddha in a number of pictures separated by decorative borders, tribe speaking a language of the European (centum) group. They or rows of paintings representing certain Buddhist legends. are called Tokharians in the Middle Turkish texts dug out from The vaulted roof is decorated with tiers of conventionalised temple ruins near Turfan, and the energetic heads, on the wallpaintings from these temples, of blue-eyed, red-haired men with European features, differing entirely in everything but dress from pictures of Iranian or Eastern Asiatic donors, may well be portraits of men of this remarkable race. MSS. Discoveries.—The numerous MSS. finds are written on wood, leather, palm-leaf, birch-bark and paper in Tokharian

(till then unknown), the lost languages of the Sacae and Soghdians, in Sanscrit, Pehlevi and at least two Iranian dialects, Middle-Turkish in two dialects, Tangutan, Tibetan, Syriac, a few lines of Greek, in Chinese and Mongol, with yet undeciphered MSS. fragments of the lost language of the Hephthalites or White Huns, and small fragments in two other unknown alphabets. All this literature is strictly religious, excepting fragments of a Middle-Turkish translation of the fables of Aesopus and remains of two MSS. of the legend of Barlaam and Josaphat, also in Turkish, found in the Turfan oasis, close to the borders of China proper. The religions represented are Buddhism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism (one fragmentary leaf) and Manichaeism, which, introduced by way of China and accepted by the Uighur kings in the 8th century, is represented by many MSS., sometimes beautifully illuminated, in the Soghdian, Middle-Persian and MiddleTurkish languages. These remains are written in no fewer than 24 scripts. Islam is not associated with this culture. When this religion began to encroach upon it in the roth century, the decline of the mainly Buddhist states of East Turkistan had begun. Art Problems.—In sculpture and painting the basis of all this

art is the Hellenistic Antique, as developed in Gandh4ra and in Bactria under Indian and Iranian influences. The Buddhist religion, and with it the modified Graeco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, entered Central-Asia by the Royal Road through the the Khyber Pass and Bactria, through Udyana and, later by the trade-routes through Kashmir. Architecture—The architecture is purely ecclesiastical— domestic buildings probably did not differ materially from similar erections in the present day. Iranian or Indian models are strictly followed. All traces of Chinese influence are absent and, of antique elements, only the beautiful caisson ceilings occur occasionally. Two groups are found, (a) rock-cut temples and cells, (6) temples, s##pas, and monasteries built with sun-dried bricks (adobe). Cave Temples——The cave-temple settlements follow Bactrian rather than Indian prototypes in their general plan. They are mostly crowded together, often in hundreds, on the perpendicular faces of steep cliffs, in glens of difficult access, near running water and in wild and romantic scenery. The cells of the monks are simple, small, vaulted rooms, with a fire-place, and often a bench cut out of the stone. The walls are plain white-washed, without any ornament. There are very few such cells in even extensive temple groups. Setilements.—The cave-buildings in the older settlements were connected by extensive stone-cut galleries, provided with few

windows for the admission of air. Light in the temples and cells

representations of mountain landscapes, each containing some

birth-story (ja@faka). The middle line between the two topmost tiers contained representations of flights of ducks, constellations, the sun and the moon, wind goddesses and the effigies of the sunand moon-gods in their chariots, most of these representations following Hellenistic prototypes. In later temples (after 700 A.D.) the mountains are replaced by rows of Buddhas. franian Types.—Two other common types are Iranian. The first consists of a square room covered by a cupola rising from profiled mouldings at the upper edge of the walls. The second is similar but covered by a lantern roof, such as exists to this day in wooden houses from Armenia through Bactria to Kashmir and Western Tibet, as described by Moorcroft. In later cavetemples further east (Turfan), this roof was often painted only on the vaulted temple roof. These two Iranian types are used by the Chinese and Koreans as models in their cave-temples (e.g., Tunhwang). Another type is a long, narrow, tun-vaulted apartment, with, or without, a socle for the cult-figure. Brick Temples.—The temples built with sun-dried bricks are erected on the same lines as the cave-temples. The “ lanternroof,’ however, never occurs in these buildings, as this construction is impossible with bricks, but the middle of the ceiling vault in the eastern oases (7th—oth centuries) often bore a painted representation of such a roof. These painted lantern-roofs were commonly used to decorate ceilings in Chinese cave-temples. Lhe Stitpa—The sfipa is either (1) a (massive) building of pyramidal shape, plain on the outside, with a receptacle for relics, coins, MSS., etc., or (2) a dome-shaped erection on a quadrangular base, or (3) in the eastern oases, a pyramid with rows of niches for Buddha-statues, or (4) as a remarkable quad-

rangular building in several tiers, diminishing in size upwards, like a gigantic staircase. A number of large, vaulted niches for Buddha-statues are carved on the four faces of cach tier. These erections are often of great size, one face having as much as 20 metres length. Another rarer Indian type, of much smaller size generally, is a beautifully proportioned building of polygonal cross-section. Af onasteries,—The monastery is usually a square or rectangle surrounded by a strong wall with towers; with one or more temples and rows of cells arranged along the inner course of the walls, built of sunburnt bricks of most excellent quality, evidently made on the spot in the required shape and size. Paintings -—In most temples the walls and vaulted ceilings of the rooms were richly decorated with mural paintings in temperacolours. The colours vary in the different settlements, the most ancient ones being distinguished by a lavish use of true ultramarine. In some temples the floor was of stucco, often with most artistic paintings in af fresco. The walls were found in all stages of preparation. Some were 1M. Trebeck, Travels in the Himalayan

Provinces, etc. (London,

1841, vol. 2, 390) who found it in cave-temples at Bamian; “ the roof was carved so as to represent tiers of beams crossing each other at angles and diminishing their distance as they ascended, until they left an octangular space of about 20 inches only, imitating the roof of

a log-house in Tibet and Kashmir.”

ARCHAEOLOGY simply roughened, awaiting the application of a layer of smoothed stamped clay, in others this finish had been applied, after which the smooth surface was covered with a very thin layer of stucco. On this smoothened surface the painters drew a “ net ”’ of rectangles, one within the other, into which the patterns for the pic-

tures were fitted. Designs.—These patterns were larger or smaller pieces of paper, on which the artist drew his pictures with India ink. The lines were then perforated, the pattern fixed to the wall and beaten with a bag containing powdered charcoal. The contours thus obtained were then traced in India ink and the colours filled in. Sometimes, in young scttlements, an ancient pattern may have been used, so that critical analysis of style, in paintings and still more in sculpture, is not a safe guide to the age of the work. Art Influence and Sources—-All paintings are intensely influenced by late-antique schools of painting, originating in Gandhara, the Punjab and Bactria. According to the province whence the painters came, or drew their inspiration, the paintings of Turkistan show Hellenistic elements modified in an Indian, or in an Iranian sense. Purely antique and purely Sassanian elements also occur, especially in friezes. Chinese elements are wanting absolutely in the older, western oases. But China accepted the syncretistic art, painting and sculpture produced in these regions, and, misunderstanding and modifying the forms received from the West in a Chinese sense, created the splendid art of Thang times on the basis of modified Hellenistic Buddhist art. After Buddhism declined in India, China became the leading Buddhist power, and this new syncretistic Chinese art gained influence only in the eastern settlements (Turfan), and never farther west than the oasis of Kutcha. Main Styles—Five principal well-marked styles of painting, were first observed by A. Griinwedel. (1) Several styles, directly containing late antique elements, such as are found in the Gandhara-Sculptures; are united under the name Gandhara. In certain temples antique elements preponderate, while others show

these elements modified in Iranian or Indian sense (presumably 5th-6th century A.p.). (2) The style of the “ Knights with the long swords ” (Tokharians), is presumably a local continuation of Style No. 1 (probably 6th-7th century a.p.). (3) The Older Turkish style, has a pronounced syncretistic character; the forms of style 1 and 2 are incorporated, but Chinese elements begin to occur. The decorative borders of the wall-paintings and the ceilings show a remarkable and charming flower-ornamentation. The costume of the donors differs completely from that of the donors in the older styles. The inscriptions are in Chinese and Central-Asian Brahmi (presumably 7th-oth century A.D.). (4) The Younger Turkish Style, more properly the Uighur style, shows a further syncretistic development of style 3 in a Chinese ‘ sense—it is only found in the Turfan oasis and is the final development of the older elements into Chinese forms (8th—rith century A.D.). (5) The Lamaistic Style has evident relations to Tibetan art, | Sculpture —All sculpture in Eastern Turkistan derives from the late antique school of Gandhara and pure Hellenistic types appear even in late times in the Eastern settlements, where the paintings had assumed an essentially Chinese character. Use of Moulds —The perseverance, in sculpture, of Hellenistic forms is simply explained by the fact that, Turkistan being a loess-country, without stone fit for the sculptor, the art-craftsmen were forced to use stucco-moulds, of which quantities were found, mostly for the production of half-relievo figures. The larger kinds were moulded in pieces and afterwards put together, often very roughly, with straw-ropes, twigs, coarse pegs, etc. The statue was prepared in the rough, its surface was remodelled, finished off with a fine layer of stucco and richly painted and gilded. In the older western oases the material for the statues was often stucco; in the later (eastern) settlements the common clay of the country, mixed with chopped straw, vegetable fibres and animal hair. In spite of the crudeness of this material, the effect resulting is frequently imposing.

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The moulds were probably imported from Gandhara and replaced, when broken, by exact duplicates, produced, mechanically, from their own former products. Thus antique forms persisted long after paintings had begun to undergo Eastern-Asiatic modifications. When the Sassanians cut the road to the West, no new Western influences could penetrate, while communications with China continued to be easy and frequent. Change of Type——In consequence, the ideal type of beauty began to change and gradually the craftsmen deliberately changed their moulds to suit the Eastern-Asiatic type of beauty. The nose became shorter, the brows were made slanting, the eyes more prominent, etc., while the late antique hairdresses, utterly incomprehensible to the Easterns, were changed according to their own notions and taste. Thus the evolution of a late antique head can be followed, through many stages, until a typically Chinese head results. BinLroGRAPrHY.—Sir A, Stein, Sand-burted Ruins of Khotan (1903); A, Griinwedel, Bericht über archaeolog. Arbeiten in Idigqutschart .. . (Munich, 1906); Sir A. Stein, Ancient Khotan, vol. 1-2 (Oxford, 1907); A. Griinwedel, Alibuddhistische Kultstditten in ChinesischTurkistan (1912); Sir A. Stein, Ruins of Desert Cathay, vol. 1-2 (1912); A. von Le Coq, Cheischo, Kgl. Preuss. Turfan Expedition (1913); S. von Oldenburg, Russkaya Turkestanskayva Ekspedictya (1914); P. Pelliot, Les Groites de Touen-houang, vol. 1 (t914); A. Foucher, The Beginnings of Buddhist Art and Other Essays (1918); A. Grünwedel, 4?t-Kutscha (1920), text to be used with much caution; Sir A. Stein, Serindia, vol. 1-5 (Oxford, 1921), Ancient Buddhist Paintings from the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas (1921); A. von Le Coq, Die buddhtstische Spartantike in Mittel-A sien, vol. 1-5 (1922-5); Sir T. Arnold, Survivals of Sasanian and Manichaean Art in Persian Painting (Oxford 1924); A. von Le Coq, Bilderatias eur Kunst. und Kulturgeschichte Miltel-Asiens (1925); see also P. Pelliot, “ Une bibliothèque médiévale retrouvće au Kan-sou,” Bull. école franç. d Extrême Orient, vol. 8 (1908); ‘‘ Rapport sur sa Mission au Turkestan chinois 1906-9,” Comptes-rendus Acad. des Inser. et Belles Lettres (1910); “ Frois ans en Asie centrale,” Bull. Comité de l'Asie française (Jan. 1910); R. A. Smith, ‘“ The Stone Age in Chinese Turkestan,” Man. No. 52 (1911). (A. v. LE C.)

XII. PERSIA Pre-Achaemenian Period —Rock-sculptures of remote antiquity have been discovered or more accurately studied. They prove that the influence of the higher developed civilisations of Elam and Babylonia stretched much farther into the interior than was supposed. A gold treasure discovered in the Asterabad region (frontier of Russian Turkistan) is Sumerian in character (3000-2500 B.C.); engraved shells of proto-Elamite type are found at Isfahan; and an elaborate early Sumerian rock-sculpture was discovered near Talaspid in Fars. The conclusions drawn from those single objects are supported by the main archaeological material: pottery. The rich harvest of proto-Elamite pottery at Susa belongs to c 3000 B.c. Very similar pottery has been found all over Iran. At this remote period, relations with India are attested:—

among the fresh discoveries of prehistoric remains at Harappa and Mohenjo Daro are typical seals, which may all be derived from types preceding the later cylindrical shape and in common use in Elam and Sumer during the fourth millennium B.C. The second millennium marks a period of cultural depression in Iran. Painted pottery continued in the whole of Iran down to the Achaemenian and Seleucid periods, 7.e., to the beginning of our era, and a great number of bronzes belong to a group known from Asia Minor, which cannot be dated exactly. A great change happened suddenly: a new population, the Arians, who later founded the Median and the Achaecmenian empires, settled in Iran. In harmony with the historical indications in the Assyrian annals, we find the first monuments of this population in northwest Iran, around the lake Urmia and Hamadan-Fkbatana, a region belonging at that time to the Khaldian or Urartaean empire of Van. There remains a group of large tombs, cut into rock, in the shape of the Median house which survives in west Iran to the present day. All the tombs are found in ancient Media, and architectural features and religious emblems prove them to be pre-Achaemenian, hence Median. But whether the inhabitants were already Zoroastrians or followers of a pre-Zoroastrian faith, remains unanswered.

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Achaemenian Period.—The discovery of another royal tomb in Khak-i-Rustam, Mamassani region in Fars, connects the Median tombs with those of the Achaemenians at Persepolis and Naqsh-iRustam. It must be attributed to a predecessor of Cyrus, one of the kings of Anshan, his ancestors. It has columns with protoIonic capitals. Hence, Achaemenian architecture derives its origin from the Median type, of which the rock-cut tombs are the only remains as yet discovered. The art of Arian Iran was at first created in northwest Persia, influenced by the art of the Khaldian or Urartaean empire of Van, itself depending upon the older, Hittite, art of Asia Minor. From Media this art spread into south Iran. Rock-cutting freestone masonry, wooden columns and a highly developed metallurgy are its characteristics. The similarity to the carly Ionic architecture of the west coast of Asia Minor is explained, not by Greek co-operation, but by the fact that both are the extreme branches of a style of architecture that once spread over Asia Minor, Armenia and west Iran. On the other hand, during the whole reign of the Achaemenids, three provinces of India, called Hindu, Gandhara and Thatagu, formed integral parts of their empire. The first surviving monuments of India, although post-Achaemenian, show evidence of Iranian influence in architecture and sculp-

ture—columns, capitals, ornaments. The plan of the palace of Pataliputra is believed to be made in imitation of Persepolis. The transition to rock-sculpture, freestone masonry, stone sculpture from older woodwork, is due to immediate Iranian influence. China adopted the same methods, as proved by the oldest Chinese monuments discovered in Szechwan. Pest-Achaementan Period.—The least known period of Iranian history is the Parthian, which is of special importance for the development of the Zoroastrian religion and the national epics. The most promising sites are a Greek temple (of Dionysos?) at Khurheh in Mahallat, the capital Hecatompylos near Damghan, and the huge temple of Anahit at Kangavar. During the Arsacid period, the great empire of the Saka or Indo-Scythians, extending from the modern province of Seistn in Persia to Muttra and Bombay in India, was connected, more or less loosely, with Iran. Among its rulers, known from their coins, appear some members of the Stirén family, one of the highest feudal houses of Parthia. When the Arsacid Dynasty was replaced by the Sasanians, the reconquest or the extension of their rule over those eastern parts of Iran was among their first accomplishments. According to Pahlavi inscriptions and Bactrian coins, from 230-350 A.D., ancient Soghd and Bactria, i.e., Samarqand and Balkh, were ruled by Sasanian prince-governors, and, in the same way, at least from 280-350 A.D., the entire former Scythian empire was an integral part of their realm. These new facts, proved by inscriptions and coins, explain the Iranian influence exercised during this period on the civilisation of India. BrBLioGRAPHY.—Sarre and F. Herzfeld, Jranische Felsreliefs (1910); G. P. Tate, Seistan (Calcutta, 1910-2); M. Pézard, “‘ Etude sur les intailles Susiennes,”” Afém. de la Déiég. en Perse, 12 (Paris, 1911); E. Pottier, “ Étude histor. et chronol. sur tes vases peints de l’acropole de Suse,” ibid., 3 (Paris, 1912); B. V. Farmakowsky “ Arkhaistichesky period Rossii,” Matertatin po arkheologit Rosstt, vol. 34 (1914); Sir Aurel Stein, ‘' A Third Journey of Exploration in Central Asia, 1913-6, Geog. Jour., vol. 48 (1916); L. Delaporte, Catalogue des cylindres du Musée du Louvre (1920 and 1923); F. Herzfeld, Am Tor von Asien (1920); M. I. Rostovtseff, The Sumerian Treasure of Astrabad,” in Jour. Egypti. Arch., 6, pp. 4-27 (1920); L. Legrain, “ Empreintes de cachets Elamites,” Mission en Perse, Mem. t. 16

(Paris, 1921); M. I. Rostovtseff, Iranians and Greeks in S. Russia (Oxford, 1922); V. Segalen, A. G. de Voisins, J. Lartique, Mission archéologique en Chine (Paris, 1923, 1924 ss); F. Herzfeld, Paikuli (1924); Sir John Marshall, “ First Light on a Long Forgotten Civilisation,” F. London News (Sept. 20 1924); F. D. J. Parduck, Sasanian Coins (Bombay, 1924); T. J. Arne, ‘ Painted Stone Age Pottery from the Province of Honan,” Palaeontol, Sinica, fasc. 2 (Peking, 1925). (E. Ik.*)

XIII INDIA Archaeological exploration was first started officially in northern India in 1862 and was strengthened by Lord Curzon, when Viceroy. India was divided into circles, each with its own superintendent and staff. Epigraphists were appointed, and, later, an archaeological chemist was added to the department.

Annual progress reports are published, and an Imperial Series of Monographs and Memoirs on particular subjects is maintained. Epigraphical results are chietly published in the Epigraphia Indica, the Epigraphia Moslemica and the Epigraphia Birmanica. In addition to the exploration of architectural monuments above ground, and the excavaticn of those below, a great deal of work has been accomplished in the conservation and repair of these. Antiquarian museums have been established all over the country, and several of the native states have taken up archaeological work within their own areas. Prehistoric Antiquities —“ Eoliths ” have been found in India which, as elsewhere, are provisionally accepted as artifacts. Palaeolithic implements of the Chellean type are widely spread in India. Neolithic implements exhibit a remarkable variety and in general conform to similar objects from western Asia and Europe. The most noteworthy exception is the chiselshaped, high shouldered celt found in Burma, Assam and Chota Nagpur, as in Indo-China and the Malay Peninsula. Pottery.—Pottery, both plain and decorated, is found in association with neolithic sites. The plain forms are either rough, smooth, polished or painted while the decorated forms are impressed or moulded or, less commonly, incised. Some of the geometrical painted designs are considered to recall the typical fcatures of Anau and Elam pottery. In southern India incised designs and cognate marks have been described as owners’ marks, potters’ marks, hieroglyphics, some being regarded as resembling Minoan script. Cave Drawings.—In caves in the offshoots of the Vindhyas, associated with pygmy flints, are found rude drawings in ruddle or haematite, which have been ascribed to neolithic culture, though possibly the product of relatively recent inhabitants. At Singanpur the cave paintings of hunting scenes, groups of figures, picture writing and drawings of animals, reptiles, etc., have been thought to show the same methods as were used at Cogul in Spain—an Aurignacian product. The argument is far from convincing and the theory of an Australian connection cannot be regarded as proved. Megaliths, ete—Special problems are raised by the megalithic monuments found in many parts of India. Examination of cairns in Hyderabad state and southern India has yielded pottery of an interesting type: lapis lazuli beads which, being foreign to India, indicate commercial intercourse, possibly with Kashmir or Persia; some gold, silver and copper and iron, due perhaps to an early use of iron for local purposes. It is suggested that resemblances to Egyptian material indicate contact with a common source. Recent Excavations.—The results of the survey of the rock-cut temples of India carried out before Lord Curzon’s time have been published. Much miscellaneous work has also been accomplished amongst the structural temples. Ampler funds have enabled the. department to take up excavation work on a more extensive scale, and some of the more ancient sites, especially in the north of India, have been opened up. Amongst these are the mounds covering the ruins of the old city of Taxila in the Punjab—a place mentioned by early Greek and Chinese historians as a great centre of trade and learning centuries before the Christian era. Much of the three sites that the city occupied as it passed successively under the domination of Persia in the 5th century B.C., the Greeks, the Mauryas, the Bactrian Greeks, the Scythians in the rst century p.c. and the Kushans, has been laid bare and has revealed much of its story. The walls of the houses, monasteries, chapels, stupas, and the palace of the kings have been unearthed. One of the stupas, containing a portion of the relics of the Buddha, yielded with it a very interesting inscribed silver scroll. Besides much semi-classical sculpture, the ruins have given up a great abundance of minor antiquities in pottery, stone, copper, bronze, silver and gold together with quantities of coins—the accumulation of centuries. Prof. Herzfeld has lately discovered inscriptions in Persia which, he considers, go to prove that the Punjab was under Persian rule in the 3rd century A.D. In the sth century the White Huns overran the

country leaving ruin in their wake (see Section XII. PERSIA).

ARCHAEOLOGY Buddhist Relics —The great stupa built by the Kushan king, Kanishka, over a relic of the Buddha, which had been mentioned by the Chinese pilgrims, has been identified and opened. The mound lay at a short distance to the west of Peshawar. It yielded the relics and the reliquary, the latter bearing the name

and an effigy of the king. The stupa appears to have been the largest and most magnificent monument of its kind known in India. The recovered relics were presented, with great ceremony, to the Burmese Buddhists in rg10. Other relics of the Master, from the Piprahwa st#pa, had been previously presented to the King of Siam, and, later, others from Taxila were conveyed to the Buddhists of Ceylon, who had in 1882 received those from the stupa opened up at Supara (? Ophir) near Bombay. The Maurya Palaceat Patna.—On thesiteof theold Maurya capital of Pataliputra (Patna) remains of the palace of the emperors have been brought to light, once a vast pillared hall of about the 3rd century B.c., containing eight rows of monolithic columns, of ro columns each, of polished sandstone. It presents, in many respects, a marked likeness to the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, indicating a close intercourse between Persia and India. The rest of the building, which appears to have been burnt, was probably of wood. From the remains of the old Buddhist monasteries at Nalanda, once famous as a Buddhist seat of Icarning, four miles from Rajagriha, a large number of antiquities was collected. Greco-Buddhist Art—Greco-Buddhist sculptures, of the best period of Gandhära art, have been reclaimed at Takht-i-Bahi, and investigations have been carried out along the PeshāwarSwat border. From Sahri-Bahlol excavation has yielded quantities of sculptures in stone and stucco. At Mathura (Muttra) inscribed images of the emperor Kanishka and other Kushan princes have been found; and at Isapur, near by, an inscribed sacrificial pillar whose inscription was considered the earliest in pure Sanskrit then found. Further excavations were carried out at Kasia (Kusinagara) the place where the Buddha died. At Basarh and Bhita excavations were continued which produced great numbers of seals at the former place. Buddhist Monuments —Buddhism, following the valley of the Indus, advanced through the Punjab into Sind leaving a trail of Buddhist monuments in its wake. The remains of several stupas have been uncovered especially that at Mirpur-Khas which contained its relics. The great site of Brahmanabad has been examined, and in the light of the recent Sumerian-like finds at Mohen-jo-dharo, it requires further and deeper excavation. In central India, extensive clearances were made around the Great Stupa at Sanchi, and the fragments of the old railing which

adorned the berm and the top being found, the latter was restored, together with the crowning umbrella, while the basements of monasteries and chapels were reclaimed from the debris and

jungle. Near by, at Besnagar, the site of Vidisa, a flourishing city when the Greek kings were ruling at Taxila, the base of a Garuda pillar was cleared revealing an inscription recording its erection by a Greek, Heliodorus, an ambassador from the Taxilan court.

Excavations were continued at Sarnath, near Benares, where objects of the Gupta and mediaeval periods and Kushan coins were recovered; other places visited and explored included Suratgadh (Bikaner), Salihundam in south India, the Jamalgarhi stupa, the caves of Bagh with their interesting frescoes, Maheth and Saheth the site of Sravasti, and many other spots in south India and Burma. Sumerian Discovertes—The most startling and unexpected discovery made in the archaeological field is that of the presence, in the Punjab and in Sind, of objects which bear a striking likeness to Sumerian remains of 3000 B.c., and the character of the few letters found upon someof these distinctly points toacommon origin. In Sir John Marshall’s view “‘ this Indus civilisation extended over an immense area including Sind, much of the Punjab, Baluchistan and probably RAjputana and countries even further to the east. The existence of roomy and well-built houses and the relatively high degree of luxury as well as the character of many of the smaller antiquities (seals, gold jewellery, copper

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vessels) betoken a social condition much in advance of what was then prevailing in Mesopotamia or Egypt.”! Kashmir—Remarkable buildings and richly moulded reliefs were discovered at Harwan in Kashmir by the state Archaeological Dept. comprising the triple basement of a stupa; a set of chapels; two smaller stupas, and a large apsidal temple, in the courtyard of which is a curious tile pavement, on which are Kharoshthi numerals which indicate a date of 400 to 500 A.D. at the latest. Amongst the moulded decorations occurs a representation of a cock fight which recalls to mind one of a bull fight in the oldest of the Bhaja caves, surrounded with Persepolitan details, Ajanta Cave Paintings —The famous wall paintings at the Ajanta Caves, of about the 7th century A.D., which were in a very bad state, and were peeling from the walls in places, were taken in hand by an expert from Italy, who has put them into a more permanent state of preservation. BiIBLioGRAPIHY.—Corpus

Inscriptionum

Indicarum

(1877,

etc.,

New Ed. of vol. 1, 1925); Inscriptions from the Cave Temples of Western India (1881); Epigraphica Carnatica. Mysore (Bangalore 1886-1905, and 1923, etc.); “South Indian Inscriptions,” Arch. Survey of India (1888-1920); E. J. Rapson, ed., Cambridge History of India, vol. 1, Chap. 26, detailed Bibliography (1922); See also: E. H. H unt, Journal of Royal Asiatic Institute (Jan. to June 1924); F. J. Richards, ibid., The Indian Antiquary (Bombay); Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society; Journal of the Royal Astatte Society; Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic oR vor 3.4.5 and 14; The Indian Antiquary, vol. 1, 2, 8, loand I5. Con INDONESIA

Sumatra.—Sumatra still awaits investigation. It may be surmised that it escaped colonisation from India because the maritime movements of that country from the East started from points in India and under conditions which made Java rather than Sumatra their main objective. The set of local currents and the weather conditions played a decisive part in determining the lines of early navigation, especially in this difficult region. Java.—The settlement of Indian colonists in Java dates from the sth century A.D. and was mainly influenced by the south, whence radiated the main forces of colonisation, although in the 4th century B.c. commercial enterprise from Bengal was active. No detailed description of the monuments at Borobodur is necessary, but the presence of Saivaite elements, as well as of Buddhistic matcrial, afford clues to the admixture of religious motives in the decoration of what is justly termed the Ninth Wonder of the World. Modern analysis of the relicfs of the great temple is held to reveal ignorance of Indian structure. The employment of Javanese conventions indicates that the fundamental elements must be looked for in local architectural principles, the inspiration being afforded by Hindu rulers and priests who were devoid of technical knowledge. Java marks the limit of Hindu influence which still indeed persists there. Other Islands —1n the remainder of the islands which compose Indonesia two strains of influence may be discerned—Chinese and Malay—which have both combined and also been influenced by contact with Islamic culture of Arabian origin. In Celebes Stone Age culture persisted till recent times; in Borneo only the coastal fringe shows any traces of contact with superior cultures, the interior, which is largely unexplored, being occupied by peoples of a low stage of culture, including pygmy groups. In the Philippines, however, three distinct zones of cultural settlements may be discerned, 1.e., the coastal, the plain and the mountainous, the rudest being that associated with the mountainous area. Much that is essential in the culture of the sub-tropical areas is perishable in the humidity and temperature conditions which there prevail. It is possible, however, that in the future systematic investigation may disclose evidence of the extension, both of early Chinese and early Indian influence over a greater

zone in Indonesia than is at present suspected. BrsLioGRAPHy.—Sir C, Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism (1923); W. Kaudern, Ethnographical Studies in Celebes (1925); C. Hose and W. McDougall, The Pagan Tribes of Borneo (1912), Indian Antiquary (Dec. 1925).

1 Illustrated London News, Feb. 27 1926, p. 346.

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XIV. CHINA AND SOUTHEASTERN ASIA Although the progress which has been made in the study of the prehistoric archaeology of the Far East has been very great, it is not possible at present to put forward a sequence dating which can in any way compare with that of Europe. The precise significance of many of the finds is at present imperfectly understood, but material is being collected, which should in the near future enable the archaeologist to trace the prehistory of

much of this vast area. Palaeolithic Remains.—Up to the present no true palaeolithic implements have been discovered, either in China proper or in southeastern Asia. Matsumoto believes that a human sacrum found in the province of Honan in central China must be considered to belong to Neanderthal man, but precise data are lacking and the definite association of the bone with those of elephants is uncertain; nor can the early implements from IndoChina be considered definitely palacolithic because, although of rude form, they are associated with a modern fauna. Numerous surface finds in China, which have sometimes

been considered

to be palaeolithic, are equally doubtful. North of the Great Wall in the region, however, where the Hwang Ho penetrates Gobi with a great northerly bend usually known as the “ Ordos bend,” Teilhard and Licent found definite palaeolithic remains in at least five localities. The types from one site (Ning Hsia) in the northerly part of Kansu, the province which separates Mongolia from Tibet, are said to be Mousterian. The second site, a fluviatile deposit, at Sjara Osso Gol, contemporary with the loess of central China, contained similar implements associated with quaternary deposits containing forms similar to Elephas primigenius and Rhinoceros tichorhinus of Europe. Deposits at a third site in the same region contained implements which are probably older. Implementiferous deposits were also found elsewhere in loess gravels and in the desert region close to the Hwang Ho itself. The sites extend over a long belt of country nearly 600 m. long enclosed by the great bend of the Hwang Ho. While most of the implements appear to be Mousterian, some are closer to the Aurignacian type, but all are small, possibly, as the explorers suggest, owing to paucity of material. The forms are not quite identical with those from Europe, and until the gaps are filled, exact comparison is impossible. Neolithic Remains.—The neolithic deposits, essentially a vague term in this region, are widespread over the Far East and at least two separate culture areas exist, though further investigation may either link up the two or discover new areas. Provisionally these may be termed the northern and southern areas. Northern Area.—The northern includes much of Mongolia, northeastern China, Manchuria and certain parts of Japan. Its relation to the Siberian early cultures has not yet been fully explored. Much of this area is extremely rich in remains. In certain regions on the Mongolian plateau this culture has been established stratigraphically, and is nearly always found in a bed of black sands superimposed on the quaternary sands, which in Mongolia replace the loess of the Chinese plain. The neolithic succeeds the palaeolithic without any transition, as far as is known at present. One of the most important sites is at Linn Hsi north of Sira Mouren Gol (116° east and 44° north). Most of the implements discovered are somewhat rude and might at first sight be considered to be palaeolithic, but other delicate instruments occur, including triangular arrow-heads. They are associated with rude pottery, which is made without a wheel. The most important implements which have been found both on the plateau and within the Wall at Kalgan, north of Peking, are comparatively fragile laurel-leaf-shaped implements slightly polished. Both Andersson and Teilhard are unanimous in thinking these implements to be ploughshares. Their importance lies in the fact that similar implements are associated with the neolithic culture of North America, and there is every reason to associate the two. At present the authors of this culture are not clearly known. The kitchen middens of Japan show a similar culture, which can there be divided into periods stratigraphically. In Japan human skeletons have been discovered in association with the pottery. The types are similar to those of the

present day Ainu (see Racrs oF MANKIND) but it is difficult to associate the two groups of peoples, as the Ainu have no indigenous pottery. Numerous rude stone monuments have been found in Manchuria and Korea, which probably belong to this culture but they have not as yet been adequately studied. Pottery—The rude pottery of this culture survived through the succeeding periods, and indeed is in use to-day, which makes some of the dating difficult. It forms an integral part of the finds in the succeeding culture, which has been carefully studied by Andersson in various parts of China, including the most westerly and the central provinces and Manchuria. This culture is definitely of a chalcolithic type; with it are associated not only the coarse ware already noted but polished celts and fine painted ware, which can be divided into brick-red small, thin-walled monochrome vessels and others which are painted. Whecl-made vessels occur, but most are hand-made. The polychrome vessels are mostly bowls and are often beautifully worked. This type of pottery belongs to the same class of painted ware which has been found at Anau near ‘Ashqabaid in Russian Turkistan and Tripolje and has a wide distribution in western Asia (see Section X. WESTERN ASIA, note 30). There are also some local forms, notably the tripod pot, which has developed into the di of ancient and modern China. This culture, with its close parallels with the west and indigenous forms, has a very wide distribution over northern China, and is associated with the bones of people who do not differ essentially from the modern Chinese. No traces of metal have been discovered in spite of careful and extensive excavations, but apart from the introduction of metal and the substitution of metal for ceramic or lithic material, many of the forms associated with this culture survive in China to-day, with the exception of the remarkable polychrome ware. Up to the present this culture does not appear to have been reported from Japan. No exact dating can be given; probably in Manchuria the culture was at its height about 1500 B.c., but as it extended over a vast area its floruit was probably very different in different localities. Pig, the typical domestic animal of China since Chinese culture began, was found in immense quantities, but in some places Andersson found remains of recent animals now locally extinct. Considerable surface changes have taken place in some sites since their deposition. In a loess country, however, denudation sometimes takes place at a rapid rate. Southern Area.—The southern extent of both this culture and the preceding one is not yet known, and the rude neolithic is not at present clearly established in central China. Southeastern Asia seems to constitute a separate archaeological province, separate certainly from the Mediterranean region and on the whole from the countries to the immediate west. Although the brothers Sarasin seem to have linked up the archaeology of Ceylon both with that of India and some parts of the Malay Archipelago, suggesting a culture which in Europe would be considered late palaeolithic, elsewhere such evidence is lacking. In the Malay Peninsula numerous polished stone implements have been discovered and there is evidence to suggest that at least some were in use contemporaneously with metals, some authorities suggesting both bronze and iron. Earlier or stratified deposits, which probably exist, remain as yet to be discovered. Special attention has been directed to this region, owing to the discovery of pithecanthropus erectus and other primitive skulls in Java, but in spite of considerable researches in that island the history of palaeolithic culture in that region has yet to be written. Indo-China.—Indo-China has been more thoroughly explored. A careful examination of a number of caves has not led to the discovery of any ancient animal remains comparable cither to those of Mongolia, India or Europe. The fauna of the caves is essentially recent, terrestrial molluscs being especially prominent, all belonging to species which still survive in the same region. The industry associated with the early caves is of rude technique, although pottery is found. The implements have not the finish which is characteristic of some of those belonging to the earlier neolithic of Manchuria, and have been considered by some to be actually palaeolithic. The fauna, however, contra-

ARCHAEOLOGY dicts this and they must be definitely considered to be neolithic. Certain cranial fragments have been discovered associated with the industry, and their reconstruction has revealed a type of man akin to the modern Melanesians (see RACES OF MANKIND). This industry closes very abruptly and there is no transitional period between this and the succeeding or “ classical neolithic ” period of Indo-China. This culture has a wide distribution and extends as far as and probably beyond the southern frontiers of modern China and westwards into India. But its full extension has not yet been explored and it is not possible to express its exact limits. It is certainly a recent neolithic, but the attempts which have been made to date it, especially by estimating the effects of annual increase of fluviatile deposits, by which means a date several centuries anterior to our cra has been arrived at, have not received any general acceptance. We have a well-marked culture which is characteristic of an archaeological province, which must be, in the present state of our knowledge, considered entirely separate from the other cultures so far considered. The technique shows a very considerable experience in the art of stone working, especially in the form of the axes which have a characteristic shape. They are rectangular in form and in many specimens are worked with a shoulder, the part farthest from the blade thus forming a tongue for hafting. The bracelets made of shell also show considerable skill in the handling of materials. The origin of this highly developed culture is at present unknown. Recent workers are inclined to regard it as not being indigenous to the area in which it is at present known, but as being introduced suddenly by some great ethnic movement which drove out the former Melanesian makers of the rude earlicr neolithic culture. The local transition is too great, as at present explored, to permit any suggestion of the peaceful penetration of an alien culture, but further excavations in neighbouring regions may throw light on the transition. It does not seem possible at present to link up the various neolithic periods of southeastern Asia with those of the northern part of the continent, but it would appear that there must be a line of contact between the chalcolithic of northern and central China and the neolithic of Indo-China somewhere in southern China. Sites have, however, at present not been reported. (See MONGOLIA.) BIBL1IoGRAPITY.—P. Teilhard de Chardin, ?’Anthropologie, vol. 33 (1923); and E. Licent, id., vol. 25 (1925), (China and Indo-China); R. Torii, Jour. Coll, Sci. Tokyo imp. Univ a vol. 36 (I9I4), (Mongolia and Manchuria); H. Mafsumoto, Amer. Anthropologist, vol. 23 (1921); K. Hamada and H. Hasebe, Rep. Archaeological Research, Department of Literature. Kyoto Imperial University, Japan (1920); J. G. Andersson, Palaeontologia Sinica, Series D (1923 onwards): H. Bryn, Ymer (1922); V. Christian, Anthropos (1921-2); and Mitth. Anihrop. Ges. Wien (1923); L. H. D. Buxton, Man (1925), (Chalcolithic in China); id., The Peoples of Asia (1925); M. Boule, Les hommes fossiles (1923), (Anthropology of Early Man in the Far East; English trans. by J. E. Ritchie and J. E 1923). B)

XV.

OCEANIA

AND

EASTER

ISLAND

Introduction and General.—In the latter part of the 18th century permanent contact with European settlers was established and induced a rapid transition from the stone to the steel age. Previously writing was unknown in the area, if we except the pictographic “ script,” as yet imperfectly explained, of Easter L., and in spite of the astonishingly high development of oral tradition in Polynesia and of the occasional accounts of earlier European navigators from the 16th century onward, the pre-European period must be regarded as, in the main, prehistoric. Imperfection of Record.—Although it is improbable that any of the more important monuments have entirely escaped observation and record, the greater part of the area has never been properly surveyed in an archaeological sense, and the published records available for many islands are meagre and of too unequal value to allow of any final correlation. The only islands of which

detailed surveys have been published are Easter, the Australs, the Marquesas, Hawaii

(some islands), the Carolines (Ponape

and Kusaie) and, in part, New Zealand and the Chathams. Surveys of Tonga, Rapa-iti and some smaller islands (Fanning,

189

Malden, Christmas, etc.) are now (1926) in preparation by the Bishop Museum, Honolulu. Absence of Palaeolithic Culture —Owing to the character of the climate, and the complete absence of pottery in Polynesia, the materials for archaeological study are practically limited to stone tools and monuments. No evidence of a palaeolithic culture has been found in any part of Oceania. The prevailing tools are everywhere axes or adzes of stone (occasionally also shell), polished wholly or in part, although flaked obsidian was also used in certain islands where it occurred (e.g., Easter, New Zealand, New Britain), and roughly flaked quarrying tools bearing a superficial resemblance to palacolithic hand-axes are found in Easter Island. Judged by its tools, the prehistoric culture of the area belongs entirely to the neolithic period. Divisions.—The ethnographical division into Melanesia and Polynesia holds good, in the main, for archacology. In the former region adzes are of the “ celt ” type and rounded or sublenticular in section; in the latter they are predominantly straight-edged and angular in section, and further subdivided into a tanged and tangless type, characteristic of east and west Polynesia respectively. The distribution of monuments ts in substantial agreement with that of the tools, and the elaborate structures of masonry characteristic of Polynesia scarcely occur west of Fiji, where rude heterogencous megaliths are the rule. Exceptions in the Solomon and Banks Is. may‘be regarded as relics of Polynesian migrations eastwards, or as due to later reflex movements. Absence of Stratified Sites —No stratified sites showing culture sequence, except In a minor degree in New Zealand, have been found. The habit of making permanent funerary offerings seems to have been little developed, and grave-goods, where discovered, do not differ markedly from artifacts of recent date. ‘ Only in parts of Melanesia has the occurrence of deposits distinct in

character from the products of the historic inhabitants observed.

been

POLYNESIA

In Polynesia there is little evidence of a succession of cultures; monuments and implements represent at most an earher and higher phase of the culture that continued into historic times. Exceptions do occur, however; adzes of distinctively Melanesian type, found in Tahiti and Easter I., and the carvings of birdheaded men in the latter, suggest the possibility of a pre-Polynesian occupation of parts of eastern Oceania by the negroid race. The presence of a strong negroid strain in the inhabitants of eastern Polynesia is doubtful evidence in the same direction, since it may quite probably be due to racial intermixture during the Polynesian migrations through Melanesia and not to fusion in the islands in which it is found. Eastern Polynesia.—In all the island groups east of Tonga and Samoa, without a single important exception, occur the remains, now more or less ruined, of megalithic structures, the sacred places or marae of the Polynesians. These consist typically of paved rectangular enclosures, surrounded by stone walls, and containing one or more rectangular stone platforms, sometimes, as in Tahiti, of stepped pyramidal form. These elements were variously combined and differ in details of construction, contour and size. Thus in the Marquesas the walls are low or absent, in the Australs the platforms are generally lacking, while in Tahiti and Hawaii all features are generally present. The platforms were faced with large boulders or hewn blocks of stone or coral, sometimes weighing many tons, and often neatly fitted in regular courses, although mortar was never employed. The core consisted of earth or rubble, and sometimes contained burial pits or vaults. Platforms served also as substructures for sacred houses

of perishable material, for the exposure of the dead, as sacrificial altars, etc. Many of them were originally surmounted by large figures of wood or stone in conventionalised human form. The stone figures, some still i# situ, are found in Hawaii (Necker), Easter [., Pitcairn, Tahiti, the Australs (Raivavai) and in the Marquesas, where they exactly resemble those carved in wood. In the Marquesas, platforms, which always had vertical sides, were also much used for secular purposes, both in public assembly

190

ARCHAEOLOGY

places (tokua) as seats for the spectators of dances, and as foundations for the ordinary dwelling-houses. The extreme development of terraces and platforms in the latter islands is undoubtedly due to the scarcity of level ground in the steep and narrow valleys, and to the abundance of suitable boulders and easily worked volcanic stone. The largest recorded platform, that of Oborea, in Tahiti, now almost destroyed, measured go x 24 yd. at the base, and rose in ro or rı steps to a height of about 50 ft.; but in general these structures did not exceed 12 ft. in height. The antiquity of particular structures cannot be determined from internal evidence, but they were presumably built by ancestors of the historical Polynesians, who on traditional evidence did not reach the area earlier than the 7th century A.D. The fact that they occur in similar form in all groups, including Tahiti and Hawaii, which remained without intercommunication after the great voyages of the 13th and 14th centuries, as well as on intermediate islands, afterwards uninhabited, like Malden and Fanning, shows that the type must have been fully developed by the time of these voyages. Many were still in use when discovered, and some were even constructed in the historic period. Easter Istand.—In Easter I., where large trees were absent, stone construction attained its maximum development. ‘The coast is almost surrounded by stone terraces (az), associated with burial vaults, the largest being some 300 ft. long and 15 ft. high; on these platforms, and scattered about the island, stood hundreds of monolithic statues, now overthrown, ranging from 6 to upwards of 30 ft. in height, and crowned originally with “hats” of red tuff. Some of these were still standing and apparently worshipped when discovered in 1722. Stone houses with partially corbelled roofs are found here only in Oceania, and the numerous carvings of bird-headed men on rocks and statues are unique in Polynesia. The maraes and stone figures of Pitcairn, uninhabited when found, bear some resemblance to those of Easter Island. Pitcairn I. has traces of a former Polynesian settlement tn maraes and figures somewhat resembling those of Easter Island. Large stone axes of exceptional type have been dug up in the soil. Other small islands, found uninhabited, but bearing evidence of former Polynesian settlement, include Palmerston, Flint, Malden, Christmas, Fanning, Necker (Hawaii). Samoa and Tonga.—In Samoa and Tonga typical walled maraes are not found, but the occurrence of stone temple and burial platforms in the former, and sepulchral mounds containing stone cists in the latter have been recorded. In the mountainous interior of Upolu (Samoa) is a group of upright basalt slabs on a paved floor (O Le Fale-o-le-Fe ’e), evidently the supports of a former house or temple, while in Savaii there are remains of roads and raised causeways elaborately engineered, but long disused and partly destroyed by an overflow of lava. The most striking examples of true megaliths are the two trilithons on Tongatabu (Tonga), 15 and 30 ft. high respectively, the lintel stone being mortised into the two uprights in one case, and surmounted by a stone bowl in the other. A tradition ascribes the erection of the former to a chief of the 14th century in connection with a kava feast. Equally remarkable are the terraced “tombs of the kings ” (langi), which are faced with hewn coral blocks measuring up to 22 ft. in length. Stone Fortifications and Petroglyphs —Stone fortifications occur on many islands, and reach their highest development in the terraced entrenchments and solid stone towers on the mountains of Rapaiti. Of the petroglyphs, representing conventional human and animal figures, concentric circles, etc., which are found abundantly in Hawaii and the Marquesas, some by their situation seem to have had religious significance, while others are “ travellers’ marks ”’; but many are of recent date. New Zealand.—The final settlement of New Zealand by Polynesian immigrants from Rarotonga in the 14th century was preceded by an earlier branch of the same race, possibly also by people of Melanesian affinities. Archaeology throws little light on this question. The earthwork and stone fortifications belong for the most part to Maori culture, as do probably the pit dwellings and terraces of the Pelorus and Auckland districts and the

artificial caves and figures carved in the soft tuff of Rotorua. Excavations in Otago have shown that the culture of the early moa hunters, which includes flake implements of quartzite and obsidian and rock paintings, did not differ essentially from that of the historical Maori. Curious figures incised in a sandstone pit in Auckland and rock-carvings in the Kaingaroa plains representing canoes of Maori type are among the more interesting recent discoveries. The stone implements of the extinct Moriori resemble Maori types, with the exception of tanged obsidian blades; tree-carvings and much weathered bird figures incised on cliffs have been reported. MICRONESIA

The most important monuments of Micronesia are found in the Caroline Is., where both on Ponape and Kusaie extensive groups of buildings intersected by canals were constructed on artificially enlarged reefs protected by sea walls. They take the form of rectangular paved courtyards, frequently in contiguous clusters, surrounded by massive walls, constructed by laying long columnar blocks of basalt lengthwise and crosswise in alternate layers. These walls rise in places to a height of more than 20 Ít., but were not roofed. The enclosures formerly contained houses of perishable material, traces of which remain; also platforms, terraced or pyramidal, in which were sepulchral vaults

roofed with coral or basalt slabs. The most striking and best preserved of these structures is the royal cemetery of Nan Tauach at Matolenim (Ponape), which stands in a double enclosure and contains four burial chambers. Enclosed burial platforms of a somewhat similar type occur farther west in Yap and the Bunaj Islands. They have certain points in common with the marae of Polynesia, to which they are possibly related. Although the date at which these ‘‘ sacred cities ” of the Carolines were begun is not clear, they were still inhabited at the time of their discovery, and the tradition of how they were constructed by means of inclined planes of tree trunks survives. The stone pounders, and shell and other objects found in the tombs, do not suggest a high antiquity. In the Marianne Is. occur groups of conical pillars, built of cemented coral slabs, and surmounted by hemispherical capitals. These are always arranged in two parallel rows, and presumably served as house supports; a burial has, however, been reported in one of the capitals. The largest, in Tinian, are 15 ft. in height with capitals six or seven ft. in diameter. MELANESIA

In various parts of Melanesia are found relics of a prehistoric culture or cultures, which it is as yet impossible to date or correlate satisfactorily. An important region covers the east end of New Guinea, New Britain and the adjacent archipelago, where the remains found include ornamented pottery (somewhat similar to that of prehistoric Japan), engraved shells, obsidian implements and stone pestles and mortars, some of which occur

at a considerable depth in river gravels and all of which are quite distinct from the products of recent inhabitants. In the same region, but within a more limited area, are low stone circles, lines and heaps of stones, now used as squatting places and, in part at least, of recent origin. Rock paintings and engravings are numerous in the district behind Port Moresby, some of them coated with a film of calcium carbonate, indicating a certain antiquity. Megaliths are widely distributed and irrigation terraces are found throughout Melanesia. In the Solomon Is. (Bougainville and San Cristoval) upright stones occur singly and in groups; in San Cristoval some villages are bordered with stone walls or platforms, and numerous stone-faced and earth mounds—containing shafts leading to burial chambers, and sometimes surmounted by stone statues, small dolmens, or upright stones— are still in use. They may be related to Polynesian burial platforms. Their form and the mortuary customs associated with them have led to a comparison with early Egyptian mastabas; but the supposed resemblance of the pig-tail figures to Egyptian royal statues seems too remote to justify the emphasis laid upon it. In the New Hebrides the antiquities include menhirs, stone sacrificial “ tables ” or dolmens, walls and high platforms, and

ARCHAEOLOGY an obsolete type of pottery. There is an exceptional development of stone walls and buildings in the Banks Is., but some of these are of recent construction. In New Caledonia stone statues (in caves in Lifu) and a few “‘ dolmens or trilithons ” have been reported. Petroglyphs are common to all these groups, and particularly numerous in New Caledonia, where they take the form of human and animal figures, spirals and other patterns. Some of the better structures may be attributed to reflex Polynesian influence which has affected many of these islands in comparatively recent times; the nanga of Fiji so closely resemble Polynesian marae as to leave no doubt of their common origin. Migrations—Negrito and negroid races were undoubtedly the first to arrive in the Pacific and occupy the Melanesian area, and may possibly have spread as far as Easter Island. Oral traditions, supported by botanical and linguistic evidence, indicate that the ancestors of the mixed Polynesian race set out

from the Asiatic continent {probably India) in the latter part of the rst millenium B.c., and after a period of settlement in the Indonesian archipelago proceeded in at least two main streams of migration by way of Melanesia or Micronesia to Fiji, which they reached in about the sth century a.D. Thence eastern Polynesia and New Zealand were settled in successive voyages during the 7th to 14th centuries. Hawaii seems to have been reached first by a direct migration from Indonesia, and subsequently by a branch of the main wave from southeastern Polynesia; this conclusion is supported by archaeological study which

recognises two distinct types of keiau (marae), the later of which corresponds with the Taendi Purgu type. Hypotheses—The hypothesis that Oceania served as a highway for the diffusion of an “‘ archaic civilisation,” originating in Egypt in the 3rd millenium B.c., and including the practices of sun worship, mummification and the building of megalithic structures; and that the stone monuments of Oceania are attribut-

able to the bearers of this culture complex, has been a subject of considerable controversy. If tradition is right in asserting that Polynesian migrations did not reach the eastern Pacific before the 6th or 7th centuries A.D., and if, as appears probable, these people were the builders of the monuments in that area, it is apparent that they cannot have reached America in time to introduce civilisation to that continent. On the other hand, since they were in contact with Asia till a late period, they can hardly have escaped the influence of old-world culture or have failed to carry some of its elements with them into the Pacific. The absence of pottery has been used by others as an argument for the very early isolation of the Polynesians; but this art might easily have been lost as a result of prolonged wanderings among coral islands, where the material with which to practice it was not available. The view that Oceania was peopled by migration from America finds little support at the present time. BIBLIOGRAPHY.~—W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches (1832-4); F. W. Christian, The Caroline Islands (1899); R. Parkinson, Dretssig Jahre in der Stidsee (1907); G. Thilenius, Argebnisse der Stidsee-Expedition,

vol. 2, B. 4 “ Kusae ” (1908-10); W. H. R. Rivers, The History of Melanesian Society (1914); S. Routledge, The Mystery of Easter Island (1919); S. P. Smith, Hawaiki, Polynesian Traditions (Auckland, N. Z.,1921); W. J. Perry, The Chtldren of the Sun, with extensive bibliography (1923); F. Speiser, Ethnographische Materialien aus den Neuen Ifebriden (1923); C. E. Fox, The Threshold of the Pacific, Solomons (1924); see also J. S. Kubary, “f Die Ruinen auf der Insel Ponape,” Jour. Mus. Godefroy, vol. 3, part 6 and 8 (Hamburg, 1873, etc.); Internationales Archiv fiir Ethnographie, vol. 2, “ Fiji” (188g), vol. 10, “‘ Tahiti” (1897); Journal of the Polynesian Society, New Zealand, vol. 1-6 (1892-7), 12 (1903), 15-20 (1906-11), 30-34 (1921-5); Journal (Royal) Anthropological Institute, vol. 28 “ Ponape " (1898), 30 “ Pitcairn’ (1900), 32 ‘‘ Tonga” (1902), 42 and 49 “ New Guinea ” (1912 and I919), 50 “‘ Easter ” (1920), 51 “ Tahiti, Australs ”’ (1921); Afan, ‘ New Guinea " (1904, 1908, 1915, 1922-4), ‘' New Caledonia ”’ (1916); Anthropos ‘‘ New Lritain,”’ vol. 4-6 (1909-11), 9-11 (1914-6); G. Fowke, “ Hawaii,” Bureau of American Ethnology, Bull. 76 (1921-2); Bishop Museum, Honolulu, publications, Bull. 12, K. P. Emory, “ Lanai ” (1924); Bull. 23, R, Linton, * Marquesas ” (1925). (H. J. BR.

XVI.

NORTH

AMERICA

Pueblo Area.—The greatest activity in archaeological research in northern America has been in Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado,

IQI

Utah and Nevada—the territory of the ancient Pueblos—partly because its ceramic remains afford an exceptional basis for determining the succession of cultures. The excavations by A. V. Kidder of Phillips Academy at Pecos, by Neil M. Judd of the National Geographic Society, at Pueblo Bonito and Pueblo del Arroyo, and by F. W. Hodge, of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, at Hawikuh, each of whom has devoted six years to these researches in New Mexico, had for their chief purpose a determination by stratigraphic studies of the sequences of the pottery types found at those sites. | Other studies of a generally similar nature were conducted by N. C. Nelson for the American Museum of Natural History in ruins of the Tewa, Tano and Keres Indians of the Rio Grande drainage in New Mexico, especially in Galisteo valley, which have been productive of much information on the stages of pottery development from the earliest period until the Pueblo rebellion of 1680; and by Earl H. Morris during several seasons at the great ruin near Aztec, New Mexico, the site of which has been purchased and presented to the Government as a National monument. During three years in Cafion del Muerto, Arizona, Morris recovered a remarkable series of sandals and other textiles. There

has been work by Erich Schmidt at an ancient pueblo site near Miami, southern Arizona; by Fewkes in various important Pueblo culture centres, such as the Mesa Verde National Park and the Hovenweep region of Colorado, the Mimbres valley of New Mexico, the Navaho National monument and the Black Falls ruins in Arizona. Excavations by E. L. Hewett of the School of American Research at Chettro Kettle in Chaco Cafion and elsewhere in New Mexico; by Hodge and Lothrop at Kechipauan, near Zufi in the same state; by J. A. Jeancon and F. H. H. Roberts in southern Colorado; by Jeancon in Taos valley and the ancient Tewa country of northern New Mexico; by Wesley Bradfield of the School of American Research near the Santa Rita mines in southern New Mexico; by the Cosgroves for two years in Mimbres valley for the Peabody Museum of Harvard University; the joint researches conducted by the Bureau of American Ethnology and the School of American Research, under Hodge and Hewett respectively, in the Rito de los Frijoles, the Pajarito Park, and the Jemez valley, New Mexico (the Southwest Museum of Los Angeles joining in the Jemez work a year later), and the discoveries by Dr. Wilson for the Commercial Museum of Philadelphia in Tewa ruins of the Pajarito have all added to the sum of knowledge respecting this important archaeological field, while the systematic work by Kidder and Guernsey for Phillips Academy and the Peabody Museum of Harvard University, respectively, in caves, cliff-dwellings and other habitation sites and burial places, during several seasons, have resulted in defining the four earliest periods of southwestern culture. Byron Cummings of the University of Utah and the University of Arizona, Judd of the National Museum, and J. L. Nusbaum of the Museum of the American Indian, have worked at the archaeology of northern Arizona and southern Utah. Walter Hough of the National Museum has explored pit-dwellings near Luna, New Mexico. Of a more or less kindred character were the observations on ancient remains near Flagstaff and in the Grand Cañon, Arizona, by S. A. Barrett and G. A. West of the Milwaukee Public Museum. The reputed finding in the Grand Cañon of ancient pictographs representing mammoths, seriously exploited by a local museum in California, has not been accepted. In 1924-6 M. R. Harrington, for the Museum of the American Indian, conducted excavations at a series of early Pueblo ruins known as Pueblo Grande de Nevada, in southeastern Nevada, of great archaeological importance because the remains pertain to the most westerly extension of the Pueblo culture area yet discovered. Southern States—Perhaps less spectacular in results. but of equal importance, have been the excavations conducted in the southern states by several institutions, and notably by Mr. Clarence B. Moore, whose researches in conjunction with the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia have been characterised as the most important of their kind ever undertaken by

192

ARCHAEOLOGY

private means within the United States. Mr. Moore devoted each field season during many years to the excavation of hundreds of mounds along the streams and the Florida coast, the results of his observations being published as the units of work were finished. The Bureau of American Ethnology also explored mounds in Alabama and Tennessee and at Weeden J. near St. Petersburg, Florida, where culture stratification was observed by Fewkes. A season was spent in a study of the historic Nacoochee mound of the Cherokee by Heye, Hodge and Pepper, in Georgia, in 1915, under the joint auspices of the Bureau of American Ethnology and the Museum of the American Indian. Of great importance to the elucidation of the culture history of the Cherokee are the results of excavations by M. R. Harrington in Tennessee for the Museum of the American Indian, which have been published, as likewise has his memoir on some important Caddo sites in Arkansas, explored under the same auspices. Of special interest to archaeologists, by reason of its great size, is the Etowah mound in Georgia, the systematic excavation of which, commenced by Moorehead for Phillips Academy, promises noteworthy results. The same institution has explored mounds also in Mississippi with a view to determining relations. Since its establishment in 1909, the Alabama Anthropological Society has located more than 200 aboriginal sites within the State and has explored about a fourth of these. On the Alabama and Coosa rivers evidences of an advanced culture, identical with that revealed by Moore at Moundville, have been uncovered, and certain artifacts suggest Mexican influence in this area. Of more or less related interest, by reason of cultural contact with the adjacent mainland in prehistoric times, are the researches carried on in the West Indies by Fewkes for the Bureau of American Ethnology and the Museum of the American Indian, by de Booy and Huckerby for the latter museum, and especially by M. R. Harrington for the same institution in Cuba, with results of outstanding importance. Until 1918 Texas had been almost neglected as a field of archaeological research, but the Bureau of American Ethnology and the University of Texas, represented by J. E. Pearce, have done much to elucidate the problems of the early inhabitants of that state. Everywhere over the limestone region are found numerous and extensive kitchen middens which show evidence of a hunter culture only. In the timbered region of eastern Texas are evidences of an early mound-builder culture and of the relatively settled village culture of the historic period. Along the streams of central Texas are many old camp sites which reveal evidences of a culture superior to that of the kitchen

middens. In the trans-Pecos region a low form of Pueblo culture has been revealed, with evidences of cave life here and there, and in the Panhandle traces of a crude form of stone buildings have been found by Moorehead, who tegards them of Pueblo origin.

Cave Work.—Special efforts have long been made to trace the remains of very early man in the United States; and although various reports of such occurrence in association with fossil remains have been made from time to time, no indubitable evidence had, up to 1926, been adduced. With a view to obtaining scientific data on the subject, much cave work has been done, notably in the Ozark mountains of Arkansas-Missouri, by the Bureau of American Ethnology, by Nelson for the American Museum of Natural History, and by M. R. Harrington for the Museum of the American Indian, and also by Nelson in Kentucky caves. Loud, of the University of California, and Harrington have also conducted important excavations in an anciently inhabited cave near Lovelock, Nevada. But in none of these investigations has anything been found to indicate the former presence of people not readily identifiable as American Indians. The Delaware valley near Trenton, New Jersey, has long been the scene of researches looking to the establishment of evidence of early man in the vicinity, the latest studies there being those of Leslie Spier and Alanson Skinner for the American Museum of Natural History, who found a pre-pottery argillite culture underlying the later culture of the historic Delaware Indians, and demonstrated that arrowheads and natural pebbles were impartially deposited in sand by a stream which was probably not much later than the Glacial retreat. Anthropologists demand incontrovertible evi-

dence of the existence of very early man in America, however, and Holmes and Hrdlička of the National Museum have been especially active in combating all suggestions of such, based on casual or superficial observation or on fortuitous associations. Mound Region.—The Peabody Museum of Harvard University in 1911 finished the exploration of the extensive aboriginal cemetery at Madisonville, Ohio, and a new survey of the grea’ Serpent mound in that State was made. In co-operation with the University of Illinois, Moorehead of Phillips Academy conducted investigations of the Cahokia mound group in IJinei., the largest in the United States, whose larger earthworks are now preserved as a State park. For twenty-five years the Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society, under W. C. Mills, has conducted intensive excavations throughout the State, special attention being devoted since roro to the Harness mound, the Seip group and Tremper mound in the lower Scioto valley, all belonging to the Hopewell culture; the Feurt mounds and villagesites of the Fort Ancient culture; the Westenhaven mound, probably of early Hopewell culture; the Mound City group, and the celebrated Hopewell group, which in 1925 revealed, among other remarkable objects, artificial copper noses on two skeletons and a necklace of 320 pearls. Various sites In Butler county and along the Scioto were investigated, and Flint Ridge, the source of material for making arrow- and spear-points and knives, wasexamined.

The Milwaukee Public Museum has been remarkably active in archaeological work in Wisconsin under the guidance of S. A. Barrett. The Kratz Creek mound group in Marquette county was investigated and 53 mounds opened, with important results; the extensive old site at Aztalan was uncovered, revealing influence from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico; and mound groups in Shawano, Oconto, Green, Lake and Marquette counties, and at Shorewood, a Milwaukee suburb, were likewise explored. Investigations of old Kansa and other sites in Nebraska, and still other sites in lowa, were carried on by the Peabody Museum of Harvard University. In South Dakota, W. W. Stirling, for the National Museum, explored four of ten village sites on the Missouri river, three of which were Arikara and one the historic village visited by Lewis and Clark in 1804. The Wisconsin Archaeological Society has located, since 1911, nearly 5,000 mounds in 21 counties, in addition to large numbers of village, camp and workshop sites, planting grounds, cemeteries, flint and pipestone quarries, lead diggings, sacred springs, petroglyphs, etc., and a number of single mounds, mound groups, burial places and other aboriginal remains have been explored. Additional mounds and mound groups have been preserved for public use and marked with tablets at various places, and a large part of the ancient Indian enclosure of Aztalan has been acquired by the society and is now the Aztalan Mound Park under State control.

Pacific Coust.—The efforts of the University of California have been devoted mainly to the archaeology of its own State. A beginning has been made on the systematic recording of the localised private collections and on the methodical comparison of all this material by areas. Actual excavating has been done in strategic points in the upper San Joaquin valley, on San Francisco bay, in the Stockton-Lodi region and on Humboldt bay. Looking toward the establishment of connections, excavation has also been conducted in the Willamette valley at Albany, and on the Columbia river, principally at Sauvies I. and The Dalles, in Oregon, and in western Nevada; and reconnaissance trips have been made into the Imperial valley, California, and

into Lower California. Excavation of a site at Santa Barbara by J. P. Harrington for the Bureau of American Ethnology and the Museum of the American Indian revealed typical Chumash artifacts, together with skeletal remains which at first were thought to be of extreme age, but more deliberate scientific study shows them to have no features not characteristic of late Pacific coast Indians. New York and New England.—On behalf of the New York State Museum, Arthur C. Parker investigated many sites. One of the late historical period at Port Jervis revealed characterA pre-colonial site at istic articles of European provenience. Richmond Mills, Ontario county, examined with the co-operation

ARCHAEOLOGY of the L. H. Morgan Chapter of the State Archaeological Society, proved to be Seneca. A site of similar culture near Factory Hollow, in the same county, probably had been occupied by ihe Richmond Mills people in early colonial times. A pre-colonial site near the outlet of Owasco lake had belonged to an Algonkian tribe. A site in Brant, on the Cattaraugus reservation, had been occupied by the Seneca at the beginning of the colonial period. Other sites investigated were the Seneca village of Gannagaro, near the town of Victor, which was destroyed by the French in 1687, an Algonkian fishing village at Green Point near Catskill, a site near Vine Valley, on Canandaigua lake, with remains similar to the Ohio mound region, a quarry site and workshop south of Coxsackie, covering a hill a mile Jong, an Algonkian site near Four Mile Point, on Hudson river, which exhibited contact with New England. Several years were devoted to an archaeological

survey of the State and the charting of sites, and much light has been shed on the chronological sequence of the early aboriginal occupancy. In 1925 the Rochester Municipal Museum, under Mr. Parker’s direction, conducted an expedition on Lamoka lake, Schuyler county, where an early, pre-pottery Algonkian fshing village site was uncovered. Considerable activity was manifested by the Museum of the American Indian in archacological researches especially in and about New York City—at Throgs Neck, Clason Point and Inwood (where Skinner conducted important excavations), on Long Island and Staten Island, and at Croton Point, as well as at several up-State localities, notably on

Frontenac island, in Cayuga lake, where D. A. Cadzow uncovered a prehistoric Algonkian site. In New England, Phillips Academy, under Moorehead, conducted many expeditions during 12 seasons, Mapping upward of 1,000 shell-heaps and village sites and go cemeteries. About 50 sites were explored. Reports on the archaeology of Maine and other areas were published, and a correlation of cultures by means of a study of type specimens is in progress. The Peabody Museum of Harvard University has surveyed an interesting

old earthwork in the Sudbury valley, Massachusetts, an Indian burial-place was explored at Dartmouth in the same State, and excavation has been conducted at old sites in Charles river valley and on Martha’s Vineyard. The Peabody Museum of Natural History in Yale University has done considerable field-work in Connecticut, under the immediate direction of G. G. MacCurdy,

and in 1923 Carroll G. Alton, assistant, dugout a camp-site on Thames river near Norwich, which dates from the early contact with whites. Canada.—Although the exigencies of the World War retarded

progress in archaeological research, the Victoria Memorial Museum at Ottawa has done much in field reconnaissance and in recording and publishing results since rgit. Following the first extensive exploration, conducted in 1912 at an Iroquoian site near Roebuck, Ontario, by W. J. Wintemberg, archaeological reconnaissances have been made in Manitoba by W. B. Nicker-

son; in Ontario by Wintemberg; in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Alberta, Saskatchewan, British Columbia (including Queen Charlotte Is.) by Harlan I. Smith, and on Barter I, Alaska, by D. Jenness. 31BLIOGRAPITY.—Annual Reports and Bulletins of the Bureau of

American Ethnology, Washington; Annual Reports of the Simithsonian Institution (including the United States National Muscum), Washington: (1) Indian Notes, (2) Indian Notes and Monographs, (3) Contributions,

(4) Leaflets, of the Museum

of the American

Indian. Heye Foundation, New York: (1) Anthropological Papers, (2) Natural History, of the American Museum of Natural History,

New York; American Anthropologist, Lancaster, Pa., and Menasha, Wis.; Reports of the Peabody Museum of American Archacology and Ethnology, Cambridge, Mass.; Certain Mounds and Village Sites

in Ohio, Ohio Archaeological and Historical Society, Columbus; Publications of the Dept. of Archaeology, Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., especially A, V. Kidder, An Introduction te the Study of Southwestern Archaeology (with bibliography, New Haven, 1924); Wisconsin Archaeologist, Madison, Wis.; Papers of the School of American research and El Palacio, Santa Fé, New Mexico; Bulletins of the New York State Museum, Albany; Proceedings of the International Congress of Americanists; Bulletins and Year Book of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee; University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology, Berkeley;

193

Researches and Transactions, New York State Archaeological Assn., Rochester; Colorado Magazine, State Historical and Natural History

Society,

Denver; Arrow

Points, Alabama

Anthropological

Montgomery; Arf and crchagelogy, Washington.

XVII. MEXICO

AND

CENTRAL

Assn.,

(F. Ho.)

AMERICA

Important advances have been made in our knowledge of the archacology of Mexico and the adjacent Central America since toro as the result of first, the discovery of a stratification of archaeological remains in the valley of Mexico; second, the decipherment of dates inscribed on Mayan monuments in Yucatan and adjacent parts of Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras, and the reduction of these dates into days of the Gregorian calendar and years of the Christian era; third; reclassifications in language introducing new data on the origin of various tribes; fourth, demonstrations in the ficld of technology and art establishing time levels in industry and disclosing the extent of ancient commerce; filth, reinterpretations in myths and legends now believed to deal in part with historical characters. The facts presented in the explanations of Tyler and Lehmann must now be posed in historical succession covering 5,000 or 6,000 years."

Stratification of Remains.—The

stratification

was

first ob-

served at Atzcapotzalco, near Mexico City, in roro, and later was investigated by the International School of Archacology at Col-

huacan and near-by sites. In the top soil were found objects of Aztec manufacture, and under these, to the depth of several feet, were the much finer products of the Toltecs. Finally in a deep stratum of water-worn gravels were found little clay figurines of men and women, made in a peculiar style, together with pottery strikingly different in shape and design from that of the upper layers. Similar figurines were also found on the tops of denuded hills about Lake Tezcuco and were recognised as belonging to an archaeological type called Tarascan, which has been re-named Archaic. The discovery yielded three major horizons: Archaic, Toltec (with obvious affiliations to the Mayan of the Central American lowlands), and finally Aztec or Chichimec, corresponding to the civilisation found by Cortes. The Archaic remains belonged to a village-dwelling population acquainted with agriculture and weaving as well as with pottery-making, and it therefore became necessary to postulate a still earlier culture of pre-agricultural

type, that of the first immigrants into the New World.

These

are believed to have entered America via the Siberia-Alaska bridge in lower Neolithic times. Remains of these first nomads are rare in Mexico and Central America, but are found elsewhere. ARCHAIC

CULTURE

The Archaic culture was the outgrowth of the domestication of maize, beans, squashes and other plants indigenous to the arid lands of the American tropics. The little figurines of men and women have been interpreted as expressions of a primitive religion in which the little men stood for success in war and the chase and the much more common statuettes of women were fetishes of the fertility of mother earth. These little figurines can be traced through slight variations in style from Mexico into Colombia, thence eastward across Venezuela as well as southward to Peru. Archaic art underlies the higher expressions af civilisation in all tropical America, and the plants domesticated

at this time furnish the economic explanation of growth in pop-

ulation and increasing complexity of social organisation. The ultimate economic values of this nuclear civilisation of ancient America are incalculably vast.

The Archaic culture lasted for several thousand years, the indications of age being, first, the thickness of deposits; second, the high degree of domestication in plants, which are carried further from their wild state than the domesticated plants of the Old World. Some botanists have insisted that American agriculture is older than that of Asia, but the archaeological evidences hardly support this conclusion. The first independent domesttcation of plants may be on nearly the same historical plane in the two hemispheres. New indications of age for the Archaic

t See ARCHAEOLOGY (5.677) and MEXICO (18.329).

ARCHAEOLOGY

194

culture are found in sites near Mexico City, where ancient lava flows have covered villages of this period. MAYAN

CILRONOLOGY

The Mayas (see 17.931) may have established themselves in the wet lowlands of eastern Central America as early as 1000 B.C. The archaeological evidence indicates, however, that their beginnings were in the piedmontal zone adjacent to the dry region of the Archaic civilisation. In this zone transitional types of pottery are found which are lacking in the heart of the Mayan territory. The early Mayas modified the important food plants of the Archaic civilisation till these plants would grow under conditions of heavy rainfall, and they succeeded in domesticating a number of new plants, such as cacao. The sources of Mayan history are several brief chronicles preserved in Spanish writing by educated Indians together with abundant inscriptions on early monuments. The chronicles reach back to 176 A.D. in a count of time periods called Katuns, which are really periods of 7,200 days, corresponding to the basic value of the fourth position in the place-value notation of numbers used by the Mayas. This numerical system is vigesimal instead of decimal except that in the third place we find 360 instead of 400 and the katun is 20 times 360. On the ancient monuments the dates are the number of days from a beginning day, and the terminal days of katuns are emphasised. The German school of Americanist science led by Seler paid marked attention to Aztec sources and interpreted Mayan archaeology in the light of their Mexican studies. The American school undertook the study of Mayan sources on their own merits under the leadership of Brinton, Goodman, Bowditch and Thomas. In ror1ro Morley suggested a correlation of the katuns of the chronicles with the katuns of the ancient inscriptions on the evidence of an inscription at Chichen Itza. At the same time Spinden showed that when monuments at Copan were arranged in stylistic order, the dates fell in similar order, indicating that these dates probably declared the chronological positions. The early correlation of the katuns proved to be slightly in error since the katuns had been counted as current rather than elapsed units of time. Nevertheless, the arrangement made possible relative accuracy in chronology, while the demonstration of artistic sequence permitted the placing of many abbreviated dates. Karly attempts at correlating the Mayan calendar with European time counts failed to pass all tests. In 1919 Spinden published a day-for-day correlation of Mexican and Mayan chro-

nology with that of Europe, and in 1924 presented astronomical proof of the correctness of the arrangement and showed that many Mayan calculations deal with fixed points of the tropical year such as the solstices and equinoxes and especially with two arbitrary stations in a farmer’s year of the ancient Mayas, namely, April 9 and Sept. 2, reached by sunset readings along an astronomical base line at Copan. This base line consists of two monuments set up on opposite sides of the valley and about four miles apart. An observer standing at the eastern monument sees the sun go down directly behind the western one on the two dates given above, which are also recorded on several

monuments in the ancient city. It appears that an astronomical congress was held in Copan to decide formally upon these stations. References to this congress are found in the Mayan chronicles as well as in traditions of the Mexicans. An unknown scientist, possibly deified as the god called Itzamna, seems to have invented the Mayan calendar after making a daily record of observations beginning on Aug. 6 613 B.C. This date is the real zero of Mayan history, although the perfected Mayan calendar was not inaugurated till 580 B.c. (according to inscriptions at Palenque and Copan) when the new year’s day of the Mayan civil year stood exactly at the winter solstice. The unknown scientist reduced a calendar of moons to a calendar of numbers. A 365-day year was constructed of 18 months of 20 days each plus 5 days. The days were counted in numerical succession from a mundane era reached by counting seven baktuns, or units of the fifth numerical position, back into the past from

Aug. 6 613 B.c. In this manner the epoch of the mundane era was established on Oct. 14 3373 B.C. The writing out of the number of days in the Mayan calendar involved place-value numeration 1,000 years before this important arithmetical device was known to the Old World and the Mayan eral count of days preceded by 300 years the first eral count of years in the Old World (the era of the Seleucidae, Oct. 1

312 B.c.).

The unknown

Mayan scientist likewise invented a

system of designating the days by a permutation of 13 numbers and zo names, making a round of 260 days called the tzolkin. When this permutation of days is combined with the 365 positions in the year the result is 52 365=18,980 days, called the calendar round. The mundane era is zero, 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu, but the zero is written 13—0-o—-o-0, as we transcribe Mayan numbers in this case and the historical era is 7-o-o~o-0, 10 Ahau 18 Zac. The 4 Ahau and 10 Ahau are designations of days in the permutation and they are declared to occupy, respectively, the 8th

place in the month Cumhu and the 18th place in the month Zac. The Mayas had a system of hieroglyphs with pictographic, ideographic and phonetic elements by which days, months and many other things could be recorded. For numerals they generally used bars and dots, with the dot counting as one and the bar as five. Numbers with bar-and-dot numerals in several places were commonly written in columns with the lowest place-value at the bottom. The decipherment of Mayan dates discloses a remarkable astronomical science. This ancient people had obtained by observation practically the modern values for the length of the tropical year, for intervals between possible eclipses and for the average periods of revolutions of several planets. They accomplished these results because they did not invalidate their calendar by making leap-year corrections, but permitted the months to revolve slowly around the natural year. The proper corrections were accurately known but were not interpolated. The etymologies of month names and the symbolism of month hieroglyphs are in agreement with the seasons when we put the first day of the month Pop at the winter solstice, a condition which obtained about 580 B.c. At almost the same time the Venus calendar started flush with the actual heliacal risings or first appearances of the planet as morning star. The Mayas observed that in every period of 8 calendar years there were 5 appearances of Venus as morning star, at intervals which averaged 584 days. When the 260-day tzolkin was brought into the reckoning, a grand Venus permutation of 37,960 days, or 104 calendar years, was obtained. During this time the actual positions of Venus moved a little more than 5 days out of agreement with the Mayan civil calendar and about 30 days out of agreement with the seasons. The Mayas observed the calendarial positions of Venus and they also observed the actual positions. Moreover, they held as sacred to Venus certain special days in the tropical year, one being April 12, which could be occupied by heliacal rising of Venus once in 243 or 25t years. On Stela C at Copan, this principal date is the actual one of Venus’ emergence out of the sunhight, and there is a marvellous calculation covering 4,617 years which involves the moon as well as Venus. The first Mayan monuments with contemporary dates fall

about 100 B.C.

The most brilliant period of the First Empire

began about 400 A.D., and ended suddenly shortly after 600 A.D. At this time all the great cities, such as Copan, Tikal and Palenque, were abandoned to the enveloping forest. Thesudden breakdown has been variously attributed to yellow fever, civil war, social decay, exhaustion of the soil and even climatic change. The Mayas, greatly reduced, moved into the region back of Campeche. Several fine buildings and a few dates are known from this inter-

mediate period. The Second Empire began with the re-establishment of Chichen Itza about 960 a.p. There was a brilliant renaissance in which Uxmal, Izamal, Kabah and Labna flourished.

Then a large part of northern Yucatan was subdued by

the Toltecs from the highlands of Mexico. Dates are now known for some of the finest buildings of the Second Empire. A second

abandonment of stone-built cities took place about roo years before the coming of the Spaniards.

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ARCHAEOLOGY THE ToLTECS The Toltecs (see 26.1062} were one of several nations outside the Mayanarea who enjoyed thefruitsof the First Empire. Others were the Chorotegas to the south in Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, and the Ulmecs, Zapotecs, Mixtecs and Totonecs to the west and northwest in Mexico. The height of individualised culture for these secondary civilisations was between rooo and 1200 A.D. At the end they were mostly consolidated into the extensive but short-lived Toltec Empire under Huetzin, Ihuitimal and Quetzalcoatl. The original capital of the Toltecs was Tula, doubtless to be identified with Teotihuacan. From here they extended their rule toward the northwest as far as the present states of Zacatecas and Durango and toward the southeast as far as Salvador and perhaps Nicaragua. They became a power in northern Yucatan with Chichen Itza, Mayapan and Uxmal as the chief cities under their control. Little is known about the first two rulers mentioned above. {huitimal was also called Totepeuh, and is mentioned under both names in Guatemalan chronicles. The third was the great Quet-

zalcoatl, also called Topiltzin, “‘ Our Prince.” chronicles Quetzalcoatl appears as Kukulcan,

In the Mayan ‘ Plumed Ser-

pent ”; and as Hunac Ceel, “‘ Great Fear.” Quetzalcoatl is one of the great characters of history, a compound of warrior, priest, administrator and scientist. He seems to have received his early training in Yucatan, endearing himself to the Mayas by several scientific achievements, of which three can be recovered. He

founded the Toltec era which served for later Mexican chronology and which began with a day called 1 Tecpatl, or Flint, in the first position of the Mexican month Toxcatl. This was Aug. 6 168 A.D., in exact correspondence with the first historical day of the Mayas, but 1,781 years later. He also established the era of the Sacred Fire on the day 7 Acatlin the year 2 Acatl in coincidence with the sacred fire ceremony of the Mayas. The zero day of this era was Feb. 16 1196 A.D. Finally, Quetzalcoatl was made God of the Morning Star because he predicted the appearance of Venus as morning star in the year 1 Acatl when it rose on April 12 1208 A.D., in conformity with a famous date for this

planet treated in old Mayan books and on monuments at Copan. As regards his political activities we know that Quetzalcoatl

put down a rebellion of the Mayas in 1191, subduing Chichen Itza and making it the Toltec capital of Yucatan. He created orders of nobility and elaborated the coronation ceremony used in later times by most Mexican and Central American nations. Quetzalcoatl introduced into Mexico a mild religious cult of the Mayas without human sacrifice but with fasting and penance, in which the worship centred around a serpentine deity connected with the annual rains. In later times Quetzalcoatl was identified with the Mexican counterpart of this serpentine deity as Ehecatl, “ God of the Storm Winds.” The new religion of Quetzalcoatl brought on civil war among the Toltecs, which ultimately destroyed their power about 1220, although some of the arts and ceremonies were maintained at Cholula, Colhuacan and Atzcapotzalco. THE

AGE

OF METALS

The establishment of Mayan and Toltec chronology fixes, within relatively narrow limits, the beginning of the metal age in Central America and Mexico. No specimen of metal, not even a copper stain, was observed during excavations at Copan, Quirigua and other Mayan cities of the First Empire. Las Quebradas in Guatemala was actually built upon a placer mine, yet in the sluicing operations which have almost destroyed the site, no specimen of worked gold has been found. Nor are any ornaments of metal, such as gorgets and bells, pictured on the early monuments. We therefore conclude that the metal age did not begin till after 600 A.D., yet by 1200 A.D. metal work was highly developed in gold, silver, copper and various alloys. Many specimens found at Chichen Itza in northern Yucatan are of Costa Rican and Colombian origin, and the technique of metal-working is the same from southern Colombia to Central Mexico. The art was apparently introduced from South America about 1000 A.D., and underwent a rapid growth in the 500 years before the Spanish

Conquest.

195 Recent analyses have shown that the Mexicans were

not ignorant of bronze and that they made many alloys, some containing lead. They were acquainted with the lost wax process of hollow casting and with a false filigree really moulded from a model of wax wire. Recent publications by Saville and Rivet cover Mexican gold work, and the former has published papers on wood carving and turquoise mosaic work, the latter probably a Toltec invention. The fine ceramics of Mexico and Central America deserve greater attention for beauty of shape, design and colour. One kind of pottery is semi-glazed due to a suffusion of lead flux. Another kind resembles cloisonné but is made with heavy pigments rather than enamel. Also there is fresco pottery, moulded and carved pottery, and still another kind in which the designs are put on by a negative wax process resembling that of Javanese batiks. The Chichimecan Period —The Chichimecan period begins with the abandonment of the Toltec cities about 1220 A.D. and extends to the Spanish Conquest. The Chichimecs were tribes of rather low culture, speaking dialects of the Mexican language. During the civil wars that marked the end of the Toltec Empire the Chichimecs pressed into the valley of Mexico and established themselves in small groups among the Toltec survivors. Afterwards the Chichimecs boasted that they had begun their career of empire as pure nomads, but these claims need not be taken too seriously. Vhe best document dealing with this period, the Codex Xolotl, makes Xolot!, the founder of the dynasty of Tezcuco, enter the abandoned territory around Teotihuacan in 1224. He is pictured as a mountain brigand collecting tribute from farmers. The Acolhuas, as Xolotl’s Chichimecs were called, became sedentary under Techotlala, who founded Texcuco about the same time that the Aztecs, another division of Chichimecs, founded Tenochtitlan. Huis son, Ixtlilxochitl, was murdered by the famous tyrant Tezozomoc of Atzcapotzalco, but Nezahualcoyotl recovered the power in 1431. Regnal years of the dynasty of Tezcuco follow:— Xolotl . 1225-1284 Ixtlilxochitl . 1409-1418 Nopal Tlotzin . Quinatzin Techotlala

. . . .

1284-1315 1315-1324 1324-1357 1357-1409

Interregnum . Nezahualcoyotl . Nezahualpilli . Cacama .

1418-1431 1431-1472 1472-1515 I515-1520

The Aztecs have an unbelievable tale of a peregrination with many stops. It begins at the Toltec era, on the year 1 Tecpatl, corresponding to 1168, In 1325 the Aztecs reached the shores of Lake Tezcuco, where they lived undisturbed until 1351, when they were defeated in a sanguinary battle among the reeds by the combined forces of Colhucan, Xaltocan and Altzcapotzalco. They then became vassals of Cozcoz of Colhuacan and in 1364 moved to several small islands to construct Tenochtitlan as their capital. After the accession of Acamapichtli in 1376 the history of the Aztecs is one of conquest upon conquest and of horrible excesses In human sacrifice. Yet Montezuma held in 1519 only a small part of the territory that Quetzalcoatl had controlled

in 1200 nor had the Chichimecan arts yet reached the high standard set by the Toltecs. Linguistic Reclassifications.—The science of linguistics may give the historian his oldest facts because the demonstration of kindred speech in sundered tribes is proof presumptive of ancient contact. The number of distinct stocks of language in the New World has been greatly reduced in recent years (see PHILOLOGY). The Shoshoni and Pima languages are connected with the Nahuan or Mexican languages. This stock stretches from Idaho to Costa Rica and embraces tribes that by test of culture run from lowly nomadic to highly civilised—witness the “‘ Digger ” Indians of Nevada and the Aztecs of Mexico. The drift has plainly been toward the south, yet it is strongly indicated that some tribes of this group have been in Mexico for several thousand years. The Otomi languages in Central Mexico are joined with the Chiapanecan group, mostly located in Nicaragua and Costa Rica, indicating a southern movement of the latter, but there is evidence that the

Otomi moved northward instead.

The incursion of wild South

ARCHAEOLOGY

196

American tribes into the Isthmus of Panama exerted a pressure which depopulated most of the Chorotegan culture area. Lehmann also joined the Subtiaba language of Nicaragua with the Yopi of southern Mexico. The Yopi, like the Otomi, were much given to the terrible cult of Xife, God of the Flayed, which likewise flourished in Nicaragua. The Subtiaba have been put into the Hokan stock, which mostly comprises the very primitive tribes of California and northern Mexico, while some North American Indian

languages are possibly connected with the languages of eastern Asia. Such linguistic affiliations obviously go back long before the dawn of history. ` The arguments against influences of the Old World upon the New in the matter of high civilisation are very strong. The economic bases in domesticated plants are distinct, the New World makes no use of the wheel at all and the really wonderful scientific achievements of the Mayas find no counterpart in the Eastern Hemisphere. BIBLIOGRAPHY .—C. P. Bowditch, Tke Numeration Calendar Systems and Astrononucal Knowledge of the Mayas (Cambridge, Mass., r910); B. de Sahagun, Plates from the Sahagun MSS. (Museo Nacional Mexico 1913); T. A. Joyce, Mexican Archaeology (i914); S. G. Morley, U.S. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bull. 57 ‘ Maya hieroglyphs ” (1915); E. Seler, Gesammelte Abhandlungen, vol. 4 and 5 (1915-23); T. A. Joyce, Central and West Indian Archaeology (1916); W. Lehmann, Zentral Amerika, Teil 1., 2 vol. (1920); S. G. Morley,

The Inscriptions at Copan, Carnegie Inst. of Washington, pub. 219 (1920); M. Gamio and others, La Poblacion de Valle de Teotihuacan (Mexico 1922), also Infroduction, Synthesis and Conclusion of the work in English (1922); G. B. Gordon, Examples of Maya Pottery in ihe Museum, etc. (1925). See also works by H. J. Spinden (vol. 6, 1913; vol. 6, No. 4, 1924); C. E. Guthe (vol. 7, No. 2, 1921); A. M. Tozzer (vol. 9, 1921); R. H. Willson (vol. 6, No. 3, 1924), in Papers of Peabody Afuseum, Harvard, Mass. (H. J. Spinden’s “ Maya Art ” contains bibliography); A. M. Tozzer (vol. 5, Nos. 1-3, 1911-3) in Memoirs of Peabody Museum; and M. H. Saville, Publications of Museum of American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York City (1920, 1922, 1925). (H. Sp.*)

XVIII.

SOUTH

AMERICA

The archaeology of the great continent of South America is, as yet, imperfectly known, and great areas still remain to be investigated. It follows that the northwestern part of the country must have been the first region settled, and the archaeology of Colombia and Ecuador, in the mountain region and the coast, appears to indicate two perhaps independent movements of

people from middle America, profoundly influenced by the widely different environment.

It is highly probable that the vast region of Brazil and eastern Argentina was not occupied for so long a time as the Paciñc coast and the inter-Andean valleys; indeed, it is reasonable to conjecture that the southern Brazilian area and portions of Argentina were the latest parts of the continent to be permanently settled, if it is considered that the logical route of early migration southward from Central America was probably along the Pacific coast, or through the Andean vallevs, or both. There seems to have been, at the time of the earliest aboriginal invasion of South America, a movement castward from Panama, along the northern coast of the continent, through Colombia, Venezucla and the Guianas, which reached the mouth of the Amazon and ascended that stream; and there may also have been a contemporaneous filtration of people southward by way of the numerous waterways which drain into the Caribbean Sea. ‘This movement of people would naturally have taken a much longer time, considering the physical difficulties of the route, than by the less obstructed highway on the Pacific side of the continent. Considerable archaeological work has been carried on in Ecuador, Peru and Argentina; to a lesser degree in Colombia and Chile, while the rest of the continent still remains almost virgin field for the investigator. Specifically, the great Republic of Brazil, somewhat larger in area than the United States, exclusive of Alaska, is as yet almost terra incognita, so far as its antiquities are concerned. Ecuador-—Our knowledge of the archaeology of Ecuador has been greatly advanced by the researches of Saville, Jijon y Camano, Rivet and Uhle, and it is now possible to determine something of the ancient culture of this part of South America. In

this country there are three great zones, not climatic but cultural, for every variety of climate prevails. These culture zones are those of (1) the inter-Andean valleys, (2) the Pacific coast and (3) the Oriente of the Amazon basin. The antiquities from the Pacific coast indicate the former existence of two cultures differing widely from those represented by the artifacts from the highlands, where at least three major cultures may be distinguished, especially in the types of pottery found in the Andean valleys.

The northern coast culture merges into the culture of the south Colombian coast region, and throughout the Ecuadorian coast there are distinct traces of influence exerted from Central America, chiefly from the field of Mayan

culture (see Section

XVIL) Some of the human effigy vessels and figures are unquestionably of Central American style, and might have been made within the area of Mayan culture. In the countless human heads and faces of pottery are found all styles of treatment, from the archaic of Mexico to the most advanced and accurate modelling. Many of the pieces are so closely allied to Mayan artifacts as to be almost indistinguishable. At the same time, these coast cultures possessed individual characteristics indicating an intense local development. In the interior of Ecuador investigations in the province of Chimborazo have revealed stratified culture sequence (not as yet discovered on the coast), where six epochs appear to be present, before the comparatively late invasion of the Inca northward from Peru. Much remains to be done in this important

field; most of the region of Colombia, especially where the continent approaches the Isthmus of Panama, still awaits examination. Peru.—On the coast of Peru, are conditions not found elsewhere in ancient America. The entire stretch of coast, except for the narrow strips watered by streams, is a parched and rainless region, where there are numberless ancient cemeteries. In these are preserved, to a degree not found in any other part of the Western Hemisphere, everything that was buried in the graves hollowed in the nitrous sands. Owing to these unusual natural conditions little relating to the material culture of the ancient inhabitants of the Peruvian coast has been lost, and we possess greater knowledge of their arts and crafts than of any other aboriginal American people. The Inca, or more properly the Quichua, were not the originators of the complex of cultures, nor did they form the mass of the coast population. They came down from ihe mountains in comparatively recent times, and were the heirs of at least four cultures, or succeeding epochs or periods of civilisation, which had developed in sequence on the coast and in the great Andean valleys. Although the Inca dominated the region along the coast when the Spaniards arrived, they had made little impress on the arts and crafts of the coast people. That man has existed for a considerable period on the Peruvian coast has been demonstrated amply by the archaeological researches

of Uhle, in the Chincha valley, at Ica, Pachacamac, Ancon, Moche and other places, and we now know with a degree of certainty something of the character of the different pre-Inca culture epochs. Ouipus.— Unlike the great Nahuan and Mayan civilisations of middle America, the civilised people of South America never developed a system of hieroglyphic “‘ writing,” but they invented a device of an exceedingly ingenious nature for recording numerical records. The quipu or knot record was a simple but clever primitive method of tying knots on a string. Locke has established the numerical value of the knots on the pendent strands of the quipu. A number was arranged in decimal notation, with the units or ones at the lower end of the strand. The tens were tied above the ones, and the highest order appears nearest the main or parent strand. The number in each order above the ones is usually a group of single knots, not exceeding nine, while the ones, or lowest order, is represented by a long knot. When the items listed were In groups it was customary to group the strands on the main strand, and frequently a top strand served to sum up the numbers in the pendent strands to which it was attached. A colour scheme was in use with certain colours for the different

kinds of things recorded.

Nordenskiöld has now followed up

ARCHAEOLOGY this discovery by calculations based on a number of quipus, and indicates that many of them appear to have been of a calendarial nature in connection with calculations concerning the length of the year based on observations of both solar and lunar vears, for astrological and divinatory purposes. If the studies of Nordenskiöld are proved to be sound, it will be possible to place the ancient Peruvians on the same intellectual plane as the ancient Mayans of Yucatan and Central America. ‘Chile.—To the south of Peru, it has been established that in northern Chile, there were in carly times several cultures chronologically considered, the so-called Atacameno standing out as the leading people of this part of South America. This culture flourished in the desert of Atacama, reaching from the Chilean coast eastward to high altitudes, and into northwestern Argentina and southern Bolivia. It appears to have been related to the Diaguite or Calchaqui culture of Argentina. Late researches in the coastal area have revealed undoubted stratified deposits which have attracted the attention of students, and promise ultimately to yield much information pertaining to the early history of this interesting region. Argentina. Knowledge of the archaeology of Argentina is confined chiefly to its northwestern provinces. Here the climatic conditions are similar to those of the desert regions of Peru and Chile; hence perishable materials have been preserved to a remarkable degree. The country has been extensively explored in recent years by Argentine archaeologists, whose researches have revealed certain striking similarities in types of artifacts with those of southwestern United States. There seems to have been more than one culture in this great region, but the most generally recognised has been called Calchaqui, now more usually known

as Diaguite.

Of the language and afñliations.of the Diaguite

people nothing is known, but there is evidence of an invasion from the Andean region of Peru and Bolivia that profoundly influenced this culture, probably in relatively modern times. (M. H. §.*) XIX. AIR SURVEY Long before aeroplanes were invented it was confidently hoped that vertical photographs would some day be taken, and it was felt certain that, if so, they would greatly assist archacology. Maj. Elsdale was the pioneer of air-photography in the British Army. Between about 1880 and 1887 he carried out many experiments from free balloons; but ballooning was not much in favour then and, although some progress was made, he received little or no official support in his experiments During several years immediately preceding the War, Mr. Henry S. Wellcome successfully used large box-kites, with specially devised automatic control cameras, for photographing his archaeological sites and excavations in the Upper Nile regions of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. During the War, when aeroplane photographs first became common, it was expected that archaeological features would be observed; but in the British sector in France none were seen. The photographs were often taken at a great height, over country which is archaeologically barren, or which was too rankly overgrown to show results. Only on other fronts was time found for archaeology in the air. Colonel Beazeley observed and photographed in ‘Iraq in 1917, cities whose ruins were unintelligible on the ground. On an air-photograph these ruins were seen as an orderly arrangement of streets and houses. This definitely proved that air-photography could add to knowledge, and that it would be an invaluable aid to excavation. To Col. Beazeley, therefore, is due the credit for the first actual application of aeroplane photography to archaeology. The birth of the new study in England, however, dates from 1922 when Air Comm. Clark Hall observed certain curious marks on R.A.F. air-photos taken in Hampshire. With him must be mentioned Flight-Lieut. Haslam, who took a number of photographs near Winchester showing what turned out to be prehistoric helds. Air Comm. Clark Hall showed these photographs to Dr. Williams-Freeman and Mr. O. G. S. Crawford, Archaeology Officer of the Ordnance Survey. who saw that their expectations were fulfilled, and even surpassed, by what was revealed. It was

197

possible from these photographs to make a map of the prehistoric field-system near Winchester. Popular interest was first aroused by Mr. O. G. S. Crawford’s discovery and publication of negatives showing, for the first time, the complete course of the Stonehenge avenue (eastern branch). The photographs were taken in the dry year of 1921 by the Old Sarum squadron; but their archaeological importance was not recognised until two years later, in 1923. The most important archaeological air-photographs obtained are those taken during r924 by Mr. O. G. S. Crawford and Mr. Alexander Keiller. An aeroplane was specially hired, and about 300 photographs of archaeological sites were taken. Outside England little has been done except in ‘Iraq, Palestine and Egypt. In Palestine many sites have been photographed by the Royal Air Force, at the suggestion of the Dept. of Antiquities. A photograph of Masada on the Dead Sea is to be described and published shortly in the Journal of Roman Studies. In Egypt valuable archaeological results were secured as a byproduct of the 3rd Nile Aerial Survey (1922). Oblique photographs have been taken of Numantia in Spain but obliques are

always inferior in archaeological value to verticals. It is usually imagined that the camera, when fixed in an aeroplane, records marks on the ground which are invisible to the eye of an observer. That is not so. The observer can see these marks more plainly than the camera records them, for he sees them in colour. The most remarkable discoveries that_have been made are due to

plants, which are sensitive to slight differences of soil and moisture. For example, if a ditch has been dug on a chalk down and the down

has afterwards been ploughed flat and sown with corn, for ever afterwards the subsoil filling (or silt) of that ditch differs from the adjacent never-disturbed soil. Nothing can ever restore chalk once dug to its former state. Archaeologists have long know this, for one of the principal needs in excavation is to distinguish between dis-

turbed and undisturbed soil,

But one cannot dig up a whole field

or several fields to find a ditch which, after all, may not exist. Here it is that a vertical view helps; for the effect of this moister and more fertile silt upon a crop of corn is to promote its growth and deepen

its colour, Thus from above one sees, and can photograph, a belt of darker green corn following the line of the vanished ditch. These lines are sometimes visible on the ground, from across a valley, or

even at closer quarters. Sometimes (as in parts of the Stonehenge Avenue) they are quite invisible. But always, when more than a single ditch is concerned, the distant view is necessary to convert chaos into order, The reason for this necessity can best be explained

by means of a comparison.

If one looks through a magnifying-glass

at a half-tone illustration made through a coarse screen, it ceases to he seen as a picture and becomes a meaningless maze of blurred dots. If one holds it some distance off and looks at it with the naked eye it becomes a picture again. The observer on the ground is like the user of the magnifying-glass; the observer (or camera) in the air resembles him who looks at the picture from a distance.

(See Surveying)

The majority of prehistoric sites, and many later ones, were a maze of ditches and pits, dug for drainage, storage, habitation, defence or boundary purposes. Many still exist on the downs,

undisturbed and turf covered; many more have been flattened by cultivation. A}l of the latter can be re-discovered by air-photography, provided only that the arable has not been allowed to revert to grass. Even then traces of the ditches are sometimes visible, especially on poor soils and in dry summers, by a belt of darker green. Air observation, however, is most fruitful when young crops are growing; then discovery is easy and rapid, and every flight is productive. Such sites may afterwards be seen to exist by an observer on the ground; but few of them could ever have been discovered except from the air. Chalk is not the only soil that produces these streak-sites; they have been observed on oolitic limestone near Bath and plateau gravel near Exbury. Other factors enable air-photography to record ancient sites. Prehistoric cultivation-banks are revealed because they either throw slight shadows or because when ploughed they appear as belts of lighter soil, from the chalk grains mixed with them (see plate). From photographs the prehistoric field-system of a district can be accurately mapped. Again, rabbits work in the looser silt of filled-up ditches (as well as in the soil of the lynchets), and if there are many rabbits a white line, or row of white patches, is visible from the air. Daisies and poppies grow from choice

above these ditches, and barrows and hill-top camps have thus been revealed by white and scarlet circles.

198

ARCHANGEL— ARCHERY

Lastly, the low shadows at sunrise and sunset etch the slopes of low banks in deep black. That is the time to photograph lynchets. On a June morning before breakfast the greater part of Salisbury Plain is seen to be covered with the banks of abandoned Celtic fields; but afterwards they “ fade into the common light of day.” The great ramparts of hill-top camps throw a shadow even at mid-day, but are best photographed when the sun is low, for then not only do the ramparts stand out best, but also the banks and pits of the habitations within. Hambledon fill, Dorset, England (see fig. 1 on plate), one of the

finest hill-top camps, on an isolated hill about 300 ft. above the surrounding country. The entrance of the camp is protected by a hooklike prolongation of an‘outer rampart; from it led a pathway within the camp, passing between oblong and circular pits, the site of huts. Those, especially in the middle portion of the camp, are very clearly seen, and beside them is a Long Barrow, far older of course than the camp, which was probably made in the’ Early Iron Age. Across the narrow ridge connecting the hill of the camp with the next hill, was built a formidable double scarp-to-scarp rampart; and bey ond this can be seen the faint outline of a probably older camp (only partially a The hill must have been permanently inhabited. Note. A scattered flock of sheep in the inner portion of the camp will oe some idea of the scale of the photograph. Oakley Down, Dorset, England (see fig. 2 on plate), between Salisbury and Blandford, on chalk soil, now covered with turf. The principal features are: (1)The raised ccauseway of the Roman road running cliagonally across the picture, (2) a group of round barrows, or burial mounds of the arly Bronze Age, older than the Roman road, through two disk-barrows on either side of it, (3) a network of Celtic fields, particularly noticeable in one corner of the photograph. In the valley below is the remains of a contemporary pond (very large, but now dry), and there are signs of Celtic ploughing on both sides of the Roman road. BiBLioGRAPiy.—Lieut.-Col. G. A. Beazcley, ‘' Air Photography in Archaeology,” Geographical Journal (1919); ibid., ‘ Surveys in Mesopotamia During the War,’’ Geog. Jour. (1920); T. Wiegand, Wissenschaft. Verdffentl. d, deutsch-tiirkischen Denkmatlschuiz-kommandos, left r, Sinai (1920); J. H. Breasted, Publication of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (192 2); Articles by O. G. S. Crawford in The Observer (July and Sept. 1923), Results of Special Survey by Mr, Weiller, and O. G. S. Crawford (Aug. 1924); Articles by O. G. S. Cr awlord in The Christian Science Monitor (Dec, 1923); L. Franz, Wiener Prahistorische Zeitschrift, a review of Air Survey and Archaeology giving the results of German and American work quoted (1923); R. A. MacLean, “ The Aeroplane and Archaeology,” Aimer., Jour. of Arch, (1923); Vertical Air Photographs reproduced in Ilustrated London News, Pompeii (June 1923 and Feb. oY Ur (July 1923); See also Antiquaries’ Journal (1923); Stonehenge Avenue (Aug. 1923): O. G. S. Crawford, Air Survey and

Archaeology Ordnance Survey Professional Papers New Series (1924) reprinted with numerous additions to text and with many new plates and maps, from Geographical Journal (May 1923); W. Andra, Air Photographs of Assur taken during the War by Germans; report given to Wiener Anthropologische Gesellschaft (1924). (0. G. S. C.)

ARCHANGEL (see 2.356), Capital of the province of Archangel in the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic. In 1925 its population was about 35,000. It is governed by executive committees elected by the local congress of Soviets. The principal industry is sawmilling. The population practically doubled between 1914 and 1916. Warehouses and other buildings, an electric light and power plant, and a tramway in the main street were built. On the side of the river, where the railway station stands, some miles of wooden houses sprang up. To cope with increased traffic a start was made in 1916 with the conversion to broad gauge and the double tracking of the railway to Vologda, this work being completed in 1919. The railway terminus was enlarged and the road to Leningrad was remade to carry a military motor service. ‘Two of the largest ice-breakers, in addition to the one already in use, and several big floating docks were installed in the port, and numerous jetties and quays were built. But facilities for the handling of guns, munitions, etc., remained inadequate; and added to this difficulty was the fact that after the closing of the Baltic and Black Sea harbours, Archangel was the only available Russian port served by a railway, and was therefore called upon to handle the whole of the wheat exports. Continuous dredging has to be carried on during the summer in the harbour, which is accessible for vessels drawing up to 21 ft., but only those of under 20 ft. draught can cross the bar and shoal in one tide.

Historv.—After German mine-layers had visited Archangel in 1915, a unit of six British trawlers was sent, but till rory they engaged only in mine-sweeping and escort work. A difficult problem arose after the Russian collapse in 1917, when vast quantities of stores and coal were lying in the port. Subsequently British and French cruisers were sent to hold the coast, and when the Germans were in Finland in May 1018 troops were

sent; these occupied Archangel with little opposition on Aug. 2 1918, and advanced up the railway in conjunction with a flotilla on the Dvina. In the same year N. ‘T'schaikovsky, a socialist who had been exiled in England, overthrew the rule of the Soviet Commissars and set up a provisional northern government in Archangel and Murmansk with himself as president. The town councils and courts of law were re-established, and in September a conference of northern co-operative associations was held to consider the economic organisation of the district. Tschaikovsky’s party joined the British in operations against the Bolsheviks, and the campaign was carried on after the World War, the evacuation of Archangel not being completed till Sept. 1919, when the city was again in Bolshevik hands. ARCHER, WILLIAM (1856-1924), British critic (see 2.362), became dramatic critic of The Tribune in 1906 and afterwards of The Nation and The Stay. In 1921 his play The Green Goddess was produced in the United States and subsequently in London with great success. In 1923 he published The Old Drama and the New. An acute, rather than a sympathetic critic, he, nevertheless, must be applauded as not least amid the influences determining the renaissance of the British drama. He died Dec. 27 1924. ARCHERY (sce 2.362), a pastime which has recently enjoyed a considerable increase in popularity. At the beginning of ror4 there were in Great Britain no less than 75 recognised archery societies and, though the standard of shooting, as compared with that of the period 1855-80, had, no doubt, deteriorated, yet slowly but surely interest in the sport was reviving. Then came the World War and archery in common with other sport was dropped or at most indulged in merely to keep the clubs going and afford the War workers some temporary relaxation. Vhe Royal Toxophilite Society, the leading society in the kingdom, held no meetings from 1915 until 1910, and all the public meetings were abandoned. When the War came to an end, great efforts were made by archers all over the kingdom to revive the sport; new clubs were formed, old clubs were revived and, on the whole, it may be said that there are now more votaries of archery, especially among ladies, than for many years past. Toward the close of the War, the Royal Toxophilite Society had been forced to relinquish its ground in Regent’s Park, London, and to accept for a time the hospitality of the Honourable Artillery Company in Finsbury, while endeavouring to obtain a fresh ground in London. After two years, new headquarters were found in the neighbourhood of Hyde Park, the ground was laid out and a small clubhouse obtained near it. The Society was reorganised, ladies being, for the first ttme, admitted as members. In 1925 the Bowyers’ Company once more offered two gold medals for competition among the best shots in the kingdom, on the society’s ground. In this year were revived the various championship meetings, namely the Grand National, the Grand Western, the Grand Northern, the Southern Counties, the Leamington and Midland

Archery Meeting and the Hereford Round Meeting. Archery tn the United Staices—-No international meetings have yet been held, though archery has made considerable headway in the United States, as is proved by a comparison of the scores made in the American and English championships in 1924. The American champion of that year, S. Jiles, made 889 on the double York round as against 880 made by the English champion, W. A. Inderwick; while the lady champion of America, Miss D. D. Smith, made 575 on the double national round as against

580 made by the English champion, Mrs. Shillito. A comparison of some of the best scores, mace since 1895, re-

veals the fact that while H. A. Ford’s 1,251 for the double York round is unapproached, yet scores of over 1,000 have been made

A R C H A E O L O GY

PLATE VI.

PHOTOGRAPHS ILLUSTRATING THE VALUE OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH Fic. 1. A fine example of a hill-top camp at Hambledon Hill, England. Fic. 2. Burial mounds and Roman road at Oakley Down, Engla

ARCHITECTURE by F. A. Govett (1,004), C. E. Nesham (1,027) and H. P. Nesham (1,067), the last-named in 1912, while in r913 C. K. Philips made 982. On the single York round an examination of club records shows that some remarkably fine scores have been made since tore, notably 114 hits totalling s92 by C€. K. Philips in Oct. 1913; 112 hits totalling 574 by H. P. Nesham in Nov. 1912; and too hits totalling 524 by Spencer Madan in Oct. 1912, besides many other scores of s00 and over. In 1925 the highest

recorded club score for the single York round was 497 by E. H. Nelson. ESES) ARCHITECTURE (sec 2.369).—To review the progress of architecture during the period 1910-26 in the world at large, and more particularly in America, Great Britain and the European continent, we should first understand the intluences—social, political, industrial and educational—which lie at the root of an unprecedented construction development during this period. Strictly speaking, architecture is concerned only with those buildings which embody elements of beauty, or which at least vary from strict utilitarian necessities for the sake of better appearance. Undoubtedly the o!utstanding feature of the period under review has been a growing interest in, and enthusiasm for, the architectural improvement and embellishment of all types of buildings. We are, as a rule; no longer contented with purely utilitarian solutions of our problems. We demand improvement in the appearance of our surroundings, whether it be our homes, our workshops or our playhouses.

I. INTRODUCTION Sixteen years may seem a very short time for a distinct change or even for any new tendency to develop in the field of architecture. If it took a century to modily a style in the past, how then can a decade and a half manifest any important change? The answer is simply that architectural forms change in direct ratio to the rapidity of building construction and building demolition. In the past, building was a slow, leisurely proceeding, expensive in terms of human energy; to-day power machinery furnishes most of the energy; consequently, changes in style, which are nothing more or less than period changes in the life of the people, occur more rapidly. A building which formerly would have taken five years to complete, can to-day be built in one year or perhaps less. We can safely assume that five times the amount of building is now being done, and that therefore styles will change five times as rapidly, provided, of course, that there is a sustained demand for such quantities of building. In America this demand is enormous; old builklings give way to new, new buildings seem to rise almost over night; and in Europe, where the tendency is to retain and use what it already has, there is to be noted a marked tendency in the same direction, as, for example, the passing of Regent street and the Kingsway development in London and the Continental cutting of boulevards in Paris and in Rome. Since a nation writes its history in buildings and gives expression to its natural love of beauty through architecture, anything which so

enormously increases both the size and the number of buildings must be accounted a potent factor in architectural development of all kinds. Influence of the Werld War.—This demand for rapid building construction ts largely the result of the influences of the World War. For a period of nearly five years, there was a complete cessation of building operations except for war purposes. The natural reaction was to make up for time lost. France has the tremendous task of reconstructing its devastated areas. In England the housing situation is an all-absorbing problem. In America, with its almost unlimited resources and wealth, better housing is a crying need, greater factories are required to supply the materials and the furnishings for these houses, and more business buildings are needed in which to conduct the commerce and trade resulting from renewed and augmented activity. Such frenzied building activity has not always followed war. But the World War was singular in this respect: it entailed vast re-organisations of labour for the intensive production of war materials. The result was that labour in construction fields

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demanded and received wages out of all proportion to the scale formerly paid, and far above the rates paid to workers in other fields. “These conditions in turn resulted in an expanding scale of living to which this large portion of the population would have attained under normal peace conditions only after a long period of years. The increased housing demand was a natural corollary of increased wages. The masses, more afiluent than ever before, insisted on larger and better homes, more elaborate and expensive ee Rush to the Cities. ause of building activity is the concentration of D in and near the larger cities. The World War is not alone responsible for this. Since about 1885 the rapidly increasing development of machinery has completely changed social relationships. Men and women who are no longer needed on the farms to produce food for the world have flocked to the cities to produce manufactured articles. The production and use ol more and more articles, both necessities and luxuries, require more buildings to make them in, more buildings to sell them from, more buildings in which to transact the business arising from their manufacture and sale, and more homes to house the workers. In the words of a recent writer, “* Production has played many parts in history; it has taken various forms. The form which it takes in this, the machine age, is strange and new. ‘ Consumption ’is anew necessity, a new science. Through the centuries, the problem has been, how to produce enough of the things men wanted; the problem now is to make men want and use more things.” With the concentration of population have come the corporation, the trust and the super-trust. Great buildings, great at least in bulk and cost, are required to house vast numbers of workers. Formerly a municipal or other government was the only agency which could build large structures; to-day private enterprises, through contrel of capital in large amounts, builds on a greater scale and more expensively than any government will or can build. This evident and rapid change influences every walk of life and thereby affects every building, no matter what its function. (See URkBANISATION.) DIVISIONS

OF THE

SUBJECT

At first glance, a division of our subject by countries would seem to be a natural one: American architecture, British architecture, French, Japanese, etc. It is a method frequently em-

ployed in architectural surveys, but all parts of the world have been brought so closely together, and each nation’s knowledge of every other nation’s activities is so complete and immediate, that such division would result in unnecessary duplication. One could hardly, for example, describe the modern architecture of Japan and not explain the British and American intluence. Means of communication have so reduced time and distance that national styles are no longer mutually exclusive. The possibility that any nation in the future will develop a purely indigenous architecture is remote, for it would mean that the physical, material and spiritual status of its people had not been touched by modern inventions. We shall therefore discuss our subject, not by geographical boundaries, but according to those influences, industrial, commercial, social, educational, political and religious, which are the basic causes of all building development, and common to all nations. We have placed them in the order of their importance, considered in terms of capital investment and number of people involved. If computed in terms of human happiness and well-being, then possibly the order should be reversed.

II. INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE Under this classification we include all buildings in which commodities are made and stored, from the reception of the raw material to the production of the finished article. This field,

while not usually discussed in a review of architecture, has now peculiar significance, because the present period of civilisation is normally neither an age of war nor an age of art, but a scientific and industrial age. Industrial plants, through combination and absorption, have grown far beyond the wildest imaginings of the eighties of the last century. Such growth is an accepted

ARCHITECTURE

200

condition of our time, and the architect has a definite part in it. His problems in this field are large problems. To be sure, he is given little opportunity for the elaboration of detail, but he has great opportunity

for interesting arrangements

and impressive

masses. Only in the zoth century have such problems as stcel plants, mining hoists, automobile works, etc., been considered in any sense architectural. Generally handled by engineers with practical considerations only in view, the architect had no essential part, but was called in, if at all, to add a bit of “ dressing ” to a predetermined structure. To-day, however, the large corporations have come to realise more and more that beauty in its broadest sense is a commercial asset. Importance of the Architect-—The architect, by training and experience, has a more comprehensive sense of arrangement than the engineer or the contractor. A prominent builder in the industrial field says: ‘‘ There is not much doubt that the very finest industrial buildings which have been built in the years between 1915 and 1925, the finest in general effectiveness as well as in appearance, have been produced under the direction of architects. A certain distinctive appearance, a certain completeness of design, a more perfect interior arrangement and a general

suitability seem more likely to prevail when the largest industrial buildings are handled through an architect’s office than when an architect is not in the picture.” ‘The architect is consulted to advantage from the outset of the problem; choice of site, plan arrangement, types of construction, fire prevention, natural lighting, welfare provisions, plumbing, heating and ventilation, and artificial illumination are all matters of consideration in the design of any building.

Reinforced concrete, a form of construction in Increasing use, is peculiarly adapted to industrial plants. In the earlier examples

it was used in imitation of other and more customary building materials, with forms of ornamentation such as cornices, architraves, arches, etc., borrowed from older buildings of the masonry

type. Later examples show a great improvement in this respect; the concrete is used with the greatest simplicity of form, and all extraneous embellishment omitted. Effects are secured by carefully studied proportion and massing. (See FERRO CONCRETE.) The City Factory—The factory in cities is beginning to take on city dress. The open labour market commonly causes a large industrial plant, especially in such work as garment-making, to build in the heart of a city. Such a plant should not be a blot among fine buildings, but should be in harmony with its sur-

roundings.

(See FACTORY DESIGN.)

The plan problem is as varied as the nature of the work carried on, but industrial plants may be divided into three types, depending on the different kinds of enclosed spaces: (1) plants of large area, of only one floor, top lighted; (2) plants of large spaces for great machines, travelling cranes, etc., in conjunction with smaller spaces of the ordinary type; (3) plants of ordinary spaces, many storeyed and dependent on light from the sides. The first type furnishes simply a problem of building over large areas and with “ saw tooth ” skvlight construction; the second involves engineering for broad spaces, but both clerestory and top lighting are possible; the third type does not differ from the ordinary many-storeyed building built for commercial work.

Til. COMMERCIAL ARCHITECTURE Commercial architecture includes all buildings in which the purchase, sale, exchange and transport of commodities is carried on, and in which the financing of business enterprises is negotiated. It covers a wide field. With industrial architecture, to which it is closely allied, it constitutes by far the most important architectural development since 1900, not alone as measured in terms of quantity, but in terms of actual progress as well. The necessities of industry and commerce have developed a striking and significantly new architecture, highly expressive of our own age. The whole trend in the commercial field is toward larger and larger units—larger office buildings, larger department stores, larger banks, larger railway stations. The increase in the height and mass of commercial buildings

(and we shall see later whercin this applies to hotels and apartment houses as well) is perhaps the most phenomenal feature of this development. Many misapprehensions exist as to Its cause. One of the most persistent is the belief that in New York, where the so-called sky-scraper has received its chief development, the long, narrow shape of the island forced growth upward. This is far from the truth. There is still plenty of room for lateral expansion on Manhattan Island. The tall buildings form a narrow ridge through the center, following the general course of Broadway. Should all the buildings on the island proper be reduced to an average height, they would probably not exceed seven or eight storeys. This contention is proved by the rapid appearance of groups of tall buildings in many other cities where the special topographical conditions of New York do not exist. The truth is that increased concentration makes for increased efficiency in commercial operations. It is probable that the tall building originated in the desire of real-estate owners to exploit small and heavily-taxed property holdings. Increased revenue could be obtained from a small area of land by building upward. The sky-scraper has proved invaluable to efficiency in business, for, in the final analysis, all important business affairs are negotiated through personal contact, in spite of telephone, telegraph

and other substitutive means of communication. Office Plunning.—Since the office building of the sky-scraper type is the most distinctive example of commercial architecture, let us consider it in detail. The usual procedure in most plan studies is to start with the ground floor and build up. But in planning office buildings (and this applies to hotels as well) the architect reverses this process and plans from the top down. That is to say, he develops a typical upper-floor plan first, because the major income is derived from these typical floors, and if some sacrifice is to be made, it can better be made on the ground floor than on the office floors. A typical office unit is first determined upon, a series of such units is arranged along both sides of a corridor, and then the line of vertical circulation (lifts or elevators) is fixed at a central point on this corridor so that no tenant is obliged to walk more than roo ft. from his office door to an elevator. Utility spaces—toilets, cleaners’ closets, vent shafts, flues, etc.—are then added and the plan is completed.

Authorities differ as to what constitutes the ideal office unit; they agree, however, that it is better to have less space (less capital investment) permanently rented at a high figure than much space partially rented at a low figure. Lighting is the im-

portant factor here. The depth, i.c., distance from windows to corridor, of a well-lighted office is never more than twice the clear ceiling height. Twenty feet is better than twenty-five. The width of the unit varies with the distance between stecl columns, which economical engineering consideration places at not less than 15 or more than 22 feet. The diagram shows a typical office unit with internal divisions, each of which can be subdivided into smaller rooms in a single large office unit. Although a 4-ft. corridor might serve all practical purposes, the width should increase with the length for the sake of beauty of proportion. Corridors should also increase in size as they approach the clevators. The building lot at the architect’s disposal determines, of course, the arrangement of offices. The plot plan diagram given herewith shows possible dispositions on three standard lots. It will be noted that ‘‘ dark ” spots, such as always occur where a wing joins the main buildings, are used as far as possible for the necessary utilities, such as elevators, stairways and smoke towers. Toilets can be artificially ventilated and lighted, but it

seems better to place them on small back courts, which furnish inferior office space at best, thereby retaining some degree of natural light and full natural ventilation. The British building laws require outside toilets, always; that is, they must always have outside windows, no matter how much artificial ventilation may be provided. Staircases and Elevators-—{n American office buildings, stairways are little more than fire-escapes. As the law requires them to be entirely enclosed with fire-resisting walls and doors, they are never conspicuous and are rarely visible. In England, *

ARCHITECTURE

(industrial and Commercial)

Te

PLATE I.

pap OR Ty

rej? nn KERES

Fic. 1. Army Supply Base, Brooklyn, N. Y., Cass Gilbert, Architect. A simple but effective use of concrete. Fic. 2. Cahokia Power Station, Illinois, U. S. A.. Moran, Russell and Crowell, Architects. Study in mass, using great stacks as dominant feature. Fic. 3. Bunte Bros. Factory, Chicago, Illinois, U. S. A., Schmidt, Garden & Martin, Architects. Effective use of brick and stone simply treated but with interest at final points. Fic. 4. R. R. Donnelley & Sons Co. Printing Plant, Chicago, Howard Shaw, Architect. Practical conditions solved for mass interest and yet delicate detail.

A good example of pleasing masses simply treated. Fic. 7. Dirigible Hangar, Orly (S.et O.), France. Freyssinet, Engineer. Reinforced concrete in pure harmony of form and function. Fic. 8 Railway Station, Helsingfors, Finland, Eliel Saarinen, Architect. Effective composition without use of conventional classic forms. FIG. 9. Wireless Station, Nauen, Germany, H. Malthesias, Architect. Interesting composition in brick depending solely on mass and proportions. i Fic. 10. Britannic House, London, Sir Edwin Lutyens, Architect. A variety of different openings charmingly harmonised by careful sense of scale. :

Fic. 5. Fletcher Bldg., N. VY. City, Helmle & Corbett, Architects. City factory in concrete, using the structural recessing of wall as it rises, as basis of architectural treatment. Fic. 6. Shoe Factory, Norwich, England, A. T. Scott & Sons, Architects.

tects. Classic architecture used most impressively. Fic. 12. Adelaide House, London, Sir John Burnet & Partners, Architects. Extreme simplicity within a well defined frame.

Fic.

11.

Pennsylvania

Station,

N. Y. City,

McKim,

Mead

& White,

Archi-

ARCHITECTURE

PLATE II.

(Commercial)

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_ Fic. 1. Woolworth Bldg., N. Y. City, Cass Gilbert, Architect. Highest building in the world (except Eiffel Tower). Vertical composition on vertical mass.

Fic. 2. Bush Building, N. Y. City, Helmle & Corbett, on a narrow lot, but architecturally treated on all sides. Fic. tuated Fic. tects. Fic. tects. Fic.

Architects.

Building

3. Tribune Tower, Chicago, Howells & Hood, Architects. Height accenby flying buttresses carried above height restriction for usable floors. 4. Telephone Bldg., N.Y. City, McKenzie, Voorhees & Gmelin, ArchiStriking example of the effect of height restriction with tower. 5. Strand and Wellington Street, London, Trehearne & Norman, ArchiNew simplicity in business building. 6, Standard Oil Building, N. Y. City, Carrére & Hastings, Shreve &

Lamb, Architects. Height restriction interpreted with classic FIG. 7. Bush House, London, Helmle & Corbett, Architects.

feeling. Architecturally

ry

res y

treated with respect for importance of location at end of Kingsway. Fic. 8. Pennsylvania Station Interior. McKim, Mead & White, Architects. Impressive space inspired by ancient Roman baths. Fic. 9. American Radiator Building. Raymond Hood, Architect. An interesting experiment in black brick with gold trimmings. Fic. 10. Philadelphia Savings Fund, Mellor, Meigs & Howe, Architects. A simple bank expressive of security and wealth. Fic. 11. Chile House, Hamburg, F. Hoger, Architect. Extreme modernism

of questionable beauty. Fic. 12. Bon Marché, Paris, L. H. Boileau, Architect. Interior of a large store with skylight court and balconies, example of modern French. FIG. 13. General Motors Company, Detroit, Mich., Albert Kahn, Architect. Head Office of a very modern Trust.

ARCHITECTURE where the height of buildings is limited to nine or at the most 10 storeys, there is one conspicuous open stairway and there are one or two sets of enclosed stairs. Elevators are often the key to the plan scheme and are usually grouped together for greater service efficiency. Even small buildings have at least two (because of possible breakdown), and if more are needed on account of greater floor area or greater number of storeys, they are so placed that a tenant waiting for a car may be able to step easily to the first one that flashes a signal. A battery of six elevators, three facing three, is the ideal arrangement. Eight, four facing four, are possible. More than eight in one battery is not practical, because in such case the passenger might not reach the car before it had passed. If more than one system is installed, the systems must be separated enough for each to serve effectively an entirely new area, and the plan problem simply repeats itself, z.e., two buildings side by side, but with connecting corridors. Inasmuch as roo ft. each way from the elevator line is the convenient limit one may go horizontally, 15 storeys is about the limit of effective service for a single battery. As the building with ground area for one group of elevators increases in height, it may require a battery of more than eight, in which case the problem becomes two buildings, one placed on top of the other, with the vertical circulation of the upper structure running through the lower as an “ express ” service. This general formula, however, is only partially applicable to buildings which diminish in floor area as they rise. Lighting —Window spacing and height is an important consideration. The usual bay between steel columns is from 15 to 20 feet. Experience seems to dictate the use of two windows in this bay. One window to a bay gives too much wall space and too little light; three windows give too little wall space and too much light. An even field of equally spaced windows is more elastic for interior division into offices. The amount of natural light is not as important as the quality of light. Windows located with regard to exterior architectural effect rather than to interior comfort and convenience sometimes extend nearly to the floor, while above is left a dark void of wall space and ceiling. Many windows of average size are preferable to a few large openings, just as several well-distributed ceiling lights in a room give better illumination than one powerful centre light. Too much glass surface causes economic waste and physical discomfort. No general principles can be formulated for the planning of ground floors, basements and sub-basements, because conditions vary widely according to the local problem. The number of floors below the street level depends upon the height, and to some extent the location, of the building. Some very high buildings have as many as five floors below the pavement. Boilers and mechanical equipment are located on various of these lower floors according to the needs of the problem. Zoning.—Building regulations naturally have a direct effect on city architecture. Early in the 18th century the buildingheight restriction in Paris produced the Mansard roof, which became such a fashion that it was widely adopted in cities and countries where no height limitation existed. Similarly, the London Building Act gave that city a distinctive character which has been preserved even in newer districts. And now the recently enacted zoning laws in New York, although their primary purpose is utilitarian, are creating a distinctly new style of architecture, one which bids fair not only to become a pattern throughout the United States, but also to influence European forms. The ordinary sky-scraper, which was simply an elongation of the five- or six-storey commercial building made possible by the lack of height limitation, was in no sense a new form. Rather, it was a distortion of an old form. The new zoning law in New York does not prohibit the erection of sky-scrapers, but it considerably modifies their appearance. Its chief aim is to relieve street congestion, for, other things being equal, it is obvious that such congestion is directly proportionate to the bulk of the buildings flanking the street. The Paris law limits the straight vertical height to 20 metres; above that, additional storeys must

201

remain within the arc of a circle of fixed radius. The London regulations permit of 80 ft. vertical height and two supplementary storeys which must remain behind a sloping line of 75 deg. from the horizontal. In New York the vertical height is now determined by the width of the street, but varies according to the “ zone ” or district in which the given property is situated. These districts are classified as follows: ‘* One-time” districts ‘“‘ one-and-onehalf-time ” districts, “‘ two-time ” districts and ‘ two-and-onehalf-time ” districts. That is to say, the straight vertical height may be equal to the width of the street in residence zones; it may be one-and-one-half times the width of the street in certain residence and business zones; twice the width in the principal business centres and two-and-one-half times in the Wall Street financial section. For the purpose of the law, no street is considered less than so ft. or more than 100 ft. wide. Additional storeys above the vertical height must remain back of a hne drawn from the centre of the street through a point on the top front of the vertical height. The salient feature of New York is its towers, and it was considered wise, in framing the new zoning law, to permit the erection of a tower, which may rise to an indefinite height (limited only by structural possibilities and economic conditions), upon 25% of the total lot area. This has resulted in a very surprising and interesting form of architecture which is rapidly changing the aspect of the city, despite the fact that the law has been in force but seven years. In Paris certain buildings of a monumental nature, either religious or governmental, may exceed the height limit. In London, towers purely for architectural embellishment but not for human occupancy, may pass the legal height. In New York, however, no restriction is made as to occupancy of the tower provided that the building remains within the given “‘ envelope.” Furthermore, the so-called “dormer” permit allows certain portions of the front of each building to rise slightly in excess of the maximum vertical height to give variety of outline. Above this the buildings are usually stepped back, forming a pyramidal series of terraces which vie with the storeyed magnificence of the hanging gardens of Babylon. The law has produced two other interesting results: first, the virtual elimination of interior light courts, these being cut in the side in order to preserve a base for the central tower; second, the tendency to assemble larger and larger plottage so that the 25° tower will be large enough to warrant construction of a great number of tower storeys.

Bank Buildings—The plan problem of banks and financial institutions has changed little except in the space involved. Many mechanical improvements which affect lighting, ventilation and control have developed, and new inter-communicating devices to facilitate the rapid transaction of business are employed. Due in large part to exhaustive experiments made by the Federal Reserve banking system, established by Act of Dec. 23 1913, vault construction has made notable advances, certain types of vault being virtually impregnable to burglar and even mob attack. Although these practical matters are part of the architect’s work, they do not materially affect the aesthetic problem. One tendency, however, which does concern the purely architectural aspect, may be noted. The main banking room, where the major part of the public transacts business, is becoming more and more the architectural feature of the interior. Even the officers of the bank, from the president down, are quartered in this space, and the various partitions necessary to separate bank employees and public take the form of screens, counters, rails, etc., which thereby become a kind of furniture rather than an architectural separation. Some of these great banking rooms are the most magnificent and richly treated spaces in modern architecture, comparable to the interior of government buildings, or even to palaces of the Old World. Stores.—Following the trend of all commercial and industrial construction, stores are being concentrated in larger units. The small shop on the street level continues to exist, but it has produced nothing particularly new in design. On the contrary, many of the most distinctive have attained refreshing charm

ARCHITECTURE

202

and simplicity by reverting to designs of a century ago. The great department store is the principal modern solution of the retailing problem. The building often covers an entire city block (sometimes even two), and is sometimes many storeys in height. By means of quantity purchase and elaborately developed service and delivery systems, the department store supplies the public with every kind of commodity so competing with the speciality shops. In Paris and Berlin the centrally lighted ‘‘ well ” type of store, with its surrounding galleries, is still the rule and gives an impressive interior which is both airy and attractive. But in London and New York every inch of floor-space is utilised, and artificial illumination takes the place of the natural light proceeding from the skylight over the central well. In fact, American building laws in most cities do not permit the open well form of store because of fire hazard. In addition to the usual lifts, the movement of shoppers is facilitated by means of mechanical devices such as escalators and ramps and lifts. Intercommunicating belt conveyers, etc., are usually installed to speed the movement of merchandise. Transportation.—Although architecture relating to transportation is here listed in the commercial category, transportation affects every branch of human endeavour more or less directly and might well be discussed under any or all subdivisions of the subject. The railway terminus is the most important problem the architect has to deal with in this group, bridges and viaducts being considered still in the light of engineering problems not susceptible of architectural treatment.

These mammoth stations are becoming an impressive feature of the modern city and offer fine opportunities for the display of architectural genius. There are two reasons for this: the tendency to combine the termini of several railways in a central or union depot, and the increasing realisation that railway stations are the real gateways to the modern city. First impressions are likely to be lasting ones, and no better point could be chosen at which to make an effective display. Even in many small towns and villages, stations are being erected in keeping with the local environment and designed with an eye to artistic fitness. Generally speaking, two classes of people make use of a station; those travelling daily to adjacent suburbs, who know precisely where and how to go, and desire to reach their trains with the least possible inconvenience; and strangers who must make inquiries at every turn. The architectural problem is therefore to provide an entrance of generous proportions leading directly to a central hall where information booths, booking-offices, luggage-rooms, parcel deposits, news stands, etc., are convenient, and from which gates to trains, conspicuously marked, are readily accessible. Furthermore the movement of trains, luggage and freight involves engineering complications of no mean order. These exacting requirements have been met with notable success in several imposing structures since roro. The Pennsylvania and Grand Central Terminals in New York, the Union station in Washington, D.C., and the new Union station in Chicago are some of the most impressive examples (see RAILWAY STATIONS). IV. SOCIAL

ARCHITECTURE

Under this heading we shall include all buildings for human residence, recreation, entertainment and health. Not many generations ago, all these activities were provided for in the home, where our forbears lived, entertained, played and cared for the sick and the infirm. To-day all these social activities are more highly specialised, and are more and more being taken care of in specially designed buildings. The theatre, picture house, public garden, amusement park, stadium, ball park, athletic field, etc., provide for recreation. The sick and dependent are ministered to in public and private hospitals, nursing homes, orphanages and homes for the aged, infirm, fecble-minded, etc. Present-day dwellings are of five distinct classes: (1) the freestanding country home, which is becoming less usual; (2) the more compact city house, also fast disappearing; (3) the still more compact flat, or, as it is more usually termed in America,

apartment; (4) the apartment hotel, a development of quite recent years; and (5) the hotel itself. Private Dwellings.—Before the World War, the building of country homes proceeded at a more or less normal pace. Many fine examples of very elaborate and distinctive architecture appeared, with gardens, parks, terraces, fountains and informal and rustic settings. But since the War, the construction of homes by individual owners has diminished steadily. This has been due not only to the burdens laid upon wealth, but to the difficulty of obtaining competent domestic servants. The large house is peculiarly dependent on this class of worker. But, drawn away from their usual pursuits by the War, the servant class was at its close unwilling to return to domestic duties. ‘ven small dwellings, in which the housework was formerly done by members of the family, are now being brought into groups, and much of the domestic drudgery is provided for co-operatively. This tendency has been a fairly steady growth since 188s. The factory has usurped more and more of the work of the home: food is supplied in ready-cooked form; clothes are washed in quantity; heat and light are automatically provided. With less and less of this kind of work to do, the modern home-dweller finds that he or she wants none at all. The War also gave great impetus to housing schemes. Pressing necessity forced governments, both national and local, and corporations, both large and small, to provide habitations on an extensive scale. Town-planners studied the problem, overcame the difficulties, and incidentally proved that better homes, with infinitely more healthful surroundings and better sanitary conditions, could be provided through paternalistic or benevolent direction than was possible through individual initiative. Apariment House or Flat—TYogether with these housing developments, the modern apartment or flat building is the most striking feature of social architecture. Apartments, especially in America, are not confined to cities and towns where the concentration of population might furnish an excuse; they have an increasing vogue even in the small villages. The apartment building is simply a combination of compact homes one above the other. For many years Paris used this type of dwelling extensively, and examples exist in many other large European cities. Recent apartment houses, notably in America, exhibit many new and architecturally interesting features. The plan problem consists of making a series of compact home units, each comprising a living-room, dining-room, kitchen and one or more bedrooms and baths. These are the essentials, although a foyer or entrance hall, library and study may be added to the living-room; a breakfast-room, pantry and servants’ hall may be added to the kitchen and dining-room; and a nursery and servants’ rooms to the bedrooms. These, however, are merely supplementary to the basic unit. Apartment buildings are of two distinct types: the walk-up and the elevator or lift type. Any building over five or six storeys requires a lift, and to be of practical value the hit must always work. Since no mechanical device is ever perfect, good planning practice requires that when lifts are installed there be a battery of at least two in order to ensure constant operation in case of a breakdown. It might seem that the lift would change the planning problem only in so far as it made more storeys possible. Of course when there are only one or two apartments to a floor, either the lift or the stairway occupies a central location, and the apartments are planned around this line of vertical circulation as a starting point. But as the number of apartments per floor in the walk-up type increases, additional separate lines of stairways must be added where needed. Lifts, however, being perpendicular shafts, are kept together, thereby forming a central distributing point on each floor to a much larger number of apartments. This requires special planning. In arrangement the apartment unit is not essentially different from the old-fashioned home, except that in the apartment, which is the outgrowth of a desire to reduce the cares of housekeeping, the several rooms must be placed with a view to convenient intercommunication, and must be reduced in size to the minimum. The living-room or parlour is the largest room, and

ARCHITECTURE

(Social)

PLATE III.

eao TUTTLE oe Lee

Bt

Fic. 1. House, New Canaan, Conn., U. S. A., Calvin Kiessling, Architect. Wood architecture, early American Colonial style. Fic. 2. House, Los Angeles, Calif., Harwood Hewitt, Architect. Spanish Mission style suitable to warm climate. Fic. 3. Garden, Burdocks, Gloucestershire, England, E. Guy Dawber, Architect. Charming combination of formal and informal. Fic. 4. Flats, Jackson Heights, L. I., A. J. Thomas, Architect. Example of concentrated housing with generous garden space. Fic. 5. Great Maythern, Kent, Sir Edwin Lutyens, Architect. Fine restoration. Fic. 6. Hortensia House, Chelsea, London, Percy Tubbs, Son & Duncan, Architects. ‘‘Walk Up” apartments simply treated. Fic. 7. Shelton Hotel, N. Y. City, Arthur Loomis Harmon, Architect. Skyscraper apartment hotel.

“u

CVE

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sarees

WE

Fic. 8. Apartment Garden court view.

House (Wohnhausgruppe),

Fic. 9. Apartment House. Paris, Sauvage ing use of recessed upper storeys.

Karl Ehn, Architect.

& Sarrazin,

Architects.

Vienna. Interest-

Fic. 10. Residence, Leningrad, I. Fomin, Architect. Classic influence. Fic. 11. Théatre des Champs Elysées, Paris, A. & G. Perret, Architects. Modern solution of theatre facade. Fic. 12. Grant Park Stadium, Chicago, Holabird & Roche, Architects. Example of impressive civic provision for outdoor entertainment. Fic. 13. Fifth Avenue Hospital, York & Sawyer, Architects. A city hospital planned for maximum light and air.

ARCHITECTURE

PLATE IV.

(Educational)

>*

nren enn tint Nne o an

l }

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INN Teee a e e

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Fic. t. High School, Rockville Center, L. I., U. S. A., H. T. Blanchard, Architect. Fairly typical of American schools.

Fic. 6. Art Gallery, Zurich, Switzerland, Modern architectural motifs interestingly used.

Fic. 2. High School, Columbus, massing in classic manner.

Fic. 7. Pavillon du Collectionneur, Paris, 1925, Exposition, Pierre Architect. Extreme modern exposition architecture very well done.

Fic. 3. Clare architecture

College,

Cambridge,

Ohio,

W.

B. Ittner,

Architect.

Eng., Sir Giles Scott, Architect.

Impressive

Memorial

in spirit of school building.

Fic. 4. Projected building of the University of Pittsburgh, U. S. A., Day Klauder, Architects. Most modern combination of school and skyscraper. Fic.

5. Harkness

Example

Hal!,

Yale

University,

U. S. A., J. G.

of old-world architecture brought to modern

Rogers,

university.

and

Architect.

Prof.

Karl

Fic. 8. American Academy in Rome, McKim, Important school of architecture and allied arts.

Mead

Fic. 9. School Building, Hilversum, secured by mass, rather than detail.

Dudok,

Holland,

Fic. ro. Freer Art Gallery, Washington, D. Interesting handling of walls with few openings.

C., Chas.

Moser,

& White,

Architect.

Architects.

Architect. A.

Platt,

Patout,

Effects Architect.

ARCHITECTURE opening off this, usually with wide doors which permit the occasional use of the two spaces as one, is the dining-room. Adjacent to the dining-room are the pantry, if one is included in the plan, and the kitchen. Bedrooms and baths are preferably arranged in a wing of the building, so that they may be separated to some extent from the other quarters. Modern bathrooms are small and very compactly arranged, one to each bedroom when possible. Service facilities for the kitchen are important. When the building does not exceed nine or ten floors, a hand-operated dumb-waiter is installed, running from the basement to each kitchen, by means of which the janitor of the building distributes food supplies to the various tenants. Garbage is collected by the same device, although incinerators are also widely employed. The flues of the incinerator open into all the kitchens, and garbage and waste are emptied directly into them and reduced to ashes, which can be removed from time to time at the base. This disposal system keeps the dumb-waiter car and shaft clean. A gas-stove, an all-metal

kitchen cabinet, a combination porcelain sink and laundry tub, an ice-box, and in recent years an electric ice-machine are generally installed when the building is erected. In America the use of an ice-box is almost universal, not only for cooling purposes during the summer heat, but because it helps to preserve food in a safe and sanitary condition throughout the year. The dining-room has one or more electric outlets convenient for toasters and electric grills on the dining-room table. The livingroom often has a practicable fireplace, not for heating but as a social amenity. (See HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES.) A central heating plant for each building or group of buildings provides the necessary warmth during the winter months, the system usually employed being steam with exposed radiators in all rooms. When the apartment building exceeds ten storeys, the hand-operated dumb-waiter is hardly practical. Electrically driven ‘‘ fool-proof ” dumb-waiters are sometimes used, but the initial cost is large and the upkeep expensive. In the most modern practice, an additional service lift is installed. This is preferably located near the kitchen wing, or at the rear of the apartment house, to bring in food supplies, to remove garbage and waste, and for the use of the servants. In the beginning, the particular appeal of the “ flat ” was the elimination of stairs. In the old-fashioned city house, built like a narrow slab in a block of similar houses, the overburdened housewife found the stairs very tiring, especially when it meant six or seven flights from basement to attic. This advantage in the flat, however, was largely offset by the difficulty of separating living from sleeping quarters. The so-called “ duplex ” apartment was the first solution of this annoying problem. Here the entire apartment unit occupies two floors, the sleeping quarters above and the living-rooms below, with a small interior stair for communication. In the effort to reduce space, since part of the care of a home is Its size, a low ceiling was adopted. The New York building law at present specifies a clear height of no less than eight feet; formerly it was nine. Consequently builders anxious to get the maximum return from a given piece of property build to this minimum. The larger rooms, particularly the living-room, seemed proportionately low, and were consequently depressing. Even the largest and most expensive apartments seldom exceeded 9% ft., on account of the great waste of cubic contents in the minor rooms. This has resulted in the evolution of still another type of apartment, in which, by a combination of alternating “ duplex ” and “ simplex ” floors, the living-rooms are given an extra ceiling height, bringing them back again to the proportions of the old-fashioned city home, two storeys of living-rooms being placed adjacent to three storeys of minor rooms. This arrangement has the double advantage of retaining something of the atmosphere of the old-fashioned home in at least one important room, and yet economising space, while providing the advantage of modern convenience in other parts of the apartment. Apartment Hotels —The apartment hotel, a type of building which is becoming more and more popular, is simply an apartment house in which the kitchens and the servants’ sections of

203

all the apartments are concentrated in one place and conducted under hotel management. Meals are privately served in each apartment, as simply or as elaborately as desired, and maid service is furnished by the management. Public dining-rooms are also provided. Architecturally, the apartment hotel may be characterised as an apartment house without kitchens, or as a

hotel made up of permanent private suites. Hotels ——In the hotel proper, improvement in mechanical arrangements is more manifest than any change in basic planning principle.

As in most other types of building, the tendency

is toward increased size. A prominent hotel authority states that the heavy overhead expense of a modern hotel, giving as it does complete service of every kind, makes it difficult to operate successfully with less than 1,000 rooms. Some recent examples in America exceed 2,000 rooms. This means large ground area or great height, or both. Twenty storeys are now customary, and a go-storey hotel is projected for New York. The plan problem of an hotel starts with a typical bedroom floor which is repeated many times and is the basis of income for the hotel. Steel skeleton construction, the accepted form of building in nearly all countries, makes possible a more economical bedroom floor arrangement than the older types of wall-bearing construction, with which, of course, there was also a definite limit to the possible number of storeys. The lower floors, the least in demand as bedrooms (for the public seems to have lost its fear of fire in modern structures and prefers to be high for light, air and freedom from noise), are used for the essential hotel offices, lounging spaces, parlours, dining-rooms, banquet-halls, restaurants, cafeterias, etc. Specialised Buildings —In the field of indoor entertainment, progress in theatre design is very marked, while the advent of the picture house adds a new problem. In the old theatres, stage and auditorium formed two nearly balancing elements.

Improved mechanical equipment has somewhat reduced the size of the stage, and the different seating arrangements of the auditorium have increased proportionately the ground area of this part. The cinema requires almost no stage, and in many cases the auditorium has been enlarged beyond the reach of the human voice. In both types the cross section shows the use of but one balcony, and shows no supporting posts to interrupt the view. Architecturally most theatres of both types are problems in interior design. Being commercial enterprises, and requiring no natural light, they occupy spaces away from the street and have at most only a small street frontage. Of course the government-owned and municipal theatres are generally free standing, and have an architectural treatment in keeping with their location. For open-air’ entertainment, the most significant structure that has appeared is the great stadium, rivalling in size, and in some cases in architectural embellishment, the colosseums of old. These are of three general classes: those completely elliptical in form and built en banked-up earth; those built up from the level of the ground as was the Colosseum of Rome, but open at one end; and those built only at one side of the play-field. Care of the sick has been given particular attention. The experience of the World War gave both medicine and surgery opportunities for study and experiment that brought about great strides in both these fields, and evolved many new features in hospital design. The temporary War hospitals showed new arrangements and new dispositions in all the various activities in modern hospitals, and these new ideas became incorporated in the post-War permanent buildings. Two types of plans may be noted—the open scheme with few storeys where ample space is available, and the compact many-storeyed type required in cities. The open plans show a more orderly arrangement of building units, central! administration, kitchen facilities and power plants; general orientation is a very important factor, and lines of communication unite the various elements in a direct and simple plan-scheme.

V. EDUCATIONAL ARCHITECTURE Under this heading we shall include all buildings in which knowledge is imparted and acquired, either directly, by contact

204

ARCHITECTURE

between teacher and pupil, as in schools, colleges and universitics; or indirectly, as in museums, libraries and exposition buildings. Compulsory education, especially in the elementary branches, prevails in most civilised countries, and governmentdirected institutions are on the increase. Schools are erected to fit many and diverse lines of study. The one-time high-school group that represented merely the finishing touches of an English education has become subdivided into many different forms. The modern development of education, that prepares the pupil for a later status in life, has resulted im vocational schools, in which the pupil may be trained in a vocation which his inclination, guided by the influence of his teachers, leads him to select, and which launches him successfully upon a career. School Architecture—The development of architecture in school building has been one of the most remarkable phases of architectural progress during the present century. (See EpucaTION.) The architect who specialises in schoolhouse construction not only must be a student of educational methods, but he must also know how to conserve the physical wellbeing of the pupil during school hours by surrounding him with every element of safety that will safeguard his health, his eyesight and his general physical condition. Specialists in various lines of schoolhouse construction have developed these matters to a point of exact science: and in the plan of the building, the arrangement of the classroom, the width of the corridors, and the heating and ventilation systems, methods have been evolved that make the schoolhouse the most perfectly functioning building that we have at present developed. The tendency towards larger and larger units, which runs through commerce and industry, manifests itself again in educational buildings. This is deplored by many educators on the ground that it standardises educational methods and robs the student of individual attention, but the fact remains that the large institution is the only adequate means of meeting the demand for instruction. There is, however, a definite limit to the number of students a single teacher can handle. Much study and experiment on the part of experts in this field have evolved a classroom of fairly definite size and shape. The school plan revolves around this unit classroom, just as the plan of an office building is based upon the office unit. Unilateral lighting is preferred when possible. Wide corridors adjoin all rooms, leading to the building exits, stairways, assembly hall, gymnasium and other special spaces. Ceiling heights are ample for ventilation purposes, and when there is 1g fect or more from floor to floor above, stairways can be doubled, thus securing two separate stair exits in the space formerly occupied by one. Universities —The most interesting feature of the newer colleges and universities is the comprehensive plan lay-out upon which they are being built, permitting of future expansion. The older universities of Europe grew through the centuries by successive accretions, and they possess, of course, the charm and interest of historical background and precedent. Certain modern universities, notably in America, have endeavoured to recapture this atmosphere by imitating the semi-monastic architecture of those older institutions—Harkness Memorial Hall at Yale and the Graduate School at Princeton, to mention only two. On the

other hand, there is a growing tendency to accept frankly the changed conditions of the time and build in the modern idiom.

The University of Pittsburgh plans to build its halls of learning in the form of a modern 6o-storey sky-scraper. Libraries —Libraries are keeping step with the general increase in public education. Many large cities have a central building, extensive in scope and impressive in design, and one or more branches at convenient points in the populous districts. The general plan consists of a central public room, where books are loaned and returned, where card catalogues are convenient for consultation, and where information is given. Together with the stock rooms, this forms the hub of the plan, around which are disposed other special spaces, such as children’s room, periodical rooms, reference rooms, special exhibits, etc., as the scope

of the work demands.

Museums —Public museums constantly take a more important place in modern life as a means of indirect education. The addition of many commercial, industrial, mechanical, horticultural and other muscums to the traditional art museum is proof of this. Ifere the plan is comparatively simple, consisting of large well-lighted spaces through which visitors pass from room to room. Good modern practice provides one entrance with control, and a disposition of rooms which permits of any given space being temporarily closed for rearrangement or installation of exhibits without shutting off other rooms from public access. The growing tendency of the modern museum to combine educa-

tional courses open to the public with its more traditional activities frequently calls for the addition of lecture-rooms, referencerooms and even auditoriums to the usual plan. Lxpositions.—Expositions are generally housed in temporary buildings constructed for the purpose. The plan problem is of especial interest to the architect, because it gives him an opportunity to make experiments on a large scale which he might not care to risk in more permanent buildings designed for special purposes. The Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893 changed the whole tendency of architecture in America, creating a veritable renaissance of classic styles. The Paris Exposition Universelle in 1900 experimented with the flowing line and naturalistic ornament, but with no permanent effect upon architecture in general. The Wembley Exhibition near London revealed certain possibilities in the use of permanent concrete construction, but lost much effectiveness through lack of distinction in setting and approach. The French, on the other hand, made the most of their Exposition des Arts Décoratifs in Paris in 1925, and many of the temporary buildings displayed architectural forms of unusual interest: the straight line, the post and lintel, sculpture in low relief panels, strong contrasting colours; classical mouldings, capitals and cornices were conspicuous by their absence. The influence of the Paris Exposition can be seen in certain commercial buildings in America, and will doubtless have a lasting effect, because the style so readily adapts itself to modern forms of machine-made construction. VI.

STATE

AND

CITY ARCIHTECTURE

When the War broke out many municipalities in England were erecting new and imposing buildings to house local administrations. State governments in the United States had undertaken new capitols; and new, modernised post-oflices, customs-houses, town-halls, etc., were partially built in many quarters. The War temporarily checked such activity, but much of the work has been completed since. The plan problem of modern administrative buildings is somewhat similar to that of the commercial office building except for two special features. In the first place, the inclusion in the plan of certain large and specially designed rooms or spaces for the assembly of boards, councils, delegates or gatherings of representatives, which become the dominant features, surrounded by offices for government workers and permanent staffs; and secondly, the more extravagant architectural treatment of both the exterior and the interior, with liberal provisions for landscaped settings, all very properly done to impress the community with the power and authority of the state. The architectural problem is new only in so far as the tendency for the state to assume ownership of certain public utilities has considerably increased the space needed for government work. The London County Council Hall, near the Houses of Parliament, the fine building of the Port of London Authority, the Town Hall of Stockholm and the state Capitol of Nebraska in the United States are conspicuous examples. The political changes resulting from the War will undoubtedly find expression in new governmental buildings in the countries most affected, although as yet nothing of note has appeared.

VI.

ECCLESIASTICAL

ARCHITECTURE

Religious architecture, which includes all buildings erected for spiritual or commemorative purposes, appears to be in a transitional stage. In the endeavour to adapt itself to changing

ARCHITECTURE

(Political)

PLATE V.

SER

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RT y

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£

Y

ui

i Ih

af:

t

x ihi ij

3

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run nod ‘te Ane dex ~

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amt

Fic. r. Western Tower, Union Building, Pretoria, South Africa, Sir Herbert Baker, Architect. An example of dignified government architecture. Fic. New York Municipal Building, McKim, Mead & White, Architects. A city’s business office in a skyscraper. A street passes through the central arch of the monumental colonnade. Fic. 3. Port of London Authority, Sir Herbert Baker, Architect. The extreme of monumental character. Fic. 4. Bureau des Postes, Paris, Le Coeur. Modern interior architecture of a new kind.

Fic. 5.

County

Hall, London, Ralph Knott, Architect.

An imposing elevation

making the most of the frontage on the Thames. Interior: FIG. Town Hall, Stockholm, Sweden, R. Ostberg, Architect. impressive scale and unusual combination of old forms with new detail. FIG. Town Hall, Stockholm, Sweden, R. Ostberg, Architect. A new and northern variation on the theme of the Doge’s Palace and Campanile at Venice. Fic. 8. Nebraska State Capitol, Lincoln, Nebraska, U. A., Bertram G. Goodhue, Architect. A new and inspiring solution of the State Government

Building.

PLATE

ARCHITECTURE (Religious)

VI.

eae ee erroaren eren | a “rms

ANI | < Í

f ; f f

Fic. 1. Liverpool Cathedral, England, Sir Giles Scott, Architect. A great building with all the inspiration of the middle ages and yet thoroughly modern. FIG. 2. Nôtre Dame de Rainey, Perret, Architect. Concrete in its new form.

Note the external wind braces on the spire. Frc. 3. St. John the Divine, N. Y. City, Heins

Cram

succeeding.

Extremely

reminiscent

&

LaFarge,

Architects,

R. A.

of the old world.

Fic. 4. Broadway Temple, N. Y. City, Donn Barber, Architect. Most striking example of the combination of church and business. Fic. 5. Lincoln Memorial, Washington, D. C., Henry Bacon, Architect. Most impressive example of classic dignity, in a perfect setting.

Fic. 6. Chicago church

Temple,

Holabird

& Roche,

Architects.

Another example of

and business.

Fic. 7. Cenotaph, Whitehall, London. Sir Edwin Lutyens, Architect. Most impressive of war memorials. Photo. W. S. Campbell, Press Studio, London. Fic. 8. Washington Masonic Memorial, Alexandria, Va., U. S. A., Helmle & Corbett, Architects. A tower in steps inspired by the ziggurat of old, in a carefully landscaped setting.

Fic. Mrs.

9. War

Meredith

nified ensemble.

Memorial, Williams,

Paisley, Sculptor.

Scotland, Sir Robert Lorimer,

Architect,

Sculpture and architecture combined

and

in a dig-

ARCHITECTURE conditions, the Church finds itself faced on the one hand with the necessity of broadening its activities, and on the other with the problem of effecting a physical compromise with other forms of building. Architecturally this involves two distinct problems: (1) enlarging or modifying the Church to house new activities; (2) combining it with commercial structures, a course adopted to some extent in the United States. In the past, the Church was a refuge for the poor and afflicted, a seat of learning and a centre of social life. One after another these functions began to be assumed by independent agencies. Education, except in the spiritual sense, fell chiefly under secular supervision; separate institutions began to care for the sick and the poor; the increased number of social diversions weakened this phase of the Church’s hold on the people. ‘There seems to be, however, a tendency to reassume some of these functions in the form of welfare work and community service. This has added to the necessary equipment of the Church proper such spaces as small auditoriums, Sunday-school rooms, gymnasia, committeerooms, restaurants, etc. The modern church, excepting the ritualistic type, which has not materially changed in plan arrangement or source of design, tends more and more to assume the form of an auditorium in which the important consideration is to see and hear adequately. The enormous growth of large cities has left many churches stranded in business or financial sections, miles from their parishes, so that their very existence as buildings is jeopardised. In both London and New York there are many such churches which are preserved only for their architectural interest or historic associations. It is not mere speculation that, with a few exceptions, these will eventually have to give way. Even in newly developed residential communities, the smaller church finds it dificult to retain a fixed or stable congregation. Locali= ties are no longer local. The automobile, the railway, the telephone and the radio have all conspired to diffuse and diversify public attention. New Churches. —The most startling and essentially modern feature of religious architecture is the “‘ sky-scraper church.”’ In order to retain a position in the crowded, highly taxed business centres, certain churches in America have combined with office buildings. This enables them to carry on their social and community service without depending entirely on voluntary contributions for maintenance. The architectural problem here is a commercial sky-scraper with an auditorium on the ground floor; two buildings of quite different character are superimposed one on the other. Churches, from the simple village type to the great cathedral, are being built, for instance the cathedral at Washington, the great cathedral in Liverpool and the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine in New York. France tried a novel experiment in building the Church of Notre Dame at le Raincy. This structure, built of reinforced concrete, is of rigidly simple modernistic design but of dubious aesthetic value.

VIII. IN MEMORIAM ARCHITECTURE Memorials, a form of architecture antedating any remaining evidence of permanent human habitation, have greatly increased in number and importance since the War. As a problem, memorials have a peculiar fascination for the architect, because they are usually untrammelled by the practical restrictions of ordinary buildings, and frequently offer the best opportunity for combination with the allied arts of sculpture and painting. The difficulties of the problem lie principally in this very lack of limitations, the freedom of choice making selection of the appropriate mode of expression more difficult. War memorials, which abound in every country engaged in the conflict, frequently employ war implements and costumes as a basis of design. The most successful, however, stress abstract conceptions such as bravery rather than the paraphernalia of war. An indication of the universal trend toward democracy is apparent in numerous memorials to the Unknown Soldier. War memorials range from simple wall tablets to buildings of impressive proportions. The latter sometimes take the form of

205

memorial hospitals, soldiers’ homes, assembly halls, etc., in which case their inclusion under memorial architecture is merely nominal. Public interest in war memorials brought about a> recrudescence of other commemorative monuments. The Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., is one of the most impressive ever erected to one man. The George Washington Masonic National Memorial at Alexandria, Va., overlooking the Potomac river, is another example on an impressive scale.

IX. CONCLUSION Several general matters bearing upon the development of architecture, which could not appropriately be considered in any of the foregoing categories, deserve discussion here. Architectural education, because of a change from the apprenticeship method to the school method, has made phenomenal progress. In France, of course, where the Ecole des Beaux Arts has provided systematic instruction for over two centuries, there has never becn a lack of trained men. Even after America began to establish architectural courses (at first in connection with engineering schools), England still retained the apprenticeship system. But when students of both nations began to attend the Beaux Arts in Paris the situation gradually changed. The United States is organised through the medium of the Beaux Arts Institute of Design in one vast school of architecture, with a hundred or more teachers and over a thousand students. In England, the University of Liverpool, the University of London and other well-established schools of architecture conduct their courses along lines similar to the Beaux Arts atelier system The essential features of this system are as follows: Students

work in groups, called afeliers or studios.

The students of each

group receive a programme of conditions for a building (or part of a building, depending upon their degree of advancement), and, after several hours of study, prepare an esquisse (sketch) which combines in one drawing their general solution of the problem. With this sketch as a basis, they proceed to develop a projet, or plan, in complete detail. The work is carried on under the supervision of a patron, who in most cases is a practising architect as well as a teacher. Discussion and mutual help among the students of each studio are invaluable factors in the progress of the student, the older pupils helping the younger with ideas and the technique of drafting, the younger helping the older with the mechanical work of repetition and details. Of course no student’s work is complete until he has had ample office practice. The great advantage of the atelier method lies in the acquisition of broad ideas of plan-composition and design at a time of life when the imaginative faculties are susceptible of development and before the student has become hedged in and cramped by the endless details of actual practice. The effect of this system upon the design of modern buildings is marked. Formerly a single genius, such as Wren or the Brothers Adam in England, or Richardson or McKim in America, could change the style of architecture of an entire nation, for it has always been true in the arts that the quantity producer, provided his work had quality as well, exerted the greatest influence upon other workers in the same field. The atelier method, by inculcating sound principles and directing thousands of students along definite lines, improves the standard of architecture the world over. No architect’s training is now considered complete until he has had a good school and college education, a sound cultural background, a complete university course in his particular subject, and travel and study abroad. Familiarity with architectural forms in general, knowledge of modern enginecring practice, and thorough sympathy with the practical building requirements of the time are the basic reasons why buildings are constantly improving both in style and in quality of workmanship, and why architects as a professional group are less and less influenced by the genius of a single master, no matter how great his skill or how large the quantity of his work. Russian Architecture.—The plan of this survey of world architecture cannot be strictly followed in considering Russian architecture because of the fact that during the larger part of the pe-

riod in question political conditions practically excluded Russia

ARCTIC

206 from participation in the common nations.

cultural life of the other

The years that immediately preceded the World War

may, however, be discussed, as they formed the most creative period in all Russian history. After the first abortive revolution of 1905 a great number of wealthy landowners began for safety’s sake to move to the cities, selling their estates and investing money in industrial and commercial enterprises. A revival of building activity in the cities followed, while the increasing influence of the nobility in Russian city life left its mark on the style of the architecture, ‘ Classicism,” which reminded the nobility of the period of its political and cultural domination. In both the chief cities of Russia (St. Petersburg and Moscow) there were built palatial private residences, of 30 or 40 rooms each, artistically decorated in a “classical” style. Whole blocks were covered with newly built apartment houses, with spacious halls and picturesque interior courts decorated by fountains and statues. The years which immediately preceded the War were characterised by the last attempt of the nobility to affirm its predominance as the governing class of Russia. At the same time it was the period of an acute struggle between the nobility and the industrial class of Russia, which at that moment had become already sufficiently strong and independent and, in its best and most progressive representatives, had attained a level of spiritual

culture and artistic taste not inferior to that of the nobility. We witnessed, therefore, a similar revival of industrial buildings, on a very large scale, concrete and concrete-stcel being widely used. Entire factory settlements were built anew, the largest of which are found in the rubber industry, (The “ Treugolnik”? Co.—about 7,000,000 sq. ft.), textile industry, shipbuilding, railroad stations, warehouses, grain elevators and war industries. The years 1914-23 were a period of stagnation for Russian architecture. Only purely theoretical and experimental work was being done in the studios of architects, bringing about the formation of two distinct artistic schools. One, represented mostly by the younger generation of revolutionary tendencies, is based on abstract philosophical theories, contrary to technical possibilities and the requirements of life itself. This is the so-called

“cubism.” The other school, headed by architects of mature artistic judgment and large practical experience, remains true to classical principles, but tries to simplify the classical forms and to use construction as a decorative element. In 1923 an AllRussian Agricultural Exposition building (more than 52,000,000 cu. ft.} was constructed in Moscow by the architects Shchussev and Oltargevsky. In this undertaking both of the above-mentioned schools were represented, as some parts of the building

were constructed by architects of “‘ cubistic ” tendencies. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The principal sources of information on modern architecture are the best eee periodicals of the various countries:

The Architect;

The American Architect;

The Architectural

Forum; The Archttectural Record (New York); The Architectural Review; The Architects’ Journal (London); Moderne Bauformen (Stuttgart); L’Architecte (Paris); and Architettura e Arti RE

ARCTIC REGIONS. (see 21.938).—This article deals with the sovereignty, climate and resources of the area known as the polar regions. For the story of its exploration since 1910 sce

the article PoLAR REGIONS.

Sovereignty Questions.—Most Arctic lands are now under the sovereignty of one or other state. The treaty transferring ihe Danish West Indies to the United States (1917) contained a clause recognising Denmark’s right to extend her economic and political sphere over the whole of Greenland. Norway disputed this right on the ground that only Norwegian sealers and trawlers made any use of the east coast. An agreement between the two states was signed in 1924, giving Norwegians unhindered access to that shore, but leaving undecided the question of Danish sovereignty, which Norway does not admit, maintaining that Eastern Greenland is a terra nullius. In 1916 Russia reiterated her claim to all the Arctic islands lying north of Asia, including Wrangel Ísland. Attempts on the part of V. Stefansson in 1921-4

to establish a British claim to Wrangel Island met with no official

REGIONS support in Britain or Canada, and in Aug. 1924 Russia officially hoisted her flag on the island and reasserted her claim. Franz Josef Land is not included among Russian claims, and may be regarded as a terra nullius. By a treaty signed in Paris, Feb. 9 1920, the principal European Powers and the United States and Japan recognised Norway’s sovereignty of Spitsbergen and Rear

Island. Canada claims all islands of the American Arctic Archipelago between the meridian of 60° and 142° west of Greenwich, Greenland excepted. This carries British sovereignty to the Pole. (R.N. R.B.) T. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS It is a commonplace of modern geography that there are two main kinds of climate,. continental and insular, with the seacoasts of continents partaking somewhat of the insular qualities. In continental climates, there are greater extremes of heat and cold than on islands. It follows that the most intense cold in the Arctic is nowhere near either the mathematical centre, called the North Pole, or the sea-ice centre, called the Pole of Inaccessibility (84° N. Lat., 160° W. Long.). In arctic Alaska, the coldest weather is, so far as we know, in the Yukon basin; in Canada it is In Yukon Territory; and in Siberia it is in the province of Yakutsk. All these places have been inhabited for a quarter of a century or more by Europeans who are not known to have been materially discouraged in their work by the mere disagreeable-

ness of the climate, although they have been handicapped by the frozen ground and in other things that result directly from the cold. The Coldest Region.—The coldest known region of the northern hemisphere is the province of Yakutsk, in the vicinity of the arctic circle, where temperatures colder than go°F. below zero have been reliably recorded—and that on the edge of cereal farming, for the great Russian atlas published Just before the War indicates that wheat, barley, oats and rye are cultivated, if not at the very cold pole of the Northern Hemisphere, at least within a comparatively short distance from it, where the temperature frequently drops lower than 80° below zero. This 1s colder than any known region in arctic Alaska or arctic Canada. We may conclude, then, that winter cold does not frighten away Europeans through its mere disagreeableness nor render it im-

possible for them to make a living. No records apparently authentic of temperatures colder than 60° F. below zero are available from any of the arctic islands, and it is almost certain that they do not occur. The coldest spells that do occur are when the wind blows from the interiors of the islands. It seems unlikely, therefore, that the temperature ever drops as low as 55° below zero at the North Pole, the Pole of Inaccessibility, or, indeed, at any point on the arctic sea. Summer Temperatures.—There is probably no spot on a lowJand in the continental Arctic, whether in Asia or America, that does not occasionally have a summer temperature warmer than 80° F. in the shade. Or, if there is such a place, it must be on a peninsula, or on a narrow coastal strip between ice-covered mountains and the sea. Many places in the continental Arctic have occasional temperatures above 85° in the shade, and at least one arctic weather bureau station, that of the United States Govt. at Fort Yukon, Alaska, has a record of 100° in the shade. The slowness of the public to realise that there is such great summer heat in the Arctic is due partly to the prevalence of the ancient view that all the Arctic is always cold, and partly to the reports of travellers whose entire arctic experience has been on the ocean or on a seacoast. The reason for the great mid-summer heat on arctic lowlands is, of course, that the sun delivers an adequate number of heat units per day to account for it. The ordinarily accepted figures are three or four per cent more at the North Pole than at the equator for the top of the atmosphere and three or four per cent less for sea-level. This means that you would have “ tropical ” heat at any place in the Arctic where the sun’s rays strike a dark surface and where there is no local reservoir of “‘ cold” to neutralise it. The places, therefore, that do show a “‘ tropical ” heat are on lowlands that are sheltered from ocean breezes and from

ARCHITECTURE

PLATE VII.

eheane TYPICAL OFFICE FLOOR PLAN

7 7

Corner Lot,

_

SPCR)

J

a

5

a

t

CORRIDOR.

SCALE O

Interior Lot, 100x106

100x100

10

OF. 20

FEET DO

B MAILING

Entrance

Floor

Plan

Fic. 1.—Zoning Envelope (building laws of New York City) showing the mass of building which would occur if carried to extreme limits permitted by law over square 800 x 200 ft. On 25 % of a lot area, a tower may rise to any height. Fic. 2.—Same as I, showing courts cut in to provide natural light in building. Fic. 3.—Sloping surfaces changed to vertical, ready for windows—the tower

reduced to a structural possibility—i.e, height of 1,000 ft. and offsets

adjusted

to steel supports. Fic. 4.—The finished building, windows in place, architecturally embellished and ready for occupancy. These diagrams show the cause of the “style” of architecture which is becoming prevalent in America. McKim, Fic. 5.—Plan of ground floor, Municipal Building, New York City: Mead and White, Architects. A street passes through the centre. Fic. 6.—Economical layout for elevators in an office building.

Fic.

7.—Plan

of typical

office floor, Municipal

Building,

New

York

City:

McKim. Mead and White, Architects. Note elevator layout. Fic. 8.—Typical office plans on rectangular lots. Howells Fic. 9.—Ground floor and typical floor, Tribune Building, Chicago: and Hood, Architects. Ralph Knott, Architect. Fic. 10.—Plan of the new County Hall, London: Elements well composed, with clear circulation. McKim, Mead and White. FIG. 11.—Plan of American Academy in Rome: Fic. 12.—Plan of Liverpool Cathedral: Sir Giles Scott, Architect. Developed under one guiding hand. Fic. 13—Plan of Cathedral of St. John the Divine, New York City: Heins and La Farge, Architects; R. A. Cram, succeeding. Developed under different hands, as were the old cathedrals, which were long in building.

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arranged display spaces. Fic. 4.—Plan of Nebraska State Capitol: B. G. Goodhue, Architect. A new note in state capitol planning. Fic. 5.—A typical plan of small suburban apartment, Jackson Heights, New The better type of modern housing A. J. Thomas, Architect. York City: practice.

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ARCTIC

REGIONS, CLIMATE

AND

RESOURCES

207

winds that come from ice-covered mountains. If the length of often thick on the decks of whaling ships, but so thin at the summer is measured by the season during which streams flow masthead that the captains in the crow’s-nests can see each unfrozen and during which certain insects are alive and more or other plainly while the men on the decks have no visual Eerie less active, the arctic summer would range from a maximum of that other ships are near. Summing up, the arctic winters are longer than those of most about five and a half months in such places as the north shore of Great Bear Lake, to perhaps two months in places like extremely cold places now inhabited by prosperous and contented Europeans, such as Dakota and Manitoba, for instance. Borden Island. But an important thing to remember is that there is a direct They are also a little colder. But they are, on the other hand, less stormy and with a lighter snowfall. The summers, although dependence of animals on plant life and that plants measure their summer not by the calendar but by the number of hours shorter, are in some places almost or quite as hot. It would seem, then, that the same sort of people might be willing to live of sunlight. At Fort Yukon, Alaska, for instance, on a day that in the Arctic who are willing to live in Dakota and Manitoba. varies from, let us say, 65° at the coldest to 95° at the warmest It will undoubtedly be difficult to get people to colonise the. (in the shade), there would be approximately as much growing time as in two ordinary days in the humid tropics. This is why Arctic, but in the opinion of many this will not be any special some plants grow so much more rapidly in certain parts of the arctic problem but rather a general frontier one. For the tendArctic than the same plants do in any part of the tropics or ency which brings American farmers to the cities, increasing the percentage of urban population, makes it as difficult to induce temperate zone. An interesting, and to most botanists an unexpected, corollary is that some plants also grow to far greater Londoners who are out of work to migrate to sub-tropical Aussize in the Arctic than in the temperate zone or tropics, as cab- tralia as to sub-arctic Canada. The weakening or dying out of bages, for instance. This may possibly be because they lose the frontier spirit is one of the conspicuous social phenomena of our time. speed in the temperate zone where they have to stop and start again to conform with alternation of day and night, but can II. NATURAL RESOURCES maintain a continuous and fairly uniform rate of growth in the Since the climate, as such, will not prevent arctic colonisation, Arctic where the daylight is continuous. Arctic Weather.—Dr. Fridtjof Nansen announced as one of the ascertained resources may be enumerated. Coal.—It is now known that coal is almost, if not quite as the outstanding conclusions of his great scientific expedition of 1893-6, that the Arctic is, on the average, one of the least stormy likely to be found in the Arctic as in tropical or temperate lands. large regions of the world. Stefansson’s observations as a result It is not surprising, therefore, that seams of coal, of varying of rr years spent north of the arctic circle and the studies of quality, of course, have been reported by most arctic explorers. Stefansson, for instance, found coal in all but two of the islands other observers have tended to confirm Nansen. In many parts north of Western Canada. In these, Victoria Island and Meighen violent gales are quite absent, or at least have not yet been observed by scientific men. Gales are common only where an Island, further exploration may show coal. Corl of quality said to be equal to the best Welsh has been open ocean is faced by high mountains or a plateau. mined for several decades in Spitsbergen, some five or six hunSnowfall.—It is dificult to measure arctic snowfall because the snow is usually very dry and fluffy and is driven about a dred miles north of the arctic circle, and these mines should great deal by even the lightest winds. There is no doubt that, eventually supply a great part of northern Scandinavia and of however, on the average, arctic precipitation is very light. It is northern Russia. In Alaska, a coal mine at Cape Lisburne, well estimated that, if the snow of winter be added to the rain of north of the arctic circle, was worked to supply the whaling summer, the result would be about eight inches of water, cer- fleet even before 1885, and fell into disuse only with the abandonment of the whaling industry. The natives of the north tainly not more than ten, on most parts of the arctic lowlands coast of Alaska mine coal at Wainwright for their own use and of Canada and Alaska. The Siberian lowlands may be even to sell locally to missionaries, government schools, traders, etc. drier. We have, therefore, the apparent paradox that the average snowfall of the Arctic is much less than that of Scotland or The members of Stefansson’s expedition, living by hunting on Melville I., maintained two winter camps, one in Liddon Gulf of Illinois, for instance. and the other on the north coast near Cape Grassy. They burned Glaciers.—It is now well established that there is no permabituminous shale in the southern camp, but in the northern they nent snow or ice on any land in the Arctic unless it be mounburned lignite of good quality, some of it saturated with oil. tainous. The required height of mountains varies roughly with Oil.—Indications of oil have been found in many parts of the the varying precipitation. The highest mountains of Melville I., for instance, are probably not more than 4,000 feet. This is Arctic. The Imptrial Oil Co. of Canada, a branch of the Amer= not enough for the formation of any real glaciers. Mr. E. de K. ican Standard Oil, has flowing wells on the Mackenzie river just Leffingwell, in his studies of arctic Alaska, found that in the south of the arctic circle, and the same oil-fields are known to first coast range south of Flaxman I., the altitude of 6,000 ft. extend beyond the circle. About 5oo m. north from these wells and, therefore, about 500 m. north of the arctic circle, Stefansson was not enough for the formation of glaciers. But in the second range, a little farther south, which runs up towards 10,000 ft., found oil on northern Melville Island. The U.S. Navy has rethere were some glaciers. So far as we yet know, there is no cently set aside a vast oil reserve in arctic Alaska, and both prievidence of ancient glaciation on the great low plains of arctic vate prospectors and representatives of large oil companies have Alaska. This must have been because they were then as now a staked claims east of the government reserve. These claims are near Cape Simpson which, but for Barrow, is the most northerly region of very light snowfall. Fogs.—Since fogs are caused by the meeting of air currents cape in Alaska. Tron and Copper.—¥ardly less fundamental than oil and coal of differing humidity and temperature, it is obvious that the are iron and copper. No large arctic deposits of iron ore are insular Arctic and the coast lands must be regions of frequent known. There are iron “ prospects,” however, in many places. fogs. In summer, for instance, with a lowland steaming under a sun that creates an 80° temperature in the shade, and just in But the copper fields that ie between Bear Lake and the centre front of it an ocean the surface of which is around 30° F., any of Victoria I. in a district roughly 200 m. sq., give great promise breeze blowing from the land would be suddenly cooled, produc- —if the world’s need of copper increases, or if the spread of settlements to that country make mining more feasible. There are ing a sea fog. Similarly, any breeze coming from the ocean copper prospects in other parts of the Arctic, and gold, silver, would produce a fog over the superheated land. Such fogs would platinum and tin have been found. be thickest and most frequent where the sea and land meet. V egetation ——A more fundamental resource than even the oil We gradually work out of the land fogs when we travel inland and out of the sea fogs when we steam away from land. From -and coal is the vegetation of the Arctic that makes food-production possible. The coniferous forest extends beyond the arctic the flying point of view, it is important that these fogs have been circle, in Canada in certain river valleys as much as 150 m., and are They average. the on low very be to experience by found

208

ARDENNES,

BATTLE

OF THE—ARGENTINA

even farther in Siberia. Trees 100 ft. high are found too m. north of the arctic circle. They make the Arctic more homelike to those who are used to forests, and they are doubtless valuable. But many consider that the same land would be more immediately valuable if the trees were absent, for then it would be covered with grass, like most of the rest of the Arctic, whether continental or insular. It is one of the exploded beliefs that arctic vegetation is mainly mosses and lichens. Some 20 years ago, Sir Clements Markham published the statement that the Arctic possesses 28 species of ferns, 250 lichens, 332 mosses and 762 flowering plants. Many species have been discovered since then, and many others will be ‘discovered hereafter. There will probably be little disagreement with the estimate that we have in the Arctic at least ro times as many tons of flowering plants as of non-llowering. There are a few small portions of the Arctic where cereals can be profitably cultivated, and still others where garden vegetables will be of some value. But, so far as can be seen at present, the chief thing to do with the arctic soil is to permit that vegetation to continue growing which grows there already and to make an economic use of it by converting it into meat, hides and other animal products. | Reindeer.—There is one suitable animal, the reindeer, domestic in the Old World since prehistoric times. No one knows how many of these there may be in arctic Siberia, where single owners often have from 5,000 to 10,000 head. But there are definite figures for the entire period of reindeer domestication in Alaska. The American Govt. commenced by importing 16 head from Siberia in 1892. Up to 1902, when importation ceased because of an embargo imposed by the Tsar’s Govt., 1,280 animals were brought from Siberia. These have never failed to double every three years since importation, so that by the spring of 1926 there were 500,000 head. The U.S. Department of Agriculture estimates that the grazing resources of arctic and sub-arctic Alaska will be adequate for 3,000,000 to 4,000,000. Since the climate and vegetation of arctic Canada are, for reindeer purposes, the same as those of arctic Alaska, with an area ro times greater, we can say, roughly, that Canada will support from 30,000,000 to 40,000,000 head. Undoubtedly the reindeer area in Asia and northern Europe is twice as large as the Alaskan and Canadian put together, which would make total world figures between 100,000,000 and 125,000,000. This estimate is probably low.

No animal now domestic can be profitable in the Arctic except the reindeer. Cattle, sheep, horses and goats can, of course, be raised in many parts, but, under present costs and prices, they would not pay. The reindeer pays handsomely because it needs no barn for shelter, no hay for feed, nor any protection from wind or weather. Domestication of Ovibos—There was a project under discussion in 1926 of domesticating the ovibos (musk ox) because it eats certain arctic vegetation that reindeer do not eat and because the reindeer produces only meat and hides while the ovibos

produces wool in addition. Ovibos beef is indistinguishable from ordinary domestic beef in colour, flavour, taste and odour. The wool, as determined by the Textiles department of the University of Leeds (Prof. Aldred F. Barker}, has good heat retaining and wearing qualities, is easy to bleach and dye, is softer than cashmere, and will not shrink—in other words, is one of the finest of known wools. With the ovibos domesticated, the potentialities of the Arctic

will be greater.

But with only the reindeer, there is no doubt

that the arctic grasslands (which means all lands in the Arctic not so high and mountainous as to be snow-covered) will be colonised unless, indeed, the world movement of population from the country to the cities stops further colonisation entirely. In most cases mining will develop after the ranchmen have occupied the grazing lands. But in some cases, notably with oil, the mining will precede colonisation. That gold mining will precede colonisation seems for the moment unlikely, although that ts the’ one kind of mining that has hitherto taken people to the Arctic. But the rise in the cost of living is only another expression for a

drop in the value of gold, so that the gold deposits, which paid fabulously in Alaska 20 years ago, are not paying now even where production remains uniform. Site-value.—Finally we must point out a resource of the Arctic that has nothing to do with climate, minerals or the like, but is due entirely to position. The history of civilisation as we know it is essentially the history of the Northern Hemisphere. Generally speaking, civilisation seems to have started in the subtropics—Yucatan for the New World; Egypt, Asia Minor, etc., for the Old World. As civilisation has been spreading northward during historic time, it has really been spreading toward the centre of a circle. That centre is the Arctic. It was an Elizabethan ideal to find a sea-way north from Europe to the Indies. No practical route was ever found, because of the floating ice in the arctic sea. So, perforce, we have gone roundabout. But now ships of the air are opening up the roads of the air which lie straight in any desired direction. As the Elizabethans knew, China is north of Europe. But Peking is also north of New York, and the wheat-fields that are spreading over central Siberia are north of the growing wheat-fields of central Canada. The cities springing up in those wheat lands will be far from each other east and west, but not half so far north and south. Air Routes—The world is developing an increasing speed mania, both for messages and for passengers. The flying conditions of the Arctic are probably, on the average, as good as those of any other equally large area of the world. It follows, therefore, that the centre of the circle of civilisation, which is the Arctic, will be the flying crossroads of the world. This will necessitate the establishment of way stations here and there. Of itself, that will to a small extent require colonisation. It will have a vastly greater indirect effect by spreading accurate knowledge of the Arctic throughout the world. Thereupon will follow such colonisation as the real climate and actual resources justify. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-V. Stefansson, The Friendly Arctic (1921) and The Northward Course of Empire (1922); Reports of the Territorial Government of Alaska; Annual Reports of the U. S. Bureau of Education since 1892; Reports of various departments of the Government of Canada; Report of the Royal Commission to Investigate the Possibilities of the Reindeer and Musk Ox Industries in the Arctic and Sub-Arctic Regions of Canada, publhshed 1922, Department of the Interior, Ottawa, Canada. (V. 5.

ARDENNES, BATTLE OF THE: see FRONTIERS, BATTLES OF THE. ARGENTINA (see 2.460).—A republic in South America, having an area of 1,153,119 sq.m., and a population, Jan. 1 1924, of 9,203,797.

I. POLITICAL HISTORY During the period 1910-25 Argentina enjoyed an external and domestic peace such as she had never known throughout a period of similar duration in her history. She was enabled to consolidate and bring nearer perfection the institutions of the country; give effect to the democratic ideals of her statesmen; and put an end to abuses and systems which, for nearly a century, had disturbed her peace and retarded her progress. In

1910 the republic celebrated the centenary of her first bid for independence, commemorating with a successful international exhibition the events of May 25 1Sro, when the residents of Buenos Aires ejected from office the Spanish-controled municipal council and deposed the viceroy Cisneros. By roto, after 100 years of recurrent political disturbance, a new era for Argentina had opened. There was peace within her frontiers and all difficulties with her neighbours had been overcome. Boundary disputes with Brazil, Chile and Bolivia had been amicably settled, either by the arbitrament of foreign powers—as tn the case of the very serious difference with Chile—or by direct negotiation. The Pre-War Years —Dr. Roque Séenz Pefia was installed in office as President in Oct. 1910. He gave the closest attention to reforms designed to foster and strengthen public respect for and confidence in the institutions of the country. Much of the trouble during the 20 years prior to 1910 had been due to corrupt practices possible under the old system of open voting at elections, and the methods of trickery and force employed through-

ARGENTINA out the country by powerful “ caudillos,” or political “ bosses.” President Peña reformed the electoral law and instituted the secret ballot. This was the outstanding and most valuable of his official actions, and incidentally it is worth noting that the first effect of the reform, at the next presidential elections in 10916, was the defeat of the Conservative party to which the author of the new law belonged, and which had enjoyed political control of the country for over a quarter of a century. There was a good deal of industrial trouble in the years 1910-4, due, not to any political unrest, but to economic conditions following the collapse of the land and cattle boom of roto. Early in ro14 Dr.

Peña was too ill to fulfil his duties, and the presidential mandate was assumed by the vice-president, Dr. Victorino de la Plaza. Lhe War Pertod.—President Pena died in to14. With conspicuous ability Dr. de la Plaza was directing the affairs of the nation through a difficult period when the outbreak of the World War occurred. In a country with such a cosmopolitan population the sudden disruption of international relations necessarily had an immediate repercussion. All important contracts involving shipping, the exportation of grain and meat and the importation of manufactures, were cancelled and something like

a business panic was imminent. It was only averted by the declaration of a moratorium. The banks closed their doors for a week, and time was given for an examination of the general

situation. The strict neutrality of Argentina was proclaimed. It was recognised early that the republic would play an important part in the provisioning of Europe, and out of a moment of threatened panic the country emerged in a spirit of confidence that at least it could not be adversely affected by the War. The general outlook of the Argentine people on the causes of the War and its subsequent conduct was one largely of indifference until the events of early 1918. There was a fairly pronounced sympathy with the Allies, and particularly with Belgium and ‘France, but Germany’s preliminary successes rather impressed the people, and the vigour with which she entered upon propaganda in Argentina had its effect. A German newspaper in the Spanish language was established in Buenos Aires and was widely circulated gratis throughout the country. The Allies were very slow in countering this propaganda, and Argentine public opinion at first held that the Central Empires would prove successful. This opinion was strengthened by the news of the annihilation of Admiral Cradock’s squadron off Coronel, Chile, by the German squadron commanded by Admiral von Spee, but its effect was quickly overcome by the more convincing destruction of the German {leet in the battle of the Falklands. Meanwhile Buenos Aires had had its first glimpse of the War, by the arrival of the German steamer “ Elenore Wocermann,” bringing the survivors of the “‘ Cap Trafalgar” and the cruiser “ Ebor,” the former of which—well known in the Plate trade—had been sunk by the British armed liner “ Carmania.” The great newspaper La Nación was strongly pro-Ally, and prominent poets and other writers pronounced themselves vigourously in condemnation of Germany. Officially, however, the country remained strictly neutral, though its whole resources were exclusively at the disposal of the Allied powers. President Irigoyen’s Régimé.—The presidential elections in 1916 withdrew all attention from the War to domestic politics. For the first time the elections were to be “ free” under the secret voting system introduced by President Peña. The Conservatives confidently nominated Señor Rojas-Seru. The Radicals who had, to use a local expression, “ been in the wilderness ” for 30 years, put forward Dr. Hipólito Irigoyen, and the result was a sensational victory for the latter. Dr. Irigoyen was com-

paratively unknown to the new generation, and came {rom relative obscurity to the presidency. Twenty-five years earlier he had been one of the most vigorous “ caudillos ” in the country, and had suffered exile for his association with Leandro N. Alem in the revolution of 1893. Buenos Aires knew little of him, but his power and prestige with his party and in, the country must have been very great throughout the period when he was quietly working for a restoration to power of the Radicals.

On

209

ring to his partisans every office and position that could possibly be given. It was widely believed that, while the neutrality of Argentina in the War would be strictly adhered to, the President was privately rather pro-German, This popular belief received no confirmation by any official act, and it is much more probable that Dr. Irigoyen entertained no feeling one way or the other, his policy being one of intense nationalism. When in the early part of 1917 the United States entered the War

and

President

Wilson

appealed

to the Latin

American

States to follow her lead, strong influences were brought to bear to change the official attitude of Argentina. Brazil and other countries declared war on Germany; Uruguay broke off diplomatic relations, but President Irigoyen permitted no departure from the country’s proclaimed neutrality. A more severe test came when, in pursuance of her unrestricted submarine campaign, Germany sank several ships flying the Argentine flag. National feeling ran’high. It was intensified by the disclosure that the German Minister in Buenos Aires, using Swedish diplomatic channels for the purpose, had advised his government in dealing with Argentine ships, either to spare them or “ sink without a trace.” Wild riots ensued in Buenos Aires. The German Club was sacked, and other property damaged. A clamour for war arose, but the President refused to give way. The government contented itself with demanding explanations and obtaining compensation, which was given by Germany by way of the transfer to the Argentine national transport fleet of certain ships that had lain in port since the outbreak of the War. Post-War Years.—The conclusion of the War was as entirely unexpected in Argentina as its outbreak. The country was enjoying great prosperity, only suffering to a limited extent from shortages of coal and certain manufactures. Immediately the Armistice was signed there was some confusion, especially as regards the condition of the primary industries under war contracts, now to be cancelled. Industrics that had sprung into being during the War also felt ‘* panicky ”’ in face of an expected early resumption of trade with Europe in manufactured goods. Trade unionism had developed strongly, particularly among the marine and dockside workers. President Irigoyen was reputed to be intensely sympathetic toward the “ proletariat,” and much of the energies of his cabinet had been devoted to legislation designed to ameliorate the conditions of the labouring masses. At this period strikes were rather frequent. Early in 1919 occurred the ‘‘ tragic week,’ of which practically no report reached Europe. A prolonged strike at the works of the Argentine Iron and Steel Company culminated in a demonstration of the strikers. The police were sent for, and came into conflict with the

rioting strikers, several of whom were killed.

At the funeral of

the victims, which was attended by thousands of workers, further

shooting took place. The trouble spread throughout the city of Buenos Aires, and finally the military took charge of the situation and promptly restored order. Actually the affair had no deep political significance, though subversive elements of the cosmopolitan population certainly intruded themselves into it. Industrial troubles endured until after the end of Dr. Irigoyen’s term of office. Shipping and the transport systems were most involved, and the business of handling the country’s imports and exports suffered severely. In 1922 the port of Buenos Aires was completely at a standstill for over three months. From the beginning of 1923 the position began to improve, coincident with the country’s return to normal conditions of industry, trade and | commerce. Argentina and the League.—The republic was one of the first of the Latin American States to give its adhesion to the League

of Nations, which it joined on July 16 1919. Fhe Foreign Minister (Dr. Honorio Pueyrredon) and a delegation attended the first Assembly in 1920, when the minister delivered a striking address and presented a formula for the inclusion of Germany and all sovereign states within the League on a basis of absolute

equality, and for submitting disputes to an international judicial court. On the rejection by the Assembly of this formula, the delegation withdrew. Up to the end of 1925 the republic had taken

no active part in the deliberations of the League. attaining office in Oct. 1916 he followed the custom of transfer- |

For a time no

210

ARGENTINA

dues were paid, but in 1925 Congress approved of the nation meeting its obligations in this respect. President Alvear’s Régime.—Dr. Irigoyen’s term of office expired in Oct. 1922. He was succeeded as president by Dr. Marcelo T. de Alvear, whose candidature was supported by the retiring president as head of the Radical party. At the elections the people again gave the Radicals their confidence, the Conservatives and Socialists being easily defeated. In the Federal capital the Socialist party had come into prominence since 1910. In the 1922 presidential elections, the following votes in the Electoral College were secured: Union Civica Radical, 335; Concentration National (Conservative), 60; Socialist, 22; Democrata Progresista, 10. Under the Alvear régime substantial progress was

The made, particularly in the direction of financial reform, floating debt was greatly reduced, economy in administration effected, the big overdraft in excess of legal authorisation at the Banco de la Nacién wiped out, and a more rigid control exercised over the affairs of the nation. A more businesslike attention was paid to the exploitation of the State-owned petroleum industry and the administration of the National railways. In 1925 President Alvear had to reorganise his Cabinet, following the resignations of the Ministers of the Interior and of Agriculture. During the first few months of his administration the President and his Cabinet were faced with rather difhcult economic conditions owing to the heavy fall of cattle values, upon which so much of the prosperity of the country depends. The foreign freezing companies fixed prices according to the demand ruling in European markets, and intense dissatisfaction prevailed amongst the influential cattle brecders. It was proposed at one time to nationalise the meat export industry, or alternatively to compel the exporters to pay minimum prices. Before any of the varied schemes for rectifying the situation came to fruition, however, values for cattle began to rise, and in 192s they reached the highest point ever recorded. Agricultural and other primary industries were in a flourishing condition in 1925, high prices ruling for most lines of produce.

Social Legislation.—The period ro10-25 was remarkable for the volume of legislation of a social character, most of it passed during the Irigoyen régime. The principal Acts passed related to employers’ liability; compensation for injured workers and those incapacitated by disease contracted at their work; the early closing of shops and business establishments; restriction of Sunday labour; official control of sweated industries carried on in the home for an outside employer, and the provision of cheap homes for workers, and pensions. A National Department of Labour was established, with very wide control over every phase of employment and industry. In the immediate post-War years, a Rent Restriction Act was in operation, but it became inoperative in 1924 when the Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional. In 1925 the attempt to enforce a general Pensions Law, framed somewhat on the lines of the British legislation, proved futile owing to the opposition of both employers and employees, who refused to make the required contributions. This law practically lapsed, though it was not repealed. British Royal Visit—A notable event in Argentine history was the first official visit ever paid to the country by a member of the British Royal Family, the Prince of Wales journeying in H.M.S. ‘ Repulse ” to Buenos Aires at the invitation of the president and nation. The Prince reached the Federal capital on Aug. 18 1925, and received an enthusiastic welcome. After a round of ceremonies he toured the country, and crossed the Andes to Chile. On his return to Argentina he was again shown the greatest hospitality, and spent some days as the personal guest of President Alvear. In recognition of the magnificent reception given to the Prince, King George V. bestowed the Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath upon the President, and conferred high honours upon members of his cabinet and prominent officials. (L. Ma.) Defence—The army of the Republic is a national militia, and service is compulsory for all male citizens from the age of 20 to

45 years; naturalised citizens are exempt for a period of 10 years. For the first 10 years men belong to the permanent forces, 2.e.,

the first line, for the next 10 years to the National Guard, and for

the last five to the Territorial Guard: the period with the permanent forces includes one year’s continuous service. The Army Regulations of Jan. 1916 laid down the establishment for 1924 as 1,501 officers, 3,160 non-commissioned officers, 1,820 volunteers and 20,000 conscripts. There is a trained reserve of 300,000 men, half in the first line and half in the special reserve, and a territorial reserve of 100,000 men. A military aviation school has been established at El Palomar: in Dec. 1924 the Air Force consisted of a fighting flight, a bombing flight, and an observation flight. The navy consists of two battleships, the “ Moreno ”’ and “ Rivadavia,” four armoured cruisers, one light cruiser, one cruiser, seven destroyers, five torpedo boats, two coast defence vessels and a few training and miscellaneous craft. The battleships, launched in 1917, have a displacement of 27,940 tons and a nominal speed of 22-5 knots: their principal armament consists of twelve 12-in. and twelve 6-in. guns. Under a programme introduced in 1924 for the reconditioning of the battleships and four cruisers, the “ Rivadavia ” and “ Moreno” were brought up to the post-War standard of their class in the early part of 1926. The personnel of the navy includes 337 officers, 130 engineers, 27 electrical engincers and 9,roo men (including 5,000 conscripts); the men have to serve for two years. 8 Moisture evaporated at 100°C. i Loss on heating to white heat, water of hydration and organic matter .

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41-69 3-01 0-85 Ist] 2°57

3-04

Other Sources —Three other principal sources of supply were

afterwards discovered and developed (a) in South Africa, blue in colour and containing, when compared with Italian and Canadian asbestos, a much larger percentage (from 30 to 40% of oxide of iron and a correspondingly smaller percentage of magnesia; (b) in the Ural Mountains, similar to the Canadian but a little darker in colour and slightly less pliable; and (c) in Rhodesia. As this latter variety satisfactorily meets the requirements of manufacturers, its use is fast increasing. Asbestos is now manufactured in England, in the United States, France, Germany, Austria, Russia, Italy, Spain, Belgium, Canada and Australia. The production of the raw material has sprung from about 200 tons (Italian) about 1868 to a total from all sources of over 250,000 tons in 1924. ‘The United States are the largest consumers, and it is believed that the asbestos factories there absorb over 70% of the output of the raw material from the Canadian mines. Ui ses.—Asbestos is now made into a great variety of articles, used in practically every branch of trade, and in laboratories, surgical, medical and hospital equipment, no department of industry or scientific research to-day being complete without asbestos in one form or another. Probably the most important development in the use of asbestos in recent years has been in connection with building operations. Tiles for roofs, flat sheets for partitions, ceilings, etc., corrugated sheets for factory and other buildings, in which asbestos in combination with Portland cement, and marketed in Great Britain and abroad under various trade names such as “‘ Poilite,” “‘ Everite,” “ T.T.,” “ Eternit,”’ etc., has come into large and rapidly increasing demand in nearly all parts of the world. As the economic value of asbestos depends, not only on its power to withstand high temperatures, but also on its low thermal conductivity, and its partial resistance to the attacks of acids, its field of usefulness is practically unlimited. BrntroGrapny.—A. L. Summers, Asbestos (1919); U.S. Asbestos and Mineral Corporation, Asbestos from Mine to Finished Product (1919); M. A. Allen and G. M. Butler, Asbestos (Tucson, 1921); A. W. M. Boram, Asbestos and Kindred Minerals (1921); J. S. Dillon, Asbestos in rọrọ, U.S. Geological Survey (1921); U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Asbestos, World Production and Trade (1922); also “ The Development of the Asbestos Industry 1871-1924" in India Rubber Journal (London, Aug. 2 1924) and Asdestos (Philadelphia, monthly), (J. A. FL)

ASHANTI (see 2.724), a dependency of the Gold Coast Colony, is divided into two provinces, the Eastern with headquarters at Kumasi, the capital, and the Western with headquarters at

Sunyani. Its area is 24,560 sq. m. and its population 406,594. King Prempeh, who in 1806 resisted the establishment of a British Resident at Kumasi and was sent as a political prisoner to the Seychelles, was allowed to return to Ashanti at the end of 1924, although without special powers. The golden stool on which he was crowned was hidden in Ashanti, and was only rediscovered in 1921. Ashanti is administered by a chicf commissioner, assisted by provincial and district commissioners. Although it is constitulionally separate and distinct irom the Gold Coast Colony and the Northern Territorics, all three are treated, so far as finance is concerned, as a single unit. No satisfactory estimate can be made, therefore, as to the revenue and expenditure, except those for purely local purposes. Similarly it is impossible to state the actual trade statistics and the only satisfactory test is supplied by the tonnage figures of the railway, which show that 61,176 tons of cocoa, 2,983 tons of kola and 4,085 tons of

other produce were railed to the ports in the year 1923-4.

As in the Gold Coast Colony proper, cocoa forms the principal item of commerce, and is the foundation of the peace and prosperity of the country; practically all the plantations are owned and managed by natives. Agricultural stations have been established at Kumasi, Juaso and Ejura, and special efforts were made during 1923~5 to encourage the planting of oil palms and the cultivation of coffee. Gold-mining is of importance, although only two mines were producing in 1924. Excellent motor roads, 7214 m. in length, have been constructed, including

ASHFIELD—ASIAGO, from the north. A second railway from the Gold Coast to Ashanti, linking up Accra and Kumasi, was completed in Aug.

1923. The Govt. maintains a fleet of motor vehicles at Kumasi.

BrpLtroGRApHy.—D. Kemp, Nine Years on the Gold Coast (1898); C. Hayford, Gold Coast Native Institutions (1903); Frederic H. Gough, T he Ordinances of Ashanti, etc., revised edition prepared under the authority of “ The Reprint of Statutes Ordinance, 1909 (1gfo); S. R. B. A. Ahuma, The Gold Coast Nation and National Consciousness (1911); L. P. Bowler, Gold Coast Palaver and Life on the Gold Coast (1911); C. Hayford, Gold Coast Land Tenure and the Forest Bill (1912); H. Waetjen, Zur Geschichte des Tauschhandels an der Goldktiste um die Mitte des r7ten Jahrhunderts (1915); Reports, Notes of Cases and Proceedings and Judgments in Appeals, etc., and References under Rules, Orders and Ordinances relating to the Gold Coast Colony (1915); C. Martin, Les Possessions britanniques en Afrique Occidentale. Côte de Or (Renseignements Coloniales, etc., 1917); T. W. H. Migeod, “ Tribal Mixture on the Gold Coast, f Jour. African Soc., vol. 19, pp. 109-125 (1920); Sir F. C. Fuller, A (1921), R.SS. Rattray,

aS ue (I

i

ASHFIELD, ALBERT HENRY STANLEY, 1st Baron (1874), British business man, was born at Derby Nov. 8 1874. He spent his early years in the United States, and was educated at American technical schools and colleges. He entered the service of the Detroit City Street Railways and had a successful business career, becoming general manager of the company and subsequently of the Public Service Corporation of New Jersey. In 1907 he returned to England, and took up the position of

general manager of the Metropolitan District Railway and soon after became managing director of the traffic combine which included the London Underground Electric Railway Companies and the London General Omnibus Company. In to1r4 he was knighted. On the formation of Mr. Lloyd George’s Govt. in

T7 " Väl

OF

239

1916 Sir Albert Stanley was elected to Parliament as a Coalition Unionist for Ashton-under-Lyne, being included in the Cabinet as President of the Board of Trade. He was a notable instance of a minister selected as a “ business man” and not for any of the usual political considerations. Fle resigned from his office in May rọrọ, and in Jan. 1920 was raised to the peerage. ASIAGO, BATTLE OF, 1916.—The Asiago plateau was the scene of various battles on the Italian front during the World War (see ITALIAN CAMPAIGNS); but the name of the battle of Asiago was given to the fighting which took place on the Trentino front during the Austrian offensive of 1916. An attack from the Trentino with the object of cutting the Italian communications with the Julian front, and so bottling Cadorna’s main force in what Krauss (in his book Die Ursachen unserer Niederlage) calls “ the Venetian sack,” was an operation which could not but commend itself to the Austrian general staff. Even Falkenhayn, who refused his co-operation to the proposal made by Conrad von Hétzendorff in Dec. r915, admits that “it was very inviting.’ He did not, however, agree with Conrad and with Krauss, then chief of the staff to the Archduke Eugene, that a completely successful attack would have a decisive effect. He doubted the possibility of collecting the force he considered necessary for the enterprise (25 divisions), and did not think that the railway communications were adequate to supply such a force. He was, moreover, anxious about the Russian front. Conrad’s plan was to attack through the Asiago and Arsiero uplands, in the direction of Vicenza and Bassano, and when he failed to convince Falkenhayn that the effort should be a joint one, he determined to attack independently. Cadorna’s Plans.—Cadorna’s line of argument, when rumours of attack began to arrive, resembled that of Falkenhayn. He

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did not think that Conrad could spare troops for an offensive on the grand scale, and he was of opinion that the railway communications in the Trentino were insufficient for such an offensive. He concluded that the reported movements in the Trentino signified a limited attack, to be undertaken with the object of hampering his own offensive action towards the east. He had continually urged upon Brusati, who commanded the I. Army, that his rôle was strictly defensive, now that his first duty, that of reducing the length of the Trentino front and occupying strong defensive positions previously selected, had been successfully performed. On various occasions Cadorna had emphasised the necessity of strengthening the positions chosen by him for defence, but his instructions had been insufficiently regarded. When Cadorna went to visit the lines in person, at the end of April, he found that while the front lines, in many cases unsuitable for prolonged resistance, had been elaborately fortified, in various sectors the reserve lines which he had indicated as the “ battle positions ” were almost untouched. Cadorna ordered the positions to be modified, and the work of preparation was hastened on; but the enemy attack seemed imminent, and it was impossible to set about a complete re-organisation under the immediate threat. On May 8 Brusati was réplaced by Gen. Pecori-Giraldi, the commander of the VII. Corps (II. Army), and within a week the Austrian offensive was launched. Disposition of the Forces—The Austrian attacking force was arranged in two armies, one behind the other, Dankl’s XI. Army in front with 9 divisions, Koevess’s IIL. Army in support, with 5 divisions. The troops in the Val Lagarina and Val Sugana were not included in this force, which was to make its offensive between the two valleys, where only supporting attacks were to be carried out. Krauss, as chief of the staff to the Archduke Eugene, was opposed to the disposition of the two armies and to the limitation of the attack to the hill country. He urged

that the front of attack should from the outset be divided between Dank! and Koevess, and pressed for the concentration of attacking masses in the valleys, especially in the Val Sugana. But the original plan, prepared in all its details by Conrad and his staff, was not modified; it would seem that the Archduke and his chief of the staff had little freedom of action. The tactical direction of the attack was entrusted to Dankl, who had at his disposal some 180 battalions. To meet the attack, Pecori-Giraldi had in line and immediate reserve, between Lake Garda and the Val Cismon (north of the Val Sugana), 130 regular battalions, 7 battalions of Customs Guards and 45 battalions of Territorial Militia, the latter at very low strength and of small fighting value. But his centre was weak, for 28 battalions of regular troops were in the Val Sugana sector, and on the actual front of attack he had only go regular battalions. Another division was concentrating at Desenzano, and s more were on the Tagliamento ready to be sent in support in case of need. The artillery strength consisted of 851 guns, of which 348 were of heavy or medium calibre and 259 were light guns of position. Dankl had, initially, a big superiority in infantry, but his great advantage lay in his preponderance of artillery strength. Between the Val Lagarina and the Val Sugana were concentrated some 2,000 guns, of which nearly half were of heavy or medium calibre, including 40 305-mm. howitzers, four 380’s and two or three German 420’s. The Austrian Altack.—The offensive opened on May 14 with a very heavy bombardment along the whole line from the Val Lagarina to the Val Sugana, but the concentration of fire was most intense between the Vallarsa and the Upper Astico, and against this sector, the following day, the main infantry attack was launched. The plan was to attack first with the right wing of the XI. Army, commanded by the Archduke Charles, supported not only by its own artillery, but by flanking fire from the massed guns on the Lavarone plateau. , When the right wing had made sufficient ground the left wing was to come Into action against the Italian line north of the Upper Astico. For a time everything went well with the attack. The Italians were driven back from their ill-chosen front lines, losing many

OF

prisoners and guns, and by May rọ their position was very grave all along the line from the Vallarsa to the Astico. The retiring troops had failed to make a prolonged stand on the insufficiently prepared battle positions. On the left Monte Pasubio, the key position, was only lightly held by reserves, which had been hurried up in the nick of time, and in the centre the Austrians had driven the defenders off the main line of defence, which ran from Monte Maggio by Campomolon to Spitz Tonezza. The 37th Div., which had held this line, had been forced back beyond the Posina and the Astico, and there were gaps both to right and left of it. The Austrian right was pressing hard on the Italian main positions west of the Vallarsa (Coni Zugna and Passo Buole), and was collecting forces to attack Pasubio. There was breathing space for a moment in the centre, but the Austrian left now came into action, Krautwald von Annan’s III. (Graz) Corps being launched against the Italian 34th Division. Ample Italian reserves were now on the move, but it was a race. Krauss blames the Archduke Charles for waiting with his XX. Corps until the guns could be brought up to support a new attack, instead of driving through at once to Arsiero with all available troops. The risk was not taken, and the short respite gave time to close the door in the face of the invader.

The course of the battle, with the necessity of bringing up reserve divisions, led to a reorganisation of the attacking forces, Koevess taking command of the left wing and Dankl of the right. In the Vallarsa and Pasubio sector the attack developed strongly, but without success. Farther north the Archduke Charles was waiting for his guns and reserves, and between his left and the III. Corps, Kirchbach’s I. Corps was coming into action. The III. Corps was hammering against the Italian 34th Div., which was not to resist for long. The situation in the centre was critical, and Cadorna considered that if the Austrians were able to concentrate on the weak spot and keep up the impetus of their attack they might succeed in breaking through to the plain. On May 20 he went to Udine, and after consultation with the Duke of Aosta and Frugoni gave orders for the concentration of a reserve army in the Venetian plain. The first four corps of this reserve army (the V.), which were made up of units drawn from the II. and III. Armies, were ready on June 2. Meanwhile the Austrians were continuing their advance in the centre, but they could gain no ground against the Italian leit. By May 22 Bertotti’s 44th Div., sent up from Desenzano, was in solid possession of both sides of the Vallarsa road and of Pasubio, and in touch with Ricci-Armani’s 37th Div. on his left. It was in this sector that the Austrian offensive met its fate. Owing to the steadfast resistance of the troops under Ricci-Armani and Bertotti, Dankl could never secure a sufficient width of front for his advance. If the Zugna ridge had fallen, the effect upon the Pasubio position, already a salient, would have been more than serious, and upon the holding of the Pasubio lines depended the maintenance of the positions to the eastward. If Pasubio went, the line south of the Posina was turned, and the Austrians had a new route to the plain by the Valli dei Signori, as well as the opening they were now making for, by the Lower Astico. Till May 30 the attacks on the Zugna ridge were continuous, but no progress was made. The attempts upon Pasubio were as incessant, and lasted longer. The Austrian infantry advanced along the great ridge from Col Santo; they came up from Anghebeni and Chiesa in the Vallarsa and from the Val Terragnolo by the Borcola Pass. All efforts were in vain. Northeast of Pasubio, along all the rest of the mountain front to the rim of the Val Sugana, the Austrians gained notable successes. Koevess drove back the Italians across the Val d’Assa, and thence still farther east, across the parallel valleys of Nos and Campomolon. To the southwest Dankl’s left crossed the Astico, and after heavy fighting pushed the Italians back across the Val Canaglia, while his centre gained ground across the Posina, south of Arsiero. At the end of May the Italian position still seemed critical, and Cadorna gave orders for the withdrawal of stores and heavy guns from the Isonzo front to beyond

ASIA

MINOR—ASTOR,

the Sile, south of Treviso. He believed he had the measure of the Austrians, but he omitted no precautions. His confidence, in fact, was justified. The impetus of the Austrian attack was dwindling. Losses had been very heavy; the attacking divisions were beginning to lose their offensive value, and the reserves were insufficient. Already on May 27 Conrad had been compelled to ask Falkenhayn to send a division of the Austrian XII. Corps, which belonged to Prince Leopold’s Army Group. And Cadorna’s V. Army was practically ready in the plain. On June 4 Brusilov broke through at Leeck. The first news of the Russian attack did not perturb Austrian headquarters, for Conrad thought that his line in the east was firmly held. In a few days the situation was changed altogether. But even before the news of the disaster had reached Bozen it was clear that the offensive against Italy had failed. Koevess was to gain a little more ground. By June 8 the Austrians were only three miles from Valstagna, low down in the Brenta Valley, but they had shot their bolt. South of Asiago and south of the Posina the attack was continued for 10 more days. Here were the shortest routes to the plain and here the Austrians had been able to bring up their guns in sufficient numbers. Kirchbach made a great effort against the Monte Lemerle-Monte Magnaboschi line, while the Archduke Charles strove hard to win room south of Arsiero by incessant attacks in the Novegno sector. No further ground was gained.

Retreat of the Austrians ——By the middle of the month Cadorna had begun the first move of a counter-attack, but the Austrians were now getting ready to go out of the salient and back to a strong line which they had already selected. Attacking on May 25, all along the line, the Italians found the invaders in retreat. It was too late to develop the counter-offensive which was to have been directed against the two sides of the Austrian salient, and Cadorna relinquished the idea of a big attack as soon as he found a resistance which could only be overcome by long preparation and the use of artillery in mass. Casualties on both sides were very heavy, and indicate the severity of the fighting. The Austrian losses were estimated at over 100,000; the Italian figures, up to the end of the countermovement, were 35,000 killed and 75,000 wounded, with 45,000 prisoners, many of whom should be reckoned among the wounded. The Austrian attempt to break through ended in definite failure but the attack was well planned and conducted with skill and determination. Failure was due to the fact that Conrad met

with a resistance which went beyond his calculation. Falkenhayn and Cadorna had summed up the situation rightly. BisLioGRAPHy.—La Guerra Italiana nel 1916 (1917), from official documents; T. N. Page, Italy and the World War (1921); L. Cadorna, La Guerra alla Fronte Italiana (1921). (W. K. McC.)

ASIA MINOR (see 2.757), a geographical term used both in a wider and a narrower sense. In the wider usage it covers Asiatic Turkey within the pre-War frontiers, excluding the Arabian Peninsula. In its narrower sense it means the Anatolian Penin-

sula, together with a vague zone extending eastwards along the roots of the peninsula into Armenia and Kurdistan. As a result of the World War, Asia Minor in the wider sense has been broken up politically into the Turkish Republic and the three territories of Syria, Palestine and ‘Iraq, under “ A ” mandates, the first being mandated to France, and the two others to Great Britain. Asia Minor in the narrower sense has still been

left entirely inside the Turkish frontiers by the Treaty of Lausanne. On the other hand, the abortive Treaty of Sèvres provided for the partitioning of the narrower area also. A district round Smyrna was to be placed under Greek administration, while the remainder of the southern half of the region was divided between a French and an Italian zone of special influence, under an Anglo-Franco-Italian convention, signed simultaneously with the treaty. Owing to the decisive Turkish victory in the GrecoTurkish War of ro19—-22, all these arrangements fell to the ground, so that the present area of Turkey in Asia practically coincides with Asia Minor in the narrower sense. (See ‘IRAQ; LAUSANNE, TREATY OF; MOSUL; PALESTINE; SEVRES TREATY OF; SYRIA; TURKEY.) (A. J. T.)

W. A.

24I

ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY: sce OXFORD AND ASQUITII, EARL OF. : ASTHMA: see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, DISEASES OF THE. ASTON, FRANCIS WILLIAM (1877), British scientist, was born at Harborne, Birmingham, Sept. 1 1877, and educated at Malvern College and the universities of Birmingham and Cambridge. Ife was clected to a fellowship at Trinity College, Cambridge, and was made assistant lecturer in physics at Birmingham University in r909. In 1920 he received the Mackenzie Davidson Medal of the R6ntgen Society, and in 1922 the Hughes Medal of the Royal Society. He received the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1922 for his work in connection with isotopes and also the John Scott Medal, Philadelphia, and the Paterno Medal,

Rome, both in 1923. He has written Isofopes (1922) and numerous papers in scientific periodicals on electric discharge in gases, mass-spectra, isotopes, etc.

ASTOR, JOHN JACOB (1886}, younger son of the rst Viscount Astor, was born May 20 1886. Educated at Eton and New College, Oxford, in 1906 he joined the ist Life Guards, and, from 1gti to 1914, was A.D.C. to the Viceroy of India. In 1916 Major Astor married Lady Violet Mary, daughter of the 4th Earl of Minto and widow of Lord Charles Mercer-Nairne. On the outbreak of the World War he went to France with the Household Cavalry and served there four years. He was wounded at the first battle of Ypres and again severely in Sept. 1918. In 1922, Major Astor purchased the holding of the late Viscount Northcliffe in The Times Publishing Co., and became chairman of it and chief proprietor of Tke Times. Shortly afterwards

he caused to be established a body of trustees consisting of the holders of certain important non-political offices, whose consent he made necessary to any future transfer of the control of that journal. He was elected Conservative member for the Dover Division of Kent in Nov. 1922 and re-elected in 1923 and 1925. In 1925, as treasurer of the Empire Press Union, he attended the Press Conference in Australia. ASTOR, NANCY WITCHER, ViscountEss (1879), daughter of Chiswell Dabney Langhorne, was born May 19 1879 in Virginia. She married in 1897 Robert Gould Shaw of Boston, from whom she obtained a divorce in 1903, and in 1906 she married Waldorf Astor. When her husband succeeded to the vis-

countcy,

Lady Astor, who had shown

affairs of his constituency at Plymouth,

much

interest in the

was adopted as Con-

servative candidate, and was elected by a substantial majority on Nov. 28 1919, thus becoming the first woman to sit in the British Ifouse of Commons.! She was re-elected at the General Elections of 1922, 1923 and 1924. She spoke frequently in debate and was specially active in the cause of temperance, bring-

ing forward a bill to prohibit the serving of liquor to young persons under 18 except at meal-times, which became law in 1923. ASTOR, WALDORF ASTOR, 2nd Viscount, British politician, was born in New York May 19 1879, and educated at Eton and

New College, Oxford. He represented Plymouth as a Unionist tg10-8, and the Sutton Division of Plymouth 1918-9, when he vacated his seat on succeeding to his father’s peerage. He was chairman of the Government Committee on Tuberculosis and of the State Medical Research Committee. During the World War, he was inspector of quartermaster-general

services, and in 1918

became private secretary to the Prime Minister, Mr. Lloyd George. He acted as Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Food, 1918-9, and to the Local Government Board in toro, retaining the same position on the formation of the Ministry of Health up to rg2r. Since 1915 he has been the proprietor of The Observer and active on behalf of many causes of social progress, especially temperance reform. At the same time he was one of the leading British owners and breeders of race horses.

His father, WILLIAM WALDORF ASTOR (see 2.794), became a naturalised British subject, and was created a peer in 1916, assuming the title of Baron Astor of Hever Castle. He was made a viscount in 1917, and died in England Oct. 18 1919. 1¥n 1918 Countess Markieviecz had been elected by an Irish Constituency in the Sinn Fein interest, but she did not take her seat.

ASTRONOMY

242

ASTRONOMY! (sce 2.800).—In the present century the centre of interest in astronomy has shifted from the solar system to the vaster domain of the stars and nebulae, and most of the progress in the years 1910-26 to be recorded relates to the stars. Knowledge of the sun as a particular star has also advanced. The article STAR (see 25.784) was written ata time when statistical methods of research were in their zenith. Accumulated data as to proper motions, magnitudes, types, etc., for large numbers of stars were analysed and conclusions drawn as to the scale and structure of the stellar universe. After some further years of fruitful activity, this kind of study seems to have given place to more intensive study of individual stars. A feature of recent work is the application of modern atomic physics and the quantum theory of radiation to stellar problems; and the study of the stars has become closely linked with the study of the atom. It is now realised that the light despatched to us by the stars and nebulae contains claborate messages in a code to which atomic physics provides the key, and not only the condition of the radiating layers but the internal mechanism of the star can be inferred with some confidence. We divide the article into (1) The solar system; (2) the stars; (3) clusters and nebulae.

I. THE

SOLAR

SYSTEM

The Sun (see 26.85). By means of the spectroheliograph it is possible to obtain photographs of the sun in light of a single wave-length; we thus obtain a picture of the distribution of the matter which emits this wave-length or a negative of the matter

which absorbs it. In practice either calcium or hydrogen light is used, since these elements furnish spectral lines sufficiently isolated to give good results. The emission of a particular spectral line depends on favourable conditions of temperature and density, and these will vary with the level in the sun’s atmosphere. Thus the function of the spectroheliograph is not so much to separate particular elements as to isolate different icvels in the sun’s atmosphere and provide separate photographs of what is occurring at each level. The highest level is given by photographs in the red light of hydrogen Ha, and examples of the remarkable structure revealed by the spectroheliograph at the Mt. Wilson Observatory are

shown in the plate (figs. 5 and 7). In fig. 7 we see clearly the vortices whirling round the dark sun spots which occupy their troughs, and we can make out that the direction of whirl is opposite in the large spot and in the smaller spot to the left of it. lf the whirling matter is electrically charged it should act like a solenoid and produce a ficld of magnetic force; and this idea led G. E. Hale (1) to test whether a magnetic field could be detected in sun spots. By the Zeeman effect a spectral line absorbed or emitted in a magnetic field is broken up into two or more components; in particular for light travelling along the axis of the solenoid the line becomes a doublet with its two components circularly polarised in opposite directions. Applying the optical test for circular polarisation clear evidence of the magnetic field in sun spots was obtained, the strength being generally of the order 2,000 to 3,000 gausses. A large proportion of the sun-spot lines are observed to be slightly broadened, and the Zeeman effect is at least partly responsible for this. It was pointed out many years ago by Carrington that sun spots very frequently occur in pairs, the line joining them being approximately parallel to the sun’s equator. In these pairs the two spots are found to have opposite polarity, that is to say, if the magnetic field is upwards in the leading spot it is downwards in the following spot. Even when the spot group js more complex a similar bipolarity is observed; Hale estimates that in 90% of the spot groups the disturbed area shows this bipolar structure. The polarity follows a regular law. With rare exceptions the preceding spots in the Northern Hemisphere all have magnetic fields of one sign, and those in the Southern Hemisphere all have the opposite sign; after a sun spot minimum the signs in the two hemispheres are interchanged. This last reversal

Strangely enough there is no regular relation between the polarity of the spot and the direction of the whirl above it, and the vortices shown in the hydrogen photographs obey no such uniform laws as regards Northern and Southern hemispheres. This leads us to think that the origin of the sun spot and its magnetic field is down below. The spot may be caused by a vortex—formed by currents circulating in the interior of the sun—which rises to the surface and has a free end there. It is suggested by Bjerknes that this internal vortex joins the following spot of one group to the leader of the next group, so that a spot group corresponds to a break In a permanent vortex in the form of a circle round the sun’s axis. This vortex travels from high to low latitude during the sun-spot cycle, and the sun spots follow it (as observation shows); it then descends into the interior of the sun and at the same time a second permanent vortex of opposite rotation rises to the surface in high latitude and a new sun-spot cycle begins. The theory, though speculative and crudely developed at present, seems to have much to commend it. In any case it would seem that we have to do with a lower vortex —a whirlpoo/—formed according to uniform laws, and an upper vortex—a whirliind—sucked in by it. tale has also found a general magnetic ficld of the sun, 7.e., not associated with exceptionally disturbed regions such as sun spots, which is roughly equivalent to the field of a uniformly magnetised sphere and analogous to the earth’s magnetism (3).

It is found that the magnetic axis of the sun deviates from the rotation axis, though not so widely as happens on the earth, the inclination being 6 degrees. The synodic period of rotation of the magnetic axisis 31-44 days. If wecould assume that the source of this field is the permanent magnetisation of the interior material this would give the real period of rotation of the sun—a quantity otherwise unknown. Our knowledge of the sun’s rotation has hitherto been based entirely on surface markings which revolve at different rates according to their latitude. The magnetic period of 31-5 days agrees with that of surface markings in latitude 55 degrees. The strength of this general magnetic field 1s of order 20 gauss and the whole observation is one of exceptional difficulty, so that perhaps the foregoing determinations of the axis and period should not be accepted too hastily. The accepted value of the constant of solar radiation is that determined by C. G. Abbot, viz.: the amount of solar energy passing across 1 sq. cm. outside the earth’s atmosphere is 1-93 gramcalories per minute. This is the same as if the sun were a “ black body ” with a temperature 5,740° C. (absolute), which is accordingly defined to be the effective temperature of the photosphere. The sun’s total radiation is 3-8X10* ergs per second. There appears to be satisfactory evidence that the sun’s radiation varies a little according to the stage of the sun-spot cycle, being least when the sun’s surface is quiescent. Abbot also claims that irregular changes varying according to the state of the surface have been established. Since the same changes were measured simultancously at two widely separated stations, terrestrial

causes seemed to be ruled out (@). His earlier estimates of these

irregular variations were undoubtedly excessive, and according to the more recent results they are restricted to very small range. Another method of testing the variability of the sun has been carried out by Guthnick and Prager by photoelectric measurements of the brightness of Saturn; the planet, being illuminated by thesun, would reflect any changes in the intensity of the sun’s light. The measures showed that the light is nearly steady, and excluded the large fluctuations originally suspected. Looking at the problem theoretically, there is no special difficulty in admitting a small regular change in the rate of radiation according to the phase of the sun-spot cycle, but an irregular holding up and release of considerable quantities of radiant energy seems unlikely. The photosphere is the name given to the region from which most of the sun’s light comes. Although no definite limits can be assigned to it, its thickness may be taken to be of the order roo

has been observed through two minima in 1ọ1r2 and 1923 È).

km. or perhaps less. The whole of this region is rarefied gas of density about yaa of that of our own atmosphere; but the

1 The figures in parentheses appearing throughout the text of this article, refer to the references at the end. |. 7

hydrodynamically

eC

cocfficient of viscosity in these conditions is probably high, and

it may

be compared

to a slightly sticky

ASTRONOMY

Fic. 2. Jupiter (Dec. 19 1917). Fic. 3. Spiral Nebula, M. 81 (Ursa Major). Fic. 1. Monochromatic Images of Ring Nebula. Fic, 4, Globular Cluster, M. 3 (Canes Venatici). Fic. 6. Solar F1G. 5. Spectroheliogram (Ha light), Prominence (May 29 1919), Fic. 7, Sunspot vortices.

ASTRONOMY liquid. The temperature ranges from not less than 4,650°C. at the top to about 7,000°C. at the bottom. The upper part of this region is called the reversing layer; this is where the great majority of the Fraunhofer lines of the sun’s spectrum are imprinted on the light. The pressure here is about 90-0001 atmospheres. Above this rises the chromosphere, extending to a height of over 10,000 km., which, it is now believed, is supported by radiation-pressure. General radiation-pressure is not very powerful on the sun, and the chromosphere is composed of a few elements (notably calcium) which by reason of strong line-absorption in the most intense part of the solar spectrum gain more momentum than the others. A detailed theory of the equilibrium of the calcium chromosphere due to E. A. Milne (°) has proved remarkably successful. Not only does it account satisfactorily for the height of the distribution, but it gives a purely astrophysical determination of an atomic constant of calcium—the life of an excited ca+ atom—which there is every reason to regard as correct. By special eruptions matter can be carried to much greater height; fig. 6 (on plate) shows a prominence 100,000 m. high photographed by the British Eclipse expedition at Principe on May 29 1919. Mars (see 17.761).—We shall review the problem of the physical and climatic conditions of this planet in the light of recent investigations, including those made at the favourable opposition of 1924 (*). Few astronomers have the opportunity of examining for themselves the phenomena reported to be observed at specially favourable stations, since Mers is never well placed for observation in England and similar northern latitudes. Consequently there is much doubt as to what should or should not be accepted as trustworthy; but recent great advances in the photography of the planet, especially at the Lowell Observatory, have removed scepticism on some points. The geometrical network of narrow rectilinear ‘‘ canals’ supposed by Lowell and some other visual observers to cover the surface is still regarded with suspicion; most authorities explain it away as a mistaken impression of faint markings—of curious form perhaps, but not distinctively artificial. On the other hand some of the broader canals are shown on the photographs; and although the appearance does not particularly suggest artificial regularity, they are unlike any natural features on our own planet. Seasonal changes of the surface markings are now conclusively established; a regular cycle of change with the Martian season is repeated at each opposition. The dark markings appear in regular succession, deepen in intensity and increase in area as the spring and summer advance, the polar snow melting meanwhile. It is difficult to resist the impression that we are viewing the annual growth of areas of vegetation on red desert soil. It is rash to accept so speculative a conclusion without more direct confirmation, but there seems to be no alternative explanation of the seasonal changes that is equally plausible. If life of any kind is admitted, can we restrict it to the vegetable kingdom? But that line of thought leads to guesses for which the astronomer accepts no responsibility. There is now strong evidence that Mars has an efficient atmosphere, though it is considerably more rarefied than our own. Photographs occasionally show clouds which blot out the surface features for a time and pass away. There is usually a white fog over the polar region turned away from the sun, very different in appearance from the sharply outlined white snow cap covering the summer pole. A general haziness of the Martian atmosphere is evidenced in a manner pointed out by W. H. Wright. A terrestrial Jandscape can be photographed by infra-red light through a mist so thick that nothing can be seen visually; the longer the wave-length, the less is the scattering and consequent blurring of the picture. Photographs of Mars in light of different wavelengths behave just as though the surface-detail were being seen through a hazy atmosphere; ordinary photographic light of short wave-length gives little more than a general blur, photographs in yellow visual light show more detail and those in infra-red light are the sharpest of all. Determinations of the surface temperature of Mars by radiometric measurement of the heat coming to us from various parts

243

of the surface have been made by Coblentz and Lampland and by Pettit and Nicholson. The former obtained an average temperature of +15° C. and the latter—r3° C. (Other estimates arrived at on various assumptions are also given by the authors, but we prefer the foregoing based on Stefan’s Law.) Evidently we are still left in considerable uncertainty as to the climatic conditions, but even the lower estimate is not inordinately cold when we remember that the polar snow cap is included in the average; the higher estimate makes the day temperature quite genial. According to Coblentz the dark regions (indicating vegetation or moisture?) are warmer than the red desert regions.

Other Planets (sce 25.357).—A ninth satellite of Jupiter was discovered by S. B. Nicholson at the Lick Observatory in 1914. Like the eighth satellite it revolves round the planęt in the opposite direction to the other seven. The periods of satellites 8 and ọ are about 739 and 745 days respectively, and the two bodies are revolving in almost equal interlocked orbits in planes inclined at about 10 degrees. Satellites 6 and 7 form a somewhat similar interlocked pair, their periods being 251 and 260 days respectively; but their motions are in the “ direct ” sense. The photograph of Jupiter (taken at the Lowell Observatory) shown on the plate (fig. 2), illustrates the great advance in planetary photography in recent years. Much interest has been taken in the Trojan group of minor planets. These illustrate a special case of the problem of three bodies discussed by Lagrange, viz.: that in which the three bodies are situated at the vertices of an equilateral triangle. The Trojan planets have the same mean distance and revolution period as Jupiter, and the equilateral condition is roughly fulhlled. The problem of the small librations of such a planet about the triangular point of equilibrium has been discussed by E. W. Brown; the condition of stability is that the mass of Jupiter must be less than -0385 times that of the sun—a condition which is easily satished—-and the period of the libration is about r4o years. Actually the Trojan planets are at some considerable distance from the triangular points, and the problem of determining the finite librations (as opposed to infinitely small librations) has provided much exercise for mathematicians (7). Six members of the group are now known, Nos. 588 Achilles, 617 Patroclus, 624 Hector, 659 Nestor, 884 Priam and 911 Agamemnon; of these Patroclus and Priam are near the triangular point 60° behind Jupiter, and the others 60° ahead of Jupiter. The period of rotation of Uranus round its axis has been determined by V. M. Slipher from measures of the line of sight velocity of the advancing and receding limbs. The result is ro'som and the direction of rotation agrees with that of revolution of the satellites. Leon Campbell subsequently found that the light of the planet is variable with the same period, presumably owing to unequal brightness of different parts of the surface. The rotation period of Venus still remains a mystery; and there are advocates of the long period of 224 days as well as various estimates of a short period (one to three days). l

Latitude Variation (see 16.267).—The study of the small periodic motion of the earth’s axis of rotation (relatively to the earth) which gives rise to “ variation of latitude” has been continued at the six international stations (reduced in number during and after the World War). The effect is made up of (a) the free precession of a spheroid rotating about an axis which does not coincide with its axis of figure; the period of this precession determined from the observations is 432} days; (0) an annual term, which is a forced oscillation due to meteorological and seasonal causes. Owing to interference of these two terms, there is an effect analogous to “ beats” in sound waves, the amplitude of the motion alternately rising to a maximum of about 0”-3 (30 ft.) and dying out in about six years’ period. The annual term appears to be nearly circular and of amplitude 0-085; the possible causes contributory to this, such as seasonal circulation of the atmosphere and ocean, snowfall and vegetation have been invesligated by H. Jeffreys, who finds a fair agreement between predicted and observed values. A mysterious Kimura or z term, which appears in these international results, would, if interpreted literally, indicate an annual approach to the pole and recession

244

ASTRONOMY

by all stations on the same latitude simultaneously—or a shifting of the earth’s centre of gravity to and fro along its axis. It is, however, now believed that the term arises from a small systematic error in the observations; independent observations made at Greenwich and Pulkovo (not belonging to the international chain) show either a reduced or zero Kimura term. Gravitation —The epoch-making theory of gravitation, put forward by Einstein in rors, is described in the article RELATIVITY (g.v.). We refer to it here because the new law of gravitation, required by his theory, removes the most outstanding divergence between theory and observation in the solar system—viz., the progression of the perihelion of Mercury. There is still some discrepancy between theory and observation for the motion of the node of Venus; but this is a much smaller residual, and may perhaps even be attributable to accidental errors. Einstein’s predicted detlection of light by the sun’s gravitational field was verified by the British Eclipse expeditions in rọrọ and further confirmed by the Lick expedition in 1922. His third crucial test— a general displacement of spectral lines to the red in the sun as

compared with terrestrial sources——was for some years a subject of controversy, as it is difficult to eliminate other causes of shift of the lines; but it now seems to be generally agreed among investigators that the effect is confirmed. E. W. Brown’s lunar theory, developed according to the methods of G. W. Hill, was completed by the publication in 1920 of full Tables of the Moon’s Motion. It seems safe to say that no term of appreciable significance has been omitted; nevertheless the moon deviates unmistakably from its theoretical place in an irregular manner. An investigation by FI. Glauert (8) seems to show that the irregularities are at least partly due to variations in the rate of our standard timekeeper, viz., the earth’s rotation; for the longitudes of the sun, Mercury and Venus exhibit similar irregularities, and the curves closely resemble one another. Besides these irregular changes, there is a general secular acceleration of the moon, which, being cumulative, leads to large changes in the circumstances of ancient eclipses. The historical evidence of all kinds has been rediscussed by J. K. Fotheringham (°) who arrives finally at the values 10-5 for the moon’s secular acceleration! and 1”-o for the sun’s secular acceleration. These quantities are presumably attributable to tidal friction, which causes a direct acceleration of the moon’s orbital motion, as well as a spurious acceleration through the increase in the length of the standard of time. It is now believed that the bodily tides in the earth have little effect and that the most efliective retardation is due to tides in land-locked and shallow seas. According to G.I. Taylor the Irish Sea alone contributes 1/59 of the total dissipation of energy. II. THE

STARS

Progress in our knowledge must depend largely on the patient accumulation of accurate statistics as to the parallaxes, motions, magnitudes, spectra, etc., of large numbers of stars; we therefore review the great advance in these data that has taken place in recent years.

The first photographic determinations of stellar parallaxes reaching a modern standard of accuracy were made by H. N. Russell and A. R. Hinks at Cambridge and F. Schlesinger at Yerkes in 1903-7; earlier results are now superseded except for a few of the best heliometer measures made chiefly by Gill. Extensive programmes have since been carried out with large telescopes, and the latest compilation (1924) by the parallax committee of the International Astronomical Union contains results for about 1,870 stars. Although the probable error is generally below + 0”-o1, this unfortunately does not give us the distances of 1,870 stars, for many of the parallaxes are inappreciable. Very few of the stars are near enough for the trigonometrical method to give a close measure of their distance, and a large proportion of the measures can only be of interest in statistical discussions of distribution. We cannot resist the 1 The moon goes ahead by the amount

10”:5T?, where T is the

time in centuries. This is the conventional acceleration ’’ in this connection.

definition

of ‘‘secular

impression that stellar parallax determination is reaching its limit with present instruments; and perhaps for that reason special interest is attached to a new method of finding the distances of stars described below under ‘ Spectroscopic Parallaxes.” Lewis Boss’s Preliminary General Catalogue of 6,188 Stars published in roro has been an invaluable aid to research with regard to proper motions. It comprises all the brighter stars and the proper motions constitute a great improvement on data previously available. The first really extensive lists of radial velocities were published by the Lick Observatory in rọrr. Over 2,000 had been determined by 1921 when a catalogue was formed by J. Votite. Progress would have been more rapid but for the large proportion of spectroscopic binaries which makes it necessary to repeat the measures at suitable intervals in order to discriminate between orbital motion and the steady secular motion which is looked for. The latest compilation @°) records 1,054 spectroscopic binaries, of which 248 have well-determined orbits. The apparent magnitudes of stars range from —1™:5 for Sirius to 20™ and upwards for stars photographed with the largest telescopes. The corresponding light ratio is more than 100,000,ooo to r, and it is no easy matter to subdivide this range accurately. For this purpose a sequence of standard stars has been chosen near the North Pole; their magnitudes stretch at short intervals from the first to the twenty-first magnitudes, and by| the co-operative effort of a number of observatories definitive magnitudes on an absolute scale have been found ("). It is usual to determine magnitudes of other stars by differential comparison with these. Separate standards are needed for visual and photographic magnitudes; the relation of the two scales has been fixed by international convention so that they coincide for stars of spectral type AO between 5™-5 and 6™-5. Since the photographic plate is most sensitive to blue light and the eye to yellow light, the difference photographic minus visual magnitude gives a measure of the colour of the star. This is called the ‘* colour-index.”? The colour-index ranges from about —o™:5 for the bluest (type B) stars to +1™-g for the reddest (type M) stars. The sequence of colour-index corresponds closely to the sequence of temperature, and the spectral type can usually be inferred correctly from the colour-index or vice versa. This affords a useful method of classifying stars too faint for spectroscopic examination. Some progress has been made with direct measurement of the heat received from the stars and the corresponding ‘‘ bolometric’ magnitudes have been determined; considerable corrections are necessary on account of selective absorption of heat in passing through our atmosphere, and the method has been chiefly confined to the study of special stars. The bolometric magnitude is more usually inferred from the visual magnitude by applying a theoretical correction depending on the effective temperature (or spectral type) of the star. The Draper classification of stellar spectra is now employed almost exclusively. The stages from the hottest to the coolest are denoted by the letters O, B, A, F, G, K, M; intermediate stages are estimated in tenths, e.g., G5 means half-way between GO and KO. Typical stars are B, Rigel; A, Sirius; F, Procyon; G, the Sun; K, Arcturus; M, Antares. Types N and S seem to contain low temperature stars in conditions alternative to M, type M being characterised especially by the spectrum of titanium oxide, S by zirconium oxide and N by carbon compounds. A catalogue of the spectral types of 230,000 stars classified by

Miss A. J. Cannon has been published by the Harvard Observatory and forms a monumental work of reference. The absolute magnitudes of stars cover nearly as wide a range as the apparent magnitudes. The sun’s absolute magnitude is 4:9, that is to say, it would have this magnitude if seen from the standard distance of 10 parsecs (parallax o”-1). The most luminous stars have absolute magnitude about —5™ or 10,000 times brighter than the sun. The following are the four faintest stars known with their absolute visual magnitudes:—Proxima Centauri 15™-4, Barnard star 13™-3, Groombridge 34 comes 13™, Pi 24 123 comes 12™-3. These are all red stars possessing a low surface temperature.

ASTRONOMY Masses of Stars-—In a double star the two components revolve round one another under their mutual attraction; it is possible to measure the gravitational force exerted by one component on the other and so determine the mass. There are not very

many systems for which our knowledge is sufficiently accurate to give trustworthy masses; among the best determinations are Sirius 2-45 and 0-8, Capella 4-2 and 3-3, a Centauri 1:1 and r'o. The mass of the sun, viz.: 1-98. 10 gm., is here taken as unit. In spectroscopic binaries with known orbits of both components we can usually determine only a lower limit to the masses, because one element of the orbit, namely its inclination to the line of sight, is lacking. These give evidence that very much larger masses occasionally occur. It has been shown by J. S. Plaskett

that the O-type star 6° 1,309 has components with masses not less than 86 and 72 times the sun’s mass. Masses not less than 260 and 50 are attributed to the components of v Sagitarii, but the evidence is less certain. V Puppis consists of two equal stars of mass 19; in this case the star is an eclipsing variable, and the phenomenon of eclipsis tells us that the line of sight must be nearly in the plane of the orbit. At the other end of the scale masses from 14 to 44 the sun’s mass are common;

the smallest

known mass is that of the fainter component of Krueger 60, which is probably about one-sixth. According to the theory of stellar radiation to be described presently, the absolute brightness of a star affords a close indication of its mass. This theory is fairly well checked by the direct determinations of mass; and, if it is accepted, we can apply it to find the masses of the numerous stars for which no other determination exists. It appears that the stars are for the most part closely similar in mass; a range from} to 3 would include at least 90% of the stars. The larger Ise mentioned above are quite exceptional; we tend to discover exceptional rather than normal masses because it is especially the brightest stars which attract attention. Advantage is taken of this uniformity of stellar mass to determine the “ dynamical parallaxes ” of double stars. If a is the semi-axis of the orbit in astronomical units, P the period in years, and m +m: the mass of the system in terms of the sun, we have by the law of gravitation mı+ m=

a?/P?

Thus a can be found if mm: is known or guessed. We may assume with fair probability that mi+mz=2, the probable deviation being comparatively unimportant because a is proportional to the cube root of mm. But the value of a in angular measure is found from the apparent orbit in the sky; comparing the angular measure with the linear measure given by the above calculation, we at once find the distance or parallax of the star.

It is possible to modify the procedure so that it can be used when a small arc of the orbit has been observed insufficient for a complete determination of the orbital elements. Dynamical parallaxes of 556 double stars have been published by J. Jackson and H. H. Furner (£); from these the absolute magnitudes and linear velocities (transverse to the line of sight) were calculated. The linear velocities were combined to give a determination of the sun’s motion through the stellar system, the result being a velocity of 19:1 km. per sec. towards the Apex R.A. 273°, Dec.+34 degrees. This agrees remarkably well with the values generally accepted; and in particular the accordance of the speed with the value 19-5 km. per sec., obtained from the discussion of

spectroscopic radial velocities, shows that the assumed mass 2-0 Xx sun must be almost exactly the average mass of a double star system.

Densities of Stars.—The sun has an average density greater than water, viz.: 1-41. This is fairly typical of a majority of the stars; but in recent years we have learnt that there exist numerous stars of a much lower density. We have to enlarge our ideas to include “ giant ” balloon-like objects with density so rarefied as to be comparable with air or even with a moderately high vacuum. These giant stars are especially conspicuous because, being swollen to great bulk, they have great light-power. Except for this high luminosity there is nothing very obvious about tha appearance of the rarefied stars to distinguish them; the

245

ordinary spectral classification is no guide. For instance the three eclipsing variables W Crucis, RZ Ophiuchi, SX Cassiopeiae have densities less than -oor, but they are classed in type G along with the sun. It is now known that there are certain telltale features in the spectrum which can be used to distinguish them; but these are only found by minute inspection and were not noticed until after the giant stars had been found and studied by other methods.

Some information as to stellar densities can

be obtained from eclipsing variables; it happens that a study of the eclipses gives sufficient data as to the relative dimensions of the two components and their orbit to solve the problem. But the most useful and universal clue is the absolute magnitude. The three stars above mentioned show practically the same spectrum as the sun, and it seems fair therefore to conclude that their surfaces are in the same radiating condition and will give the same amount of light per unit area within reasonable approximation. Thus if a star of the same spectral type as the sun gives 100 times as much light (5 magnitudes brighter) its surface must be 100 times greater; its radius is accordingly 10 times greater and its volume 1,000 times greater. The inference can be extended to other spectral types, accepting the principle that if the quality of the radiation as shown by its spectral distribution corresponds to a particular temperature the quantity of radiation must also correspond to that temperature at least to a rough approximation. Whenever we know the absolute magnitude and spectral type of a star we can give a good estimate of its size. Until recently this was our only means of determining the size of the stars (except for some meagre information from eclipsing variables), because the stars are so distant that no appreciable disk can be seen even in the largest telescopes. But in Dec. 1920 the interferometer method developed by Michelson was successfully applied to the problem; although the star disk could not be seen, yet its angular diameter could be measured by observing the disappearance of a system of interference fringes (1%). Pease and Anderson working with a 20-ft. interferometer at Mt. Wilson Observatory measured the angular diameter of Betelgeuse, the result being 0-045. The parallax of this star is too small to be determined with much accuracy, and the conversion from angular to linear measure is a little uncertain; but it turns out that Betelgeuse is certainly large enough for the whole of the earth’s orbit to be fitted inside it. A few other stars have since been measured, but most star disks are far too small to be within reach even of this powerful method. Whilst it is

valuable to have a proof by actual measurement that some stars have diameters 200 times greater than the sun, the importance of these interferometer results is that they confirm closely the diameters already deduced from the absolute magnitude and spectral type. As already Sana there is not a great deal of range in the masses of the stars, and the huge bulk of Betelgeuse and similar stars indicates low density rather than great quantity of material. We have, of course, no actual measurement of the mass of Betelgeuse, but we infer from analogy with other stars or from the theory of stellar radiation that it is not more than go times the mass of the sun. In any case it is certain that its density must be very low, because Einstein’s theory shows that a star of the bulk of Betelgeuse and density comparable to that of the sun would have extraordinary properties; in particular there would be a great shift to the red of the whole spectrum. According to the usual view the stars are formed by aggregation of primordial nebula, and it is therefore not surprising that we should find some stars in an early stage of low density. Giant and Dwarf Stars—Arranged in order of temperature from the hottest to the coolest, the spectral types fall into the sequence O,B,A,F,G,K,M. Until about 1913 it was generallv assumed that this represented the course of evolution of a star, which started (presumably catastrophically) at high temperature and gradually cooled. We have, however, just seen that Betelgeuse and some similar stars which are cool red stars of type M are in an extremely diffuse state, and therefore represent the earliest stage in the condensation of a star from a nebula, We must not jump to the conclusion that all type M stars are

246

ASTRONOMY

to be placed in the earliest stage of evolution. Closer examination shows that type M is heterogeneous and contains two quite distinct groups, the one consisting of giant diffuse objects and the other of small dense stars (red dwarfs) apparently in the last stage before extinction. This and other features of the spectra, luminosities and densities of the stars are brought into order by the giant and dwarf theory of evolution put forward independently by E. Hertzsprung and H. N. Russell, which has dominated research in stellar astronomy from 1914 to 1924. There is now strong reason to think that the theory cannot be sustained in its present form; but since it undoubtedly contains a great deal of truth and the necessary reconstruction has not as yet made much progress we shall give the usual form of the theory and later point out where it fails. We must go back to Homer Lane's theory of the evolution of gaseous masses (see 25.788). Starting with a very diffuse globe of gas held together by its own gravitational contraction, the conditions of mechanical equilibrium require that its tempera-

ture must rise as it contracts. This rise of temperature continues so long as the material is rare enough to behave as a perfect gas. The gases with which we are familiar cease to follow the laws of a perfect gas when the density approaches that of the liquid state; it may therefore be anticipated that in the sun (density 1:4) the material is behaving more like a liquid and the star is cooling in the ordinary way. Accordingly the idea is that a star starts as a cool diffuse mass of perfect gas; it condenses and rises in temperature until the deviations from the gas laws check the rise of temperature; it then cools like a liquid and finally becomes extinct. It follows that a star passes through any particular temperature and spectral type twice, once ascending as a diffuse giant and once descending as a condensed dwarf. In any spectral class we shall have two groups of stars alike in surface temperature but wide apart in all other respects; in particular the two groups differ in density and in stage of evolution. The most conspicuous outward characteristic is the great difference of luminosity due to the larger surface area in the giant stage. Instead of having a single evolutionary sequence of spectral types, the star must start as a giant of type M, ascend toward type B and then descend as a dwarf to type M again. It depends on its mass how far up the series it climbs, and probably a star must be three or four times as massive as the sun in order to reach the high temperature of type B. Smaller stars will turn at A, F or even lower. As Russell has put it, a star of small mass is a poor self-heating affair. The division of giants and dwarfs is most conspicuous for the lowest temperatures K and M since the corresponding stages are then at opposite ends of the evolutionary sequence; for types F and A the two groups begin to merge into one another and the division is less easy to recognise. The observational confirmation drawn from many sources is now extremely favourable. For stars of known parallax the absolute luminosity can be calculated directly; and when these

are grouped according to spectral type the bifurcation of the luminosities is evident. The luminosities of the giant stars depend very little on the spectral type since the rising temperature compensates for the decreasing surface area; their absolute magnitudes cluster closely about a mean value +1™-0.

For the dwarfs

the decreasing temperature and decreasing surface co-operate to give a rapid fall of brightness through successive types, and the absolute magnitude fades to about + 10-0 at type M. By the spectroscopic method of determining absolute brightness, Adams and Joy have been able to give striking statistics; of 58 stars of type M examined. they found that 48 were giants with magnitudes between—1"-o and +3™-4, and ro were dwarfs between +9™-8 and +10"-7; there was thus a gap of six magnitudes separating the groups. (Ut is possible that the sharpness of the separation is exaggerated by the circumstances of selection of the stars for examination, but we do not think the influence of selection is so great as to make the result misleading.) Ascending to types K and G the groups draw closer together and begin to commingle, but even in type F the frequency curve shows the two maxima. The bifurcation into giants and dwarfs is also well shown in Shapley’s investigation of the densities of eclipsing

variables and in Jackson and Furner’s study of dynamical parallaxes. Before leaving the observational evidence we must refer to a point which becomes especially significant now that Russell and Hertzsprung’s theory of evolution is under suspicion. The giants apparently do not link on continuously to the dwarfs at type A. We trace the regular giant series from type M to G, and then there seems to be a gap with scarcely any normal giants of type F—as though this stage were rushed through rapidly. Such giants as do occur in type F are of higher luminosity and mass. We are now more inclined to divide the stars into a “ Main Series’ running down in temperature continuously from intenscly luminous stars of type O to faint stars of type M, together with a side group of giants chiefly limited to types G, K and M. The latter 1s presumably a temporary halt in the early stages of evolution; when the halt is over the star proceeds rapidly to join the main series at a point depending on its mass. The shock to the giant and dwarf theory comes from a result

reached in 1924. Both from astronomical observation and purely physical theory it seems that stellar matter will continue to behave as a perfect gas up to densities exceeding that of platinum. Thus there is no explanation of the turning point from the giant to the dwarf series, and the descent along the dwarf series (if it occurs at all) must be due to some entirely different cause. Radiative Equilibrium of the Stars —The discovery that many of the stars are of very low density has given a stimulus to investigations of their internal conditions of equilibrium; for the material, being practically a perfect gas, will obey comparatively simple and definite laws. The distribution of temperature and density in a sphere of gas in equilibrium under its own gravitational attraction is a classical problem studied by Lane, Ritter, kelvin, Emden and others. For the most part the mathematical analysis developed in these earlier researches is used in the modern theory, but three new features have been introduced:— - (a) It used to be supposed that the equilibrium was adiabatic— that is to say, the materia] was kept stirred by convection currents, hot gases ascending to replace the continually cooling material at the surface. But it is now clear that the heat passes to the surface not by material transfer but by radiation, and the condition of equilibrium is that each region will settle down to the temperature at which it radiates an amount of heat equal to that which it absorbs from the radiant heat flowing through it. This was first suggested as probable by R. A. Sampson jn 1894, and the theory of radiative equilibrium was developed by kK. Schwarzschild in 1906 for the atmosphere of the sun. It was taken by the writer as the basis of the theory of the stellar interior in tgt6. One simplification resulting from this change is that a physical constant of stellar material, viz., the ratio of specific heats, which was difficult to estimate, is no longer required to be known. . (b) The pressure of radiation is sufficient to have an important effect on the condition of equilibrium especially in the more massive stars, and is taken into account in the new theory. | (c) It is recognised that at the high temperature in the stellar interior the atoms will be strongly jonised. Most of the electrons which circulate round the nucleus of an atom will have broken loose; and these, moving freely and exerting their own partial pressure, must count as separate ‘‘ molecules ” in determining the average molecular weight. All numerical results depend on the adopted value of the molecular weight; and it is essential that this should be known rather accurately since it is raised to a high power in several of the most important formulae. Owing to the ionisation we adopt a much smaller molecular weight than in the earlier investigations. Moreover we are no longer seriously troubled by uncertainty as to the chemical composition of the stellar interior, because whatever the chemical con position (provided only that there is not an excessive proporiion of hydrogen)

the molecular weight will be close to two. This is a consequence of the fact an atom all have units of

that the number of electrons surrounding the nucleus of is approximately half the atomic weight, so that when broken loose there will be one free particle for every two

weight.

In stellar-conditions the stripping of the atom

ASTRONOMY is not quite complete, but the modification of the molecular weight can be calculated and allowed for. Since it is believed that the star’s heat is maintained by liberation of subatomic energy, another unknown condition enters into the problem, viz.: the relative distribution of the subatomic source through the interior. This, however, has no very important effect on the results, and the margin of uncertainty due to our ignorance of the distribution has been calculated by considering the extreme cases of a source entirely concentrated at the centre and a source fairly evenly distributed through the star. All the difficulties and uncertainties attending the calculation of the internal temperatures of the stars seem to have climinated themselves, and it is believed that we have trustworthy knowledge for all stars in the condition of a perfect gas. The effective temperatures of a few thousand degrees represent only the marginal heat of the stellar furnaces, and the greater part of the material of a star is at a temperature of several million degrees. In a typical giant star Capella the central temperature is 10,000,000° and the average temperature is about 2 of this. In the sun the central temperature is about 40,000,000°. (We shall see later that the theory applies to the sun in spite of its high density.) All stars on the main series have nearly the same internal temperature as the sun. It should be realised that from the standpoint of the expert in atomic physics these temperatures are not at all high. Temperature is a measure of the average speed of the molecules. At 40,000,000° the speed of the free electrons is still low compared with that ordinarily imparted to them in electrical experiments, and far less than that of the 8 particles shot out in radioactive disintegration. We cannot anticipate any disintegration of the nucleus, such as Rutherford has found in the laboratory by employing incomparably more powerful agency. The difference is that, whereas qualitatively the atomic processes in a star are by no means out of the ordinary, the intensity or rapid succession of the individual processes is not reproducible in laboratory experiments. It helps us a great deal that in studying the stellar intcrior we have not to envisage unfamiliar atomic processes but to calculate the cumulative effect of a great multiplication of familiar processes. The temperature-gradient in the interior tends to cause a flow of radiation outwards, which is hindered by the opacity of the stellar material, the opacity being a measure of the amount of obstruction offered by a substance to the flow of light or other radiation through it. Thus the total outilow of heat from the star depends on the internal temperature distribution (calculated by the theory already discussed) and on the opacity. If L is the radiation of the star (ergs per sec.), we find L=amrceGM (1-8) /k where c is the velocity of light, G the constant of gravitation, M the mass of the star (in grammes), & the coefficient of opacity, and 1-6 the ratio of radiation pressure to the whole pressure found by solving the quartic equation | 1-8 =0:0031 M? ut p’ where M is now expressed in terms of the sun’s mass and g is the average molecular weight. Knowing L and M for any star we can now calculate &; for instance in Capella we fnd k= r20 C.G.S. units; this means that radiation passing through a screen of stel-

lar material containing 1/120 grammes per sq. cm. (equivalent to about 6 cm. of air) would be reduced to one-third (strictly r/e)

of its original intensity. This is a very high opacity. We see that the old difficulty as to how heat is brought up from the interior of a star to replace that radiated by the surface material has vanished; there is no need for convection currents; our problem is rather to explain how the material offers so much obstruction and dams back the internal heat, allowing it to escape no faster than it does. The high opacity is not so surprising when we realise that the radiation in the interior of a star consists of Xrays chiefly of wave-length 1 to ro Angstrom units, and the opacity determined astronomically is of the same order as the opacity of ordinary material to these X-rays as measured in the laboratory. The stellar opacity isin fact less than the terrestrial opacity

because the high ionisation of the material throws a great part of the absorbing mechanism out of order.

247

The Mass Luminosity Relation.—Application of the modern physical theories of X-ray absorption to stellar conditions indi-

cates that the coeflicient of opacity will be directly proportional to the density and inversely proportional approximately to the z power of the temperature (k oc T?). By the use of this law we eliminate & and obtain a relation between Land M.

The density

of the star nearly disappears from the relation; so that the total radiation or absolute bolometric magnitude of a star is a function of the mass, subject only to a trifling correction depending on its stage of evolution as indicated by density or by spectral type— provided always that the star is sufficiently diffuse to behave as a perfect gas. We call this predicted relation the mass-luminosity relation. So far as it can be tested with the not too abundant observational data available it appears to be strongly confirmed. The physical theory has not been so successful in predicting the absolute scale of luminosity of the stars; at present the position is that whilst the stars agree among themselves, they are all apparently about 2} magnitudes too faint. The cause of this discrepancy remains a mysterv; but so long as we confine attention to differential comparisons it does not trouble us. | The startling result appears that not only do the giant stars confirm the mass-luminosity relation but the dense dwarf stars also agree with it, and the sun, for example, falls into line on the mass-luminosity curve (4). Taken at face value this unlookedfor agreement indicates that the material of the sun must be behaving as a perfect gas. This would be quite opposed to the giant and dwarf theory of evolution which attributes the low luminosity of the sun at its present stage (compared with that of the diffuse stars) to the deviation from a perfect gas. Nevertheless we seem bound to accept the new conclusion not only on account of the argument by which it was first reached, but because consideration of the physical conditions of material at a temperature of some millons of degrees clearly shows that it will remain a nearly perfect gas up to extremely high densities. Terrestrial material ceases to behave as a perfect gas at densities approaching that of water, because the atoms, which behave as rigid spheres with radii of the order 1078 cm., are becoming jammed together. But in the stars atoms of this description do not exist; there are only the small fragments of atoms (ions) with radii of order 10°! cm., and these do not jam until a density some thousands of times higher is reached. Our expectation that there would be a change in stellar conditions at a density between say o-r and 1 rests on a false analogy, which proves to be baseless as soon as attention is called to it. Detailed investigation, taking account of the electrical forces between the ions, shows that there will be no appreciable failure of the gas-laws in any ordinary stars—except that in stars of small mass the material will be swperperfect gas causing these stars to be about 4 a magnitude brighter than at first predicted. There is some slight observational confirmation of this excess. The theory becomes extended to include all ordinary stars (.e., excluding ‘‘ white dwarfs ’’) and differences of absolute brightness are now attributed almost entirely to differences of mass. This fundamental change of view was only reached in 1924, and there has scarcely been time fully to reconstruct our ideas of stellar evolution in accordance with it. The Companion of Sirius.—If matter at the density of platinum is still behaving as a perfect gas the limit of compressibility must be at far greater density. Thus it is possible that stellar matter may exist having a high density transcending terrestrial experience. Conversely if definite evidence of such matter can be found it will be the strongest possible confirmation of the views to which we have been led. It happens that there already existed evidence of the existence of stars of extravagantly high density—evidence which would probably have been accepted as fairly convincing if the conclusion had not been thought too absurd to be taken seriously. These stars are called white dwarfs. Only three are definitely known; but they are probably rather numerous in space because as a rule they are not detected unless thev are close to us. The most famous is the companion of Sirius which has ; the mass of the sun but gives only 1/36oth of the

248

ASTRONOMY

nated all recent progress (1®). Consider the element calcium. Ina red star the temperature of the reversing layer is low and the atoms will not be ionised, so that only the arc lines appear. At somewhat higher temperature ionisation begins, and the H and K lines of ionised calcium are shown. In the sun both spectra are prominent. Passing to higher temperatures the arc lines disappear since no atoms are left in the neutral state; and in the hottest stars the atoms become doubly ionised so that the H it was realised that these results were not necessarily nonsensical, and K spectrum fades out. a further test was applied by means of Einstein’s theory. If the pressure in the reversing layer is known we can calculate The red-shift of the spectral lines—the third Einstein effect— by theory how the state of ionisation progresses with temperais proportional to the mass divided by the radius and according ture and so determine the temperatures corresponding to the to the above figures would be 30 times as great on the companion of Sirius as on the sun. It would be equivalent to a Doppler spectral types in which the various spectra are observed to appear, disappear or reach maximum intensity. Lines absorbed effect of 20 km. per second. (The true Doppler effect can be separated from the Einstcin effect because the motion in the line of by excited atoms (ionised or not) are especially useful, since the sight is known from observation of Sirius itself.) Although the abundance of excitation is sensitive to small changes of temperature. By connecting together the data for different elements and observation was difficult on account of the faintness of the object and its proximity to Sirius, Adams was able to show in 1925 that controlling the results by reference to the best determinations of an Einstein effect of 21 km. per sec. existed, agreeing with the stellar temperature by other methods, a fairly consistent temprediction (5), The companion of Sirius has been famous in the perature-scale for the various types has been found. It appears history of astronomy as a body whose existence was known and that the pressure in the reversing layer is between ro~* and 1074 atmospheres—much lower than used to be supposed. A few accepted unreservedly 18 years before it was first discovered with lines are found to correspond toa still lower pressure; these are a telescope, Bessel having shown in 1844 that Sirius was revolving under the attraction of an unseen mass; it now comes into probably chromospheric lines absorbed by ions which experience strong selective radiation pressure which maintains them at a prominence again as revealing that stellar matter can be comhigh level above the ordinary reversing layer. A number of the pressed to a density of a ton to the cubic inch. There is no reason to think that this matter consists of other than the familiar ele- improvements in the detailed applications of the theory are due to R. H. Fowler and E. A. Milne. ments; it is simply a case of tighter packing of the smashed Spectroscopic Parallaxes.—Although giant and dwarf stars of atoms. Radiation Pressure—At any point in a star gas-pressure and the same temperature have, broadly speaking, the same spectrum, a detailed examination of particular lines reveals distincradiation-pressure together support the weight of the matetive differences. It was early shown by E. Hertzsprung that rial above. The proportion supported by radiation-pressure (1-8) is to a first approximation the same in all parts of the star those spectra marked by Miss Maury as having “ c-characteristic’ belonged exclusively to giant stars. More precise criteria and, if the molecular weight is given, depends only on the mass. We might expect something significant in the range of mass for were found by W. S. Adams and A. Kohlschiitter in 1914; and which radiation-pressure increases from minor to major impor- the method has been developed by Adams into a means not only of distinguishing the two classes but of determining quantitance, say 1-8 increases from o-1 too-5. The masses correspondtatively the absolute luminosities of stars. For example, the ing to these limits are 1-6 to 11-5 times the sun’s mass (for mo“ enhanced lines ” of strontium 4,077 and 4,215 are relatively lecular weight 2-1). This seems to give a clue to the remarkable strong in stars of high luminosity and weak in those of low lumiphenomenon that the masses of the stars are so nearly uniform. nosity; whereas the “ furnace lines” of strontium 4,607 and Apparently the matter of the universe has aggregated primarily into lumps whose size is determined by this critical range of calcium 4,455 behave in the reverse manner. Thus measures radiation-pressure. We know that a gaseous mass without radi- of the relative intensities of these lines give an indication of the luminosity of the star. ation-pressure is stable unless it is in extremely rapid rotation; At present the procedure is purely empirical; the curve conwe do not know the conditions of stability of a mass subject to radiation-pressure. It is a plausible hypothesis that high radi- necting absolute magnitude with differential intensity of the ation-pressure endangers the stability of a star; in that case the selected lines is deduced from and tested by stars of known trigaggregation of matter to form stars will be put a stop to at limits onometrical parallax; it is then applied to deduce the luminosities and hence the parallaxes of other stars. Parallaxes deterof mass generally in the range indicated. In considering how accurate this coincidence is we must notice that there is now a mined by this method for 1,650 stars have been announced (?”). wide-spread belief that the star radiates a considerable part of The existence of this criterion of absolute magnitude is explained in a general way by Saha’s theory. The state of the outer layers its mass during its lifetime. If so we must take for comparison the original masses, or the masses of stars observed in the most of a star, and hence the spectrum, is controlled by two factors, diffuse state. The range 1-6 to 11-5 agrees excellently with the viz.: the value of gravity at the surface and the intensity of the stream of radiation poured through them from below; the latter known range of mass of the K and M giants. Saha’s Theory of Stellar Spectra.—After the first use of spec- factor is equivalent to the effective temperature. Take two troscopy to identify the chemical elements in the atmosphere of stars of high and low luminosity respectively, e.g., a giant and a star, the most important advance was the discrimination of dwarf of the same effective temperature; the former being a diffuse star has a much lower value of gravity, and this has the “ enhanced lines,” i.e., lines strengthened in the spark spectrum as compared with the arc. This gives a criterion as to the physi- consequence that the reversing layer occupies a level of lower cal condition of the star’s reversing layer, because it depends on pressure. With lower pressure the same stages of ionisation the temperature and density whether the arc or the spark spec- occur at reduced temperature; and it is in fact confirmed that trum predominates. Much of the earlier progress in this devel- the same spectral type corresponds to lower temperature in a opment is due to Sir J. N. Lockyer and A. Fowler. In general giant than in a dwarf. But a change of pressure does not simply the arc lines are absorbed by the neutral atom and the spark shift the temperature scale for the whole spectrum; actually the shift is different for each element and each phase of the atom— lines by the atom with one electron missing (singly ionised atoms). Sometimes the distinction can be carried further; and for ex- normal, ionised or excited—so that differential comparisons of ample, Fowler has identified the separate spectra of singly, particular lines betray the alteration of pressure. Variable Stars—The three leading classes of variable stars doubly and trebly ionised silicon in the laboratory and in the are (a) eclipsing variables, (b) Cepheid variables, (c) long-period stars. The modern thermodynamical theory of ionisation was variables. Rather more than 200 eclipsing variables are known; brought to bear on the astronomical observations by M. N. Saha in 1920 and his method of interpretation of spectra has domi- in these one component wholly or partly hides the other during

sun’s light. This would not surprise us if it were a red star of feeble surface luminosity, but it was shown by W. S. Adams in toro that it was a white star of spectrum F and therefore should have a surface-luminosity greater than that of the sun. The radius calculated in the ordinary way from the luminosity and type is 19,000 km.—not so large as Uranus—and the corresponding mean density is 60,000 grammes per cubic centimetre. When

ASTRONOMY part of the revolution so that there is a decrease of brightness. Intensive study of the light-curves of particular stars gives important information as to the radii of the components, densities, surface brightness, etc. In a number of systems a “ reflection effect ’? has been observed and measured; that is to say the two hemispheres of the faint component are of unequal brightness, and the star goes through phases like the moon owing to illumination by the bright component. It has been shown theoretically that a star must be a perfect reflector of heat (heat-albedo = 1); but since our actual measurements are not in heat units but

in light units this cannot be immediately checked by observation. In some systems the two components are so close that they distort one another, and the prolate form of the stars gives rise to observable features in the light-curve. It would seem that eclipsing variables will afford a quite exceptional opportunity of studying details of stellar constitution, but progress at present is difficult. | The explanation of the Cepheid variables is more uncertain. The first question is: Is the Cepheid a binary star? The spectroscope apparently answers in the affirmative for it shows a radial velocity Increasing and decreasing in the period of the light variation, as though the star were revolving round an unseen body. But the change of light is not due to eclipses because the minimum brightness occurs when the star is receding most rapidly— at a time when the other component could not be between us and it. There must be an actual variation in the rate of radiation by the star, and this has been confirmed by H. Shapley who showed that the spectral type and therefore the surface conditions change during the period. For example, 6 Cephei changes from type FO at maximum to G2 at minimum. This periodic heating and cooling is the main cause of the change of brightness. One suggested explanation is that the orbital motion occurs in a resisting medium, so that the front side of the star is brighter than the rear side on account of the impact of the medium; this would explain why minimum brightness always occurs when the star is retreating. But opinion is now tending towards a pulsatory theory proposed by H. Shapley (1%) which rejects the binary hypothesis altogether. The fact 1s that there is literally no room for the supposed second component required by the binary hypothesis. The Cepheids are giant stars filling a large volume, and the “ orbit ” is always small compared with the dimensions of the star itself. When we calculate the size of the orbit of the supposed companion (which we can do, knowing the period and approximate mass of the system) we find that it would graze or even lie inside the principal star—a reductio ad absurdum of the binary hypothesis. Further, a relation has been found between period and density in these stars, which points to the period being determined by intrinsic conditions; such a relation is quite unintelligible if the period is provoked by an external cause, viz.: the revolution of a companion. Accordingly Shapley suggests that the variable is a stngle star which dilates and contracts with a regular pulsation; and the observed motion of approach and recession refers, not to the star as a whole, but to the upheaval and subsidence of the part of the surface presented towards us. The radius of 6 Cephei may be taken as about 20,000,000 km.; the semi-amplitude of the oscillation, according to the observed radial velocities is 1,270,000 km. or about 6% of the radius. For 15 other fully observed Cepheids the semi-amplitude of the pulsation ranges from 3 to 8% of the radius; this seems an amount of compression and expansion suitable to produce the rather large changes of temperature required. Within narrow limits the period is inversely proportional to the square root of the star’s mean density, a relation which seems significant in view of the fact that the pulsations of a gravitating sphere follow this law. Moreover the constant of proportionality is of the order of magnitude predicted by theory: we can calculate that a globe of gas having the mass and density of 6 Cephei will vibrate in a period between

4 and 10 days (varying between

these limits

according to the adiabatic constant of the material of which it is

composed);

the observed period is 5-37 days. (9) The most

serious objection urged against the pulsation theory of Cepheids is that it requires a broadening of the spectral lines at minimum

249

and maximum, because all parts of the disk would not be moving with the same speed in the line of sight; this has not yet been observed. It is to be hoped that this crucial but rather difficult effect will be thoroughly sought for in the near future. A question arises as to how the pulsations are maintained. There is very little dissipation of energy from viscosity and the main cause of decay of the pulsations would be the leakage of heat between different parts of the star. We have in any case to admit that a supply of energy (sub-atomic energy) is continually being released in the stars, and if certain thermodynamical conditions are satisfied this may supply the mechanical energy required to maintain the pulsations. The simplest theory is that this energy is released more rapidly when the star is compressed and at maximum temperature; the star then receives excess heat at high temperature which it radiates at low temperature and so acts as the working substance of a heat-engine. This explanation is perhaps too powerful, as it makes it difficult to understand why every star is not set in pulsation. An alternative theory is that the heat supply is constant but the varying opacity (acting like the valves of an engine) governs its flow in such a way that mechanical work is performed. It now seems probable that the long-period variables link on continuously to the Cepheid variables, the differences being only skin-deep. It 1s, however, the skin which we observe, and in the long-period variables, which are stars of very low density and low photospheric temperature, a great surface eruption occurs at a certain stage of the pulsation. At the height of the eruption the star is usually at least 100 times as bright as at minimum; but it has recently been discovered that the increase of heat radiation is not nearly so great. By direct radiometric measurements, the

variation of heat is found to be about 1 magnitude—just as in the Cepheids. The theoretical relation between period and density obeyed by the Cepheids is found to apply also to these low density stars, and the fact that the long-period variables are all of type M (or the other red types N and S) agrees with the rule found for the Cepheids that the type becomes redder with increasing period. Novae,— Two “ new stars ” of unusual brilliance have appeared in recent years. Nova Aquilae III. was discovered independently by a great many observers on June 8 1918 when it was already a first-magnitude star. Its earlier history has been supplied from an examination of photographic records of the sky. From 1888 onwards it remained steady at ro™-5 and a photograph taken by Max Wolf three days before discovery showed that it was still normal, Incidentally we may note that it cannot have been a red star (types K or M) or it would have appeared in visual catalogues. On June 7 it had reached 6™- according to a Harvard photograph. The next day (when it was discovered) it had brightened to o™-8; and on June g it was only slightly inferior to Sirius. Then followed the usual slow decline with occasional

fluctuations; and it had faded to 5™-5 by theend of October. W.F. Denning discovered a Nova in Cygnus on Aug. 20 1920 which reached the second magnitude. Its earlier history is unknown, but it must have been fainter than 15™- in 1908. Broadly speaking each Nova reproduces the same sequence of phenomena with remarkable faithfulness. If caught early enough before maximum brightness is reached, the spectrum is that of an A or B type star with the absorption lines displaced to the violet. This appears to indicate that the outer layers of the star are being propelled upwards; the velocity varies from day to day. A few days later bright emission lines appear on the red side of the corresponding absorption lines. The absorption lines become doubled and trebled as though there were several jets of uprushing gas with different speeds. The bright lines broaden into bands and show complicated structure. The light is now declining owing to the continuous spectrum fading away, and the spectrum becomes mainly an emission spectrum. About a fortnight after maximum bright nebular lines (.e., lines of unidentified origin but characteristic of gaseous nebulae) appear. The great speed of upward rush of the absorbing gases is very remarkable, velocities of the order 2,000 km. per sec. being observed; there is no reason to doubt that these velocities are

250

ASTRONOMY

genuine for the star does actually expand and in the later stages shows a nebulous disk visible in large telescopes. The observed rate of spreading appears to agree with the speeds indicated by the shift of the absorption lines. After the outbreak has subsided the star becomes of spectral type O surrounded by a nebulous disk—like a planetary nebula. For this reason it is sometimes thought that the ordinary planetary nebulae originate from novae; but this seems unlikely, because, so far as can be ascertained, there is a big difference in scale of the two kinds of objects. Of the many theories advanced to account for the outbreak, a collision of two stars seems unlikely on account of its statistical improbability; and moreover the regular sequence of changes could scarcely be started by a haphazard impact. An eruption from within, whether occurring spontaneously at a certain stage of evolution or precipitated by the entry of a star into a nebula, may be more likely; but this theory also presents difficulties.

J. H. Moore has shown that the extended nebulous disk shows differential motions of rotation in different parts. In any case, it seems likely from the very rapid sequence of changes that the main outbreak is only skin-deep. Novae always occur within the limits of the Milky Way (or in spiral nebulae); but this may perhaps be due to the greater depth of the stellar universe in this direction. So far as can be Judged the Nova before the outbreak is a dwarf star; and at least in the case of Nova Aquilae it cannot have been a very red star. (The long-period variables, whose violent outbreaks are rather suggestive of the explosion of a Nova, are giant red stars.) We may meditate on the fact that the stars subject to these catastrophes are probably in about

the same stage of evolution as that through which the sun is now passing. | Motions of the Stars—Many researches have confirmed Kapteyn’s discovery that the stars (or at least those near enough for investigation) move preferentially in two favoured directions. Since the article STAR (see 25.784) was written, the spectroscopic

additional effect, apparently having nothing to do with the two main star-streams. Tentatively we suppose that these high velocity stars are intruders into our local star cloud, having come into it from another cluster situated on one side. Regarding our star cloud as a semi-permanent system, there will be a certain

velocity of escape. Stars with velocities below this limit are permanent members of the system describing orbits under its attraction, and there cannot well be one-sided asymmetry in the distribution of such orbital motions; but stars with speeds greater

than the velocity of escape must be intruders which pass through the system once only, and preserve more or less the direction of

motion with which they entered.

Whatever the true explana-

tion, these high velocity stars all moving one way affect considerably the various statistical discussions of the relation of stellar motions to other characteristics such as type and luminosity, because the asymmetric stream appears to include a larger proportion of stars of low luminosity and reddish type. In 1910 J. C. Kapteyn and W. W. Campbell announced independently that (after allowing for the solar motion) the average speeds of the stars increase continuously from type B to type M. According to Campbell the average radial speeds are—type B, 6-5; A, 10-9; F, 14-4; G, 15-0; K, 16-8; M, 17-1 km. per second.

In this investigation the K and M stars were almost all giants;

but it has been found that the dwarf K and M stars have still higher speeds averaging about 40 km. per sec. for one component. There is also a general progression of velocity with brightness, the faintest stars having the highest average speed; and this is very much mixed up with the above dependence of speed on spectral type. To add to the confusion it has been found by Plaskett that stars of type O instead of having stil] smaller speeds than type B have moderately high speeds; and this is confirmed by the high speeds of planetary nebulae which usually contain a type O star as nucleus. -

It seems likely that the correlation of speed both with spectral

tadial velocities have become available for testing the theory and they confirm it decisively. Relatively to the sun the favoured directions are inclined at about 120° (the apices being at R.A.

type and luminosity results from a more fundamental dependence of speed on mass—the smaller the mass, the higher the velocity. It is tempting to suppose that there is equipartition of energy as

96° Dec.+8°, and R.A. 290°, Dec.—54°); but referred to the mean of the stars they are necessarily two opposite directions

among the molecules of a gas, the average value of 4 mv? being

along a straight line. The extremities of this axis of preferential motion are called the vertices. The following appear to be the most accurate determinations of the vertex by the two independent methods (?°):— From proper motions (Boss’s cataloguc) R.A. 94°-2, Dec. +11°-9, From radial velocities (Lick catalogues) R.A. 94°-6, Dec.+12°°5.

' We should rather expect this star streaming to be a local phenomenon in the stellar universe, but up to the present no sensible

change in the velocities or relative abundance of the two streams has been found in the region surveyed. Photographic determinations of the direction of motion of faint stars of small proper motion made a Cambridge Observatory show that the phenomenon occurs without detectable alteration up to distances of 500 parsecs from the sun. It is significant that the line of preferential motion lies in the galactic plane. The phenomenon may be due to two star clouds passing through one another; or it may represent some dynamical property of a single system. The latter view has often been favoured owing to the very elegant mathematical specification of the corresponding velocity distribution

given by K. Schwarzschild’s ellipsoidal theory ("). The more detailed study of the systematic motions of the stars leads to results of great complexity. We have to recognise a third drift, pointed out by J. Halm, which is nearly at rest relative to the mean of the stars. The type B stars appear to belong to this third drift and show no sign of the preferential motion towards Kapteyn’s vertices; but the drift also comprises stars of other types. Another important phenomenon is the asymmetry of the motions of high velocity stars. We shall here follow the conclusions of J. Oort (° with regard to this phenomenon; G. Strömberg, who has also investigated it, holds somewhat different views. According to Oort stars with velocities above a certain limit (probably about 60-80 km. per sec.) are moving almost exclusively towards one hemisphere of the sky. This is an

the same for all classes of stars. Although the observations confirm this to a certain extent, it is difficult to suppose that there is any theoretical basis for such a law. The mutual perturbations of the stars tend to bring about equipartition, but the process is too slow to be effective within the lifetime of the stars concerned. Moreover, the empirical connection of mass and speed must not be pressed too far, because the O type stars which have very large masses have rather high speeds. The whole problem of stellar velocities is very mysterious. There must, we think, be a number of causes involved, and it seems clear that the stellar system has not yet reached anything like a steady and permanent distribution. Moving Clusicrs—Many years ago R. A. Proctor pointed out a group of stars in the neighbourhood of the Hyades with practically equal proper motions; the researches of L. Boss (*) have thrown new light on the nature of this association. He recognised as belonging to the group 39 stars spread over an area 15° square; the motions appear to converge towands a certain point in the sky—a perspective effect which would naturally occur if the actual motions in three dimensions are parallel; the direction of the convergent point gives the direction of the common motion of the group relative to the sun. Knowing the spectroscopic radial velocity of one or more members, we can by an easy geometrical construction find the whole linear velocity and also locate each star separately in space. We thus obtain

exceptionally full and exact information as to the distances and luminosities of this group of stars. The cluster is roughly spherical with a diameter of 10 parsecs; there must be many non-associated stars—accidental interlopers in so large a region—and perhaps the most significant conclusion is that the casual attractions of these stars have not been able during the lifetime of the cluster to disturb appreciably the parallelism of the motions ancl so scatter the cluster. Another remarkable ‘“ moving cluster ’’ is formed of five stars of the Plough together with stars widely separated in the sky, including

Sirius, æ Coronae and 8 Eridani.

Similar associations are specially

frequent among the stars of the B type of spectrum, one of the most distinct being a chain of stars crossing the constellation Perseus.

ASTRONOMY Number and Distribution of Stars —Important

statistics of the

number of stars down to various limits of magnitude have been obtained by Chapman and Melotte and by P. J. Van Rhijn. We give some results of the latter investigation which is the more

recent (2), The total number of stars down to photographic magnitude 16™-o is 33,000,000; by a somewhat risky extrapolation it is estimated that the total number of stars in the system is between three and four thousand millions, and to reach half this number it would be

necessary to go as far as magnitude 25"-5. (Exactly what is meant by the ‘‘ system ” in the foregoing sentence is somewhat difficult to define; there may, of course, be exterior galaxies or extensions which are not reckoned in these counts.) An important point is the wellknown flattened distribution of the stars; up to magnitude 16™ the stars are distributed in the galactic plane 53 times as thickly as at the galactic poles. This is an increase compared with the concentration of the brighter stars; up to magnitude 5™, the corresponding ratio is 2}. We can easily understand this greater concentration of the faint stars, since on the average they carry us to greater distances, at which the oblate shape of the stellar system has more pronounced effect. Taking a lower limit of luminosity 1/200 & sun, it is estimated that there are 30 stars within a sphere of five parsecs radius round the sun; about 20 of these have actually been identified.

If this star

density persisted, a sphere of 1,500 parsecs radius would contain 800,000,000 stars, besides an unknown but probably rather large number of extinct stars and of stars giving less than 1/200th of the sun's light. This gives some idea of the possible extent of the star cloud to which we belong; there can be little doubt that the density must fall off very considerably within a distance of 1,500 parsccs, more especially in the directions of the galactic poles. The following table based on an investigation by Kapteyn, Van Rhijn and Weersma shows the average parallax of stars of different magnitudes:—

Mag.

Mean Parallax

Mag.

Mean Parallax

I™-0

060"

71.0

“00907

2™-0

O44”

8-0

0065”

37-0

032”

omo

0047”

47-0 5™-0

023” 017”

10™-0 TI™-o

00347" 0025”

6-0

O12”

12™-9

0018”

Tt is an even chance that a particular star has a parallax between 0-83 and 1-13 times the average parallax for its magnitude. volution of Rotating Masses.—TYhe figures of equilibrium and the final disruption of rotating fluid masses have been studied in great detail by J. H. Jeans. In agreement with Liapounoif he has found

that the so-called '' pear-shaped ” figure of equilibrium, which succeeds the Jacobi ellipsoidal form, is unstable.

For a full account of

his conclusions as to the evolution of double stars, spiral nebulae and clusters reference must be made to his book Problems of Cosmogony and Stellar Dynamics (1919). With regard to the solar system, he finds himself unable to account for the formation of the planets by rotation alone; and he attributes them to a tidal disrup-

tion of the sun having occurred at some distant epoch in the past. If this view is correct the system of the planets isa ‘‘ freak of nature,” owing its existence to a chance encounter of some larger star (which approached within less than the sun’s diameter from its surface). Comparatively few other systems of this kind would be formed; and the common view that the stars in general are attended each by a system of planets may be entirely mistaken.

Age of the Stars—According to the Helmholtz-Kelvin theory, which supposes that a star’s heat is supplied by gravitational energy converted owing to contraction of the star, the age of the sun is not more than 30,000,000 years. Physical, geological and biological arguments all agree that this time is far too short. An astronomical argument against the contraction theory is derived from the Cepheid variables. Like other giant stars

6 Cephei would need to condense very rapidly if the heat which it squanders were derived from contraction; the increase of density must in fact amount to 1% in 40 vears. Since the period of the light variation is intrinsic, this must also change as the density changes; calculation shows that the period should decrease 4o seconds annually. Now ô Cephei has been under careful observation since 1783 and the decrease of period is only just detectable—about 0-08 seconds per annum. Thus in the present

251

the surface has to be maintained (otherwise the star would collapse to the white dwarf state) and it is impossible to maintain a temperature gradient by supplying heat at the bottom end. This seems to rule out all suggestions that a star picks up its energy from outside. : Granting then that the energy required for future radiation must be already within the star, we can at once set an upper limit to the amount. All kinds of energy possess mass, and the mass of the sun is equivalent to 1-8-10™ ergs of energy. This is

the total store, and at the present rate of radiation it is sufficient for 15-10” years; actually it would last considerably longer since the rate of radiation would decrease as the sun’s mass decreased. To put the argument in another form, the mass of the sun’s radiation amounts to 130 million million tons per year; and the sun cannot go on losing this mass for more than the period stated because by that time there would be no mass left. With insignificant exception the store consists of energy of constitution of atomic nuclei and electrons, i.e., subatomic energy; the whole amount can only be released if there is some process of annihilation of the electrons and protons which constitute matter. A less radical suggestion is that only transmutation of the elements occurs. In that case not more than 1/1 of the mass can be released as free energy; and to obtain even that much the mass

must consist initially of hydrogen, since the main release of energy occurs when hydrogen is transmuted into helium as a first step towards the synthesis of higher elements.

The energy emit-

ted in ordinary radio-active changes is insignificant from the cosmical standpoint. Although the theory of annihilation of matter presents grave difficulties, it is attractive (1) because it is doubtful if the less radical hypothesis can give an adequate time-scale, (2) because stars observed in the earliest diffuse stage have on the average masses two or three times greater than the average mass of the more condensed stars, (3) because if a star does not change mass

considerably all previous ideas of evolution of faint stars from bright stars collapse. A star might also change mass by picking up or losing matter from its surface, but calculations indicate that this effect must be small compared with the loss of mass by radiation. The sun’s chromosphere would have to move outwards at soo km. per sec. continually in order to carry off as much mass as is lost by radiation. One difficulty is the co-existence of giant and dwarf stars in clusters. The larger the mass the faster is the rate of loss of mass; and however big the stars may be to start with, at the end of a million million years there can be no more than twice the sun’s mass left. In moving clusters such as the Taurus cluster

and Praesepe we find stars of more than twice the sun’s mass (judging from their luminosity) and therefore conclude that the age of these groups cannot be more than ro” years. But the loss of mass of a dwarf star in that time is almost negligible, so that

the dwarf stars in these clusters must have been born with practically their present masses. Ii we have to admit that the cluster dwarfs have undergone no evolution of mass, is there any point in assuming that dwarfs in gencral have been evolved from more massive stars? On the other hand, it may be significant that these clusters appear not to have their full quota of dwarfs, there being few if anv below absolute magnitude about 7™, Very little progress has been made in unravelling the dependence of the rate of liberation of subatomic energy on temperature and density; but it seems to be established that the rate must increase with temperature or with density or both, since

otherwise the stars would be unstable. It is also clear that there must be exhaustion effects, the older stars having used up their more prolific supplies. Thus the sun liberates only 1-9 ergs per gr. per sec. as compared with 58 by Capella, in spite of the fact

stage evolution is proceeding at no more than ‘ys of the rate required by the contraction hypothesis. In casting about for some other source of stellar energy, it is necessary to realise that

that the sun is hotter and denser. A remarkable feature pointed out by H. N. Russell is that stars on the Main Series have nearly the same internal temperature. Thus V Puppis which requires a supply of 700 ergs per gr. per sec., and Krueger 6o which requires 0-08, both have to rise to a central temperature of about .,0,000,-

no source is of any avail unless it liberates heat in the deep interior of a star. The temperature gradient between the centre and

is a critical temperature

oco? to obtain their requirements.

It looks as though 40,000,000°

at which subatomic energy becomes

ASTRONOMY

252

available practically ad libitum, but this is scarcely credible as a physical hypothesis. According to Kohlhérster and Millikan an extremely penetrating radiation found in our upper atmosphere comes to us from outside the earth. If their experimental results are accepted there can be little doubt that this radiation originates in the nebulae or in the diffuse matter pervading space, and the great penetrating power points to subatomic processes as the cause of it. This indicates an evolution of the elements prior to the condensation of matter into stars; and indeed astronomical evidence of the presence of complex elements in the most diffuse stars seems to require such an advance. But it baffles imagination to conceive how the four protons and two electrons required to form a helium atom can be brought together in a diffuse nebula. The whole problem of stellar evolution is now in a most chaotic state because it has become involved with questions of the laws of liberation of subatomic energy which as yet have proved to be too difficult for us. It should be understood that these attempts to form a theory of the subatomic generation of energy from astronomical studies, although unsuccessful, are not speculative in the ordinary sense of the term. When once it is admitted that the stars’ radiation is provided by subatomic energy, it follows that the measurement of the liberation of this energy is one of the commonest astronomical observations; the attempt to co-ordinate the results of these measurements, and to discover the laws connecting the rate of liberation with the physical conditions and age of the material is not airy speculation but a pressing problem of practical research.

III. CLUSTERS AND NEBULAE Globular Clusters—About 70 globular clusters are known. (See 19.332.) They are distinguishable from the loose irregular clusters by their symmetrical and condensed appearance. A tvpical example, Messier 3 (Canes Venatici), is shown in the plate, fig. 4, from a photograph taken at Mt. Wilson. The Cepheid variables contained in some of these clusters have been used by H. Shapley (*) to gauge their distances, relying on the fact that the absolute magnitude of a Cepheid of given period is a known constant. In Messier 3 the mean magnitude of 110 Cepheids is 15™-50, the individual stars deviating as a rule no more than o™-1 from this mean. In the cluster w Centauri 76 Cepheids concentrate with similar closeness about a mean magnitude 13™:57. It is clear that the difference 1™-93 must correspond to the greater distance of Messier 3; and it is easily deduced that the ratio of the distances is 2:43, this ratio being very accurately determined provided that absorption of light in interstellar space is negligible. We are not quite so certain of the absolute distances of the two clusters; but the evidence seems to indicate that the absolute magnitude of Cepheids with periods less than a day is—o™-2, which gives the following distances—w Centauri, 5,800 parsecs; Messier 3, 14,000 parsecs. When it is recalled that the usual trigonometrical method can scarcely be applied to determining distances greater than 50 parsecs, the extraordinary power of this method of plumbing space will be realised. The method was first used by E. Hertzsprung to determine the distance of the Lesser Magellanic Cloud. By this method, and by supplementary devices, Shapley has been able to plot the distribution of the globular clusters in space and to form an idea of the extent of the system which they outline. Even in this vaster system the galactic plane is still a plane of symmetry and of flattening, though the clusters extend to great distances above and below, the average distance from the plane being eight kiloparsecs. In plan the system is elongated with its axis in galactic longitude 325°—nearly the direction of star streaming; the greatest diameter is at least 60 kiloparsecs, and the sun is near one end of it, so that practically all the globular clusters are found in one hemisphere of the sky. The most remote cluster known is distant 67 kiloparsecs or 200,000 light years. We have to recognise that the “ stellar system,” dealt with in the researches described previously, is but a small star cloud in this greater galactic system. Roughly speaking those

researches may be considered to relate to a domain of about 800 parsecs radius; the sun seems to be fairly centrally placed in the local star cloud {about 90 parsecs from the centre according to Charlier), but this is on the outskirts of a greater system whose centre is 20,000 parsecs away. Spiral Nebulue.—The idea that there may exist “ island universes ” independent of and co-equal with our own galactic system of stars has appealed to many astronomers from time to time. If any known celestial objects deserve this name it must be the spiral nebulae, and after many vicissitudes this theory of their nature is now most favoured. It is natural to suppose that our flattened system of stars with the clusters and obscuring clouds of the Milky Way coiled round, would if seen from a distant point, look rather like a spiral nebula such as that shown in the plate, fig. 3 (M. 81, Ursa Major). The spiral nebulae show no tendency to crowd towards the galactic plane. Most of them have very large velocities of recession of the order 1,000 km. per sec., which seems to argue a lack of dynamical association with the galactic system. The great difficulty has been to know how far away we must place them. Rude estimates of distance based on the brightness of the novae which have sometimes been discovered in them suggested that they were extremely remote. On the other hand A. van Maanen believed he had measured comparatively large proper motions of points of the nebulae, which showed that they were not so remote as the globular clusters; but it was impossible to reconcile these results with any consistent scheme of mass and dimensions of the nebulae, and moreover the rotation shown by the supposed proper motions was in the opposite direction to that shown by the radial velocities. In 1924 E. P. Hubble discovered and observed a number of Cepheid variables in the great Andromeda nebula, and using these as a gauge, he deduced a distance of 300,000

parsecs (a million light years). are still more remote.

Presumably the smaller spirals

This seems to settle the question of dis-

tance and size of these nebulae. Accepting Hubble’s result, the Andromeda nebula is still inferior in size to the galactic system of stars and globular clusters, but it is at any rate an object of comparable class, and is fairly entitled to be regarded as an island universe. The theory of relativity suggests an explanation of the observed high receding velocities of the spirals. According to De Sitter’s theory of a curved space-time remote objects would be expected to show a displacement of their spectral lines to the red, partly owing to a “slowing down of natural processes ” in remote regions and partly owing to genuine receding velocities acquired under the cosmical repulsion which exists in a world of De Sitter’s type. This explanation is, however, very much weakened by the fact that we know of two spirals (the Andromeda nebula being one of them) approaching with speeds of 300 and 260 km. per second. Gaseous Nebulae.—Other classes of nebulae are comparatively near objects within the ordinary limits of the stellar system. The diffuse nebulae are of gaseous constitution or possibly a mixture of gaseous and meteoric matter. Since they occupy great tracts of space their densities must be extremely low, otherwise they would have large masses which would have conspicuous effect upon the distribution of stellar velocities. Besides the bright diffuse nebulae we recognise dark nebulae or obscuring patches, which cut off the light of the stars behind and cause apparently void regions in the sky. It is not always possible to tell whether a void region is due to one of these patches or is a genuine lacuna in stellar distribution, but there are many cases where the existence of dark nebulosity is undoubted. It is believed that bright and dark nebulae are of the same nature, the luminescence of the former being due to stimulation by the radiation from the stars present in them. Thus the Orion nebula is caused to shine by the numerous hot B type stars in that constellation; a similar nebulosity in Taurus is dark because there are no B type stars present. The connection of nebular light with stellar stimulation is well seen in Hubble’s variable nebula; here there is one principal star which is a variable, and the nebula also varies. Owing to the low density and the effect of ultra-

ATHENS violet radiation from the stars the material of the bright nebulae is rather highly ionised; this probably accounts for the fact that most of the lines of the nebular spectrum are unidentified, the conditions being difficult to reproduce in the laboratory. Of the identified lines, hydrogen, helium, ionised helium and probably carbon are found. Planetary nebulae are disk- or ring-shaped clouds which surround a single central star. The star is always found to be extremely rich in ultra-violet ight, and is probably to be classed as type O. It is sometimes thought that this aureole consists of atoms expelled and sustained by radiation pressure; but on closer examination we find it difficult to see how radiation pressure can have much to do with the phenomenon. These nebulae are found by spectroscopic observation to be rotating, and there can be little doubt that rotation plays a fundamental part in the equilibrium. Fig. r on plate, due to W. H. Wright, shows a photograph of the Ring nebula in Lyra taken through a prism, so that monochromatic images are shown for each of the chief emission lines. It will be seen that the different wave-lengths give rings of different sizes, and the great difference of distribution is well shown by the bright images on the extreme left and right (both corresponding to unidentified spectral lines). This may be due either to actual differences in distribution of the gases giving these lines, or more probably to differences in the conditions of ionisation. Calcium Cloud in Space—lIn certain spectroscopic double stars the phenomenon of “ fixed calcium lines” is observed. Whereas the other spectral lines shift to and fro as the star approaches and recedes in its orbit, the H and K lines of ionised calcium remain stationary. It is clear that somewhere between us and the star’s photosphere there must be an absorbing cloud of calcium vapour which does not follow the star in its orbit. The phenomenon was first pointed out by Hartmann in 1904 for the star 6 Orionis. Later Miss Heger discovered that the D lines of sodium also remain fixed in 6 Orionis. The same behaviour has now been observed in a large number of stars, but no other “ fixed ” spectral lines have been found. The important question to decide is whether the cloud belongs to the double star or whether it is a continuous cloud filling interstellar space. J.S. Plaskett (2°) has shown that the latter alternative 1s correct; the motion of the calcium cloud is often different from that of the centre of mass of the star. After removing the solar motion the velocity of the cloud relative to the mean of the stars is found to be small. Just as there are lines in the solar spectrum which do not share in the sun’s rotation and are accordingly to be attributed to absorption during the passage of the light through the earth’s atmosphere, so we have fixed lines of calcium and sodium which do not share in the orbital or individual motion of the star and are to be attributed to absorption in an interstellar “atmosphere.” The fixed lines only appear in the spectra of the hottest stars, but that is perhaps due to the fact that cooler stars have strong H and K lines of their own, masking the lines of the cloud. It has been suggested that the presence of the hot star is necessary in order to ionise the calcium vapour and render it capable of absorbing H and Klight, so that although the absorption is performed by the interstellar cloud only the parts of ‘the cloud stimulated by the star are effective. But this explanation would not hold good for the D lines of sodium which are absorbed by un-ionised unexcited atoms. There can be little doubt that the absorption occurs equally along the whole track of the light through space, and the intensity of the lines should be an indication of the length of track, that is the distance of the star. In order to avoid a huge mass of the stellar system inconsistent with the observed velocities of the stars, it must be postulated that this interstellar cloud is of very low density. About one atom per cubic centimetre is the maximum that can be allowed. It is calculated that matter so diffuse as this would take up a high temperature not much lower than the photospheric temperatures of the stars; although a black body in interstellar space would sink to a temperature of 3° absolute. The density is too small to give any appreciable scattering or absorption of light

253

in space other than the special line-absorption of calcium and sodium, REFERENCES.—(1) G. E. Hale, Astrophys. Jour., vol. 28, p. 315 (1908); (2) zbid., vol. 62, p. 270 (1925); (3) tbid., vol. 38, p. 27 (1913); F. H. Seares, Observatory, vol. 43, p. 310 (1920); (4) C. G. Abbot, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 77, No. 5 (1925); (5) E. A. Milne, Monthly Notices, vol. 85, p. 111 (1925), vol. 86, p. 8 (1925); (6) Pub. Ast. Soc. Pacific, Oct. 1924; (7) E. W. Brown, Yale Obs. Trans., vol. 3, pts. 1 and 3; (8) H. Glauert, Monthly Notices, vol. 75, p. 489 (1915); (9) J. K. Fotheringham, Monthly Notices, vol. 80, p. 578 (1920); (10) Lick Obs. Bull., No. 355; (11) Trans. Inter. Astr. Union, vol. 1, p. 71 (1922); (12) J. Jackson and H. H. Furner, Monthly Notices, vol. 81, p. 2 (1921); (13) F. G. Michelson and A. A. Pease, Astrophys, Jour., vol. 53, p. 249 (1921); (14) A. S. Eddington, Monthly Notices, vol. 84, p. 308 (1923-4); (15) W. S. Adams, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sct. (July 1925); (16) M. N. Saha, Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. 99, Sci. A, p. 135 (1921); (17) W. S. Adams, etc., Astrophys. Jour., vol. 53, p. 13 (1921); (18) H. Shapley, Astrophys. Jour., vol. 40, p. 448 (1914); (19) A. S. Eddington, Monthly Notices, vol. 79, pp. 2, 177 (1919); (20) A. S. Eddington, bid., vol. 77, p. 4 (T911); A. S. Eddington and W. E. L. Hartley, tbid., vol. 75, p. 521 (1915); (21) K. Schwarzschild, Göttinger Nachrichten (1907-8); (22) Oort, Bull. Ast. Inst. Netherlands, No. 23; (23) L. Boss, Astron. Jour., No. 604 (Sept. 25 1908); (24) Van Rhijn, Groningen Pub., No. 27; (25) H. Shapley, Astrophys. Jour., vol. 48 (1918); (26) J. S. Plaskett, Monthly Notices, vol. 84, p. 80 (1923-4). For astrophysical problems two up-to-date books are available— F. J. M. Stratton, Astronomical Physics (1925) and H. Dingle, Modern Astrophysics (1926). Other books relating to various branches of the subject that may be found useful are: A. S. Eddington, Stellar Movements and the Structure of the Universe (1914); R. G. Aitken, The Binary Stars (1918); J. H. Jeans, Problems of Cosmogony and Stellar Dynamics (1919); S. Newcomb and R. Engelmann, Populäre Astronomie (6th German ed., 1921); H. S. Jones, General Astronomy (1922); C. H. Payne, Stellar Atmospheres (1925); A. S. Eddington, Internal Constitution of the Stars (1926). For technical information as to the nebulae, Lick Obs. Pub., vol. 13 (1918) should be consulted. (A. S. E.)

ATHENS (sce 2.831).—In spite of continual war between 1912 and 1922, Athens has progressed in every way since 1910, As the seat of government, it is also the focus of society, politics and trade. Its port, Piraeus, the best equipped and principal harbour of Greece, is the terminus of the railway and steamship lines, and the mart for all imports and exports. As new quarters have been laid out to accommodate the rapid growth of population, and the refugees from Asia Minor, Athens now extends all round the base of Mount Lycabettus. Outlying parts, such as Patésia and Pangrati, have enormously increased, and suburbs such as Kēphisia, Marousi, Phalēron and Kallithea have much expanded. New Discoveries.—lts museums make Athens an art centre of the first rank, and its monuments always provide fresh material for our knowledge of Hellenic culture. The constant study, which scholars of all nations devote to the Acropolis, takes practical shape in such work as the re-erection of fallen portions of the Erechtheum, Propylaea and Parthenon. Recent discoveries show that the Odeum of Pericles was a rectangular hypostyle building and not circular, as formerly supposed, and that the seats of the Theatre of Dionysus in its earliest form were In straight lines. An accident revealed two archaic sculptured bases built into a later wall, perhaps that of Themistocles, not far from the Dipylon. These, which still retain some of their original colouring, are sculptured with chariot groups and athletic scenes. In their freshness and simplicity they are charming examples of archaic Attic art. So the excavation of the Agora, now planned by the Americans, may well lead to most important results. The area to be cleared, which is bounded on the west by the Temple of Hephaestus, on

the east by the Horologium of Andronicus, and on the north by the Stoa of Attalus and the Library of Hadrian, is now covered by narrow streets and small houses, many of which date from Turkish times. When Greece became free, Ross, the first head of the Department of Antiquities, proposed that this should be reserved, and, when excavated, become a public park. Round the Agora were colonnades, the Stoa Basileios and the Painted Stoa which had frescoes of the battle of Marathon, the Temple of the Mother of the Gods and other shrines. Public buildings here were the Bouleuterion, or Senate House, the Prytaneion, the centre of state hospitality, and the Tholos,

254

ATHLETICS

or round building. Monuments and statues of all kinds, commemorating distinguished citizens or foreigners and great events, were erected among them, and also inscriptions with official records and accounts. The discovery of one of these buildings, with its art treasures and original documents, for Greek history would be an event of first-rate importance. (A. J.B. W.) ATHLETICS (see 2.846).—The London Olympiad of 1908 may well be regarded as marking the commencement of a fresh athletic era throughout the world. It is worthy of note that the United States, in pursuit of a progressive policy, has always at once included in the Amateur Athletic Union and InterCollegiate championship programmes any new event which might be added to the Olympic syllabus. The English Amateur

Athletic Assn. CA.A.A.), on the other hand, for many years ignored such events as Throwing the Javelin, Discus and 56 Ib. Weight and the Hop, Step and Jump, and allowed to fall into disuse, through lack of encouragement and competition, such excellent exercises as Pole Vaulting, Shot Putting and Hammer Throwing, and gave but little more attention to High and Long Jumping and Hurdling. In roro the English Amateur Field Events Assn. (A.F.E.A.) was formed and authorised by the A.A.A. to hold championships. By 1914 the purpose of the A.F.E.A. had been fulfilled, for in that vear the A.A.A. incorporated In its championship programme the Javelin, Discus, Hop, Step and Jump and the 440 Yards Low Hurdles, but even then these events were not taken as seriously as the others.

Fifth Olympiad.— Meanwhile the holding of the Fifth Olympiad (1912) had been allotted to Stockholm and the Swedes had recalled from America that great athletic coach, Ernie Hjertberg, to make ready a national team. Finland, also, had produced a great distance runner in Hannes Kole shmainen, and a set of magnificent heavy weight field events men, such as Saaristo, Taipale and Niklander, while France had come into prominence with Jean Bouin, a world’s record holder, who was, however, beaten by Kolehmainen in both the 5,000 and 10,000 Metres races. Germany, too, gained prominence with Rau, the sprinter, and Braun, the middle distance runner. It is significant that at the Stockholm Olympiad the United States finished first with a total of 85 points, Finland second with 29 points, Sweden third with 27 points and Great Britain fourth with 13 points. American athletes were again in the ascendant, but with their supremacy challenged by Finland and Sweden. Finland, Sweden, Norway and Denmark had now become definitely athletic countries, while France, Germany and the lesser European nations, such as Italy, Belgium and Holland, were all showing steady progress toward national athletic efliciency. More International Matches—About this time, too, the custom of holling international athletic matches became popular. Most notable of all these, perhaps, is the Scandinavian Landskamp, in which Norway, Sweden and Denmark mect annually at Oslo, Copenhagen and Stockholm in rotation. France, too, entered the international arena with matches with Sweden and Belgium, and Great Britain began to hold a triangular international in which England, Ireland and Scotland met annually. The other European nations in meeting each other contest practically the whole of the Clympic programme, whereas from England's match with France are excluded such important events as Javelin Throwing, Pole Vaulting and the Low Hurdies, and in the case of the British triangular international the Discus is also omitted. In any comparison of international prowess in field events it is only fair to note that neither Discus nor Javelin Throwing is practised at Oxford and Cambridge, and the Hammer Throwing event has been abandoned, while these events are regular features at all American and foreign schools, colleges and universities. The War Paige nies Stockholm came the World War, which prevented the Sixth Olympiad, although a vast stadium had been built to house it at the Grunewald, Berlin. Many

doubtless thought that in those strenuous years all sport must

come to an end. This was not to be. Alva Kranzlein, the American sprinter-hurdler-jumper, had returned to Germany, the land of his forefathers, to make ready the German Olympic team, and in Germany or Holland he stayed throughout the War, laying the foundations of a great athletic future for those nations. He was probably the first person to discover, in the internment camp at Gravenhaag, Holland, the potentialities of H. F. V. Edward, the West Indian, who won so many A.A.A. championship titles. In England championships were abandoned from 1914 to t1ot9. Athletic meetings of a sort continued to be held under an unofficial general amnesty, which allowed pure amateurs and those soldiers who had forfeited their amateur status to compete together. In Great Britain the London Athletic Club contrived to carry on the Public Schools Sports Meeting right through the War, thus assuring for Great Britain the nucleus of a fine supply of athletes of international standing when the days of war should be ended. Education of Athictes Here, one may pause to draw attention to the splendid movement now in progress all over the world for the better athletic education of boys at school. In the United States the universities and colleges, as well as every school of any standing, have their properly qualified athletic coach. Inter-university, inter-collegiate and inter-school athletic meets are exceptionally popular, and the same may be said of the Scandinavian and many other European nations. France, in particular, has established a Ministry of Sport. In Scotland interscholastic championships have long been in vogue. In England the Public Schools Sports Meeting and also the Public Schools Relay Meeting, the latter under the auspices of the Achilles Club, are both established fixtures, and there is now an InterSchools Athletic Assn., which, for the first time, held championships in 1925. The Public School Athletic League of New York, organised in 1906, annually has between 7 and 8 thousand boys compete in its championships, all on one day. It isa usual thing to have between 2,500 and 3,000 boys compete in the indoor elementary championships each year. But in no country, save possibly the United States, is there to be found anything approaching the Swedish Schoolboys Athletic Week, held annually in Stockholm, to which city school teams journey from every part of Sweden. The War Period Again.—To revert, however, to the War period. The United States, unaffected by the struggle in its early stages, and Sweden,

Norway

and Denmark,

which

coun-

tries maintained their neutrality throughout this time of strife, forged rapidly ahead. In rors at Cambridge, Mass., Norman 5. Faber placed upon the books a new amateur mile world’s record of 4 min. 122% see., which, at last, eclipsed the professional mile time of W. G. George, who, in 1866, covered the distance,

in his match

with

W. Cummings

at L illy Bridge, in

4 min. 12} seconds. Taber's race was the forerunner of a great many record-breaking performances. :

In r916 at Evanston, U.S.A., R. I. Simpson brought the 120 Yards High Hurdles record dev n to 14% sec., owing to certain

modifications he made in the, then, accredited style of hurdling, and in 1920 a young Canadian, Earl Thomson, who had served in the Roval Air Force, still further reduced the record time to 142% seconds. Two of the most noteworthy achievements of the War period were the performances accomplished in 1916 by J. E. Meredith (U.S.A.), who set up new world’s records for the Quar ter Mile, which he ran in 4726 sec., and the Half Mile run inr min. D 5 seconds. At Magdeburg in ror3, incidentally, A. R. Taipale F inland) threw the Discus 158 ft. rı inches., This performance is duly recognised in Scandinavia, but has never been passed by the International Amateur Athletic Federation; otherwise it would stand as the world’s record. Shortly after the signing of the Armistice a great Inter- Allied Military Athletic Meeting took place in the Pershing Stadium at Paris. Of signal importance at this time was the step taken by the authorities of the British services, who decided that the preWar custom of rewarding athletic proficiency among soldiers and sailors by money prizes must forthwith cease. An inter-

ATHLETICS services meeting was held in rọrọ, at which some of Great Britain’s Dominion soldiers, not yet demobilised, proved clearly that the Dominions themselves would hold a strong hand at the next celebration of the Olympic Games. It is interesting to note that even after the United States had entered the World War, the National A.A.U. championships were not abandoned, whereas, in Great Britain, no championship meetings took place between ror4 and rgro. Peace Conditions Return.—In the year of the restoration of the A.A.A. championships the governing body again elected to omit certain of the ficld events from the programme; nor have they since insisted upon the inclusion of these events, which score, equally with the track events at the Olympic Games, in such important contests as the triangular international between England, Scotland and Ireland, the annual match between England and France, and the inter-county championships. The governing body in1o25 decided to abandon the English National Championships, after they had been held for only three years, and were just beginning to produce a really satisfactory crop of fine young English exponents of these field events. The A.A.A. championships are open to the whole world and hitherto Great Britain has always been outclassed at the A.A.A. championships proper in the majority of field events In Great Britain the sterling post-War work of the Oxonians, A.N.S. Jackson and B.G. D. Rudd, coupled with the exertions of

the Cambridge men, P. J. Baker, G. M. Butler, R. S. Woods and W. R. Seagrove, was responsible for inducing university athletes

255

British Empire. This match has evidently come to stay, since it was repeated in London in 1924, aiter the celebration of the Eighth Olympiad at Paris. In ro21 the International Amateur Athletic Federation hell an important congress at Geneva. New rules for international competitions were passed and the Olympic programme at last standardised. The years that followed the Antwerp Olympiad were years of wonderful progress. This is conclusively proved by the existing world’s records | Running.—In roo6 the 100 Yards record of 934 sec. was estab-

lished.

This record was equalled in 1922 by the Canadian, C.

Coaffee, while C. W. Paddock, U.S.A., has also, upon several occasions, covered the distance in that time. Paddock has also, in 192r and 1924, run 220 yards in 204% sec., thereby establishing himself as the greatest sprinter the world has ever seen. ‘Taber’s mile record, to which reference has already been made, was, in 19023, quite eclipsed by the Finnish phenomenon, P. Nurmi, who, in a race at Stockholm, beat the great Swede, Edvin Wide, ina mile race run in 4 min. 1025 seconds. From one mile up to ro miles the records are about evenly divided between Nurmi and

Alfred Shrubb. Earl Thomson still holds the palm among high hurdlers, but the 220 Yards Low Ilurdles record of 231% sec. was made by C. E. Brookins (U.S.A.) in 1923, and that of 5345 sec. for the 440 Yards Low Ilurdles by I. H. ‘Taylor in 1925. Jumping—In jumping the most marvellous improvements have been made. Old-time sportsmen still remember the amazement that was felt when, in 1876, M. J. Brooks of .Oxford University accomplished a high jump of 6 ft. 25 in., and again in 1893 when that other great Oxonian, C. B. Fry, created a world’s long jump record of 23 [t. 6} inches. The latter performance was totally eclipsed by the Irishman, P. J. O’Connor, who, in roo, cleared 24 ft. 11} inches, Credit for the subsequent improvement in jumping belongs to America. Taking the High Jump first, it must be remembered that in 1895 M. J. Sweeney (U.S.A.) cleared 6 ft. 5% in., and that by ro2z an Englishman, B. Howard Baker, had cleared 6ft. 5 inches. In the meantime, however, George Horine, a young undergraduate of Leland Stanford University, California, had evolved an entirely new method of jumping, styled the “western roll,” by which, in r9r2, he cleared the height of 6 ft. 7 inches. In 1914, however, Edward Beeson, another American, reached 6 ft. 5. in., and even this has been exceeded by yet another American, H. M. Osborne, who, in 1925, jumped 6 ft. 83 in.; this was no fluke performance, for he has, time and again, gone within an ace of beating even this stupendous record. From the beginning of the present century, when O’Connor set the world's Long Jump record at a quarter of an inch short

to take a healthy interest in open competitions generally, and championship meetings in particular, outside the limited scope of their own university Sports. In 1919 the Inter-University Athletic Board of Great Britain and Ireland was constituted, comprising the universities and university colleges of Aberystwith, Bangor, Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Durham, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Nottingham and Shefūeld; other universities have since joined the movement. At these provincial universities the whole of the Olympic events are practiscd, and year by year the records, especially in the field events, improve. Serenih Olympiad.—It was decided to hold the Seventh Olympiad at Antwerp in 1920, partly as a tribute to the Belgian people for the part they had played in the War, but principally in order that the true Clympic cycle might not be interrupted. There was a great outcry that the war-worn nations were not yet sufficiently recovered to participate in such a festival. P. J. Baker, Cambridge University, was appointed captain of Great Britain’s athletic team; the whole Olympic side came of 25 ft., it was a fruitful source of discussion as to whether such under the control of Brig.-Gen. R. J. Kentish, C.M.G., D.S.0., a jump could be made again and even 25 ft. possibly be beaten. and the British team won golden opinions in Antwerp. Great At Stockholm in r9r2 Albert Gutterson (U.S.A.) only just failed to Britain did better in actual competition at this Olympiad than reach O’Connor’s mark, his actual jump measuring 24 ft. 11% she had ever done at any previous celebration of the Games. inches. Early in 1920 the United States began to produce a crop of Notable victories were gained by A. G. Hill in the 800 and 1,500 most amazing negro jumpers. Sol Butler is said to have beaten Metres, by B. G. D. Rudd, the Oxonian, representing South os ft., but the record never went on the books. In rọ2r, howAfrica, who won the 4oo Metres, and by Percy Hodge, who ever, B. O. Gourdin, Harvard University, actually Jumped 25 broke the world’s record in the 3,000 Metres Steeplechase. The British team succeeded also on this occasion in winning the ft. 3 inches. Shortly after this, yet another negro, de Hart Hubbard, repeatedly beat 25 ft. and in exbibitions cleared 25 ft. 4 in.; 1,000 Metres Relay Race. being exhibitions, however, these jumps did not stand as records. At the conclusion of the Antwerp Games the United States was first, Finland second, Sweden third and the British Isles At the Paris Olympiad de Hart Hubbard pulled a muscle and, fourth, the same order as appertained at the conclusion of the although winning the competition at 24 it. 57% in., was far below his best form, and it was left to R. Legendre, a white Stockholm Games, but in the other positions there was a marked difference. France, for example, eighth at Stockholm, was now “American, who was competing in the Pentathlon, to carry the fifth, while Italy had moved up from the eleventh to the sixth world's record ån to 25 ft. 58 inches. Since then de Hart Hubplace. America’s strength lay in the sprints, hurdles, relay races bard has attained his ambition by clearing 25 ft. 10% inches. For many years it was believed impossible that a pole vaulter and jumps. Finland gained honours across country, in the would ever beat 13 feet. At Antwerp in 1920, however, I’, Foss middle distance races and the throwing events. Sweden scored (U.S.A.) accomplished 13 ft. 5 in. in a downpour of rain, and in heavily through the magnificent team work of her men, and 1922 Charles Hoff, of Norway, at Copenhagen cleared 13 ft. 6 Italy came into prominence by the fine walking of Ugo Frigerio. Further proof of the taste which the public was acquiring for inches. Again at Copenhagen, a year later, the same athlete international competition was exemplified immediately after cleared 13 ft. o3 inches. It was confidently anticipated that Hoff would beat 14 ft.at the Paris Games, but just prior to the Olymthe Games by the match between France, Sweden and the United States, which took place in Paris, and that even greater match at piad of 1924 he broke his ankle and so could not compete. In Queen’s Club, London, between the United States and the 1924 it was reported that R. E. Spearrow (U.S.A.) had, at Tokio,

256

ATHLETICS

cleared the amazing height of 13 ft. ro} inches. This record has not yet been accepted, but at Abo in 1925 Hoff, the Norwegian champion, actually cleared 13 ft. 1143 inches. It is significant that nations that have hitherto been considered non-athletically disposed, such as the South American peoples and the Japanese, are really taking seriously to sport. At the Olympic Games at Paris in 1924, for instance, when A. W. Winter, New Zealand, set up a new world’s Hop, Step and Jump record of so ft. 1133; in., L. Bruneto, of Argentina, was second at so ft. 74 in., which easily beat the previous Olympic record, while M. Oda, Japan, was sixth at 46 ft. 9 inches. Weight Putting—The world’s record for Putting the 16 lb. Shot has stood at 51 ft. to the credit of Ralph Rose (U.S.A.}, since 1909, but has since been closely approached, both by other Americans and by Finnish and Swedish men. The record of 189 ft. 64 in. for Throwing the 16 lb. Hammer was created in 1913 by P. Ryan (U.S.A.) and has never since been seriously challenged. It is interesting to note, however, that the Javelin Throwing record which, in 1908, stood to the credit of E. V. Lemming, Sweden, at 179 ft. 105 in., was raised to 216 ft. 102 in. by J. Myrra, Finland, in rọrọ, and again eclipsed, with a throw of 218 ft. 7{ in., by H. Lindstrom, Sweden, in 1924; this thrower has since done 221 ft., which record has not, however, been accepted by the International Amateur Athletic Federation. Still more interesting is it to note that, in 1924, the British thrower, J. Dalrymple, accomplished 186 ft. 5 in., while a number of Americans have exceeded 200 ft. and the Frenchman, Degland, has beaten 190 feet. From ror2 until 1925, the world’s official Discus Throwing record of 156 ft. 13 in. was held by J. Duncan

(U.S.A.). In Sept. 1924 Thomas J. Lieb (U.S.A.) broke this record with a throw of 156 ft. 24 inches. Clarence “ Bud”

Houser (U.S.A.), the Olympic shot and discus champion, has bettered 158 ft. twice in 1925. This performance was closely approached upon several occasions by the two Finnish throwers, Taipale and Niittymaa, and has been eclipsed by Glenn Hartranft (U.S.A.), who, on May 2 1925, reached 157 ft. 1% inches. Marathon Running —Marathon running, at the oflicial distance of 26 m. 385 yd., is an event competed for but once or twice annually in any country, by reason of the strain imposed upon the runners. But here again a great improvement has taken place during the decade 1915-25. In r908 Dorando Pietri, the little Italian waiter, ran from Windsor to London in 2 hr. 54 min. 462g seconds. At Stockholm in ror2 the course was only about 25 m. and the time taken by the winner, K. K. McArthur, South Africa, was 2 hr. 36 min. 544¢ seconds. At Antwerp, however, the full course was covered and the race won

by H. Kolehmainen, Finland, in 2 hr., 32 min. 3546 seconds. In 1924 numerous Olympic trials were held in the United States and one of these was won by Clarence de Mar, in what must be considered world’s record time of 2 hr. 29 min. 40% seconds. The actual Paris Marathon was won by A. O. Stenroos of Finland in 2 hr. 4t min. 2235 sec., R. Bertini, Italy, being second, and Clarence de Mar, United States, third. Cross Couniry—It has been said that the home of cross country running is England and to this form of recreation the country owes the long-continued successes of so many of her men in the middle distances upon the track. Englishmen have, however, to-day found serious rivals in this branch of sport in the French teams that annually visit the country, in the Finns who

have always beaten them at the Olympic Games, and also in the United States, where the cult of cross-country running has obtained a firm hold. Switzerland, too, is becoming a recognised force in international competition. At the Paris Olympiad in 1924 J. Imbach for a brief space held a new world’s 400 Metres

record, while P. Martin, Switzerland, finished second to D. G. A. Lowe, Great Britain, in the 800 Metres, and W. Scharer,

Switzerland, was second to P. Nurmi, Finland, in the 1,500 Metres. Walking —Walking is a sport which has had a certain vogue in Great Britain, America and Canada, but which is more en-

thusiastically practised in Italy than elsewhere. The great days of walking in England were those in which G. E. Larner, a

Brighton policeman, and G. J. Webb, who had been both sailor and soldier, were completely unbeatable at the 1908 Olympiad, in which they took first places in both the 3,500 Metres and the ro Miles walking events.. Before the Stockholm Olympiad, Larner had retired and it fell to Webb to uphold England’s honour at 10,coo Metres, the only walk included in the programme. Webb, however, was beaten by G. H. Goulding of Canada, but finished ahead of E. L. Altimani, of Italy. At Antwerp in 1920 the Britishers were completely outclassed by Ugo Frigerio, who won both the 3,000 and 10,000 Metres events, and also by the two men from the dominions, G. L. Parker (Australia) and C. C. McMaster (South Africa), as well as by the two Americans, R. F. Remer and J. B. Pearman. At Paris, in 1924, England

again suffered defeat, Frigerio finishing first in

the 10,000 Metres Walk, followed by G. R. Goodwin (Great Britain), C. C. McMaster (South Africa) and hbis fellow Italian, D. Pavesi. The world’s walking records are as follows: G. E. Larner (Great Britain), 2 to 6 Miles and 8 and ọ Miles, and G. H. Goulding (Canada), Half Mile, 1 Mile and 7 Miles. All other records from 11 to 25 m. are held by British walkers. At the Eighth Olympiad held in Paris in 1924, at which nearly 2,000 athletes representing 45 different nations took part in the track and field events, the United States, in 27 events, scored 12 first places, made 5 of the g new world’s records and established 2 of the 5 new Olympic records, while one of the two marks, equalling previous Olympic records, was also established by an American. Of the other countries Finland scored 9 first places, Great Britain 3, New Zealand 1 and Italy r. Athletics in Great Briiain.—In America, Scandinavia, on the European continent and even among the coloured races of the world, athletic progress of an amazing kind is taking place from year to year, but up to 1925 it seemed certain that Great Britain must fall so far behind as to be at last forced to abandon the struggle altogether. The difficulty, however, was overcome when it was realised that hitherto British athletic sport had been too individualistic to appeal to the British sporting spirit. The decentralisation of authority was decided upon and county amateur athletic associations began to come into being throughout the country. The essence of the county administrative scheme js found in

the internal management of the sport by counties within their own areas, inter-county contests being an essential adjunct to the movement. At present Bedfordshire, which county held matches in 1925 with the London Athletic Club and the University of London A.C., has probably achieved the most signal progress. In this connection it may be stated that England has for years past been divided into northern, midland and southern areas for administrative purposes, and that the furtherance of the county scheme lies at present entirely in the hands of the south, a circumstance strongly resented by the northern and midland districts.

In 1025 the first English Inter-County Relay and Team Athletic Championship, for the trophy presented by the Achilles Club, was held at Stamford Bridge, London; and Middlesex proved the winner. The position, however, was an entirely unsatisfactory one. The fatal policy of booming certain events at the expense of others was once again fully in evidence, such events as Hammer, Discus and Javelin Throwing, the Pole Vault, Hop, Step and Jump, and the 440 Yards Low Hurdles being excluded from the programme. The result was that Bedfordshire, exceptionally strong in the field events and hurdles and several other counties refused to take part in championships which were not considered fully representative of English athletic sport. A pronouncement was made subsequently that the championship programme would not be in any way augmented in 1926. Consequently the midland counties, comprising Bedfordshire, Gloucestershire, Leicestershire, Shropshire and Staffordshire, for the time being, abandoned all thought of taking part in the inter-county championships. The north also, although possibly from different motives, refused to have anything to do with the county scheme. In deference to the views of the counties, however, it was finally agreed to include Pole Vault and

ATLANTA—ATMOSPHERIC Throwing the Discus, but this still leaves Hammer and Javelin Throwing outside the scheme. The essential fact is that, up to 1906, the Amateur Athletic Assn., which is the governing body of the sport in England, has been unable to establish any liaison with the English Public Schools, which should prove the great recruiting ground for future Olympic Teams. On the other hand, the counties, by reason of their more personal local contact, have in one year begun to till this field, as is witnessed by the number of schoolboys who gained their county athletic colours during 1925, and the far greater number of school authorities who sought the advice and assistance for coaching schools for the annual sports, of old champions and other experts. Women as Athletes —One aspect of international athletics still remains. It is the surprising degree of efficiency which women are attaining in this particular phase of sport. Long before the War women’s colleges in the United States recognised and practised track and field athletics keenly and also kept records; but it was only during, and to a greater extent since, the War that British, French, Czechoslovakian and Belgian girl athletes took up athletics seriously. Mrs. Sophie Eliott-Lynn, whose sporting record ranges from big game hunting to aviation, and Mrs. VY. Cambridge, have been the prime movers in Great Britain and their efforts have been ably seconded by Messrs. Lyons’ Ladies’ A.C., the London Olympiades and the Middlesex Ladies’ Athletic Club. It may be said, indeed, that the women’s athletic movement started in England and has spread outwards. As was natural, the records remained chiefly in the hands of English girls during the first years following upon the inception of the scheme. Championships, international matches and a great international festival, akin to the men’s Olympic Games, are now held annually; performances are improving and records being broken week by week. In 1924 a team of Czechoslovakian girls met and was defeated by an English team. In 1925 the interest of this international match was greatly enhanced by the arrival in London of a team of Canadian girls. l Before the triangular international meeting in 1925 between Great Britain, Canada and Czechoslovakia the world’s records stood as follows:

100

Yards,

Metres, E. Edwards

Sabie and F. Batson

Rose

Thompson

(England) (America)

(England)

34 sec.;

143% sec.;

11%

100 Yards

sec.;

Hurdles,

250

G.

440 Yards, V. Palmer

(England) 61 3¢ sec.; 880 Yards, M. Lines and É.Trickey (England) 2 min. 263% seconds. Records in the throwing events represent the best right and left hand throws added together and are as follows: Putting the 8 Ib. Shot, V. Morris (France) 68 ft. 11 in.; Throwing the Javelin, Mlle. Vidlakova (Czechoslovakia) 161 ft. 24 in.; Throwing the 3} Ib. Discus (best hand only), V. Morris (France) 98 ft.; High Jump, Phyllis Green (England) 5 ft.; Long Jump, Mlle. Mejzlikova (Czechoslovakia) 17 ft. 414 inches. At the women’s international held at Stamford Bridge, London, on Aug. 1 1925, Miss E. Trickey (England) set up a new half mile women’s world record of 2 min. 24 sec., while Miss V. Palmer, also of the English team, beat the world’s record in the 250 Metres, distance she ran in 334% seconds.

which

This movement, which was almost purely British in its original conception, is now gaining a true international vogue, and, towards the end of 1925, a team of British girl athletes journeyed to Scandinavia for the purpose of assisting at the inauguration of a Swedish Women’s Amateur Athletic Assn. and also took part in an inter-

national meeting at Stockholm. (See OLympic GAMES.) BIBLioGRAPHY.—J. A. Mussabini, The Complete Athletic Trainer (1913); F. A. M. Webster, Olympian Field Events (1913); Evolution

of the Olympic Games (1914); Success in Athletics (1919); W. R.

Seagrove, Notes on Athletics (1922); F. A. M. Webster, Throwing (1922); Athletic Records to Date (1922); Jumping (1922); C. E. Hammett and C. L. Lundgren, Hew to be an Athlete (1923); J. A.

Mussabini, Track and Field Athletics (1924); Alec Nelson, Practical Athletics and how to Train (1924); J. F. Rogers, Athletics for Women

ELECTRICITY

257

The value of its manufactured products was $33,083,000 in 1909; $113,992,000 In 1919; $122,284,262 in 1923. Leading industries within the corporate limits (1923) were printing and publishing, and the making of confectionery and ice cream, mattresses and bed springs, furniture, lumber and planing-mill products. Cotton-mills, fertiliser plants and numerous other industries were located near the city. Hydro electric power to the amount of 236,936,695 kilowatt hours was used in 1923. A steam heating plant, serving the central part of the business district through underground mains, evaporated 315,000,000 lb. of water in 1924. Atlanta has easily kept its position as the principal distributing point and financial centre of the southeast. The seat of a Federal Reserve Bank, it ranked 16th in bank clearings in 1924 ($2,895,571,045) and 21st in postal receipts ($3,408,368). In 1925 an average of 400 cars of merchandise and package freight Jeft the city daily. By 1925 large hotels and sky-scraper office buildings gave it a metropolitan appearance. The streets were overcrowded, and projects for widening some of them were under consideration. A city-planning commission, established in 1920, secured the adoption of a zoning ordinance in 1922. In 1921-2 a comprehensive survey of the public-school system was made, and plans were mapped out to meet anticipated needs as far ahead as 1940. Emory University, founded in 1914, and Oglethorpe University, originally located at Midway, but destroyed during the Civil War, and re-opened at Atlanta in 1916, are notable additions to the surrounding circle of educational institutions. On Stone Mountain, 16 m. east of Atlanta, a magnificent memorial to the Southern Confederacy was under construction in 1926. When completed a procession of over 700 gigantic figures carved in the bare granite will sweep across the precipitous mountain side for 1,300 feet. Under the central group will be quarried out a vast memorial hall, to serve as a depositary for records and relics of the Confederacy. , ATLANTIC CITY, N.J., U.S.A. (see 2.855).—Growing slowly

in permanent

population and the normal occupations of an

American city, Atlantic City continues to develop its unique position as an all-the-year-round playground for the nation and a favourite meeting-place for conventions. The permanent population in 1920 was 50,707, of whom 10,946 were negroes and 7,c09 foreign born; in 1925, according to the estimate of the census bureau, it was 53,287. This is increased to 300,000

in Aug. and it is estimated that there are 15,000,000 visitors in the course of a year. In 1925 there were about 1,000 hotels. The Atlantic City airport, dedicated in May ro19, was the first in the world. During the summer there is an aeroplane passenger service to New York. The Boardwalk, built of steel and concrete with a board flooring, 60 ft. wide in the central portion and extending 8 m. along the ocean front, is connected with six great recreation piers reaching out over the ocean for 1,000-2,500 ft. and lined with sumptuous hotels, shops and places of diversified amusement. The city issued bonds to the amount of $1,734,000 in 1924 for the purchase of a Convention Hall site bordering on the Boardwalk. In 1912 the commission form of government was adopted. ve ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY (sce 2.860).—Our knowledge of atmospheric electricity at the earth’s surface depends on data from comparatively few stations. Of the air we have only scanty

information from balloon observations. Thus any mean results put forward are exposed to much uncertainty. In the article in vol. ii., page 864, 125 volts per metre was accepted as a mean value P of the potential gradient at. ground level. This implies the presence on the ground of a negative charge whose density £ in electrostatic units (E.S.v.) is given by

surface

—4ng = P= 1-25/300=0-00416 Taking the earth as a sphere of radius 64 x 10’ cm., its entire

(1924); S. C. Staley, Games, Contests and Relays (1924); A. B. Wegener, Track and Field Athletics (1924); F. A. M. Webster,

negative charge is -0100416 X 4 x 107” E.S.v. or —56 x 104 cau-

of the southeast, had a population of 200,616 in 1920, an increase of 29:6% over 1910, of whom 62,796 were negroes and 4,738 foreign born; in 1925 (local estimate) it was 253,783. Its area was increased from 17-3 sq. m. in 1910 to 31°6 sq. m. In 1924.

lombs. The inference drawn (2.867) from the rapid fall in the potential gradient with increased height above the ground shown in balloon ascents was that an equal positive charge exists in the atmosphere, most of it in the lowest 4 kilometres. The charge at any spot on the earth is undergoing constant change. A vertical air-earth current is continually passing. This has been observed

Athletics (1925). ATLANTA, Ga., U.S.A.

(F. A. M. W.) (see 2.853), the commercial capital

:

ATMOSPHERIC

258

at only a few stations, and at most of them only during fine weather, and at one or two hours of the day. From these observations it has been inferred that the fineweather current is directed downward, and averages about 2 10°! amp. per cm*. Under a uniform current of this magnitude, the earth would receive in one second about 1,030 coulombs of positive electricity, and its entire negative charge, 1f unreplenished, would disappear in about nine minutes. A limited area on the earth may experience uninterrupted fine weather for weeks, and if it were an electricity tight unit, we should assume that it also received a liberal allowance of some very penetrating radiation which ordinary instruments do not record. We

know, however, that the earth is a conductor.

Thus the phenomena

might be accounted for if regions experiencing bad weather (during which potential gradient is often negative) received an excess of

negative electricity.

During bad weather, electricity passes between

the air and the earth in at least three ways.

There is an air-earth

current, carried as in fine weather by ions; there is electricity brought down by rain or snow and there is lightning. Our information as to these supplies will be discussed presently.

Besides the large rapid changes of local earth charge, associated with rain and lightning and the passing overhead of charged clouds, there are slower regular changes depending on the time of day and the season of the year. In Britain, potential gradient is higher in the evening than in the early morning, and higher in winter than in summer. If this held good everywhere, the charge on the earth as a whole might remain invariable (fine weather and bad weather effects balancing out), electricity passing between areas in which it is early morning and areas in which it is evening, and between areas where it is summer and areas where it is winter. But doubts are entertained as to whether the

phenomena in the southern and northern hemispheres are complementary, a maximum potential gradient having been observed in summer in some southern stations. The view has also been put forward that the diurnal variation at sea, of which our observational knowledge is very scanty, universal, not local time. Again results been supposed to show an increase in increasing sun-spot frequency. If these

is mainly dependent on from some stations have potential gradient with conclusions are correct, the charge on the earth as a whole would seem to have a diurnal, a seasonal and an 11-year period. A knowledge of the mean value of the potential gradient, therefore, is of fundamental importance, and here a serious difficulty at once presents itself. The earth’s surface is not in general, an unbroken level plain. In the hollows or in the immediate neighbourhood of trees, the potential gradient is inevitably lower than elsewhere. The’surface charge is not uniformly distributed. There is more of it on ridges than in hollows, and it exists on tree tops rather than on the ground underneath. But over an area of many square miles, under normal conditions, the charge should be at least approximately the same as if the surface were flat. What we really require to know is the potential gradient over a flat area making as close an approach as possible to an infinite plane. Also the potential must be measured in such a way that the presence of apparatus and observer is without effect. A suitable spot is hard to find near many stations, and the factor for reducing observed values to the infinite plane is seldom a quantity wholly above suspicion. In the case of many of the older data, no factor was applied, and the results are only

of relative value. A factor is known to have been applied in the case of the following selection of more recent values of potential gradient P:— og iets 4

TABLE Station

Eskdalemuir Potsdam Kew Davos Tortosa Samoa... Cape Evans

I.—Mean Potential Gradient for the Year Latitude

Period

55° N 52° N 51° N 47° N 41° N 14°S 73° 5

1912-22 1904-23 1913-23 1909-10

The above value for Potsdam

1911-23 1913-8 IQII-2

P (volts per metre)

256 203 333 64 108 115 87

is lower, and that for Kew

higher than the older values given in. 2.861 and 862.

This is

ELECTRICITY mainly, if not wholly, due to a revision of the reduction factors. The exceptionally low value at Davos, it is suspected, may arise partly from the position of the site of the absolute observations in a narrow valley. But, as a rule, we should expect imperfections in the site or in the method adopted to lead to too low a factor, and so to an underestimate of potential gradient. On the other hand, potential gradient data are mostly from fine weather days. An attempt to estimate the effect of this restriction at Kew was made for 1922. On the average day, means from the whole 24 hours and from the four hours 3h., oh., rsh. and ath., are closely alike. The electrograms were measured at these four hours on all days of complete trace, and the means so obtained were as follows: all days 271 volts per metre, occasions free from negative potential 293 volts per metre. The corresponding all day mean from selected fine days was 318 volts per metre. This suggests a reduction of some 15% if mean annual values at Kew were derived from all days instead of from selected fine days. At Kew during 1923, a fairly normal year, negative potential was recorded on 190 days, but its longest duration on any one day was 12°5 hours, and its total duration for the year only about 350 hours. Potential gradient seldom remains continuously negative for long. During rainfall, alternations of sign often occur, and during thunderstorms they are too large and rapid for the ordinary apparatus to follow accurately. Thus disturbed weather results are affected by considerable uncertainties. There are other sources of uncertainty. Few observatories are in sparsely peopled areas. Many are in or near large towns, where the atmospheric conditions suffer from by-products of civilisation, which unfortunately influence atmospheric electricity. The breaking up of water, whether by natural or artificial means, leads to a separation of electricity. Condensed steam usually carries a positive charge, and steam trains may exert a considerable influence on potential gradient. But there is another more widely spread influence, atmospheric pollution mainly due to smoke. In a smoky atmosphere (for example in Dublin, where special observations have been taken) light, mobile ions diminish, and heavy, slow-moving ions largely increase in number. The conductivity of the air tends to fall, and the potential gradient to rise. The practice at Kew Observatory is to derive mean values and diurnal inequalities of potential gradient from ro selected fine weather days a month. The 10 selected days of each month of the two years 1921 and 1922 were divided into a more dirty 5 and a less dirty 5. The mean amount of pollution in the atmosphere, as measured by the Owens pollution recorder, and the mean potential gradient, were calculated from the two groups of days separately, for the year as a whole, summer (May to Aug.) and winter (Nov. to Feb). Table II. gives the results, the pollution being in milligrammes per cubic metre and the potential gradient in volts per metre. TABLE

I1.—Potential Gradient on Days of Greater and Less Atmospheric Pollution

Class of Days

More dirty . Less dirty . Ideal (clean)

Year

Pollut.

Potent.|

0-491

343 252 155

0-254

Summer

Winter

Pollut. | Potent.!

Pollut. | Potent.

0:252 0-139

201 161 112

The results for the ideal clean day were calculated on the hypothesis that the increase of potential gradient due to pollution varies directly as the amount measured by the Owens recorder. The atmospheric conditions which promote air pollution at Kew, would possibly lead to enhanced values of potential gradient even if the atmosphere were pure. But it is hardly open to doubt that pollution has a direct effect. In 1921 when a prolonged coal strike led to an exceptionally clear atmosphere in England for several months, the mean value of the potential gradient at Kew was the lowest recorded for many years, being only 281 volts per metre, as against 315 volts per metre in 1920. and 318 volts per metre in 1922.

ATMOSPHERIC Sunspot influence, such as is prominent in the diurnal range of the magnetic elements, has been supposed by some to apply to the mean annual value as well as to the diurnal range of the potential gradient. A priori the result is probable enough, in view of the increased conductivity of the upper atmosphere which auroral and magnetic phenomena suggest at sunspot maximum. The normal way of investigating the existence of a sunspot influence on the mean yearly value Q of any quantity, is to apply Wolf's formula Q=a-+bS, where S is the sunspot frequency, or area, and a, and b constants,

to be determined from the observed values of Q by least squares. a is the value of Q when S vanishes, as it nearly docs at sunspot

minimum; b is positive or negative according as Q is greatest or least at sunspot maximum. In the average 11-year period the extreme value of S approaches 100; thus 100 b/a is a convenient measure of the importance of the sunspot influence. Any haphazard collection of figures will naturally give a finite value for b. To determine whether the sunspot influence is real or imaginary, we consider the size of the correlation coefficient r (regarded here as an essentially positive quantity, the sign of the correlation being shown by b). For perfect correlation r is unity, and unless r is a substantial fraction the correlation is unlikely to be real. Table III. gives some data obtained for recent periods of years. The only case in Table III. where r is as large as is usual in the case of the magnetic daily range, is that of the mean yearly value at Eskdalemuir. The values of 100 b/a are all small compared with those encountered in Terrestrial Magnetism, (g.v.). On the whole, the results for 1911-21 at the three stations favour a small 11-year variation in the mean annual value of potential gradient, with a maximum at sunspot maximum and a fourth station, Tortosa, not included in Table III. also favours this view. The small values generally obtained for r throw, however, doubt on the reality of the sunspot influence. If it is real and universal, as in the case of magnetism, it is clear from the Potsdam results that it may be masked

at individual stations by other causes. The verdict perhaps most in accordance with the facts is ‘‘not proven.”

2.861 contained a good many data for the annual variation of the potential gradient. Table IV. gives some more recent data in absolute measure. Under W/S is given the ratio bourne by the mean

value of the four winter months

(Nov. to Feb. in the

Northern Hemisphere, May to Aug. in the Southern Hemisphere) to the mean value of the four summer months. | All the five stations in the Northern Hemisphere show the maximum in winter, the minimum in summer. This is equally true of older data from these and a number of other northern stations. But the opposite phenomenon, according to B. Chauveau, has presented itself at one exceptionally high level station in France (Pic du Midi, 2,860 metres);though this is strongly opposed by the results at Davos, the phenomena on mountain summits want further investigation. For the Southern Hemisphere, results are conflicting. Only one year’s data are available for Buenos Aires, but unless it was an altogether exceptional year, winter is clearly the period of maximum. At Samoa, earlier data from 1906-8 placed the maximum clearly in winter, but these are now under suspicion. The Samoa data in Table IV. though derived from 6 years, depend really on only 40 months, there being many breaks in the record. The annual variation they TABLE

II.

Potsdam

Kew

Mean value of potential gradient

.

Eskdalemuir

.

Kew

TABLE

Eskdalemuir

Buenos Aires

Cape Evans

IV.—Annual

a

Eskdalemuir

Potsdam Kew Doi

i i Range diurnal inequality for year

Station

suggest is very trifling and uncertain, a result not improbable in itself in view of the low latitude. The observer at Cape Evans, Dr. G. C. Simpson, pointed out that the maximum appears in summer in all the observations taken in high southern latitudes, including Hut Point (78° south), Belgica Station (7r° south), Port Charcot (65° south) and Petermann I. (65° south), and expressed the opinion that “ the potential gradient in the Antarctic is higher in the summer than in the winter.” Some authorities have gone further, claiming that a maximum in summer is characteristic of the whole Southern Hemisphere. This seems, however, to be supported by results from only two stations outside the Antarctic, viz.: Cape Horn and Batavia. The observations at Cape Horn were of very limited duration, and at Batavia results for different periods, from different levels, appear about as conflicting as at Samoa. Older observations at Melbourne agree with those at Buenos Aires in placing the maximum in winter. The conclusion that the seasons influence the potential gradient in different directions in the two hemispheres, the maximum appearing in both near northern mid-winter, cannot be accepted as proved on existing evidence. It is a question obviously of fundamental importance. The diurnal variation of potential gradient at a number of stations is considered in detail in recent works by Chauveau and Mathias. The former, who has made a special study of the subject, thinks that the normal type of the diurnal variation makes a close approach to a single 24-hour wave, the maximum appearing in the evening, the minimum in the early morning. The double oscillation generally encountered, with minima in the early morning and early afternoon, he regards as largely the product of local disturbing causes, such as atmospheric pollution, trees, heating of the ground by the sun. The expediency of reserving judgment will appear on considering figs. 1 and 2. Results for Kew (1913-23) and Eskdalemuir (1912-22) appear side by side in fig. 1. Winter includes the four months Nov. to Feb., summer the four months May to August. The heavy horizontal lines answer to the mean values for winter, the whole year and summer. The Eskdalemuir winter curve suggests Chauveau’s ideal station. Its afternoon minimum and forenoon maximum are inconspicuous as compared with those at Kew. But the Eskdalemuir summer curve is of quite a different type. The morning minimum is hardly represented, and the afternoon minimum is more prominent even than the Kew one. Eskdalemuir is in an upland valley with pure air and few trees. Fig. 2 illustrates the effects of atmospheric pollution in an actual case. The curves show the diurnal variations for the year as a whole of potential gradient and atmospheric pollution at Kew. They are based on the two groups of more dirty and less dirty days of the two years 1921 and 1922, already described. The unbroken lines refer to the more dirty, the broken lines to the less dirty days. The line oo represents zero potential and zero pollution. The

Station

,

259

Values of Constants in Wolf's Formula

Nature of Q

i

ELECTRICITY

Period

a

b

100 b/a

ï

1904-23

1904-23

v/m 211 309

v/m —0:216 +-0°303

: —0-102 +0-098

-37

IQII-2I IQII-21

205 312

I9LI-21

IQI2-21 IQII~2I

“34

236

+0-440

+0-186

-83

IIO

+0-115

+0-105

25

152

—O-1I4

—0:075

—0:143 +0-444

— 0:069 +0-142

-46 56 -23

Variation of the Potential Gradient (volts per metre)

Period

1912-22 1904-23 1913-23 1908-10 1918-23 1913-8 I9I1-2 I9I1-2

1-68 2:07 2-0I I-31 0-98 1-57 0-82

ATMOSPHERIC

260

scales were so chosen that the horizontal lines representing the mean values for the more dirty group of days (viz., 343 vm and o.490 milligrams/metre*) come at the same level. The mean values for the less dirty group (252 v/m and 0.232 milligrams/metre 3) are also shewn by horizontal lines. With increased pollution there goes increased potential, and the diurnal variations of the two elements are of very similar type. But while the afternoon maximum and minimum of pollution become

Midf

&

Night Hours EE BAS

Mid-

18 MidHours = Night

Noon

6 Hours

Night

18 Hours

Noon

Mid-

Night

ELECTRICITY Schindelhauer had also continuous records. These three observers measured the results of two-minute falls. Baldit took 15-second falls, but his observations being taken by eye, are in one way less complete, while giving more minute details of individual cases. On some occasions, as observed at Dublin, the charge brought down by rain, especially by fine rain, may be of one sign for a considerable time. But in general, there are frequent changes of sign and continual changes of intensity. Thus even short intervals of time tend to give too low maximum rates. In Table V., A denotes the ratio of the duration of positively charged rain to the duration of negative, B the ratio of the total quantity of rain charged + to the total quantity charged —, C the ratio of the total positive charge brought down by rain to the total negative, D is the excess of positive over negative charge calculated for a total rainfall of 100 centimetres. TABLE Place

wn ee] |

E =ee

the lt ed TT tT | | en ier bc he Cl he ie loi alice me LT

ee de FO ibe eee OO

LE Ti CCITT eai nannaa oe

Eskdalemuir

Summer asses Vear =Wintel amma Fic. 1.—Graph comparing the Diurnal Variation of Potential Gradient at Kew and Eskdalemuir.

relatively less important as pollution diminishes, this is not true of potential gradient. The electricity brought down by rain or snow has been measured by the following amongst others: G. C. Simpson (Simla 1908-9), K. Kihler (Potsdam 1908), Schindelhauer (Potsdam 1909-11), A. Baldit (Puy-en-Velay 1910-11), McClelland and Nolan (Dublin 1911-2). Simpson obtained a complete record during the rainy seasons of two years. Kahler and Mid-

Night

&

Hours

48

Noon

Hours

Mid-

T

WM

“m:

EEAF

T

OTT

EEEH HTH

FTE:

600,

minigramsym:

THTT HHN TAN HOUN ON CETE EHHA AAA

o-se milligrams.

THEN

HHEH Bes KEN milligrams/m.> HEE A N i INO j

|

Eo TTIE HA

TT

ENTA

H ra HCTT Aton

Mid-

Night

A

TAN

T

TH S

eee

18

Hours

ETHE HHR HHHH HETAT

H

NST

V/m.

:

Noon

HETH

F

Manannan

200

&

Hours

AN

F

ua

Mid-

Night Night

i

LTE

H

4 TE

wT

sto

L HLEN H- H+

FH

LOT

CCS POT BA ae Pee

HH

AT

300g

milligramsym:

EERSTEN

TEREE RHAH EHE HEHE narenn? FEH HHT A Hetty

100

Ym

COT

FEA

ET

poet ey TT HE HEE PEETA o

H HPE TATT To: oa TTF nitigras fm HHT + HH HE HEET

Ceo

titit

Potential Gradient More dirty dayS «====

Ce

COOU

o

Atmospheric Pollution

Less dirty dayS =m == diurnal variations of potential the Fic. 2.—Graph illustrating Gradient and Atmospheric Pollution for a Year, at Kew.

Simla Potsdam

V.—Rainfall Electricity Data

Period | Kindof Rain|

1908-9 1908 1GOQ-TI Dublin . IQII- 12 Puy-en-Velay | 191I = . | I9II = IQII : Igil

jall ” y A s ordinary storms squalls

A

2°5

3-2 | 175 x 5-6 EE s t4 2-8 3-1 | 48 ! 29| .. 1-4 53 143123 1-7 | L5 | 12 ILI | 1-2 | ie

At Dublin, little if any of the rain that fell was accompanied by thunder. The observers at Potsdam and Puy-en-Velay drew a distinction between ordinary rain, with which they found a marked excess of positive charge, and thunderstorm or squall rain for which the excess of positive was trifling. Much of the rain at Simla was storm rain, and it was generally heavier than elsewhere, but it gave as marked an excess of positive as did ordinary rain. All the observers found the charge per cm’ of rain to be greatest in the lightest rains. In one 15-second fall at Puy-en-Velay, the charge per cm? was — 43.6 E.S.U. This formed part of a 5-minute fall for which as a whole the charge per cm? was —37.7 E.S.U. Negative charges exceeding 40 E.S.U. per cm? were observed at Potsdam on one or two occasions. The greatest positive charge per cm? observed was +26.7 E.S.U. at Puy-en-Velay. While the charge per cm’ tended to be greatest in light rains, the quantities of rain then occurring were so trifling that the largest vertical currents due to rain occurred during the heavy storm rain. At Puy-en-Velay, currents were measured of —1-10X 107? and + 1-05 1072 amp. /em2, and currents nearly, if not quite, as large were also observed at Simla. The figures supplied by Simpson give as the average current in amps. per cm? for the positively charged and the negatively charged rain, the respective values +41 X107% and —31X1074%, The corresponding figures for Puy-en-Velay are +20%1075 and —42 X107". No charge was recorded during some 40 per cent of the time of sensible rainfall at Simla. Allowing for this, the average current during sensible rainfall was at least 2X107 amp./cm?, or 100 times the ordinary iton-carried current in fine weather. The excess of positive charge observed at Simla was +15-1 E.S.U. per annum. This is sufficient to maintain the fair weather current, estimated at 2X107'§ amp./cm?, for 290 days. The excesses of positive electricity observed at Potsdam and Puy-en-Velay are much less, and considerable differences were observed at these stations at different seasons of the year. Also, while snow on the few occasions when it was observed at Simla brought with it a considerably larger positive charge than the corresponding amount of rain, the charges accompanying snow at Potsdam appeared to be small and predominatingly negative.

No simple explanation of thunder and lightning can be accepted without reserve. But there appears a general consensus of opinion that the theory proposed by Dr. G. C. Simpson is less open to criticism than any other. It depends essentially on the following facts: r. The velocity of raindrops falling through still air, increases with the size of the drop only up to a certain diameter. Drops of larger size tend to flatten and break up into smaller drops. 2. The breaking up is accompanied by the separation of electricity. 3. During thunderstorms there are in limited areas rapidly ascending air currents. It is inferred that when a larger drop falling through an ascending air current breaks up, the drops into which it breaks receive a positive

ATMOSPHERIC charge, the negative going to the air, and are carried up. They may unite and increase in size, fall and get broken up again. In this way a continual separation of charge may go on, until the potential is locally raised to the point at which a lightning stroke becomes possible. For information as to the changes of potential gradient during thunderstorms; we are indebted mainly to the work of C. T. R. Wilson at Cambridge and H. Norinder at Uppsala. Wilson’s method consists essentially in measuring the alterations in the

charge on a plate representing part of the earth’s surface. Norinder measures the potential difference between two insulated horizontal wires at different heights. Accompanying a flash of lightning there is a very rapid, if not quite instantaneous, change of potential gradient. Out of 864 flashes observed by Wilson 528, or 61%, were accompanied by a rise of potential gradient. Wilson supposes a thundercloud to consist essentially of a lower and an upper part, oppositely charged, the sign of the upper charge being usually positive. Supposing then a charge +Q, to be concentrated at a height He, and a charge —Q, at smaller height H, on the same vertical, we can calculate the potential from these charges and the image charges +Q: and —Q, at depths H.and H. From this potential, we easily obtain the following expression for the downwardly directed vertical

force at ground level 20.H.(FI2+ L?) i

20,Hi(H?+L?) ve

where L is the horizontal distance of the spot where the force is measured from the vertical line on which the charges are supposed collected. Immediately under the charges L vanishes and the force is given by

- 2(Q: Hi? — QaH2™) As H; considerably exceeds H, this is negative--implying a positive charge on the ground—unless Q» is much larger than Q.. At a distance L, large compared with He, the expression for the force becomes approximately 2 (QoHHae mas Q:H,) L-

This is positive unless Qı is considerably larger than Q. Thus at a large distance, the sign of the vertical force and the sign of the earth’s charge are the opposite of what they are immediately under the cloud. Supposing Qe positive, when lightning passes discharging the cloud, potential gradient will suddenly rise under the cloud, while at a large horizontal distance it will fall, the fall varying inversely as the cube of the distance. According to Wilson’s observations, the change of potential gradient does follow roughly the law of the inverse cube. Wilson’s theory does not give Q directly, but QH, where H is a sort of centre of gravity of the thunder cloud. Assuming H to be 2 km Wilson found Q to be on the average, about 20 coulombs. Supposing the value correct, the initial value of the current recharging the cloud must usually amount to several amperes. for a spark to pass in ordinary air at atmospheric pressure, a voltage of 30,000 v/cm is requisite. This would actually be found at the surface of an isolated sphere of 250 m. radius charged with 20 coulombs. The presence of the earth and the supposed bi-polarity of the cloud, of course complicate matters. Wilson observed changes of potential gradient of the order 1,000 v/m for flashes at ro km distance, and inferred they might be of the order 1roo,cco v/m under the centre of the cloud. Noriider has actually observed changes of potential gradient of 200,000 v/m. Under exceptionally high potential gradients, air tends to become ionised, and the presence of pointed objects like grass and leaves promotes discharge. Thus even when no lightning is passing or rain falling, the air-earth current may be abnormally large under thunderclouds. Recently C. E. P. Brooks, from a summary of thunderstorms at different parts of the earth, has calculated that over the earth as a whole, about 10o lightning strokes occur per second. If these were all of one sign, and each brought 20 coulombs to the earth, this would be equivalent to a vertical current of about 4X 1071! amp./em?. Many lightning strokes pass, however, between clouds, and a large minority according to Wilson bring down positive electricity. Thus lightning cannot safely be treated any more than rain as a

ELECTRICITY

261

negligible factor in the problem presented by the earth’s negative charge in fine weather. As to the other atmospheric electricity elements, in addition to the ions caught by the Ebert apparatus which have values of the order 1-5 cm/sec. for their mobilities (7.e., their velocities under a potential gradient of 1 v/cm), there are “ heavy” ions. These, having a mobility of only about zy of that of the light ions, are practically negligible so far as concerns the conductivity of the air and the air-earth current, unless their numbers much exceed those of the light ions. In or near large towns, judging by the large average number—16,000 per cm’—found in Dublin by

McClelland and Kennedy, heavy ions may play an important part. But in country districts, they seem no more numerous

than light ions. Thus the ordinary calculations of conductivity based on light ions alone should not be much in error. For the mean numbers m n of light positive and negative ions per cm*, as observed at a number of land stations, Chauveau gives 750 and 630 respectively. For the corresponding figures from sea observations—mostly by the surveying ship of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, Chauveau gives = 730, t= 580. The areas represented are so comparatively few that we can only

say that there is little if any difference between land and sea. If we take the value now accepted for the ionic charge 4:8X 1o7!, we obtain from Chauveau’s mean land values as the free

ionic charges positive and negative per cubic metre. E1=0:36 E.S.U.

E.=0-30 E.S.U.

If kı and ke are the mobilities, the air-earth current, assuming

the air without vertical velocity, is given by i= (k;

nı + ka ns)

eP

where e is the ionic charge, P the potential gradient per cm. This may be written i=AP, where A the conductivity is given by As Ait Ao with

A =

kinen A =

kenee.

dh, and Ae the so-called conductivities for positive and negative

ions are usually measured separately. If we suppose, as an example, m=#2= 500, and ki}=ko=1-5 v/cm=450 E.S.U., we have A=A\+A2=2X 500X450 4:8XK 1o-M= 2:2XK 1077 E.S.U. There are only a few stations where regular observations are made of A, and these are mostly at only one or two hours of the day. The following mean yearly values have been obtained for A and 7 A(E.S.U.)

Davos:

Hrly. Obs. . Potsdam: fIrly. Obs. . Tortosa: Obs. near 11 h.. . Val Joyeux: . . Obs. at gh., 13h., 17h.

I909-IO

ilamp/cm?)

Lyr.

2:68

I-71

I910-I

Tyr.

©Q5xIO™

2-37x107'

I918-23

6 yrs.

1-80

2-03

1924

Tyr.

1-43

1-57

Speaking generally, the diurnal and annual variations of N are in the opposite direction to those of potential gradient. At all the stations mentioned above A is largest in summer, and at Potsdam and Davos it is largest in the early morning, when P is least. The vertical fine weather current would seem to be a less variable clement than the others. The ionisation of the atmosphere has several possible sources, including y rays from radium and thorium in the ground, radioactive emanation in the air, photo-electric effects at the ground, ultra-violet light especially at higher levels, and penetrating radiation. The last-mentioned source has been demonstrated by experiments with closed vessels. Near the earth’s surface it is less over sea than over land, but still sensible. Over land, as we ascend, it diminishes at first according to the observations of Hess and Kothorster, but after attaining a minimum at a height of 500 metres or a little over, it increases again, attaining much higher values than near ground level. More recent observations made by R. A. Millikan confirm this increase, though making it considerably less than Kilhorster supposed. Millikan has found the radiation to include rays of different penetrating power, some much more penetrating than the hardest y rays. The source

of ihis radiation is still problematical.

262

ATOM

For references the reader is referred to the treatises by Chauveau

and Mathias described below. Chauveau's vol. 1 is entirely historical. The volume edited by Mathias has an elaborate bibliography at the end of each chapter, as well as a very full name index. L. A. Bauer, Terrestrial Magnetism, vol. 29, p. 23, etc.; B. Chauveau, Electricité Atmosphérique, in 3 vol.; G. C. Simpson, British Antarctic Expedition 1910-3 Meteorology, vol. 1, p. 312; E. Mathias Traité delectricité atmosphérigque et tellurique; G. C. Simpson, Phil. Trans. A. vol. 209, p. 405; C. T. R. Wilson, Phil. Trans. A. vol. ee DETA (C. CH.)

ATOM (see 2.870), Structural Units.—Through the experimental discoveries of the second half of the roth century it became gradually clear that the atoms of the elements, far from being indivisible entities, had to be. thought of as aggregates built up of separate particles. Thus from experiments on electrical discharges in rarified gases and especially from a closer study of the so-called cathode rays, one was led to recognise the existence of small negatively charged particles the mass of which was found to be about 2,000 times as small as the mass of the lightest atom, the hydrogen atom. These small particles, which may be regarded as atoms of negative electricity are now, following Johnstone Stoney, generally called electrons. Through the investigations of J. J. Thomson and others convincing evidence was obtained that these electrons are a constituent of every atom. On this basis a number of the general properties of matter, especially as regards the interaction between matter and radiation, receive a probable explanation. In fact the assumption that electrons are vibrating around positions of stable equilibrium in the atom offered a simple picture of the origin of spectral lines which allowed the phenomena of selective absorption and dispersion to be accounted for in a natural way. Even the characteristic effect of magnetic fields on spectral lines discovered by Zeeman could, as was shown by Lorentz, be simply understood on this assumption. The origin of the forces which kept the electrons in their positions remained for a time unknown, as well as the way in which the positive electrification was distributed within the atom. From experiments on the passage through matter of the high speed particles expelled from radioactive substances, however, Rutherford was in tori led to the so-called nuclear model of the atom. According to this the positive electricity is concentrated within a nucleus of dimensions very small compared with the total space occupied by an atom. This nucleus is also responsible for practically the whole of the atomic mass. True Properties of the Elements —The nuclear theory of the atom has afforded a new insight into the origin of the properties of the elements. These properties can be divided into two sharply distinguished classes. To the first class belong most of the ordinary physical and chemical properties. These depend on the constitution of the electron cluster round the nucleus and on the way in which it is influenced by external agencies. This, however, will depend on the attractive force due to the nucleus which keeps the cluster together. On account of the small size of the nucleus compared with the distance apart of the electrons in the cluster, this force will to a high approximation be determined solely by the total electric charge of the nucleus. The mass of the nucleus and the way in which the charges and masses are distributed among the particles making up the nucleus itself will only have an exceedingly small influence on the behaviour of the electronic cluster. To the second class belong such properties as the radioactivity of the substance. These are determined by the actual internal structure of the nucleus. In the radioactive processes we witness, in fact, explosions of the nucleus in which positive or negative particles, the so-called a and @ particles, are expelled with very great velocities. The complete independence of the two classes of properties is most strikingly shown by the existence of substances which are indistinguishable from one another by any of the ordinary physical and chemical tests, but of which

the atomic weights are not the same, and whose radioactive properties are completely different. Any group of two or more such substances are called isotopes (q.v.), since they occupy the same position in the classification of the elements according to

ordinary physical and chemical properties.

The first evidence of

their existence was found in the work of Soddy and other investigators on the chemical properties of the radioactive elements. It has been shown that isotopes are found not only among the radioactive elements, but that many of the ordinary stable elements consist of isotopes, for a large number of the latter that were previously supposed to consist of atoms all alike have been shown by Aston’s investigations to be a mixture of isotopes with different atomic weights. Moreover the atomic weights of these isotopes are whole numbers, and it is because the socalled chemically pure substances are really mixtures of isotopes, that the atomic weights are not integers. Inner Structure—The inner structure of the nucleus is still but little understood, although a method of attack is afforded by Rutherford’s experiments on the disintegration of atomic nuclei by bombardment with a particles. Indeed, these experiments may be said to have started a new epoch in natural philosophy in that for the first time the artificial transformation of one element into another has been accomplished (see TRANSMUTATION OF ELEMENTS). In what follows, however, we shall confine ourselves to a consideration of the ordinary physical and chemical properties of the elements and the attempts which

have been made to explain them on the basis of the concepts just outlined, TuE

RELATIONSHIPS

BETWEEN

THE

ELEMENTS

Periodicity of Elements.——It was recognised by Mendelejeff that when the elements are arranged in an order which is practically that of their atomic weights, their chemical and physical properties show a pronounced periodicity. A diagrammatic representation of this so-called periodic table is given in Table I., which represents in a slightly modified form an arrangement first proposed by Julius Thomsen. In the table the elements are denoted by their usual chemical symbols, and the different vertical columns indicate the so-called periods. The elements in successive columns which possess homologous chemical and phys-

ical properties are connected

by lines.

The meaning of the

square brackets around certain series of elements

in the later

periods, the properties of which exhibit typical deviations from the simple periodicity in the first periods, will be mentioned below. Radiation.—The

discovery of the relationship

between

the

elements was primarily based on a study of their chemical propTABLE

I.

19 K—37 R

1 H¢ 2Hex

7 N—15 P-\,8 O—16

S--m

9 Cu—47 Ag

‘9 F—17 C1830 Zn—48 Cd

0 Ne—18 A -i131 Ga—49 In

4i'32 Ge—50 Sn

4833 As—51 Sb 134 Se—52 Te "35 Br—53 I 136 Kr—54 X

ATOM erties. Later it was recognised that this relationship appears also very clearly in the constitution of the radiation which the elements emit or absorb in suitable circumstances. In 1883 Balmer showed that the spectrum of hydrogen, the first element in the table, could be expressed by an extremely simple mathematical law. This so-called Balmer formula states that the frequencies v of the lines in the spectrum are given toa close approximation by

v=R

(aa ay)

(1)

where R is a constant, and where n’ and n” are whole numbers. If n” is put equal to 2 and x’ is given successively the values 3,4, - . . the formula gives the frequencies of the series of lines in the visible part of the hydrogen spectrum. If n” is put equal to r and zx’ equal to 2, 3, 4, . . . a series of ultra-violet lines is obtained which was discovered by Lyman in torg. To #’’=3, 4, ... correspond series of infra-red hydrogen lines which also have been observed. Rydberg in his famous investigation of line spectra more than 30 years ago was able to analyse in a similar way many spectra of other elements. Just as in the case of hydrogen he found that the frequencies of a line-spectrum (such as that of sodium) could be represented by a formula of the type y= JT" —T’ (2)

where T”, T’ can be approximately represented by R

= (1 —ax) :

:

(3)

ax is a constant for any one series, but takes different values ai, a2... for the different series, while 1 takes a set of successive integral values. R is constant throughout for all spectra, and is the same constant as that appearing in (1); it is generally called the ‘“‘ Rydberg number.” In many spectra the terms of most series are multiple, i.e., the terms which we consider as forming a series do actually form two, three or more series corresponding to two, three or more slightly different values of ax. Rydberg also discovered that the spectra of elements occupying

homologous positions in the periodic table were very similar to each other, a similarity which is especially pronounces as regards the multiplicity of the terms. Moseley’s Discovery.—The study of X-ray speci made possible by the work of Laue and Bragg brought out relations of a still simpler kind between different elements. Thus Moseley (g.v.) in 1913 made the fundamental discovery that the X-ray spectra of all elements show a striking similarity in their structure, and that the frequencies of corresponding lines depend in a very simple way on the ordinal number of the element in the periodic table. Moreover like that of the hydrogen strongest X-ray lines for be given approximately

the structure of these spectra was very spectrum. The frequency of one of the the various elements could for instance by

y=N'R (4-5 and that of another line by

r=NR(3-7,)

(4)

lished by refined measurements of the nuclear charge, and it has proved itself an unerring guide in the study of the relationship between the physical and chemical properties of the clements. This law also offers an immediate explanation of the simple rules governing the changes in the chemical properties of radioactive elements following the expulsion of a or 8 particles. THE QUANTUM THEORY

The discovery of the electron and of the nucleus was based on experiments, the interpretation of which rested on applications of the classical laws of electrodynamics. As soon, however, as an attempt is made to apply these laws to the interaction of the particles within the atom, in order to account for the physical and chemical properties of the elements, we are confronted with serious difficulties. Consider the case of an atom containing one electron: it is evident that an electrodynamical system consisting of a positive nucleus and a single electron will not exhibit the peculiar stability of an actual atom. Even if the electron might be assumed to describe an elliptical orbit with the nucleus in one of the foci, there would be nothing to fix the dimensions of the orbit, so that the magnitude of the atom would be an undetermined quantity. Moreover, according to the classical theory the revolving electron would continually radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic waves of changing frequency and theelectron would finally fall into the nucleus. In short, all the promising results of the classical electronic theory of matter would seem at first sight to have become illusory. It has nevertheless been possible to develop a coherent atomic theory based on this picture of the atom by the introduction of the concepts which formed the basis of the famous theory of temperature radiation developed by Planck in rgoo. This theory marked a complete departure from the ideas which had hitherto been applied to the explanation of natural phenomena, in that it ascribed to the atomic processes a certain element of discontinuity of a kind quite foreign to the laws of classical physics. One of its outstanding features is the appearance in the formulation of physical laws of a new universal constant, the so-called Planck’s constant, which has the dimensions of energy multiplied by time, and which is often called the ‘elementary quantum of action.” We shall not enter upon the form which the quantum theory exhibited in Planck’s original investigations, or on the important theories developed by Einstein in 1905, in which the fertility of Planck’s ideas in explaining various physical phenomena was shown in an ingenious way. We shall proceed at once to explain the form in which it has been possible to apply the quantum theory to the problem of atomic constitution. This rests upon the a two postulates:— I. An atomic system is stable only in a certain set of states, the “ stationary states,” which in general corresponds to a discrete sequence of values of the energy of the atom. Every change

in this energy 1s associated with a complete “ transition ” of the atom from one stationary state to another.

(5)

where R is again the Rydberg eae and N the ordinal number of the element in the periodic table. The extreme simplicity of these formulae enabled Moseley to settle any previous uncertainty as to the order of the elements in the periodic table, and also to state definitely the empty places in the table to be filled up by elements not yet discovered. Atomic Numbers.—In the nuclear model of the atom, the ordinal number of an element in the periodic table receives an extraordinarily simple interpretation. In fact, if the numerical value of the charge on an electron is taken as unity, this ordinal number, which is often called the “‘ atomic number ”’ (g.v.), can simply be identified with the magnitude of the nuclear charge. This law which was foreshadowed by J. J. Thomson’s investigations of the number of electrons in the atom as well as by

Rutherford’s original estimate of the charge on the atomic nucleus, was first suggested by van den Broek.

263

It has since been estab-

2. The power of the atom to absorb and emit radiation is governed by the law that the radiation associated with a transition must be monochromatic and of frequency v such that hy= E,— E2

(6)

where # is Planck’s constant and F, and FE, are the energies in the two stationary states concerned. The first of these postulates aims at a definition of the inherent stability of atomic structures, manifested so clearly in a

great number of chemical and physical phenomena. The second postulate, which is closely related to Einstein’s law of the photoelectric effect, offers a basis for the interpretation of line spectra; it explains directly the fundamental spectral law expressed by relation (2). We see in fact that the spectral terms appearing in this relation can be identified with the energy values of the stationary states divided by #. This view of the origin of spectra has been found to agree with the experimental results obtained in the excitation of radiation. This is shown especially in the discovery of Franck and Hertz relating to impacts between free

ATOM

264

electrons and atoms. They found that an energy transfer from the electron to the atom can take place only in amounts which correspond with the energy differences of the stationary states as computed from the spectral terms. The Hydrogen Spectrum.—From the Balmer formula (1) and the quantum theory postulates, it follows that the hydrogen atom has a single sequence of stationary states, the numerical value of the energy in the #'* state being R/A/?. Applying this result to the nuclear model of the hydrogen atom, we may assume that this expression represents the work necessary to remove the electron from the sth state to an infinite distance from the nucleus. If the interaction of the atomic particles is to be explained upon the laws of classical mechanics, the electron in any one of the stationary states must move in an elliptical orbit about the nucleus as focus, with a major axis whose length is proportional to #*. The state for which # is equal to z may be considered as the normal state of the atom, the energy then being aminimum. For this state the major axis is found to be approximately 10-8 centimetres. It is satisfactory that this is of the same order of magnitude as the atomic dimensions derived from experiments of various kinds. It is clear, however, from the nature of the postulates, that such a mechanical picture of the stationary states can have only a symbolic character. This is, perhaps most clearly manifested by the fact that the frequencies of the orbital revolution in these pictures have no direct connection with the frequencies of the radiation emitted by the atom. Nevertheless, the attempts at visualising the stationary states by mechanical pictures have brought to light a far-reaching analogy between the quantum theory and the classical theory. This analogy was traced by examining the radiation processes in the limit where successive stationary states differ comparatively little from each other. Here it was found that the frequencies associated with the transition from any state to the next succeeding one tend to coincide with the frequencies of revolution in these states, if the Rydberg constant appearing in the Balmer formula (1) is given by the following expression: amctin

R=—,

(7)

where e and m are the charge and mass of the electron and +% is Planck’s constant. This relation is actually found to be fulfilled within the limits of the experimental errors involved in the measurements of e, m and A, and may be considered to establish a definite relation between the spectrum and the atomic model of hydrogen. Correspondence Principle.—The considerations just mentioned constitute an example of the application of the so-called “ correspondence principle” which has played an important part in the development of the theory. This principle gives expression to the endeavour, in the laws of the atom, to trace the analogy with classical electrodynamics as far as the peculiar character of the quantum theory postulates permits. On this line much work has been done in the last few years, and quite recently in the hands of Heisenberg has resulted in the formulation of a rational quantum kinematics and mechanics. In this theory the concepts of the classical theories are from the outset transcribed in a way appropriate to the fundamental postulates and every direct reference to mechanical pictures is discarded. Heisenberg’s theory constitutes a bold departure from the classical way of describing natural phenomena but may count as a merit that it deals only with quantities open to direct observation. This theory has already given rise to various interesting and important results, and it has in particular allowed the Balmer formula to be derived without any arbitrary assumptions as to the nature of the stationary states. However, the methods of quantum mechanics have not vet been applied to the problem of the constitution of atoms containing several electrons, and in what follows we are reduced to a discussion of

results which have been derived by using mechanical pictures of the stationary states. tive treatment is not ble, with the guidance a general insight into

Although in this way a rigorous quantitaobtainable it has nevertheless been possiof the correspondence principle, to obtain the problem of atomic constitution.

THE SPECTRA OF ELEMENTS OF Hicher Atomic NUMBER

The hydrogen spectrum mav be considered as evidence of a step-like process in which an electron is captured and bound increasingly strongly in the field surrounding the nucleus, the stages of this process being the stationary states of the atom. Simple arguments lead to the conclusion that the stages corresponding to the binding of an electron by a nucleus of any given charge will be represented by a similar sequence of stationary states and that the energy W, necessary to remove the electron from the #* state will be given by the expression:

W= N? ed (8) n? where N is the atomic number of the elements under consideration. These states may be visualised as mechanical orbits of the electron in which the major axis is N times as small as the major axis in the corresponding orbit in the hydrogen atom. The spectrum associated with the binding process under consideration is represented by the formula: =N? I l

=N R(T)

o)

For N=2, this tormula actually represents the spectrum which is emitted by a singly ionised helium atom, 7.e., a helium atom, which has lost one of its electrons. Spectra of this type have not yet been observed for values of N larger than 2, but it will be seen that formula (9) includes the approximate formulae (4) and (5) representing the frequencies of the strongest lines in the X-ray spectra of the elements. This may be understood if we

assume that an X-ray spectrum is associated which changes in the state of binding of one of the electrons in the inner region of the atom, where, at least when the atomic number Is large, the force on the electron due to the nucleus will far outweigh the forces due to the other electrons, and where consequently the presence of these electrons will have a comparatively small influence on the strength of the binding. Influence of Electrons—In general the mutual influence of the electrons is very considerable. Consider the stages by which an electron is captured by an atom of which the nucleus already has s electrons circulating round it. In the initial stages of this process while the orbits may be supposed to have dimensions

which are large compared with the orbital dimensions of the electrons previously bound, the repulsive forces from these latter electrons may be assumed to neutralise s units of the nuclear charge, and the resultant force will be approximately the same as when an electron is circulating round a nucleus of atomic number N-S. In the later stages, when the dimensions of the orbit of the new electron are smaller, the other electrons can no longer be considered to act as a single central charge, and their repulsion cannot be easily determined. Thus the conditions become more complicated, and the stationary states can no longer be treated by picturing the motion of the new electron as following a Keplerian ellipse. It has been found, however, that many features of the resulting spectra would be explained by assuming the added electron to move in a plane central orbit consisting of a sequence of quasi-elliptic loops. In contrast to a Keplerian orbit, however, the single loops are not closed but the successive maximum radii will be placed at constant angular intervals on a circle with the nucleus at the centre. For such central orbits it is possible, as was first shown by Sommerfeld, to select from the continuous multitude of possible orbits a set of orbits which may be taken as representing stationary states in the sense of the quantum theory. These states are labelled with two integral numbers; the one, denoted by 7, corresponds to the integer appearing in the Balmer formula and is called the principal quantum number. The other, denoted by k, may be called the subordinate quantum number. For any given value of 2, the number & can take the values 1, 2, 3... #, corresponding toa set of orbits with increasing minimum distance from the nucleus. For a given value of k increasing values of # correspond to orbits which exhibit an increasing maximum distance from the nucleus, but which are similar in size and shape in the region where the electron comes nearest to the nucleus.

ATOM For the work necessary to remove an electron in an n orbit completely from the nucleus, the theory leads to the following approximate expression R4

Wae=(N Ss) -~ „k (I (n— a}?

IO )

(

where a, depends only on the subordinate quantum number &, and approaches zero for increasing k. If s is equal to N-1, we see that the W,,z, when divided by # coincide exactly with Rydberg’s expressions (3) for the spectral

terms of the ordinary series spectra of the elements. These spectra may therefore be considered as evidence of processes, representing the last stage in the formation of a neutral atom, in which a nucleus of charge Ne, which holds already N-1 electrons bound in its field, is capturing an Nt electron. In recent years it has been found that many elements under suitable conditions besides their ordinary spectra also emit spectra for which the terms can be represented by R T=? (n— a) (r1) where » may take the integral values 2, 3, 4. . . . Comparing (11) with formula (10) we see that these spectra must be ascribed to atoms, which after having lost p electrons are rebinding an electron in the field of the remaining atomic ion. This interpretation of series spectra allows also the rules governing the possible combinations of spectral terms to be explained. In fact, it has been found that only those lines appear in the spectrum for which the &-values of the spectral terms involved differ by one unit. From an investigation of the constitution of the radiation which on classical electrodynamics would be emitted from an electron performing a central motion, this rule can be shown to be a simple consequence of the correspondence principle. Multiplet Structure —The multiplet structure exhibited by the terms of most series spectra makes it necessary to assume that the motion of the electron involved in the emission of these spectra is somewhat more complicated than the simple central motion described above. An analysis based on the correspondence principle indicates that this motion may be described as a central motion on which is superposed a uniform precession of the orbital plane round an invariable axis in space. Fora time, however, it seemed very difficult to obtain any closer connection between the observed structures and the above hypothesis of the constitution of the atom. In particular the remarkable analogy between the finer structures of the optical spectra the X-ray spectra, which had been brought out by the experiments, was very puzzling. The study of the strange anomalies exhibited by the effect of a magnetic field on the components of the optical multiplets has, however, quite recently led to the view that the electron itself carries besides its electric charge, also a magnetic moment which may be associated with a swift rotation round an axis through its centre. This new assumption allows not only the anomalous Zeeman effect to be accounted for, but affords at the same time a natural explanation for the empirical rules governing the dependency of the widths of the

multiplet structures on the atomic number. Atomic CONSTITUTION AND THE PERIODIC TABLE Soon after the discovery of the electron it was recognised that the relationships between the physical and chemical properties

of the elements expressed in the periodic table point towards a group-structure of the electronic distribution in the atom. Fundamental! work on these lines was done by J. J. Thomson in 1904. After the discovery of the nucleus and the simple interpretation of the atomic number given above, his work has been followed up with great success especially by Kossel and Lewis. Valency Properties —It is suggested that the electrons within the atom possess a tendency to form stable groups, each containing a definite number of electrons, which in the neutral state of the atom surround the centre of the atom like successive shells or layers. An explanation of the simple valency propertics holding for the second and third period of the periodic table was

265

for instance obtained by assuming that there was a tendency to form completed shells each containing eight electrons. The single valency of sodium and the double valency of magnesium are ascribed to the facility with which the neutral atoms of these elements can loose one or two electrons respectively, as the atomic ions remaining would then contain completed shells only. On the other hand the double negative valency of sulphur and the single negative valency of chlorine are ascribed to the tendency of their outermost shells to take up two or one additional electron respectively in order to form a complete shell of eight electrons, like that contained in the neutral atom of the inactive gas argon. Statical Arrangement of Electrons —Attempts have been made to associate the existence of such groups with statical configurations of electrons possessing a high degree of symmetry. The presence of groups of eight electrons for instance has been explained as an arrangement of electrons at the corners of a cube. However suggestive these ideas have been in affording pictures of the constitution of chemical compounds, they do not allow a direct connection with other properties of the atom to be established; the main difficulty being that stable statical arrangements of the electrons are incompatible with the nuclear theory of the atom. In the meantime, however, it has been possible to connect the group structure of the electronic cluster in the atom with the quantum-theory interpretation of spectra. Thus the constitution of the neutral atom in its normal state can be investigated by imagining a process by which N electrons one after one are captured and bound in the field of force surrounding a nucleus of charge Ne. | To each step there corresponds a multitude of stages, 1.¢., stationary states, In which the electron is more and more firmly bound to the atom. The final state, in which binding is strongest, corresponds to the normal state of the atomic ion. A definite connection between the spectra and the group structure was now established by assuming that in the normal atom only a limited number of electrons can be bound in states visualised as orbits characterised by definite values of the quantum numbers n and k. The electrons bound in orbits corresponding to a given value of # are said to form an x-quantum group, which in its finally completed stage will contain # subgroups, corresponding to the possible values 1, 2... # which k may take. For a sufficiently large nuclear charge, the strength with which the electrons in the different subgroups belonging to one and the same group are bound will be nearly equal. In the gradual building up of the groups in atoms with increasing nuclear charge, it is, however, to be noted that when an », orbit appears for the first time in the neutral atom, the strength of the binding will depend very considerably on the value of &. This is due to the circumstance that this quantum number fixes the closest distance to which the electron may approach the nucleus. The screening of the nuclear charge by the other electrons in the atom may therefore be very different for orbits corresponding to different values of k, and the effect on the strength of the binding can be so large that an orbit characterised by certain values of n and k may correspond to a stronger binding than an orbit for which 2 is smaller but & larger. This offers a natural explanation of one feature of the periodic table, namely that the periods grow gradually larger, while there appear se-

quences of elements which differ comparatively little in their chemical and physical properties. Such a sequence marks a stage in the development of an #-quantum group, which consists in the addition of a subgroup corresponding to a value of k which was previously not yet represented in that group, and which takes place after the building up of a group corresponding to a higher value of n has already begun. In fact, during the addition of the subgroup a temporary standstill will occur in the development of the latter group, the constitution of which will primarily determine the chemical affinity of the atom, since it contains the most loosely bound electrons. In the accompanying table (Table IT.) is given a summary of the structure of the normal state of the neutral atoms of the clements. The figures before the different elements are the

ATOM

266

TABLE

——

o

reer

1 H 2 He

I 2

3 Li 4 Be

2 2

5 B

ra

er

I 2

2

2

I

16 Ne

2

2

6

11 Na

2

2

6

13 Ae

2

2

6

12 Mg

2

2

18 A

2

19 20 21 22

K Ca Se Ti

2 2 2 2

29 Cu

2

30 Zn 31 Ga

f)

cn

2

I

2

6

2

6

2 2 2 2

6 6 6 6

2 2 2 2

6 6 6 6

2

6

2

6 10

36 Kr

2

2

37 38 39 40

2 2 2 2

2 2

47 Ag 48 Cd 49 In

I 2

I I

6

2

6

Io

2

6

2 2

6 6 6 6

2 2 2 2

6 6 6 6

Io Io IO I0

2 2 2 2

6 6 6 6

I 2

I 2 2 2

2 2 2

2 2 2

6 6 6

2 2 2

6 6 6

Io Io Io

2 2 2

6 6 6

10 10 I10

I 2 2

I

54 X

2

2

6

2

6

Io

2

6

10

2

6

55 Cs

2

2

6

2

6

10

2

6

10

2

71 G

2 2 2 2

2

2 2 2 2

2

6 6 6 6

6

ps |

2 2 2 2

2

aaa aae

ŘŮĖ

|

6 6 6 6

Io Io 10 Io

|

7

2 2

Ba La Ce Pr

yy

I 2 2 2

10 Io

s6 57 58 59

a

|

6 6

Y Zr

A

|

2 2

Rb Sr

6 6

gp

| 2

2 2

rp

I

6

2 2

JI.

2 2 2 2

6 6 6 6

10 10 Io 10

10

I 2

14

2 2 2 2

6

6 6 6 6

6

I

I I I

1

r

2 2 2 2

72H

2

2

6

2

6

6

10

10

2

2

6

6

I0

I4

2

6

2

2

79 Au 80 Hg

2 2

2 2

6 6

2 2

6 6

I0 I0

2 2

6 6

10 10

I4 I4

2 2

6 6

10 I0

I 2

81 Ti

2

2

6

2

6

10

2

6

10

I4

2

6

10

2

I

86 Em

2

2

6

2

6

10

2

6

10

I4

2

6

10

2

6

87 — 88 Ra 89 Ac

2 2 2

2 2 2

6 6 6

2 2 2

6 6 6

10 Io 10

2 2 2

6 6 6

10 10 10

I4 I4 I4

2 2 2

6 6 6

10 10 10

2 2 2

6 6 6

atomic numbers, which give the total number of electrons in the neutral atom. The figures in the different columns give number of electrons in orbits corresponding to values of the principal and subordinate quantum numbers standing at the top. A comparison with the periodic table (Table I.) will show that those elements, which in chemical respect are homologous will have the same number of electrons in the electronic groups most loosely bound, containing the so-called valence-electrons. The atoms of elements whichin Table I. are enclosed in brackets possess electronic configurations in which a subgroup is being added to a group, whose principal number is less than the group containing the typical valence-electrons. An especially conspicuous example of such a completion of an inner group is offered by the elements forming the family of the rare earths. Here we witness the addition of the fourth subgroup to the 4-quantum group, which begins first in Ce (58) while the addition of the third subgroup was already finished in Ag (47). Table IL. is in general agreement not only with the optical spectral evidence but also with that in the region of X-rays. As mentioned earlier, we sec In X-ray spectra a change in the binding of an electron in the interior of the atom. This takes place when, for instance, by the impact of a swiftly moving particle on the atom, an electron is removed from one of the electronic groups, and its place is taken by an electron belonging

2

:

2

I 2 2

I

to a group for which the binding energy is smaller. As an example it may be stated that the strong X-ray whose frequency

is approximately represented by formula (4) is emitted when an electron has been removed from the 1-quantum group, and one of the 2) electrons performs a transition so as to occupy the empty place. The line represented approximately by formula (5)

originates from a transition by which a 33 electron takes the place left open upon the removal of a 22 electron. The question how many electrons there are in the various groups and subgroups has been subject to much discussion in the last few years. Table I. is the temporary result of this discussion and seems to give an adequate description of the spectral as well as the chemical evidence. It is clear that a full theoretical treatment of the problem cannot be obtained from considerations based only on the simple picture of central orbits. Such a treatment will essentially involve an examination of those features of the binding of the electrons, which appear in the multiplet structure of spectral lines. Indeed it 1s very probable that the idea that the electron itself has magnetic properties may give the clue to the interpretation of the empirical rules governing the number of electrons in the group structure of the atom.

In this article we have tried to give an idea of the fertility of

the use of mechanical pictures visualising stationary states in

ATOMIC

ENERGY—ATOMIC

the analysis of the properties of the elements. Notwithstanding the valuable suggestiveness of such an hypothesis it must once more be emphasised that such pictures do not allow the atomic phenomena to be interpreted quite rationally within the frame of the postulates of the quantum theory. For the adequate description of the properties of atoms it seems impossible to rely directly upon any concept of classical electrodynamics. On the contrary it appears imperative that any such concept should from the outset be transcribed in accordance with the methods of the new quantum mechanics, alluded to above. (See also ATOMIC WEIGHTS; CHEMISTRY; GASES, ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

OF; ISOTOPES; QUANTUM THEORY.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—E. N. de C. Andrade, The Structure of the Atom;

G. Birtwistle, The Quantum Theory of the Atom; N. Bohr, The Theory of Spectra and Atomic Constitution; 1. D. Main Smith, Chemisiry and Atomic Structure; A. Sommerfield, Atomic Structure and Spectral Lanes, (N. Bo.)

ATOMIC ENERGY.—By this expression is generally meant energy associated with the inner nuclei of atoms, in contradistinction to energy of translation or thermal agitation possessed by the atoms moving as units, or chemical energy which is associated with their outer systems of electrons. Soon after the discovery of radioactive elements it was demonstrated that their radiations were entirely unaffected by temperature or chemical combination, and that therefore they must be supplied by a source of energy more deeply seated than any hitherto suspected. On Rutherford’s theory of the atom, this source could only be the nucleus itself which in the process of spontaneous disintegration liberated energy in the form of radiations. Measurements showed that one gramme of radium gave out heat at the rate of 1oo-gramme calories per hour, and would continue to do so at a hardly diminished rate for many centuries. This radioactive energy was, atom for atom, so vastly greater than that liberated in the most violent chemical reactions that it aroused great interest, and was hailed as the source of the sun’s

heat. Misled by the idea that radioactivity could be “induced” in otherwise non-radioactive elements, radioactive energy was eagerly seized by speculative writers (see H. G. Wells, The World Set Free, 1914) as the energy of the future. Further investigation failed, however, to support these claims. It was calculated that even if the sun were composed entirely of radioactive matter, the energy produced would still be quite inadequate to meet the demands of science. Experiments supposed to prove the exist-

ence of “induced ”’ radioactivity were found to bear in reality a different interpretation and the excessive rarity of the radio elements removed any hope of using these as a source of terrestrial energy on a practical scale. With the coming of Relativity (see RELATIVITY) and the discovery of Isotopes (see Isotopes) the matter took a new aspect. The whole number rule removed the last obstacle in the way of the electrical theory of matter, that all atoms are composed of protons and electrons, the atoms of positive and negative electricity. According to Rutherford’s nucleus atom theory, in ` the atom of a normal element all the protons and about half the electrons are packed together to form a central positively charged nucleus, which is surrounded by the remaining electrons. It can be shown that if we bring two charges of opposite sign as close together as they are in the nucleus, their ficlds will affect each other in such a way that the mass of the system will be reduced. This reduction is called the packing effect. In the atom of hydrogen with a nucleus of a single proton there can be no packing effect, so that it will be abnormally heavy. Measurements by means of the mass-spectrograph demonstrate conclusively that the mass of a hydrogen atom, consisting of one proton and one electron, is that accepted by chemists, namely 1-0077, whereas that of the helium atom, consisting of a nucleus of four protons and two electrons and two exterior electrons, is 4-00. Hence, whatever the explanation, it is certain that if it were possible to transmute hydrogen into helium, mass would be lost, and therefore, by the theory of relativity, energy liberated. On the latter theory, mass and energy are interchangeable, and the energy

associated with a mass mm is mc? where c is the velocity of light.

WEIGHTS

267

For quantities of matter in ordinary experience this quantity of energy is prodigious. ‘Take the case of one gramme atom of hydrogen, that is to say, the quantity of hydrogen in 9 cu.-cm. of water. If this is entirely transformed into helium the energy liberated will be -0077 X9X 107 = 6-93 X 10!8 ergs. Expressed in terms of heat this is 1-66 X 10" calories or in terms of work 200,000 kilowatt hours. Within a tumbler of water hes sufficient energy to propel the ““Maurctania”’ across the Atlantic and back at full speed. Here we have a supply equal even to the demands of astronomers. Eddington remarks that if only ten per cent of the hydrogen in the sun were transformed into helium, enough energy would be liberated to maintain its present radiation for a thousand million years. There can be little doubt that the vast energy of the stars is kept up by the loss of an insignificant fraction of their mass. Whether this process is a degradation of hydrogen, or simple annihilation of matter by the coalescence of protons and electrons, is unknown. How long it will be before man can release and control this energy, and to what uses he will put such vast potentialities, are subjects for the philosopher. The first step has already been taken, for Sir Ernest Rutherford has succeeded in causing transmutation in several elements, only, of course, in inconceivably small quantities, by bombardment with swift alpha rays. If scientific knowledge maintains its present rate of progress, the balance of probability is in favour of ultimate success, but this appears so far off that almost any speculation is permissible. It may be that the operation, once started, is uncontrollable and that the new stars which flare out from time to time are but the notification of successful large-scale experiments on far distant worlds. It may be that the highest form of life on our planet will one day discover supreme material power, or cataclysmic annihilation, in the same ocean wherein, we are told, its lowest forms originally evolved. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Phases of Modern Science, a collective work (1925); ‘“‘ Atomic Theory and Mechanics,” Niels Bohr, suppl. to Nature (Dec. 5 1925). (F. W. A.)

ATOMIC WEIGHTS.—Atomic weights have been defined as “ the relative weights of the atoms of chemical elements referred to a common standard.” This statement still serves as the simplest indication of the fundamental idea involved, although it now needs amplification. The concrete development of the idea was first effected in 1803 by John Dalton, an English chemist, when he converted the vague atomistic theory of the ancient Grecks into a highly valuable scientific asset by means of the concept of atomic weights. The chemical atomic theory thus initiated has been strengthened by modern investigation, and is to-day entrenched in a well-nigh impregnable position. Practical and Scientific Interest—Atomic weights are quantities of great practical and theoretical importance. They record the operation of the chemical law of definite combining proportions; hence they are the basis of quantitative chemical analysis, and are in everyday use throughout the world. Because of the parallelism between gravitational effect and inertia, they record also the relative masses of the atoms of the elements. They possess an extraordinary degree of definiteness, since the law of combining proportions is one of the few known precise laws of the universe. Far deeper in meaning than the accidental astronomical “ constants,” such as the length of the day or the length of the year, the atomic weights of the simple elements and of the individual isotopes (see IsoTopEs) stand out as among the peculiar and basic attributes of those 92 elementary substances of which everything is composed. Their interpretation is closely

concerned with our inferences concerning the nature of things. Dalton’s Views.—Simple as the original concept of atomic weights seems to be, it nevertheless presents problems which are rather complex. For example, 22-997 grammes of sodium combine with 126-932 grammes of iodine to form sodium iodide. This ratio of the combining weights of these elements appears to be invariable. As Dalton pointed out, these weights must depend on the relative weights of the respective atoms; no other simple explanation is conceivable. There is in the experimental result,

268

ATOMIC

however, nothing which shows whether the sodium and iodine combine atom for atom, or whether one atom of sodium combines (for example) with two of iodine. Dalton himself perceived that this latter happening might in many cases occur; indeed it is the essence of his Law of Multiple Proportions. There is now every reason to believe that in this particular case of sodium and iodine the atoms actually combine one to one, and that the numbers given above represent really the relative weights of the atoms of sodium and iodine; but there are many less simple cases. For instance, 126-932 grammes of iodine combine with 20-035 grammes of calcium; here the latter number represents only half the atomic weight of calcium; because every molecule of calcium iodide is believed on excellent evidence to contain two atoms of iodine for every atom of calcium. Sucha decision was beyond the reach of Dalton. It is based chiefly upon three subsequent discoveries to be briefly described. _ Avogadro’s H ypothesis.—In 1811 Count Amedeo Avogadro di Quaregna advanced the hypothesis, based upon Gay Lussac’s Law of Volumes, that equal volumes of gases under like conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules, a molecule being defined as consisting usually of two or more atoms. This hypothesis (which has since been so amply confirmed as to become, in many minds, a statement of fact) furnishes the most important means of deciding between the multiples or sub-multiples of the combining proportions which are to be taken as the atomic weights, because it lixes the molecular weights and formulas of volatile clements and compounds (see CHEMISTRY). n = Dulong and Petit’s Constant.—The second important means of deciding between possible multiples and sub-multiples of atomic weights was the discovery of Dulong and Petit (1818) that the atomic weight of an element is about equal to a constant number (6-3) divided by the specific heat. To be sure, this rule is not exact; but its inexactness 1s not usually great enough to affect it in its office of deciding the multiple or sub-multiple of the chemical combining proportion to be taken as the atomic weight. For example, the specific heat of calcium is about 0-16; therefore its atomic weight is shown to be about 39-4, whereas the exact value found by chemical means is 40-07. Crystalline Similarity—A third method of answering the question exists in the similarity of the crystal forms of similar salts of allied elements, discovered by E. Mitscherlich in 182r. If the atomic weight of one element entering into such isomorphous crystals is unknown, that multiple of the combining proportion of this element which corresponds to the formula indicated by the known salt may be taken as the true atomic weight. The full significance and essential consistency of these three methods of solving Dalton’s unsolved problem were not realised until 1858, when a table of atomic weights identical in principle with that used today was published by S. Cannizzaro. Previous doubts concerning the criteria just described had caused many chemists to reject wholly the term “ atomic weights,” and to call the arbitrarily selected multiples merely by some such name as “‘ proportion numbers ”’ or “ chemical equivalents.” But the numbers now used (as regards the multiples chosen) inevitably involve the atomic theory, hence the adjective ‘‘ atomic ”’ is fitting. “ Weight ”?” also is fitting, since the values are determined by means of the gravitational balance. The term “ atomic mass’ applies consistently only when inertia is the basis of measurement. The term “ chemical equivalent ” is now used to signify the atomic weight divided by the valence. Standard of Atomic Weighis.—The choice of the standard of atomic weights has varied. Dalton chose the smallest atomic weight, that of hydrogen, as his standard. Berzelius temporarily selected Oxygen= roo as the standard of his system. Later the chemical world returned to Dalton’s practice, especially because (according to early work) it was believed that the atomic weight of oxygen is nearly the whole number 16, if hydrogen is taken as t. Finally, after it had been shown by E. W. Morley and others that the ratio of the atomic weights of oxygen and hydrogen is in fact 15-878 to 1, it was decided, by general consent, in 1905, to abandon the standard H=1-ooo, retaining the standard O=

WEIGHTS 16-000. The decision was based upon convenience. The permanent choice of O=15-878 would have changed by nearly one per cent almost every other accepted value, and would have caused much confusion in previous quantitative statements. Besides, more atomic weights approach whole numbers when oxygen js taken as exactly 16-000 than when any other usual standard is chosen. A more weighty reason lay in the fact that most of the values are experimentally determined by relation to oxygen, and are referred to hydrogen only through that element. Hence any subsequent change in the accepted ratio H : O (one of the most difficult to determine of all such ratios) would affect all the atomic weights, if hydrogen were chosen as the standard substance. The present, unit of the system of atomic weights is therefore exactly the sixteenth part of the atomic weight of oxygen. The atomic weight of hydrogen thus becomes 1:0077. The choice, on the whole, was a wise one; it has been justified by modern research, and has proved to be peculiarly fortunate, because probably all atoms of oxygen are alike in weight (see ISOTOPES). Atomic Numbers and Actual Weights—Atomic weights are numbers; that is to say, they represent ratios and are therefore devoid of physical dimensions. They are, however, very different from the quantities designated by J. A. R. Newlands and lI. G. J. Moseley as ‘ atomic numbers,” which record the serial order of the places in the periodic classification of the chemical elements. No immediate knowledge of the actual weights of individual atoms is afforded by ‘‘ atomic weights,” unless the number of atoms in a given gross weight of some clementary substance is known. Various researches have shown that 16 grammes of oxygen contain about 606X107! atoms; hence a single atom of oxygen must weigh 0-000,000,000,000,000,000,000,026,4 gramme. The actual weights of other kinds of atoms must be in due proportion. | Experimental Determination.—The exact values of the chemical combining proportions which form the basis of the table of atomic weights are found only by experimental work. Therefore, before the table is given, the necessary experimental methods may well be brietly described. The first and most generally useful method employed for the purpose has as its object the determination of the precise amount of one element which is necessary exactly to combine with a given amount of some other element of known atomic weight. The experimental technique is that of the most refined quantitative chemical analysis. Early extensive and careful investigations of this kind were conducted by J. Berzelius, C. de Marignac, J. B. A. Dumas, J. S. Stas and many others. Recently most of the work in this direction has been conducted in the United States (E. W. Morley, W. A. Noyes, T. W. Richards, G. P. Baxter and others), although European investigators (especially B. Brauner and O. Hönigschmid) have made important contributions. Experimental work of this kind naturally involves the observance of a number of essential conditions. Comparatively few compounds of any given elẹment are fit to serve as a means of determining its atomic weight, for the reason that com- . paratively few substances may be prepared in a perfectly pure state. The choice of the compounds to be employed is in some ways the most crucial part of the whole process, for with some compounds no result worthy of consideration could be obtained, even using the greatest care possible. Having chosen wisely, the experimenter must prepare the needful substances, whatever they may be, in a state of very great purity. Ie must never forget that every precipitate carries down with it contaminating impurities absorbed or included by the substance as it separates from the solution. He must remember always that no receptacle necessary to contain the substance is free from the possibility of being attacked or dissolved, thus affecting the result. Moreover, precipitates are never wholly insoluble; and most substances will volatilise if heated to an excessive temperature. ‘These complicating circumstances combine often in unexpected ways to introduce impurity, and the experimenter must not only guard against these dangers, but must prove by adequate tests that no such complication has

ATOMIC occurred.

Moreover, above all, he must not forget that oxygen,

nitrogen and water are almost omnipresent; and continual care must be exercised lest in some way one of these impurities may affect the substance which is serving as the basis of the work. These difficulties are greatly augmented during the latter part of the work; because after the beginning of the quantitative experiment, not only must the substance be kept in a pure state, but also it must be collected to the last trace and brought on to the balance pan-—-a stern condition not imposed by the preliminary preparation of material. If any escapes collection, the loss must be estimated by careful experiments, so that its exact amount may be known. All the weights used: must be carefully standardised, and correction must be made for the buoyancy of the air on the bodies weighed. For further statement of these and other precautions and for a brief description of apparatus suitable for avoiding many pitfalls, together with the details of an especially instructive complex case, the reader is referred to Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication No. 125. A critical summary by F. W. Clarke of all investigations up to

WEIGHTS

269

rapidly moving charged atoms or molecules by means of their deflection by electric and magnetic fields. It appraises with moderate precision (by means of impressions on a photographic plate of the positions of impact of the deflected particles) the relative atomic masses pertaining to selected groups of atoms. In its original form it furnished the first experimental evidence not only that in some elements the atoms are all alike in weight, but also that in other elements this is not the case (Sir J. J. Thomson, 1912}. Different varieties of a single chemical element, similar in every respect except as regards the weights and masses of their atoms, and apparently inseparable by natural agencies when once mixed, are called isotopes (F. Soddy).

(G. P. Baxter and C. R. Hoover.) The analysis was repeated many times in order to eliminate accidental errors. Silver is often used as an intermediary standard of reference, because its chloride, bromide and iodide are particularly susceptible to exact treatment. For example: in 11 concordant experiments an aggregate of 60-6479 grammes of exceedingly pure ferrous bromide (FeBre) were found to require 60-6731 grammes of the purest silver to precipitate all the bromine present. (Baxter and Thorvaldson.) The accepted atomic weight of silver being 107-88, we have the proportion:—(60-6731): (60-6479)= 2 Ag: FeBr.= (2[107-88]): y, giving y=215-670=FeBr. Since Br=79-916 (found by converting a known weight of silver into silver bromide), the atomic weight of iron is thus found to be 55-838, a value only slightly less than that found from the oxide. The rounded average of the two values (55: 84) is 3 taken as the true value.

Under that head will be found a full description of this method of evaluating them, which was greatly improved by F. W. Aston, in his “ mass-spectrograph ”° (see ISOTOPES)... Isotopes. —Many but not all of the elementary substances have been found by this third method to be isotopic or‘‘ complex.” Hence elements may be divided into two classes: simple elements, probably possessing only one variety of atom, and isotopic elements, containing two or more varieties. The relative proportions of the several isotopes in a given elementary substance are shown roughly by. the relative intensities of the “ photographic ” records; they can be shown exactly only by quantitative analysis, and theù only when no more than two isotopes are present. Thus ordinary terrestrial chlorine (Cl= 35-46) must consist of a mixture of about 30 atoms of (Cl=37) ta every 100 atoms of (Cl=35). | Although the term “atomic w eight” referred originally to the elementary substances (whether simple or isotopic) which actually occur on the earth’s surface, it is applicable with even greater fitness to each isotope alone. Of all the isotopic elements only one, namely lead, has had the atomic weight of any individual isotope accurately determined by chemical analysis (Richards, Soddy, Hénigschmid). The individual isotopes of this metal are unique, because, so far as we can tell, they are endproducts of the spontaneous disintegration of uranium, and other radioactive elements, in which the atoms of lead were segregated at the moment of their terrestrial birth and confined in the minerals producing them: Their abnormal atomic weights (determined by chemical methods of unquestioned trustworthiness) constitute the most convincing evidence of the existence of isotopes. For the determination of the atomic weights of the isotopes of all the other isotopic elements, some form of “ massspectrograph ” is needed because complete separation of mixed isotopes is at present unattainable in any other way.

atomic weights (applicable only to gases or vapours) depends upon Avogadro’s Rule, and resolves itself into the weighing of like volumes of different gases under like conditions of temperature and pressure. This is the only gravimetric method applicable to the six inert gases (helium, etc.) which do not form chemical compounds. The method determines molecular weights, not atomic weights; but the number of atoms in a molecule may be inferred in other ways, and therefore the atomic weights calculated from the data. The method involves experimental difficulties. The globe containing a gas inevitably weighs much more than the gas itself and is peculiarly subject to changes of buoyancy of the air. The exact measurement of temperature and pressure is not always easy, nor is the perfect purity of the gas to be weighed a condition readily secured. Moreover, Avogadro’s Rule holds only for perfect gases; no actual gas fulfils exactly its requirements, because of the bulk occupied by the molecules themselves and their mutual attraction. On the whole, making allowance for these difficulties, the method of determining molecular (and therefore atomic weights) by comparison of the densities of gases agrees remarkably well with the results obtained from chemical analysis (Lord Rayleigh, E. W. Morley, P. A. Guye, A. Leduc, E. Moles, G. P. Baxter). Third Method.—A third method of determining atomic weights (like the last, a purely physical method) is that which determines the mass (or rather the ratio of mass to electric charge) of

weights of the chemical elementary substances as they exist on» the surface of the earth is essentially the table issued in 1925 by the International Committee on Elements and Atomic Weights, but includes the newly discovered element hafnium, as well as two of the individual isotopes of lead which have been experimentally investigated by chemical methods. “Atomic numbers” are also given. Usually, the larger the atomic weight, the larger the atomic number; but all isotopes of a given element have the same atomic number. Except in the case of hydrogen, the atomic number is never more and usually somewhat less than half of the atomic weight. The following table records quantities of outstanding practical importance; it is the vade mecum of the analytical chemist. Its value to theory also is very great. Redefinition of Term.—The discovery of the spontancous disintegration of radioactive elements and the finding of isotopes have modified our theoretical interpretation of the atomic weights. Because of these discoveries, two a priori premises (of a more or less philosophical nature), namely, first, the assumption that the atoms are indivisible (the elementary substances being absolutely permanent) and, second, the assumption that the atoms of a given chemical element are all alike in weight, must to-day be abandoned, but the premises are seen on close scrutiny to be by no means an essential part of the chemical atomic theory. Nevertheless, the old definition of atomic weights must be altered in order to correspond exactly to modern knowledge.

1920 is to be found in the third Memoir of Volume 16 of the Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (Washington). A Typical Experimenit.i—A simple case may best exemplify the method. In one of many experiments, 7-590712 grammes of ferric oxide (F'e.03) prepared with the greatest care, were found to yield on reduction (by means of hydrogen at a high temperature) 5-31364 grammes of metallic iron. The loss of weight (2-28348 grammes) represents the oxygen present in the oxide.

Hence, from

the proportion (2-28348) : (5-31364)=O3 : Fe:=

3(16-000): 2x, the atomic weight of iron is found to be 55-848.

Alternative Method—Another general method of determining

Table

of Atomic

Weights—The

following

table

of atomic

ATOMIC

270

WEIGHTS

Table of Atomic Weights of the Chemical Elements Symbol | At. No. Aluminium Antimony

Argon

Arsenic

.

Barium

.

13 51

26-97 I21°77

As

33

74-96

Ba

Beryllium (Glucinum) | Bismuth Boron

Al Sb

A

a

137°37

Br

83 5

35

20900 10:82

Cd

48

112-41

"12000 140-25

Bi B

2

Bromine

b

Cadmium

.

.

...

-g

Ca

20

;

:

tale ois Gatos

C Ce

6 58

pi

Cl

Calcium Carbon Cerium

. .

Cesium (Caesium) Chiorine

Se

t

e

. ack

Chromium Cobalt.

Columbium

Copper

.

Dysprosium

. .

Erbium . Europium

Fluorine

: :

Gadolinium Gallium .

.° E

Germanium

.

Goldin

Indium Jodine Tridium Jron Krypton

“

Magnesium

27

35:457

52-01 58-94

Cb

4I

93:1

Cu

29

63.57

Dy

66

162-52

Er Eu

68 63

167-7 152-0

9

19-00

. g

es o

Gd Ga

64 31

157-26 69:72

‘

a

Molybdenum

42

60

14427

Neon

Ne

Io

20:2

Nickel

.

28

Osmium

Os

76

190°8

Palladium Phosphorus . Platinum . Potassium (Kalium) Praseodymium

Pd p Pt K Pr

46 15 7 19 59

106:7 31:027 195-23 39:096 140-92

Radium. Radon (Niton) Rhodium Rubidium Ruthenium .

Ra Rn Rh Rb Ru

88 86 45 37 44

225°95 222: 102-91 85-44 101:7

Samarium Scandium Selenium Silicon . Silver . Sodium (Natrium) Strontium Sulphur

Sm Se Se Si Ag Na Sr S

62 21 34 I4 47 II 38 16

150-43 45:10 79:2 28-06 107880 22-097 87:63 32-064

Tantalum

Ta Te

73 52

181-5 127:5

Nitrogen (Azote) |

N

Oxygen

O

. A

:

72 2 67

180: 4:00 163-4

Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium

D

In I Ir Fe

49 53 a 26

114-8 126932 193:1 5584

Tin Titanium . ; Tungsten (W olfram) .

Ay

Kr

36

82:9

‘

‘

.

I

i ;

s i

?

La Pb

57 82

.

i

‘

i

=

82

i

i

`

;

Li

.

a

:

aa‘

.

:

h’

x

82

a

1 -008

138-90 207-20 206-06

208-

6-940

Lu

71

17500

Mg

I2

24°32

A more complete and precise definition may be worded as follows: ‘‘ Primarily, atomic weights are appropriate simple multiples (decided by theory) of the relative combining proportions or relative gas-densities of elementary substances calculated on a consistent basis. They represent the relative average weights of the atoms of given specimens of elementary sub-

stances referred to a common standard.” Any such definition involves other definitions. An elementary substance is a substance which is not disintegrated into other elementary substances by ordinary chemical reactions. This definition avoids the implication that such a substance is incapable of disintegration by extra-chemical means. ‘* Element ” and “ chemical element” are sometimes used synonymously. “Atoms” are postulated as the smallest particles of such a substance under ordinary conditions. They are not necessarily incapable of disintegration under extreme conditions. Hence their name (from

ä privative and ropós “ divided, cut”) is not now appropriate, but it will doubtless be retained; the term “‘ chemical atom ” would perhaps be better. The qualification involved in the word “ average ” above is necessary because of the discovery of isotopes. The weighted average of the atomic weights of the isotopes in any particular isotopic or “ complex ” elementary substance is that which is recorded as its atomic weight. Constancy of Atomic Weights ——That the atomic weights are constant in different compounds is shown by the analysis of many pure substances containing the same element and also by

96-0

Ni

Hf He Ho

H

54°93 200-6I

Nd

197:2

.

25 80

Mo

79

.

At. Wt.

Neodymium

32

:

72-60

Mn Hg

Ge

(from U)

Lutecium

17

132-81

.

Au

(from Th)

Lithium

24

40:07

F

Lanthanum . >. Lead (ordinary) . “

Cr

79:916

Manganese Mercury

eS

wk

.

. . . i

55

9-02

E

Hafnium (Celtium) Helium . : Holmium ‘

Hydrogen

Cs Co

(Niobium)

39-91

6

Be

f

18

|Symbol | At. No.|

At. Wt.

7

8

58-69

14-008

16-000

Tb Ti Th

65 SI go

159-2 204°39 232-15

Sn Ti W

50 22 74

118-70 48-1 184-0

Uranium

U

92

238-17

Vanadium

V

23

50-96

Thulium

Xenon

.

Tm

69

169-4

En

A

se.

a

i

Xe

54

130:2

. :

: :

: :

å i

‘ ;

Yb Y

70 39

173-6 88-9

Zine i : Zirconium,

$

;

.

.

Zn Zr

30 40

Ytterbium Yttrium

65°38 gI-

H. Landolt’s experiments (1907), which proved that there is no loss or gain of gravitational effect in ordinary chemical reactions

within one part in ten million. Moreover, specimens of various elementary substances (e.g., sodium, calcium, copper, silver, iron, nickel, cobalt, etc.) found in different parts of the earth or even in meteorites, have been found by careful research to have constant atomic weights independent of geographical occurrence. All the samples of terrestrial lead even, except those found in uranium or thorium minerals, show similar uniformity. That each native terrestrial mixture of isotopes is thus unvarying seems to show that each was commingled when the earth was still fluid, or else that some unknown law determines the proportion in which the isotopes are formed. If it were not for the consistency indicated in this paragraph, the table of atomic weights would be much less useful than it is. The atomic weights are precisely consistent also with the electro-chemical equivalents indicated by Faraday’s Law (Faraday, Rayleigh, Richards), afiording thus further evidence of their fundamental nature. Hydrogen and Other Elements.—The hypothesis of Prout (1815) that all the elements are aggregates of hydrogen has been greatly strengthened by the discovery of isotopes; for it appears that the fractions in the table above are due chiefly to isotopic mixtures, in which each isotope taken separately has nearly a whole number for its individual atomic weight. The atomic weights of uranium, radium, thorium, the isotopes of lead,

and helium furnish an argument in favour of the theory of the

AUCKLAND— AUSTRALIA atomic disintegration in which they are concerned, and therefore support the postulate maintaining the composite nature of the elements. Nevertheless, all the simple elements and individual isotopes have atomic weights somewhat less than the appropriate multiples of that of hydrogen, as has been shown in the case of oxygen. Many theorists believe that this common deficiency is due to the actual loss of mass during the atomic coalescence of hydrogen nuclei, the expelled mass being transformed into energy. If this is true, the exact values of the simple atomic weights (and those of individual isotopes} even to the third decimal place, possess great theoretical interest, since they must furnish an essential clue to the amount of energy expended. Modern hypotheses concerning the structure

of the atom (Sir E. Rutherford, Sir J. J. Thomson, N. Bohr, G. N. Lewis, I. Langmuir) assume that practically all the weight and mass of the atom (fixing, of course, its atomic weight) are concentrated in an exceedingly small nucleus in its centre. Concord with Atomic Numbers.—For fifty years the atomic weights decided the arrangement of the periodic system of the elements. Recently X-ray spectra have more certainly evaluated the atomic numbers which place the elements in this system (Moseley); but the agreement between the two methods is close

enough to indicate a fundamental if sometimes complex relation between them. Atomic Wetghts and Cosmogony.—The sun and stars appear spectroscopically to be made largely of the elements existing on earth. Itis therefore no mere flight of fancy to infer that the vast gravitational forces which regulate the motions of the heavenly bodies are due to the collective action of countless myriads of atoms, whose individual shares in the process are recorded in the table of atomic weights. The foregoing considerations concerning atomic weights suggest many other cosmological inferences, which are, however, beyond the scope of this article (see

*“ Atomic Weights and Isotopes,” Chemical Review, I, 1, 1924). It is not too much to say that these unique numbers, the atomic weights, probably bear a very close relation to the unknown fundamental processes which determined the nature and evolution of the universe. (T. W. R.) AUCKLAND, New Zealand (see 2.894), increased largely in area, and the population rose from 82,101 in 1906 to 172,935 in 1924. From ror3 to 1926 seven outlying boroughs were incorporated in the city boundaries, making the area 7,844 acres. Many streets have been paved and the traflic routes widened and improved. The Grafton Bridge was erected in 1910, a town hall in 1911 and a new building for the State Maternity Hospital in 1923. In 1913 the Art Gallery was enlarged, and an Old Colonists Museum, with objects illustrating the history of New Zealand and of Auckland in particular, was installed therein in 1916. A number of parks and reserves have been acquired by the municipality, which now controls 8,000 ac. of open spaces. In the Wakefield Street Reserve is a memorial of the early wars in New Zealand, unveiled in 1920, and the foundation-stone of the World War Memorial was laid in 1925 in Auckland Domain, which has been improved through the use of the profits from the industrial exhibition held there in 1913-4. A winter garden has been built and a statue of Robert Burns was unveiled in the park in 1921. A large dam was constructed at Nikotupu in 1925 to augment the water supply. Before the World War several wharves and a western breakwater were built in the harbour and land was reclaimed in Freeman’s Bay. Since rọrọ further work has been carried out, and parts of the harbour have been deepened. There are 14,925 ft. of wharfage. AUCTION BRIDGE: see BRIDGE. AUFFENBERG-KOMAROW, MORITZ, RITTER VON (1852), Austrian general, was born May 22 1852 at Troppau. A most able soldier, Auffenberg was one of the leaders of the Austrian military party, which centred round the Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Owing to the latter’s influence he became Minister of War in Sept. ror until Dec. 1912, when he resigned owing to the opposition of the Emperor and the Magyars. In 1914 he commanded the Austrian IV. Army and won a remarkable

victory at Komaréw, Aug. 26——Sept. 3 1914, but was suspended

271-

for alleged irregularities in April rors. He published an autobiography, Aus Oesterreichs Héhe und Niedergang (1921). AUSTIN, ALFRED (1835-1913), British poet (see 2.938), died June 2 1913 at Swinford Old Manor, near Ashford, Kent. AUSTIN, MARY HUNTER (1868), American author, was born in Carlinville, Il., Sept. 9 1868. After graduating from Blackburn University in 1888, she went to California for reasons of health, marrying there Stafford W. Austin of Bakersville, Cal., May 1g 1891. For some years she resided at Independence, Cal., and her first book, The Land of Little Rain (1903), dealt with outdoor life in California, as did many of her succeeding works. She made a special study of the Indians of the southwest, embodying the results In many articles and addresses. Among her best known works are The Flock (1906); Lost Borders (1909); The Arrow Maker, a play produced at the New Theatre, N.Y., 191t; The Afan Jesus (1915; revised edition, 1925, entitled A Small Town Man); and The American Rhythm (1923). She also wrote the chapter on “‘ Aboriginal Literature ” in The Cambridge History of American Literature (1919).

AUSTRALIA (see 2.941).—The area of the Australian Commonwealth is 2,974,581 sq. m., exclusive of its Papuan Territory. Its population at the census of 1921 was 5,435,734.

I. POLITICAL

HISTORY

The second decade in the history of the Commonwealth was a period of national development. The first 10 years of the century had seen the birth of the constitution, the gradual evolution of parties and political creeds and the slow education of the people to think in terms of a single Commonwealth rather than of a group of states. In the second ro years the process of education was completed, and if the lesson was learned in the hard school of war it was all the more deeply engraved on that account. It is very important to note the immediate and far-reaching effect which the World War exercised on the internal politics of the Commonwealth. The growth of national sentiment is difficult to measure, yet each achievement of Australian arms—

whether it was the sinking of the “ Emden,” the landing at Anzac

Cove or the advance at Bullecourt—struck another blow, not only for the Allied cause but for Australian unity as well. The War gave a common aim and a single purpose which the years of peace could never have afforded. The six states forgot their rivalries and their jealousies and, whether it was a case of reinforcements or of Red Cross funds, the national effort was all directed towards the one united purpose. For the time, interstate boundaries disappeared. There was, in addition, the exceedingly practical factor of men from all the states meeting each other and mixing with each other in camps and billets and in the front line‘itself. From Brisbane to Perth is more than a week’s journey by train, and in normal times the Queenslander has few chances of meeting his fellow-Australian from the West. In varying degree the same fact holds good even of intercourse between states that adjoin each other and it is difficult to overestimate the effect of the mutual knowledge and sympathy that was acquired between 1914 and the Armistice. Although the War was immeasurably the greatest factor in welding the national character of the Commonwealth it was by no means the sole cause. The effort towards unity found expression in a variety of ways, and many signs in Australian political history of the period rg10-25 suggest that war merely hastened what peace would have attained in the end. There was no doubt, for instance, that in 1925 popular interest in Federal politics far transcended interest in the comparatively narrow arena of state affairs, and that that interest was steadily increasing. Again, measures of a distinctively national character, such as the construction of the transcontinental railway, the creation of the Australian Navy and the provision of compulsory military training in time of peace, were all products of the years before the War. Even the attitude towards the erection of a Federal capital at Canberra had changed, and if there was no great enthusiasm for the scheme, at least it did not arouse the mingled feelings of jealousy and derision with which it was greeted when first proposed.

272

AUSTRALIA

Pre-War Period.—The purely political history of this period was marked by several distinctive features. In the first place, there was the definite commitment of the people to certain political doctrines—notably Protection and the maintenance of the “White Australia”? ideal—which may be described as part of the national policy irrespective of party. In the second place, the dividing lines on questions of tariff and taxation, which in the first few years of the Commonwealth Parliament separated the parties, gradually disappeared and were replaced by the far wider cleavage between political Labour and the forces which oppose it. The rise of Labour was the outstanding development in Australian party politics after roro. In the early days of the Commonwealth the place of Labour in politics was that of a noisy but relatively unimportant section of the opposition. At the end of 1925, not only was it the sole force in opposition to the Federal Govt., but it actually held office in every state except Victoria. It is not casy to account for this ascendancy without embarking on controversial subjects, but the broad lines of the movement may be said to have run along the ever-increasing education of the working classes to political power; the application of the efficient machinery of the great unions towards party ends, and the determination of the Labour leaders that their influence should extend far beyond the industrial—as distinct from the political—life of the community. The year 1910 saw the end of the third Deakin administration, and in Feb. the House was dissolved. The elections which followed resulted in a substantial victory for the Labour party under Mr. Fisher, who had previously been Prime Minister from Nov. 1908 to June 1909, and who now returned to office

with a working majority both in the Senate and in the House of Representatives. But there were clear indications that his victory had been gained not so much because the country approved of his policy as because it was thoroughly tired of coalitions. In May rorr he submitted to a referendum certain amendments of the Federal Constitution, without which the Government could not carry out its avowed programme. These amendments sought to give to the Commonwealth Parliament :— (a) full power to legislate with respect to trade and commerce instead of the limited power it had under the constitution; (6) full power over all trading corporations;

(c) specific power to deal with the wages and conditions of labour and with labour disputes; (d) power to deal with all combinations and monopolies; ? (e) power to declare that any business was a ‘“ monopoly ” and following such declaration, to acquire it, paying on just terms for any property used in connection with it.

The Australian people have always been reluctant to alter the Constitution, which was framed after many years of deliberation and controversy, and Mr. Fisher’s amendments were defeated by a majority of about 250,000 votes. Thus his Government found itself holding office without the power to carry out its policy. ao Nevertheless, Labour carried on for two more years, and actually brought into effect important schemes for national defence. The credit for the inception of these schemes was due to the Deakin administration, which in 1909 had not only brought in a Bill enforcing military training on the young men of the Commonwealth, the first instance of compulsory service in an English-speaking community, but also decided to give practical effect to the sweeping recommendations of the Imperial Defence Committee of the same year. But Labour had offered no serious opposition to these measures, and when it succeeded to office it spared no effort in giving them the fullest possible effect. Among other legislation of this period was the transfer of the Northern Territory from South Australia to the Commonwealth, and the grant of a “ maternity bonus ” of £5 on the birth of each child. Australia During the World War.—In May 1913 another General Election was held in the Commonwealth. It had a singularly unsatisfactory result in so far as Mr. Deakin’s successor, Mr., afterwards Sir, Joseph Cook, obtained a majority in the House of Representatives but was unsuccessful in the Senate. In these precarious circumstances he managed to survive until July 30 1914 when a dissolution of both Houses was granted.

Five days later, war broke out. There was an immediate outcry for the abandonment of the elections, but the writs were already out, and an attempt to arrange an allotment of seats and form a National Govt. signally failed. For nearly two months Mr. Cook and his colleagues conducted Australia’s war effort, and it is to them that the credit for the initial organisation of the Australian Imperial Force belongs. The election came on Sept. 17. Again Mr. Fisher triumphed, and he at once proved that Labour was no less ready and eager than its opponents to put every effort into the war. ‘‘ The last man and the last shilling’ was Mr. Fisher’s promise, and the change of government certainly brought no slackening in the Commonwealth’s contribution to the Empire’s cause. For more than a year Mr. Fisher remained at the head of affairs. Then, in Oct. rors, he accepted the appointment of High Commissioner in London and was succeeded by the Attorney-General, Mr. W. Morris Hughes.

For the next seven years the political history of the Commonwealth was dominated by the personality of Mr. Hughes. His services to Australia and to the Empire may have been somewhat over-estimated when he was in power, but there is as little doubt that, in the reaction that followed his fall, they came dangerously near to being forgotten altogether. This much js certain: that he proved himself a leader at a time when his country stood most in need of leadership, that he was whole-hearted in the sincerity of his feelings towards the Empire, and that he was gifted to an exceptional degree with the power of infecting others with his own enthusiasm. He spared neither his health nor his frail physique in the incredible amount of work which he performed each day, and the very faults which ultimately helped to bring about his downfall—his impatience of criticism, and his intolerance alike of the feelings of his colleagues and the trammels of constitutional precedent—were not altogether bad qualities in a crisis when prompt action was emphatically the need of the moment.

In 1916 he travelled to Great Britain, and the remarkable success he achieved with his hard-hitting speeches all over the country was reflected in the increased prestige which accrued to him in Australia. But with his return to the Commonwealth there came an anticlimax. The tide of recruiting had begun to

fall, the best of Australia’s manhood had already left for the front, and the nation waited for Mr. Hughes to declare for the measures of conscription which he had advocated so wholeheartedly abroad. He hesitated, and finally decided to submit

the question of conscription to a referendum. Never in the history of the Commonwealth had so bitter a campaign been waged. Arrayed against Mr. Hughes was a public opinion which included all the leaders of advanced Labour, the Industrial Work-

ers of the World, the Bolshevists, the Pacifists and many Irish. The referendum was held and conscription was decisively rejected by the people. The immediate result was the break-up of the Labour party. A second referendum and a second defeat made it impossible for Mr. Hughes to remain leader of a party which had officially rejected the most vital clause of his policy, and in 1917 he crossed the floor of the House and formed the Australian National War

Government. The new Ministry was recruited mainly from the ranks of the former opposition and included only three of the Prime Minister’s former colleagues. So came into being the National party which was to hold office for the next eight years and which at the end of 1925 seemed more firmly established than ever. The Armistice came a year after the reshuffle and once again Mr. Hughes visited England. Once again he returned to his own country with an increased reputation, for his vigorous assertion of Australian claims, not only in London but at the Peace Conference at Versailles, had to a great extent re-established his popularity.

The War Effort—The sacrifices of the nation are shown by the following figures: Australia sent 329,883 troops overseas. The casualties of this force reached the extraordinarily high proportionate

total of 314,078,

wounds or disease.

of which

59,302

were

deaths

from

Other casualties from wounds or gas totalled

AUSTRALIA 166,819, and there were 87,957 cases of sickness. The financial drain of the War ona young nation of less than 6,000,000 inhabitants was appalling. The following table gives the estimated war expenditure between 1914 and 1920:—

1914-5 - 15,111,335 I9I7- 8 . £66,958,360 1915-6 41,201,946 I9I8- 9 83,447,990 1916-7 61,541,566 1919-20 70,137,319 It is estimated that the total war expenditure in which pensions and allowances played a large part, were well over £600,000,000. Australia has made generous provision for ex-service men.

Pensions payable for total disability range from {2 to £3 a week, with extra provision for a wife and all children under 16 years of age.

Ex-soldiers and sailors were liberally helped to re-establish

themselves in civil life and, co-operating with the state governments, the Commonwealth Government has provided farming lands, grants and loans for houses, working capital, etc. Up to 1924 the Repatriation Commission had spent £13,717,000 in gifts or loans to ex-service men, and £34,145,000 had been advanced on account of ex-soldier settlement on the land. There is also a scheme to provide education for war orphans and the children of incapacitated ex-soldiers. Post-War Problems —It was to the solution of the enormous problems following the War that Mr. Hughes applied himself when he returned to Australia after the Peace Conference. But,

triumphant as was his return, there is little doubt that his decline in power began at this stage of his career. Labour had been badly beaten at a “ khaki ” election in 1919, and he was branded as a traitor to the cause by his old associates. The Nationalists themselves were not a happy family, for the ‘‘ Country party,” which, as avowedly representing agricultural interests, had sprung into being at the election, was already disposed towards mild flirtations with the Opposition. There were personal considerations as well, and although Mr. Hughes paid a successful visit to the Imperial Conference of 1921 his success was coldly received by his own countrymen. The eighth Parliament of the Commonwealth came to an end at the close of 1922. The elections, held in Dec., were marked by the most violent personal bitterness, and although Labour again suffered defeat, it was evident that no alliance of Nationalists and the Country party was possible under the leadership of Mr.

Hughes.

An acceptable successor was found in Mr. Stanley

Melbourne Bruce. His first task was to form a coalition with the strongly reinforced Country party. Dr. Page, its leader, became Treasurer, and the administration was known as the Bruce-Page ministry. But Mr. Bruce was the real leader. He rapidly consolidated his position, and by the time he came to visit London for the Imperial Conference of 1923 his position was firmly established. The chief business of the Conference was concerned with Imperial Preference. Mutual preference, which promised considerable help to Australia’s primary industries, was agreed to between Great Britain and Australia. These arrangements, entered into on behalf of Great Britain by Mr. Baldwin’s first government, were not carried out by the succeeding government of Mr. Ramsay MacDonald. The proceedings of the Australian Parliament in 1924 reflected the results of the change of Govern-

ment in Great Britain: because Mr. MacDonald in the Imperial Parliament refused to accept the agreement for an Imperial naval base at Singapore, the Australian Prime Minister brought forward a new naval programme; and because the new British Government refused to endorse the preference agreement, the Australian Prime Minister proposed a scheme to assist exporters to obtain markets overseas, and also a series of Bounty Bills, designed to help the primary producer. Acts were passed by Parliament providing for export bounties on beef, and on fencing wire, galvanised iron, traction engines and wire netting manufactured in Australia; the bounty on shale oil produced locally was increased.

A reciprocal trade treaty with Canada was also

sanctioned. . A long series of shipping strikes culminated in the crisis of 192s. Shipping in Australian ports was held up and trade production

seriously

affected.

Many

local labour

organisations

273

sympathised with the strikers, and the political Labour party was, in the opinion of the Australian Government, responsible for aiding a strike movement which had a strong revolutionary aspect. The Commonwealth Government took measures to deport the strike leaders who were alien to Australia, but political Labour, which was in power in the majority of the state governments, openly resisted this and other measures dealing with the strike situation, Mr. Bruce finally decided to appeal to the country for authority to take measures which he deemed necessary for its safety, and a general election was held in Nov. 1925. The election resulted in the heavy defeat of the Labour party. The Nationalists obtained 38 of the 75 seats in the House of Representatives, the Country party 14 and the Labour party 23. In the Senate there were 22 seats to fill. Labour already held 11 seats in the section not due to retire, and it was therefore necessary for the party to win eight seats in order to have a majority in that House. The electors, however, made a clean sweep of the Labour candidates and returned 22 members of the Nationalist and Country parties. Voting at this election was compulsory under a penalty of £2. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Oxford Australasia

(1914);

Survey

Viscount

of the British

Bryce,

Afodern

Empire,

Democracies

vol.

5,

(1921);

A. W. Jose, History of Australasia (1921); C. E. W. Bean and FF. S. Gullett, Oftctal History of Australia in the War of 1974-18 (1923); V. G. Childe, How Labour Governs: a Study of Workers’ Representation in Australia (1923). (F. PE.*)

CONSTITUTIONAL QUESTIONS Experience has demonstrated the marked rigidity of the Australian Constitution. Between 1908 and 1925 only one amendment was carried in accordance with the procedure outlined in section 128. The situation foreseen by certain critics, in which proposed amendments would be carried by sweeping popular majorities, but lost to an opposition strong enough to control three small states, did not occur, but the submission of proposed

alterations to a referendum proved a sufficient barrier. Proposals which obtained the necessary statutory majorities in both Houses of Parliament were generally lost when they were referred to the people. Proposed Amendments.—In 1910, simultaneously with the general election of April 13, electors were asked to decide on two constitutional amendments. One of these was accepted by a majority; it enlarged the power of the Commonwealth to take over the debts of the states, which by section rog of the Constitution was limited to debts already existing at the date of the Commonwealth’s establishment.

By the amendment

state

public debts incurred later could also be taken over. The other proposal related to the allocation of the customs and excise revenue between the Commonwealth and the states. Under section 87, the Commonwealth’s share was limited to one-fourth of its total. This arrangement was to continue for a period of ten years and thereafter until the Commonwealth Parliament otherwise provided. Parliament resolved, however, to diminish the proportion left to the states to an amount representing {1.5.0. for each unit of population—and to do so, not by statute, a course which was open under section 87, but by constitutional amendment, in order to give the states a somewhat more stable claim

on the proportion left to them. The amending measure was passed in Parliament but was rejected at the referendum of 1910. At a slightly later date, an ordinary statute to the same effect was passed. The effect of this was greatly to enhance the finan- * cial importance of the Federal Government, while the corresponding reduction of the states’ share in customs and excise revenue, by approximately 50 %, initiated a period of considerable financial stringency in their finances. A further unsuccessful effort to amend the constitution was initiated in rg10 and submitted to the people in a referendum of April 26 1911. The object of this was to give to the Commonwealth Parliament power to deal with the following matters:— (a) Trade and commerce, without any limitations, instead of “trade and commerce with other countries, and among the states ” only. (b) The control and regulation of corporations of all kinds, except those formed not for the acquisition of gain, (Only “‘ foreign cor-

274

AUSTRALIA

porations and trading and financial corporations formed within the limits of the Commonwealth "' came under the jurisdiction of the

Federal Parliament.)

(c) Labour and employment, including wages and conditions of labour and the settlement of industrial disputes generally, including disputes in relation to employment on state railways. (Conciliation and arbitration by the Commonwealth operate only in the case of ay industrial dispute extending

beyond the limits of any one

state,

(d) Combinations and monopolies in relation to the production, manufacture or supply of goods or services.

This proposal was rejected by a majority and also by a majority In every state except Western Australia. On the same occasion and as an outcome of the same legislation, it was proposed to insert in the constitution the following sub-section:— When each House of Parliament, in the same session, has by resoJution declared that the industry or business of producing, manufacturing or supplying goods, or of supplying any specified services, is the subject of any monopoly, the Parliament shall have power to make laws for carrying on the industry or business by or under the control of the Commonwealth, and acquiring for that purpose on just terms any property used in connection with the industry or business.

This proposal was also rejected by closely similar voting. In 1913 the same proposed alterations of the constitution, with certain minor changes, were again submitted in the form of six separate amendments. They were again rejected, although on this occasion a majority for them was obtained in Queensland, South Australia and Western Australia, while New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania were hostile. In rọrọ proposals were again submitted to a referendum for extending the legislative powers of the Commonwealth relating to industrial disputes and the nationalisation of monopolies. Both proposals were rejected. On this occasion South Australia was hostile, but Victoria gave a majority for the proposals, as did Queensland and Western Australia. Decisions of the High Court.—Apart from action of a legislative character directly altering the nature of the constitution, there must be noted, within the period 1900 to 1925 certain constitutional changes due to the activity of the High Court,

which, under the terms of the constitution, is made its final interpreter. In a series of early cases the doctrine of immunity had been applied to both Commonwealth and State instrumentalities. Under this doctrine, the officers, institutions and other machinery of the one government are not to be fettered, controlled, hampered or interfered with by the legislation of the other government. The instrumentalities of the Commonwealth are thus immune from any such legislation of the state, which, even if it contains no explicit exceptions in their favour, automatically exempts them. The principle had also been applied conversely, and it had been held that state instrumentalities were similarly exempt from the incidence of Federal legislation. The High Court later enunciated, in connection with cases of overlapping of state and federal powers, what amounted in the circumstances to a new principle, stated by the majority of the Court in the following terms:— That section (sec. 109) which says ‘‘ When a law of a State is inconsistent with a law of the Commonwealth, the latter shall prevail, and the former shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be invalid,” gives supremacy, not to any particular class of Commonwealth Acts, but to every Commonwealth Act, over not merely State Acts passed under concurrent powers but all State Acts, though passed under an exclusive power, if any provisions of the two conflict; as they may. (The Amal. Soc. of Eng.v. the Adelaide S.S.Co.— 28 C.L.R. 129.)

This important determination has obviously affected the independence and dignity of the states. The total disbursements, e.g., to be made to its railway or other industrial servants by any state, may now depend not on the decision of the taxpayers of the state, but on that of an organ of the Federal Govt.

(the Court of Conciliation and Arbitration). This would appear to be a substantial derogation of the states’ financial autonomy, which in other portions of the constitution is carefully safeguarded. The high court also decided the true meaning of section 92 of the constitution, the important part of which is as follows :—

On the uniform duties of customs, trade, commerce

and inter-

course among the States, whether by means of internal carriage or ocean navigation, shall be absolutely free.

The attempts of various states to maintain control over some commodity whose place of origin was within their territory met with varying degrees of success. Two Important Points.—In the case of New South Wales the state had, by appropriate legislation, taken over the whole of the wheat in the state, and refused to sell it in other states except upon its own terms. The Court held that this constituted no violation of section ọ2. The ownership had passed to the King. If his advisers wished to export it to another state they were free to do so. Later a New South Wales statute purported to

make public property of pigs. Here, however, the Legislature ħad provided that the ownership should pass only upon a proclamation, and that in the interim no holder should export except in certain conditions. This additional provision was regarded as infringing the prohibition of section 92 and therefore invalid. When a similar question arose in Queensland over the position created by statute which had been modelled upon the New South Wales statute, and in which the operative words were equivalent, the Court changed its attitude and, on fuller consideration, came to the conclusion that in the interval preceding the actual transfer of stock, or meat, to the King, an intermediate type of property interest, not previously known to the law, had been created, and that it was within the province of the state Legislatures to create such new forms of property. Confronted later with the somewhat different problem presented by the action of the Queensland Parliament in endeavouring to make it unlawful for the trader to sell commodities within Queensland at anything above an officially proclaimed price, the Court held that so far as it sought to impose this prohibition upon traders of other states this Act was invalid. (McArthur v. Queensland 28 C.L.R. 530.) This decision also has affected the standing of the constituent states of the Commonwealth, by imposing a definite limitation upon their legislative powers. Whether the same limitation would apply to the legislation of the Commonwealth was, of course, not a matter to be decided. But the majority of the Court indicated clearly that they considered it would not. The net result of the judgment would thus appear to be to exclude a whole field of legislation from the jurisdiction of the states and leave it, subject to any further decision of the High Court, to the Commonwealth.

BiBLioGRAPIY.—Sir John Quick, The Legislative Powers of the Commonwealth and the States of Australia (1919); A. D. Ellis, Australia and the League of Nations (1922); and Commonwealth Law Reports, (W. A. Ho.) DEFENCES

OF

THE

COMMONWEALTH

The Defence Acts of 1909 and to11 provided for the compulsory enrolment and military training of all males between the ages of 12 and 18 as cadets, and then between 18 and 26 as citizen soldiers. The Acts compel the boy and the young man to attend so many statutory parades each year and to spend- several days actually in camp—the number in each case varying according to circumstances. The total number of boys at cadet age at the census of 1921 was approximately 300,000. There were 353,000 men of citizen soldier age. By an Act of 1921 the Australian Army system was reorganised on the model of the Australian Imperial Force in the World War. The organisation is territorial, each area providing a battalion of infantry and a proportion of other troops. After training, the citizen soldier passes into the reserve.

i

As a result of the Washington Conference on Disarmament it was decided by the Commonwealth in 1922 that the universal

training law should be continued, but that its operation should be restricted to the more populous centres and to certain quotas only. As from July ı 1925 senior cadet training was confined to one quota instead of four quotas, beginning on July 1 of the year in which persons liable for service reach the age of 17 years. Citizen force training was confined to three instead of seven quotas, beginning on July 1 of the year in which persons liable

AUSTRALIA reach the age of 18 years, and continuing until June 30 of the year in which they reach the age of 21 years. Notwithstanding these reductions in training, the liability to register at the age of 12 years and to serve for the full period prescribed by the Defence Act remained. The Divisional Organisation of the Field Force is retained in skeleton form, units being maintained at considerably below war strength. The total strength of the permanent military forces in 1925 was approximately 38,889. An important section of the reserve is formed by the rifle clubs. In 1925 these clubs, which are officially recognised, numbered 1,383 with a membership of over 80,000. The Royal Military College at Duntroon was established in 1911 for the purpose of training officers for the permanent forces. Over 158 staff cadets graduated between that year and 1918 and saw service during the War. The activities of the college suffered as a result of post-war retrenchments. Naval Policy—In 1909 Australia, which had previously contributed a subsidy to the British Navy, agreed at an Imperial Defence Conference to a proposal for the building of an independent Australian fleet unit. Under this scheme Australia provided a fleet unit of one battle cruiser, three light cruisers, six destroyers and three submarines, which, placed unreservedly at the disposal of the British Admiralty at the outbreak of the World War, did notable service. Additions to the navy, by purchase and gift, were gradually made, and when peace arrived the fleet consisted of one battle cruiser, six light cruisers, twelve destroyers, six submarines and various auxiliaries, sloops and depét ships. The Washington Conference greatly affected Australian naval policy. In acceptance of its decisions the battle cruiser “Australia ” was sunk and 19 other ships paid off. In rg25 the number of ships actually in commission was less than in 1914. A vigorous programme of development was begun, including the construction of two new cruisers, the maintenance of ships out of commission and the establishment of submarine bases and oil depéts.

275

the Government of the Commonwealth. This area was constituted a Federal Territory on Jan. 1 1911. By the Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act 1915, an area of 28 sq. m. at Jervis Bay was surrendered by New South Wales and accepted by the Commonwealth as a port for the Federal Territory. On Jan. r tort, the Northern Territory was transferred by proclamation from the State of South Australia to the Commonwealth, and constituted a Federal Territory. On July 1 1914 Norfolk Island,

a Crown Colony administered by the Government of New South Wales, was taken over by the Federal Parliament as a territory of the Commonwealth. In 1920 the former German possessions of Kaiser Wilhelms Land, the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands were entrusted under mandate from the League of Nations to the Government of the Commonwealth of Australia, and administered as the Territory of New Guinea. The natural increase of births over deaths per 1,000 of the population in the period 1906 to 1910 was 15:93. The population at the census of 1911, exclusive of full-blood aboriginals, was 4,455,005. As a consequence of the World War the rate of increase fell, and for the period 1919 to 1923 the figure was 14-07 per 1,000. At the census of 1921 the population was 5,435,734. The average annual increase for the period 1921 to 1924 was 117,000. Of this number, 68-5°% was due to natural increase and 31:5% to immigration. The increase for 1925 was 110,000, of which 65 °% was natural increase ind 35% immigration. At the end of 1925 the total population approximated 6,000,000. Aboriginal reserves totalling 30,231 sq. m. have been set aside for the native population, and all possible help is given to this primitive people; their number however constantly declines. The ro2r census showed 1,597 in New South Wales, 144 in Victoria, 1,609 in South Australia, and an estimate of 15,587 in Western Australia. The number in the Northern Territory is variously estimated from 20,000 to 50,000, the weight of evidence favouring the former rather than the latter number. In Tasmania the aborigines have been extinct for many years. Growth of Urban Population.—A feature of Australian social Australia has a naval college at Jervis Bay for the education of naval officers; the system closely follows that of naval colleges life is the preponderance of the urban over the rural population. in England, and all expenses of the cadets are met by the Com- In South Australia and Victoria more than one-half of the monwealth Government. There is also a training ship at Sydney total population of the states is concentrated in Adelaide and Melbourne respectively, while over 45% of the population is for other ranks. | In 1912 approval was given for the establishment, as part of contained within six towns. The following table shows the popthe army organisation, of a Central Flying School for the tratn- ulation of these towns on Dec. 31 1924, both in numbers and as ing of aeroplane pilots. Training commenced at Point Cook in percentages of the populations of the respective states. The June 1org and continued actively throughout the War. An Air total is also given as a percentage of the total population of the Adviser to the Navy Department was appointed in 1918. In Commonwealth. 1920 the Australian Air Force was constituted by proclamation | 7 Populao/ Year tion /0 as part of the military forces. On March 31 1921 this force establishapproved The Force. Air became the Royal Australian Sydney (N.S.W.,) 1,012,070 | 44-89 ment is 71 officers and 300 other ranks; the units are a headMelbourne (Vic.) 885,700 | 53°45 quarters at Point Cook, an aircraft depét and training school Brisbane (Qld.) 3ist 245,015 | 29°35 and an experimental section. Over 120 aerodromes and landing Adclaide (S.A,) Dee. 289,914 | 53°84 Perth (W.A.) . 1924 176,467 | 48-46 grounds had been prepared by the end of 1925. Hobart (Tas.) .

II. ECONOMIC

AND

FINANCIAL

HISTORY

Area and Population.—The following table gives the areas and population of the States and Territories of the Australian Commonwealth :— State

New South Wales .

Arca Populain sq. m. | tion 1921

309,432 | 2,100,371

Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia . TE Tasmania Northern Territory Federal Capital

$7,884 | 1,531,280 755,972 670,500| 495,160 380,07 332,732 975,920|

The Commonwealth

2,974,581 | 5.435.734

26,215| 523,620 940

213,780 3,867 2,572

In 1909 the Commonwealth and the State of New South Wales entered into an agreement for the surrender to and acceptance by the Commonwealth of an area of 912 sq. m. as the seat of

Total

56,507 | 25°74

2,665,673

The states and the Commonwealth strive to counterbalance the call of the cities by cheap railway rates for farmers’ goods, by increasing as much as possible such of the conveniences of civilisation as are under state control, by encouraging manufactures in country centres and by other means: all effort seems to be in vain, and the proportion of the urban to the total population is growing. The settlement of the great empty spaces of the Northern Territory still presents an apparently insoluble problem, and successive commissions of inquiry have failed to suggest any adequate remedy for what is generally recognised as a national danger. Immigration.—In regard to immigration, Australian public opinion has undergone a marked change, due chiefly to a fuller appreciation of the danger of a small white population. There was, for many years, a desire on the part of the exceedingly prosperous working-people of Australia to keep out immigrants as much as possible, lest an increase in the population should

AUSTRALIA

276

result in lower wage rates and a fall in the standard of material welfare of the workers. That desire survived in some quarters in 1925 and was still a force to be reckoned with; but it was gradually being recognised that a much larger population was necessary to the safety of the country, and need not affect the individual prosperity of the inhabitants of a continent which has room at a low estimate for 100,000,000 people. In 1906 the policy of state-aided immigration was re-established and, though interrupted by the War, was later revived under Commonwealth direction. In 1920 an arrangement was made between the Commonwealth and state governments, under which the Commonwealth is responsible for the recruiting of immigrants abroad, whilst the state governments

advise the Commonwealth

as to the num-

bers and classes of immigrants they are prepared to receive. The Commonwealth selects the immigrant according to the requirements of the state concerned and brings him to Australia; on his arrival the state takes the responsibility for placing him in employment or on the land. Under an amending Immigration Act (1920) the entry was prohibited:— (a) of any person advocating the overthrow by force or violence of the established Government of the Commonwealth or of any state or of any other civilised country, or of all forms of law, etc. (b) for a period of five years, of any person of German, AustroGerman, Bulgarian or Hungarian parentage and nationality, or of Turk or Ottoman race. 7

By a proclamation issued on Dec. 2 1925, the latter restriction was removed as from that date, except in so far as it affected persons of Turk or Ottoman race. Between 1914 and 1923, 914,436 persons were assisted to migrate to Australia. British immigration was still far from satisfactory in 1925. The following table gives the figures for the years before the

War and the period 1921-4. Grand

I9IO .

IQII

1QI2. 1913.

.

British

British Immi-

Immi-

94:543 | 81,457 | 1921

87,938 | 73,015

. | 163,990 | 146,602 | 1923 |140,251 | 122,443 | 1924

92,859 | 83,200 103,667 | 86,614

139,020 | 124,061 || 1922

93,513 | 82,028

The Empire Settlement Act of 1922, by the terms of which the British Government entered into partnership with the Dominions for the encouragement of assisted immigration, failed

to realise the expectations of its sponsors.

The hostility of

Period 1921-2

Class of Production

I9I1-3

to

19023-4

{

‘Agricultural :

.

Dairy, poultry and bee farming .

Mining . : Manufactures

i

Total .

£

43,563,000 | 83,399,000

'Pastoral . . Forests and fisheries

:

i

53,402,000 | 87,808,000 6,166,000 | 11,169,000 19,909,000 | 43,357,000

24,790,000 | 20,841,000

59,873,000 | 131,556,000

207,703,000 | 378,130,000

1Period Ig11-2 to 1913-4, Allowance should be made for the alteration of price levels between IQII and 1924. It is officially estimated that on 1911 price levels the value of the annual average production for the period 1921-2 to 1923-4 of the agricultural industry was £59,341,000; the pastoral industry, £44,032,000, and the dairying, poultry and bee-keeping

industries, £24,479,000. production and 45-5 % of the total exports. Before 1914 Australia annually produced twice as large a quantity of wool as any other country. Her output in 1912-3 amounted to approximately 700,000,000 lb. out of a world total of some 3,157,000,000 lb., 1.€.,22°6%. In 1921-2 the world production had sunk to 2,697,000,000 lb., of which total Australia was responsible for 631,000,coo lb. or 23:5%. The breeding of sheep for wool is carried on in every state of the Commonwealth, particularly in New South Wales. Owing to climatic conditions, the sheep population of Australia fluctuates considerably. During the period tg1o-25 the lowest number of sheep, 69,000,000, was recorded in 1915 and the highest, 93,000,000, In rg11. In 1923 the number was 80,110,461; a considerable increase occurred in 1924, there being 4,000,000 more in Victoria and Queensland alone. During the period 1885-1925 careful attention to breeding developed a much more valuable type of sheep. Between 1890 and 1920 the average yleld of wool per sheep has risen by about 2 lb. or 40%. In 1913 the average value of merino wool was rod per pound. In 1915-6, owing to war conditions, wool clips accumulated in Australia. The Imperial Wool Purchase Scheme was then established and the Imperial Government purchased, during the remainder of the War period, the Australian clips on a flat rate basis of 1/33d per lb. plus one-half share of any profits realised on sales for civilian purposes. By agreement the price

of 1/34d for Australian wool was maintained for the 1919 season,

Crown Lands are owned by the states, all tended to restrict the

but world prices for the high water mark which was intensified Purchase Scheme in

flow of immigration from the mother country. In May 1925 an important agreement with the British Government to encourage migration to Australia was announced. The British Government offered to make a loan to the Australian Govern-

fell still further, the lowest point being touched in March 1921. On Jan. 27 1921 the British-Australian Wool Realisation Association, Ltd., was formed to take over the balance of stocks held by the British Government, and it undertook the marketing

ment of £34,000,000, provided that, within a period of ro years, 430,000 British emigrants were settled in Australia. The British

of the stocks of Australian wool on behalf of the Imperial Government and of the producers. The concluding sale of the B.A. W.R.A. wool took place on May 2 1924. The total number of cattle in Australia in 1913 was 11,483,882, and in 1923 the number had increased to 13,357,508. In considering the beef industry, from this total must be deducted dairy cattle, numbering 2,035,717 in 1913 and 2,304,644 in 1923. The raising of cattle for beef is the main industry of the northern districts of Western Australia, the Northern Territory and the northwest of Queensland. The War conditions gave a great impetus to the Australian beef industry. The British Government bought the available supplies of Australian beef at fixed prices until 1921, when the price level on the British market was so low that the export of beef from Australia was unprofitable. From 1922 till 1924 the Australian Government was forced to subsidise the export of frozen and canned beef, and of live cattle for slaughter. The year 1925 saw a rise in price which was sufficient to cover the cost of production and marketing, but which was not sufficient to encourage any large increase in production. Australian beef is at a serious disadvantage in comparison with that of

organised labour in Australia, the high standard demanded by

the Commonwealth authorities in London, and the fact that

Government would meet one-half of the interest charges on this

loan during the first five years and one-third during the second five years; it also undertook to bear a proportion of the cost of maintenance of training farms in connection with the scheme, and made certain guarantees against loss. This agreement has to be accepted by all the states of the Commonwealth before it can be given practical effect. Up to the end of 1925, only Victoria and Western Australia had accepted. (F. PE.*) PRODUCTION, INDUSTRY AND TRADE

During the years 1910-25, the pastoral and agricultural industries have continued to be the most important in Australia, though a considerable growth of manufacturing has taken place. The mining industry has, however, declined both in quantity and in value. In the following table the average annual value of the output of the various classes of production are compared. Pasteral Preduction—During the period 1910-3 wool represented 13:3% of the total Australian production and 35-0 % of the total exports, and for 1921-2 to 1923-4, 12-9% of the total

wool were rising rapidly. In April 1920 was reached, but a heavy slump followed, by the termination of the Imperial Wool June 1920, after which the price per lb.

AUST RALIA South America. The best Argentine meat is brought to Great Britain in a chilled state, whereas Australia, being much farther away, has to send her beef in a frozen condition. The further development of the industry is largely dependent on whether scientific research can remove this disadvantage. The importance of the beef industry in Australia is not confined to its own intrinsic value. Cattle, as opposed to sheep, can be travelled large distances and can flourish without elaborate fencing. For these reasons the development of a large portion of Northern Australia is dependent upon cattle. The production of sheep for mutton and lamb has, in Australia, always been subsidiary to wool production, and for this reason less progress has been made in Australia than in New Zealand in this branch of the pastoral industry. ‘The export trade in mutton and lamb is confined to the southern coastal areas of Victoria, New South Wales and South Australia; the average annual exports for the period 1911-3 amounted to 149,957,686 lb. and for 1921-2 to 1923-4 to 990,710,969 pounds. Australia consumes about four-fifths of her production. Experience in the use of superphosphates and clovers on lands within the heavier rainfall areas in South Australia indicates that very considerable developments of mutton and lamb production will occur in the near future. Agricultural Products —Great progress has been made in improvement of the methods of production and in the varieties of wheat grown. These improvements have led to an increased yield per acre which is the more noteworthy when it is realised that the production of wheat has been extending into drier areas. The results which have been obtained in the drier areas make it evident that the area under wheat in 1925 could be trebled without substantially lowering the average yield per acre. The progress made in wheat production in the Commonwealth is indicated in the table given below:—

277

son for the encouragement from government sources of this experimental development has been the idea that the production of cotton in Australia is particularly suitable for the small farmer, and, if successful, will lead to a rapid extension of land settlement. Dairying.— Dairying, as shown by the following table, has expanded considerably during the period 1r911—24:— Annual Average

a Dairy cattle (milking) Miik produced for all purposes. . Butter production

- I9II-3°

1,547,016 — 578,012,226 gal. . 199,508,714 lb.

1921-2 to 1923-4 1,654,268

704,370,465 gal. 242,910,734 lb.

The most important product of the dairying industry is butter; 40% of the production was exported during the period 1911-3 and 37% during 1921-2 to 1923-4. The season 1924-5 witnessed a largely increased export, amounting to 145,281,000 lb. or 79,000,000 Ib. more than in 1923-4. The co-operative pro-

duction of butter from milk has made more progress in Australia than any other branch of agricultural production; 70% of the total output is manufactured In co-operatively owned butter factories. The Australian dairying industry has been extensive rather than intensive, but the present tendency is to attach an increasing importance to intensive methods.

Attention

is being directed towards the improvement of the breeding of

dairy cattle and to the progressive Improvement of pastures. | Forestry.—A post-War revival of interest in forestry resulted in state encouragement of the educational side. The annual average amount of local timber sawn or hewn in the Commonwealth during the period 1911-3 was 649,110,000 super. ft., and for 1921~2 to 1923-4, 615,986,000 super. feet. The exports of dressed and undressed timbers (hardwood) show a distinct deAnnual Average | cline between the annual average for 1911-3 and the annual average for 1921-2 to 1923-4 from 134,078,000 super. ft. in I9II-2 to 1913-4 | 1921-2 to 1923-4 | the earlier period to 96,866,000 super. ft. in the later period. Arca under wheat Fruit.—Fruit production in Australia may be classified under 8,018,294 ac. 9,674,445 ac. Total yield .

Belgian Counter Attach

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CAV. DIV. RGT

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358

BELGIUM, INVASION

Strength of Liége—With the help of the 3rd Div. the Liége garrison was brought up to about 30,000 men.

Gen. Leman was

in command. While he hastened to have trenches dug between the forts, his main concern after Aug. 3 was to blow up the railway tunnels and barricade the roads leading from Germany. It was well that he did so, for on the 4th, at 8 a.m, six German columns crossed the frontier on the line Aix-la-Chapelle-St. Vith, and at noon gun and rille fire were heard at Visé. The importance of the fortress lay in the fact that it controlled the lines of march of the German I. and II. Armies. Now the success of the plan of campaign conceived by the general staff in Berlin depended upon the rapid crossing of the Belgian plains by these armies, and Gen. von Moltke, to avoid being held up in any way by Liége, had planned to carry the position during the concentration period (while troops were being carried up by rail) with a special army composed of six brigades at peace strength and the three divisions of Gen. von der Marwitz’s cavalry corps. Accordingly, Gen. von Emmich, with his ‘ Army of the Meuse” (consisting of 25,000 rillemen, 10,000 cavalrymen and 124 guns) was ordered to carry the place by a handstroke. The forts were to be masked by a few companies and their artillery neutralised by his batteries while six brigade columns would penetrate the intervals. This assault was to take place by night, and the columns were to make their way independently toward the town and storm this at daybreak. The aim of the whole enterprise was to secure the bridges before they could be destroyed. As regards the temerity of this scheme, it is only fair to say that Von Moltke expected to find merely the normal garrison of 6,000 men in Liége. , German Advance —On the morning of Aug. 4 the 4th Div., followed by cyclists and chasseurs conveyed by motors, made its way rapidly along the Dutch frontiers to Visé. The roads had been barricaded with felled trees and it was noon before the cavalry reached the Meuse, only to find the bridge submerged and the opposite bank lined with rillemen. On Aug. 5 a coup de main aimed at Fort Barchon was severely punished by the shortrange fire from the fortress guns. At to P.M. the various brigades, having completed their reconnaissances and the installation of their batteries, proceeded concentrically to the attack. The onset of the battle was marked by great tension on either side and heavy thunder showers accompanied it. Of the five brigades which attacked on the right bank, four were completely repulsed. In the south the 38th and 43rd in particular suffered severe losses round about Sart Tilman; they retreated over five miles the next day. The 34th Bde., which attacked alone on the left bank after crossing the Meuse near to the Dutch frontier, was held up for several hours on the outskirts of Herstal by street fighting and left 400 prisoners in the hands of the Belgians, as well as a colour of the 87th Mecklenburg Regiment. By a strange chance a hali-company of Jiigers, detached as a flank guard, made their way quite unopposed into the town, reaching the Rue Sainte Foi about 7 A.M., where the garrison headquarters were situated. An aide-de-camp of Leman and the captain of the company killed each other on the spot, and the escort, snatching up their rifles, put the Jägers to flight. This extraordinary incident led the commander of the defence to believe that the enemy had brought over considerable forces to the left bank. Fearing that the troops defending the right bank might be cut off, he at once sent them an order to recross the river, a decision by which the last of the German brigades was to benefit considerably. This brigade, the 14th, marching from east to west, was entrusted with the attack between Forts Fléron and Evégnee, but had been stopped short by rifle and gun fire in the intervening village, its advanced guard being decimated, its general and one colonel killed. It would probably have come to a definite standstill but for the arrival at this critical moment, by another stroke of fortune, of Gen. Ludendorff, who was watching the operations on behalf of the German Il. Army and was the very author of the plan of attack. Atiack under Ludendorff — Taking over the command he ordered a renewal of the attack and, as Leman had sent all his

reserves to Sart Tilman, succeeded in pushing back the three

OF

weak battalions opposed to him in an all-night street battle. Toward 10 A. M. he arrived on the heights over Liége with his brigade reduced by half and almost without munitions, uneasy rather than proud of his success, for there was no sign of the other attacking troops. A few small columns were visible in the distance turning westward; these were the victorious Belgian troops, recalled to the other bank by the order to retreat. They were, however, so exhausted that once they had left the trenches they were incapable of engaging in a fresh battle. Leman, acting on belief that the whole of the German VII. and X. Corps were against him, gave orders to the 3rd Div. to rejoin the field army. He himself would continue to hold off the enemy with fortsalone. Thus Ludendorff was able to enter the town of Liége without further opposition on the morning of Aug. 8. Most of the bridges had been destroyed. The forts, all of which were still intact, kept watching roads and railways, their guns making the use of either impossible. Urged by Ludendorff’s energetic representations, the German general staff now formed a new siege army, under Gen, von Einem, which comprised, in addition to Von Emmich’s group, all the troops of the VIL, IX. and X. Corps—taken as they detrained—and some powerful heavy artillery, including several battalions of 21-cm. mortars and four 42-cm. howitzers. A new mode of attack was tried. One by one the forts were isolated, closely invested and bombarded with concentrated fire, which blew them to pieces and at the same time threatened to asphyxiate the garrisons.

Fall of the Forts—The defenders came through their ordeal with honour, and would certainly have held out longer but for the irresistible effect of the 42-cm. shells. Pontisse, Fléron and Chaudfontaine only gave in when they had reached the limit of human endurance. On Aug. 15, at 5 P.M., the fort of Loncin sprang into the air, lifted by the explosion of a powder magazine hit by a 42-cm. shell, 350 men being buried under the débris. By a stroke of luck Leman was picked up, unconscious, on the rim of this enormous crater by the Germans, who were themselves horrified by the spectacle. The last of the forts surrendered on the 16th, leaving the way clear, at last, for the Germans to whom the passage meant so much. While these events were taking place at Liége the rst, 2nd, ard and 6th Divs. and the Cav. Div. were assembling in the region ‘Tirlemont-Perwez-Louvain. The plan of marching towards the Meuse was perforce abandoned on the information that the

Liége position was broken and the grd Div. in retreat. CONSEQUENCES OF THE FALL or LIEGE

Belgian Position Outlined —On the morning of Aug. 4, when the crossing of the frontier by German troops had become an established fact, King Albert had sent a note to the British, French and Russian governments announcing the violation of Belgian neutrality, and proposing “a concerted and common action by the guaranteeing powers in order to resist Germany.” In reply Gen. Joffre sent one of his staff officers to say that the French troops, amounting to four army corps, could not reach the region of Namur before about the 15th. Help from England would necessarily take still longer to come. Under these conditions the King decided that the army should remain in its positions, which were: (1) the forts of Liége, acting as isolated works, under Leman; (2) the fortress of Namur, reinforced by the 4th Div; (3) the entrenched camp of Antwerp, guarded by about 40,000 fortress troops; and (4) the field army, 90,000 strong, entrenched behind the river Gette, forming a link between Antwerp and Namur, covering Brussels and excellent railway lines which could be used by any French or British troops that came to the rescue. Unfortunately, the Allies were not to profit by these arrangements. The French would not think of anything except their attack in Lorraine and the Ardennes; the British did not arrive at Mons before Aug. 22. As fast as the Lidge forts fell to the superguns the Germans commenced to push their troops across the Meuse without intermittence. As early as Aug. 10 Marwitz’s cavalry corps had thrown itself on the Belgian front at Tirlemont. On the r2th he tried to turn that front through

BELGRADE—BELL, C. F. M.

359

Haelen near Diest. Here he met the small Belgian cavalry divi-

The defenders were swept off their feet.

sion, supported by four battalions and was completely routed, leaving soo killed and wounded and 1,000 horses on the field. On the evening of Aug. 17, the German I. and II. Armies having

though enveloped, they put up a desperate resistance; and as a

reached the front Hasselt—St. Trond-Huy, the Kaiser ordered the general advance. The next day, at 9 o’clock, Gen. von Kluck attacked the Belgians on the Gette between Tirlemont and Diest with seven divisions of the IX., IV., III. and H. Corps, while one division of the II. Corps and the 2nd Cav. Div. turned the left flank on the north to cut off the retreat on Antwerp. Retreat to Antwerp.—This attack was no surprise to the King. For several days reports had been coming through that greatly superior forces of at least 200,000 men were approaching. Gen. Lanrezac’s French troops had got only as far as Philippeville and the British Expeditionary Force as far as Le Cateau. To avoid useless and complete destruction, the Belgian Army began to retire slowly on Antwerp, fighting rearguard actions at Tirlemont on the r8th and at Aerschot on the roth, and taking up its position on the line of the Antwerp forts on the z2oth. On this day, the Germans entered Brussels. THE

SIEGE

OF NAMUR

The Belgium 4th Div. remained at Namur. The moment it lost touch with the bulk of the Belgian Army, it became part of the fighting system of the Franco-British forces. German Plan of Altack.—On the morning of Aug. 18 Joffre issued a succession of orders in which it was laid down that the French III. and IV. Armies should advance into the Ardennes and the French V. Army and the British Expeditionary Corps take the offensive west of the Meuse in the direction of GemblouxNivelles. The two last-named armies were not in a position to execute this order; it was not until Aug. 23 that they assembled on the line Mons-Charleroi-Namur. Meanwhile, the Germans having discovered—through the reconnaissances of their airmen—the French columns marching northwards between Maubeuge and Dinant, gave Von Biilow—already in command of the I. and JI. Armies—authority over the III. Army, which was to strike the Meuse between Namur and Givet, and made up their mind to overwhelm the Allied left by a converging attack delivered by 15 corps. It was essential to the scheme that the fortress of Namur should be carried with the least possible delay. The task was entrusted to a special army detachment under von Gallwitz. It included the Guards Res. Corps, the XI. Corps, three pioneer regiments, five battalions of 21-cm. howitzers, two battalions of heavy guns, one battery of 42-cm. howitzers and four of 30-5 Austrian howitzers. These troops came into position northeast of the fortress. To complete the investment the IIT.

Army detached the 24th Res. Div. north of Dinant and the II. Army the 14th Res. Div. south of Gembloux. ‘Thus during the two days of the battle of Charleroi the 30,000 men of the Namur garrison drew upon themselves six enemy divisions and 500 guns. Bombardment of Namur.—The attack on Namur was quite different from that on Liége. There was no longer any question of a surprise. Von Gallwitz, who in peace time was inspectorgeneral of artillery, aimed at an artillery preparation so devastating as to render the defence incapable of resistance to the assault. All his batteries concentrated their fire upon three forts, Maizeret, Marchovelette and Cognelée, and on the interval between the two last named, where he intended to make a breach. The bombardment commenced at to A.M. on Aug. 21, continued throughout the night and the whole of the following day, and reached its height on the morning of the 23rd. The trenches and the wire—at that time very slight—had disappeared. The forts were reduced to shapeless ruins; all their cupolas were put out of action. Surrender of Namur.—Three French battalions had arrived in the fortress. A counter-attack, half Belgian, half French, attempted to repulse the enemy artillery, but failed. The defending troops suffered steady extermination without being able to fire a shot. Finally, at tr A.M. the German infantry masses made a sudden onrush—three divisions of them to a front of 43 km., held by what remained of nine battalions of Joo men.

At many points, al-

result it was not until evening that the assailant reached the outskirts of the town. Gen. Michel, commanding the fortress, had disposed a brigade facing northwest to co-operate in the French offensive which he was impatiently expecting. At about 1.30 P.M. he heard, however, on the one hand that the French on his left had been driven back southward instead of advancing to the north; on the other that the Germans, far behind his right, had crossed the Mcuse between Namur and Dinant. With their front broken the garrison ran the risk of being enveloped and surrounded. Michel

therefore expedited the order for an immediate retreat toward the southeast. By dint of 48 hours of forced marches—coming after a three days’ battle—the greater part of the garrison succeeded in rejoin-

ing the French troops and a fortnight later in reinforcing the Belgian army at Antwerp. Five or six thousand men of the rearguard were trapped between the flank corps of the German II. and III. Armies, and after several skirmishes were forced to surrender. ‘The six forts which were still active at Namur were able to hold up Von Gallwitz’s forces two days longer. Suarlée and Andoy only surrendered on the evening of Aug. 25 after having offered a memorable resistance to the enemy’s mortars, which bombarded them simultaneously from all sides. See also ANTWERP, SIEGE OF; FRONTIERS, BATTLES OF THE. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — P. Hamelius, The Siege of Liége (1914); P. Northomb, La Belgique Martyre (1915); G. H. Perris, The Campaign in France and Belgium (1915); C. Sarolea, Mow Belgium Saved Europe (1915); L. van der Essen, L'invasion allemande en Belgique (1917); Marschall von Bieberstein, Littich-Namur (1918). See also WORLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY. (R. vAN O.) 4

BELGRADE (see 3.681d) had a population of 111,740 in 1921. The town is rapidly losing what remains of its Oriental appearance, though the side streets are still cobbled and muddy, with small single-story dwellings and shops, as the Serbs are building extensively to cope with the acute shortage of houses. The tropical diseases research laboratory has been amassing data as to the danger threatened by malaria in the district. The National Bank was enlarged in 1925, and a new high road completed to Cattaro. The city is connected by rail with the Adriatic ports of Spalato and Sebenico. Belgrade suffered two severe bombardments and changed hands four times early in the War. The World War began with the bombardment of Belgrade by the Austrians on July 29 r914. In 1914 it was taken by the Austro-Germans, but the Serbs made a brilliant return, and in Dec. King Peter made a triumphant entry into his capital. Large numbers of prisoners were taken, but both they and their captors fell victims to a terrible plague of typhus. In Sept. 1915 a general attack was

made by Austrians and Germans on the river frontier. Continuous bombardment for more than a fortnight made Belgrade untenable and it was partly evacuated by the Serbs. There was bitter fighting in the streets, but on Oct. 9 the town fell. It remained in the enemy’s hands until the end of the War, and when the Serbs returned to Belgrade, the Austrian Empire had fallen and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was already in existence. BELL, ALEXANDER GRAHAM (1847-1922), American inventor (see 3.684), died Aug. 2 1922 at his summer home near Baddeck, Nova Scotia. BELL, CHARLES FREDERICK MOBERLY (1847-1911), British journalist, was born in Alexandria, Egypt, April 2 1847. Educated privately in England, he returned to Egypt in 186s, and there took up journalistic work, becoming The Times correspondent and founding The egyptian Gazette. In 1890 he returned to London as assistant manager of The Times and to the end his great energies were devoted to the service of that

paper. Although in some ways rather out of touch with technical developments, his strong will, indomitable courage and tremendous industry were instrumental in keeping The Times alive during some very difficult years. This was the time when he was associated with Mr. H. E. Hooper in publishing and selling The Encyclopedia Britannica and founding the Times Book

360

BELLEAU

WOODS— BENCKENDORFF

Club. This dominating personality again asserted itself in 1908, when, in spite of much opposition, he brought about the sale of The Times to Lord Northcliffe. He then became managing editor, a post he retained until his death in his office chair on April 5 t911. While in Egypt, Bell wrote several books, including Khedives and Pashas (1884); Egyptian Finance (1887); From Pharaoh to Fellah (1889). See F. Harcourt Kitchen, Afoberty Bell and his Times (1925). BELLEAU WOODS, a tract of forest land, in area less than a sq. m., 5 m. northwest of Château-Thierry, and 42 m. east of Paris, where a fiercely contested battle took place between the United States and German forces in June and July 1918. When the third German offensive was launched on the Aisne front, the 2nd Div. of the American Expeditionary Force under Gen. Bundy was rushed to the assistance of the VI. French Army and deployed across the Paris-Château-Thierry road west of the latter town. On its front lay Belleau Woods and the villages of Torcy, Bouresches

and Vaux, all occupied by the enemy.

The

Germans had been halted at Château-Thierry but were consolidating themselves at Vaux and in Belleau Woods in preparation for a renewed advance west of Château-Thierry. The task of dislodging them was entrusted to the marine corps brigade under Gen. Harbord. The attack was made on June 6, and the woods were penetrated but could not be held. The ground was extremely dificult, almost impenetrable underbrush covering a rugged outcrop of rock. Three days later the attack was renewed. The fighting was bitter, but, after a struggle lasting over a fortnight, the woods were finally taken by the marines; Bouresches and Vaux were also captured and the German advance was effectively blocked. In this engagement the Germans lost 24 guns andl 1,654 prisoners, but the United States losses were severe, amounting to 285 officers and 7,585 men killed, wounded and missing. The battleground was in 1923 dedicated as a permanent memorial to the United States officers and men who lost their lives there, and the French Govt. ordered the name to be changed to that of Bois de la Brigade de Marine. (See GERMAN OFFENSIVE.) BELLOC, JOSEPH HILAIRE PIERRE (:870)}, British author, was born at La Celle, St. Cloud, France, July 27 1870, the son of a French barrister, Louis Swanton Belloc. His mother, Bessie Rayner Parkes (1829-1925), was prominent in the early days of the woman suffrage movement. Belloc was educated at the Oratory School, Edgbaston, then, as a French citizen, served with the artillery at Toul, afterwards entering Balliol College, Oxford, in 1893. He was naturalised in 1902. He was elected M.P. for Salford from 1906 to rg1o, first as a Liberal then as an Independent. Verses and Sonnets (1896) launched Belloc on a varied, not to say tempestuous, literary voyage. Historical studies of Danton (1899) and Robespierre (1901) first proved his lively historical sense and compelling prose style. His independence of mind in politics showed itself at Oxford, later as a staunch “ pro-Boer,”’ and again in the circumstances of his retirement from parliamentary politics; it was shown too, in his association with Cecil Chesterton in conducting The Eye Witness, and in writing Phe Party System (1911), and The Servile State (1912). Books of nonsense rhymes, such as The Bad Child’s Book of Beasts (1896); The Path to Rome (1902); satires such as Afr. Clutterbuck’s Election (1908) and The Afercy of Auk (1922); numerous volumes of essays and travel sketches; collected poems (1924); military and topographical studies; and The Critise of the Nona (1925)—these are samples of a great versatility of talent. As an upholder of nationalism and the Catholic tradition, Belloc has summed up his attitude best in two of his works, The Jews (1922), andl Europe aud the Faith (1920). BELLOWS, GEORGE WESLEY (1882-1925), American artist, was born in Columbus, O., Aug. 12 1882. Educated at Ohio State University, he moved in 1904 to New York, where he studied art under Robert Henri. In r910, 1918 and 1919 he was an instructor at the Art Students’ League in New York City, and in rọrọ taught also at the Chicago Art Institute. His work is

distinguished by dignity of composition,

vitality and intense

interest in life.

His drawings and lithographs include many

notable illustrations of sporting subjects, and his painting showed at first a preference for sable shades. Later, however, he added to the distinction of his drawing a rich, vibrant use of colour. Among his paintings may be mentioned “ Jean and Anna,” in the Albright Art Gallery, Buffalo, N. Y.; ‘‘ Emma and Her Children,” in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts; “ Portrait of my Mother,” in the Chicago Art Institute; ‘‘ Polo Game,” in the Columbus Gallery of Fine Arts; “ Stag at Sharkeys,’’ in the Cleveland Museum; “‘ Men of the Docks,” owned by Randolph Macon Woman’s College, Lynchburg, Va.; “ Up the Hudson,” in the Metropolitan Museum, New York City; and ‘‘ North River,” in the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia. He died in New York City Jan. 8 1925. BELMONT, AUGUST (1853-1924), American banker and financier (see 3.710), died in New York City Dec. 10 1924.

BENAVENTE Y MARTINEZ, JACINTO (1866-

_—+), Spanish

playwright and critic, was born in Madrid Aug. 12 1866, the son of a physician. He entered the law faculty of the university there, but, preferring literature, left without taking a degree. His first critical work was Letters of Women (1893) which he followed up with the comedy El Nido Ajeno (1894). He came under the influence of the French theatre for a brief time but soon distinguished himself by originality, imagination and classic purity of style. His light and elegant comedies were at first criticised as deficient in action, merely satirical dialogues aimed against society and its most sacred traditions. But he soon received encouragement from both the public and the critics and his various experiments in theatrical production never once resulted in serious failure. When his first comedy was produced the Spanish stage was monopolised by the Basque, José Echegaray (see 8.870), but Benavente soon proved his superiority and took his place. His dialogue is always brilliant, his characters true to life and the action never flags. Several of Benavente’s plays have been translated into various foreign languages and produced in remote parts of the world. He himself travelled through the United States and Spanish America superintending the execution of his plays by a company formed under his own eye. In 1922 he received the Nobel Prize for literature. Among

his most

notable

plays are

Invested

Interests

(1907),

Saturday Night (1903), Brute Force (1908), The Vulgar (1901), The Mistress of the House (1901) and The Rose of Autumn (1905).

BENCKENDORFF, ALEXANDER, Count (1849-1917), Russian diplomat, was born in 1849. He entered the diplomatic service in 1869 and began his career as an attaché in Florence, proceeding thence to Rome. In 1897 he was appointed minister in Copenhagen, and remained there until 1903. The Copenhagen post gave him an exceptional opportunity for watching the principal moving powers of European politics from a point of

vantage, as the matrimonial alliances of the Danish Royal Family occasionally brought together in a friendly family circle the widow of Alexander IH., Nicholas II. and the Prince of Wales, who was to become King Edward VII. In this way Count Benckendorff received his initiation into the spirit of an AngloRussian rapprochement even before it actually resulted in an Entente. When he was promoted, in 1903, ambassador to the Court of St. James, the atmosphere seemed anything but favourable to an Anglo-Russian rapprochement. The rivalry of the two Powers in the East was growing more and more acute. But when the storm had discharged itself in the Japanese War, Count Benckendorff had an important share in bringing about a change for the better. On the conclusion of the secret convention at

Björkö (1905) between Wilhelm II. and Nicholas IT., which was likely to disrupt the Franco-Russian Alliance and so involve Russia in a continental league against England, Count Benckendorff was invited to Copenhagen and served as a confidential intermediary between Russia and Great Britain, The Björkö intrigue evaporated without leaving any tangible result, and the historic rapprochement between Great Britain, France and Russia took its course. Benckendorff made his home in London where he died Jan. rr 1917.

BENEDICT BENEDICT XV. (1854-1922), Pope, was born at Pegli, in the diocese of Genoa, Nov. 21 1854, his name being Giacomo della Chiesa. In contrast to his immediate predecessor Pius X., who was of humble origin and whose ministerial experience was mainly pastoral, Benedict XV. was descended from one of the oldest families of Italy, and his work had been chiefly in the official or diplomatic service of the Holy See. His ancestors in the Middle Ages were enrolled in the patricians of Genoa, while

other branches of his family followed the popes to Avignon in the 14th century. Giacomo della Chiesa was educated in the seminary and at the University of Genoa, where he took his degree as doctor of law in 1875. Afterwards he went to Rome and studied for the priesthood in the Collegio Capranica, from which he passed to the Accademia dei Nobili Ecclesiastici, the usual training school for those who devote themselves to the carriera, or diplomatic service, of the Vatican. Here he became the friend of Cardinal Rampolla, who, on being sent in 1883 as papal nuncio, to Madrid, took Chiesa with him as his private secretary. Ie remained in Spain four years, and in 1887, when Leo XIII.

recalled Rampolla to make him his Secretary of State, Chiesa also returned to Rome and was made minutante in his department. His work was the summarising and inditing of the official letters and dispatches of the Holy See, combined with the functions of confidential secretary. As he discharged these duties for 13 years, he was able to acquire a unique knowledge of the international relations of the Church throughout the world. In 1903, when Cardinal Merry del Val succeeded Rampolla as Secretary of State, Chiesa was retained in his post. On Dec. 16 1907 Pius X. appointed him Archbishop of Bologna, and on May 25 1914 raised him to the dignity of cardinal. The outbreak of the World War in Aug. of that year, and the death of Pius X. a few weeks later, found him in the midst of the pastoral duties of his great diocese. At this time, as CardinalArchbishop of Bologna, he delivered a remarkable address on the attitude and duty of the Church during the War, and strongly emphasised the paramount importance of the Holy See observing strict neutrality, while leaving nothing undone to restore peace and goodwill and to mitigate suffering. The address caused a deep impression, and was no doubt much in the minds of the cardinals when they assembled in conclave for the election of a new pope on Aug. 31 1914. On Sept. 3, after ro scrutinics, or votings, Cardinal della Chiesa was elected by a large majority, and was proclaimed from the balcony of St. Peter’s as Benedict XV. During the War he preserved an attitude of strict neutrality, and made several attempts to effect peace. Official relations between France and the Vatican were resumed, and a British representative was accredited to the Papal Court for the first time since the 17th century. He died Jan. 22 1922. See PAPACY. BENEŠ, EDWARD (:884), Czechoslovak statesman, was born May 28 1884 in the village of KoZlany, Czechoslovakia. His parents were poor peasants, but the boy was educated in the faculty of philosophy at Prague University, where fees are small and are wholly remitted in the case of poor students. He continued his education at the Sorbonne and the Ecole de Science Politique in Paris, then at Dijon, where he graduated as doctor of laws (1908). In 1909 he was appointed professor of economics at the Prague Academy of Commerce; in 1912 lecturer, and in 1922 professor in sociology at the University of Prague. When the World War broke out he was still a young man of 30, but was already one of the leaders of the Czechoslovak nationalist

movement, and soon became Dr. Masaryk’s right-hand man in

the work of intensive nationalist propaganda which was precipitated by the World War. In rg15 he went to Paris to work as a journalist and diplomat in the cause of Czechoslovak liberation from the Habsburg yoke. There he collaborated with Dr. T. G. Masaryk and Gen. Stefanik in support of the Allied cause. In that same year he was made general secretary in the Czechoslovak National Council, the executive body of the national movement, which in 1918 was recognised by the Allies as the Czechoslovak Provisional Government,

XV.—BENES

36I

Place in European Politics.—Dr. Beneš became Foreign Minister in the newly formed government, and himself formed one government (1921-2). He was the head of the Czechoslovak Delegation to the Paris Peace Conference (1919-20), and a sig-

natory of the Peace Treaties.

He was appointed Czechoslovak

representative at the League of Nations in 1920; was elected a member of the League Council in 1923, and re-elected in 1925.

Ile was co-founder of the Little Entente in Aug. 1920, part-author and keen advocate of the Geneva Protocol of 1924, and represented Czechoslovakia at the many diplomatic conferences to which she was a party after the War. On behalf of his country he initialled the Locarno Treaties on Oct. 16 1925, and signed them in London, on Dee. 1 1925. The outstanding personality of BeneS in the post-War years was, not unnaturally, the cause of controversy among students of affairs in western Europe, especially in Great Britain. British opinion of the Left criticised him on the occasion of several Franco-British diplomatic crises between 1920 and 1924, especially those created by the Genoa Conference and the Geneva Protocol, on the ground that his orientation was toward Paris rather than toward London. Others criticised him on the alleged ground of “ interference ” between Paris and London; and yet again, that his policy was that of an opportunist. The view, however, that is supported by the evidence of Dr. Beneš’ public statements and by his record of action, appears to be that he regarded Czechoslovak political independence, in the first instance, as due largely to the Franco-British Entente and was therefore anxious to preserve the continuance of tkat Entente. Franco-British diplomatic quarrels caused him anxiety, both for the particular interests of Czechoslovak security and for the general interests of European stability. At the same time, he showed himself to be an unsentimental realist, holding the view that a negative attitude in diplomacy was a blunder, irrespective of the merits of the case. His object was the political and economic consolidation of Czechoslovakia, to be effected through the regional method of the Little Entente and through a general European stabilisation. He adopted a most progressive policy toward Russia, Czechoslovakia being the first country in Europe to restart trade with that country. In common with the statesmen of most of the small nations in Europe, Dr. Benes wished to see the principle of universal compulsory arbitration enshrined in international law. He partly evolved and subsequently advocated the Geneva Protocol of 1924. To Dr. Benes the main attraction of the protocol was that it would, in his view, safeguard the interests of the small states, and best serve the tnterests of Europe. It was not till the eve of the Locarno Conference in 1925, that he abandoned his public appeals on behalf of the principles of the protocol (even though the protocol itself was a dead letter by then); and he made it clear, when the Locarno Treaties were initialed, that he regarded them as an instalment of the protocol idea. Dr. Beneš never concealed that in his view and in that of his Yugoslav and Rumanian colleagues it was an important function of the Little Entente to prevent any Hungarian or Habsburg coup against the 191g settlement. It was largely due to his influence that the two attempts of April and Oct. 1921, to restore the Habsburg régime at Budapest, failed. Dr. Benes has shown himself to be progressive in policy, and exceptionally well informed. His unbroken period of office, his work for the League of Nations and the close touch he has maintained with European affairs during seven years make him one of the most influential of post-War statesmen in Europe. After the Locarno ‘Treaties were negotiated he at once began laying the diplomatic foundations for a “ Locarno ”’ treaty for the east of Europe, to which Hungary should be a party on the analogy of Germany’s participation in the western pact. Ie is the author of some 12 vol. on political and sociological subjects. His published works are mainly concerned with political economy and social condi|tions in Central Europe (see LITTLE ENTENTE). BIBLIOGRA PHY.— Periodic

pamphlets,

reproducing

his

public

statements, issued by Orbis (Prague, 1920-5); E. Beneš, Five Years of Csechoslovak Foreign Policy (1924).

(G. GL.)

362 BENN, WILLIAM WEDGWOOD (1877—

BENN—BENZ -), British politician,

was born May ro 1877 in London. He entered Parliament in 1906 as Liberal member for St. George’s, Tower Hamlets, which he represented until 1918. He was a Lord of the Treasury from 1oro to 1915, being an efficient and popular junior whip, and was acting chairman of the National Insurance Commission. A promoter of the National Relief Fund, he was chairman of the executive committee when it was reorganised in 1914. He volunteered for service in the World War and had a distinguished record, receiving the D.S.O. for his services in the R.N.A.S. His liaison work with the French and Italian forces earned him the Croix de Guerre and the Italian Bronze Valour Medal and War Cross. After the War, Capt. Benn returned to politics, being elected for Leith as an Independent Liberal in 1918 and re-elected at subsequent elections. He was one of the small Radical group formed within the Liberal party after the general election of 1924 and, as such, was an extremely active member of the Opposition. BENNETT, CHARLES EDWIN (71858-1921), American classical scholar (see 3.740), died May 2 1921 at Ithaca, New York. His later publications include Syntax of Early Latin, 2 vol. (1910, 1914); New Latin Composition (1912)andan English translation of Horace’s Odes and Epodes (1914) in the Loeb Classical Library. BENNETT, ENOCH ARNOLD (1867), British author, was

born in the district of Shelton, northeast of Hanley, one of the “Five Towns” in Staffordshire, May 27 1867, was educated there, and entered the offices of a lecal solicitor. In 1893 he abandoned law, and came to London, where he successfully practised journalism. His first novel of any distinction was Anna of the Five Towns (1902). By The Old Wives’ Tale (1908) he definitely established his reputation as the French realists’ most eminent and faithful disciple who, moreover, could draw on rich memories of the manners of the middle classes in the English Midlands and who could exercise an inimitable humour. Meanwhile this humour found other vents than through his more ambitious work. Azza of the Five Towns is contemporary with the wild extravaganza, The Grand Babylon Hotel, and he interrupted the composition of The Old Wives’ Tale to write Buried Alive, a gay trifle not properly appreciated until it was dramatised. If The Card (1911), followed by The Regent (1913), devoted to the career of the adventurous Denry, best illustrated Mr. Bennett’s humour, it is in the Clayhanger series that his imagination reaches the highest point. Clayhanger itself was published in i910, and its sequel Hilda Lessways in torr. In these novels Mr. Bennett not only created characters of unusual vitality and implicated them in an absorbing plot, but he also interpreted to the world the life of the Pottery towns, the 19th century to the zoth. A well-known cartoon by Max Beerbohm expresses the impatience of the public at the delay in the appearance of the third volume of the trilogy. But These Twain (1916) was disappointing.

Thereafter it seemed that the novelist, having exhausted his memories of the Five Towns, had also exhausted his talents. Such books as The Pretty Lady (1918), and Mr. Prohack (1922) are vivid, expert, but seem intended rather to express the vulgar delight of a provincial in metropolitan luxury than to reflect the genius of a great artist. But Riceyman Steps (1923), the study of a miser and his loyal servant, although the scene is set in London and not in the Five Towns, again displays the psychological subtlety, the grim humour and the honest pathos of the

earlier Bennett.

.

As a playwright Mr. Bennett has been content to exercise his lighter talents. Milestones (1912), in which he collaborated with Edward Knoblock, remains his most notable work, though What the Public Wants (1909), a comedy of the modern newspaper, The Great Adventure (1913), the dramatic version of Buried Alive, and The Title (1918) have been deservedly praised. His sense of the theatre has proved too strong to enable him to put forward there original ideas, or to confuse the audience by new devices. Similarly, in the short story, Mr. Bennett seems primarily to have ensued technical efficiency. The volume of stories called The Grim Smile of the Five Towns (1907) belongs to the best

period of Mr. Bennett’s earlier manner, but contains nothing of enduring merit, and Elsie and the Child (1924), apart from its title story, a sequel to Riceyman Steps, is little more than good journalism. Mention must also be made of the works of popular philosophy. In them common sense is more conspicuous than profundity of thought or literary elegance. Nor should the descriptive sketches, of which Paris Nights is an early example, be forgotten. Rough and at times garrulous, they nevertheless show gusto. In a fantasy of Mr. Wells, the following notes from an undelivered address appear: “f Arnold Bennett as an aborted Great Man, would have made a great Victorian and had a crowd of satellite helpers. Now no one will treasure his old hats and pipes.”” If indeed Mr. Bennett’s hats and pipes are not collected by posterity, the spirit of the times will be principally to blame. Like Dickens, Mr. Bennett is an unsophisticated and occasionally exasperating novelist, but like Dickens he has learnt how to command at once the applause of the few and the favour of the many. The few find in his serious work the fruits of a memory and observation even more precious than an exuberant fancy, a sanity and humaneness eminent in contemporary fiction, and a striking intelligence. (H. C. Ha.) BENNETT, JAMES GORDON (1841-1918), American newspaper proprietor (see 3.740), died Mav 14 1918 in Paris, whence he had long directed the policies of The New York Herald. In his will he provided for the establishment of the James Gordon Ben-

nett Memorial Home for New York Journalists in memory of his father, the founder of The New York Herald. BENSON, ARTHUR CHRISTOPHER (1862-1925), British man

of letters (see 3.745), died at Cambridge June 17 1925. After roro he published several books, mostly essays and sketches of people he had known; and in 1926 a posthumous novel, The Canon, appeared. His best work, however, was probably done in biography, but the true force of his personality was never fully preserved in his writings; it was given to Eton, his college, and his friends. His brother, ROBERT Hucn BENSON (1871-1914), died at Salford, Lancs., Oct. 19 1914. BENSON, FRANK WESTON (1862), American artist (see 3.745), in addition to his reputation as a painter, achieved marked success with his etchings and wash drawings of wild fowl], a field in which his talent is especially spontaneous and happy. As in his painting, his work combines manliness and delicacy and is pervaded with a sense of gaiety. He has few equals in the reproduction of flying birds and waterfowl.

BENSON, WILLIAM SHEPHERD (1855), American naval officer, was born at Macon, Ga., Sept. 25 1855. He graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1877, and after various promotions became captain in 1909 and rear-admiral in 1915. He had been commandant of the Philadelphia Navy Yard for two years when, in 1915, he was appointed chief of naval operations. He was a member of the commission appointed to confer with the Allied Powers in ror7, and was appointed naval representative for preparing the terms of the Armistice (1918), and naval adviser to the American Peace Commission. He was retired automatically in 1919 with the rank of rear-admiral. In 1920 he was appointed chairman of the U.S. Shipping Board and was made a permanent admiral for life. BENZ, KARL (1844), German engineer, was born at Karlsruhe Nov. 26 1844. He studied under Redtenbacher and Grashof at the Karlsruhe Polytechnic and after working in various workshops on locomotive and bridge construction set up independently at Mannheim in 1871. From his earliest youth he had aimed at “ putting the locomotive on the street,” having no knowledge of the English and French road locomotives of the 1820's and 1830’s, His interest in gas engines was awakened by Lenoir’s gas machine. He constructed a two-stroke engine model of his own, and founded an engine factory. As, however, the group financing him would only deal with fixed engines, he left it. He founded the firm Benz and Co., Rheinische Gasmotorenfabrik, and began to construct fixed engines; then developed a

light high speed four-stroke engine (300 revolutions, 2/3 H.P.)

BERCHTOLD—BERGSON He discovered the differential, special electrical battery ignition with spark induction, surface carburetter. He completed his first car in 1885, speed 10-16 km. per hour, and took out the patent in 1886 (D.R.P. 37435). He sold the first car to the Frenchman, Roger, and then joined the firm of Panhard and Levassor. In England he encountered difficulties owing to the Locomotives Act (not abolished till 1896); and in 1893 he took out a patent for stecring gear with triple axle and steering rods tangential to the wheels. Later, he took up his residence in Mannheim. BERCHTOLD VON UND ZU UNGARSCHITZ, LEOPOLD, Count (1863), Austro-Hungarian statesman, was born April 18 1863, and entered the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Office in 1893. In 1903 he went as councillor of legation to Petrograd and in Dec. 1906 was appointed ambassador there. With the Russian court and the aristocratic society of Petrograd he maintained the best relations, but failed entirely in his efforts to accommodate the obviously increasing differences between Russian and Austro-Hungarian policy. He took a leading part in the negotiations preceding the crisis caused by the annexation of Basnia-Iercegovina, which aimed at securing common action of the two Powers in the Balkan question. It was at his chateau of Buchlov, in Moravia, that the fateful conference took place between Izvolsky and Aehrenthal (Sept. 15 1908). In March ro11 Count Berchtold was recalled from Russia, and on Feb. 17 1912 he was, against his own will, appointed Aehrenthal’s successor as Foreign Minister. His efforts were directed toward securing the position of Austria-Hungary in the Balkan Peninsula. At this time he considered possible a peaceful solution of the Balkan question by agreement with Russia and the Western Powers. But the obvious efforts of Russian statesmen to weaken the influence of AustriaHungary in the Balkans, the aggressive activities of the Serbs and the ambiguous behaviour of Bulgaria forced him to change his attitude, especially as he failed to receive from the Western Powers the support which he had sought. During the three Balkan wars, Oct. 1912 to Aug. 1913, Berchtold’s attitude was characterised by weakness and indecision. He repeatedly took steps toward active Intervention, but drew back when the Entente Powers used threats, and the other members of the Triple Alliance intervened with counsels of moderation in Vienna. His efforts at the close of the third Balkan War to secure a revision of the Treaty of Bucharest (Aug. 10 1913), which was unfavourable to Bulgaria, were as unsuccessful as his attempt to secure an accommodation between Bulgaria and her rivals by way of direct negotiation. The prestige of AustriaHungary in the Balkans noticeably declined. Serbia’s endeavours to extend her power to the Adriatic and to win recruits for the ideal of Great Serbia among the kindred Slav races of Austria-ITungary became more and more evident. Tor these reasons, at the conferences at the Ballplatz which followed the murder of the heir to the throne, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, on

June 28 1914, Berchtold maintained the view that a definitive settlement with Serbia was essential, even at the risk of war with Russia and France. After the outbreak of the World War he directed his efforts to inducing Italy and Rumania to carry out their obligations and to securing new allies for the Central Powers. These efforts were, for the most part, unsuccessful. Turkey alone joined the Central Powers. Rumania and Italy declared their neutrality; even Bulgaria dragged out the negotiations, though Berchtold offered great concessions in return for her active intervention on the side of Austria-Hungary and Germany. Italy’s demands for compensation were acknowledged in principle by Berchtold, under pressure from Germany, but he embarked on the negotiations with hesitation, and to the day of his resignation (Jan. 13 1915) he refused to listen to any proposal for the cession of Austrian territory. In March 1916 Berchtold was appointed Obersthofmeister (lord high steward) to the heir to the throne, Charles Francis Joseph, whom he subsequently served as Oberstkiimmerer (lord high chamberlain). After the fall of the dynasty he took no further part in politics. (See AUSTRIA.) (A. F. PR.)

303

BERENGER, RENE (1830-1915), French politician (see 3.769), died Aug. 29 1915. BERESFORD, CHARLES WILLIAM DE LA POER BERESFORD, 1st Baron (1846~-1919), British sailor (see 3.770), long known as Lord Charles Beresford, was made a peer in 1916 and died Sept. 6 rorg, when the title became extinct. BERGEN, Norway (sce 3.772), had a population in 1920 of 91,443. The central part of the town was burnt down in r916, but is being carefully replanned and rebuilt. A new road has been made from the old German quay to the street above, and the old warehouses, with their dark courts and alleys, are disappearing.

C, a

CIH

=

O

As, however, oxygen and chlorine are observed to act in a similar and equivalent manner, interaction should also take

place as expressed in the equation H O +CIH = nag H OH The interaction of ammonia and hydrone molecules, in like manner, should give rise toG of two kinds, viz., H H zi I and “Nog

HO

H

NH?

In such compounds, ae by the exercise of secondary affinity, the negative radicle in each complex is clearly less firmly held than in the simpler compounds from which it was formed and, therefore, should be more easily separated, we may suppose: the *‘ residual ” affinity of the radicle must be greater than

it was in the simple molecules.

For example, in the complexes

formed from hydrogen chloride and hydrane, H;O-Cl and H;C1.OH

the chlorine radicle in the one, the hydroxyl in the other, is less firmly held than it was in the original simpler molecule. The atoms are all less firmly knit together in the complexes. Their condition is, perhaps, that sometimes spoken of when such molecules are said to be “ electrically charged.” Complexes such as are here contemplated are also formed, itis to be supposed, from the fundamental units which constitute the gaseous substance. On liquefaction, these undoubtedly become associated in various ways. Thus, liquefied hydrogen chloride may well be supposed to consist of complexes such as

Hoc

H CI

Na H

H Cl

Na H

Cl

and

H H cl—Cl | Cl—Cl H H

ne

saturated with the simplex HCI. It is impossible to say in what proportions these are present: possibly the one form is dominant. Water, we may aver, is equally a mixture of the fundamental

unit, hydrone, OHz, with complexes such as He He H: Q QO

H

Hp

107° \o/°No/ Som mO m Nort ana wo I,o —0/ Wy Carbon compounds structures, such as

OH—O

of these types are well known

as stabie

we No/No/ Nettyantict G67“Set H; H, C

To

H,

C=

ox

H

H,

There is general agreement among chemists and physicists that the carbon compounds are thus constituted. The angles at which the carbon atoms meet in the diamond, the distance apart of the atomic centres (of the carbon atoms), have been’ exactly deter-

mined, in recent times, by means of X-rays. The carbon atoms meet at 109°28’, the tetrahedral angle; the centres are little more than an Angstrém unit (one hundred-millionth of a millimetre) apart. There is no reason why we should not see, with the mind’s eye, in the liquefied hydrides of chlorine, oxygen and nitrogen, a structure such as we have seen, largely with the actual eye, in hydrides of carbon. Common water will convey or conduct an electric current— electrolytically. The more it be purified, the less readily it conveys the current. Jt 15 logical to assume, that water free from every contamination, would be a non-conductor. Such water is an ideal. Water cannot be dealt with without a containing vessel: whatever be the nature of the vessel in which it be received and

stored, the surface will be more or less contaminated and more or less subject to attack. The “ best water’ that has been made, has been made in glass and measured in glass—glass we know is attacked by water. In testing electrically platinum electrodes are used—platinum, we know, is an absorptive materia! and pure platinum is inconceivable as a reality. A pure substance is the thing itseli—there may be degrees of impurity but not of purity. We are so accustomed to an impure world, that it is difficult to rise into the empyrean of ideal purity: physicists have long been noted for their lack of the sense of cleanliness; chemical sanitation is not yet generally at the height at which it should be— and gullibility, of the order pictured by Carlyle, still plays a large part in our Society. Naughty and undisciplined as we may scem to be, the general tendency is to obey and follow the pretending leader. Electrolytic Action~-To explain the observation that any electromotive force, however small, would produce electrolysis in a solution, causing the ions of the solute, say the hydrogen

CHEMISTRY (H) and chlorine (Cl) of hydrogen chloride (HC]) dissolved in water, to pass to opposite electrades and there unite and appear as hydrogen (H) and chlorine (Cl), Clausius long ago “ pretended ” that some few of the molecules of the chloride “ banged themselves to pieces ’—so that no work had to be done by the electric current in separating the ions: it only was necessary to give them direction and set the one to wander to the negative, the other to the positive electrode. This electrical test, however, is one of infinite delicacy—no thought has been given fo the fact that the recluction of the “ impurity ” at an electrode surface to an extent beyond or even equal to that of the delicacy of the electrical test is a practical impossibility. Chemists have been led to base their faith, the entire theory of chemical change, upon the observations of two German physicists working in the dim and distant past of 40 years ago—both honourable men but both physicists and mathematicians, not practised chemists alive to the need of the most excessive sanitary precautions, if a chemical clean bill of health were to be secured. Helmholtz is supposed to have electrolysed water by means of non-polarised electrodes. In fact, he used two platinum plates and a third plate of palladium charged with hydrogen: his solution was, therefore, necessarily charged with hydrogen and one or other of his plates was “ hydrogen polarised.” Arrhenius, in 1885, extended the Clausius hypothesis but dropped his mechanical explanation. To account for the development and increase of electrical conductivity on dissolving a “salt in water, to an extent varying with the nature and the proportion of salt used, he assumed that the molecules of the dissolved salt just fell to pieces into separate electrically charged tons. Why or wherefore they did so, where the energy to break them up came from, was never explained. As a matter of fact, what has to be explained is the appearance of electrical conductivity and also of chemical activity, on bringing together two substances which, if logic have any meaning, by themselves are inert.

Logic seems to indicate some interaction

as the only possible cause of the change. The electrolytic dissociation school did, after a time, attribute the change to the high “specific inductive capacity ” of the solvent—whatever that may mean. Directly the solvent is called in, the explanation becomes chemical, however, not merely mechanical nor based upon a display of mere wilfulness. “‘ We will dissociate, nothing shall prevent us,” was the war cry of the molecules, according to Arrhenius. The chemist had more belief in their moral character

and that they would observe the marriage tie. What Arrhenius really did—and the service was a great one at the time—was to lay great stress upon the existence of an active as distinguished from a passive part, in a chemically active medium, by correlating the electrical conductivity developed in a solvent by the addition of a “ salt ” with the chemical activity of the dissolved substance—assuming the dissolved substance (in the form of its ions) to be the sole active agent. He also developed Kohlrausch’s conception of molecular conductivity, as distinct from that of specific activity (of the solution as a whole), by referring the conductivity to the ions of the solute alone and correlating this, to some extent, with chemical activity. The generalisation came at a time when much attention was being paid to the determination of molecular weights of dissolved substances. Raoult especially had shown that equimolecular proportions of many substances produced the same effect upon the properties of a solvent: for example in raising the boiling point; moreover, that, within limits, the effect was proportional to the concentration, af low concentrations. Van’t Hoff also had advanced a kinetic explanation of the phenomena of so-called osmotic pressure—the pressure developed within a cell, containing a solution, by water passing through the lining membrane

without the solute passing out.

|

Osmotic Pressure-——The pressure developed within a cell, by the entry of water (as shown by the rise of liquid in a gauge tube attached to the cell) into dilute solutions, appears to be the same as would be developed by the entry of a gas, in equivalent amount, into a cell already filled with the gas, at a known pressure, through a wall permeable only by the entering gas. For

587

example, when a cell of palladium (which is permeable by hydrogen and not by nitrogen) filled with nitrogen at atmospheric pressure, is surrounded with hydrogen at atmospheric pressure, the hydrogen passes through until equilibrium is reached—when the hydrogen pressure is the same within and without the vessel: at this stage, the molecules of hydrogen are travelling at equal rates and in equal numbers both ways. The pressure within the vessel is thus raised to two atmospheres—by the addition of the atmosphere of ‘ pressure” due to the hydrogen. In the same way, when a dilute solution, say of x grammes of sugar In 22°3 litres of water, filling a finely porous cell provided with a gauge tube, is plunged into water, the liquid rises in the gauge tube

; . x , ; until the pressure ispe of an atmosphere, 342 being the relative weight of the molecule of sugar. The late Prof. E. F. FitzGerald, a distinguished physicist of unusual breadth of outlook, speaking of this phenomenon, says: — It is a most remarkable thing that osmotic pressure should be even roughly the same as what would be produced by the molecules of the body in solution if in the gaseous state but to imply that the dynamical theory of the two is at all the same or that the dynamical

theory of a gas is in any sense an explanation of the law of osmotic

pressures is not at all in accordance with what is generally meant by the word “explanation.” This so-called explanation is not a dynamical explanation at all, it isonly a very far-fetched dynamical analogy. These osmotic pressures are much more closely connected with Laplace’s internal pressure in a liquid, which is essentially dependent on the forces between the molecules than with the pressure of a gas, which ts essentially almost independent of the forces between the molecules. There must be some dynamical reason why

the solvent gets through the membrane while the body in solution does not. It must be due to capillary forces between the solid and the molecules of the solvent (Helmholtz Memorial Lecture, Chen? See. Jour., 1896).

An understanding of osmotic phenomena is a matter of great Importance, because of the part they play in the exchanges between the cells which constitute living structures: the cell walls acting as discriminating septa. It should be noted that solutions in water have a lower vapour pressure and therefore a higher boiling point, also a lower freezing point than has water. This is true of solutions generally, whatever the solvent. In fact, all the properties of a solvent are modified by the presence of dissolved matter, whatever its nature may be, the alteration being proportional to the amount dis-

solved—so long as the solution remains dilute. The striking contribution made by Arrhenius in discussing van’t Hofl’s generalisation was in associating the superior, if not abnormal, eflect of electrolytes upon the solvent with the increase in molecular electrolytic conductivity of dissolved salts upon dilution. Whereas non-electrolytes produce the unit osmotic effect, molecular proportions producing the same effect, electrolytes have more than unit effect and as the solution is diluted the effect increases, until, in the case of binary compounds such as hydrogen chloride, HC], for example, the molecular effect is practically doubled—as if the radicles Ht} and Cl were acting independently. Arrhenius made the assumption that they were, but that the

water remained unchanged. It is impossible to grant such an assumption. No valid reason has ever been given which will account for the separation, which is one involving a great ab. sorption of energy. Actually, a not inconsiderable amount of heat is evolved when hydrogen chloride is dissolved in water, part of which, of course, is due to the liquefaction of the gas. Again, the assumption is one that involves a sharp distinction being drawn between hydrogen chloride and hydrone—speaking chemically, this is impossible, what is generally true of the one being true of the other. ‘The nature of the change which it is conceivable takes place when hydrogen chloride and hydrone interact has already been pictured. In view of the known behaviour of hydrogen chloride towards ammonia, the chemist is in a position to assert that hydrogen chloride and hydrone must be able to interact and do interact in a similar manner. He can produce and exhibit in a crystalline form a compound formed from methylic oxide, (CH3)2,0—the analogue of hydrone—and hydrogen chloride.

CHEMISTRY

588

Xu

The question then arises—how are the alterations in the properties of water and of solvents generally induced by the presence of a substance in solution to be explained—how, in particular, is the peculiar and enhanced effect of (potential) electrolytes as compared with non-electrolytes to be pictured. The first assumption that may be made is—that, in all cases, the primary, chemically active unit is the simple molecule, hydrone,

OHp, in the case of water. It will easily be granted that water is saturated with hydrone, the proportion varying with the temperature.

As a matter of fact, the vapour pressure of an aqueous

solution is lower than that of water. One effect of the solute molecules is, therefore, lo capture and restrain a certain proportion of the hydrone molecules. It may be urged that as soon as hydrone molecules are withdrawn, others should come forward— produced by the breaking down of polyhydrones—to take their place and restore the equilibrium. The facts negative this assumption: the dissolved substance exercises an abiding influence.

It is almost necessary to assume that the residue of the solvent is modified:

that the complexes present along with the simple,

fundamental molecule exist in a different proportion: that inasmuch as the freezing point is lowered, the crystallisable form ts diminished in amount. Water near to its freezing point must be saturated with “ ice-molecules ” whatever the complexity of these may be. When a substance is dissolved in water, the hydrone solute complexes which are formed—whatever their nature—doubtiess exercise a disturbing influence upon the rest of the liquid and the equilibrium is perhaps altered in such a wav that fewer “ ice-molecules ” are present. As to the peculiar influence of electrolytes—we know that the departure from the ‘ normal’? behaviour of non-electrolytes varies with the compound dissolved and the strength of the solution, the specific molecular effect being always greater the more dilute the solution. Let it be assumed that hydrone and the solute, AB, interact in the following manner i

+.

gf TE

AB + OH, = A BC

OH -+

+-

ff

B Each of these products will be an active unit—one that is more active than the molecule from which it is derived—than hydrone on the one hand, than the salt molecule on the other. The relative proportions in which the two are formed will vary with the concentration. In concentrated solutions, however, a large proportion of the salt molecules will not form active complexes _ but, it may be supposed, will be associated in grouped or closed systems, e.g.,

:

Il

He

O—O Ib Thk which are non-valent and only possessed of slight residual affinity. Non-electrolytes may be regarded as differing from electrolytes in that they are not divisible against hydrone, interactions taking place only in one way sf

4-—

XY

+ OH,

=

A

Il

OH To explain the enhanced effect of potential electrolytes and the increase of the effect as the solution is more and more diluted is more difficult. As these are effects of dilution, they are clearly due in some way to the action of the water. The solution of the problem suggested by H. E. Armstrong (Roy. Soc. Proc. 1023, vol. A103, p. 6ro) is, that when the ‘ couple” formed of the two systems

aH Fe ae ; BOC and hydrone (OH;) is resolved, it may and H B |

H does give rise to hydronol, HOC

——a more active unit even OH than hydrone itself. Further, that as dilution proceeds, AB is more and more completely resolved against hydrone and con:

A

verted into HOC

.

When

this action is complete, AB

has

B

exercised its maximum effect. Hydronol, however, being produced concurrently, is ultimately present in an amount equivalent a to that in which the system OK is formed. Finally, two B active systems are present: if the action be complete, the combined effect they produce is twice the unit effect. When a solution is placed in contact with water, separated by a diaphragm through which only the water can pass, hydrone is attracted into the solution, molecule for molecule of the active systems present. The so-called osmotic pressure within the cell may be conceived of as due to the directed oscillatory impacts of the hydrone molecules paired with the active systems. In a sufficiently dilute solution, ultimately, two osmotically active, reciprocal molecules would be produced, at the expense of each single molecule of the salt: in other words, the single molecule of the potential electrolyte, hydrogen chloride, would apparently have double the effect of a single molecule of a nonelectrolyte. Assuming that electrolysis involves the interaction of two diverse ‘ distributed ” systems, under the influence of an electromotive force, the (molecular) conductivity of the dissolved chloride would also be at its maximum in the fully diluted liquid. Solutions.—The activities operative within solutions are too little considered. They are best realised by studying the interactions of soluble salts. When, for example, potassium chloride and magnesium sulphate, MgSO,-7H.O, are dissolved in equivalent proportions and the solution is sufficiently concentrated, a large amount of the double sulphate MgSO,-K.SO4-6H.O, gradually crystallises out. It follows that much of the chloride is converted into sulphate and of the sulphate into chloride, in fact, magnesium chloride is ultimately obtained from the liquid. Often, in such cases, a number of double salts and of salts with varying amounts of water of crystallisation are produced, the product varying with the concentration and relative proportions of the materials present. The presence of the variety of salts met with in natural salt deposits, such as those in Alsace and Hanover, is thus accounted for. Finally, it may be urged that extreme caution is required in dealing with the problems of solution, because of the fact that the molecules are crowded together. Whatever seeming analogies their behaviour may present with that of the gaseous state, the effects cannot be really gaseous effects—as intermolecular affinities come into play which are practically excluded in the gas. The conclusions deduced by studying solutions made by dissolving substances all to the same volume—a method in no way comparable with that involved in dealing with equal volumes of gases—are obviously not comparable, as the molecular proportions in which solute and solvent are present will vary more or less, according to the nature of the dissolved substance. Most of the peculiarities to which attention has been directed are traceable to this illogical practice. At most, very dilute solutions prepared in this manner will afford comparable results. On the other hand, if the molecular proportions of solvent and solute be kept constant, there is always the difficulty that the ultimate volumes vary—that the volume occupied within the solvent by the solute is subject to variation. In fine, it would seem to be impossibie to make any strict comparison of solutions—the conclusions must always be open to many corrections. Electrolysis of Water—The production of hydrone by the interaction of hydrogen and oxygen has already been discussed. The inverse change must be subject to similar conditions. Water itself and by itself cannot be electrolysed—ex hypothesi, it has

CHEMISTRY no gonducting power.

To speak of the production of hydrogen

and oxygen by electrolysis, as if the process were simple and direct, is as wrong as to speak of the production of water itself from oxygen and hydrogen: the electrode face must be the seat

value but sulphuric acid has almost always been formulated as if the two hydrogen atoms were alike in function. It has been customary to represent the latter acid as symmetrically conOl

of a whole series of changes. Without considering the nature stituted (SO) When the matter is studied historically, of the internal process (within the liquid), it may be assumed that OH | it is clear that this view is largely an academic conclusion. No significant evidence of structure can be adduced in proof of such the eomplex HA (formed from the acid HX) at the one a formula and we must admit that we do not exactly know how OH the acid is constituted—simple as it is. electrode surface is initially converted into a perhydrol

gTi 9 a

3 at2" war 4a

Gul ; odes ail 4r

ame

4

a

'F n of centre of town. Hatched portion shows buildings destroyed by bombardment and fire. (1. Town Hall. 2. Beffroi. 3. Porte de Paris. 4. Cathedral. 5. St. Géry.) Heavy black lines show new City-Planning alignment of streets. The site of the British War Memorial ts shown at 6.

say, its position was selected with a view to allowing a certain number of its inhabitants to go backwards and forwards. This satellite method of growth is one of the results of regional planning combined with the garden suburb planning of 12 houses to the acre, and is affected by improved train service and the increased use of motor-cars and buses. The question has thus arisen whether, instead of spreading the suburbs out continuously from the towns, it may not be better to start a new satellite further afield with a centre of its own, albeit dependent for its main nourishment on the parent body. The movement is only in its infancy, and would be facilitated by a better distribution of electrical power throughout the country. Welwyn must be regarded as a typical forerunner of the satellite town. Several cities have put forward tentative suggestions for

remodelling the centre of the town, and Birmingham has aimed at relating central improvements to suburban planning under the Acts and to the regional planning of the surrounding local authorities. Birmingham has schemes for buying up land wherever possible and re-laying it out in such a way that the city benefits as landowner for the newly planned area. The great contribution made by Liverpool during this period has been the construction of a magnificent series of external arterial roads, including an outer ring, known as Queen’s Drive. Another interesting direction of study is preliminary survey work, using the word in the widest sense of studying a place from every angle. Some valuable work was done under the auspices of the Royal Institute of British Architects during the War in London and at Manchester and other places as a centre. The object of these surveys is to familiarise the public, city councillors and officials with every aspect of the place, so that the town-planning proposals may really meet the needs and be in harmony with the character of the district. Perhaps the most detailed civic survey for an individual town was prepared by Sheffield, accompanied by a tentative plan of future growth.

643

Probably the biggest scheme (on paper) of general town planning (apart from urban schemes under the Act) has been produced for Dublin, as a result of a competition promoted just before the outbreak of war by the Marquess and Marchioness of Aberdeen. Other schemes, also not advanced in 1926 beyond the paper stage, were prepared for Bath, Plymouth, Kilmarnock, Northampton and Bolton. France. —The importance of the French contribution to international town planning has hitherto been dominated by the achievements of the past, owing to the fact that a homogeneous and consistent architectural style had given continuity to the work of city planning and improvement from the reign of Louis XIV. continuously down to the end of the Second Empire. It must be remembered that, though the legal and utilitarian aspects of town planning are soon out of date, artistic achievement is perennial, even if the precise objects to be served may have changed. In France, city extension was being carried out before the War on what we should call town-planning lines as a matter of course. Gyratory traflic, introduced in 1926 into London, was being thoroughly studied as a practical proposition, and two interesting housing laws (1894-1906) giving encouragement to individual workmen to acquire their own houses had been passed. Since the War, as has been said, the whole energy has been directed to the restoration of devastated areas. Perhaps the two most spectacular events have been the passing of the law of March 14 1919, calling on every city, town and commune, of over 10,000 inhabitants to prepare a plan of extension, improvement and embellishment within three years’ time; the other event, which indeed was concerned with it, was the great competition for the future of Paris, perhaps the largest town-planning competition ever held. The three special requirements asked for were (1) regional developments, (2) central improvements, (3) the existing fortifications, which latter it had been proposed to pull down just before the War. The scale of the work may be judged from the fact that the winning design (by M. Jaussely) was planned for a city that should contain 10,000,000 inhabitants.

Germany and Austria.—Germany before the War was in the full swing of city building. She was actually expanding more. rapidly in her towns than any other European country. These were being systematically planned, and were in the majority of cases excellent examples of municipal foresight, but in two directions the work was not satisfactory. Artistically they were undistinguished, and as regards the health of the inhabitants the housing conditions left much to be desired owing to a still prevalent predilection for dwelling in tenements. The road planning was, within its artistic limitations, of a monumental and striking character, with great “‘places’’ formed at the railway stations and each important centre of the town; but this ample road provision was carried to excess when these big thoroughfares were provided also for residential streets, with the result in many cases of forcing up the value of land to very high prices.

An important competition was held for Berlin.

The winning

design, by Herr Jansen, contained among others two striking features: first, five great radial roads, whose object was to make the country round accessible in all directions; and, secondly, the knitting together of the fine woods and lagoons round Berlin into a great circular outer park belt, extending as far as Potsdam. Cologne has also produced a bold scheme of development and others are in prospect. Vienna is naturally grouped with Germanic town planning, but resembles Paris in that tts most remarkable achievements belong to an earlier period; but again its most important contribution to modern town planning is to be found in the girdle of wooded hills and meadows which it had completed shortly before the War. These comprise some 68,000 ac. of open spaces within the city boundary of the most varied topography, ranging from mountain slopes, rocky and wooded, to pleasant meadow lands and wide stretches of country and water lagoons in the neighbourhood of the old Danube bed and on the banks of the stream further down at Löbau.

644

CITY

PLANNING

Belgium.—Brussels during all this period has been in the throes of a reconstruction into which it was plunged by the ambitious schemes of Leopold II. The chief and still incomplete work was the

creation of a great new central station in the midst of the old city: for this purpose a large part of the central area has been laid waste. This is the best European town in which to study the vexed problem of the single union through-station as against a series of terminals. The difficulties of the levels in central Brussels have complicated the solution; and this town-planning project became at an early stage an acute political issue. Contiguous to the station, but not theo-

retically connected, is the new garden which Leopold had constructed on the site of the old steep street, the Montaigne de Ja Cour; this is the best example of picturesque town landscaping carried out ip recent times. Every other aspect of modern city planning may be studied in and near Brussels.

The rest of Belgium is naturally remarkable chiefly for the postWar reconstruction work, which has advanced very rapidly; the artistic policy adopted has been a re-creation of imagined 17th-

century Flemish towns.

|

Italy.—As regards Rome, the great ‘‘ Piano Regolatore " of 1908

was one of the biggest attempts of modern times at a city improvement and extension scheme; it remains in force with necessary modifications until 1933. Unfortunately, in spite of its boldness it is conceived in a somewhat hard and mechanical spirit, the remarkable topography of Rome not being allowed sufficiently to dominate the layout of the new streets. The main features of the plan are an immense

encircling

boulevard,

‘ Avenue

of Circumvallation,”

an

archaeological zone, improvements to the ancient city centring on the

Piazza Colonna and eight or nine large new suburban areas, Central improvements in the neighbourhood of the Capitol and the Victor Emmanuel monument are in hand. More normal examples of city extension are to be found at Milan, Turin and Florence: this work is still carried on under the Act of 1865. _ Sweden, Denmark and Iolland.—The extent of Swedish work in town planning was shown by the Exhibition and City Planning Conference, Gothenburg, in 1923. Whereas the previous town plans are of a hard and uninspired sort, the later work, which confesses a debt of acknowledgment to English planning, is extremely free and

flexible, as may be seen at Stockholm, Gothenburg, TTppsala, Kalma and other places. In a monumental direction the great new town hall at Stockholm stands among the first half dozen modern buildings. Denmark, which in Copenhagen has always possessed one of the most charming and up-to-date capitals in Europe, has an interesting and progressive regional scheme of decentralisation and many charming examples of garden-suburban planning, founded possibly on English originals, but distinctive in architectural treatment. Amsterdam possesses perhaps the most interesting town ‘ Spi_der’s-web ” plan in Europe: the modern proposals are continued in the same spirit. Rotterdam, an uninteresting town plan, has some remarkable and completely planned suburban extensions and proposals for ‘‘ gyratory "' traffic places. No other continental country is so valuable to England as a field for the study of housing as Holland: modern methods of construction, traditional examples of design, brickwork, layout, etc., all may be seen in varying degrees of costliness and cheapness. | Finland,—The town plan of Helsingfors is a grandiose conception, and studies and models for the new suburbs have been made tn greatest detail. The design for the study of Munksnas-Haga by M. Pa Saarinen is a remarkable example of modern Finnish civic esign. Russia.—The most interesting piece of city planning in Russia is Moscow: the old capital has always been one of the foremost examples of instinctive ‘ spider's-web ” planning, caused by the successive walls of fortifications with the Kremlin at the centre. The extension plan carrying on the same type, with ring and radial roads, makes Moscow one of the largest and most marked examples of continuousspreading towns, the reverse of the satellite method of growth.

United States—Among the most marked features of the period in America has been the city-planning report which many towns have issued, not usually by official action, but as a result of the interest of the citizens at large and business men in the future of their city. Of the 43 cities in the United States with a population of 150,000 or more, only one has not had some sort or other of town-planning report prepared. The Chicago report, which appeared in 1909, was the first of these magnificent schemes to appear, in this case prepared for the Commercial Club, and presented to the city; and the main lines proposed have been adopted. Since then the San Francisco, Cleveland, Philadelphia, Boston, Rochester, Minneapolis, Pittsburgh, New Haven,

New

Jersey,

Newark

and

many

more

reports have

appeared, their tenor varying from monumental vision to severely practical and statistical suggestion. The almost universal ‘ gridiron” type of plan upon which American towns have been laid out has given a considerable

degree of uniformity to many of these schemes, and has sharply cut them off from the normal European town plan. The aim of these plans has therefore been largely to cut diagonal lines through the square chequer board (the Fairmount Parkway has thus been thrust right through the very heart of Philadelphia at the City Hall); to create an encircling boulevard connection (as proposed for Chicago); to give the city a manifest centre, the gridiron being continuous and devoid of climax. These civic centres, in which were massed all possible public buildings with gardens and monuments,

threatened at one time to become an

obsession, but latterly have assumed juster proportions in the general scheme of things. San Francisco, St. Paul (Minnesota), St. Louis, Denver, Rochester and Springfield are among the more remarkable civic centres in course of realisation. Great attention has also been given to the railway station and its connection with the town; at Cleveland this is the key of the civic centre. In the systematic provision of open spaces America has led the world: nearly all the statistical bases upon which parks and playgrounds are disposed in England have been founded on United States practice and experience. Small children’s playgrounds, local gardens, connecting park strips, riverside drives and tree-planted boulevards, large parks and stretches of reserved country are all knit together into a continuous system which interpenetrates the town plan and in some places appears to be its guiding factor. The Boston and Metropolitan park system is the oldest, and is on a truly regional basis, as it embraces the areas of no fewer than 38 different local authorities who all contribute to its cost and upkeep. Other fine park systems are found at Kansas City, Cincinnati, Minneapolis, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Portland and Providence The most characteristic city-planning term in use to-day in the United States is “ zoning.” This has been so enthusiastically taken up that zoning legislation and plans have been passed for cities, quite apart from other aspects of town planning. This is the exact converse of what has frequently happened in England, where main road plans have been prepared without any thought of what buildings are to face on them or occupy the districts through which they pass. Some 300 cities, towns and villages have passed zoning ordinances determining with some exactitude the character of every building to be erected in each district. This control of the use of land, density of population and height and bulk of buildings is administered directly by the courts under what is known as “ police power,” and not by the municipality under by-laws. Comprehensive zoning was first applied about nine years ago in New York; its growth and codification of practice took place in a decade. New York, already zoned, is pursuing its city and regional plan. It is the biggest thing in city planning in the States, the area extending to 3,500,000 ac, and the population being about 9,000,000. Detailed monographs are prepared of all trades and their requirements; traffic and other data are collected and preliminary studies made. Rapid transit routes and freight distribution plans have been prepared in order to control the future spread of the population. Washington, specially designed as a capital city, has been thoroughly overhauled by a commission and its original plan amplified; this was rendered possible by the reclamations from the Potomac tiver. The railways have been grouped together into a Union station facing down one of the avenues to the Capitol. The Mall, in front of the latter, has been cleared of blocking buildings and irregular gardening and is being restored as a great processional park leading up to the Washington monument; beyond this, the main axis is continued to the new Lincoln Memorial, and a bridge is planned across the river to the national cemetery at Arlington. The park system of Washington has been augmented by a series of magnificent riverside drives. Other Examples of Town Planning.—The most remarkable cityplanning study of Canada is that which has been prepared for Ottawa. Imposing plans have also been designed for Calgary and Vancouver. Canberra, the Australian capital, is being built. The design was obtained by a competition, which was won by Mr. Walter B. Delhi, the monumental centre of British Griffin of Chicago. administration in India, is conceived on a scale of the greatest magnificence. Madras, Bombay and Lucknow have each of them great schemes in course of realisation. International Organisations—At Ghent in 1913 there was held the first international congress on town planning and organisation of

CIVIL SERVICE city life, on the occasion of the great exhibition. There was also the Cities Exhibition arranged by Professor Patrick Geddes. At this congress was founded the “ Union Internationale des Villes et Communes,” with its headquarters at 3, rue de la Régence,

Brussels.

This Union is intended to be the meeting ground of all cities for a discussion and comparison of problems concerning city life, of which town planning is one. The secretariat publishes a valuable periodical bibliography, “ Tablettes Documentaires,” which summarises international happenings in relation to civic life. Conferences are held from time to time, the last being in Paris in 1925. Closely allied to the above, but dealing strictÍy with city and regional planning activities, is the ‘ International Federation for Town and Country Planning and Garden Cities ’': headquarters, 3, Gray’s Inn place, London. A very large number of technical and sociological organisations are represented on the council, and the leading technicians of the world belong to the society. The conference held in New York in 1925 was attended by representatives of states, affliated societies, municipalities, technical bodies and individual members from 26 countries, BIBLIOGRAPHY.—F. Haverficld, Ancient Town-Planning (1913); T. F. Tout, Medieval Town-Planning (1917); R. Unwin, TownPlanning in Practice (1919); Final Report of the Committee appointed by the Minister of Healih to consider and advise on the Principles to be followed in dealing with Unhealihy Areas (1920); C. B. Purdom and others, Town Theory and Practice (1921), and Tke Building of Satellite Towns (1925); Report of the South Wales Regional Survey Committee (1921); L. P. Abercrombie, The Doncaster Regional Planning Scheme: The Report prepared for the Joint Committee (1922), Deeside Regional Planning Scheme: Chester and Flintshire (1923), “ Dublin of the Future’: Civics Institute of Ireland, vol. 1 (1923), Stratford-upon-Avon Report on Future Development (1923), Sheffield: A Civic Survey and Suggestions towards a Development Plan (1924); and L. P. Abercrombie and J. Archibald, East Kent Regional Planning Scheme (1925), Bulletins of the International Federation for Town and Country Planning and Garden Cities (1923, etc.); S. Davey and F. C. Minshull, Law and Practice of Town Planning (1923); N. P. Lewis, The Planning of the Modern City, 2nd ed. (New York, 1923); Ministry of Health, Model Clauses for Town Planning Schemes (1924); Reports of International Town-Planning Conferences (London, 1924, etc.); H. F. O'Rourke, The Dublin Civic Survey (1926); Manchester and District Joint Advisory Committee,

Report upon the Regional Plan (1926). (P. A.*) CIVIL SERVICE (see 6.412).—This term usually refers to the officials of the central government only, but in France and

certain other countries persons employed by municipalities and other local authorities are also civil servants. GREAT

BRITAIN

In Great Britain, in 1926, the Civil Service consisted of about 300,000 persons, of whom 187,500 were in the postal service. This excludes the industrial staffs of such services as admiralty dockyards. Of the total number 73,500 are women, of whom 50,600 are in the postal services. Of the men about 143,000 served in the armed forces in the World War. The work of the Civil Service has not only increased since tg11; it has also in some sections changed in character. There are many more technical officials than there were, as the task of government has changed in regard to health, transport, etc. The machinery of administration is not very different in the various departments; but there are specialist functions performed by some oficials: for example, the inspectors of the Home Office, the inspectors of the Board of Education, the employment exchange officials, etc. New departments have come into existence, e.g., the Ministry of Labour (1917), which took over the “ labour ” divisions of the Board of Trade; the Ministry of Health (1910), which combined the work of the old Local Government Board with that of the Health Insurance Commissioners, etc.; the Ministry of Transport (1919), which took over some old functions of the Board of Trade and fulfils some new functions in regard to railways; the Ministry of Mines, combining some old work of the Ilome Office with some old work of the Board of Trade; the Dept. of Overseas Trade and the Air Ministry. The Ministry of Pensions deals with War pensions and may be regarded as a survival from the war period. War Departments.—Some new departments created during the War, have ceased to exist: for example, the Ministry of Munitions (1916-20), the Ministry of Shipping (1917-20), the Ministry of Food (1916-21), the Ministry of National Service (1917-20) and the Ministry of Reconstruction (1917-20), ancl some sections of older departments, which grew up during the War, have also disappeared: as, for example, the postal censorship under the War Oflice, and the

645

War Trade Dept. under the Foreign Office, During the War there were departments which hardly affected the character or functions of the normal Civil Service, such as the Ministry of Information, and these have disappeared. |

Conditions of Entry —The normal methods of entry to the Civil Service remain much the same as they were before the War. Examinations for entry are under the supervision of the Civil Service Commission; but this body has not the extensive powers of the United States Civil Service Commission. The Treasury is the co-ordinating authority for the British service. Under an order in council of July 22 1920, the Civil Service Commissioners issue regulations from time to time as to the conditions of entry and the subjects of examinations. Special arrangements were made in the years tmmediately following the War for recruitment; but all these have now come to an end. The special arrangements are recorded in the Reports of the Gladstone Committee (Cmd. 34, 1919; Cmd. 36, 1919; Cmd. 164, 1919) and of the Lytton Committee (1920, 1921, 1924). Changes in Administration.—The organisation of the Civil Service has been considerably affected by the Reports of the

Royal Commission on the Civil Service, especially the Fourth Report (Cd. 7,338, 1914). Again, a joint council for the Civil Service administrative and legal departments was established in July 1919. A joint committee of this council issued a report (Feb. 17 1920) on reorganisation, and the suggestions made in that report, agreeing with principles advocated by the Royal Commission, have been made the basis of the present organisation of the home service. The foreign services were reported upon by the Royal Commission (Fifth Report Cd. 7,748, 1914). The general order in council of Jan. 10 rgro still remains the chief statement of the conditions of employment by the Crown. The present classification of the members of the Home Civil Service is as follows: an administrative class, concerned with the formation of policy, an executive class and a clerical class. Besides these there is a class of writing assistants in certain departments, for filling up forms, etc., and a separate section of typists and shorthand typists. Pay and Penstons.—The pay of civil servants in Great Britain in permanent grades includes salary proper together with a bonus fixed in 1920 on the basis of a cost of living percentage of 130 above that of 1914. The bonus is given to all civil servants except those with salaries of £2,000 a year and over, but it is graduated so that the rate of bonus decreases as salaries increase. The bonus is subject to review every six months, when it is increased or decreased by 1/26th for every five full points by which the average of the official increased cost of living figures for the preceding six months rises above or falls below 130. Disregarding the bonus, the pay of the principal classes of civil servants in London is as follows: the pay of those receiving more than £500 a year varies in different departments, but heads of departments receive in some cases £3,000 a year. Assistant secretaries receive from £1,000 to £1,200 a year and principal clerks {£700 to fg00. In accounting and supply departments the higher posts are usually paid on two scales, £550 to £700 and £850 to £1,000. Lower rates are at present generally fixed for appointments held by women. Pensions and retiring allowances are granted to civil servants who retire on account of ill-health, age or because the office which they hold is abolished. No civil servant retiring before the age of 60, except for ill-health or on the abolition of his office, is eligible for any pension or gratuity. No civil servant with less than Io years’ service is eligible for any pension or gratuity. No civil servant with less than 10 years’ service is eligible for pension, and the maximum number of years’ service for which pension is granted is 40, or, for additional allowances, 45 years. But civil servants retiring for the reasons given above, with loss than 10 years’ service, are eligible for a gratuity. if a male civil servant dies in the service, a gratuity is paid to his estate equal to a year’s pay, or the amount of the allowance which would have been due to him had he retired at the time of his death. Apart from pensions under earlier Acts, the Superannuation Act, 1999, which governs most of the cases, grants an annual pension to male civil servants of one-eightieth of the salary and emoluments for cach year of service: there is also an additional allowance of a lump

sum equal to one-thirtieth of the salary and emoluments for each year of service. :

Position of Women.—The position of women in the Civil Service of Great Britain has changed considerably since 19t4. At that date the divisions of the service known as Class I., second division and assistant clerks were not open to women. There were about 3,000 women in certain self-contained branches of

646

CIVIL SERVICE

three or four departments, but most of these were in the General Post Otfice. There were about 500 women in the Labour Exchanges, some typists and shorthand typists and a class of female wriling assistants numbering about 1,800. There were also some women inspectors for factories, health insurance, education, etc. The Royal Commission proposed a large extension of these practices (Cd. 7,338, chapter x.); but it was the War which radically altered the situation. Men were needed for military service at the very time when the activities of the Civil Service greatly increased; and by July rọrọ, there were more than 115,000 women in the service. Evidence of their work is given in the Report of Lord Gladstone’s Committee (Cmd. 164, 1919). The Sex Disqualification Removal Act, Dec. 29 1919, removed certain obstacles, and required that an order in council which might ‘‘ prescribe the mode of admission for women to the Civil Service ” should be laid before Parliament forthwith. The Reorganisation Committee of the Joint (Whitley) Council, referred to above, made detailed suggestions in regard to the employment of women in the Civil Service (Feb. 1920); and the House of Commons on May 19 1920 passed the following resolution:—~ That it is expedient that women shall have equal opportunity of

employment with men in all branches of the Civil Service within the United Kingdom and under all local authorities, providing that the claims of ex-service men are first of all considered, and should receive equal pay.

The Govt. refused to act on this resolution, but accepted a modified resolution of Aug. 5 1921, including the phrase:— Ilaving regard to the present financial position of the country this House cannot commit itself to the increase in Civil Service salaries involved in the payment of women in all cases at the same rate as men.

The employment of women has been curtailed owing to the necessity of finding places for ex-service men. Regulations in regard to the dismissal of women on their marriage were published on Aug. 26 rg2t (E. 3,754/03): and further regulations reserved to men certain branches of the Civil Service (E. 3,242, in draft in Cmd. 1,244, April 11r 1921). Rights of Combination, etc.—The organisation of the Civil Service has been greatly affected by the adoption of the policy expressed in the Reports of the Whitley Committee of 1917, on the relations of employers and employed. The Govt. accepted the application of the principles of that report, and a joint council for the Civil Service, administrative and legal departments, was established in July 1919. This council consists of representatives of the Treasury and other departments, standing for the public as employers, and of representatives of the employees taken from associations and unions of civil servants. There are subordinate departmental joint committees. The central council produced, through an ad hoc committee, the plan

of reorganisation of the Civil Service referred to above. There are also Joint Councils for industrial establishments under the Admiralty, Office of Works, War Office, Air Ministry and Stationery

Office. Civil servants are organised on a trade union basis in certain sections: for example, the Civil Service Clerical Association has a membership of about 17,500, the Post Office Workers Union has a membership of about 80,000 and the Post Olfice Engineering Union, a membership of about 15,300. A board of conciliation and arbitration in the Civil Service, established in 1917, came to an end in 1921; but in April 1925 new machinery for the same purpose was set up under the Industrial Courts Act, 1919. The Court of Civil Service Arbitration, described in the official letter of the Treasury (No. 6/25, March 14 1925), has power to deal with “ claims affecting emoluments, weekly hours of work and leave of certain classes of civil servants.” Claims of those classes receiving more than £700 a year will not be referred to the court except by the consent of both parties. Cases of individual officers are excluded from the competence of the court. The official announcement says that “subject to the overriding authority of Parliament, the Government will give effect to the awards of the Court.” The political rights of civil servants, t.e., in regard to appearing on

political platforms or standing for election to Parliament and local authorities, are defined by order in council. At present a civil servant is not allowed to criticise or express opinions publicly in regard to public affairs with which his own department is specially concerned;

and with regard to candidature for Parliament, a civil servant is required to resign his post on the announcement of his candidature and has no right to reappoiniment even in the event of failure to be elected. A Treasury committee has reported upon this problem (Cmd. 2,408, 1925). The report contains information as to the existing regulations for parliamentary candidature of persons serving in the army, navy or air force as well as civil servants.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-Historically important are R. H. Gretton, The King’s Government (1913); A. L. Lowell, Government of England (1920); Sir W. R. Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, 5th ed. (1922, etc.) Recent accounts are to be found in C. Delisle Burns, Whitehall (1921); The Development of the Civil Service; Lectures, prefaced by Lord Haldane (1922) and special studies of separate departments in the Whitehall Series, e.g., The Home Office, by Sir E. Troup

(1925),

etc.; The Reports of the Roxal Commission on the Civil Service (Cd. 7,338, 1913, etc.) are the most recent general reviews of the service. THE

BRITISH

EMPIRE

In the Crown Colonies the Civil Service is frequently drawn from among residents in this or that colony, but the higher officials are appointed directly through the Colonial Office. In the self-governing Dominions the Civil Service is controlled by the Govt. of the Dominion in question. Canada.—The “ spoils’ system was abolished and competitive examinations made effectual for the inside service by the Civil Service Act of 1908; and the same principle was established for the outside service by the Act of 1918. In that year a report was made by a body of American experts, on which a reclassification of the service was instituted and special examinations established for 1,600 different offices. The experts have thereby introduced two new conceptions; (a) that technical detailed knowledge of each office should be required of a candidate before entry, and (>) that there is no serious difference between routine and intellectual administration. The Act of 1918 contains most of the existing regulations in regard to political rights, promotion, dismissal, etc. (See R. M. Dawson, The Principle of Official Inde-

pendence (1922), ch. iii., “ The Civil Servant ”.) Australia. —The Public Service Act, 1922, governs the situation. The Act of r902 was the first to regulate the Civil Service under the Commonwealth constitution; and under that Act a Civil Service Commissioner was appointed. The Royal Commission on Public Service Administration reported in 1919, and another commission reported on Economies in 1920. As a result the Act of 1922 was passed, which established a board of commissioners for the public service with extensive powers, similar to those of the United States Civil Service Commission rather than to those of the British system. The Arbitration (Public Service) Act, 1920, superseded the original Arbitration Act of torr, and established a public service arbitrator, holding office for seven years, for giving awards on claims from associations of public servants; but this Act of 1920 appears to conflict in some particulars with the Act of 1922, in regard to the powers of the board. The decisions of the arbitrator have raised salaries by over {1,000,000 since 1913 without the board having any power to control such decisions. There is a system of contributions towards a superannuation fund. The number of civil servants in 1923 was about 202,476, of whom 26,277 were in the Commonwealth service. (First Report of the Public Service Board of Commissioners, Oct. 1924.) New Zealand.—The Public Service Act, 1912, places the service under a commissioner and two assistants, appointed for seven years and responsible only to Parliament, but the Postal and Telegraph Act, 1918, excludes those services from the authority of the commissioner, except in regard to making appointments. There is a contributory superannuation fund under an Act of 1908 (Year Book of New Zealand). Union of South Africa.—The Public Service Act, 1923, carries out the recommendations of the committee of enquiry which reported in 1920. Regulations have been issued in government notices under the 1923 Act. There is an advisory council representing associations of public servants which gives advice to the public service commissioners, when asked. The commissioners were appointed Nov. 27 1923, and have the extensive powers usual in the Dominions. The number of civil servants in 1925 was 26,612 (Official Fear Book of the Union). | British India.—The situation is now governed by the Govt. of India (Civil Service) Act, Dec. r925. The whole problem, however, is still fluid owing to the development of general policy in regard to the Govt. of India. The Islington Committee recommended certain improvements in the Civil Service in Aug. I915,

647

CIVIL SERVICE but the report was only published in Jan. 1917.

On Aug. 20 1917

the Secretary of State for India in the House of Commons announced that there would be “ increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration ”; and in that year the enquiries began which led to the Montagu-Chelmsford report (Cd. 9,109, rọrọ) and the Govt. of India Act, r919, the preamble of which allows for the Indianisation of the services. The MacDonnell Committee reported on difficulties of recruitment in 1922 (January) and the O'Donnell circular of May 30 1922, gave, in a letter to local governments, the arguments for and against drastic reduction of the number of Europeans. Finally, the Lee Committee reported on the superior civil services (Cmd. 2,128, 1924) and the Act of 1925 implements their recommendations. Tire UNITED

STATES

The changes in the Federal Civil Service in the United States since the War are (a) an increase in the number of employees, (b) an increase in the proportion of women employed, and (c) modifications in the laws and regulations. In June ro1r4 there were 482,721 employees in the Federal Civil Service, of whom 292,460 had entered by competitive examination. In June 1923 there were 548,531 employees. During the War the number of women employed was increased, and since roro all the examinations under the Civil Service Commission have been open to women. In 1923 about 15% of the employees of the Federal Civil Service were women; and the greater number of these (41% as compared with 11% of the whole Civil Service) were in

the District of Columbia, since outside that district the positions are such as are not usually sought by women (letter carriers, mechanicians, etc.). One member of the Civil Service Commission since 1920 has been a woman.

The statutes and Presidential rules affecting the Civil Service are printed in the Report of the Civil Service Commission for 1922. The chief new statutes and rules since the War are as follows: the Retirement Act, May 22 1920; the Classification Act, March 4 1923; a Presidential Order, March 3 1923, granting

The Conseil d’Etat, apart from its functions as court of appeal in cases of administrative law, is a central advisory body of permanent civil servants for assisting the Govt. of the day in its executive functions. The ordinary members of the conseil number 35; they must be at least 40 years of age and are partly officials who have had responsible positions elsewhere and partly chosen from among the 37 mattres des requties who act as part of the conseil in preparing reports. The Conseil d'Etat discusses all matters of foreign policy, finance, police, education, ete., but its advice does not bind the Government. The cabinet of a minister is a small body of officials chosen by a minister as a private secretariat to advise on policy. The law of July 13 r911, Art. 142, takes cognisance of the cabinet and prevents certain dangers of favouritism in the cabinet system; but the control over policy exercised by a cabinet naturally turns the rest of the officials in the ministry into mere instruments. A long controversy is connected with the right to trade union organisation among civil servants; and there scems to be an agreed

distinction between civil servants who “ give orders ” (fonctionnaires autorité) and those who perform quasi-industrial services (fonctionnaires de gestion). The problem was discussed in the Senate and the Chamber in April and July 191g, but no solution was adopted. The present situation is that the law of 1884 does not allow trade unionism among civil servants, but that the laws of rgor and 1920 are believed by some authorities to permit

such trade unionism. In any case in practice syndicats des fonctionnaires are recognised and there is a powerful Fédération des fonctionnaires. (See H. Barthélemy, Traité élémentaire de drott administratif, ioth ed., 1923 ; J. Barthélemy, Le Gouvernement

de la France, 1924.)

: Tne

GERMAN

SERVICE

200,000 and in 1909 it was 757,678, not including workers on the state railways. These numbers, however, cannot be compared with those given for Great Britain, because in France they include local government officials and teachers, who would not be included as civil servants in Great Britain. The constitution of Feb. 25 1875, Art. 3, gives power to the president to nominate for all offices or posts in the service, and the conditions of entry, etc., are to be found in rules administered finally under the Conseil d'Etat. Examinations are held for candidates for most posts, and a university degree is in some cases necessary for entry. The

In Germany the position of civil servants has been affected by the revolution and the Weimar Constitution of Aug. 14 1919, of which Articles 128, 129, 130 and 143 affect the Civil Service directly. The number of civil servants has increased since 1914 in spite of the loss of Alsace-Lorraine and although the Federal Post Office is to be conducted as a quasi-private undertaking. In spite of considerable reductions after the War, the number of full-time Federal civil servants In 1925 was about 94,300 as compared with 19,200 in 1913. But this has not decreased the number of civil servants in the various states; for example, in Prussia there are 11,500 more than in 1913, an increase of 10%, and in Bavaria the number has risen from 23,coo to 33,000, or nearly 4424. It is recognised that these numbers should be reduced, but as all these officials are pensionable, reduction of numbers would still leave a large expenditure necessary. The chief increase of Federal officials is in the financial administration, in which there are now 73,200 persons. Before the War, taxes were levied by the states through the communes; but now, largely owing to the financial requirements of the Versailles Treaty, taxes are imposed and collected by the Federation, and, therefore, a large Federal organisation has been created, which is staffed by Federal officials. Women are eligible for any posts in the Civil Service, but in practice women are still excluded from judicial office. The political rights of civil servants have not been much changed so far as the letter of the law goes, since the War; but in practice civil servants used not to be free to engage in political activities, and particularly membership of socialistic parties was made impossible; and in this matter the Prussian administration was exceptionally strict. All this, however, is now changed, and civil servants are now as free politically as any other citizens. Freedom of combination is guaranteed by Art. 159 of the Weimar Constitution to all, and therefore to civil servants both in the states and in the Federation. There are several unions of officials. (See H. Oppenheimer, The Constitution of the German Republic, 1923.)

organisation of the service in France is in three particulars strikingly different from that in Great Britain: (a) the Conseil d'Etat, (b) the cabinet of a minister, and (c) the position of the prefects and the connection between the central and the local administration.

An important development since the War has resulted in the establishment of an international civil service. It is true that ever since the middle of the 1gth century, for example, in the

preference, under amended terms, to veterans, etc. The number of posts entered by competitive examination has been increased by the Presidential Order of May ro 1921, requiring examinations

for the three superior grades of postmasters. The general tendency to abolish “ political ” appointments has been continued: but there are still about 15,000 positions filled by appointment by the President, besides 12,000 excluded by law from the classi-

fied Civil Service. The positions of deputy collectors of internal revenue are still regarded as “ spoils ”? for the victors in political contests; and cases of illegal appointment for political reasons still occur and are dealt with by the commission. The Civil Service in the various states is developing along similar lines. BIsLIOGRAPHY.—Annual Report of the Civil Service Commission; Lewis Mayers, The federal Service (1922); A. W. Proctor, Principles of Public Personnel Administration (1922); 7. H. Lay, Foreign Service of the United States (1925). See also A. N. Holcombe, Siate Government in the United States (1917); J. M. Mathews, Principles of State Administration (1917); W. F. Dodd, State Government (1922); W. B. Munro, Afunictpal Government and Administration (Macmillan, 1923).

THE FRENCH

SERVICE

The number of civil servants under the Second Empire was

TIE

LEAGUE

OF NATIONS

648

CLARETIE—CLASSICAL

office of the Universal Postal Union since 1870, there have been small numbers of officials under authorities representing the joint action of sovereign states; but the establishment of the League of Nations and its International Labour Organisation has considerably modified the situation. There are now 475 officials of the league in Geneva and elsewhere and 360 officials of the Labour Organisation. Their work is partly to carry out the decisions of international councils, or committees, and partly to co-ordinate the activities of the governments of the states in the

league. The league Civil Service thus forms an integral part of the whole machinery of government. The Civil Service of cach of the fully developed states is now in contact with the relevant services of the other fully developed states, since it is now recognised in practice that the work, for example, of public health organisation or education cannot be effectual unless there is co-operation between states. The league officials therefore are a necessary inter-connection of the parts of modern administration. Appointments are generally made after competitive examinations, which are held periodically. But apart from competence, some regard is paid to nationality. In 1925 there were 34 different nationalities in the League Secretariat. Of the 475 officials, 161 are British (including the Dominions), 93 French and ror Swiss. See Annual

Reports on the Budget

of the League and of the

Director of the International Labour Organisation.

(C. De B.)

CLARETIE, JULES (1840-1913), French man of letters (see 6.436), completed La Vie d Paris in 1913, later published in 21 vol. in 1914. He retired from the Théâtre Français in 1913 and died Dec. 23 of the same year. CLARK, CHAMP (1850-1921), American politician, was born in Anderson Co., Ky., March 7 1850. He first entered Kentucky University but finished his course at Bethany College in 1873. The following year he was elected president of Marshall College, West Virginia, and one year later was admitted to the bar. After 1880 his law office was in Bowling Green, Missouri. He was city attorney for Louisiana, Mo., and for Bowling Green from 1878 to 1881; and was prosecuting attorney for Pike Co. 1885-9, and then for three years was a member of the Missouri House of Representatives. He was a member of Congress from 1893 to 1895, and from 1897 to ro1g, being Speaker from 1911 to 1919. At the Democratic Convention for the nomination of a presidential candidate held at Baltimore in 1912, he Jed on 27 ballots

and on 8 had a clear majority, but not the necessary two-thirds. He was finally defeated by Woodrow Wilson of New Jerscy. He died in Washington, D.C., March 2 r921. CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS (1860-1020), American artist (see 6.447), died in New York City Nov. 15 1920. CLASSICAL EDUCATION.—-In the principal secondary schools in Great Britain, classical studies are not losing ground (see PuBLIC Scuoors). As historical links exist with university foundations, the great public schools conserve the best traditions of classical scholarship. The introduction of modern methods, together with the development of interest in local and general archaeology, serves to maintain these studies in a position of basal importance. As characteristic of new methods the following account of an interesting and successful experiment in classical education deserves notice:— The Direct Method—The direct method of teaching foreign languages aims at teaching by use. It connects the foreign word, phrase or sentence directly with a thing, or an act or thought, without the intervention of English words. When a certain number of words have been learned, new ones are explained by a paraphrase in the same language; and in the final stage, the literature is read and discussed in the original. This has long been recognised as the proper method for modern languages; and a working system has been devised by which it can be applied to Latin and Greek. Time is saved, because the whole lesson is taken up with the language, instead of its being largely occupied with English explanations; attention is kept, because the language used expresses what we do or think, and it is real to us instead of artificial; understanding is easy, because what we do or see, explains what is said. In pro-

EDUCATION

portion as we exclude English words from our minds, we come to think in the language, and a feeling for its idioms and turns of speech is soon developed. Idiom is usually the last thing to be learned, and then only by the select few; with this method, it is the first thing, and it is learned by all. Since the vocabulary used is simple and deals with every-day and familiar life, the attention can

be exercised on the novelties,

that is, the peculiar

inflections which distinguish the ancient languages. - Grammar is Jearned as much on the direct method as on any other; but it is learned after use, not before, and is therefore less irksome. Short exercises are also used, if necessary, to illustrate grammar; they do no harm if they come in their proper place (after use) and in due proportion (not excessive). With the reading book, from the very first all is read aloud and explained in the same language, the explanations being written and learned. English is never used unless it cannot be helped, and then with a kind of apology. The less English we use, the more Latin or Greek we shall learn. When the pupils are fit to read an author, they know enough to dispense with English altogether or nearly so. Formal translation from English into Latin or Greek, the most difficult of all exercises, is reserved for the last two years of school life. Whoever does not understand must ask. No one ts blamed for not understanding; all are blamed, and punished if necessary, for not asking. The reading lesson is the most important part of the direct method. Every line of the matter is read aloud; and very often the mere manner of reading shows at once whether the text has been understood, and if it has not, it can be explained simply by correct reading. By reading the memory is filled, the ear is taught, the taste is trained; the language, in short, is learned in the most effective way. So much so, that verses of all sorts, lyrics included, are written with ease by imitation. But the real merit of this method lies inits effect on the learner. From the first stage to the last, the learners are willing to learn, and happy in

learning; their attention is kept without trouble and discipline is easy. (W.H.D.R.) Universities —In

the universities archaeology, anthropology,

numismatics, epigraphy, psychology, philology and geography are recognised as essential to the classical scholar who would understand and describe clearly conditions of life in the ancient civilisations. Western Europe has learned to realise the measure of its debt to Greece and to estimate the nature of the legacy it has received from Imperial Rome. To the Greeks modern science

owes much—the spirit of ceaseless enquiry; from Rome come political ideas and methods as yet unexhausted. The precision of classical literature leads to a sense of proportion, a standard of values, a respect for the truth of words, and accuracy of thought

—qualities of abiding worth in the turmoil of public life or in the contests of scientific debate. France.—In France during the greater part of the 19th century, the position of classics in secondary schools was supreme. They alone led to the baccalaureate;— sole entrance to the universities and the liberal professions. Towards the end of the century, a strong movement in favour of modern languages and science arose. In 1898 a parliamentary committee was appointed to inquire into the subject. They reported in 1899, but it was not

till rg02 that their conclusions were embodied in the establishment of four alternative courses, a full classical, a Latin-modern languages, a Latin-science and a purely modern course, all of

which led to the university. These courses remained unchanged for nearly 20 years, and during that period the classical candidates for the baccalaureate, who in 1904 numbered 3,337, fell to 2.775 in 1924. The Latin-modern rose from 1,217 to 5,964, the Latin-science from 2,229 to 5,241 and the science-modern languages from 2,742 to 5,241. Thus, while Greek declined, the students taking Latin increased more than twofold and amounted

to over 70°% of the candidates. The war brought its aftermath of discussion.

In 1922 M. Bérard, the Minister of Public Instruction, proposed to make Latin and Greek obligatory in the earlier stages, and to cut down the courses to two (classical or modern). A bitter struggle followed, in which the majority of expert opinion was against

CLAUDEL— CLAUS him.

None the less, in May 1923 the President of the Republic

issued a decree embodying the proposals of M. Bérard, and requiring a certificate of proficiency in Latin and Greek from all future candidates for the baccalaureate. A year later the Ministry fell and was replaced by a Radical one. The two courses have been maintained, but Classics are no longer obligatory for all, though as the curricula of the girls’ schools have now been assimilated to those of the boys, a classical education is equally open to the former. Germany.—In Germany up to the end of the roth century, Classics were likewise supreme. The full classical school, the Gymnasium, was with one or two exceptions the sole avenue to the university and liberal professions. In 1890, at the instance of the Kaiser, a conference was called in Prussia. Its conclusions, largely embodied in the curricula of 1892, reduced the number of hours given to classics and dethroned the latter in favour of the mother tongue, while the universities were thrown open to pupils from the Realgymnasium (Latin-Modern School) and to a large extent to those from the Oberrealschule (Modern Studies

School). Similar reforms had already been adopted by other German states. The next outstanding feature was the founding of Reformgymnasia, where the first language was French, Latin not being introduced till the fourth and Greek till the sixth year, both being taught intensively. Fhis type was largely adopted in Prussia before the war. Classical studies have been open to girls since 1904, but the number taking them has not been very great. For education since the war, no statistics are available, but according to one authority, “the desertion of schools with Latin as a central subject is general.” Others are less pessimistic and the prevailing opinion seems to be that the Reformschulen will ultimately be the future type of German classical education. fialy.—-Of the other European countries, the most interesting one from the classical standpoint of view is Italy. Here, thanks to the reforms of Gentile, there has been a strong reaction in favour of classics, and by the royal decrees of May and Nov. 1922, Classical studies have been strengthened in the Higher Schools not only of the purely classical but also of the scientific type. Latin in fact is now obligatory in all secondary schools. Room for this increase has been found by cutting down the number of subjects and reducing the time given to mathematics; the main object of the reform being to replace the former encyclopaedic aim of the school by a cultural one based on direct knowledge of the classics. Latin is also a principal subject in the girls’ high schools. Belgium.—In Belgium again the position of classics appears to have improved. A committee was appointed after the war to consider the reform of the school syllabuses and the position of Greek. As a result, classics have been maintained in the Athénées Royales (Iligh Schools) and further Greek and Latin can be studied in those écoles moyennes, which are not within convenient distance of an Athénée. Norway.—In Norway, likewise, the classics have recovered ground. In 1896 Greck was entirely banished from secondary education; to-day it is included in one section of the higher schools (Gymnasia), and can be studied by girls as well as boys. Czechoslovakia.—The republic of Czechoslovakia has largely maintained the previous types of education, which were on German lines and as the system is co-educational, classical or Latin studies are equally open to girls. Sweden.—In Sweden classics seem to have somewhat lost ground: The pupils following a full classical or Latin course, who ten years ago were In a majority, are now outnumbered by those taking modern studies. To sum up: In Italy classics are supreme. In Spain Latin is obligatory for all university entrants. In France, while Greek is on the wane, Latin forms part of the education of at least twothirds of the secondary pupils. In Germany for the moment Latin is losing ground, but in the new Reformschulen classical pupils still abound. In Sweden classics appear to be slightly losing popularity; in Czechoslovakia the old forms of classical education have been preserved. In the other European countries, where classics have been ousted from intermediate education

649

and confined to one or more sections of higher education, they are apparently either holding their own, or have recovered some

of the lost ground, as in Norway and Belgium. In TIE

UNITED

(C. Bre.)

STATES

C'itted States-—The limitation of the Latin vocabulary required in the secondary schools to the words of greatest value for further study of Latin was modified by a study of the Latin words most important for the correct use of English, and a definite place in teaching was assigned to the derivation of English words from Latin. Greater attention was paid to the historical, political, social and literary values of the authors read, and less emphasis was laid on the formal side of the language. The Direct Method, demonstrated by Dr. W. H. D. Rouse in New York in 1912, was found ill adapted to the inelastic programmes of the large public hish schools, but its influence was seen in the greater provision for oral Latin in new textbooks. : In 1920 the General Education Board arranged with the American Classical League to conduct an investigation of the Classics (chie‘ly Latin) in American secondary schools. This investigation was carried out by experts and extended over a period of three years. The results were published in 1924 in the elaborate General Report, Part I. This covered statistical information, chapters on the aims of Latin teaching, the curriculum, the methods of teaching, etc. The aims as organised were, in order of importance, to read and understand Latin; to increase the pupil’s ability to understand the Latin element in English, and to read, speak and write English; to develop historical and cultural background, correct mental habits and right attitudes toward social situations; to increase the ability to learn foreign languages; and to give an clementary knowledge of the principles of language structure. The chapter on curriculum recommended a graded restricted vocabulary organised largely with reference to English derivatives; an elimination of the unusual syntactical constructions from the early work; an increase in the amount of easy reading; less attention to Caesar, Cicero and Vergil; a wider range of selection in authors; and an extensive use of collateral reading illustrative of the civilisation of Greece and Rome. In the chapter on method a functional rather than a formal approach was suggested, with careful attention to the transfer of training, a large use of oral Latin, including reading aloud with proper expression, and the employment of translation rather as a sure training in English than as a means of testing comprehension of the text. The suggestions of this report have been received with general approval and bid fair to be widely adopted. The College Entrance Examination Board has approved them, and textbooks are being modified to meet the new demands. (G. L.*) CLAUDEL, PAUL (1868), French poet, dramatist and diplomat, was born Aug. 6 1868 at Villeneuve-sur-Fin. He was educated at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand, and entered the consular service in 1892. The early part of his diplomatic carcer was spent in the East as consul at Fou-Tehéon, Shanghai and Tientsin. As first secretary at Pekin he gained a valuable acquaintance with Chinese life and thought. In 1921 he was made French Ambassador at Tokio after a series of European appointments and three years in Rio de Janeiro. He was one of the earliest contributors to the Nouvelle Revue française, founded in 1908-9, but as early as 1900, he was recognised by the discriminating few as a writer of the first rank. His works and especially his plays are definitely Catholic in inspiration; they are, however, often marred by a vague mysticism tending to obscurity. Among

his works are Connaissance de l'est (1900; Eng. trans. by

T. Frances and W. R. Bénct, The East I Know, 1914); L'échange, La tête d'or, La jeune fille Violaine

(1901); Cing grandes odes (1910);

L'otage (1911; Eng. trans. by Chavannes, 1917); L'annonce faite à lurte: plays (1912; Eng. trans. by L. M. Still, 1916); Deux poèmes d'été (1914); Corona (1915); Poèmes de guerre (19153).

He was also re-

sponsible for translations of the Agamemnon and the Eumenides of

Aeschylus (1920).

CLAUS, EMILE (1849-1024), Belgian painter, was born at Vive Saint-Eloi, Flanders, on Sept. 27 1849. Receiving early

training at the Antwerp Academy of Fine Arts, Claus began as

CLEANING—CLEMENCEAU

650

a traditionalist. His early works are genre scenes and portraits, correctly drawn and painted in a stereotyped manner and showing no originality. Soon, however, he came under the influence of certain French painters who had determined to break from the rut, and he completely changed his style, in spite of the fact that he had achieved a certain reputation and his work was remunerative. He started to paint in high lights by the juxta-

position of pure colours. He settled at Astène, in a house on the banks of the Lys, which he called Zonneschijn. There he began to paint that beautiful series of views of meadows, gardens, fields, streams, roacs, seen at every time of the day, at every moment of the season. He became the painter of the sun and of the moonlight, of the blue or of the grey sky, of rain, of wind, of mist, of snow, of dew, of fog, rather than the painter of earth, trees, cot-

tages, cattle or human beings in the open fields, which appear to be his subjects. During the World War Claus resided in London, and from the windows of a house on the Victoria Embankment painted views of the Thames, showing the changing effects of the light and the weather. In 1917 he accompanied the Queen of the Belgians to La Panne, and visited the devastated regions. In 1920 he returned to Asténe and worked there until his death, on June 6 1924. He was a member of the Belgian Royal Academy, Commander of the Order of Leopold and the recipient of numerous Belgian and foreign honours. He is represented in the Luxembourg, Paris, and in galleries in Venice, Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent and Liége. His works are also found in numerous Belgian and foreign private collections. (P. L.) CLEANING: sce DRY CLEANING. CLEMENCEAU, GEORGES (1841), French politician (see 6.482).—In rotr M. Clemenceau entered the Senate and went on the Commissions for Foreign Affairs and the Army. He could have had no better position for surveying European fluctuations and German activities; or for inquiry into the real condition of French armaments—this last his dominant concern. Convinced

that Germany

meant

war, and was organising war,

he was haunted by the fear that again France might be caught unprepared. Significant was his speech in the Senate, Feb. 10 1912, on the Franco-German Convention (of Nov. 4 1911). “Germany relies above all on force . . . her whole thought is how to utilise that force. I see it constantly stated in the German papers that she intends to invade France, and extract from us an immense indemnity. All her newspapers are insisting that France shall be made to pay the costs of the new German fleet.” The Senate, however, gave little opportunity for sounding the alarm. Accordingly, on May 5 1913 appeared a new daily paper, L’ Homme Libre, its editor—Georges Clemenceau. In its pages he waged daily battle for security and liberty. The issue of May s contained the following: “ Our past defeats have exposed us to a perpetual menace from the most formidable army that ever was. We must live; and the nation has the right to insist that the maximum of efficiency shall be obtained from its manpower.” Though L’ Homme Libre dealt every day with home politics and social problems, it returned always to the terrible theme of the German menace. The following extracts are from articles which appeared in r913: “ The issue of this appalling contlict will be nothing less than the life or death of France.” (May 25); “ Germany has but one aim—to wipe out France.” (June 14);“ Only an absolutely determined Government can ensure our being prepared for war.” On March 6 ro14 he wrote: “ Let Germany choose her own time; she will soon learn how much can be accomplished by the moral force of a good cause backed by courage and full preparation.” To stir the nation by his urgent appeals this ardent controversialist seized every pretext: Alsace-Lorraine, the Zabern affair, the illusions of French pacificists, the vain attempts at a Franco-German rapprochement, the imprisonment of Hansi the Alsatian caricaturist by the Germans. In the spring of 1913 the question of restoring the three years’ term of conscript service suddenly arose. Would France make this mighty sacrifice in view of the German peril? M. Clemenceau took an impassioned part in the debates on armaments. The Minister of

War admitted that France had allowed herself to be outstripped by Germany in the production of scientific means of wartare, but he added: “ Moral force is supreme. With its aid inferior weapons can deal splendid blows.” ‘* Why don’t you buy crossbows then?” cried M. Clemenceau from his seat in the Senate. Then came Aug. 1914 and the War. M. Clemenceau was living in the rue Franklin at Passy, in a three-roomed flat crammed with books. The flat was on the ground-floor of a five-storied building, on the far side of the courtyard. At the back, on a terrace overlooking the boulevard Delessert, was a small garden planted with rose-bushes and Japanese dwarf-trees. During the first three vears of the War, M. Clemenceau’s day was spent as follows: He rose at one or two in the morning, lit his !amp, and worked intensely for three to four hours on the daily article of two columns for his paper. Sometimes this long article was written straight off at one heat; at other times it was worked out after many alterations and erasures. At six or seven o'clock he breakfasted, did physical exercises and received his daily flow of visitors. Next he coped with his correspondence—one to two hundred letters from all parts of France, enabling him to keep his finger on the national pulse. After a hasty lunch of perhaps a cutlet and some fruit, he used to face the two formidable commissions of the Senate, where the ministers of national defence had to appear. After these sittings, M. Clemenceau quitted the Luxembourg to drive off immediately into the heart of Paris. At his newspaper office in the rue Taitbout he went through his article, conferred with his subeditors and political correspondents, read the evening papers. At eight o'clock he returned home, dined and went to bed. This was the average working day of M. Clemenceau, who in 1914 was already 73 years old. But at the hands of the Censor L’ Homme Libre soon suffered for M. Clemenceau’s plain speaking. He knew that the war problem was complex, and was determined to insist on all the vital needs. The whole youth of France must be mobilised. He denounced the shirkers, demanded that technical efficiency raised to the highest pitch must become worthy of the outpouring of blood. Ife attacked all incompetency, red tape, inadequate munition factories, with their shortage of guns and rifles, and badly-run hospitals. He made war in short, upon all who failed to realise that this was a conflict of supplies and organisation, and upon every kind of apathy and feebleness. ‘Fhe civil and military officials were staggered. M. Clemenceau had actually dared to say that all was not well, and that peace habits must cease when the nation was fighting for life. The result was that in Sept. 1914 L’ Homme Libre was suppressed. Two days later, however, it reappeared as L’ Homme Enchdiné, but wore its fetters lightly. For three months—until M. Clemenceau came into power—there was a daily struggle with the Censor. Which would tire first? For some time not a week passed without articles being mutilated, but M. Clemenceau won. His hammer hit the nails on the head. The Censor relaxed more and more until excisions became very rare. Meanwhile in the Senate, M. Clemenceau agitated for more and still more guns, munitions, soldiers. He pleaded for a judicious use of the available man-power, for a better medical service. But above all he strove to create the indomitable and desperate “ will to victory.” He was supported by other members of the Army and Forcign Affairs Commission, like MM. Jeanneney, Chéron, Doumer, Humbert, Berenger. The War dragged on; weariness, slackness and pacificism began to appear. M. Clemenceau was the first to draw public attention to that growing peril; he now felt that his warning must be more resounding; that neither the columns of his newspaper nor the secrecy of the commissions gave him scope enough. He first spoke behind the closed doors of the Senate, but it was at a public debate there on July 22 1917 that he sounded a clarion call which rang through France. At this time M. Malvy, who had been Minister of the Interior since ror4, was Chairman of an important Committee in the Chamber; and probably even his warmest admirers would admit that during his term of office he had not treated revolutionaries with a firm enough hand. His justification, it

CLEMENCEAU is true, was that he desired to “ gain the confidence of the working-man ”’; but M. Clemenceau retorted that there was no com-

parison between those working-men who were loyally doing their duty to their country and a number of abject “ defeatists.” In vain the Minister of Justice declared that crimes had been punished and precautions taken; M. Clemenceau denounced the measures as Inadequate. “‘ We are at war,” he said, “the Germans are at St. Quentin: the morale of the country has been shaken. Yet all you do is to quibble about legal forms and talk about fines of rs to 300 francs! ... What

we must have is

order within, that the army with peace behind it may face its task of war.” Four months later M. Clemenceau came into power. He had never sought office and he knew that his task meant victory or death. It is significant to recall the state of France when Clemenceau became premier. Although some maintained that all was going well, and that victory was in sight, the situation in reality was miserable. The morale at the front was bad, and at home even worse. Resources were nearly at an end, and except in the flowery speeches of officials, no solution whatever could be discerned. At this point M. Poincaré sent for M. Clemenceau; not because he loved him: it would be hard to imagine two men with less in common than the impetuous, explosive Vendean, and the cold precise Lorrainer. But M. Poincaré realised that of all men M. Clemenceau was the impersonation of the idea of war to the death. In his new Government M. Clemenceau himself took the portfolio of Minister of War. He was not altogether a favourite with his colleagues in Parliament; for hitherto he had been chiefly a fighter, giving and taking hard blows. His warnings had been harsh; his candour scathing. But now they welcomed him. One ministry after another had been dismissed. ‘The last, that of M. Painlevé, had fallen amid feelings of doubt and anxiety. A War Minister was needed who would carry on the struggle without {flinching or respite. Such a leader was found in M. Clemenceau, who was then 76 years of age. He formed his Victory Cabinet on Nov. 16 1917 and was destined to see Germany defeated on Nov. 11 of the following year. On Nov. 20 ro17 he made the following declaration: “ Pacificism must go; no more German intrigues; no more treason or semitreason. War, and nothing but war!” Thenceforward till Nov. rt 1918, Clemenceau did in fact concentrate on war only. But first he made it clear that France was bent on absolute victory and would brook no half-measures. Those who spoke of wavering or yielding were immediately silenced; any one who obstructed the path to victory was ruthlessly removed. By these means Clemenceau restored the nation’s self-confidence, and with it the conviction that its long-drawn out martyrdom would not be in vain. No one who was in France at that time will ever forget that extraordinary resurgence of hope and resolution transforming the French people. The soldiers at the front redoubled their efforts; in vain the Central Powers alternately brandished the sword and held out

the olive branch. The whole nation was solidly united by the will to victory. In March 1918 the Anglo-French line was broken through; Clemenceau joined in organizing the unity of command with Foch at the head. In April the Austrian Minister Czernin proclaimed that France was ready to negotiate. M. Clemenceau merely replied: ‘ Il y a des consciences pourries.” In May came the disaster of the Chemin des Dames; the French troops were driven back on the Marne, while the commanderin-chief was criticised. “Our soldiers,” said M. Clemenceau, “have officers who are in every respect worthy of them,” and three months later he made Foch Marshal of France. During that long year of ceaseless effort M. Clemenceau’s resolution remained unshaken. France was determined on victory, for he had infused into her the temper of fine steel. Every night German aviators raided Paris, demolishing whole blocks of houses and dropping bombs even on the Ministry of War itself. “ Big Berthas ” fired on churches and the hospitals of the Maternité and Saint-Gervais were both struck. Whole towns and districts were wrapped in mourning; but resistance only stiffened. Con-

651

viction strengthened that the Germans were being beaten. On Nov. 8 1918 Erzberger was already in the train of the Commander-in-chief of the Allied Armies. On the 11th the guns roared for the last time; the nightmare was over. From Nov. 11 1918 to June 28 1919 M. Clemenceau devoted himself to the international settlement. The Peace of Versailles was in preparation, and this necessitated strenuous days of work and delicate negotiations. Up till now M. Clemenceau had merely had to contend with his enemies; now his task was to reconcile the interests of France with those of her friends. He defended her cause with enthusiasm and conviction, forcing his view alternatively on Mr. Lloyd George and President Wilson. Meanwhile Germany was disarming, and M. Clemenceau took care to supervise that disarmament. But the French Parliament began to grow restless, for it saw itself put to one side in the

peace negotiations. It therefore no longer regarded M. Clemenceau as indispensable. The great patriot, who was anxious to finish the work he had begun, did his best to smooth matters over. Momentous problems had to be solved; demobilisation had to be faced, a general election was looming ahead, and the questions of Alsace-Lorraine and the liquidation of war stocks had to be settled. M. Clemenceau decided to deal simultaneously with these questions as of equal importance. Peace was signed on June 28, and on Nov. 11 the new chamber was elected. M. Clemenceau counted on its support; for he believed that its members, many of them ex-soldiers, would have profited by the lesson of the War. Although he never stood as a candidate—it is certain that he would have been ready to give the last years of his life by taking M. Poincaré’s place at the Elysée. And thus outside and above the changing Governments, he could have secured continuity in political action by a strict application of the 1919 treaties. M. Poincaré left the Elysée ... but M. Deschanel was elected President of the French Republic. And without doubt the electors, under the cloak of the ballot, had voted according to their hearts. M. Clemenceau had saved his country, but members could not forgive the fact that he had excluded them from the final work for victory. During the War he had undoubtedly worked alone; he felt that large assemblies were not made for action. Probably he would have admitted the Commissions to the deliberations on the Treaty of Versailles if diplomatic obstacles had not intervened to prevent it. M.Clemenceau had also to face—both in the Chamber and in the Senate— the hostility, not only of the clerical party of the Right who suspected him of indifference to the Vatican, but also that of the extreme Left, who were alienated by what they considered to be his militarism. Clemenceau thus met the fate which overtook other War Ministers and on Jan. 20 1920 his cabinet fell, M. Des chanel being summoned to office. He had earned the gratitude of his country and returning to his beloved books, might well

have sought repose; instead he sailed for India. There he was able to study an ancient civilisation, whose splendours had always fascinated him. “ The Tiger ” hunted the tiger; and his English friends welcomed him magnificently. He travelled over the whole country, and retained a vivid impression of the Ganges and the temples of Benares in particular. In Paris L'Echo National of André Tardieu carried on the fight for the Treaty of Versailles. M. Clemenceau returned to the rue Franklin and to his books. Once more he was able to enjoy his Aeschylus and the roses in his garden. But it now appeared that the United States was endeavouring io dissociate herself from European affairs. Though she had fought to win the War, she would not help to win the Peace. | M. Clemenceau was now &1 years old, but he sailed at once for America at the end of 1922. From town to town he carried the message of France to the citizens of the Union. He had no official mission, for he had neither asked anything nor received anything from the French Government. His progress was none the less triumphant. Once more he returned to the rue Franklin, but not to rest. Life and work with him were synonymous, and by the end of 1925 he was already writing two books; one on philosophy and the other on Demosthenes. What better subject

652

CLEMENTEL—CLIMATE

for the French patriot than the great Athenian who would not have his country false to itself. (J. Mr.*)

CLÉMENTEL, ÉTIENNE (1862-

__), French politician, was

born March 29 1862 at Riom and educated there. He was elected a deputy in 1898 and became Minister for the Colonies in Rouvier’s Cabinet, in 190s, afterward occupying ministerial posts in departments where his knowledge of economics could find full play: the ministries of Agriculture, Colonies, Finance, Public Works and Marine. His collaboration was particularly valuable in organising the supply of raw materials for the Allied Armies between 1914 and 1918. By effecting the agreement for the establishment of the Inter-Allied Wheat Executive (see CONTROL, INTER-ALLIED) with Mr. Walter Runciman in Nov. 1916 Clémentel helped to tide over a difficult situation. The creation of the Inter-Allied Maritime Transport Council was due in great part to his energy, for, as early as Aug. 1917, he had occupied himself with drawing up a general inventory of his own country’s requirements, an Initiative quickly followed by the Allied Governments. After the Armistice, M. Clémentel was chosen “ Président fondateur ” of the International Chamber of Commerce. His work at the London Conference of July 1924, which he attended as Minister of Finance in the Herriot Cabinet, was eminently appreciated. He was elected Senator for the Puy de Dôme in 1918. Among his writings may be mentioned: L’A me celfigue (1899) and Un drame économique (1914). CLERMONT-GANNEAU, CHARLES SIMON (1846-1923), French orientalist (see 6.498), died Feb. 13 1923.

CLEVELAND (see 6.503), the largest city in Ohio and the fifth in the United States, had in 1920 a population of 796,841, a gain of 42:1% for the decade. In 1924 the population was estimated

at 902,457. The area in 1925 was 69-154 sq. m. as against 41 sq. m. in rọr0. Of the three new viaducts across the valley of the Cuyahoga river, the noteworthy one is the High Level Bridge with a central span of sor ft. in length and 96 ft. above water. The total length, with approaches, is 5,630 ft., the cost $5,407,000. The centre of retail trade has moved steadily eastward, crowding out the large houses with spacious grounds which had made Euclid avenue famous. New residential sections were developed, especially near Wade Park and on the heights east of the city. Noteworthy buildings added include the County Courthouse, the City Hall, the Public Auditorium and the Public Library (of the uncompleted ‘ group ” plan); the Union Trust, the Engineers Bank, the Federal Reserve Bank and Hanna buildings; The Plain Dealer newspaper building; the Cleveland Trust Co’s. Bank; the Museum of Art and the Church of the Covenant (Presbyterian), St. Agnes (Catholic), The Temple (Jewish) and the Amasa Stone Memorial Chapel of Adelbert College. Education.—The schools were reorganised in 1917 as a result of a survey. Significant features were the development of junior high schools, of which there were 19 in 1925, and the establishment of departmental supervision. The Normal School, now the Cleveland School of Education, was affiliated with Western Reserve University. To the university group was added a night college called Cleveland College. In 1924-5 the university had 514 instructors and 3,410 students. The most important addition to the educational and artistic life of the community was the Museum of Art. The building, of classical design, was completed in 1916. Its directors have succeeded, through classes, lectures and special exhibitions, in making it a power in popular education. Another valuable influence has been the Museum of Natural History opened in 1922. The musical development of the city was stimulated by the creation of a symphony orchestra and a school of music. In its charities Cleveland has carried far the principle of co-

operation, seeking to obviate through a welfare federation the waste in soliciting contributions. The Cleveland Foundation was created in 1914 to enable a competent commission to institute inquiries on the best methods of furthering the interests of the community, and, when the funds entrusted to it become large enough, to apply the income directly to schemes of betterment. Cleveland is the seat of a Federal Reserve Bank. Its two largest banks in 1925 were the Union Trust Co., formed in 1921

AND

CLIMATOLOGY

by the consolidation of several older banks, and the Cleveland Trust Company. The Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers Cooperative National Bank, the first labour bank in the United States, organised in 1920, had resources in 1925 of $28,082,840. The city’s manufacturing enterprises expanded steadily during the period 1910-25. The increase in automobile production was among the most striking. The harbour facilities were developed by the completion of the government breakwater, 5} m. long. The city still retained its position as the greatest ore market in the world, and led also in the manufacture of many steel products.

In accordance with the authority conferred by the home-rule amendment of the state constitution, a charter, submitted by a special commission, was accepted by the citizens on July t 1913. This reduced the number of elected officers to the mayor and 26 councilmen. By an amended charter, which took effect on Jan. 1 1924, the manager system was introduced. The council of 25 members was chosen by districts, four in number, instead of by wards. The president of the council was called the mayor, but full administrative authority, with the duty of choosing heads of departments, was entrusted to the manager, elected by the council and holding office at its pleasure. Subordinate officials were appointed according to the merit system. The city added to its waterworks a filtration plant for its western section, with a capacity of 150,000,000 gal. a day, and a high-level reservoir for the eastern section, and in connection therewith a filtration

system with a capacity of 166,000,000 gallons.

(H. E. B.)

CLIFFORD, JOHN (1836-1923), British Nonconformist divine (see 6.507), died Nov. 20 1923. CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY (see 6.509).—Climatology is largely a science of the future. The full valuc of much of the great mass of data already collected and now being collected will really not be reached until the averages, the extremes and the

variability of the different climatic elements can be based upon longer series of records than most of those now at hand. The essential facts concerning the climates of most of the world, although not yet known as completely or as accurately as is desirable, or as will eventually be possible, are nevertheless sufficiently well ascertained to meet ordinary needs. General

Climatology.—The

third

edition,

in three

volumes,

of

Julius von Ifann’s Handbuch der Klimatologie (Stuttgart, 1908-11) consiitutes the one indispensable handbook for all who are in any way concerned with the study of climate. In them, a summary of what is known concerning the climate of every part of the world may be found. The climatic pictures are made notably complete and accurate by means of vivid descriptions of weather types; by frequent references to the effects of climate upon vegetation, crops and human activities and by well-chosen quotations from the writings of residents and of travellers who are familiar with the climates concerning which they have given accounts. Temperature, rainfall and other essential data for large numbers of stations are in many cases here worked out in detail and summarised for the first time. Kendrew's The Climates of the Continents (Oxford, 1922) is the first comprehensive survey in English of the climates of the fand areas of the world. Tables of monthly average temperatures and rainfalls for more than 400 stations, and numerous maps and diagrams, are included. A vast amount of information is here available, in one

volume, in convenient form for ready use. Wladimir Képpen’s Die Klimate der Erde (Leipzig, 1923), after a gencral discussion of the principles of climatology, gives a description of the essential features of the world’s climates. This description ignores political boundaries, using instead a series of climatic provinces, distinguished from one another by certain critical values of the essential climatic elements, A brief, simple scheme of two or three reference letters or numbers (climatic formulae) is used for the characterisation of each province. Eckardt’s Grundstige einer Physioklimatologie der Festlander (Berlin, 1922) is original in title as well as in method of treatment. It deals with the climatology of the continents, but dispenses with all tabulations and contains very few numerical data. The changes in seasonal pressures are taken as the fundamental controls of climate. These three volumes are valuable supplements to von Hann’s standard work. Local Citmatology—Many recent publications deal with the climate of individual countries or of smaller areas as giver in the classified Bibliegraphy of Meteorology issued semi-annually (since Sept. Ig20) by the Royal Meteorological Society (London), or in the bibliography regularly published in the Meteorologische Zeitschrift. Uniled States.—lespecially marked progress has been made during the past decade in the scientific investigation of the climatology of

CLIMATE

AND

the United States. The preparation of a section on climate for a new

Atlas of American Agriculture (1918 and later years) marks an important advance in the accurate charting and discussion of many of the essential features of the climatic conditions of this large area. This atlas will, for many years to come, be the standard authority on all the subjects with which it deals. The data used in the construction of the large series of maps relate to temperature, precipitation, humidity, frost, sunshine and wind all cover a uniform period of 20 years or longer, or have been reduced to that period. Many details are further set forth by means of special diagrams and graphs. All the essential facts regarding the climatology of the United States are cartographically shown in this new atlas with a detail not hitherto attained in any other area of equal size in the world. The text accompanying the charts, while brief, is adequate in calling attention to the more important facts. In The Climates of the United Stafes (Boston, Mass., 1925) R. DeC. Ward has given a compact general description and explanation of the essential characteristics of the climatology of the United States, fully illustrated with charts and diagrams, and based on all available information. Full bibliographies are included on each topic, and special attention is paid to the economic and other human relations of climate. Australia —Australia is another large area, a knowledge of whose climatology has advanced very rapidly. The Australian Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology has issued an unusually valuable series of reports, dealing especially with rainfall, but also presenting many other essential facts concerning the general climatic characteristics of the country. These studies are clear and concise in treatment, and emphasise the practical economic aspects of the subject. A report on the climate and weather of Australia (1913) is one of the best available discussions of the meteorological and climatic conditions of any part of the globe. The main thesis of these monographs 1s the climatic limitation and control of agriculture and of stock-raising. The results will be of practical value in the future development of Australia. The extreme importance of rainfall is emphasised, not only of the annual amounts but also of the season at which the rain falls, and of its reliability. Latin America.—The climatology of Latin America is receiving increased attention. The establishment of the new Directoria de Meteorologia (1921), in Brazil, has already resulted in an increase in the number of observing stations, and in the publication of important climatic data in the regular bulletins of that service. For Mexico there is a very complete study of the temperature conditions, equal to that available for many other countries... New rainfall maps of Latin America have been constructed.2 The scattered data for the several countries of Central America have been

compiled in convenient form,’ and a useful annotated bibliography of South American climatology has been published.4 It is significant that, with the increasing accuracy of climatic data resulting from the availability of records covering longer and longer periods of time, there is a marked tendency to publish these data in cartographic rather than tabular form. They thus become available for easier and more effective use. Hellmann’s Kiima-Adlas von

Deutschland (Berlin, 1921); a new edition of Mohn’'s Aélas de Climat de Norvége (Christiania, 1921); Angot's monographs on the rainfall of France (Paris, 1913, etc.); Gorczynski's new isothermal and isobaric charts of Poland, Europe and the World (Warsaw, 1917-8) may be noted here. Mention should also be made of a very complete discussion of the rainfall of the British Isles, based on all available data, by Salter.’

Arctic Regions.—While the meteorology of the Arctic has made relatively little progress in recent years, the Antarctic has been visited by a large number of expeditions, most of the results of whose scientific work, as well as some of the results of work done prior to 1910, have been published in the last decade or so. These discussions include those relating to the British expeditions of 1901-4, 1910-3 and 1914-7; the Australian expedition of 1911-4; the Norwegian of 1910-2; the German of I91I-2,etc. Meteorological observations are now available for complete years, made at fixed land stations; on board vessels drifting slowly in the ice, on sledge journeys, and from the upper air by means of kites and balloons. The material is, however, still too scattered and incomplete to give an accurate and satisfactory picture of Antarctic climate. Most of the discussions concern the physical problems of Antarctic meteorology. In all studies of the controls of the seasonal weather conditions, and hence also of climates, the Réseau Mondial is practically essential.6 This is a compilation of world data by 10° squares of latitude and longitude based on observations at land stations averaging two for each square. Monthly and annual summaries of pressure, temperature and precipitation are included.

Climate and Crops.—Recent studies of the larger controls of climate over crop distribution, and of weather factors which most affect the critical periods of growth and of yield of field and garden crops, have brought out much information which will prove of importance in the advance of agricultural climatology. The geographic origin of the world’s food supply and of other essential agricultural products, and of the climatic and other factors which control the present distribua eee ‘The references refer to the Bibliography at the end of the article.

CLIMATOLOGY

653

tion of the world’s crops and livestock, are discussed in the Geography of the World's Agriculture! In this atlas the essential climatic controls in the case of the important crops in all parts of the world are briefly stated. Another publication, also of wide interest, deals with

cotton.’ The climates of all the cotton areas are discussed, detailed consideration being given to the United States. The facts here given

are of practical value in the selection of the most favourable climates for future cotton growing. An outstanding publication whose aim is to elucidate the methods that may be used in studying the aetiology of plant distribution, and to give the essential climatic data necessary for carrying out such work in the United States, has been issued by the Carnegie Institution of Washington.? This is the most notable investigation of its kind for any area of comparable size. J. Warren Smith’s Agricultural Meteorology: the Effect of Weather on Craps (New York, 1920) is a serviceable guide to the use of correlations and of

similar processes in the study of climate and crops, and also summarises results already achieved.

Climate and Health.—The intimate study of solar radiation in relation to health (see HELIOTHERAPY) is making very rapid progress. At Davos, Switzerland, Dorno has made himself the recognised authority on solar and sky radiation.¢ He has there measured the light, heat, chemical and bactericidal effects of radiation which is found to vary widely in its ray elements, even at the same station, the same solar altitude and under a clear sky. The results are of great importance in medicine and in biology, recent medical researches having shown the value of certain of the finer rays in the treatment of tuberculosis, rickets and other diseases. ‘The essential facts on open-air and sunshine in relation to health and diseases are given in a popular handbook by Dr. Leonard Hill," and in A. C. Rollier’s Heliotherapy (London,

1923). It appears that in the use of climate for medica) purposes the variable quality of sunshine must be known, and not merely its duration. Physiological Climatology.—It has for some time been recognised that conditions which are best for human beings are moderately cool and moderately moist air, in motion, together with a reasonable variability of temperature. (See PUBLIC HEALTH.) Dr. Leonard Hill has devised a so-called “ Katathermometer ” (q.v.) which indicates by the rate of cooling of wet and dry bulb thermometers, heated to about the surface temperature of the human body, the combined effect of temperature, humidity, wind evaporation, etc., in a way comparable with the experience of a human body.” Several investigators have sought to determine, in actual numerical values, the most favourable atmospheric conditions for man. Dr. Grifth Taylor, using wet bulb temperatures and relative humidities, has worked out the criteria of a suitable climate for Anglo-Saxons in the tropics.“ This study suggests, as representing ideal conditions, a wet bulb reading of 62°F. and relative humidity of 68-5°% in summer, and 37° F.and 81% in winter. Képpen gives 64-4° F. (18° C.) as the temperature of greatest comfort. Climate and Civilisation.—Using statistics of the efficiency of factory operatives, students and others in the eastern United States, Huntington has determined what he calls the “ Optimum ” temperatures for man’s greatest efficiency.'4 These are outdoor tempcratures of 60°-65° F. for maximum physical efficiency and 40° F. for maximum mental efficiency. Beneficial stimulating effect was found in a certain moderate degree of temperature variability associated with storm controls. The different parts of the world are graded according to their approximation to such a climate, and the civilisations of those areas are also graded. A close agreement is found between the results. The conclusion is reached that a certain special combination of climatic conditions prevails to-day where high civilisation is found, and that past climatic fluctuations which brought a similar type of climate were associated with correspond ng periods of high civilisation. Criticism of these far-reaching conclusions

has been based on the insufficiency of the data upon which the study rests; a lack of any general agreement as to the facts concerning the distribution of civilisation and the occurrence of special climatic types in past times, and upon the fact that the controls over human development and historical events are far too complex for any simple evaluation.

Variations of Climate-—The whole question of climatic variations is still under active debate, both as to the occurrence,

654

CLIMATE

AND

characteristics and frequency of any such “changes,” and also as to their possible causes. Dr. Ellsworth Huntington has been a prolific writer on this problem. His investigations, which began in central Asia, have been extended over parts of western Asia, Palestine, the Libyan Desert, the south-western United States and portions of Central America.™ From an examination of a large body of evidence—archaecological, physiographic, historical, including the rings of the giant Sequoias of California and of other trees, the conclusion is drawn that from the beginnings of human history a gradual change from moister to drier climates has been going on. This process has, however, not been steadily progressive, but has taken place in a more or less irregular, pulsatory fashion, drier and moister epochs alternating, without definite periodicity, as subordinate irregularities on the general curve of desiccation. The major fluctuations are believed by Huntington to have been essentially synchronous, and of the same general character under similar geographic conditions, in central and western Asia, in the Mediterranean area and in

North America.

These pulsations are further believed to have

been potent factors in bringing about certain great historical migrations and events, such as the decay of Rome, the rise and fall of the Central American civilisations, and so on. While much evidence in favour of changes of climate in historic times has been brought forward, the opinion is quite widely held that a good deal of this is not wholly trustworthy. Much of it is so distinctly contradictory that in certain cases nothing less

than a complete deadlock exists. Further, a considerable number of meteorologists think that much of the evidence seems to have been interpreted without due consideration of controls other than climatic fluctuations. In cases where careful examination of the evidence has been made by experts in archaeology, betany, geology and history, there has usually been hesitation in ascribing the facts solely, or often even partly, to fluctuations In climate. At the present time, the opinion of the majority of the most competent authorities seems distinctly to be that there is not sufficient unimpeachable evidence to justify a belief in any permanent progressive change of climate within historic times. That there are certain fluctuations in the values of the climatic elements is, however, a well-established fact. The so-called Briickner period, averaging about 35 years in length, is generally recognised. No definite or universally accepted conclusion has yet been reached regarding the existence of other longer periods. A period of about 11 years in temperature, rainfall and certain other meteorological phenomena has been made out by several investigators, but on the whole the variations in the values of these elements appear to be very slight, and the results are often debatable, if not contradictory. Köppen has greatly extended his investigations of sunspot controls over temperatures, begun some 30 years ago, and has found that the 11-year periodicity appears to be somewhat less marked but more regular than he at first thought it to be.t! (See ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY; METEOROLOGY.) Douglass has for some 25 years been studying the evidences of climatic fluctuations given by tree rings in California and elsewhere.1?7 Some of his conclusions have been used by Huntington and others in their investigations of climatic fluctuations. Douglass believes that a close relation exists between the thickness of tree rings and the annual amount of precipitation, and finds evidence of periodicity over large areas, in agreement with the sunspot cycle or multiple of it. A 100-ycar cycle also appears very prominently in the 3,000 years of Sequoia record and in the soo years of the yellow pine. The climatic chronology based on the tree rings has also been studied in the tree trunks and beams discovered in the ruins of prehistoric dwellings in the southwestern United States. at Causes of Climatic Fluctuation. There is not yet any agreement as to the causes of climatic fluctuations. Very important work on the variations in the intensity of the sun’s heat has been carried on during the past two decades by Dr. C. G. Abbot, and his associates of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smith-

sonian Institution. The sun is a variable star. There are variations associated with the sunspot period of about 11 years, and

CLIMATOLOGY there are also variations in shorter intervals, of the order of a few weeks or even days. There has been much discussion, but there is no unanimity of opinion, as to just how such variations in the amount of solar radiation will affect conditions on the earth's surface. Instead of being higher at times of greater solar activity, temperatures over most of the world are slightly lower. A highly complex train of effects must obviously result, in which temperature, pressure, evaporation, cloudiness and rainfall are all concerned, and in which readjustments in the general circulation of the atmosphere play an important part. The varying strength of the atmospheric and oceanic circulations, and the resulting effects upon the development and location of the great “ centres of action’ and of the wind and rain belts, seem to many writers competent to account for any climatic vari-

ations which may have taken place in historical times. In one of the outstanding publications of the past decade, Helland-Hansen and Nansen,

in their study of North

Atlantic

temperatures,

conclude that variations in the supply of solar energy, acting through the atmospheric circulation are the initial cause of temperature changes on the earth’s surface.'8 So far as changes of climate during the geological past are concerned, there has been a decided tendency towards seeking an explanation in factors which are recognised as being effectively at work in determining present-day climates, and a lessened appeal to purely astronomical causes, which in the past were most widely advocated. E. Huntington and 5S. S. Visher in Climatic Changes, Their Nature and Causes (New Haven, Conn., 1922), however, incline to the view that variations in solar activity may arise from some effect induced by the approach to the solar system of some of the greater stars. Such variations in solar energy, acting on storms and on the position of storm trackgon the earth’s surface are believed to have been concerned in the climatic changes or fluctuations of the past. W. J. Humphreys, who may perhaps be taken as most emphatically advocating terrestrial as opposed to extra-terrestrial or cosmical controls, believes that past climatic fluctuations were due to changes in topography, in the distribution of land and water, in elevation of the land, in atmospheric and oceanic circulations, in volcanic dust, etc. In other words, the same controls over climate were at work in the past as are observed to-day, onty in different combinations.!® In The Evolution of Climates (London, 1925), C. E. P. Brooks holds that past changes of climate, such as the glacial periods, were mainly due to changes in the extent and elevation of the lands, especially in the higher latitudes. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—1I. J. Hernandez, ‘‘ The Temperature of Mexico,”

Monthly Weather Rev. Supplement No. 23 (Washington, D.C., 1923). 2. E. Van Cleef, ‘‘ Rainfall Maps of Latin America,” tbid., vol. 49, pp. 537-542 (1921). 3. W. W. Reed, “ Climatological Data for Central America,” tbid., vol. 51, pp. 133-141 (1923). 4. M. M. Welch, ‘ Bibliography on the Climate of South America,” tbid., Supplement No. 78 (1921). 5. M. deC. S. Salter, The Rainfall of the British Isles (London, 1921). 6. Réseau Mondial, Meteorological Office, London (begins with 1911). 7. V. C. Finch and O. E. Baker, Geography of the World's Agriculture, atlas and text (1917); U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Office of Farm Management (Washington, D.C., 1917). 8 O. C. Stine and O. E. Baker, “ Cotton, ” Atlas of American Agriculture, pt. v., Section A., U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Office of Farm Management (Washington, D.C., 1918). 9. B. E. Livingston and Forrest Shreve, “ The Distribution of Vegetation in the United States, as related to Climatic Conditions,” Carnegte Inst. Publ. No. 284 (Washington, D.C., 1921). 10. C. Dorno, Studien über Licht und Luft des Hochgebirges (Braunschweig, 1911); also numerous other publications, in Monthly Weather Review (vol. 48, pp.

18-24,

1920; vol.

50, pp.

515-521,

1922,

and else-

where). 11. Leonard Hil, Sunshine and Open Air, Their Influence on Health, with Special Reference to the Alpine Climate (London, 1924). 12. Leonard Hill, ‘ Atmospheric conditions which affect. Health,” QO. J. Met. Soc., vol. 45, pp. 189-206 (1919); ‘' The Science of Ventilation anc Open-Air Treatment,” Medical Res. Counc. Spec. Report, Series No. 52, p. 295 (London, 1920) and other papers. 13. Griffith Taylor, “Phe Control of Settlement by Humidity and Temperature (with Special Reference to Australia and the Empire): An Introduction to Comparative Climatology,” Commonwealth Bur. of Met. Bull. r4 (Melbourne, 1916). 14. Ellsworth Huntington, Civilisation and Climate (New Haven, Conn., 1915; ard ed., 1924) summarises much of the author's earlier work, including that on historical changes of climate; World Power and Evolution

CLYNES—COAL (New Haven, Conn., 1919). 15. Ellsworth Huntington, Palestine and its Transformation (1911); The Climatic Factor as Illustrated in Arid America, with chapters by Charles Schuchert, Andrew E. Douglass and Charles J. Kullmer (Carnegie Inst. Publ. No. 192, Washington, D.C., 1915) and numerous other publications. 16. W. Köppen, “ Lufttemperatur, Sonnenflecke und Vulkanausbrüche,” Met. Zeitschr., vol. 31, pp. 305-328 (1914). 17. A. E.

Douglass, ‘' Climatic Cycles and Tree Growth: A Study of the Annual

Rings of Trees in Relation to Climate and Solar Activity,’ Carnegie Inst., Publ. No. 289 (Washington, D.C., 1919); ‘’ Some Aspects of the Use of the Annual Rings of Trees in Climatic Study,” Scientific Monthly, vol. 15, pp. 5-22 (1922), also numerous other papers. 18. B. Helland-Hansen and F. Nansen, ‘“ Temperature Variations in the North Atlantic Ocean and in the Atmosphere: Introductory Studies on the Causes of Climatological Variations,” Smithsontan Misc. Coll., vol. 70, No. 4, Publ. 2537 (Washington, D.C., 1920). 19.

W.

J. Ifumphreys,

‘Some

Factors

of

Scientific Monthly, vol. 20, pp. 449-459 (1925).

Climatic

Control,”

(R. De C. W.)

CLYNES, JOHN ROBERT (1869), English politician, was born at Oldham, Lancs., March 27 1869, of working-class parents, and worked himself as an artisan for many years. He was active in the trade-union movement, and eventually became president of the National Union of General Workers, and chairman of its executive council. He entered Parliament as Labour member for Northeast Manchester (Platting Division) in 1906, when the Labour party was returned for the first time in numerical force, over 50 in all; and he has sat uninterruptedly for the same constituency ever since. It was not, however, till the World War that he attracted general attention. He protested, in Feb. rors, on behalf of his party, against the rise in prices, which he attributed mainly to contractors and dealers exploiting the needs of the people. In 19017 he was appointed parliamentary secretary under Lord Rhondda soon after the latter’accepted the position of Food Controller. In the arduous and successful work of that office he took his full share, and, when his chief died in June 1918, he succeeded him to the general satisfaction. He gave special encouragement to the creation of national kitchens, the number of which had grown by the end of August to over 600, and he set up, inside the Ministry, a food council to consider questions of policy, and to co-operate with other bodies dealing with food problems. Public appreciation of his admirable work in the War was shown by the honorary degrees conferred upon him in 1919 by the universities of Oxford and Durham. In consequence of the decision of the Labour party to terminate its support of the Coalition Govt., he resigned office in Nov. 1918, Just before the general election. At the beginning of the session of 1919 Clynes was elected vicechairman of the party, and since then he has been reckoned among its principal leaders. He was chosen chairman in 1921, but after the election of 1922 the Labour party at Westminster elected Mr. Ramsay MacDonald. Mr. Clynes became deputy chairman, and in that capacity moved on Jan. 17 1924 the Labour amendment of want of confidence in Mr. Baldwin’s Govt. which brought that Govt. down and put the Labour party in office. He became Lord Privy Seal and deputy leader Gn the necessary absences of Mr. MacDonald on Foreign Office business} of the House of Commons. Whether leader, or deputy leader, of his party, Mr. Clynes always spoke in the House of Commons with a moderation and appreciation of the standpoint of other classes not always manifested by Labour members. He showed himself opposed to “ direct action,” and has treated a capital levy as a suggestion rather than a definite proposal. Though a very lucid and respected speaker, he never attained great parliamentary power. He left office in Nov. 1924. COACHING.—The London meets of the Coaching Club are fairly well attended, seven or eight members generally putting in an appearance at the Magazine in Hyde Park at the two or three meets which are held every year. This number is supplemented by coaches sent from the Royal Artillery (Aldershot) and the Royal Artillery (Woolwich) and sometimes by a coach from the Army Service Corps. At the Richmond Show in June 1925 there were 21 entries

for the Coaching Marathon. Of these 13 were private coaches, seven road coaches and two military coaches, and the full

055

number did not exhaust all the coaches which were then seen about London. There were also Marathons at Olympia and at one or two other shows in 1925, and, though some of the road coaches which took part in these events were infrequently seen on the roads, two at least had a long and regular season. One coach ran regularly in the north of England during part of the summer. Driving —As regards the driving of single-harness horses, the dog-cart, gig, buggy and governess cart are still found in fair numbers, more particularly perhaps in countries where there are many lanes and by-ways and no great amount of traffic on the main roads. Welsh farmers, for example, use a dog-cart more frequently than a car, the approaches to many of the hill farms being almost impossible for a car. In this single-horse trafhe the cob is favoured rather than the horse, and for the pair there is almost no demand. The teams which have been seen in and about London during the 2oth century are better looking and have better action than their predecessors of two or three generations ago, and the improvement in horseflesh applies in a considerable degree to all breeds of light horses and has come at a time when, except for hunters and polo ponies, the demand is smaller than it has ever been in modern times. (C. Ri.) COAL (see 6.575).—A considerable advance was made during the period ror1—25 in the scientific knowledge of coal, and the production and distribution of coal were largely changed by the World War and other circumstances.

I. COMPOSITION AND CHARACTER Research work as to the composition and character of coal has been greatly intensified in Great Britain, being carried out particularly in the provincial universities and other educational institutions. The coal owners themselves have promotedit;and, in 1916, the Government set up the Fuel Research Board which since has engaged upon important investigations, more especially in regard to the low-temperature distillation of coal. In Ger-

many, France, Canada and the United States much important work on coal and lignite has been carried out. Nevertheless little more has been discovered as to the chemical composition of coal than was known in rgoo. . Coal, being a complex colloidal organic substance, of high molecular aggregation, requires for the elucidation of its chemical constitution the application of the best trained minds in organic chemistry. Again, coals are so varied, from both the chemical and physical standpoint, as to constitute a very wide field for investigation. For years the ordinary black bituminous coal of commerce has been known to be made up of layers of ‘bright coal” (the Glanzkohle of Germany) and “dull coal” (Mattkohle), the layers being divided by an amorphous powdery substance known as mineral charcoal. Of late years, and for no very obvious reason, it has become customary to designate these

varieties

as “ vitrain”

and

“‘clarain’”’

for the

bright

coal,

durain ” for the dull coal, and “ fusain ” for the mineral char-

coal. The exact origin of these substances, which vary in composition, is not quite clear. Com position.—Coal is made up of various constituents: (a) woody or xyloid substances which are so characteristic of lignite or brown coal, called by some ‘ anthraxylon,” from anthrax coal and xylon wood; (b) cannecloid material, consisting largely of the spores of cryptogamic plants, of which cannel coal is chiefly composed; (c) resinous matter, occurring largely in Hgnites but rarely in cannels: (¢) macerated material mixed with woody matter and best described as débris, asit contains all the previous mentioned substances; (e) the “ fundamental matter of White and Thiessen, which is the colloidal ground mass in which the other constituents are embedded and which is composed chiefly of the more readily decomposable parts of the vegetable matter. The vegetable constituents of coal are therefore cellulosic and resinous. (Chemists employ three experimental methods for the investigation of the coal substance: (4) thermal decomposition, (B) fractionation by a sequence or combination of solvents and (C) oxidation of the

coal, hydrogenation, halogenation, etc. The principal facts which have been established by these methods are:— (1)—M. J. Burgess and R. V. Wheeler (Chem. Soc. Trans., vol. 97, 1910; vol. 99, Ig911; vol. 105, 1914.) by thermal decomposition applied up to a temperature of t100°C. determined:— (1) That the decomposition of the coal substance commenced at about 350° Centigrade;

COAL

656

(2) That in respect of the coals examined, whether bituminous, semi-bituminous or anthracitic, there is a well-defined critical tem-

Concentrated benzene solution of crude extract poured into

light petroleum (b.p. 40°-60°)

perature between 700°C. and 800°C. which corresponds with a marked and rapid increase in the quantity of hydrogen evolved; and (3) That the evolution of methane and other parafin hydrocarbons almost entirely ceases at about 700° Centigrade. They concluded that the coals examined by them contained two

types of compounds of different degrees of stability, viz., the ‘ resinic”? or less stable, which on thermal decomposition yield principally paraffins and no hydrogen, and the “ cellulosic,” which yield

principally hydrogen. The facts hold good, but the interpretation of them as given above is not universally accepted. For instance,

Messrs. H. C. Porter and G. B. Taylor, who have carried out researches on American coals ( Prec. Amer. Gas Inst., vol. 9 fi, 1914), repudiate the suggestion that the “resinic ”’ constituents of coal would be less than the “ cellulosic ” and attribute the great increase in the evolution of hydrogen between 700°C. and 800° C, to secondary decomposition, and they found that more than two-thirds of the organic substance of coal is decomposable below 500° Centigrade. Their

Soluble

Insoluble

|

|

Benzene-free petroleum light

EthylAd i

|

i

[

|

Soluble

Insoluble

Soluble

Insoluble

|

|

Fraction I

Non-nitrog-

enous heavy oil

Fraction 2

Red brown

about 25°

more or less altered. They all undergo decomposition by a moderate degree of heat, some, however, decompose more rapidly than others at the lower temperature. The less altered cellulosic derivatives de-

compose more easily than the more altered derivatives, and also more easily than the resinous derivatives. The cellulosic derivatives decompose so as to yield H:O, COs, CO and hydrocarbons, giving less of the first three products the more matured and altered they are. The resinous derivatives, on the other hand, decompose on moderate heating so as to yield principally the paraffin hydrocarbons, with probably hydrogen, as a direct decomposition product. The more mature bituminous coals, having good coking properties, contain a large percentage of resinous derivatives and their cellulosic constituents have been highly altered. The younger bituminous or subbituminous coals are constituted of cellulosic derivatives much less altered than those in the older coals. They undergo a large amount of decomposition below their fusion point, and possibly for that reason many of them do not coke.” Professor W. A. Bone points out (Soc. Chem. Ind., June 19 1925) in his paper on the ‘‘ Constitution of Coal,’”’ that in most recent coal research work little, if any, importance appears to have been attached to the nitrogenous constituents of coal, and there seems to be at least some room for doubt whether the supposed “‘ resinte "’ constituents of coal have been rightly so called. Ife is inclined to think that our whole coal-nomenclature might be overhauled with advantage. Though there may be some doubt as to the feasibility of drawing a sharp line between the evolution of the various gascous products in the case of a highly matured type of coal when under thermal decomposition, it is otherwise in the instance of an immature brown coal or lignite, as Bone’s work has shown. The results being: (a) that

up to a certain temperature (in the case af a dried sample of brown coal, from Morwell, near Melbourne, 375° C.) the only gases expelled from the dried coal are steam and oxides of carbon, which evolution continues right up to (and perhaps beyond) 700° C.; (b) that at a somewhat higher temperature range (in the case of the Morwell coal 375°-500° C.) methane and other hydrocarbons (without oxygen) appear; and (c) it is not until the temperature exceeds 500° C, that hydrogen appears among the products. (B)—18g99, Bedson discovered the solvent action of pyridine on coal, and much later, A. H. Clark and R. V. Wheeler (Chem. Soc. Trans., vol. 103, 1913) fractionated coal substance into three parts by frst dissolving it with pyridine, then treating the pyridine extract with chloroform. The coal substance was divisible into: (1) that insoluble in pyridine, (2) that soluble in pyridine but insoluble in chloroform, (3) that soluble in both pyridine and chloroform. These fractions are frequently referred to as alpha, beta and gamma constituents respectively, as though they were distinct and definitely separate chemical substances, which is unfortunate secing that they all contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur—in fact, nearly the same percentage of nitrogen and sulphur in each fraction. In the extraction of coal substances by benzene under pressure, Bone's work is of great interest.

He employs benzene in a

special form of extractor on the Soxhlet principle at- pressures between 500 and 700 Ib. per sq. in.,and at temperature 260° to 285°C., and afterwards fractionates the extract by a suitable solvent treatment. He and his co-workers have by this means obtained four distinct benzene soluble fractions (Proc. Roy. Soc., 105, Ser. A., 1924).

The result is shown diagrammatically in the next column.

When working on a coking coal it was found that fractions I and 2 could be disregarded from the point of view of containing substances of a “ binding ” character. With regard to fraction 3, Professor Bone says “ the amount of this fraction was always very small, ranging between 0:3 and 0-8% only of the whole coal substances; so that, although it has good ‘ binding ' properties, and therefore would be to

some extent a contributory factor, it cannot be considered as the chief cause of the coking properties of the coals.”’

Nitrogenous

enous brittle resinous red

amorphous brown solid

softening point about 60°

point 180°230°

brown solid

remarks:—

resinous substances, vegetable waxes, etc., in different proportions,

l

Fraction 4

Non-nitrog-

solid softening point

views about the composition of coal are best expressed in their own

‘ All kinds of coal consist of cellulosic degradation products more or less altered by the process of ageing, together with derivatives of

|

Fraction 3

softening

The substances contained in fraction 4 were different from the socalled “ coa! resins ” and seemed to be rather of the “ humic ” type. Tbeir chemical nature has not yet been finally established, but they constitute from 4-6 to 7:0% of the parent coal substance and have very pronounced ‘ binding '’ properties, so that the relative coking properties of bituminous coals run nearly parallel to their yields of this fraction. These may therefore be considered as the chief cause of the coking properties of coals. F. Fischer, H. Broche and J. Strauch (Brennstoff-Chem., 1925) in an account of similar experiments made upon German bituminous coals some little time after the appearance of Bone's paper, divided their crude benzene extract into two fractions only, which probably explains the apparent discrepancy in interpretation of the results. The benzene extracts from a brown coal are chemically different from those yielded by sub-bituminous or bituminous coal. It would seein that the coking quality of a coal is the result of the maturing of coal and is a product of age, for in black lignite there is evidence of the incipient formation of substances closely resembling the coking constituents of the more mature coals. (C)— Recent chemical research on the character of coal includes the work of Dr. Bergius, the German chemist, during the period 1915-25. By subjecting coal to the inlluence of hydrogen under heat and pressure, he saturates the hydrocarbons in the coal, converting them and, it is claimed, some portion also of the fixed carbon, into saturated hydrocarbons, thus achieving the liquefaction of coal, the objective of chemists for many years. The process has not yet emerged from the laboratory stage, but should it prove a commercial possibility, the results on industry would be far-reaching indeed.

Classification.—Frequent attempts have been made towards a scientific classification of coal, the broad diviston of anthracite, bituminous coal, and lignite and brown coal, not having been deemed sufficient. Perhaps the best is that adopted by the International Geological Congress held at Toronto in 1913. Coal were then divided into four main classes and three subclasses, letters instead of names being used, and the fuel ratio is taken as the basis of classification :— Fixed carbon

|

Votiule mates

and, in the cases of B3, Di and De, the split volatile ratio of Fixed carbon

+ volatile combustible

Hygroscopic moisture + $ volatile combustible The classes were as follows:— Class A

(1) Burns with short blue flame; gives off 3 to 5% volatile combustible matter. Fuel ratio 12 and over. Calorific value 8,000 to 8,330 calories or 14,500 to 15,000 B-r U: Mean composition— Carbon . .. 93 to 95%

Hydrogen

.

4

Oxygen and nitroge (2) Burns with slightly luminous short does not coke and yields from 7 to Fuel ratio 7 to 12, Calorific value generally 8,300 to to 15,500 B.T.U, Mean composition— Carbon . . ; . ; J Hydrogen ;

Oxygen and nitroge

2to

4%

2:40: 5-76 flame and little smoke, 12 % of volatile matter. 8,600 calories or 15,000

4

.

90t0o93 % 4to 45%

3to

55%

COAL Class B

(1) Burns with short luminous flame and yields 12 to 15% volatile matter; does not readily coke. Fuel ratio 4 to 7. Calorific value gencrally 8,400 to 8,900 or 15,200 to 16,000 B.T.U. Mean composition—. Carbon . ; ; . ĝo to 90°P Hydrogen +5to 5°20 Oxygen and nitrogen 5-5 to 12° (2) Burns with luminous flame and yields from 12 to 36° volatile matter; generally cokes. Calorific value 7,700 to 8,800 calories or 14,000 to 16,000 B.T.U. Mean composition— Carbon . : 2 : . 75 tooo 20 Hydrogen

A

i

.

:

4-5 to

5:55%

Oxygen and nitrogen ‘ 6 toI5 % (3) Burns freely with long flame; “withstands weathering but fractures readily and occasionally has moisture content up to 6%; volatile matter up to 35%; makes porous, tender coke. Fuel ratio (split volatile) 2-5 to 3-3. Calorific value 6,600 to 7,800 calories or 12,000 to 14,000 B.T.U. Mean composition — Carbon . s ; ; ; . ; 7o to 80% Hydrogen . : es 4:5to 6% Oxygen and nitrogen . : ; i 18 to20% Class €

Burns with long smoky flame and yields 30 to 40% volatile matter on distillation, leaving very porous coke. Fracture gencrally resinous. Calorific value 6,600 to 8,800 calories or 12,000 to 16,000 B.T.U. Class D Contains generally over 6 % of moisture; disintegrates on drying; streak brown or yellow. Cleavage indistinct. (1) Moisture in fresh mined, commercial output, up to 20 per cent.

Fracture generally conchoidal. Drying: cracks irregular, curved fines. Colour generally lustrous black, occasionally brown. Fuel ratio (split volatile) 1-8 to 2-5. ae

value 5,500 to 7,200 calories, or 10,000 to 13,000

Average composition — Carbon

60 to 75 % 6 to 6:5% 20 to 30 %

Hydrogen

Oxygen and nitrogen (2) Moisture in commercial output over 20° Fracture generally earthy and dull. Drying: cracks generally separate along bedding planes and often show fibrous (woody) structure. Colour generally brown, sometimes black. Calorific value 4,000 to 6,000 calorics or 7,000 to 11,000 B.T.U Average composition— Carbon ; 45to65 % Hydrogen 6 to 68% Oxygen and nitrogen 30 to 45 %%

This classification, giving names to the letters, may be interpreted thus:— A, corresponds to anthracite. A» corresponds to semi-anthracite. B, corresponds to semi-bituminous coal (in this class would be Bs B; C D, D;

included the so-called smokeless steam coal of South Wales).

corresponds corresponds corresponds corresponds corresponds

to to to to to

bituminous coal. bituminous coal of low fixed carbon content. cannel coal. sub-bituminous coal or compact black lignite. lignite or brown coal.

Bituminous coal is divisible into gas, coking, house, manufacturing and steam coal.

II. THE

WORLD’S

COAL

The International Geological Congress also made an estimate of the world’s resources of coal, for which purpose they took as the minimum thickness of seams, workable to a depth of 4,000 ft. from the surface, 1 foot, and between depths of 4,000 ft. to 6,000 ft., 2 feet; 6,c00 ft. being regarded as the limit in respect of workable depth. The figures are given in millions of metric tons. (A metric ton = 2,204:6 pounds.)

Anthracites including dry steam

Continent

Europe

Sub-bituminous coals, lignite or brown coals

Bituminous

760,098 45,123 2,271,080

Asia Africa America Oceania

133,481

496, 846

Total

I1I,851 1,054 2,811,906

36,270

170,410

2,997,763 713975553 In 1926 Zeal mining 1s being carried on to a depth of 4,000 ft. 3,902,944

(in Belgium), and the mining of mineral deposits to a depth of 6,oco0 ft. (in Brazil) from the surface. The working of coal at great depths is, however, more difficult than the extraction of ore from a metalliferous vein at like depth, for, whereas in the latter case the plane of the deposit is, as it were, on edge reaching to the surface, in the former case it Is, usually, more or less flat lying at great depth from the surface, the whole of the coal being derived from, approximately, the same depth, and it is very doubtful whether it will ever prove commercially possible to produce coal from a depth greater than 5,000 feet. On the question of supply, it is not so much the duration of the world’s ultimate resources of coal that matters, but how long will the better and more cheaply got coals last. European countries are rapidly exhausting their supplies of readily available coals, and, if the present relative rates of exhaustion are continued, the period of their complete exhaustion will arrive long before that of Asia and the New World. In available resources of coal the American continent far exceeds the rest of the world. In North America there are 5,.073,431,000,000 tons; and in South America there are 32,097,000,000 tons; of all individual countries the United States of America takes first place, her resources, for example, being considerably in excess of those of the whole of the British Empire. At the present rate of output the North American resources, more especially those of the United States, will outlast ail other countries, and will probably suffice for 2,000 years. Great Britain’s supplies at the present rate of consumption will not suffice for more than 600 years at most, and if we take into consideration the coal existing to a depth of 4,000 ft. (the limit taken by the British Royal Commission on Coal Supplies of 1905) they will only last for 450 years. Germany, before the ceding to Poland, after the World War, of a part of her Silesian coalfield, and to France of her Saar and Lorraine fields, had resources of coal sufficient to last at the pre-War rate of output for 1,000 years, but much of her remaining coal is lignite which is of much lower calorific value than true coal. France will have to live on imported coal much sooner than Great Britain or Belgium. The latter country has supplies sufficient for nearly 500 years. Switzerland

could mine all her resources in a few years. The most important of all classes of coal is that which is termed bituminous, for not only does that coal provide the gas, the coking, the house and manufacturing, but many of the steam coals also. It is, too, from this class of coal that we obtain our coal derivatives, e.g., tar, pitch, sulphate of ammonia, paraffin hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, dyes and some medicines, It is fortunate, therefore, that nearly 4,000,000,000,000 tons, OT more than half of the world’s coal reserves, are bituminous coal.

Coal Production.—The following statement shows, In comparative form, the production in long tons, of coal by continents for 1913 and for 1924:— Country North America South America Europe

Asia Africa . Oceania Entire World

.

Production

1913

1924

531,600,000

525,400,000

1,600,000 730,000,000

1,700,000 710,000,000

55,000,000 82,000,000 8,300,000 12,500,000 15,000,000 16,000,000 1,342,300,000 | 1,340,000,000

COAL

658

About 90% of the world’s coal is derived from the coalfields of the United States of America and the coalficlds of Europe (see fig. 1). The War wrought great changes in the coal-mining industry of the chief coal producing countries of the world and it is of value, in view of recent events and from the point of view of the future, to compare the economic position of the industry

and workmen, presided over by independent chairmen. But there was a movement amongst the advanced or extremist wing of the Miners’ Federation in support of national, in preference to district, settlements of wages, and towards nationalisation of the industry. With a view to determining how the available coal supply could be best distributed to meet the national interest in the best possible way, the following comparison as between the years 1903 and 1913 was arrived at:— 1913 1903 Total output Reserved for home consumption (not including bunker coal for foreign trade)

230,334,469 tons

287,430,473 tons

166,529,120 tons

189,092,369 tons

The balances were devoted to export and bunkers. The average pit head value of a ton of coal in 1913, all kinds included, was about ros. 2d. Of the home consumption it was estimated that at least 80,000,000 tons were absorbed in the production of power, inclusive of railways. The following table shows for 1903 and ror3 the uses to which the coal was put :—

=oa

Buoy suog Suoli jo 3

rors |

1903 Tons 13,000,000

Railways n . i i Coasting steamers (bunkers) Factories 910

Ist

is2

193

194

8S

le

Is? «918 YEAR

1319

1920

1922

Wei

1923

1924

1925

Frc. 1.—Annual production of coal.

as existing at the outbreak of war and in 1925 more particularly as regards production and distribution.

il. GREAT BRITAIN’S COAL TRADE Of all the industries that contributed to the successful issue to the Allies of the World War, the coal industry was perhaps the most important. In 1913 Great Britain contributed 21-7% of the world’s output, and in that year there were 1,110,884 persons employed in about 3,000 coal mines which were worked as about 1,500 separate undertakings. The coal properties, or royalties, as they are called in the industry, were vested in about 4,000 owners. Various estimates of the amount of capital in-

vested in the coal mining industry have been attempted, that by Sir Josiah Stamp, £135,000,000, based on the output of five years preceding the War, being perhaps nearest the mark. Production and Prices-—The estimated cost of production and of profit to the coal owners arising from the sale of the coal may be taken to have averaged as follows:— Wages . ; ; : ; s : . ; . Stores and pit wood. . ; : i i j : General expenses, inclusive of everything, except depreciation and interest . ; ' ; ; ; 2.

Total Profit .

. .

,

Grand total

s. 5. I.

d. 6 oO

aa

7S

: .

'

;

: .

; .

: ;

: À

« >

oF 9 2 38

.

}

:

:

;

i

‘

és

280k. ,22

The average royalty rent payable to the owners of the coal averaged about 6d. per ton of coal raised. For some years the selling price of coal had been on the upgrade, and it has been estimated that during the period 1897roro the pit head price had advanced no less than 38%, but during 1914 the tendency of selling prices was downwards, especially in regard to industrial coal, due to the fact that the iron, cotton and other staple industries were in a somewhat depressed state. In fact, when war broke out, trade in Great Britain was on the eve of one of those cycles of depression which are the aftermath of periods of inflated trade and temporary over-expansion. There was at this time comparative peace in the coal mining industry as between employers and workmen. The year 1913

had been a good year, and wages were high. The settlement of disputes regarding wages was dealt with through the medium of district joint boards or representatives of colliery owners

.

;

.

Mines ; : ; Iron and stee! industries Other metals and minerals Brick works, potteries, glass works and chemical works. Gas works Domestic

.

Tons 15,000,000

2,000,000

2,500,000

53,000,000

60,000,000

18,000,000 28,000,000 1,000,000

19,000,000 31,000,000 1,250,000

5,000,000 15,000,000 32,000,000

5,750,000 18,000,000 35,000,000

Effect of the World War.—The immediate effect of the War on the coal trade of Great Britain was to close several important foreign markets. Transport facilities, by reason of the diversion of rolling stock and shipping to military purposes, was also impeded. The result was that there was a temporary glut of

coal at the collieries for home consumption.

The Allies, espe-

cially France and Italy, became largely—the latter country entirely—dependent on Britain for their supplies of coal. France’s demands were soon double that of the normal importation. The great expansion in the manufacture of the munitions of war at home greatly augmented the fuel requirements of the iron and steel works and on top of all this the war requirements made a constant drain on the staff of young miners. Up to the end of March 1916, no less than 282,200 men from the coal mines had voluntarily enlisted in the fighting forces. So that,

although the decline in exports of coal and coke during the year 1915 amounted to about 14,000,000 tons, this was more than balanced by decreased output, amounting to nearly 12,500,ooo tons, and increased demands for home consumption. The average pithead price of coal rose from gs. 11-21. in 1914 to 12s. 48d. per ton in 1915. The Coal Mining Organisation Committee,

consisting of repre-

sentatives of the colliery owners and miners, presided over by the

chief inspector of mines, was sct up by the Government in Feb. 1915 to organise the industry to the best advantage to mect the exigencies created by the War.

It had no plenary powers; it could only investi-

gate, report and arbitrate. It continued in almost constant session until the financial control of the industry by the State in 1917, and but for the very strained relations between the collicry owners and workmen in South Wales, which culminated in a complete impasse at the close of 1916, it is probable that the Committee could have functioned successfully right through the War. Two other committees dealing with coal problems were established on the advice of the Coal Mining Organisation Committee, viz.: the Coal Exports Committee, under whose control was placed the whole of the export trace of the country in coal, and the Coal and Coke Distribution Committee, which dealt with the inland distribution of the coal and coke supplies. In 1916 the output of coal showed an increase of over 3,000,000 tons on the previous year, and the average pithead price had risen to 15s. 2:57cl. per ton. Exports still further decreased, but this was occasioned by the unavoidable restriction which had to be imposed to meet

home

requirements,

due to the starting of munition

tories and the extensions of works.

fac-

On the advice of the Coal Min-

COAL

659

ing Organisation Committee the Government instituted the Price of Coal Limitation Act which became law as from July 29 1915, and remained in being until the end of March 1921, being repealed when

above was added one for a 30% advance in wages, and other items. The Government appointed the Coal Industry Commission (known since from the name of its Chairman, Mr. Government control ceased. Justice Sankey, as the Sankey Commission), to report, by The coal trade had reached a purely artificial state which continued onwards throughout the War, the natural laws governing March 20, as to wages and hours. Unanimity was not secured. supply and demand being largely disturbed by Government control There were three reports, that signed by the chairman and three of prices and of export. The limitation of the price of coal, which other members of the committee being accepted by the Governwas in the nature of a self-denying ordinance on the part of colliery ment. The chief recommendations were, that as from July 16 owners and the miners, constituted one of the chief events in the history of the coal mining industry of Great Britain. It was almost 1919, the hours of underground workers should be reduced from the first attempt at a statutory limitation of the price of an essential eight to seven, and that, as from Jan. 9 1919 (when the demands commodity and, on the whole, it achieved a remarkable success. By of the union’s executive were first formulated) workers over 16 the Act certain maximum pithead prices for the sale of coal for inland consumption were fixed, the coal owners being left free to obtain the -years of age should receive an increase of wages of 2s. per shift worked and those under 16, 1s. per shift worked. These recombest possible price for coal for export, with the exception of a limitation in the case of coal sold to the Allies. Thus at one time the price mendations were carried into effect. On June 20, the Sankey of the same coal was for home consumption 16s. 6d. per ton and for Commission, though not unanimously, reported in favour of export 60s., 62s. 6d. ancl 65s., and after the Armistice, but before the repeal of the Limitation Act, the same coal actually reached 140s. a nationalisation. The measure was not acceptable to the Government, but a stoppage of work was averted. ton for export. Government Control. Owing to the wage disputes in South Wales End of War Time Control.—The financial control of the coal terminating in an impasse, the Government took possession of the mines was terminated by the passage, on March 31, of the Coal coal mines in Wales and Monmouthshire as from Dec. 1 1916, with Mines (Emergency) Act 1920, which specified that it should be the object of eliminating war profits, the avoidance of industrial deemed to have ceased as from April 1 rg1g. In Aug. 1920, the disputes, and of securing the best results from labour in the mines during the War. In Feb, of the year following it was succeeded by a Mining Industry Act was passed, under which a separate more stringent control by Government, which was extended to inDepartment of Mines was set up. Although the mines were clude all coal mines, the three Advisory Committecs mentioned above being merged in the control. An agreement arrived at between the still under Government control, a national strike of the miners took place in Oct. 1920, and lasted for r2 days. They had reController and the coal owners as to the compensation to be paid to the latter under the control, was confirmed by an Act of Parliament ceived a 20% advance in April (including ‘‘ war wage ’’ and on Feb, 6 1918. “ Sankey wage ’’) and they now sought a further advance and The management of the collicries remained with the owners, and a reduction in the price of coal. They obtained a settlement on a profit standard was fixed in respect of each undertaking based on the basis of a temporary scheme put forward by the Government. any one of the three years preceding the War which the owner chose to select, such profit being guaranteed to him during the period of The financial deconirol of the mines took place on March 31 control provided he worked up to a standard output. Eighty per 1921. As the temporary scheme was drawing to a conclusion, cent of all the profit over and above the guaranteed profit was paid the representatives of the owners and workmen met in order to to the inland revenue as in the case of the excess profits of other conwork out a permanent settlement. Their efforts failed, and, on cerns. Of the remaining 20°, the Coal Controller took 15°, which went to form a pool from which he met deficiencies that arose in April 1 1921, another national strike took place; it lasted until respect of the guaranteed profits of any of the undertakings, the colJuly 4, when a settlement was arrived at embodying for the liery owners receiving the remaining 5%. first time the idea of profit-sharing.

Perhaps the two most important actions taken by the Controller of Coal Mines were those in respect of the transport and rationing of coal. On Sept. 8 1917, the Transport of Coal Order was issued, under which Great Britain was divided into 20 areas, Shown on maps accompanied bya table indicating the area to which coal produced in each of the production areas might be forwarded by public railway for inland consumption for (r) steam and manufacturing purposes, (2) gas and coking purposes, and (3) domestic purposes. It was estimated that, on the basis of the year 1917, the scheme would effect a saving in transport of rail-borne coal of 700,000,000 ton-m, per annum: though it is doubtful whether the saving effected actually reached this figure. The rationing of domestic coal first applicd to London under the Household Coal Distribution Order of Aug. 10 1917. Phe Disiribution Order, 1977-—Three principal objects were aimed at by this order: (1) the establishment of minimum stocks of coal to be held in reserve throughout the winter; (2) a priority in distribution of any available stocks of coal, in case of shortage, to be conferred on consumers requiring or taking supplies in quantities not exceeding 2 cwt. per week; and (3) restriction in the consumption of coal where it was in excess of the normal average requirements of houses of different sizes. In July t918 compulsory rationing in respect of domestic coal was made applicable to the whole of England and Wales, and in Oct. 1918 to Scotland also. Certain advances in wages had been given to the miners during the War and astate of peace reigned in the industry for two years of the control. But at the conference of the Miners Federation of Great Britain at Southport in the summer of 1918 a programme was decided upon which included:—A National wageboard in substitution of district wages boards; a five-day working week; a six-hour working day; and alliance with the railway men and transport workers in order to enforce their demands. The Sankey Commission.—Active agitation towards securing nationalisation of the mines commenced. The year 1919 was largely one of labour difficulties. To the demands specified

The coal mines of the country were divided into 13 districts, each district constituting a unit for the ascertainment of wages. A standard wage was to be paid, being the existing basis rates plus the percentages which were payable on basis rates, in July 1914, in each district. These were to be a first charge on the industry. After deduction of standard wages and costs of production other than wages, the surplus was to be divisible in the proportion 83°% to wages and 17% to profits. The standard wages, and the share of the surplus apportioned to wages, were added together, and the sum expressed as a percentage on basis rates, which percentage constituted the rate of wages payable during the next period. In no case could wages fall below a point 20°4 above the standard wages. Thus was created a national board and district boards to effect a national agreement. In 1924 the agreement was modified, the standard profits to the owners being 15%% in relation to the standard wages. Of the gross profits remaining after the deduction from the gross proceeds of costs other than wages, standard wages and stand. ard profits, the workmen received 88%, the minimum percentage on standard wages being 334%. Depression in the Trade—Complicated though this agree. ment was, and therefore not very intelligible to the miners, it could undoubtedly have worked well had the industry continued in a normal state; but the selling price of coal fell considerably, and though it had not reached an economic basis by the end of 1924, it was, by reason of the high cost of production, too low to

enable the collieries to be carried on at a profit under the conditions imposed by the agreement. The depression in the coal trade was world-wide. The United States and Germany, great competitors in the coal industry, were in very much the same plight as Great Britain, for the demand was not equal to the supply. In July 1925 the Government decided to make to the coal industry a financial subvention as from Aug. 1 to April 30 1926, by which wages could be paid at the current rate. By March 3r 1926 this subsidy had {19,000,000. In the meantime a royal commission was appointed to enquire into the industry

660 in order to find a way out of the impasse.

COAL IV.

The chairman was Sir

Herbert Samuel, who had just returned from Palestine. The 1926 Report.—The report of the Commission, which was It showed that, unanimous, was issued on March ro 1926. ‘excluding the subsidy, 73% of the coal was produced at a loss. It condemned the principle of a subsidy. To meet the immediate problem it considered a revision of the “ minimum percentage addition to standard rates of wages ” fixed in 1924 as indispensable in order to save the industry from immediate collapse. This, however, could not prevent the closing of a number of uneconomic collieries, the labour employed at which should be transferred to the “ economic ” collieries, while the Govern-. ment should prepare plans for, and assist financially in, the transference of the labour. The wage arrangements were to be governed by “an economic wage determined from time to time on ascertained facts as to the economic condition of the industry in each district, and that of a minimum wage settled for each district on principles approved nationally.” The Commission recommended the maintenance of the standard working day, which averages 74 hours, but an optional redistribution of hours within the present weekly total over a week of five days instead of six, and the expansion of the multiple-shift system. The industry should be continued under private enterprise, but state ownership by purchase should be effected of the miner-

als (royalties) where they have a market value, and by a declaration of state ownership in the case of unproved coal, or coal at deep levels, which has now no market value. Eficient organisation demanded amalgamation of small units of production. Large financial advantages might be gained by the formation of co-operative selling agencies, which in particular are needed in the export trade, and in co-operation and combination, with allied industries. Local authorities should be empowered to engage in the retail sale of coal. Larger mineral wagons should be used and a greater concentration of ownership of wagons instituted, a standing joint committee of the Ministry of Transport and of the Mines Department being set up to promote this improvement. They favoured augmented provision for research in order that coal may be used more scientifically. If processes of low temperature carbonisation of coal were perfected, great national advantages would ensue because a smokeless fuel would be produced for domestic and industrial use and there would be provided large supplies of mineral oil from the country’s own resources. The state should give financial support to the further experiments, on a commercial scale, which are necessary. Methods of payment should be devised in respect of the workmen not employed at the face which would induce a direct interest in output and measures were recommended having for their object the improvement of the economic interests of miners by family allowance schemes, and copartnership which should be made obligatory. The schemes and suggestions made in the Report involved the creation of a permanent coal commission, a national] fuel and power committee and joint pit committees, as well as legislation of a far-reaching character. Although the owners, under pressure, accepted the report in principle, it was rejected by the miners and on Saturday, April 29, the men ceased work. To support them a general strike was ordered (see STRIKES), but in a few days this was abandoned. The miners, however, remained idle throughout May and June and the attempts made by the Prime Minister and others to bring about a settlement of the dispute were unavailing. A meeting between the parties, called by the owners early in June, failed, like the debates in the House of Commons, to bring about a return to work. The miners persistently refused to consider any extension of working hours or any reduction of wage rates, while the owners adhered to their view that without these concessions they could not continue in business. Meanwhile, unemployment was growing, railway and other services were restricted and other industries were suffering in an increased degree from the shortage of coal. In June the government introduced legislation into Parliament to carry out the recommendations of the Samuel commission.

THE

TRADE

OF

OTHER

COUNTRIES

United States.—The output in the United States rose rapidly during the War years, attaining the enormous figure of 605,546,343 tons in 1918. After that it was subject to great variations, due principally to industrial unrest resulting in strikes of the miners; the production for 1925 being 522,474,999 tons. But the productive capacity of the United States coal mines is far

beyond the actual output. Germany.—Like Great Britain, the year 1913 marked a record with 187,054,115 tons of “ black’ coal, or including brown coal, 272,885,210 tons, one ton of “ black” coal being equal to 2-8 tons of brown coal in point of heat value; and, when the brown coal is converted into briquettes, which is done to a considerable extent, to 1-4 tons of briquettes. Although her Saar and Lorraine coalfields passed to France in 191g, and part of her Upper Silesian field to Poland in 1922, yet Germany’s output of ‘ black’? coal has suffered less than might have been expected. A heavy fall took place in 1922, due to “ passive resistance’? upon the occupation of the Ruhr by the Allies; recovery set in later, the output for 192s reaching to 130,595,951

tons or, converting brown coal into terms of ‘ black”

coal,

174,127,935 tons. Taking

the whole of Germany and comparing pre-War and

post-War results, the following figures show the relative outputs exclusive of brown coal:— Germany's Production of Coal 1913

1923 Tons

Ruhr .

Tons

112,695,000 | Occupied tory

Terrii

;

33,552,000

Upper Silesia

43,097,000 | Unoccupied Ruhr

Lower Silesia

5,438,000 | German Upper Silesia Lower Silesia

Mines

.

:

Saxony and Lower Saxony 5,872,000 Aix-la-Chapelle 3,212,000 | Saxony ; Lorraine . ; 3,735,000 | Aix-la-Chapelle Saar Area I 3,005,000 Total . | 187,054,000 Total

7,863,000

8,604,000 5,223,000

5,214,000 984,000

61,440,000

The table below shows the export trade in coal of the three great coal producing countries in 1913 and 1924. World's Coal Export Trade (in Millions of Long Tons) (Including coal shipped as bunkers by vessels engaged in overseas trade, and also coal equivalents of brown coal, coke and briquettes) Compiled from Coal Tables, 1924, issued by the Mines Dept. of Great Britain

Quantity

Country Great

.

Britain

Germany,

.

Including

deliveries!

S

reparation

.

United States

Per Cent af

Total

ee a I9I3 | 1924

I9I3

1924

98:3

82-0

49°8|

51-2

47-4 23°6

25:1 19°8

24-0 12-0

15:6 12-4

Total of above .

169:3 | 126-9 | 85-8

The World

197°3

160-2 | 100-0

79:2 100:0

1 Coal equivalent of brown coal briquettes delivered on reparation account is included here.

These figures show that Great Britain had improved her position in point of her percentage of the world’s export, but inasmuch as the total amount of coal exported from all countries had

declined,

the weight

of coal exported by Great Britain

had also declined (see figs. 2 and 3). The year 1925 showed a

further decline of nearly

11,000,000

tons, and Great Britain’s

figures for 1926 were seriously affected by the strike. Germany.—The total home consumption of coal and lignite in Germany during 1924 was as follows:—

COAL

661

Tons

Coal from home sources

.

.

Lignite, home sources (converted 4)

;

. 118,828,644

Plus imports

n

41,453,276

:

160,281,920 15,240,108

175,522,028

Less exports .

4,358,568

,

Per Cent of Production

,

Domestic consumption

:

:

i

5

f

Railways ‘ : ; Power utilities : Iron and steel industry

:

:

‘ . .

: i :

Ey ;

General manufacturing Export and bunker trade.

; ; :

; f

; !

i ;

.

13

28 124 15

. . i

Ig} I2

100

171,163,460

Less reparation deliveries

.

Net consumption

19,680,243

- 151,483,217

Consumption per Head of Population.—The comparative apparent coal consumption per head of population as between Great Britain, the United States, Germany, France and Belgium for the years 1913-24 inclusive, is shown in the following table:— Apparent Coal Consumption per [ead of Population (Long Tons per Annum)

Country

x = ÑNÈ

eae stie |. ae a 32 -

United Kingdom! United States . Germany?

48

France Belgium

5

g 4

”"

NSh

ee

United Kingdom! United States .

N

Germany?

-_nm

France Belgium

Ce

0 WO

ISA

i92

1913

Fic. 2.—-Domestic

94

BS

6

exports

ASI? g YEAR

isa

eb

1321

1922

1923

192%

1925

of coal of all kinds, including coal

shipped as bunkers for use of steamers

engaged in overseas trade.

Note the steady decline in British exports during and after the War, and the great increase in 1923 and 1924 during the occupation of the Ruhr by the French.

The Germanexportsof coal for1925 rose to 13,500,000 tons. Taking the frontiers 19 1925, the consumption In 1913 was 156,000,000

tons, which is not far short of the British home consumption in 1913 of 189,000,000 tons, and points to the increased industria] activity of Germany. The chief consumption of lignite was in the generation of electrical energy. In 1913 lignite was the source of 23% of the power generated in Germany, and In 1922 of 41-2%; the gencration of electric power more than trebled in the 10-year period tor3-22, amounting in the latter year to 7,200,000,000 kw. hours. Increased saving in fuel consumption in large power plants and increased use of lignite in the generation of power have liberated a greater quantity of high class “black” coal for export, which competes with British coal in

European and other markets.

3:06 | 3:66 | 3-86 | 4-18 | 335 | 415

1-04 | 1-23] I-14 ] I-29 | 1°54 | 1°69 1:98 | 2:96 | 2-735] 3-039} 3-535) 3:78

‘Figures for 1915-8 are based upon populations consisting of English and Welsh civilian populations only, Scotch pcpulation making no allowance for movement of Scottish troops overseas, and Irish population allowing for movement of military forces. Figures for 1923 and 1924 refer to Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 2 Including brown coal. 3 Excluding Saar. 4Information as to trade is not available.

’ Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union,

Germany’s Selling Methods.—In Germany the colliery owners must by law sell chrough syndicates arranged according to districts. A severe penalty is Imposed on any owner selling

coal outside the syndicate of the district in which is situated.

The syndicates,

which

his colliery

are not worked

in order

to make profit, determine the output of each colliery and fix the selling price of the coal, all coal being divided into classes, c.g., gas coal, coking coal, steam coal, etc. There is one price only for any given class, except In respect of coals grading from steam into anthracite, intermediate of ‘ dry” steam coals; in these ‘‘ border-line ”’ cases here may be more than one price. The syndicates are as follows:— A. Black coal (German ‘Stone coal ’’).—1. Ruhr, 2. Aix-la-Chapelle, 3. Hanover, 4. Saxony (Zwickau), 5. Lower Silesia and 6, Ger-

90

man Upper Silesia. 7. Bavaria. 1. Some Black coal but chiefly Lignite (Brown coal).—

TL LLELLELELIALLLE ered E : oe eeVees CLL ALLL ETTPTLELLLVEPRELELL. eT so Fil NOES eo ee ee Bo

C. Lignite.—8. Cologne, 9. Saxony (Halle) and 10. East of Elbe

(Berlin).

All of these syndicates are combined into the Reichskohlenverband over which is a coal council composed of representatives

= 50

a

20

10

. | 3-95 | 4-07 | 2-77 | 3:52 | 4-00 | 4:18 444] 5:08 | 3-90 | 3-78 | 500 | 4°31

f

«iS

912

i93

i94

195

i96

tate

1917

AB

2”

W99

H

1920

1921

1922

1923

1924

WS

YEAR

Fic. 3.—Average

annual value (f.0.b.) per long ton of domestic

coal exported. Note the great increase in value, particularly of British coal, during 1920.

United States—The coal produced in the United States of America was estimated in the year 1922 to be distributed as follows:—

of the coal owners, workmen and consumers’ associations, termed the Reichskohlenrat, which has conferred upon it, by government, power to make laws and regulations for the control of the coal mining industry, subject, however, to a power of veto vested in the Minister of Economics (Reichswirtschaftsminister). There are at least roo members of the Kohlenrat, 25 of whom are appointed by the management, 25 by the miners and 10 by the Reichstag, and the rest—of whom not more than one-third may be officials—by the President of the Reich. Output per Man and Hours of Work.—The output per man per shift has of late years shown a decline in Great Britain. The annual average quantity of coal in long tons raised per person employed under and above ground in the countries named over the period roro to 1924 was as follows:—

COAL

662 Germany Great Britain

United States

(d)

(exclud-

France

ing

(e)

brown

coal)

252 282 286 260

302 (b) 260

314

(bD) 247

29I

(b) 229

275

(b) 195 (b) 157

7+ ESI

hrs. 37 minutes. In Germany (Ruhr) they are 8 hours inclusive of one winding time, so on the basis of the same length of winding time as in Great liritain the average time below ground is 8 hours. _In France the working time is 8 hours inclusive of both winding times, so that miners actually work less time than in Great Britain, In the United States the time is 8 hours, exclusive of both winding times, but as in the majority of the mines the inlet is by way of adit or day-drift, the actual time below ground is probably on the average more than 8 hours, though, from the report of the recent United states Coal Commission, the miners would appear to go into the mines and come out pretty well as they like, so long as they do not exceed the time during which the mine is open. Cost of Working.—The cost of working in Great Britain and the Ruhr may be stated thus:—

Great Britain—Quarter ending Sept. 30 1925

(c) 144

217 220 220, 225

(a) Information not available. (b) These figures refer to the United Kingdom. (c) Low figures duc to coal strike, which lasted for three months, comparable annual figure = 192.

(d) From 1912, inclusive, figures are based upon numbers of in-

aured workers. (e) Excluding Saar district.

These figures have been obtained by dividing the annual output by the number of persons employed, and, for comparative purposes

700

DnSo So

uNO ga

> O DO

pəĥojdwə buoy səd uossəd $uo7

0 90

iN

J92

i93

94

1315 i6

197 138 199 1920 192) 1922 1323 1924 YEAR Fic, 4.—Annual average quantity of coal raised per person employed under and above ground. as between countries, are vitiated by the fact that the same number of days and hours may not have been worked in each country in respect of any given year: nor are the natural conditions with which the miner has to contend the same in each country—for instance, the conditions prevailing in the United States are perhaps the best in the world. On the average the seams are thick with good roofs, and lying at shallow depths from the surface. In respect of the black coal of Germany, the conditions are somewhat more difheult than in Great Britain. Making the fairest comparison, namely that of output per shift, calculated over all persons employed that for Great Britain is at present about 17-85 cwt. as against 19-5 cwt. for the whole of the Ruhr coalfield. In the latter field the rise in production per man per shift has been on the up grade. The output per shift in Germany of lignite is very considerable, much of it being quarried t open-cast.” In Great Britain the hours of work of the underground miner are 7 hours exclusive of winding time, say, on the average, 7

With sub-

s Subvention

vention

deducted

Cost of working portion. ; . ; Proceeds of working portion Loss.

f

;

i

s.

The Ruhr Year .

192 a

d.

I7 11-64 16 475 ,

I

6-89

V. STATE COAL MINES In Great Britain and America there are no state-owned mines. The German State formerly owned a large number of collieries. The Prussian State owned and managed three large coal mines in Upper Silesia, now in Polish territory, three lignite mines and eight bituminous coal mines in the Ruhr, together producing about 9,500,000 tons per annum. Prussia also had control of the Hibernia coal mines, which, however, were run on the lines of a private company. In 1924 all these mines were denationalised, though the state continued to hold all the shares and other capital, the only difference being that, though the directors are appointed by the state, the oflicials and control generally of the mines are not under the state. Russia.—All the collieries in Russia, once privately owned, are under the Soviet. Figures based on returns by the Soviet— the latter likely to be favourable than otherwise—present a very bad comparison with pre-War conditions. A considetably reduced output has been obtained and that output only with the aid of important state subsidies. In the fiscal year ending Sept. 1924, the coal mining industry received subventions in cash amounting to 24,800,000 chervonetz (1 ch. = {1 18. od.) and a credit of 50,000,000 ch. in addition. The industry is greatly in arrears with payment of taxes. The position of the miner is far worse than before the War: in the Donetz basin he received, in March 1924, 15 gold roubles compared with 36-8 gold roubles in 1914, calculated upon the index cost of living. The output in 1913, exclusive of the area assigned to Poland, was 28,990,000 tons, whereas in 1924 it was only 14,580,000 tons; the country cannot even absorb this greatly diminished output. In 1913 the output per man per annum was 149-4 tons; in 1924 it was only 86:8 tons. Holland —IWlolland has some state coal mines, the production from which in 1924 exceeded that from the privately owned mines for the first time. The state-owned mines produced 2,912,899 tons out of a total for the country of 5,787,020 tons. The gross working profit from all the state mines in 1924 was 7,320,000 florins as compared with 8,340,000 florins In 1923. British Empire.—In the British Empire there are several cases of state ownership of collieries on a very small scale, e.g., the Udi Mine in Nigeria, the Mount Mulligan Mine in Queensland and the James and Liverpool Collieries in New Zealand, but all of them are very small concerns. RipLiocRAPHy.—M. J. Burgess and R. V. Wheeler on “ Thermal Decomposition of Coals," Chemical Society Transactions (1910) Gg Gagre); A. H. Clark and R. V. Wheeler on the “ Fractionating of Bituminous Coals,” Chemical Society Transactions (1913); H. C. Porter and G. B. Taylor on the “ Thermal Decomposition of Typical American Coals” in the Proceedings of the American Gas Institute

(1914); Elwood S. Moore, Coal, its properties, analysts, classification, ceology, extraction and distribution (1922); Sir Richard Redmayne, The British Coal Mining Industry during the War, one of the series of works constituting the “ Economic and Social History of the

COAL-TAR World War,” issued under the auspices of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (1923); Sir Richard Redmayne, ‘* Phe Coal

Resources of the World,” Trans. World Power Conference, vol. 1, p. 420 (1924); Colliery Working and Management, 4th ed. (1925); See also Annual Reports of the Chief Inspector of Mines (issued as Home Ofhce Reports, 1911-20); The Report of the Coal Conservation Committee (1918); Reports and Minutes of Evidence of the Royal Commission on the Coal Mining Industry (Cmd. 59, 360 and 361 of 1919); Annual Reports of the Afines Department (1921-6); Impcrial Mineral Resources Bureau, The Mineral Industry of the British Empire and Foreign Countries. Coal, Coke, By-products, 1013-19 (1921-2); Department of Overseas Trade, Reports on the Economic

and Financial Condilions in Gerniany (1924-5); Coal Tables, 1920, issued by the Mines Dept. (1925); Afinutes of Furdence of the Royal Commission

on the Coal Industry

(1925); The Rhenish-Westphalian

Coal Syndicate, Special Report for U.S.A, Federal State Commisston, Berlin (Nov. 1915); Report of First German Congress of Worknen and Soldiers’ Councils; Reports of Sosialismus Commission (1919, cic.); Reports of German Economie Council (Oct. 1920); Report of the United States Coal Commission of 1922-3 (1925). PERIODICALS.—Gitickauf, the principal German technical paper on the coal mining industry (1910-25); H. N. Eavenson, “ Data upon Labour Employed in various Bituminous Coal Mines,” Trans. Amer, Inst. Min. and Met. Eng. (1926); W. A. Bone, “ The Constitution of Coal,” Soc. of Chem. Ind., vol. 44 (1925); E. Jungst, “ The

Wages Position in the Ruhr Mining

lndustry,” Essener Allgemeine

Zeitung (Oct. 28 1925); Report of the Royal Commission on the Coal Industry (Cmd. 2600 of 1926); the pages of The Coal Age, an American technical periodical, contain much interesting information respecting the Coal Mining Industry of the United States of America, as do The Colliery Guardian and The Iron and Coal Trades Review of Great Britain; see also Official Year Books issued by the various

British Dominions which contain interesting information as to the Coal Industry in the Overseas Dominions. (R. Re.)

COAL-TAR PRODUCTS (sce 6.595).—Many attempts have been made since r910 to effect the low temperature carbonisation of bituminous coal commercially, in which process a coal-tar is obtained, differing materially from that produced by carbonisation of such coal at high temperatures. It is therefore usually distinguished as low-temperature coal-tar, or in Germany as Uricer, i.e., primary tar. This low-temperature coal-tar represents approximately the mixture of such primary decomposition products of the coal as are liquid at the ordinary temperature. It is always also first formed even when the coals are carbonised at high temperature, but these primary products then, by the further action of heat, undergo secondary changes,

resulting in the production of a different quid product and the conversion of much of the primary tar into permanent gas. Low-Temperature Coal-Tar.—The low-temperature coal-tar produced from bituminous coals containing 28-35% of volatile matter at temperatures not exceeding 600-650° C. is usually a brownish-black liquid, less viscous than the high-temperature tars obtained from the same coal; the vield is usually from 8-10°%% by weight of the coal, or approximately double the amount obtained from the same coal at high temperatures (g00-1200° C.), and the specific gravity of the low-temperature coal-tar from such coals is mostly between the limits 1-02 and 1-07. [itherto the amount of such low-temperature coal-tar produced has been small in proportion to the output of high-temperature coal-tar in gas-works and coke-ovens, the highest production having been in Germany. Smaller amounts have also been produced in Great Britain and in the United States. Variations of Analyses-—-A number of analyses of such lowtemperature coal-tar have been published. The results of these analyses are, in detail, in some respects contradictory, due largely to the fact that the composition of the tar obtained varies with the kind of coal carbonised, and to the fact that, even with the same coal, the composition of the tar alters with variation in the temperature reached in the carbonisation, and in the length of time during which the vapours first produced are exposed to that temperature. Broadly, the results so far obtained may be summatrised as follows:— Tar Acids.—Very characteristic of these tars is the high proportion of tar-acids, or phenolic bodies, present, which may form 30°% or more of the whole. The lower-boiling products obtained by distillation of the tar, up to about 200° C., consist chietly of hydrocarbons, but the higher fractions usually contain 25—50°% of tar-acids, the proportion rising with increasing percentage of

PRODUCTS oxygen in the coals.

663 Only a portion of these phenolic bodies,

usually less than half, consists of true homologues of phenol, the remainder being complex acidic bodies of as yet unknown constitution. Phenol itself, the lowest member of the true phenol series, is either absent, or present in small amount only, but the three cresols, the xylenols and higher homologues are always present. The tar also contains up to about 1% of nitrogenous bases, which have not as yet been closely examined, but it appears that derivatives of aniline, pyridine and quinoline are all present. Residues.—After removal of the tar-acids and bases, the residual neutral oil consists to the largest extent of hydrocarbons, but contains in addition considerable quantities of neutral carbonhydrogen-oxygen compounds, the nature of which is hardly known. Whereas the hydrocarbons in high-temperature coal-tar consist for the most part of members of the aromatic series, those in the low-temperature tar belong mainly to the aliphatic group, true aromatic hydrocarbons being present in small proportion. The aliphatic hydrocarbons present partly belong to the saturated series including both paraffins and naphthenes, and the higher-boiling fractions often deposit paraflin wax on cooling, the amount of the latter being sometimes suflicient to cause the tar to “set” at the ordinary temperature. Considerable quantities of olefines are present, and the low-boiling fractions include an amount of dienes which is much higher than in the corresponding fractions of high-temperature tar. If the temperature of carbonisation is kept as low as possible, the amount of the true benzene homologues is very small, but tends to increase with increasing

temperature;

as with the phenols, the lowest member

of the

series, benzene, is even then only present in small quantity, the higher members, toluene, xylene, etc., being chieily formed. Naphthalene and anthracene themselves are absent or present in very small amounts, but small quantities of their higher homologues have been isolated, and derivatives of hydrogenated naphthalene, anthracene, etc., are also present.

Pitch—The proportion of pitch in low-temperature tar is much less than in high-temperature tar, being only about one-

third of the tar as compared with two-thirds for high-temperature tar, and the physical properties of the low-temperature residue differ considerably from those of high-temperature coaltar pitch. The low-temperature tar also contains very much smaller amounts of the so-called free carbon or suspended solid matter, the quantity present being from 1 to 4%. Up to the present, owing to the limited quantities of the material available, no extensive working up of the low-temperature tar into refined products has taken place. Commonly the lighter fractions are distilled off and after refining are employed as motor spirit, the residual oil being used as oil fuel with or without the previous removal of pitch by distillation. Owing to the large amount of tar-acids and other oxygen compounds present, such crude oil has, however, a distinctly lower calorific power than the corresponding crude petroleum oils. Crude Oils —Low-temperature crude oils are also obtained by the similar distillation of cannels, lignites, etc., but these are more nearly allied to shale oil.

Coul-Tar from Gas-Works.—In

the period since 1910, the

average quality of coal-tar produced in gas-works has altered, due to the increased substitution of vertical retorts for horizontal retorts in gas-making. Although the carbonisation temperatures in the former are at least as high as with horizontal relorts, the carbonisation conditions are such that the primary tar-vapours are less subjected to the action of heat, so that the resulting tar bas a character intermediate between that of high- and low-temperature tar. The vertical-retort tar, therefore, contains a higher proportion of aliphatic compounds than the former and a lower proportion of “ free carbon ”’; it still, however, remains predominantly aromatic in character and is worked up along with horizontal retort and coke-oven tar. Vertical-retort tar has a specific gravity of from 1-07 to 1-10, and its yield is from 5:5 to 6:5 of the coal, as compared with about 5% from the same coals in horizontal retorts. Road Tur.—In the working up of coal-tar, the chief change in

COAST

664

DEFENCE

recent years has been in the production of treated tar for road preparation. To this purpose a large proportion of the total tar output is now devoted. Such tar may be prepared simply by distilling off the water and light spirits from the crude tar, leaving a dehydrated tar which is employed direct. ‘The quality of such a product varies however greatly, according to the composition of the crude tar employed, and a much better and more uniform refined tar ts produced by first carrying out the full preliminary distillation of the crude tar, and then suitably blending the pitch and distillates to produce a tar of the qualities required for different purposes in road construction. In the distillation process itself and the preparation of such tar products as is normally carried out in tar-works, few fundamental changes have taken place in recent years. An increasing number of continuous distillation plants have been erected, some working under vacuum; and larger and more efficient stills for the production of benzene, toluene, etc., and for the separation of the phenols have been set up. The demand for anthracene has greatly diminished and comparatively little of this is now recovered; vertical-retort tars and many coke-oven tars are quite unsuitable for its production as the anthracene from these is very impure. Resins.—Among the newer products obtained from coal-tar may be mentioned the coumarone and indene resins. The fraction of coal-tar naphtha boiling from 165-185° C. contains considerable amounts of coumarone and indene, and when this fraction is treated with suitable agents such as concentrated sulphuric acid, these undergo polymerisation, forming resins which remain behind on distilling off the unaltered hydrocarbons and are employed as artificial resins in industry. BiBLIOGRAPHY.—Coal-Tar: G. Lunge, Coal Tar and Ammonia (5th ed., 1916); A. R. Warnes, Coal Tar Distillation (3rd ed., 1923); R. Weissgerber,

Chemische

Technologie des Steinkohlenteers

(1923);

F. E. Dodge, “ Coal Tar and its Distillation Products ” in Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry (4th ed., 1925). Low-Temperature Tar: C. H. Lander and R. F. McKay, Low Tem perature Carbonisation (1924); F. Fischer, Conversion of Coal into Oils, trans., R. Lessing (1925); “ Study of Tars and Oils obtained from Coal,” F. S. Sinnatt and J. G. King, Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 44

1925).

! A and Indene Resins: E. Glaser, “ Zur Kenntniss der Coumaronharze,” Brennstof-Chemie, 3, pp. 99, 113 (1921). (IE G. C.)

COAST DEFENCE (sce 6.599).—The War of 1914-8 has naturally caused changes in the realm of coast defence, as it has in every branch of the military art. EFFECT

OF New

WEAPONS

Opinions have been expressed to the effect that Great Britain’s whole scheme of coast defence must be changed, owing to the introduction of new weapons, of which by far the most prominent is the use of aircraft. Against this it is contended, on general principles first of all, that history has shown that a new weapon has never caused a revolution in the art of war. Naturally a new effective weapon will cause a change; and the introduction of aircraft has caused a change, but it is not a revolution. It will be found that the new weapon or the fresh invention takes its place in the armoury of war alongside of, but not at first, and sometimes never, in place of what has gone before. Before dealing with this suggested fundamental change it will be well to glance at the occasions on which coast defences were brought into play during the World War. These were not numerous. Practically the first one was the German raid on the Yorkshire coast on Dec. 16 1914.

During this the ‘ Seydlitz,” “ Molt-

ke” and “ Blücher,” mounting 64 guns altogether, from 11-in. down to 6-in. bombarded Hartlepool for nearly an hour. The only guns on shore were three 6-inch. Of course a large number of casualties were caused among the civil population, but no damage

was done to the shore battery or its garrison of Durham Territorial Artillery. Later on the Germans admitted the loss of 10 killed on the “ Blücher,” while it was plainly visible that the upper works of the ships were suffering from the battery's fire, which was sufficiently annoying to draw off the enemy’s attention from a small naval vessel which had emerged from the har-

bour and had been suffering loss. During the War a long series of engagements took place between British ships and the numerous batteries erected by the Germans on the Belgian coast. Admiral Bacon’s book on the Dover Patrol mentions at least 40 of these engagements, and yet no gun, mounting or magazine of these batteries was ever hit. Dardanelles and Zeebrugge.—In the naval operations in the Dardanelles, on March 18 1915, a deliberate action was fought between the main batteries of the Turks at the Narrows and 16 British and French battleships at the comparatively short ranges of from 14,000 10 10,000 yards. The Turkish batteries and guns were old, their sites were ill-chosen, as a rule close to the water, and their high traverses and deep embrasures rendered them very conspicuous. The batteries were, however, helped by the existence of mines, the position of which was imperfectly known to the ships. At the end of the day three battleships had been sunk by mines, and three others so badly damaged by shell fire as to necessitate their immediate withdrawal to a dockyard. The damage to the batteries was very small. For instance, the Ilamidieh I. battery near Chanak, which contained three 14-in. and six g-2-in. guns, had one of the latter put out of action and

suffered some losses in its garrison. A war-time battery of five 6-in. guns at Dardanos, skilfully sited near the top of a conspic-

uous hill some 150 ft. high and in advance of the Narrows, received a large amount of attention from the fleet, not only during the main action, but for some days previously, but the only result was that splinters made three dents on the gun-shields. The most spectacular action of the War between ship and shore was the successful blocking of the Bruges ship canal on April 23 1918 by Sir Roger Keyes’s ships. This operation had been tried at Santiago de Cuba by the Americans and several times at Port Arthur by the Japanese; in both cases the attempts were unsuccessful. The success at Zeebrugge is an excellent instance of the fact that a fleet which is fully determined to come to close quarters with coast defences will most surely find out any weak spots. And there were weak spots at Zeebrugge. Most of the German guns were sited as if they were meant to defend the water outside the Mole and none seemed to have been allotted to deal specifically with block-ships, although the Germans quite realised the possibility of such an attack. The search lights especially were poorly sited; there was no concentration of illumination at the zone where the guns would have been most effective. On the other hand, the flanks of the canal entrance were crowded with machine-guns, trench-mortars and _riiles. These weapons were useless for stopping the ships themselves, but were admirably placed for killing the crews, especially when the latter were leaving the ships. That the losses among the crews of block ships and motor boats were small can only be put down to the theory that ‘‘ Fortune favours the brave.” Value of Aircraft-—Coming now to the action during the War of aircraft in the realm of coast defence the instances are few, and practically none are recorded of such action against coast defences. Attempts were made to bomb the ‘‘ Goeben ” in Jan. 1918, when she made a sortie and grounded on Nagara Point, remaining there for six days, but the results were practically nil, as she was only once hit, on a funnel, in a series of over 200 flights. There was also the case of the German cruiser “ Königsberg,” laid up in a river in East Africa. She was bombed by two seaplanes, one of which was brought down by her gunfire and the other of which did her no harm. The ship was finally destroyed by indirect gunfire from two monitors, the fire being controlled by seaplane observation. Admiral Sims, in his book Victory at Sea, recalls the fact that although the U.S. Navy had soo planes, a large number of which were operating over the North Sea, Irish Sea, Bay of Biscay and the Adriatic against submarines, only one boat was destroyed by direct bombing and one was “ probably damaged.” In action against a ship, aircraft are heavily handicapped compared with a gun ashore. Aircraft really provide a form of long-range bombardment, in which the aircraft’s engines take the place of the propellant charge in the gun. But every bomb

COAST

DEFENCE

that is dropped is a trial shot and no information gained from the first bomb is of any use for correcting the dropping of the next. No gun commander, ashore or afloat, expects a hit with his first shot, but he uses it to correct the fire of his next. But with aircraft, every bomb is a “ first shot.” There is no intention here of decrying the value of aircraft in its main sphere of observation; the only contention is that aircraft cannot take the place of artillery in coast defence. Deliberate trials have taken place since 1918 to ascertain the effect of aircraft against ships. The most important of these were made in the United States in 1921. Two old warships, the “ New Jersey ” and the “ Virginia,’ were anchored and exposed to aerial attack. Although 75 planes were used against them it was 9+ hours before the ships were sunk. Other trials have been made, but the results were no more favourable to the aircraft.

Since the War, aircraft have been designed to carry torpedoes for the attack of ships and great results have been expected from them. Hitherto they have been in the trial stage only, but they have the disadvantages that they must descend to from to to 15 ft. from the water before releasing their torpedoes and must get within some 1,000 yards of their target, thus rendering themselves peculiarly vulnerable to every kind of fire from a ship. Taking into account all the experiences gained in the late War, and fully weighing what aircraft can do in their present stage of evolution, it is firmly contended that the basic principles underlying the British idea of coast defence before the War are still thoroughly sound, and that, it is correct policy to regard the gun as the main weapon for use now against an enemy’s fleet. GUNS

AND

BATTERIES

On the assumption that the gun is still the main weapon of coast defence, it will be well to consider in what way the differences of the conditions under which the shore gun and the naval gun carry out their work have altered since 1914. (1) The fact that ranges have greatly increased has affected the question in several ways:— (a) The handicap against the naval gun, in being on a platform which is not immovable, has been accentuated, since the longer the range the greater will be the distance any movement of the ship, however small, will throw the shell off its intended target. (b) Guns

are not mathematical

instruments.

Their shooting

is

affected by very slight variations of propellant charge in quality and quantity, of weight of projectile, of the distance by which the latter is rammed home in the bore, and by the wear of the gun itself, not to speak of change of atmospheric conditions. Increased range magnifies the inaccuracies caused by these factors and necessitates a greater number of rounds being fired to produce a given effect than was the case with shorter ranges. The amount of ammunition in a ship, especially for heavy guns, is not large, and it is far less easy to replenish this afloat than it is for the gun ashore with all the resources of the land. (c) Increase1 ranze is more helpful in rendering a shore gun inconspicuous than it is as regards a ship. Probably, too, heavy guns will be sited behind low hills so that they are invisible from the sea. (2) The methods a:lopted and under trial for range-finding and the control of fire have made greater advances ashore than afloat. This is owing to the inherent inferiority of ships in this respect, compared with guns asore, since all arrangements to this end are restricted to the dimensions of the ship and its masts, whereas the shore gun has the whole coast within the limits of vision at its disposal and will often have theadvantaze of using commanding heights, In this connection, too, the shore gun may be able in the future to make use of sound-ranging, which proved so useful on land in the World War. This would be especially valuable for dealing with a ship which protected itself by a smoke screen, This form of ranging is denied to a ship, since a long base is necessary.

Aerial Observation.—Both sides can make use of aerial observation of fire, but, in addition to the use of smoke screens, which is also available to both, it will be possible to take other steps to render the elements of a coast battery indefinite objects when regarded by the eye of an aerial observer. This is a measure which is impossible to a ship which, apart from smoke screens, must always be a well-defined object on a flat surface. As regards aerial observation, the possibilities of jamming the wireless of spotting aircraft by either contestant have not yet been fully explored. The Americans have done some experiments in this direction and, if this should prove possible, the value of aerial observation would largely disappear.

665

It may be argued that if ships find that, in the attack of coast defences, they are too greatly handicapped by long ranges they will close in to shorter ranges and endeavour to overwhelm batteries by their superior volume of fire. This manoeuvre, however, would be the means of giving the superior instrumental system of control of fire possessed by the shore gun the very chance of proving that superiority, as it is at the very long ranges that all instrumental observation, ashore and afloat, is weakest. And shorter ranges would give lighter guns their opportunity. At present (1926) there seems a disposition to ignore the damage that can be done by medium and light guns to heavy ships, but the fighting efficiency of a ship can Le greatly impaired without penetrating its armour. So that it is quite possible that this view is overdone. The 6-in. guns at Hartlepool were hopelessly outclassed in number and size Ly those of the German, yet they took their toll of their powerful opponents and came off scatheless. The dispatches of the Admiral in command during the Dardanelles operations often refer to the great annoyance caused to his ships, armoured and otherwise, by two 6-in. batterics, Messudieh and Dardanos, while Admiral Lord Wester Wemyss, in his book, refers to the “ Prince George,’ an. old battleship, being hit by a 6-in. shell, taking a list and having very shortly to be withdrawn to a dockyard on account of the damage clone. Size of Guns.——The heaviest British pre-War gun was the 9: 2-In., firing a 380 lb. projectile to a range of some 17,000 yards. It is now necessary to have a longer range weapon. To obtain this it is not really essential to have a gun of ruch larger calibre, although the life of a large long-range gun is longer than that of a smaller one of equal range. But against capital ships now it is necessary to have a projectile with greater power than that of the 9-2-in. and such guns as the 12-in. or upwards are required. It has often been advocated that guns on railuay mountings should be used for coast defence,! as they can be moved from place to place as the situation demands, while their appearance would be unexpected. But the railway mounting is most unsuitable for use against moving targets since it does not give sufficient traverse, as it can be fired only a few degrees off the axis of the railway. For larger variations a railway gun has to be on a curve and move along it as required to alter the line of fire. This is much too slow for coast defence purposes. Also, modern arrangements for control of fire demand fixity of position, while from the point of view of training the detachments, especially with local forces, it is vital to have the gun always on the spot. Finally, a railway mounting is more expensive than a fixed one. For these reasons its use is not advocated. Design of Battcries—As regards heavy guns, when the long ranges now required are considered and the great improbability that ships will come close in, there are many advantages to be gained by siting the guns behind features of the ground, so that they are unseen altogether from the sea. In any case, such guns would have to be controlled by some form of position-finding instruments, so that nothing is lost in this way. The advantages gained are increased protection from hostile fire, much greater latitude in choice of sites and probably easier communications up to the battery. The disadvantages are a small loss of range, an area of dead water owing to the shell having to clear the intervening higher ground and the difficulty of fighting the guns if the communications of the control of fire system be damaged. The loss of range is generally immaterial, the dead-water, even assuming that it is navigable, can generally be covered from another battery, while adequate protection for the communications, with possibly their duplication, would reduce the third disadvantage toa minimum. All the heavy German guns on the Belgian coast were sited for indirect fire. The actual design of batteries can be considerably simplified. In this the guiding principles may be said to be that everything tThe Ordnance Department, U.S. Army, has designed railway mounts (the largest being for a 14-inch gun of approximately 40,000 yards range) in which this difficulty has been overcome. The design permits of rapid emplacement on a prepared base and ensures the same all round traverse, and speed and accuracy of fire, as obtain for the gun on a fixed mount. (Ed. E.B.)

COAST

666

PROTECTION

must be done to facilitate the service of the guns, while protection from hostile fire will be sought for by dispersion of the vulnerable points, e.g., magazines, and not by giving them thick material cover. ‘The guns will still require their solid concrete platforms, but parapets are unnecessary. Ammunition will be distributed in small expense stores at some distance apart, and these will not be shell-proof but only weather-proof and splinterproof. It will be useless for a ship to aim at a battery as a whole; each element of it, gun or expense store, will form a separate target.

Batteries for use against cruisers and light craft, mounting medium and light guns, say g-2-tn. and 6-in., will still be sited for direct fire, and so will be visible from the sea. The same guiding principles will apply to them as in the case of the heavy batteries, except that special care must be taken to render them difficult targets for ships at sea. The guns must have a background close behind them and the ways of communication, from the ammunition stores up to the guns, must be kept out of view from the sea, as well as the stores themselves.

Air Attack.—The War introduced this new feature which must be reckoned with. As already mentioned, aircraft can and will be used for controlling the fire of both shore and ship guns. But aircraft can also act offensively against coast defences by dropping bombs. The best protection of batteries against aerial attack will be in the use of counter aircraft and of anti-aircraft guns. Even with the latter only—and their action is becoming more and more effective—hostile aircraft will have to keep high up and the accuracy of their aim in bombing will thus be greatly impaired. The largest vulnerable element of a coast battery will be the gun and its emplacement, which will not exceed 20 yd. diameter with the heaviest guns. If an aeroplane were travelling at a speed of 120 m.p.h., in order to get a direct hit on the emplacement the bomb must be released at an exact third of a second, and if there is any wind this must be allowed for. Fhese conditions are very difficult to fulfil conjointly, but practically direct hits are necessary to put out of action any of the elements of a battery, whether guns or stores. It is also easy to erect traverses

round the vulnerable elements which would guard against bombs dropping close by. As a rule, every battery will be within the region of anti-aircraft guns. Land Altack.—This has very often been the most effective form of attack on a coast fortress, but it is a branch of land warfare and cannot be dealt with here. BIBLIOGRAPHY. —Sir G. Clarke, Fortification (1907); Capt. A. T.

Mahan, Naval Strategy, etc. (1912); Capt. A. P. S. Hyde, Attack and Defence of Fortified Harbours (1914); Col. G. J. Fiebeger, Permanent Fortification, etc., (1916); Capt. J. Avice, La défense des frontiéres maritimes (1922). (J. C. M.*)

COAST PROTECTION (see RECLAMATION 22.954).—There is a difference of opinion about the value of much of the works for coast protection, and in the opinion of some, money expended thereon does not give an adequate return. Even in Holland, whose existence depends on the maintenance of its sea walls and defences, authorities are divided on many important questions both of principle and practice. Since roro there has been remarkably little development in the means adopted to combat coast erosion, and, generally speaking, the methods of construction which still find favour, not only in Great Britain but also abroad, are the same in principle as those which have been used for generations previously. The Royal Commission on Coast Erosion, appointed in r906, whose final report was issued in r911, collected and placed on record much useful information on the subject of coast erosion, protection and reclamation, not only relating to the United Kingdom but also in reference to foreign countries

and in particular Holland and Belgium! The recommendations of the commission regarding the control of the foreshore of the United Kingdom and the constitution of a central sea defence authority have not yet been given effect to by legislative enactment. The report, however, has served to '\See Reports and Evidence: Roval Commission on Coast Erosion; particularly final report,

Cd. 5,708 (1911).

dispel certain crroneous ideas, particularly as to the extent of the loss of land due to erosion in the United Kingdom, and proves conclusively that the expense of protecting purely agricultural land is out of all proportion to the value of the land thereby saved from destruction. Subsidence and Upheaval of the Earth’s Crust.—It has been sometimes asserted that the continuous loss of land on the south and east coasts of England is partially due to subsidence of the earth’s crust, but there is no evidence to show that either upheaval or depression has, during historic times, affected the encroachment or recession of the sea on the coasts of Great Britain, and it may be safely asserted that the whole of the changes in the coast-line since the dawn of history have been due either to accretion or denudation. Physical Causes of Seca Encroachment— The encroachment of the sea on the coasts is due to the erosion of the cliffs and shore material. Of the detritus derived from such erosion a portion is carried along shore by the combined action of wind, waves and tides, remaining in a state of more or less constant movement until it is finally deposited to swell some accreting sand or shingle bank or is driven against some natural or artificial barrier, where it lics and is perhaps buried under subsequent deposits. The travelling shingle and sand or “ littoral drift ” is the principal source of the beach materials which form, and make good the wastage from, the foreshores of the coast. In the course of this lateral travel the particles, large and small, forming the detritus are still further disintegrated. The lighter material is carried off in suspension by the sea and ultimately finds a resting place on the ocean bed at a level below the influence of wave action or tidal scour. The remaining portion of the solid materials derived from the destruction of the cliti or shore is immediately transported into deep water, the finer particles being rapidly swept away by the current until finally deposited on the sea bed, and a certain proportion of the larger material too heavy to be carried in suspension for any considerable distance, is drawn down the foreshore and the bed of the sea by the undertow of the waves and ultimately makes its way by gravitation into deep water, where it finds a resting place. River Detritus —The amount of solid matter thus finding its way into the ocean is vast and is increased by the addition of detritus brought down by rivers and derived from the land surface. River detritus, on reaching the sea, shares much the same fate as the material derived from the coast line. A part finds a resting-place in sand banks and alluvial deposits at the mouths of rivers and estuaries, the remainder spreading itself over the deep-sea bed. Relation of Littoral Drift to Eroded Afaterial—It is impossible to form any exact estimate of the relative proportions of the material more or less immediately carried away to the deep sea and that other part which we may call littoral drift. In the case of chalk cliffs and foreshores it is probable that the immediately removed material amounts to nearly 90% of the whole, while alluvial cliffs and those consisting of boulder clay or other similar material may yield 20% to 30% of solids not at once carried away from the foreshore into the deep sea. Gravel and rock cliffs naturally yield a higher proportion of heavy and harder particles. On the whole it is unlikely that on the average more than 20°% of the solid material falling on to foreshores and derived from the decay of the coast line remains above low-water mark for any length of time. Deep Sea Erosion.—The process of erosion and littoral drift is not confined to the foreshore and beach above low-water mark. Such changes are continuously in progress below low-water mark where wave action or tidal scour is capable of affecting the sea bottom. These agencies and the gravitating tendency of the particles continue at work until a condition of equilibrium of the opposing forces is reached. It has sometimes been asserted that material is derivable from the deep sea for the replenishing of foreshores. Fragments of rock, boulders and flints dislodged from the sea bed in comparatively shallow depths below low water are sometimes cast up on the foreshore, but such

instances are exceptional and cannot

be taken as evidence of

COAST

PROTECTION

the supply of any considerable volume of material from the deep sea bed. Undoubtedly material lying on the sea bed below low water and in shallow depths is, under certain conditions, driven back on to the foreshore, but this is merely a temporary phase in the progress of littoral drift. With change of wind or tide the conditions may be reversed. Effect of Protective Works on Adjoining Coast-Line—In order to increase the extent of any forcshore or to maintain it even in its existing condition, the natural and incessant losses must be made good by accretion or the trapping of material derived from other parts of the coast. This may be done in favourable circumstances by the construction of groynes or other works similar in effect, but the accretion through their agency is in every case accomplished to the detriment of neighbouring foreshores. Thus the large groynes at Brighton trap for the time being the greater part of the shingle travelling from west to east, and very little passes on to the foreshore to the east of Brighton, which, in consequence, has become denuded. . Conditions Affecting Littoral Drift—The direction of the prevailing littoral drift is in general governed by the direction of the flood tide, the prevailing winds, and the shape of the coast. Authorities differ as to the relative effect of the tide and wind, and although the direction of drift is at times varied by the wind direction and the consequent wind waves, most competent authorities agree In the opinion that, in the case of England, at any rate, the prevailing drift coincides with the set of the flood tide. On the English coasts the direction of the flood tide does, in fact, in general coincide with the direction of the prevailing winds. On the east coast the drift is from north to south and on the south coast from west to east, both in the direction of the flood tide and prevailing wind. Where a coast-line is broken up by deep bays and indentations no continuous drift can take place, each bay retaining its own characteristic material, which is prevented from leaving it by the projecting headlands extending to low water or beyond and forming natural groynes. Numerous examples of these conditions are found on the south coast of Devon and Dorset. The direction of the flood tide is also in many cases altered locally by the configuration of a bay, e.g., the deflection of the tide along the shores of the bay in a direction opposite to that of the normal coastal current. In cases where a coast-line is broken up by estuaries or rivers the results are variable, depending upon the continual struggle which takes place between the opposing forces affecting littoral drift and the tidal inflow and outflow of the river, the latter sometimes aided to a material extent by the addition of large volumes of fresh water. During strong winds in a direction contrary to the set of the tide the normal travel of drift may be nullified or even reversed. The accumulation of material on a foreshore is generally brought about by tidal action in calm weather. A beach which has been depleted during a long spell of heavy weather usually makes up again, at any rate to a partial extent, on the occurrence of calm sea and the cessation of wind. This replenishing is due to the return of a portion of the material previously drawn down into shallow water below low-water mark. Generally speaking, onshore gales result in the drawing down of the beach material and its gravitation towards the deep sea. Off-shore winds, on the other hand, frequently lead to the accumulation of material on a foreshore. | Efect of Pier Works and Other Artificial Projections. —The construction of solid piers or other similar obstructions at an angle with the general shore line and projecting into the sea is, when occurring on a coast-line subjected to erosion, almost inevitably followed by serious depletion of the foreshore to lecward. The solid projection, which in many cases is carried suficiently far in a seaward direction to reach comparatively deep water, effectually hinders the passage of littoral drift from its windward to its leeward side! Thus the erosion of the lee shore 1 The terms ‘' windward"? and ‘ leeward” are used in the sense understood by engineers engaged in coast protection work, viz., “windward ’'—the direction whence the prevailing littoral drift proceeds;

and

takes place.

“leeward ’—the

direction

towards

which

such

drift

667

is accelerated by the loss of the travelling mater‘al which under natural conditions makes good to a partial extent the ravages of the sea. Instances of such stoppage are numerous on the English coast. The Folkestone harbour pier has arrested the travel of the beach from the westward, and led to the accumulation of a large bank on that side and the denudation of the foreshore to the east of the harbour and towards Dover. The construction of the harbour works at Dover has stopped the eastward drift at that point and accelerated the destruction of the cliffs in St. Margaret’s Bay. At Lowestoft the construction and subsequent extensions of the harbour pier and other works which project at right angles to the coast-line at the sea outlet of Oulton Broad have resulted in the accumulation of a bank of shingle to the northward and serious encroachments on the town frontage to

the south of the harbour. Sea Walls —The conditions affecting the design of a sea wall differ so materially that every case must be considered on its merits and provided for accordingly. Sea walls may be divided roughly into two classes, sloping and upright, each class having its advocates among engineers. Generally speaking, walls having

a sloping face are used in Holland and Belgium, whilst a vertical

or nearly vertical face is more common in Great Britain. The immediate effect of the construction of a wall is detrimental to the beach in front of it, although affording protection to the cliff or banks behind. Thus, the construction of a sea wall on a sand or shingle foreshore is in itself calculated to bring about the denudation of the beach and the wall may become before long the agent of its own destruction. Whilst the wall will prevent erosion by the sea of the cliffs in rear of it, the beach in front of the wall must be protected and conserved by the construction of groynes. Many walls have failed through the displacement of the filling behind them by wave action; the provision of a

substantial and wave resisting surface or paving behind the wall is, therefore, of great importance, and has been too often neglected. Suitable provision for the drainage of the cliffs, where they exist at the back of sea walls, is also a matter of high importance, which has often been neglected with disastrous results. Much can undoubtedly be done by draining, sloping and planting, to preserve and protect cliff faces, and these works ought to proceed simultaneously with the carrying out of sea-defence undertakings, when the cost of the latter is justified, to protect the foot of the cliff. Sea walls subjected to abrasion by shingle are, if faced with concrete, very liable to progressive and serious damage. In such positions a concrete wall is frequently protected by a facing, at any rate over that portion subjected to abrasion, of hard stone or flints. For this reason also reinforced concrete is unsuitable for use in the face work of walls on a shingle beach, as the abrasion of the concrete surface soon results in exposure and deterioration of the steel reinforcement. Groynes—llowever effective they may be in collecting traveling material, groynes will not in all cases prevent the waves reaching the toe of a cliff or bank and eroding it to a greater or

less extent. A combination of thet wo forms of protection—groynes and wall—is frequently desirable, but groynes alone have on many low-lying foreshores, particularly where there are no cliffs, proved successful and efficient without the construction of sea walls or protected banks, as for instance on the four miles of shore between Worthing and Shoreham. In some cases protection of the crest of a beach above high water has been secured with success by the construction of a timber barrier or wave screen formed of piles spaced apart and driven parallel to the line of shore. Groynes may be divided into two main classes: (1) high and substantially built structures of timber or other material; (2) low groynes of inexpensive and light construction usually placed at short intervals apart. In general, low, hight groynes are suitable on flat sandy foreshores which are not exposed to sudden ancl extensive changes of level. In any case it is undesirable to build up the planking of a groyne toa considerable height above the foreshore level existing at the time of construction, and it is preferable to raise the groyne by the addition of planking to

668

COAST

PROTECTION

keep pace with the accretion of beach material. The use of reinforced concrete for the construction of groynes has frequently been advocated, but is unsuitable on shingle beaches on account

of the rapid abrasion of the thin concrete coverings of the steel reinforcement. Groynes, speaking generally, to be of maximum efficiency should be at distances apart about equal to or little more than their length. They should extend continuously from the shore or work to be protected to the vicinity of low water of spring tides. There is much diversity of opinion and practice with regard to the direction in which groynes should point. Some authorities advocate their direction at right angles to the shore line, others pointing slightly to windward, and some authorities advocate a leeward direction. No general rule can be laid down and a plan suitable for one locality may prove a failure in another.

The opinion of most authorities, however, appears

to favour a direction pointing slightly to windward. Removal of Shingle —Beach material is too often limited in quantity and the question arises whether its removal for commercial purposes should be allowed. The results of natural erosion and denudation are, in many instances, aggravated by this practice. The powers possessed by the Board of Trade provide for the issue of prohibitory orders and in certain circumstances where the removal of beach or sand can be shown to be injurious, such orders have been frequently made. Relative Extent of Loss and Gain of Land—The evidence as regards the total superficial area gained and lost in recent years on the coasts and in the tidal rivers of Great Britain shows that far larger areas have been gained by accretion and artificial reclamation than have been lost by erosion. Evidence laid before the royal commission by the Ordnance Survey Dept. in 1907 showed that within a period, on the average, of about 35 years, about 6,640 ac. had been lost to the United Kingdom, while 48,000 ac. had been gained. Most of the gain has been in tidal estuaries, while the loss has been chiefly on the open coast. Moreover, the gain has been due in the main to the deposition of sediment brought down by rivers and to artificial reclamation. It is, however, probable that the land lost has been more than compensated for by land naturally accreted. The report of the

royal commission contains the following statement :— The erosion . . . would have been far more serious if extensive works of defence had not been constructed by local authorities, railway companies and others, at a great cost, though, on the other hand, such works in many places have been responsible for erosion of the neighbouring coasts by interfering with the normal travel of the beach miterial. On the whole we think, however, that while some localities have suffered seriously from the encroachment of the sea, from a national point of view the extent of erosion need not be considered alarming.

Cost of Coast Protection.—The cost of construction of groynes varies very considerably with the design and local conditions. Before the World War light low groynes might be constructed at a cost of from ros. to {1 per foot lineal, and groynes of more substantial construction at from {£1 to £3 per lineal foot, while some of the large concrete and masonry groynes of the type frequently constructed at Brighton and Hastings cost as much as £7 or £8 per lineal foot. The initial capital cost of protection per mile of shore was seldom fess than £4,000, even when no sea wall was constructed. Under present conditions these figures should be nearly doubled. The annual charge for repairs, interest on capital, and replacement may be put at not less than 10% of the original capital cost. The cost of protecting purely agricultural land which is subject to erosion must of necessity, under the conditions which usually prevail, be considerably in excess of the value of such land. Protection under such conditions is only justified when agricultural land is in the vicinity of towns and its erosion, if it be not stopped, is likely to lead to those towns being outflanked by the sea, and in situations where the works have as their object the preservation from inundation of areas of low-lying land of considerable extent. It is not desirable, even 1f it were practicable, to prevent erosion of all parts of the coast, as the waste of the

cliffs provides the greater part of the beach material which acts as the most valuable agent of protection. The expenditure incurred in the construction of sea defences by many of the coastal towns of England in recent years has been very considerable and in some cases has imposed a heavy burden on the inhabitants. As an instance the case of Sidmouth, a seaside town on the south coast of Devon, having a population of about 6,000, may be referred to. Asa result of exceptional gales the sea defences of the town over a frontage of under half a mile were seriously damaged and undermined between the years 1917 and 1925 and the construction of new sea walls and groynes, completed in 1926, entailed an expenditure of over £100,000. Sand Dunes and Alluvial Flats—The preservation of sand dunes is most important along certain parts of the coast where they afford protection to low-lying areas behind them, and they should in these cases be maintained and fostered by the encouragement of the growth upon them of marrum and other grasses, which help to bind the sand together. Where drifting of blown sand occurs much may be done to check it by the fostering of such grasses. The process of natural accretion on alluvial flats has been hastened in many cases by the planting of suitable vegetation such as rice grass (spartina), and in this way land may in time be reclaimed by entirely natural means. CONDITIONS

IN HOLLAND

AND

BELGIUM

A large part of Holland and some portions of Belgium are below the normal sea level and are protected from inundation by artificial embankments (dikes) or by narrow belts of sand dunes. The foreshore works on the coast of Holland and Belgium, although of great interest and attended with considerable success, do not afford examples to be followed as affecting the sea defences of the United Kingdom and other countries exhibiting physical characteristics similar to those of the latter. The protection works in such cases as Blankenberghe, Heyst „Scheveningen, Callantsoog and Petten are of great magnitude and the engineers responsible for these works, particularly in Holland, have at their command the accumulated experience of centuries of sea-defence work. The local conditions with which these works have to conform, viz.: low flat foreshores consisting entirely of sand, are wholly different from those generally associated with sea-defence works in England. The large expenditure involved is justified by the necessity of securing the safety, not only of the sea-board, but of large tracts of the countries themselves. Investigations in Holland are said to indicate a continuous subsidence of the land of that country relative to the sea level, amounting

to about

15 cm.

per century.

The North Sea foreshores of Holland and Belgium consist for the most part of fine sand; similar deposits border the lower portions of the numerous river estuaries which penetrate far inland, but in the higher parts of these the foreshores are generally composed of fine sand covered with clay or mud. The foreshores of the North Sea between high and low water have an average gradient of about 1 in 45 and the shores above high water normilly slope at about 1 in 25. Submerged sand banks more or less parallel to the shore are a characteristic feature of the North Sea and estuary coast lines of Holland and Belgium. These, where they exist, afford considerable protection to the sandy shores during on-shore gales. In calm weather and with off-shore winds sand accumulates on the foreshores. The two most important forms of sea-defence works in common use in IJolland are (a) groynes, (2) fascine-mattresses with stone ballasting. Groynes are usually constructed at right angles to the shore line and are maintained as arule at asmall height above

the average foreshore level. On those portions of the North Sea coast which are most exposed groynes are placed about 250 metres apart and are extended out beyond the low-water line. Many of the grovnes on the Dutch coast are constructed of layers of fascine mattresses covered by heavy stone, having their crests almost flat or turtle-backed with side slopes of 1 in 2, or flatter. The fascine or brushwood mattresses are held together and pinned down by rows of piles. Wide brushwood aprons, with heavy stone covering forming flat slopes, are constructed on either

COATES— CODY side of the groyne in order to protect the flanks against scour. The groynes are carried up above the line of high water to meet the base of the sand dunes or the protecting dikes. These groynes, inclusive of the side aprons, are often of considerable width,

sometimes as much as 30 metres at their deepest and widest parts. The cost of groynes built in Holland has varied from

{4,000 to £11,000 each. The underwater banks of some of the estuary channels and sea inlets on the coast of Holland frequently stand at a steep slope with deep water alongside. Under these conditions there is serious liability to erosion and it is usual to protect the banks both above and below water by artificial means. For many years fascine mattresses have been used for this purpose. These are made up on a convenient sandy foreshore, covered at high tide and when completed are towed to the place where they are to be used and sunk on the sea bottom by ballasting with stone. They

consist of two layers of grids of brushwood, each built up of crossed rows of parallel brushwood ropes, o-4 metre circumference, and spaced o-g metre apart centre to centre, bound together with a filling of brushwood in three layers between them. On the top of the upper brushwood grid some open-work partitions are formed for the reception of stone ballast. Formerly, clay mixed with alittle stone was used for ballasting, but in modern practice stone alone is employed, the mattresses being weighted to the extent of 1,000 kg. per sq. metre. The cost of continuous protection of the steep banks of the estuary channels where the depth of water alongside is sometimes as much as 30 metres, is very considerable, amounting in some cases to as much as £100 per metre run of bank. In some localities the cost has been reduced by the construction of intermittent mattress work, leaving short unprotected stretches of bank between projecting spurs which serve to deflect the main current away from the unprotected embayments. In cases where the sea bed of the deep channels consists of clay, erosion is not so uniform as that of sandy bottoms and the side slope is sometimes almost vertical. In such situations rubble stone ballasting or surfacing of the bank is preferred to the employment of mattresses. The protection of the shore lying between the steep submerged and

partially submerged banks of the channels and the base of the dike or wall, which forms the immediate protection of the land behind, is usually effected by means of groynes. These shorcs, which are sometimes of considerable width above the level of normal high water, have in most cases flat gradients. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—W. H. Wheeler, The Sea Coast go) Reports of

Royal Commission on Coast Erosion, Ist Rep., Cd. 3683 and Cd. 3684 (1907), 2nd Rep., Cd. 4460 and Cd. 4461 (1909), last Rep., Cd. 5708 (1911); A. E. Carey and F. W. Oliver, Tidal Lands (1918); D. W. Johnson, Shore Processes and Shore Line Development (1919). See also Proceedings Institution of Civil Engineers (passim); A. T. de Groot, De Ingenieur No. 35 (1911); R. P. J. Tutein Wolthenius, Die Gido, Nos. 3 and 5 (1913). (N.G. G., L. R. W.)

COATES, JOSEPH GORDON (1878-

), New Zealand poli-

tician, was born at Matakohe, the son of a farmer. He was elected M.P. for Kaipara in rọ11, and favourably impressed his leader, Mr. W. F. Massey, with his solid, if not brilliant, qualities. From 1917 to 1919 he served in France with the New Zealard Forces, in which he attained the rank of major and gained the military cross. Shortly after his return home, he was invited to join the Cabinet, and, as head of the Public Works, Railways and other departments proved himself a capable administrator. His energy and sincerity amply compensated for any lack of eloquence, and when Mr. Massey died in 1925 he was his obvious successor. As Prime Minister the chief aim of his domestic policy was the consolidation of the primary industries of New Zealar d, thus paving the way for a development of secondary industries. In overseas affairs he was a staunch Imperialist. COBLENZ, Germany (sce 6.612), had in 1919 a population of 37,393. New law courts, churches and a theatre were built after 1910. Coblenz was bombed by the Alliesin r917 and 1918. After the Armistice the town and bridgchead were occupied by Allied troops under the Treaty of Versailles, Art. 429-432, Coblenz forming the second zone to be evacuated after ro years, should Germany fulfil her obligations (see RHINELAND). Coblenz was

669

the seat of the Rhineland high commission, and was first occupied by American troops, becoming General Pershing’s headquarters. On Jan. 10 1923 the American troops were withdrawn and replaced by French. On Oct. 21-26 1923 Separatists carried out a coup, proclaimed a Rhineland Republic, and declared that they had been recognised as a de fucto Government by the French high commissioner. The Separatist leaders quarrelled among themselves, and the movement had collapsed by Feb. 1924. COCHERY, GEORGES CHARLES PAUL (1855-1914), French politician (se> 6.619), died in Paris Aug. 8 1914.

COCHIN, DENYS MARIE PIERRE AUGUSTIN (1851-1922),

French politician (see 6.619), joined the Briand National Defence Cabinet on the outbreak of the World War as a minister of state and was sent on a diplomatic mission to Greece. He died in Paris March 24 1922. COCOA (sce 6.628).—The moderate prices of cocoa in 1925 were largely due to the development of cocoa-growing in British West Africa. In 1905 HG world’s production of raw cocoa was 141,000 tons, of which 23° was grown in the Ra Empire; in 1913 255,000 tons were B, of which 35% was British; and in 1925 the world’s production was about Epesooo tons, of which 60°% was produced in the British Empire. Gold Coasit.—In 1922, out of a total world output of 403,000 tons, 159,000 tons were grown on the Gold Coast. There were no organised plantations, the trees being cultivated around the native villages. The crop is gathered, fermented and dried and brought in in small but very numerous consignments to the river and rail collecting stations, whence it is shipped down to the warehouses at Accra. The bean is not of the highest quality, being flat in shape and somewhat bitter in taste, owing to imperfect methods of native cultivation and preparation. But it is the most important cocoa available in bulk and at a low price, and forms a basis for all cocoa and chocolate productions, at its best readily blending with any other sorts. Dangers to further development of production on the Gold Coast are the felling of the forests, causing the climate to become drier and the country more exposed to winds; and the multiplication of pests and diseases. These matters are carefully watched and dealt with by the Department of Agriculture and by the Gold Coast Agricultural and Commercial Society. Other Producing Areas—Nigeria presents conditions which

make possible a production equal to that of the Gold Coast; 37,192 tons were exported in 1924. Other important producing countries, and their approximate production in 1924, are: Brazil, 70,000 tons; Ecuador and Trinidad, 30,000 tons each; Santo Domingo and Venezuela, 25,000 tons each; and San Thomé, 20,000 tons. The bulk of high grade beans, to which the flavour and richness of good cocoa and chocolate are due, comes from Trinidad, Venezuela, Grenada and St. Lucia; and these, with the small quantity from Ceylon, of the plantation variety, fetch the highest prices on the London market. The entire crop of Java

beans, which are comparable with those from Ceylon in quality, is shipped to Amsterdam and is sold there by auction six or seven times a year. During the World War, Hamburg lost its position as the largest cocoa market: most of the Gold Coast crop was landed at Liverpool and London, which handled more cocoa than Ham- |. burg during the post-War period. London has a public auction, the prices at which cocoa changes hands being wired all over the world and forming the basis of negotiation. In 1918, prices at which the various kinds of raw cocoa should be sold in Great Britain were fixed, Accra being quoted at 65s. per cwt. and Ceylon Plantation, Java and Samoan at too shillings. In 1919, when control was abolished, the price rose rapidly, and by Feb. 1920 Ceylon was 200s., with that of other sorts in proportion; but by 1921 the price had fallen to the normal level of 80 shillings. (C. L. T. B.) CODY, WILLIAM FREDERICK (1846-1917), American scout and showman known throughout the world as “ Buffalo Bill” (see 6.637), died in Denver, Colo., Jan. 10 1917. He was buried in a tomb which was blasted from solid rock on Lookout Mountain, 20 m. from Denver.

CO-EDUCATION

670

CO-EDUCATION (sce 6.637).—Co-education as an administrative procedure of assembling the two sexes in the same educational institution for purposes of instruction under like auspices has made steady progress since 1910. This has been due to a number of causes. Women have taken an ever-increasing share in commercial and industrial activities and as a result have demanded and secured opportunities for training that fits them for these activities. Economic pressure has operated to consolidate the educational activities of communities, especially where communities are small. It was undoubtedly the frontier conditions in the middle and western sections of the United States which led to the widespread establishment in these regions of co-educational schools. Like economic limitations are leading to the establishment of coeducational schools in the countries of Europe where segregation was common in the past. Further, there is appearing everywhere in the world, especially in the Occident, a disposition to accept social equality between the sexes. This has broken down *the barriers in schools as well as in other institutions. Social freedom was greatly promoted by the World War, during and after which women took over many forms of industrial and professional service which earlier had been monopolised by men. The social consequences of this radical change are obvious. Internal Separation.—While administrative co-education has been steadily increasing in Europe and the United States, a tendency has appeared toward separation of the sexes within co-educational institutions. Women and girls, having secured the right to enjoy educational opportunities equal to those offered to men and boys, are now beginning to specialise more than ever before and are found in increasing numbers in classes where they are pursuing courses regarded by them as appropriate to their sex, even though these courses are administratively conducted by an institution that provides instruction also for men and boys. Co-education being administratively established, differentiation in electives is producing a new type of segregation. Statistics.—The high school of the United States is very generally committed to the policy of co-education. The extent to which the high schools of the United States are co-educational is Shown by the fact that in rg10 there were only 34 public high schools exclusively for boys and 26 for girls. The corresponding figures for 1920 and 1922 are 39 and 37 special schools for boys, 37 and 42 for girls. The situation with regard to private high schools is somewhat different as the following figures show: Number of Private High Schools of Vartous Types in the United States at Different Pertods

For boys only For girls only Co-educational

.

When both private and public schools are cansidered, it is evident that the secondary schools of the United States are in the main co-educational. The aggregate attendance of girls is greater than that of boys in both groups of schools according to the latest statistics. Public High Schools

1922 Boys . Girls .

1,033,739|

Private High Schools

1920

822,967 | 398,525] 100,116) 84,222 | 55,474

1,195,668 | 1,034,188 | 516,536] 116,406]

99,931 | 61,926

Girls in general have somewhat greater leisure and consequently a larger opportunity to secure a high-school education than boys have. Subjects Chosen.—The two sexes do not take advantage in equal degree of the various elective opportunities offered to them. The process of distribution of the pupils of the two sexes is taking place along lines which comport with their social and occupational interests. That this is a progressive tendency is shown by such facts as that in roro, 3:78% of the pupils in high school elected home economics, while in 1922, 14-29% registered

inthis subject.

During the academic year 1921-2 the registration

in certain selected subjects was as follows:— Girls Ilome Economics

304,982

Biology Agriculture Physics Algebra Trigonometry

100,333 35,383

79,633

421,016

8,197

Institutional Variation of Choice.—The fact that separation of the sexes is going on along lines of special interests is further shown by an examination of the registrations in different types of institutions. The normal schools and teachers’ colleges of the country are professional schools devoted chiefly to the preparation of teachers for elementary schools. The student body in these schools is very largely made up of women, although men are admitted. The facts are as follows:— Registration in Normal Courses in American Normal Schools and Teachers’ Colleges af Various Periods

Men Women

1921-22

1910-20

IQI4-15

32,094

19,110 116,325

80,347

161,840

1909-10

19,978

There isa very marked departure here from complete co-education in the administrative sense. Corresponding figures from the other professional schools show a preponderance of men. In schools of law, medicine and engineering, women constitute but 2 to 5% of the total registration. The separation of the sexes by subjects of instruction rather than by institutions is a natural consummation of the movement for complete equality of educational opportunity. In the United States the vigorous discussions of the wisdom of co-education which were carried on during the first five years of this century closed the theoretical argument. After those discussions it was conceded that women shall have an education equal to that ollered to men and the right to choose their subjects. The latter

right to natural election is now being exercised in increasing measure with the results noted. General Conditions.—So far as the rest of the world is concerned, women have been conceded the right to attend universities in all European and colonial countries and they have taken advantage of this right on a large scale. Co-education in the elementary schools has been common in small communities in allcountries. It has also been practised in an increasing measure in larger communities in the northern countries of Europe and in Australia and South Africa. It has been, and is still, avoided in France, Italy, Spain and South America wherever communities are large enough to support separate schools. In the secondary schools of countries other than the United

States, co-education is less common than in the elemenary schools and the universities. The history of secondary education in Europe and in countries which have borrowed their educational systems from Europe, inhibits the adoption of a policy of co-education. Girls did not enjoy opportunities of secondary education in former generations except as this was administered in the strict privacy of the home. Even now, when the right of higher education Is generally conceded, there is reluctance to disturb the traditions of the secondary schools which were established for boys. The conservatism of tradition shows some signs of weakening. In the new republics of Europe co-education in secondary schools is commonly practised. In newer countries on other continents it is not uncommon. The Orient.—The statements made above do not apply to the Orient. The oriental altitude on the matter of the social and economic status of women is in general too fixed to be overcome even when the examples of America and Europe are fully understood. Mission schools and native schools in oriental countries maintain in general a strict separation of the sexes, except in a few of the lowest primary schools. Furthermore, the extent to

which girls receive any education is very limited.

COFFEE—COINAGE Separate Institutions.—The discussion of co-education would not be complete without explicit reference to the fact that, along with thc gencral tendency to organise public education on a coeducational basis, there is still a disposition in some quarters to favour separate institutions for the two sexes. The presence of such a disposition is scen in the large registrations in the women’s colleges and in the relatively few surviving men’s colleges in ihe United States. The older foundations in England allow women to attend lecture courses given by men and primarily organised for men. These survivals of an earlier type of educational separation are usually favoured by those communities and social classes which are beyond the reach of ihe economic motives which dictate the consolidation of educational opportunities. As long as the two sexes are to participate in equal degree in the advantages of education, it is much more economical and probably more efficient to conduct all instruction under the same auspices. Social traditions of exclusive rearing, as well as favourable economic conditions, are to some extent recognisable in those institutions where separate education is still practised. On the whole, however, the tendency in Europe, and to a greater extent in America, 1s increasingly to disregard social traditions and to establish a single system of institutions for the two sexes, allowing such separation as is to take place to appear within the institutions. (C. H. J.) COFFEE (see 6.646).—During the post-War period, Brazil and British East Africa commanded most attention as coffeeproducing countries: Brazil because of her control policy and its effects in the United States, and British East Africa because of the rapid growth of coffee planting in that area. Brazii—The importance of Brazil in coffee production is shown by her production in 1924-5, which was about two-thirds of the world’s supply. In that crop year over 5,000,000 ac. were planted with coffee; 13,721,000 bags of 130 lb. net were produced and 13,682,000 bags exported. All other countries produced 6,762,000 bags and exported 6,824,000 bags. The protection of the crop is under the control of the Sao Paulo institute for the permanent defence of coffee, the Federal Govt. having relinquished in its favour all rights conferred by law. The law of the State of São Paulo provides that the chairman and the vice-chairman of this body shall be its ministers of Finance and of Agriculture respectively, the three remaining members of the governing body being elected by the two associations of planters and the commercial association of Santos, subject to the approval of the president of the State. The powers of the institute include the regulation of the amount of coffee to be retained in the official warchouses through which all coffee produced in the interior must pass; 10 of these had been erected throughout the coflee-growing districts of São Paulo and one in the State of Rio, their total capacity being 11,500,000 bags per annum. Other powers of the institute extend to the amount of coffee to be exported, the making of agreements with other producing countries for the protection of coffee, the concluding of financial arrangements, the levying of an export tax on coffee, and the establishment of an agricultural loan bank. To obtain funds for the institute £4,000,000 of 73 °%> bonds were issued in London and £1,000,000 in Holland and Switzerland in Jan. 1926. Interest on this capital is to be raised by a transport tax of one gold milreis (2s, 3d.) levied on each bag of coffee grown in and transported through the State of Sao Paulo. f The effects of the “ permanent defence of coffee ” in the United States, Brazil’s greatest customer, were higher prices and reduced consumption. In June and July 1925, a mission from the United States, consisting of three representatives of the trade in coffee, visited the institute and the producing centres in Brazil. After conference, the following measures were agreed: the daily regulated entry into Santos of coffee for export in accordance with the crops and the needs of consumption; the maintenance of a stock in Santos of never less than 1,200,000 bags, to facilitate the buyers finding the qualities required; the constant attendance of American buyers on the Santos market; full publication of statistics and of data relative to crops, stocks, etc.; and the resumption of coffee-propaganda in the United States. It was also arranged that similar conferences

should be held in 1926 and annually thereafter. (See BRAZIL.) Colombia.—Next in importance to Brazil as a coffee-growing country, Colombia showed signs of following her example. A law providing for the establishment of coffee bonded warehouses and the official classification of coffee, with the issue of negotiable bonds, was passed, but the declared policy of the Government was to help the industry without interfering with prices.

671

Fast Africa.—Coffee growing under British auspices in Kenya Colony and Protectorate has rapidly developed. In 1920 there were 27,813 ac. under cofiee; on June 30 1924 there were 60,054 ac. an increase of 7,805 ac. over 1923. The production in 1923-4 was 144,952 cwt. The exports from Mombasa in the same year were 186,081 cwt. valued at £636,744. The colony also had 27,883 ac. planted with trees less than three years old, which had not come into full bearing. On the London market Nairobi and Uganda coffees now appear as Kenya. The annual British consumption of coffee remained stationary at 7 Ib. per capita. British taste in coffee is satished largely with the produce of the Central American Republic of Costa Rica; the demand for the produce of Kenya Colony is increasing. In Sept. 1915 the import duty on raw coffee was increased from I4s. to 21s. per cwt. and again to 42s. in 1916. On Sept. 1 1919 the dutics became 42s. on foreign grown, and 35s. on that from British possessions. Later changes were: in 1922, 28s. and 23s. 4d.; and in 1924, 14s. and IIs. 8d. Annual consumption in the United States rose from 11 Ib, per capita before the War to 12-4 Ib. in 1923: in 1925 it had fallen to 11-09 lb. About two thirds of the imports in 1925 came from Brazil and the greater part of the remainder from Colombia.

The following table shows the exports of coffee from the principal producing countries from July 1 1924 to June 30 1925:—Lb, Brazil 1,778,660,000 Colombia . : 273,984,139 Dutch East Indies! . 145,850,108 Venezuela?. ; Salvador Haiti . . British India Costa Rica Nicaragua . ; Kenya Colony . . British West Indies Guatemala

11925 estimated. 2 1923-4.

102,366,000 72,007,584 67,687,620 32,280,640 31,617,040 21,729,185 20,841,072 12,973,389 7,275,247

(C. L. T. B.)

COHAN, GEORGE MICHAEL (1878), American actor, author and producer, was born at Providence, R.I., July 4 1878. His parents were of the theatrical profession, and at an early age he appeared with them in juvenile parts, subsequently taking comedy rôles in vaudeville and on the legitimate stage. Ilis first appearance in New York was at Keith’s Union Square Theatre in 1893. Since that date he has been continuously engaged in writing and producing plays and musical revues, in the majority of which he also acted. Among his productions may be mentioned The Governor’s Son (1901); Forty-five Minutes from Broadway (1905); The Talk of New York (1907); Get-Rich-Ouick Wallingford (1910); Broadway Jones (1912); Seven Keys to Baldpate (1913); Musical revues in 1914, 1915 and 10916; The Tavern (1920); The Song and Dance Man (1923); American Born (1924). In addition he wrote numerous musical numbers and songs, one of which, Over there, acquired an international vogue during the World War. Ile wrote also an autobiography, Twenty Years on Broadway (1924).

COHN, GUSTAV (1840-1918), German economist (see 6.652), died at Göttingen Sept. 20 1918.

COINAGE.—The

World War of 1914-8 placed an unprece-

dented strain upon the monetary system of both the belligerent and neutral nations. How the various systems endured the strain is discussed fully in the article on Currency; the following article deals with one aspect of the problem, namely, the question of coinage and the provision of small change in the various countries concerned. Great Britain.—The sudden change of circumstances produced

less confusion in Great Britain than in any other country involved. To provide for the quick production of small change, before the Mint could get to work on a large scale with the coinage of silver, postal orders were made legal tender for all amounts during the early months of the War. But by the beginning of 1915 the subsidiary currency was being coined freely, and the circulating power of the postal order was abolished. The Treasury Notes issued in ror4 did not at first supersede the use of gold. The Royal Mint coined £15,000,000 worth of sovereigns and half-sovereigns in 1914 and over £21,000,000 in

672

COINAGE

1915. It was not till 1916 that the public was asked to pay in gold to the banks, while the banks were prohibited from paying it over the counter to those who demanded it. In r916 and 1917, only something over {1,000,000 of gold money was struck in each year, and this was ear-marked for regions such as Arabia, where subsidies to the rulers of the Hejaz and Nejd continued to be paid in gold. Stringent legislation was framed against those who tried to take gold money out of the realm, or offered to pay

a larger sum than £1 in Treasury Notes for the sovereign. Meanwhile the issue of silver money for small transactions was portentous and unprecedented. The Mint in the years immediately preceding the War had been putting out silver to the net value of under £1,090,000 on the average. But in 1914 over £5,003,029 in silver was minted in the last six months, after the declaration of war, and in 1916, 1917 and r918 over £7,000,000 in each twelve-month. By the end of the War there was twice as much British silver circulating within and without the realm as there had been in rgr3. Silver bullion for a few months in 1920 rose to the unprecedented price of 82 pence an ounce, a fizure which so terrified the then Chancellor of the Exchequer, Mr. Austen Chamberlain, that he insisted on the passing of a measure which introduced 50% of base alloy into the silver currency. The bill was wholly unnecessary, as silver fell to 4o pence per ounce before the end of 1920, and to 32 or 33 pence by 1921, so that coinage on the old scale of alloy could have been continued at a good profit. The new base money was so unskilfully compounded that its first issue turned brown or green after a little wear, or even came to pieces from inadequate mixing of the good and bad metal. | Germany.—At the outbreak of the War the Imperial Govt. did not have to improvise everything as the British Govt. was bound to do. It had collected much treasure by means of the forced loan of 1913, and it had ready for war emergency the long-hoarded military chest stored in the castle of Spandau, where a large proportion of the gold paid in the French War indemnity of 1871 had been kept intact for more than 4o years. This was used freely in the autumn of 1914 for German purchases abroad. But gold money, despite all preparation, disappeared more quickly in Germany than in Great Britain, and from the first days of the War the internal currency was paper. Silver, which never failed the British public, disappeared in Germany at an early date in the struggle. By 191g of the old currency only the minute copper 1- and 2-pfennig pieces remained in circulation, and these too disappeared later. | To replace the nickel 5-, 1o- and 20-pfennig pieces, withdrawn for military purposes, the German Govt. issued from 1916 onward immense quantities of iron and zinc coins, reproducing the old types: but both these metals proved unsatisfactory substitutes, being prone to rust and decay. The government issues proving insufficient for trade necessities, many municipalities and Kreises followed the Imperial lead and produced tn 1917 and 1918 not only paper money but zinc and iron 1o-pfennig, 5-pfennig and occasionally 20-pfennig pieces. They generally bore the town coat-of-arms or badge on the obverse, and a large fizure of value on the reverse. It was apparently only after the Armistice of Nov. 1918 that a few towns put out small change of more unusual material—porcelain in some cases, wood in others. But these were very exceptional freaks. The year 1922 found republican Germany issuing metallic subsidiary coins from its mint, but now made of aluminium and bearing on one side the accepted republican eagle, on the other a strongly conventionalised sheaf of grain. Coins of 1, 2 and 5 mirks denomination were added by the end of the year. The same year saw some transitory private issues of banknotes printed on aluminium foil. With the introduction of the Rentenmark standard in 1924-5 came an issue of more durable subsidiiry coins of that standard and by the close of 1925 the coinage of silver 1-mark pieces had been resumed. France and Belginm.—The history of the French War coinage presents many similarities to that of the German, but the chaos at the beginning of hostilities was rather worse. All gold disappeared at once into the proverbial “ stocking” of the thrifty

peasant or bourgeois, and much silver also. But for some little time there was an endeavour to keep upasilver currency: the dies and presses of the Paris mint were moved in Aug. to the remote town of Castelsarrasin, close under the Pyrenees, and there remained to the end of the War, striking in 1914 5-franc and 2-franc pieces. They are only to be distinguished from Parisstruck money by a small capital “ C ” under the value on the reverse. As the French exchange grew worse, there was a steady migration of silver 5-franc pieces to Switzerland. As they were, and had been for many years, legal tender in Switzerland, the Berne Govt. had scruples about demonetising them, and they were only denied currency after the War had ended, when a vast quantity of them were recoined into Swiss s5-franc pieces. Since the French Govt. had made no preparation to face a dearth of small change, its provision fell, far more than in Germany, into non-governmental hands. At first the situation was quite chaotic; not only municipalities but chambers of commerce, associations of merchants and shopkeepers, companies of all sorts, private firms and even individuals not engaged in trade, put out paper or metallic token-money of the most varied shapes, sizes and materials. The most characteristic pieces of the time were the carton (cardboard) sou and two-sou tokens. They were simply pieces of thick cardboard printed on both sides, generally with the name of the issuing town, firm or person on one side, and the value in large fizures on the other. They were of all sizes and shapes and all decrees of thickness. Some, on very thin cardboard, were provided with a metal rim, to prevent them from creasing or breaking. Others were made inordinately thick for the same purpose. A very few municipalities, particularly in the south of France, tried countermarking old or foreign copper coins with a superimposed stamp, the name of the town and the value, 5 or ro centimes, obliterating the original type. From r915 onward local metallic currency began to appear, superseding in most places the fragile and rubbishy cardboard. These sou, two-sou and 25-centime pieces were generally of aluminium or zinc, occasionally of iron or copper. They were in many cases very neatly struck, with simple heraldic types. Metallic tokens were issued not only by chambers of commerce and large industrial firms, but by tramway companies, electricity

supply companies, military and civil clubs, the Union des cafétiers of Toulouse, the bakers of Nantes in syndicate and thousands of private shopkeepers. Late in the War this maddening situation led to the creation of both paper money and aluminium small change for federated towns or districts of the same region. For example, the chambers of commerce of Marseilles, Nice, Avignon, Arles and Toulon, issued zinc sous and 1o-centime pieces which passed current in all five places. In northern France and Belgium the invader, after seizing all the legitimate currency on which he could lay hands, organised a new circulating medium. The Belgian fractional currency, all nickel, was requisitioned for military purposes. To replace it the intrusive administration at Brussels coined zinc 5-, 10- and 20centime pieces in great profusion. They imitated in general appearance the old national small change, having the lion and the large figure of value, but the inscription Royaume de Belgique and the king’s monogram were suppressed, and the bilingual inscription was only BELGIQUE-BELGIE. In northern France there was no such metallic substitute for the small change, and the result was the issue of very small-denomination paper money, either in cardboard or in note form on ordinary paper. The round or polygonal cardboard sou, so common all over uninvaded France, was rare in the region of German occupation, though it existed in the cities of Lille and Ghent. The town of Ghent seems to have been unique in issuing a metallic currency of coins of considerable denomination. It put out a handsome gilt-bronze 5-franc piece, with subsidiary 2-franc, 1-franc and so-centime pieces, in the same metal but of a square form. Other Countries. —On the other side of Europe, in the enormous belt of Polish and Lithuanian territory which the Germans overran in rgrs-6, a zinc fractional currency in kopeks was Issued for small transactions. The Austrian War currency was in most respects a mere reflection of the German. There was a com-

COKITi—COLLINS paratively small amount of metallic (zinc or iron) fractional currency, and one or two examples of strikings in a sort of amalgam or earthenware material. Issues by private firms or individuals also existed, but not in such profusion as in France. Czechoslovakia issued a handsome nickel crown in 1922. In Italy gold had been almost unknown before the War, though silver was circulating: the bulk of the fractional currency was in bronze, which did not disappear so quickly as the nickel pieces of Germany, Belgium or Austria. But the venfine or 20 centesimi piece of nickel, vanished for military reasons. Des-

73

Columbian University, Washington, and Columbia University, N.Y. (receiving a degree of A.B. in 1888 and of A.M. in 18§9). He was acting professor of history at Amherst College (18c¢o),

instructor in history and cconomics

at Columbia

University

ported Theodore Roosevelt for the Republican presidential nomination in 1912. Following the split in the Republican party he became one of the founders of the National Progressive party. He was a member of the American Mission to the Inter-Allied

(1891), and professor of economics at New York University (1895-1900). In 1893 he joined the editorial staf of Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia. In 1895 he became ccitor of The International Cyclopaedia and The International Year Biok, and from toco he was editor of The New International Fneyclopaedia. Te was also editor of The Bookman, 1904-8. He died in New York City March 3 1925. He wrote, among other works, Imaginary Obligations (1904); Constrained sl ttitudes (1910); and The Margin of Hesitation (1922). COLD STORAGE: see REFRIGERATION. COLLINGS, JESSE (:831-1920), British politician, was born at Littleham, Exmouth, Devon, Jan. 9 1831. Ile was educated at home and at Church Ilouse School, Stoke, near Plymouth. In 1866 he settled in Birmingham, where he founded the mercantile firm of Collings and Wallis, and had a highly successful business career. Entering municipal hfe, he was intimately associated with Joseph Chamberlain, and in 1878 was elected mayor of Birmingham but retired from business in 1879. In 1880 he entered Parliament as Liberal member for Ipswich, and became prominent as an advocate of the Radical land policy, associated with the phrase, ‘“ three acres and a cow.” In 1886 he became Parliamentary Secretary to the Local Govt. Board, but resigned with Chamberlain over Gladstone’s Home Rule policy. In 18q5 Collings became under-secretary to the Ilome Office, retaining the post till r902. He resigned his seat in Parliament in r918. He was the founder (1872) of the Rural Labourers’ League, and also of the Exminster Industrial school. In 1906 he published Land Reform; in 1914, The Colonisation of Rural Britain (2 vol.); and his Autobiography, written in conjunction with Sir J. L. Green, appeared in 1920. He died at Edgbaston, Birmingham, Nov. 20 1920. COLLINS, MICHAEL (1890-1922), Irish politician, was born near Clonakilty in County Cork, the eighth child of John Collins, a prosperous farmer who, as an old bachelor of 62, married Kate O’Brien, his junior by 4o years. Michael Collins entered the second division of the British Civil Service and went to London asa junior postal clerk in 1907. After two years he left the Civil Service to be clerk in an accountant’s office. His life in London was spent mostly among Irish people interested in the Gaelic League and in distinctively Irish sports—such as hurling. During this period he Joined the Irish Republican Brotherhood, or Fenian Society. At the beginning of 1916 Collins and several other young Irishmen of similar views, being opposed to conscription, returned to Ireland and took a hand in the rising which by that time was expected in extremist circles. He joined the Irish Volunteers in Dublin and was one of those who fought under Pearse in the General J’ost Office during Easter week. He escaped being taken under arms, but later was arrested and sent with the great body of suspects to the detention camp at Frongoch. Released with the rest in July 1917, he became conspicuous in the movement by his energy, and at the general election in Dec. 1918 he was returned as Sinn Fein member for County Cork. Out of 73 elected only 29 were present when they met in the Mansion House and declared for the Irish Republic. Mr. de Valera, thcir elected president, was in gaol, so was the vicepresident, Arthur Griffith. All effective decisions were taken by the men who were clever enough to avoid arrest. These were Collins, Cathal Brugha and the headquarter staff of the Irish Volunteers. In actual practice Collins was dictator. Brugha (Charles Burgess), as Minister of Defence in Mr. de

Conference at Paris in 1917, a commissioner of the United States Shipping Board, and a member of the United States Shipping Board Emergency Flect Corp., t917-9. He was Secretary of State in President Wilson’s Cabinet March 22 1t920-March 4 1921. On leaving office he resumed private practice. COLBY, FRANK MOORE (18635-1925), American editor, was born at Washington, D.C., Feb. 10 1865. He was educated at

Valera’s Republican Ministry, was head of the Irish Volunteers, known later as the I.R.A. (Irish Republican Army). In this military organisation Collins was head of the Intelligence Department. But, in the administration as a whole, he was Minister of Finance. In this dual capacity Collins controlled the entire correspondence of the movement. All enterprises were considered, financed and many were carried out by him. In March

pite the continued existence of the bronze soldo, there was an acute lack of small change, for which experto crede such odd sub-

stitutes as postage stamps, cigarettes and tramway tickets were substituted. Even government packets of matches were sometimes given as change to the spender of a lira note. In Russia, a country already using paper for all purposes during the first year of the War, the only currency problem which seems to have caused some trouble was the deficiency of small fractional change, which was in some degree met by issuing cardboard money, composed of the dies of postage stamps struck off on very thick paper. The stamps of 1, 2 and 3 kopeks replaced copper coins; those of ro, 15 and 20 kopeks hac printed on their backs a notice that they were equivalent to, and were to be taken for, government fractional silver coins. In 1925 the victorious Soviet, throwing over the problem of how to deal with incalculable masses of worthless paper, started striking silver coins equivalent to a rouble, and even gold money, of the socalled chervonetz type. European neutrals were somewhat affected in their currency by the nickel-famine, caused by military demands, which prevailed among all combatant powers. Finding their own small change surreptitiously departing to the scat of war, Denmark, Norway and Sweden all issued iron pieces of 1, 2 and § Gre, ard Switzerland brass 5- and ro-centtme pieces. These Jast had all disappeared by the end of 1925, and the familiar and handsome Swiss nickel currency was once more employed. COKE: see FUEL PROBLEMS.

COLAJANNI,

NAPOLEONE

(C. W. C. O.)

(1847-1921), Italian author and

politician, was born at Castrogiovanni (Sicily) April 28 1847. In his youth he followed Garibaldi, and was once deported and once imprisoned for his republican activities. After graduating in medicine, he studied social science, and in 1892 was appointed professor of statistics first at the University of Palermo, and subsequently at Naples. He published many books and essays on social and political problems. For many years he edited Rivista popolare, by means of which he strove to improve the moral and intellectual standard of the masses and combat all forms of intolerance and hypocrisy. He began his public career as a municipal councillor in his native town in 1872, andin 1890 was elected deputy for the same place. In Parliament he sat as a Republican with Socialist tendencies. He was a strong opponent of Crispi’s somewhat autocratic policy (see 15.79). Though he had always opposed militarism, on the outbreak of the World War he became a warm supporter of Italian intervention. After the Armistice he coiducted a campaign against the bolshevism of the Socialist party. He died at Castrogiovannt Sept. 2 1921.

COLBY, BAINBRIDGE

(1860-—

), Amcrican politician, was

born at St. Louis Dec. 22 1869. After graduating from Williams College in 1890, he studied at the Columbia Law School and the New York Law School and began to practice in 1892 in New York. He was a member of the New York Assembly, rgo01—2. Ile sup-

COLLOIDS

674

torg he and Harry Boland arranged the escape of Mr. de Valera from Lincoln gaol; and it is claimed that he directed the campaign waged at this time against the more active members of the Dublin secret service police. How far he was responsible for the spread of the guerilla war cannot now be ascertained. Dan Breen in My Fight for Irish Freedom traces its beginning to the spontaneous action of a small group of volunteers in Tipperary, which was disapproved of at first by the Dublin headquarters. Breen says, however, that Collins was the man from whom they received most encouragement; and that in one of the projected attacks on Lord French, Collins was among the men in ambush. By 1920 his name, first gradually, and then universally, had become known as that of the man most wanted by the British authorities. A reward of {10,000 was offered for his arrest, and pictures of him were published. Yet letters addressed to him through Sinn Fein channels were promptly delivered and immediately answered. He used no disguise, went about Dublin alone

on a bicycle and frequently made appointments for an interview in the public streets. He succeeded in completely demoralising and dislocating the British secret service and in creating a most effective spy system of his own which ran through the whole British administration. At the close of 1920 important secret negotiations, conducted through the Australian Archbishop Clune, were held with Collins, who afterwards maintained that all the concessions obtained six months later could have been secured then but for the action of a county council which called for cessation of hostilities. This, he held, encouraged the British to insist on a surrender of arms, upon which demand the negotiations broke down. In July 1921 when the truce with Britain was proclaimed, Collins for the first time became directly known to the Irish public. No other figure was so popular. When the negotiations between Mr. de Valera and Mr. Lloyd George failed to reach any conclusion, Griffith, Collins and three others were appointed to renew the attempt. Collins, by his genial personality, undoubtedly smoothed over many of the difficulties and though in principle a republican, he had the instinctive sense to know when the utmost possible had been gained. Griffith alone could not have forced the Dail to accept the treaty against Mr. de Valera’s opposition; this achievement was mainly due to the magnetic personality of the younger man. When the result of the voting showed the narrow margin of seven for acceptance, Collins instantly rose and gravely warned the assembly of the anarchy that might follow dissension. He proposed a joint committee of public order, but the proposal was

rejected.

In the debate he had declared that he accepted the

treaty as a stepping stone to a republic but he was careful both in his speech and his published volume, Zhe Path to Freedom, to disavow any desire to force a separation which would injure

Britain or leave her exposed. In his opinion, the Dominions were destined to detach themselves naturally and without a wrench, like ripened fruit.

The first result of the Dail’s decision was confusion. Griffith was elected president, not of the Free State but of the Irish Republic. He met the situation by appointing a provisional government to carry on the administration till the Free State was legally created; and Collins was appointed chairman of this body. But administration in the ordinary sense was impossible. Civil life had been destroyed in the guerilla war; the police were now necessarily disbanded since the struggle had left a blood feud between them and the people; the British garrison was evacuating the country, and the Irish Army, still considered the Army of the Republic, was deeply disaffected.

Collins had two main objects. The first was to reach a settlement with Ulster, where a state bordering on a war of religion existed. To succeed in this would have helped him with his main

purpose, the peaceful establishment of the Free State. He therefore entered into personal negotiations with Sir James Craig, Prime Minister of Northern Ireland. But no settlement was reached, largely because of the evident imminence of civil war in the South. Mutiny broke out in the army and Collins, hoping against hope to avoid civil strife, refrained from drastic action.

Tle was instrumental in postponing the general election (stipulated for under the treaty) and when at last a date for it was fixed in June, he entered at the eleventh hour into a compact with Mr. de Valera by which he and the Republican leader agreed to appeal for the unopposed return of candidates jointly nominated by them. This would have given a very large representation to opponents of the treaty. But when independent candidates were put forward, Collins at the last moment advised his countrymen to vote as they wished. This he knew would mean the acceptance of the treaty. At the elections the republicans were heavily beaten and the Irish Govt., challenged by force even in the capital, decided to use force in return. Civil war began; and Collins, assuming chief command, flung himself into the struggle with all his energy. Opposition -was crushed in Dublin and all the large towns. Suddenly, on Aug. 12, Griffith fell dead and Collins became at once head of the state and of the army. The newly enrolled forces needed impetus and he went down to give it to them by his presence in Munster where the chief resistance lay. On Aug. 22 1922, motoring with a strong escort from Skibbereen to Cork, his party was ambushed, and in the skirmish he was shot through the head. No man since Parnell had so caught the imagination of Ireland. Perhaps the moment of his death was fortunate, for he died when victory was more apparent than real, and he was spared the task of executing those who had been his comrades. But his work stands, and he emerges from the struggle with a reputation less

tarnished than some of his contemporaries.

(S. G.)

COLLOIDS (see Diartysis 8.157).—In the course of investigations (1861-4) on the diffusion of substances in solution, T. Graham, professor of chemistry in University College, London, and Master of the Mint, found that certain substances, e.g., sugar and common salt when in solution, can pass through or diffuse through a membrane of parchment paper, whereas other substances, e.g., starch and gelatin, cannot do so. Since the substances which could pass through the membrane were such as generally crystallise well, whereas those which did not pass through were, as it was thought, non-crystallisable and of a gelatinous nature, Graham divided substances into crystalloids and colloids (from the Greek xéAdAa, glue). Although this distinction was for long maintained, more recent investigation has shown that Graham’s classification is unsuitable; and the terms crystalloid and colloid are now no longer employed to connote different kinds of substances but only different states or degrees of sub-division of matter. Ina solution of cane sugar, for example, molecules of sugar are distributed homogeneously throughout the solution, or, as it is said, the sugar is molecularly dispersed. In the case of gelatin and other so-called colloids, the substance does not exist in the molecular but in a coarser state of aggregation. The particles, however, are too small to be seen by the ordinary methods of microscopic examination. In short, the term “ colloid ” or ‘‘ colloidal state ” is now used to connote a state or range of sub-division of matter lying between the limits of the microscopically visible and the molecular states. These limits may be taken as, approximately, one ten-thousandth of a millimetre (0-1 y) and one-millionth of a millimetre (1 py). Although Graham’s classification of substances into crystal-

loids and colloids was imperfect, the process of dialysis which he introduced gave a means, still universally employed, of distinguishing between molecularly dispersed matter and matter in the colloidal state. By a refinement of the process, it is possible, using collodion membranes of varying permeability, to separate colloids of different degrees of dispersity. General Properties.—Since the peculiar and characteristic properties of the colloidal state do not depend on the physical state of the finely sub-divided matter or of the medium in which the matter is dispersed, colloidal properties are exhibited both by colloidal suspensions and emulsions (solid particles and liquid droplets dispersed in a liquid medium), and by smokes and mists (solid particles and liquid droplets in a gaseous medium), foams (gas bubbles in a liquid dispersion medium), and so on. Whilst it could be inferred from the experiments of Graham

COLLOIDS

675

that the colloidal systems, although apparently homogeneous

The electrical charge on a colloid particle may also be neutral-

like a solution of sugar, are nevertheless heterogeneous or contain

ised bv another colloid carrying an electric charge of opposite sign. Colloids of opposite sign may mutually precipitate each other and give rise to “‘ adsorption complexes ”’ which simulate chemical compounds. Purple of Cassius, for example, is an

particles which have a magnitude greater than molecular, the actual existence of such particles is rendered evident by the scattering of light which they bring about (the so-called Tyndall effect). The introduction of the ultramicroscope by Siedentopff and Zsigmondy enables the eye to detect the presence of particles of a magnitude of about six millionths of a millimetre, about sixty times the dimensions of a hydrogen molecule. Dispersion of Light.—In the scattering of light by finely divided particles, the light of shorter wave length is scattered most, and the light which reaches the eye is therefore blue or bluish in colour. Consequently, a svstem containing colloidally dispersed particles, when illuminated from the side and viewed against a dark background, will appear blue. As Leonardo da Vinci suggested long ago, we can, in this way, explain the blueness of the sky as due to the scattering of the sunlight by finely dispersed particles in the atmosphere; or, as is now thought, by the molecules of the atmospheric gases themselves, the background being the blackness of infinite space. The blue colour of the eye and the colour of many feathers also find their explanation in the scattering of light by finely dispersed matter. Surface Changes and Adsorption.—Since the colloidal state is a state of very fine sub-division, the extent of surface exposed is very large relatively to the total volume of the matter. Surface forces, consequently, play a predominant part and bring about changes in the distribution or concentration of matter at the surface of the particles. This change of concentration at a surface, brought about by surface forces, is spoken of as adsorption, a phenomenon readily observed in the decolourisation of liquids and the removal of noxious or obnoxious gases by the very porous, and therefore surface-active, material, charcoal. In the production and characterisation of colloidal systems, adsorption plays a part of the highest importance. By the adsorption of ions from the dispersion medium or from electrolytes present in solution, the colloid particles acquire an electric charge. Adsorption of the dispersion medium as a whole may also take place to a greater or less extent, whereby variation in the general behaviour of colloids may be brought about. In the case of the so-called suspensoid or hydrophobe (or, generally, lyophobe) colloids, the dispersed particles may adsorb none or practically none of the dispersion medium; and they exist, therefore, in suspension as non-hydrated or non-solvated particles, the stability of which is due mainly to their electric charge and to their Brownian movement. In the case of the so-called emulsoid or hydrophile (lyophile) colloids, such as solutions of gelatin or of starch, adsorption of the dispersion medium itself takes place, and the stability and properties of such a colloidal solution (colloidal sol), are due to the adsorbed dispersion medium as well as to electric charge on the particles. The greater the extent to which the adsorption of the dispersion medium takes place, the more will the stability and properties of the colloid be dependent on the adsorbed medium and the less will they depend on the electric charge. | Electrolyies.—Ilf the electric charge on a suspensoid colloid be neutralised, agglomeration of the particles followed by precipitation takes place, and this neutralisation of the electric charge can readily be effected by the addition of electrolytes. Negatively charged colloid particles will preferentially adsorb the positive ions of the added electrolyte, and positively charged colloids will preferentially adsorb the negative ions, the charge on the colloid being thereby neutralised. Although multivalent ions are, in general, more effective in producing precipitation than are univalent ions, recent investigation shows that there is no exact relationship between the valency of an ion and its precipitating power, and that the adsorbability of the ion may exercise an important influence.

Natural Electrolytes—The precipitation of fine particles by electrolytes is well illustrated on a large scale in nature, the finely divided clay carried by many rivers being caused to deposit when the river water mingles with the sea. In this way the silting up of river mouths and the formation of deltas, as in the case of

the Nile and of the Mississippi, are brought about.

adsorption complex of stannic oxide and colloidal gold. Action on Solutions—In the case of solutions (or sols) of hydrophile (lyophile) colloids (e.g., gelatin), the stability of the colloid is due mainly to adsorbed water or other dispersion medium, and consequently such solutions are not so sensitive to added electrolytes. Even though the addition of small amounts of an electrolyte may produce changes in the amount of water adsorbed by the colloid, actual precipitation does not take place until the concentration of added electrolyte is relatively large. The relatively great insensitiveness to electrolytes which 1s shown by hydrophile colloids may be transferred to hydrophobe colloids or suspensoid colloids. When gelatin, for example, is added to a colloidal gold sol, the gold is adsorbed by the gelatin and a much greater concentration of electrolyte is required in order to precipitate the gold than is necessary in the absence of the gelatin. The gelatin is said to protect the gold, and this socalled protective action, which varies greatly in the case of different hydrophile colloids, is of much importance in many directions (see ELECTRO-METALLURGY). Gelatin Types.—Many colloids of the hydrophile type exhibit, when cooled, the property of passing into a jelly by a coalescence of the hydrated colloid particles. The jelly so formed may be dried to a more or Jess hornlike material, such as ordinary dry gelatin. These jellies have the important property of taking up

or imbibing water, even against very great pressures. The amount of water imbibed ts greatly affected by the presence of electrolytes, being increased by acids and alkalies, up to a certain concentration; but the increased swelling produced by dilute acids is diminished by the addition of salts. The properties of colloid matter play a part of the greatest importance not only in physical but also in biological sctence. In agriculture, the presence of colloids in the soil is of importance by their water-retaining power and by their power of adsorbing salts and plant foodstuffs and of retarding the washing away of these materials by rain. Colloids in Industry —Adsorption, also, plays an important part in the dyeing of textiles and the staining of animal tissues. The negatively charged colour ion of the acid dyes will be predominantly adsorbed by a positively charged fibre, and a positively charged dye (basic dye) will be predominantly adsorbed by a negatively charged fibre. After the dye has been adsorbed, secondary changes may take place, leading to the formation of a more stable adsorption complex (see DYEING). By the use of “‘ protective” colloids, sparingly soluble substances produced in chemical reactions can be kept in a colloidal state and so prevented from undergoing flocculation and sedimentation. In the production of the photographic plate, the silver bromide, formed by mixing silver nitrate with potassium bromide, is prevented by the gelatin from forming a precipitate of coarse particles unsuitable for photographic purposes, and is kept in a finely divided form. In normal bile, the bile salts, albuminoids, etc., act as protective colloids which keep the sparingly soluble substances, such as cholesterin and the calcium salt of bilirubin, in the colloidal state and so prevent their deposition; but when a reduction of the amount of protective colloids is brought about by pathological conditions, deposition of the sparingly soluble substances takes place in the form of gallstones (see BI10-CHEMISTRY). Colloids in Afiik.—The nature of the curd which separates from milk and the readiness with which it is formed are greatly affected by the presence of protective colloids. In cow’s milk there is a relatively large amount of casein and a relatively small amount of the protective colloid, lactalbumin. Cow’s milk, therefore, readily curdles. In human milk there is a smaller proportion of casein and a larger proportion of lactalbumin; the casein is therefore more effectively protected and curdling takes

COLLYER—COLOMBIA

676

place less readily. In asses’ milk, the relative proportion of protective colloid is highest of all and curdling takes place with ereatest difficulty. The digestibility of asses’ milk is consequently greatest. By increasing the amount of protective colloid in cow’s milk through the addition of gelatin or white of egg or of barley water (starch), curdling is caused to take place less readily and the digestibility of the milk is increased. The living protoplasm (see CyroLocy) of the animal or vegetable cell, finally, is a complex system of colloids in which there occur processes of adsorption, changes of dispersity, alterations in the distribution of water between the colloidal particles and the dispersion medium, a system in which the mutual relations between the colloids are in a constant state of flux. Only in such a colloid system ts it possible ta have the flexibility and adaptability to the varying requirements of what we call life and growth. Moreover, the many diverse chemical reactions

involved in breaking down complex foodstuffs into simpler substances and building up again these simpler compounds into the complex proteins of the protoplasm are accomplished in the living body under the catalytic activity of the enzymes, and these are themselves colloidal. The living organism, therefore, is a vast colloidal community, the diverse members of which are held together in common service by surface forces and by mutual actions and reactions of electrical charges. In this community the colloidal workers are engaged in carrying out the multifarious and complex chemical operations on which the life and the health of the community depend. (A. Fy.) COLLY ER, ROBERT (1823-1912), American divine (see 6.694), died in New York City Nov. 30 1912. COLMAN, SAMUEL (1832-1920), American landscape painter

(see 6.695), dicd in New York City March 27 1920. COLOGNE (Ger. KGLN sce 6.697), the third city of Germany, had a population in 1925 of 693,266, including Mülheim, Meiheim and Worringen (with a population of 84,000) incorporated in the city in 1914. Cologne is an important commercial centre and is the retail town for the industrial cities of the Rhineland and Westphalia. The first international Cologne fair was held in 1924. The city is now visited again by numbers of tourists. Cologne was one of the chief military centres of Germany during the World War, and was bombed in 1917 and 1918. The Allies occupied the city and a bridgehead of 18 sq. m. on the other bank of the Rhine under the terms of the Armistice. The Cologne zone was to be evacuated after five years 1f Germany fulfilled her obligations under the treaty. It was formally entered, in Dec. 1918, by Sir. H. Plumer’s army, and formed the headquarters of the British army of occupation. The evacuation was postponed owing to the report of the Inter-Allied Commission of Control that Germany had not fulfilled her obligations with respect to disarmament, but it was finally evacuated on Jan. 30 1926. The great bell of the cathedral, weighing 27 tons, was melted down during the War, and a new one was dedicated in 1924 (see also RHINELAND). COLOMBIA (see 6.700), a republic in South America and a member of the League of Nations. Its area is 462,024 sq. miles. At the census of 1918 the population was 5,855,490. In 1925 it was estimated to be 6,617,833, about half being whites or of mixed blood.

I. POLITICAL On Aug. 3 1909, Gen Ramón

HISTORY González Valencia was elected

by Congress to serve as President for one year in place of Gen. Rafael Reyes. The latter’s dictatorial rule had aroused popular indignation, and after two terms as President he left the country. Gonzalez-Valencia found the country suffering from bad administration, and still feeling the disturbing effects of the civil war of 1899-1902, and the secession of Panama. On July 15 roro, Dr. Carlos E. Restrepo was inaugurated as President, after a formal election, and more stable conditions prevailed. The law of 1906 for the representation of minorities in Congress and

other public bodies came into effect, and its application, even to the appointment of judges and o'her office-holders, led to the co-operation of all parties in the pacification and good government of the republic. The law of 1898, guaranteeing the liberty

of the press, had been disregarded under the rézime of Gen. Reyes, but after 1910 it was rigorously observed. The movement toward currency reform and financial stability was also begun, and further efforts were made toward a settlement of differences

with Panama and the United States arising out of the secession of the former from Colombia and its constitution as an independent republic. Relations between the three countries had long been delicate. The visit of Gen. Reyes to Washington had proved futile, and the treaty negotiated in rt909 between Colombia’s envoy, enrique Cortés, and the U.S. Secretary of State, Elihu Root, dul not: prove acceptable to Colombia. At the regular presidential election in Feb. 1914, Dr. José Vicente Concha, the Conservative candidate, was returned. He had the support of the Liberal party, and in the formation of his Cabinet he filled some of the offices with Liberals, thus inaugurating a coalition form of government and fulfilling the spirit of the minority representation law. During ror4 renewed efforts were made to adjust Colombia’s differences with Panama and the United States, and on April 6 a treaty was signed by Thaddeus A. Thompson, U.S. Minister at Bogotá, and Francisco J. Urrutia, Colombian Minister of Foreign Relations. This treaty was ratified by Congress on June 9 1914, but did not obtain approval by the U.S. Senate till seven years later, nor come into final effect without prolonged negotiations. President Concha was installed tn office on Aug. 7 r914. Apart from fiscal and diplomatic problems inherited from his predecessors, he had to face new difculties created by the outbreak of the World War. The neutrality of the republic was proclaimed, and to ensure its observance Suarez, the Foreign Minister, addressed a circular letter to the newspaper editors throughout the country on Nov. 27, exhorting them to be strictly neutral in their comments on events. Colombia passed through the War period without any diplomatic difficulties arising. The Panama Settlement.—In Feb. 1918 Marco Fidel Suarez was elected President, and took office on Aug. 7. On Nov. 3 1919 Congress authorised Colombia’s adhesion to the League of Nations, but served notice that her acceptance of Article 10 of the Covenant did not imply her acknowledgment of Panama as an independent nation. ‘Two delegates attended the Assembly of the League at Geneva in 1920. The old trouble arising from the secession of Panama again absorbed attention, and the terms ot its settlement excited political feeling. The Thompson-Urrutia ‘Treaty, as originally drafted, had been ratified by the Colombian Congress, but the U.S. Senate proposed several drastic modifications. One of these involved a pledge on the part of Colombia of her recognition of the independence of Panama. The privileges allowed to Colombia in the use of the Panama Canal were also somewhat reduced. The treaty stipulated that Panama should accept as her southern boundary the line sketched in a Colombian law of 1855. Of the indemnity of $25,000,000 for the loss of Panama it was further provided that $5,000,000 should be paid within six months of the treaty coming into force, and the balance in four annual instalments. Because of the factious opposition in the Colombian Congress to these modifications, President Suárez resigned his position on Nov. 11 1921 and was succeeded by Gen. Jorge Holguin. On Dec. 22 1921 the Colombian Congress ratified the modified Thompson- Urrutia Treaty, which had been adopted by the U.S. Senate in April, and two days later it was approved by President Holguin. On Feb. 12 1922 Gen. Pedro Nel Ospina, candidate of the Conservative party, was elected President, and was installed on Aug. 7 1922. Questions of financial reform came under review early in the régime of Gen. Ospina, and at the invitation of the Government a commission, headed by Prof. Kemmerer of Princeton University, arrived in Colombia in March 1923, to undertake the task of introducing greater financial efficiency and establishing an effective gold standard. In May r924, at the instance of the United States Govt., the envoys of Colombia and Panama in Washington signed an agreement which provided that each government should designate a Minister to the other contracting party and thus formally establish normal diplomatic relations

i

COLOMBIA

between the two states. On Aug. 1 1924 Nicolás Victoria, the Minister of Panama, was received at Bogotá, and Colombia’s representative to Panama was duly accredited. A mixed commission was appointed to survey the boundary between the two countries. In Feb. 1926 Dr. Miguel Abadia Mendez, Chancellor in the Cabinet of Gen. Ospina, was elected President for the term 1926-30.

:

Constitutional Changes—In the period 1910-25 important modifications of the constitution of 1886 were made. A law of June 6 1910, provided that in case of vacancy in the presidency, two persons sclected by Congress were temporarily to exercise the powers of the president in a designated order. It was also provided that no person could be re-clected for a second term as president. On Oct. 31 1910 another law made important constitutional amendments, among which was a provision that only male citizens who were able to read and write and either owned real estate or had an income, should be allowed to vote in congressional and presidental elections. The method of constituting the Senate was also altered by providing that its members should be chosen by the assemblies in the different departments into which the country is divided. The Supreme Court was empowered to determine whether or not a law should be enforced if the national Government, or a citizen, denounced it as unconstitutional: in the exercise of this power certain concessions, originally granted to Colombians and then transferred to foreign corporations, were held to have been unconstitutionally granted, and as the terms had not been fulfilled, were cancelled. During the administration of President Concha, Congress enacted a law

providing for the re-establishment of the council of state, which was to act as an advisory body to the president. Defence.—In 1925 Colombia had a defence force with a peace establishment of about 5,coo. The system of compulsory military training was nominally in force, the conscripts undergoing six months training. Actually exemption from service is freely granted. In to24 arrangements were made with the Swiss Govt. to send out a military mission of five officers, besides aviators, to introduce the Swiss system of training and organisation. The infantry is armed with the Mauser rifle and the artillery has Schneider-Creuzot guys. Expenditure on defence amounted in 1924 to $2,648,300. | Education.—There are primary, secondary, professional, in-

dustrial and art schools in Colombia, as well as the University of Bogota (founded in 1572) and the four provincial universities of Cartagena, Pop$yan, Medellin and Pasto. Education is under the control of the Ministry of Public Instruction, but the Church has wide powers, and so far as direction and supervision go, dominates the entire scholastic system. The industrial and art schools are mostly directed by the religious orders. Primary education is free. In 1924 a German commission of three members began to advise the Colombian Govt. on educational matters, and aided by a council of three Colombians, headed by

Dr. Tomas Vargas, took in hand the modernisation of the system. In 1924 there were in Colombia 6,674 primary schools having on the average only one teacher each. The attendance at these schools was 417,054. The vote for public instruction in 1923 was $1,108,190, and in 1924 the actual expenditure under the heading of ‘‘ Instruction and Public Health ” was $2,234,672. In addition departments and municipalities spend money on education.

Il. ECONOMIC

HISTORY

Staple Products —The principal industry of Colombia is the production of mild coffee, in which the expansion has been remarkable, the value of exports rising from $18,369,768 in 1913 to $53,630,661 in 1924, dropping through crop shortages to $42,968,544 in 1925. The country is the second largest world producer of bananas. Cattle breeding has also been developed as the result of the clearing of forests and the sowing of imported grasses. In rg2r there were estimated to be 8,000,000 head of cattle, a figure which increased to 9,000,000 In 1925. The carrying capacity of the cattle lands is estimated to be 50,000,000 head. Cocoa, sugar, tobacco, balata, pita fibre, ivory nuts, sisal-hemp, silk, tropical fruits, wheat and maize and cotton are the staples

i1

bry

of agricultural produce. In 1925 arrangements were made for a British expert commission to visit the country and report on the development of the cotton industry, which is increasing in importance. The mission arrived in Colombia on Feb. 27 1926. Medicinal plants such as cinchona, ipecacuanha, sarsaparilla, etc., are also grown. The forests are valuable chiefly for the production of cedar and dyewoods. Rubber grows in most of the departments. On the coasts there are valuable pearl fisheries. The republic is famous for emeralds and platinum. Other mineral products of importance are gold, silver, copper and iron, while a small amount of coal is produced. Asphalt is also being worked and there are large salt deposits under state control. Of recent years the country has been vigorously prospected for oil, and rich fields have been tapped by British and American companies. Colombia has been classified by the U. S. Geological Survey as the largest potential oilfield in the world. The Tropical Oil Company has a big concession in the Department of Santander, and at the end of 1925 was producing 20,c00 bbl. a day. To convey the oil from the Santander fields to the point of shipment the Andean National Corporation, under a contract with the Government, laid down a national pipe-line, the first section of which (240 m.) was under construction at the end of 1925. Encouraged by high protective tariffs, manufacturing industries progressed considerably after the War. The development of cotton growing, sheep raising and silk production assisted the growth of the textile industry, and factories were erected at Barranquilla, Medellín, Bogotá and Cartagena. The manufacture of Panama hats, and the export of the finished product, greatly increased in the post-War period. The country’s industrial development, however, is still greatly retarded by inadequate means of transport.

Foreign Trade —Colombia’s foreign trade, which had previously shown only a slight annual increase in volume, was seriously checked during the World War. Since then, however, it has greatly increased. Imports

Exports

Imports

Exports

$

$

$

s

1913 | 28,535,779 | 34,315,251 | 1921 | 33,078,317 | 63,042,132 IQI5 | 17,840,619|

31,579,131 | 1922 | 44,145,024 | 53,816,331

1919 | 47,451,724]

79,010,983 | 1924 | 52,347,914 | 70,615,819

IQIS | 21,753,002 | 37,443,991 | 1923 | 57,783,798 | 60,257,172

1920 | 101,397,906 | 71,017,729 | 1925 | 57,783,796 | 60,115,435

With the exception of 1920, when there was a “ boom + ” in imports to replenish stocks depleted during the War, a favourable balance of trade was maintained. ‘The main item of exports was coffee, the volume and value of which rose from approximately 450,000 bags, worth $18,369,768 in 1910, to 2,500,000 bags, worth $42,968,544 in 1925. Other important exports were bananas, platinum, hides, tobacco, cattle and Panama hats. The export trade was largely to the United States, Great Britain, Ifolland, Mexico, Germany and Belgium. Imports mainly comprise railway material, locomotives and rolling stock; engineering, road-building and general construction materials; agricultural and other machinery; commercial vehicles, hardware, jute bags, cutlery, crockery, wines and spirits, drugs and chemicals and provisions. In 1925 the chief countries from which imports were reccived were the United States, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, France, Spain and Holland. National Finances —There was a great improvement in the national finances in the period tg91ro-25, and particularly in the two years immediately following the adoption of fiscal and other reforms recommended by the Kemmerer Financial Mission. This body spent six months in 1923 in investigating the entire system of national accountancy, revenue and expenditure, banking and the monetary system. Drastic reforms followed, the results of which are admitted to have placed Colombia among the most healthy and stable of Latin American countries so far as public finance is concerned. A proper valuation of the national assets was made and a system of independent audit of accounts introduced. In the same period the payment of the instalments of the indemnity for the loss of Panama helped to strengthen the

678

COLOMBO— COLORADO

financial position of the republic. The first instalment of $5,000,ooo was paid on Dec. 7 1922 and was used the following year to establish the central bank as recommended by the Kemmerer Mission. Three subsequent payments were made before the end of 1925, and there was a gain to the republic on exchange. In 1910 the revenue of Colombia totalled $10,827,560, and the expenditure was $11,501,442. In 1924 the ordinary revenue amounted to $33,458,053, to which was added extraordinary revenue (mainly the instalment of the American indemnity) of $6,391,982. Ordinary expenditure (national services) amounted to $32,024,244, while that on extraordinary account was a further $6,899,693. On both accounts the year closed with a surplus of $926,097. The year 1925 closed with total receipts of over $40,000,000, not including the quota of the indemnity, and the biggest surplus that had been known in the history of the country was realised. On Dec. 31 roro the public debt was $17,495,127, consisting of external obligations of $14,839,000, and internal debts of $2,656,127. At the end of 1924 the gross debt was $36,716,827, the external debt being $19,293,862 and the internal $17,422,965. During 1924 the gross indebtedness was reduced by $6,049,984. Colombia’s credit stands very high abroad owing to the regular fulfilment of the debt services and the steady amortisation of the loans. The main operations after 1910 were the loan of £1,500,000 at 6% obtained in London in 1913, and that of $5,000,000 (U.S.) raised in the United States in Oct. 1922, with interest at 64%, these and other loans carrying a sinking fund of 1%. Long credits have been obtained for the purchase of railway and other material. Owing to the reorganisation of the finances and admin-

istration, and also to the influx of money in the form of the Panama indemnity, no further effort was made by the Central Govt. to float foreign loans. Money and Banking —The monetary unit is the gold peso ($) worth $0.975 United States currency, and four shillings English. The five peso gold piece has the same weight and fineness as the English pound, which is also legal tender in Colombia. The peso is divided into 100 cents. The currency consists of nickel coinage of 1,2 and 5 cents;silver for 10, 20 and so cents; notes for 50 cents, I, 2, § and 10 pesos, and gold coins for $2.50 and $s. Before roro the paper peso had dropped to a value of one cent, and all foreign coinage was allowed to circulate. The Government of the day exchanged one gold peso for every 100 paper pesos. From gro the money in circulation was restricted to a total of about $10,000,000. The whole question of the currency system was reviewed by the Kemmerer Mission. Among the proposals adopted in 1923 were those for a new banking system embodying the creation of a central national bank, and the reformation of the currency. While the mission was at work the collapse of one of the biggest of the local banks threatened to precipitate a commercial crisis. The Banco de la Republica was hastily established, with the sole right to issue notes based on a minimum gold reserve of 60%, supplemented by short-dated commercial paper. At the same time arrangements were made to reduce the circulation of old notes issued by other banks. In the first year of its existence the Banco de la Republica stabilised the currency on an effective gold basis, reduced the discount rate, increased the gold reserve against the legal requirement, and generally restored complete confidence. Against the total note issue of $33,555,800 in circulation on June 30 1925, there was a gold reserve of $26,286,703. All local and foreign banks in Colombia are under the control of the law through a state banking superintendent. During 1925 an agricultural mortgage bank was established to afford credits for the agricultural development of the country. Communications —The main approach to Colombia from Europe and the United States is, on the Atlantic side, through the port of Cartagena, and on the Pacific, through Buenaventura. Vessels of the United Fruit Company call at Cartagena, Puerto Colombia and Santa Marta. The Harrison, Leyland and Horn Lines maintain services from Europe, and other companies, using the Panama Canal, serve the Pacific ports. Colombia can also be reached through Venezuela, via Lake Maracaibo. Inland traffic

from the Atlantic to the capital of Bogotá mainly follows the Magdalena river, which is navigable for some hundreds of miles. Short railways exist in various parts of the republic and the policy of the Government is to link them up and form three grand trunk systems, one connecting the capital with the Magdalena, the second from Cartagena through the Cauca valley southward to the frontier of Ecuador, and the third eastward from Buenaventura to Bogota. Colombia’s railway policy is to construct, own and operate her own lines. The director general of railways re-

ported at the end of 1925 that the state operated 517 m. of line and had under construction, or had planned, a further 370 miles. Colombia devoted most of the Panama indemnity to public works, including the construction or purchase of railways. A vigorous programme of road building was also adopted in 1925. The republic possesses the longest aerial ropeway in the world, and in 1925 the construction was begun of a ropeway for passengers and goods from Gamara on the Magdalena to Cúcuta, a distance of 105 miles. Aviation services have proved very successful, especially for shortening the time of travel between Cartagena and other Atlantic ports and Bogota. Aerial services are operated

over a distance of 1,000 miles. Telegraph lines exceed 15,000 m. in length, and there is wireless communication with the United States and Europe. Cable communication is maintained via Colon with the United States, and direct with Europe. BrBLIOGRAPHY.—P. J. Eder, Colombia (1913); V. Levine, Colombia (1914); P. L. Bell, Colombia, a Commercial and Industrial Handbook (1921); W. S. Robertson, History of the Latin-American Nations

(1922); and Hispanic-American Relations with the United States (1923); B. Niles, Colombia, Land of Miracles (1924); A. Martinez, Colombia Year Book 1925-26 (1926) See also Annual Reports of the Corporation of Foreign Bondholders (1910, etc.); Pan-American Union, Colombia, General Descriptive Data (1910, etc.); Informe del Ministro de Relaciones Exteriores al Congreso (1g910- , etc.); Informe del Ministro de Instruccion Publica al Congreso Nacional (1911-, etc.); Republica de Colombia, leyes expedididas por el Congreso Nacional en su Legislature (1911-, etc.); Informe del Ministro de ITacienda al Congreso (1914, etc.); Memoria del Ministro del Tesoro al Congreso de 1923, 2 vol. (1923); U. S. Dept. of Commerce: Trade information Bulletin No, 223. Colombia, Commerce and Industries, 1922 and 1923 (1924); Brit. Dept. of Overseas Trade: Reports on the Commercial and Economic Situation in the Republic of Colombia (1922, 1924, 1925); Colombian Trade Review (monthly).

(W. S. Ro.; L. MA.) COLOMBO, Ceylon (see 6.713), had, in 1921, a population of 244,163, which includes Parsees, Tamils, Malays and a number of people of mixed Portuguese and Dutch descent. In r921 the birth rate, 25-8 per 1,000, was the highest for 14 years. The death-rate was 25:2 per 1,000. An ambitious drainage scheme for an area of 10 sq. m., taken in hand by the municipality, was modified for financial reasons, and the reduced scheme, with main works at Madampitiya, was brought into use in 1921. In that year a university college was founded, and the college building and laboratories were erected in 1922. The harbour, with a water area of about 600 ac., has fine accommodation for large vessels since the extension of the southwest breakwater in 1911. A dredger is regularly at work in the harbour. Communication has been established between Colombo lake and the harbour, and a railway built to connect with the main line. Oil depots have been established at Blomendhal and Kolonnawa. COLORADO (see 6.717).—The estimated population of the state in 1925 was somewhat in excess of 1,000,000. The census of 1920 showed 939,629; in roro, 799,024, an increase of 140,605, or 17:6%, as compared with 48% in the preceding decade. In 1919, 83:8% of the population were native-born, 98% being whites. Negroes and Indians numbered 12,935, and there were 3,736 Chinese and 2,300 Japanese. The density of population increased from 7-7 persons to the sq. m. in toro to g-I in 1920 1920 Denver Pueblo ; Colorado Springs Boulder :

Greeley Trinidad

IQIO

256,491 | 213,381 43,050 | 41,747 30,105 | 29,078 11,006 9,539

10,958 8,179 10,906 | 10,204

Increase

per cent 20-2 3:1 35 15:4

34:0 6-9

COLORADO and to about 9:8 in 1925. The decay of mining towns altered the balance between urban and rural population. In 1920 the urban population was 48:2% of the whole, the rural 51-8%. The table on the preceding page shows the comparative population figures for the six largest cities. Agriculture—During the decade 1910-20 agriculture displaced mining as Colorado’s most important industry. The number of farms increased 29:8% to 59,934; their area 80:8% to 24,462,014 ac. and their average size 39:2°% to 408-1 acres. The value of all farm property increased 119-1% to $1,076,794,

749. Land values were estimated at $763,722,716, buildings at $102,290,944, implements and machinery at $49,804,509 and live stock at $160,976,580. Reports for 1924 indicated increased acreage in cultivation, but decreased numbers of farms, capital valuations and values of products, due to post-War price adjustments. The farm crops (partly estimated) in 1924 were:— Crops

All crops Cereals, total Corn : Oats Wheat Barley Sorghum grains Beans, dry. Sugar beets. Hay and forage Vegetables . Orchard fruits Misc. fruits.

= 6,427,2 3,91 ie 990,000 260,000

1,457,000 340,000 308,000 290,000 229,000 2,475,000 146,000

Production

51,587 ,000 bus. 9,900,000

6,500,000 21,030,000 8,160,000

3,050,000 986,000 2,548,000 tons 4,250,000 “

4,520,000 bus.

Value

5132,015,0)7 55435,9099 0,090,000 3,770,009 24,815,928 5,875,000 5,817,600 3,057,000 20,868,120

45,400,000 13,200,000

6,250,000 550,000

The irrigated area was 2,792,032 4c. In 1909, 3,348,385 ac. in rọrọ, while acreage under all irrigation enterprises, whether completed or not, had decreased from 5,917,457 to 5,220,588 acres. Organised drainage enterprises, most of them having been rendered necessary by faulty irrigation, had affected 171,656 ac. at a cost of $1,081,875. In 1924 county assessors reported in the state 290,323 horses, 35,325 mules, 972,828 range cattle, 149,421 milch cows, 809,761 sheep, 246,206 swine, 16,819 goats, 211,490

dozen poultry and 53,990 stands of bees. Mining.—As in the case of agriculture, the mining industry in Colorado has been depressed by post-War adjustments, but a revival of production under more favourable conditions began in 1923. Radium and tungsten production almost entirely ceased in 1921. In 1924, with an output of $8,447,900, the state ranked second among the states in gold mining. It was seventh for silver, with an output worth $3,286,996, and ranked fifth for lead and zinc, of which it produced 50,982,000 lb. and 59,200,000 lb. respectively. Coal mined in 1923 was 10,336,735 tons. Tetroleum production had fallen to 67,000 bbl. in 1923. Exploratory drilling in 1924 developed several new petroleum fields which promised to be of great value. Forests and National Parks ——A marked influence on Colorado’s economic life is found in the existence of large forested and mountain areas, and the consequent establishment of forest reserves and national parks. The forest acreage in 1925 was 13,280,000 ac. in national forests and there were two national parks and three national monuments. Timber supplies, grazing for stock, irrigation and hydroelectric power are important. The tourist business is a leading industry of the state. Manufactures—From 1900 to 1920 the number of manufacturing establishments in Colorado nearly doubled, the number of persons engaged more than doubled and the capital invested increased 225%. State authorities estimated that in 1924 there were 2,750 manufacturing establishments, employing 36,663 persons, with products to the value of $375,000,000. Beet-sugar manufacture has been the leading factory industry since 1914. There were 16 operating plants in 1924, which manufactured sugar valued at $45,000,000. Slaughtering and meat-packing products amounted to $45,000,000. Flour and mill products were valued at nearly $20,000,000. Butter, cheese, condensed milk, crackers, candy, cement, steel and machinery were important products.

C79

Education.—In 1924 there were in the state 1,944 school districts, with 3,243 schools and 3,635 buildings. There were 1,336 male and 7,263 female teachers. The school population was 297,934, and the enrolment in the public schools 249,813. The income of the permanent school fund, derived from Federal land grants, is annually apportioned among the districts. In 1924 there were 180 consolidated rural schools teaching combined high and grade classes of 33,000 pupils. Enrolment in secondary schools had increased from 24,404 1n 1920 to 48,559 in 1924. Finances.—TVhe bonded indebtedness of the state in Dec. 1924 was $10,536,500, excluding $6,700,000 for the Moffat Tunnel district and $3,600,000 for the Pueblo Conservancy district. There were outstanding county bonds amounting to $3,662,630, municipal bonds of $47,895,100 and school district bonds of $20,8 54,470. The general assessment valuation of taxable properly in 1923 was $1,543,21 1,892, on which there was a state levy of $4,480,000. The tax revenuc of the state in 1923 was $6,080,798, of counties $8,710,145, of municipalities $7,954,168, of school districts $19,403,711. Historv.—A_ constitutional amendment and referendum was ratified in Nov. toro.

adenine initiative In the same year a primary election law provided for direct nominations by the people of candidates for the U.S. Senate, representatives in Congress and all elective state, district, county, ward and precinct officers, as well as members of the state legislature. This Act provided for party assemblies, at which party candidates might be designated to seek nominations in the primaries, every candidate receiving 10° or more of the votes of the delegates to the assembly being certified by the assembly as a candidate to enter the primaries. It was also provided that persons not entering

the assembly might become candidates for any of the offices above mentioned by petition, the number of signers required being 300 for any official who is to serve any political district in the state greater than a county, and roo for other officials. The expense of candidates in such primaries was limited by the Act and severe penalties were provided for violations. In grr an Act was passed providing for registration of voters for all elections to be held in the state except school elections, and providing severe penalties for false registration and other violations of the Act. In Nov. 1912 the people approved amendments to the state constitution providing for the recall of elective officials and, in certain cases, for the recall of judicial decisions. An Act, proposed by initiative, was passed at the same time, providing for a ballot without party headings. The voters adopted in Nov. 1914 an amendment to the state constitution prohibiting the sale and manufacture of intoxicating liquor, which became effective Jan. 1 1916; and the prohibition amendment to the Federal Constitution was ratified by the Colorado Legislature in regular session Jan. 15 19109. The Legislature in 1919 passed an Act providing for a budget system in making appropriations and creating a state budget and efficiency commissioner. The first budget prepared under this Act was presented to the Legislature in 1921. In 1920 the voters adopted an initiated constitutional amendment raising the limit on state tax levy from $4,000,000 to $5,000,000, the additional $1,000,000 to provide buildings for educational institutions. In 1921 a proposed amendment to extend the tenure of office of state and county officers and a proposal for a convention to re-

vise the state constitution were defeated. The Legislature in that year revised and strengthened inheritance tax laws by raising the rates thereof.

Persistent advocacy by the governor

secured the passage of laws for the re-establishment of a national guard and for a Dept. of Safety, with a force of rangers as a state police force. A special session of the Legislature in 1922 passed laws for a bond issue of $6,700,000 to finance the construction of a tunnel through the mountains northwest of Denver, and for a bond issue of $3,600,000 to finance a flood control district on the Arkansas river for the protection of Pueblo. In 1923 laws were passed to facilitate co-operative marketing of agricultural products and to grant compensation to veterans of all wars beginning with the Civil War. Condemning the maintenance of a state police force as violating rights of local self-government,

680

COLORADO RIVER—COLOUR

the new Democratic governor in 1923 secured the disbanding of the state rangers. In 1924 referendum votes on several constitutional amendments defeated the proposals. Issues raised by the Ku Klux Klan were politically prominent in 1924-5. Many men favourable to the Klan were elected to municipal, county and state ofhces, including the governor and a U.S. Senator. There were a number of serious labour disturbances between 1910 and 1920, some of them marked by violence and virtual insurrection which had to be put down by the military. A notable contribution to better relations between capital and labour was the industrial representation plan put into effect by John D. Rockefeller, Jr., in the properties of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Co. in rọ16. Employees, by districts and classified groups, elect representatives who have the right to confer with executives on all questions affecting wages, conditions of employment and operation and general welfare. The system has had a marked influence on similar large industrial organisations elsewhere, but it has been opposed by labour unions. In 1910 the state administration was in the hands of the Democratic party, with Joseph H. Shafroth as governor. The Democrats again elected a governor in rọ12, Elias M. Ammons, a result largely due to the split in the Republican party throughout the nation. In rọr3 George A. Carlson, Republican, was governor. He was succeeded by Julius C. Gunter, Democrat, elected in r916. A reunited Republican party, profiting by popular reaction on World War issues, elected Oliver II. Shoup governor in 1918, and re-elected him in ī1ọ20 with an increased majority and a Legislature almost completely Republican. The Democrats elected William E. Sweet governor, and Mary A. Bradford superintendent of public instruction in 1922, although Republicans mostly elected their candidates for other offices. In 1924 C. J. Morley, Republican, was elected governor, MBLIOGRAPHY.-— Enos A. Mills, Spell of the Rockies (1911), In Beaver World (1913), sisi Mountain WWonderlund (1915), Your National Parks (1917); FE. Parsons, Guide Book to Colorado (1911);

À. C. Carson, Colorado, the Top of the World (1912); Jerome C. Smiley, Semi- centennial Tlistory of Colorado (1913); Irving Howbert, Indians of the Pike's Peak Region (1914); Alice Palk Hill, Colorado

Pioneers in Picture and Story (1915); the Queen Jewel of the Rockies (918); of Colorado (three vol., 1918); James Greeley (State Univ. Hist. Collections,

Mae Lacy Baggs, Colorado, Wilbur Fiske Stow, Tistory F. Willard, Union Colony of 1918). (C. A. D.)

COLORADO RIVER (see 6.724).—The Colorado river, with its drainage of 250,000 sq. m., Its 7,500,000 acres of irrigable land, its annual flow of 18,000,000 ac.-ft. of water, its capacity to develop more than 5,000,000 continuous H.P., and its devastating floods reaching 240,000 cu.ft. of water per sec., is a vexatious problem. The immediate danger of inundation of the great Imperial Valley, which has been impending since the disastrous break of 1905, has been lessened by the diversion of the river into the Pescadero Channel and the completion, in 1922, of a substantial levee. The relative security attained remains uncertain, however, as long as occasional extraordinary floods might undermine or overtop existing levees; while nearly 5,000,000,000 cu. ft. of silt brought down annually to Yuma produces dangerous meandering in the leveed section and builds up the delta channels causing the river to seck new outlets. These conditions necessitate large expenditures for revetment and the raising of the levees to prevent disaster to the rich irrigated lands of the delta region. To ameliorate these conditions and to increase the low water flow for further irrigation, Congress has been urged to provide for the construction of Boulder Canyon reservoir to be formed by a dam 605 it. high in Black Canyon, east of Las Vegas, Nevada. Such a dam would store 34,000,000 ac.-ft. of water and would provide for the reduction of floods, the regularisation of the stream flow, the interception of silt and the development of 650,000 continuous horsepower. The cost of the dam is estimated at $50,000,000, while the power development, including transmission lines to southern California power markets, would add $80,000,000, a total of $130,000,000. Besides securing flood protection, three large irrigation developments, Palo Verde, Yuma and Imperial Valley, would utilise

the regulated flow to increase their 700,000 ac. of irrigated land to about 2,000,000 acres. Since one-third of the irrigated lands of the Imperial Valley and much of the main irrigation canal lic in Mexico, the agitation for the Boulder Canyon dam has been accompanied by a demand for the construction of a new canal entirely on American territory. Opposition to these projects has been based upon two principal grounds: they are not the best means of accomplishing the results desired, and the projects

should not be financed and built by the national government. Developments in the lower basin having appeared likely to acquire water rights that might prevent future developments in the upper basin, a commission, with a member from each of the states of Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming and one from the United States, prepared, in 1922, a plan for the distribution of the waters, giving 7,500,ooo ac.-[t. annually to the upper states (Colorado, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming), and 8,500,000 to the lower states. This plan, known as the Colorado river compact, requires ratification by each state and subsequently by Congress. Arizona having failed to ratify the compact, the Federal authority has been

withheld, in order interests.

to await an adjustment of the conflict of ive)

COLOUR (sec 6.728).—The sensation of white light iis caused by electromagnetic waves of a certain wave length impinging i on the retina of the eye. The sensation of colour is produced by the absorption of onc or other of the coloured components of white light when the light strikes some suitable surface or passes through a suitable medium—the light reflected from the surface or transmitted through the medium consequently conveying to the retina a sensation of colour complementary to that absorbed. General and Sclective Absorption—Many substances do not absorb any definite portion of the visible spectrum—the name applied to the range of colours into which white ight can be resolved—but give gencra/l absorption throughout the range. Such substances appear, therefore, colourless both by transmitted and reflected light and it is only those materials which cause selective absorption, that is which absorb some definite portion of the visible spectrum, that appear coloured. It follows, therefore, that there must be some special property possessed by substances which produce the sensation of colour which distinguishes them from other substances that appear colourless. Physical and Chemical Colour. —As a matter of fact it is quite easy to detect the causes leading to the main underlying difference between the two types, for they may be divided int’ two classes which, for the sake of convenience, may be named the physical cause and the chemical cause; and, in the first instance at any rate, the reason for production of colour is quite clear and it is a comparatively simple matter to reproduce the effect mechanically. For example, white light is resolved into its com-

ponent colours when it is allowed to impinge on a glass surface which has been ruled with a number of fine lines, and there are a number of other ways by which the sensation of colour can be imparted by purely mechanical means. Subjective Colour —As a matter of fact many natural objects, especially in the animal kingdom, owe their colour to the physical cause. The vivid green of certain beetles, the colours of the peacock’s feathers, the colours of butterflies’ wings and the colour of blue eyes are all produced in this way, the colour effect being caused by the interference of white light through the agency of minute excrescences or fine filaments on the surface of the objects that appear coloured. The colour effects in such cases are, therefore, subjective and it would be just as reasonable to attempt to extract a coloured substance from the peacock’s feather as it would be to do so from the rainbow. Chemical Colour.—On the other hand there are a great number of substances the colours of which must be ascribed to the second or chemical cause. These occur both naturally and artificially and are distinguished from those of the first or physical section by reason of the fact that the coloured substances in them can be extracted from the coloured materials and, when extracted, are found to be definite chemical compounds which owe their colour to their chemical constitution.

COLOUR The Colours of Flowers —In nature such coloured substances are to be found mainly in the vegetable kingdom, in the colouring matters, for example, of the flowers and of green grass or leaves. Moreover, it is easy to distinguish by a practical test between the two types because if a peacock’s feather is viewed by transmitted light the brilliant colours will disappear, whereas, if a red rose leaf is treated in the same manner no change in colour will be noticed. Intermolecular and Intramolecular Interference —Nevertheless, it is only reasonable to suppose that the two types of phenomena are of the same order and that whilst the physical or subjective colour is due to the intermolecular interference of white light, the chemical colour is due to intramolecular interference, or, in

681

to shift the absorption from the invisible to the visible region of the spectrum, thus obtaining visible colour (yellow). The Shift of Absorption —This change, in the case of many derivatives of benzene, takes place with remarkable ease and with astonishing rapidity, thus the change from phenol-phthalein (III.), the benzenoid or invisibly coloured form, to the sodium salt (IV.) the quinonoid or visibly coloured form, by the action of alkali, and the reverse change which is effected by the action of acid, is so rapid and sensitive that the substance is used as an effective indicator in alkalimetry.

oa

other words, white light is “ filtered’ through the molecular structure of the chemical substance, leaving a “‘ portion ”’ behind in its passage. The colour is therefore depencent on the chemical composition of the particular compound. It remains then to compare those chemical compounds which produce colour with those that are colourless so as to reach some conclusion as to the influence of molecular structure on colour production. In the first place, however, it 1s necessary to attempt to arrive at some definition of what is meant by colourin astrictly scientific sense. The Visible Spectrum in the Range of Electromagnetic Vibration.—The range of the visible spectrum which is produced, for example, when a beam of white light passes through a quartz prism, represents a range of electromagnetic vibrations of wave lengths between 4,000 and 8,000 Ångström units. This is, however, only one octave in the range of 62 octaves of wave lengths

from o-or to 3:5X1o!® Angstrém units which has been investigated. It is clearly, therefore, scientifically illogical to restrict the term ‘‘ coloured ”’ to those substances which cause absorption only in the short region capable of detection by the eye, because a substance which produces selective absorption in any other region of the electromagnetic range Is also “ coloured ” although such colour requires the aid of some external influence in order that it may be detected. Visible and Invisible Colour.—It is necessary, therefore, to distinguish between visible colour and invisible colour and to describe those substances which give selective absorption in the visible region as visibly coloured and those which give selective absorption in other regions as invisibly coloured. Infra-red and Ulira-violet Regions —It is fortunate that the photographic plate is more sensitive to waves immediately outside the visible region of the spectrum than is the eye, for by its aid it is possible to detect selective absorption in those regions immediately outside the visible spectrum, which are known as the infra-red and the ultra-violet, and thus to show that many substances which appear colourless to the eye possess nevertheless intense invisible colour. Moreover, it is possible by simple chemical reactions to transform compounds having this invisible colour into those having visible colour or, in other words, by a change of structure, to throw the absorption from the invisible region into the visible region. In this way it is possible to correJate structure with visible colour. Invisible Colour of Bensene.—For example, the hydrocarbon benzene (CsH.s) appears colourless to the eye both by reflected and transmitted light, nevertheless when its spectrum is photographed marked selective absorption in the ultra-violet region

CH Te

CII j CH

C=6:

CII | CH

Se a

CH I.

Benzene (invisibly coloured)

ee

CH li CH

w

CH | CH C= HL.

Quinone (yellow)

is manifested. Benzene is, therefore, a substance having a strong invisible colour. By a simple series of reactions it is possible to transform benzene (I.) into quinone (II.) and by so doing

alkali

\JOH Pe

Anes

| DN

TA (—=0

D

O— i TII. Benzenoid form (invisibly coloured)

wae SS ef OH

COONa IV. Quinonoid form (red)

The hydrocarbons naphthalene (CoH) and anthracene (Cull) provide further examples of the same kind and, in fact, the occurrence of colour among organic compounds which has led to the foundation of the coal-tar colour industry is based mainly on this change. It is also possible to start with a benzenoid derivative which by reason of its structure is visibly coloured and by a simple chemical change, such as that illustrated above, to throw absorption from one end of the visible spectrum to the other and thus to transform a red substance into a blue one. Red and Blue Flowers.—As a matter of fact Nature has utilised this method to produce her red and blue tlowers:—

CI

Ò

oeyA-
1s under plough

and 15°% under forest. With the assistance of these co-operative societies Estonian agriculture is now developing on the lines of specialising in cattle-breeding,

dairy farming and flax productions.

The export of butter is controlled by the State with a view to maintaining a definite standard of quality, and new

markcts have been

found in England, Germany and elsewhere. The total exports of butter increased from 1,032 tons in 1922 to 6,443 tons In 1925, and the export of eggs at a not much inferior rate. , While material progress has thus been made in dairy farming and in the cultivation of forage crops which that system of husbandry necessitates in northern climates, the areas under cereals and average cereal crops are about the same as they were before the War, and Estonia remains a corn-importing country. The production of potatoes, on the other hand, for which the land is well suited, has greatly diminished (1910, 810,000 tons; 1925, 590,000 tons) owing

to the lack of markets for potato spirit. The area under flax has grown steadily from year to year and is now nearly 20°% greater than it was before the War. Industrial Production.—In the first few years of Estonian history high hopes were still placed on the future of her larger industrial undertakings, and considerable sums were advanced by the State Bank, with the result that by 1923-4 the eredit and banking situation of the country became highly critical and a considerable proportion of the gold reserve obtained from Russia under the Treaty of Dorpat was lost. Estonia, however, possesses certain raw materials, which may possibly constitute the basis of a new industrial development in the future. Of these, the most important are wood and oil shale. The shale, the deposits of which are roughly estimated at 3,500-5,000 million tons, is unusually rich in oil. It is already utilised to a growing extent in Estonian factories and on the railways in its crude state in place of coal, and a certain number of concessions for its more scientific exploitation have been granted to foreign firms. The forests, which since the expropriation law of 1919 have remained under the direct control of the State, constitute an additional source of fuel and the raw material of the saw mills, three-ply, and paper industries. Since about 1921 the quantity of timber employed in the country by these three industries has steadily increased. Cement is another product the preparation of which is in no way dependent upon foreign raw materials. Of the industries which are dependent upon foreign raw materials cotton spinning has been the most successfully organised, the exports of cotton yarn having increased from 154 tons in 1922 to 758 in 1924 and 1,282 in 1925. Trade.—The principal exports of the country in 1924 were:— Value in Estonian

Dairy produce and other foodstuffs of animal origin . Wood and wood products Cotton fabrics . Flax, raw .

Total exports

marks 1,191 1,752 1,094 1,690 |

7,866 :

Although Estonia was the first ‘‘ window into Europe ”’ for Soviet Russia, neither Russian transit nor the traffic in goods attained the height reached before the War. Trade with Russia was heaviest after the great Russian famine of 1922, when, in consequence of the quantity of provisions sent into the country, Russian transit over Estonian railways amounted to 370,000 tons, providing one-fourth of the total revenue of those railways. Currency.—The economic progress which the country has achieved may be judged from the growth of its total exports from 2,287 million Estonian marks in 1921 to 4,842 in 1922, to 5,712 in 1923, to 7,866 in 1924, to 9,665 in 1925. To some extent the increase in these figures is due to the depreciation of the Estonian mark and the rise of prices. Direct fiduciary inflation ceased in 1921, and the exchange improved slightly during the next two years. With the bank inflation of 1923-4 the exchange depreciated from about 340 to 460 (Aug. 1924) to the dollar. By the’end of the year, however, the Central Bank, which ts a Government institution, had succeeded in bringing down the rate to about 373 Estonian marks to the dollar, a rate which is equivalent to 100 Estonian marks to the Swedish crown. The exchanges were kept stable at this rate from Jan. 1925 onwards, and it is proposed to introduce a new currency, a Kroon, equivalent to 100 of the present. Estonian marks. In June 1924 this Kroon was made a legal unit of account.

The measure of success with which Estonia has met her economic reconstruction, despite great initial diMficultics, despite certain highly critical periods as in 1923, when the effects of a bad harvest and an unwise credit policy coincided, and despite inevitable errors, has been largely due to the fact that since 1921 she has managed to balance her budget. Indeed, not only has the budget been balanced, but the capital outlay incidental upon her economic reconstruction has been largely met out of current revenues. [ler taxes have thus been to a considerable extent a form of forced savings. On the other hand, as indicated above, as a result of the losses incurred by the State Bank, this country has lived to some extent upon the gold received from Russia. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Festi statistika kurkiri—Recueil mensuel du Bureau Central Statistique de U Esihonie (Revel, 1922); Eesti Pank, the Bank of Esthonia in roro-2r (Revel, 1922, etc.); Festi demograajia .. . Démographie (Revel, 1924); League of Nations, Report of the Financial Committee on the economic and financial situation of Estonia (Geneva, 1925). .

ETCHING (see 9.804).—No feature of recent art historv has been more remarkable than the extended practice of original etching and its widening appreciation among print collectors and the public seeking decoration for its home walls. To compare the art’s present condition with that offered to the survey of Sir

ETCHING Frederick Wedmore in the 11th Edition of The Encyclopadta Britannica is to realise that since 1911 etchers of importance have arisen who must be ranked with the masters, while the average standard of accomplishment is now so much higher, notwithstanding the great increase in the numbers practising the method, that changes in the comparative value of reputations are inevitable. While, therefore, etchers already of world-wide repute, such as Forain, Bauer, Zorn, Brangwyn, Bone and McBey are now mentioned for the first time in these pages, there are names which must disappear, necessarily giving place to others of more representative distinction. Since the volumes of the 11th Edition were in the press, the three latest surviving protagonists of the modern revival of original etching have died;

Sir Francis Seymour Haden in tg1o, Alphonse Legros in 1911 and Felix Bracquemond in 1914. The Influence of Short-——ven greater and farther reaching than Haden’s has been the inlluence of his successor in the presidency of the Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers, Sir Frank Short, R.A., for, during his long direction of the famous Engraving School of the Royal College of Art, he has trained two generations of British etchers in the tradition of Rembrandt’s vital line, which he has held always as a sacred trust. A master of every method of the copperplate, with freshness of vision and sincerity of expression, Short long ago added to the classics of the etcher’s art, to name only such beautiful and masterly plates as ‘‘ Low Tide and the Evening Star,” and “ A Wintry Blast on the Stourbridge Canal.’ His revival of pure aquatint, in other words, tone-etching, as an independent expressive medium, with rich and subtle development of its capacity for tonal gradation, has enlarged the scope of the etcher’s pictorial utterance. This service to graphic art was scarcely less important than Short’s restoration of mezzotint to its purity of practice, first in his completion of J. M. W. Turner’s Liber Studiorum, and further in his own poetic plates, exemplifying its value for original landscape. Sir D. Y. Cameron, R.A., another veteran of the copperplate, won a distinctive place among eminent etchers before he

had established his fame as a painter. Always attracted by the romantic aspects of architecture and landscape, he gradually found, through the just inspiration of the masters, a graciously distinctive style of his own to interpret with impressive chiaroscuro the significant beauties of buildings of character, and the essential poetry of his native scenery of loch and mountain. There are masterpieces among Cameron’s architectural plates too familiar to need naming here, yet, remembering the beauty of “‘ The

Meuse, ” “ Ben Ledi, ” “ Ben Lomond,” “ Strathearn, ” one may believe that in landscape he finds his most distinctively personal expression on copper as on canvas. Work of Brangwyn and Bone.—Another eminent painter who has made also a great reputation as an etcher is Frank Brangwyn, R.A., though he has characteristically taken his independent way with the method, adapting it with boldly bitten line to his pictorial designs, conceived deliberately on an unusually large scale for wall decoration rather than for the collector’s portfolio. Extraordinarily varied in pictorial interest, many of Brangwyn’s etchings are monumental in design and vigour of draughtsmanship, though the effect of their chiaroscuro often suffers from over-emphasis in the printing, Muirhead Bone has long been one of the most potent personalities in British etching, though it is with the dry-point rather than the etching-needle

that he has expressed his linear mastery in the interpretation of architecture as an integral factor of social life. Always he has had a sympathetic eye for landscape, but it is with buildings in every variety of aspect and condition that his keen vision and magnificent, searching draughtsmanship have been chiefly concerned, and whether the structures are shown in progress, in course of demolition or actually functioning, the vital accent of human interest is never missing. Mc Bey and Other Masters —Innately an etcher, with a vivacious wizardry of line and originality of vision, James McBey

1025

was already a master of his expression when, in 1911, he came from Aberdeen to London and surprised and charmed the connoisseurs. With brilliant versatility, his progress has been extraordinary, and it may be traced through a succession of accepted masterpieces, such as ‘‘ Ovation to the Matador, ” “Night in Ely Cathedral,” “The Torpedoed Sussex,’ ‘‘ Dawn— Camel Patrol Setting Out, ” “ Gale at Port Errol,” and certain Venetian plates. In England we have now, indeed, as never before, a number of authentic etchers, producing plates of genuine, sometimes even masterly quality, distinguished by original design, with a wide range of pictorial interest. In these, while fresh architectural and landscape conceptions are revealing their artistic superiority to the stale conventions of vision so long prevalent, aspects of human life and character are claiming a far more

important share. This awakened consciousness among British etchers that human beings and their circumstances and activities may be even more emotionally interesting as subjects for etching than, say, cathedral doorways and old barns is one of the most notable and promising signs of the present condition of the art in the country. No etcher is more distinctive in his treatment of the human subject than Edmund Blampied, who finds the happiest inspiration for his superb drawing in vividly suggestive line in the life and labours of the Jersey and Normandy peasants and their farm horses and cattle; E. S. Lumsden finds his in scenes of native Indian life, and some of his Benares, Rajputana and Tibet plates bear the hallmark of a master. Of etched portraiture Malcolm Osborne, A.R.A., 1s a masterly exponent, while few of his best landscapes and architectural etchings are not invested with human interest. Francis Dodd also is mast distinguished in his portraiture, while a style all his own marks Gerald Brockhurst’s strangely alluring studies of feminine personality. In several wonderfully characteristic etchings, of chiefly portrait interest, the art of Augustus John, A.R.A., has expressed its vitality and simplicity of conception in a line of singular purity. F. L. Griggs, A.R.A., in exquisite etchings of elaborate accomplishment recalling somewhat the technical manner of Samuel Palmer, aims at an imaginative reconstruction of medieval England in its architectural aspect, as William Walcot’s remarkable “ Roman Compositions,” with a very different technique and manner, revivify Imperial Rome. Henry Rushbury’s brilliant architectural conceptions, on the other hand, depict with something of Bone’s accent the actualities of places. Landscape etchers range far and wide, but the homely charm of English landscape with its bounty of trees has found no truer

interpreter in latter days than W. P. Robins.

Marine etching

has been given a fresh impetus, with widened scope, by Arthur Briscoe’s authentic visions of nautical activities on the high seas. The etchings of Walter Sickert. A.R.A., George Clausen, R.A., Oliver Hall, A.R.A. and E. ]. Sullivan, although but side issues of their lives’ work, are vet important enough to stand the test of time; while among the legion of contemporary British etchers are some notably sincere artists who show a “ coming-on disposition ?” which stirs hopes. French Etching —The outstanding personality in modern French etching is J. L. Forain, and he is one of the world’s great etchers. Whether depicting with dramatic irony scenes of Parisian life, in the law courts, the café, the studio or interpreting with pathetic beauty the religious emotion of the Lourdes pilgrimage or challenging Rembrandt himself in his great human conceptions of Christ’s tragedy, with his magically

expressive

line and vital draughtsmanship,

Forain

has pro-

duced unforgettable masterpieces. Although Auguste Lepère won fame first as a wood engraver of excellence, his name in the story of French etching is of considerable importance. There was always a charming humanity about his work. With him in the orthodox school may be mentioned Steinlen, Besnard, Beaufrere, Beurdeley, Roussel, Béjot and Auguste Brouet; but the personalities of the Indépendent group of modernists may

perhaps be more safely left to the time test.

1026

ETHER

Other European Etchers.—In the land of Rembrandt there has been one great etcher since the supreme master, and he is Marius A. J. Bauer. He has found all his inspiration in the Orient, Turkey, Egypt, Palestine, India and always a rich imagination with a magnificent sense of design has directed his pictorial vision. His genius is seen as expressively in the vitality and spontaneity of his early small plates as in such great impressive compositions as ‘‘ The Holy Camel,” “ Benares ” and “ Elephants.” In Anders Zorn, Sweden gave a masteretcher to the world. His line was thoroughly individual, and happily adapted to his preoccupation with light in his vivid pictorial conceptions of the human physiognomy or figure, especially in his studies of nude bathers. His “ Renan ” ranks with the great etched portraits of all time. Etching. America-——In America, where interest in etching grows apace, the most distinctive personality is Frank W. Benson whose vital studies of water fowl in their native wilds, the great Canadian rivers or the Atlantic coast, in various aspects of flight chiefly, have given new motives to the art. The veteran Joseph Pennell was productive until his death, April 22 1926. Herman J. Webster has produced many accomplished plates. Donald Shaw MaclLaughlan, a masterly etcher, is increasing his reputation, while among the younger men of promise are notably John W. Winkler, Louis C. Rosenberg, Arthur W. Heintzelman, Ernest D. Roth, and Roi Partridge. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Sir Frank Short, R.A., On the Making of Etchings, 3rd. ed. (1898); Sir Frederick Wedmore,

Etchings (1911); À.

M. Hind, A Short Iistory of Engraving and Etching, 3rd ed. (1923); Malcolm C. Salaman, The Great Painter-Etchers from Rembrandt to Whistler (1913); The Charm of the Etcher’s Art (1920) and Modern Masters of Etching (studio monograph series, 1924, etc.); W. P. Robins, Etching Craft (1922); E. S. Lumsden, The Art of Etching

(1925). (M. C. S.*) ETHER (see 1.292).—Whether space is a mere geometrical abstraction, or whether it has definite physical properties which can be investigated, is a question which in one form or another has often been debated. As to the parts which are occupied by matter, that is by a substance which appeals to the senses, there has never been any doubt; and the whole of science may be said to be an investigation of the properties of matter. But from time to time attention has been directed to the intervening portions of space from which sensible matter is absent; and this also has physical properties, of which the complete investigation has hardly begun. These physical properties do not appeal directly to the senses, and are therefore comparatively obscure; but there is now no doubt of their existence, even among those who still prefer to use the term space. Buta space endowed with physical properties is more than a geometrical abstraction, and is most conveniently thought of as a substantial reality, to which therefore some other name is appropriate. The term used is unimportant, but long ago the term ether was invented; it was adopted by Isaac Newton, and is good enough for us. The term ether therefore connotes a genuine entity filling all space, without any break or cavity anywhere, the one omnipresent physical reality, of which there is a growing tendency to perceive that everything in the material universe consists; matter itself being in all probability one of its modifications. Many attempts have been made to state the properties of such a substance in terms of material analogies, and all these attempts have shown signs of weakness and may be said to have failed. The properties of the ether are too fundamental to be stated in terms of something else. There have been tendencies at different times to invent ethers or effluvia with special qualities to account for specific phenomena. These attempts were long ago discarded, and are now regarded as absurd. But that space has physical properties is a definite fact of experience, provided experience is extended to include inferences and deductions and is not limited to direct sensual perception. What we perceive directly are length, breadth and height, modified here and there by a resistance or obstruction which we call matter, and combined with the element of time or duration, as exhibited and measured by the

motion of matter, with speeds that can be directly apprehended. But in addition to all that mass of common experience, the free unobstructed space is modifed by the neighbourhood of matter; so that there exists everywhere a gravitational potential varying inversely with the distance from its appropriate portion of matter; the result of which is that matter tends to move from places of lower to places of higher potential, as if some force were driving the masses of matter together. Civil engineering is constantly concerned with this fact; and on this basis the whole of the older astronomy has been worked out in detail. Atoms of Matter—The atoms of matter are not quiescent, even when a mass appears stationary, but are in a state of rapid quivering motion; and these motions are not independent of each other, but are interrelated and connected by additional and special disturbances which they communicate to the space or medium in which they occur. And about these supplementary disturbances our sense organ, the eye, has given us a mass of indirect information. These disturbances, though generated by matter, are not conveyed or transmitted by matter. They travel at a rate depending on innate properties of space; or rather, as we feel bound to say, on the physical properties of the substantial reality which fills space; thereby telling us something definite about those properties, though in a form difficult of apprehension and one which is not fully expressible in terms of any of the familiar properties of matter. Thus the different masses of matter, even though separated by great distances, are not isolated or independent of each other. They are connected gravitationally, and they are connected optically. The energies of the earth, of which we constantly make use, are derived from the sun, and have travelled across the intervening 92,000,000 m. of empty space at a perfectly known and definite rate, with which rate matter has nothing to do. There may be uncertainty as to what exactly it is that is travelling; but the fact that it is travelling energy is certain. All that matter does is to generate this radiant energy at one end and absorb it at the other. Concerning the processes of generation and absorption a good deal is now known. Moreover not only is the speed of travel of the transmitted disturbance known, but also the fact that it is a periodic disturbance, expressible mathematically in exact analogy with a wave equation. Wherefore the disturbance may be spoken of without further hypothesis as ether “waves,” the generic name for which is radiation, a small range of this radiation being visible light. Radiation is generated by some cataclysm or collision or other violent and sudden disturbance in the atoms of matter. When radiation encounters matter (unless it be merely reflected or passed on) it can throw the multitude of atoms into the confused motion we call “ heat,” and produce other remarkable and chemical effects. Thus an ether is necessary for the purpose of transmitting what is called gravitational force between one piece of matter and another, and for the still more important and universal purpose of transmitting waves of radiation between one piece of matter and another however small and distant they be. Electric and Magnetic Propertics—In addition to those two functions, other properties have been discovered, notably the properties called electric and magnetic. Atoms of matter are electrically constituted, and accordingly tend to attract each other with a force which is the source of chemical affinity; with the result that molecules and other aggregates are formed, of which the structure is studied in the science of chemistry. Moreover the molecules themselves attract each other by a residual affinity, giving the familiar shape of crystals and other solids, the particles of which are held together in regular packing across ultra-microscopic intervals by what is called cohesion, for which likewise the ether must be held responsible. For, as Newton forcefully said in other words, it is absurd to imagine one piece of matter acting mechanically on another at a distance, whether that distance be large or small, without some intervening mechanism. The continuous medium which fills space therefore is not only the vehicle of gravitation and light, but is also

ETHER the instrument for cohesion and chemical affinity and for electric and magnetic attractions and repulsions. The intimate structure of the ether will probably be expressible and partially understood in terms of the phenomena of electricity and magnetism: for electric and magnetic influences which can be the subject of experiment are transmitted perfectly through vacuum, that is, across space empty of matter. They represent primarily properties of the ether, and are only made manifest to our senses by means of matter. It was in terms of electricity and magnetism that Clerk Maxwell was able to explain the phenomenon of light. A close study of electro-magnetism, that is, of the interaction between

electric and

magnetic disturbances, showed that they must combine into a wave equation, the waves being transmitted at a rate calculable from purely electric and magnetic considerations. This velocity turned out to be the velocity of light; and so in 1865 the true theory of light was born. Not that it is anything like complete. We know too little of the electric and magnetic properties of the ether to be able to picture them exactly. What we do know is that light is an electro-magnetic phenomenon, and that it is entirely dependent on the properties of the ether. The ether involves or possesses properties expressible by two fundamental constants; one of them regulates the force of attraction between two electrified bodies, and the other the force of attraction between two magnets. Neither constant by itself is as yet known. But the value of the constants multiplied together is known: it was discovered

by Clerk Maxwell, and is the reciprocal of the square of the velocity of light. In other words, the combination of the electric and magnetic properties of the ether enables it to transmit waves at a rate equal to the inverse geometric mean of its two constants.

So far we have been dealing with things which have been known for some time. But the subject is so fundamental and important that a recapitulation in other terms seemed advisable. It now remains to deal with the later progress which has been made in investigating the properties of this extraordinary non-material but physical substance. Perhaps “ substance ” is hardly the right term, for, though exceedingly substantial in one sense, it makes no appeal to the senses and is therefore unlike any substance we know.

In the oth Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica an attempt was made to estimate the elasticity and the density of the ether, on the strength of a certain hypothesis made by Lord Kelvin. In the 11th Edition (see 1.292) this estimate was repeated, and it was hinted that the hypothesis might be erroneous and the values obtained exceedingly wrong. Everything tends to confirm that conclusion. Strictly speaking the very terms elasticity and density, which are terms applicable to matter, may be inapplicable to the ether without re-definition; if used they must be understood in a formal sense. The properties of the ether are not likely to be expressible in terms of matter; but, as we have no better clue, we must proceed by analogy, and we may apologetically speak of the elasticity and density of the ether as representing things which, if it were matter, would be called by those names. What these terms really express we have not yet fathomed; but if, as is now regarded as very probable, atomic matter is a structure in ether, there is every reason for saying that the ether must in some sense be far denser than any known material substance. The densest known matter, or matter of highest inertia, is found in some of the stars; the barely visible companion of Sirius having been found, on converging grounds of evidence, to be more than 1,000 times as dense as lead. The ether must exceed even that startling amount; indeed there are sound arguments for regarding it as a million times denser. The fundamental substance is not likely to be filmy and unsubstantial. Recent discoveries have represented the atom of matter as composed of minute electric charges, which fill hardly any of the space inside the atom, so that it is as porous as a solar system. The great bulk of an atom is occupied only by a few electrons; so that it is by no means impenetrable to particles, which if they

1027

fly through it at sufficient speed, can escape being entangled and absorbed. Matter therefore is comparatively a gossamer structure, subsisting in a very substantial medium. An estimate of the substantiality of the medium can be made from its magnetic energies, and it comes out almost incredibly large. If it is right to express it in terms of material properties (which is doubtful) its inertia comes out as of the order of 1,000 tons per cubic millimetre. While as to the elasticity, that is still more enormous, since it is equal to the density multiplied by the square of the velocity of light. These values are barely conceivable, being so much higher than anything of which we have sensual experience. But still they are definite and finite, and are capable of being measured and expressed; so the ether is a physical substance, with properties which can in time be ascertained; and if the estimate above given of the source of the vast energies involved is wrong (as it is sure to be inadequately and incompletely worded) subsequent investigation can correct it. Meanwhile we may assume that there is some truth underlying these modes of expression, a truth which we cannot at present formulate any better. The constants embodying the physical properties of the ether though so huge are not infinite, and it seems to have certain very simple and perfect properties. It is perfectly transparent, it dissipates no energy; otherwise the stars and the spiral nebulae could not be seen at their gigantic distances across space. There is no friction between matter and ether, otherwise a portion of matter isolated from the rest would cool down, and the planets would not continue forever in their courses unperturbed. The ether has nothing of what we call in matter viscosity or fluid friction. There is no real heat in the ether, nor any sound; nothing but one simple type of propagation of effects by waves goes on in free space, and that with a definite unchangeable velocity which is known as the velocity of light, the one fundamental and so to say absolute velocity in the universe. The Velocity of Light-—Vhe question arises as to what that velocity can be due to. The most probable surmise or guess at present is that the ether is a perfectly incompressible continuous fluid, in a state of fine-grained vortex motion, circulating with that same enormous speed. For it has been partly, though as yet incompletely, shown that such a vortex fluid would transmit waves of the same general nature as light waves—i.e., periodic disturbances across the line of propagation—and would transmit them at a rate of the same order of magnitude as the vertex or circulation speed. There remains indeed a question of stability to be safeguarded, but in these days of quanta (see QUANTUM THEORY) stability considerations are apt to be deferred. Thus it appears possible that some day an extended hydrodynamics of a perfect fluid will explain all the physical properties of the material universe.! This motion of a structure due to vortex circulation in a perfect fluid may be regarded by some as too material an idea, and it may have to be discarded; but it is the nearest approach that can be suggested to a pictorial image of the etheric constitution. Certainly no structureless fluid could transmit actual radiation. And certainly the ether is continuous and without viscosity or any dissipation of energy, and so in many respects is like an ideal fluid. More than that we cannot say, except speculatively, about its constitution. Meanwhile we must assume that the ether has a substantiality and a wave-conveying structure beyond our present clear imaginings, with parts of it modified in an unknown way into electrons and protons; that of these the atoms of matter are built up; and that the whole of material activity consists in the interactions of these minute electric charges, connected as they are by their lines of force and by radiation. These electric charges, and the aggregates which they have built up are subject to what we experience or recognise as locomotion. The ether itself is stationary. Whether it is really infinite in extent or whether though boundless, ike the surface t Lord Kelvin, “The Vortex Theory of Ether,” Phil. Afag. (1887) and Math. and Phys. Papers, vol. iv. and passim. G. F. FitzGerald, Proc. Roy. Dub. Soc. (1899), or Collected Papers, pp. 154, 238, 472.

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ETHER

of a sphere, it is nevertheless finite, are questions which we cannot at present answer. There is no doubt that it extends beyond the farthest visible stellar object, and for all practical purposes is infinite. There is very little doubt that matter is not an alien substance, but is essentially composed of it, being built up of the electrons and protons whose constitution has not yet been ascertained, but which must somehow be constituted of ether, perhaps in some sense analogous to that in which a knot in a piece of string is constructed of string, or a vortex in air is composed of air, or the fibre of a muscle is still essentially flesh. Einsiein’s Theory—TVhe theory of Relativity (see RELATIVITY) has led some people—not many of the leaders of thought —to doubt if the ether can really exist. It may be useful therefore at the present time in this supplementary article to explain in what way the equations connected with that theory are to be understood physically. Newton expressed the laws binding the planets and suns together in terms of a hypothetical force acting between them, the same kind of force as we experience when a weight is supported above the earth; which force may therefore be taken as a fact of experience. But though the force 1s a fact, it is not explained: any expression in terms of action at a distance is necessarily incomplete. Einstein was led by considerations of relativity to formulate a law of gravitation, not in terms of force or of action at a distance, but in terms of something in space, that is, in the ether, which results in a tendency of bodies to approach each other. It might be called a warp in space, or it might be called by other names: the names do not matter. The thing that has to be expressed is that the presence of matter modifies its whole neighbourhood, causing a gravitational potential, as has been previously said. And, until we know more about its intimate nature, the action of this modification is best expressed in terms of a diflerential equation which secks to formulate abstractly, without physical hypothesis, the essence of what is really happening. None of the arguments which necessitate the existence of a medium are alfected, but no name for it need be used, nor need the idea of a medium be introduced, for mathematical purposes. Mathematicians are quite able to work with abstract equations about quantities without physical implications or conceptions, as long as they remain purely mathematicians. They can reduce even geometry to arithmetic. In a complete expression for the enlarged geometric interval between two points, the element of time must be introduced as well as the element of space, because they may be moving points. In other words geometry must be enlarged into kinematics, in order to express activities. The interval or line element between two neighbouring points may be expressed in polar co-ordinates m,@,0 thus: ds?=—dr?— (rd@)?—(r sin Pdg)?+ Crdt?, a mode of expression devised by Minkowski, an enthusiast for this kind of four-dimensional treatment, where the fundamental etheric velocity ¢ is introduced as a coefficient able to turn time into imaginary space, tcd?. The emphasis on c, as an absolute geometric constant, is perhaps the most remarkable part of the Einstein-Minkowski conception, as a preparation for the building erected upon it. But Einstein took a further step, introducing the gravitation potential as something which would modify the motions of matter, and introduced it not only into the element of time (as Newton might have done if he had used that notation) but into the element of radial distance also; so that if the points are in the field of a mass of matter m the Minkowski equation is:— ds?= — py} (dr)?— (rd#)*— (r sin Ady)? v c?dt? where yv=1—2P/c*, P being the gravitation potential at the place considered; which, if caused by a mass at a distance r, is P=*"/,, with k as the Newtonian gravitation constant. Here the coefficient » occurs twice. If it occurred in the /term only it would be a mode of stating Newton’s theory of astronomy, in differential instead of integral fashion; but this v occurs in the r term also, as a result of the isotropy of the fourfoid medium contemplated in this gravitational theory. This equation when elaborated gives, strangely enough, the out-

standing progression of the perihelion of Mercury, and it also

gives the double deflection for a ray of light passing near the Sun (doubled because the co-efficient » occurs twice), which has since been perhaps contirmed quantitatively by observation. It likewise gives the shift of the spectral lines emanating from an exceedingly massive body, which has now been confirmed beyond the reach of reasonable controversy by observations on light coming from the companion of Sirius, which Eddington has astonishingly proved to be by far the most compact and densest material body at present known to science. The beauty of these results is overwhelming; but the idea that any mathematical scheme is more than a powerful method of exploration, and that a universe can be thus constructed in which physical explanations can be dispensed with, involves too simple and anthropomorphic a view of nature. The things calculated, and the things observed, cannot exhaust reality; an explanation is bound to be sought, and ultimately attained, in terms of the partially recognised but largely unexplored properties of the entity which fills space." Locomotion of Matter.—The locomotion of matter is perhaps the commonest fact of experience, and it scems strange that it should be in need of explanation. But since the atom of matter is composed of electric charges, the locomotion of those charges has to be considered more in detail. An electric charge in motion constitutes an electric current, and the path of every electric current is surrounded by rings of magnetic force. This magnetic field confers inertia or momentum upon the moving charge; so that mechanical impulse is necessary to

start it moving; and also to stop the motion.

If not stopped it will

continue to move uniformly in a straight line until it encounters some deflecting or retarding agency. But though locomotion can thus be stated and worked out electromagncetically, that cannot be regarded as an ultimate explanation of so familiar and apparently simple a thing. Moving matter ts known to have kinetic energy; and the familiar expression jz" is the type of its measure. But when we come to analyse this expression there are difficulties about it which the Theory of Relativity has brought out and emphasised. For when we try to specify the velocity of a body, in order to calculate its energy, we find it difficult to say what that velocity really is: we can only specify it with reference to something else, commonly with reference to the earth. But the earth itself is moving. [fence $v" does not give the absolute energy, but only the energy relative to the earth or other frame of reference, as Newton implicitly recognised. What the velocity of a body is in space we have no means at present of ascertaining, having no universal standard of reference; and accordingly the usual expressions, though practically useful, are by no means ultimately satisfactory.. Nor can a statement in terms of electromagnetism be considered as ultimate. The fact is that locomotion does not seem to be a property of the ether, which appears to be affected by one speed and one speed only, namely, what we suppose to be the speed of its internal circulation and are familiar with as the velocity of light. How then can a particle of ether, however

modified, move

from one place to another?

The analogy of a loose knot slipping along a string may be helpful. An electron even at rest has intrinsic energy, its electrostatic energy of constitution, which can be expressed in various ways, and

which, when expressed in terms of mass and speed, is mtec?, nto being its inertia at rest. Its static energy is thus expressible as equivalent to that of a particle of certain mass #79 or 21%, moving with the speed c—the speed of light. To assist ideas, it might be thought of as a spinning motion; at any rate not locomotion. When the particle is moved, the natural idea would be that this velocity ¢ is increased, or that some

addition is made

to it.

But

according to the doctrine of relativity that isimpossible: the velocity

cisconstant. The thing that changes is not c, but m. And the energy of a moving body is mne, where øn is greater than mo And as the

speed of motion increases, mı increases too; until at high speeds it is very great, and, as the speed of light is approached, tends to become infinite. So that when an identified portion of ether is in locomotion, it is not the speed that is changed, but the amount of modified ether associated with that identified moving portion. And what we observe as the kinetic energy of the particle is (#1, —#1)c? or cdm. This is what we have hitherto recognised and called įmo, an expression which is relative, and which is not exactly applicable 1o great velocities, such as we encounter in vacuum tubes and in radioactivity generally. 'To avoid any appearance of dogmatism on difficult subjects, it may be well to say that some eminent mathematicians are still of opinion that the Einstein formulation is not quite satisfactory. For instance, Larmor, Phil. Afag. (1923) claims that it only gives half values, and expects that some slight modification of Newtonian and Maxwellian theory will be found able to cover the above slight experimental deviations from what was previously known. The rest of this article must be treated as a tentative attempt to indicate ideas that cannot be thoroughly expressed at the present date except by symbols.

ETHICS Thus when we try to took at locomotion absolutely, we have to admit that varying speed means varying amounts of substance in the identified portion of matter we are attending to.

If the earth were to move quicker it would be more massive: and this increase of mass would appeal to us as locomotion. It is as if the normal constitutional circulation trended or drifted in one direction, so as to constitute perceptible or available energy. The same idea may be expressed magnetically by calling attention to the magnetic field surrounding a moving charge. At high speeds the magnetic field is strong; more substance is involved in it: and the additional spin (if that is the right term, for magnetism is usually thought of as a kind of spin) accounts for the additional energy. Why it should appeal to us as locomotion, and what the real meaning of locomotion is, are not so clear. This is only an illustration of the difficulty we experience when we come to probe the simplest thing to its depths. We have grown accustomed to certain aspects of the universe given us by our senses, but we do not fundamentally understand them. And when we come to probe the meaning of things deeply enough, we find ourselves up against difficulties of conception, toward the elucidation of which our senses give hardly any aid. What we are used to is mechanical movements; but the effort to explain things ultimately in that way is not easy, and may turn out to be not possible. ’ Meanwhile we take refuge in expressing these things in terms of electricity and magnetism; which is a step toward an explanation, and is useful in bringing out the difficulties which underlie every ultimate and absolute statement. The attempted absolute expression for static electric energy, mc? with the Inertia m as the only variable, is a legitimate mathematical expression of electric facts. But the real meaning of c is, at present, a hypothesis: and what the real meaning of m is, must be regarded as still less known. Both these factors must have reference to the ether, and until we know more about the constitution of the ether we must be content to remain in a condition of provisional ignorance. We are led to regard the material universe as a substantial reality in various stages or varieties of internal activity. We may try to think of this activity as akin to a finegrained vortex circulation in a continuous, incompressible, perfect fluid: beyond that we cannot at present go; nor are we clear about the exact meaning of these terms when applied to a medium of unknown constitution. When we understand the real and ultimate nature of electricity and magnetism we may hope to proceed further. Till then we must be content with proximate explanations. (O. L.) ETHICS (see 9.808).—Since rorr little new or striking work has appeared on the subject of moral philosophy. The more original and prolific writers have devoted themselves mainly to metaphysics, or especially to the theory of knowledge. This was perhaps a natural result of the philosophical situation; but, while the consequent progress in these studies has been valuable, the loss has also been serious. The temporary neglect of ethics, the branch most attractive to the average educated reader, has tended to lessen popular interest in philosophy and to make the style as well as the subject of philosophical writers more technical. Attention to the facts of the moral consciousness has value even for the special preblems cf epistemology. Perhaps in revenge for the neglect of genuine philosophical reflection on morality, a large part of the work professedly upon the subject has not been strictly philosophical at all, but either didactic or anthropological. There has certainly been no decrease in the output of books aiming at edification by attempting to deduce particular practices, political, social or religious, from arbitrarily selected principles. In other words, during this period, between the stools of metaphysic and didactic casuistry, moral philosophy has fallen to the ground. In English H. Rashdall’s work! still holds the field as the most adequate survey of the whole ground of ethical controversies, though the modified rationalist and altruistic utilitarianism of his own view would certainly not be universally accepted. 1 The Theory of Good and Evil (Oxford, 1907).

1029

English Idealism.—The traditional doctrine of English idealism, not yet affected by contemporary Italian idealists or by the revival of realism, is well represented by J. H. Muirhead.? The general character and difficulties of this view may be illustrated by a quotation: ‘ There is no such thing as determination by pure reason. Apparent cases, as in the preference of duty to inclination, are cases of determination by a deeper inclination.” Here the word “ deeper ” where, after ‘ preference” we might have expected “ stronger,” seems ambiguous. “ The humblest plant is free in a sense denied to the heavens. A fortiori, all this is true of beings who not only live but can make their life an object—who to adjustment to environment and to determination from within can add determination by the idea of self.” A man is more free according as he “lives more habitually and consistently in his deepest purposes.” He who sees what is reasonable must doit. “The essence of moral judgment is distinction of value between different forms of momentary and individual satisfaction.” A similar view is elaborated in greater detail and with a full discussion of objections by G. C. Field.’ For him also the only possible motive to action is desire; and on this point he contrasts Aristotle favourably with Kant. A wise man’s desires are directed towards an end which would fully and permanently satisfy him, and the only such end is love as embodied in Kant’s Kingdom of Ends. Right action then is action which tends to produce such a state, or expresses such a state, or removes hindrances to it. It is hard to see that such theories really give any account of obligation, and particularly any real account of the obligation to justice. The Realists—The moral theory o_ a realist, S. Alexander,’ Js not so different from that of idealists as might have been expected. He describes goodness as being like truth and beauty, a “tertiary quality ” or value which exists “in a physical fact ” only “ for a contemplating mind.”’ ‘‘ Good ts the satisfaction of persons.” But goodness is attributed to acts of will only when they possess “ coherence,” which is not their ‘‘ quality ” but a “ property ” belonging to them just “so far as the valuing subject appreciates it.” “ The reality which we produce is good in so far as it satisfies coherently the persons who bring it about.” ‘* Morality arises out of our human alfections and desires which we seek to satisfy. Some of them are self-regarding, others are natural affections for others. . .. We sympathise or dissympathise . . . with certain impulses or tendencies of others. ... The good wills are those which cohere with each other.” “The good act is approved as pleasing the collective wills.” “ In so far as the individual is good he represents the collective wills of the society. Iis approbations whether of himself or others coincide with theirs. So far as he is good he embodies the common judgment... he is the standardised

man.”

‘Self and others are claims which are antecedent to

morality and are reconciled by the moral judgment itself. . . . Much suffering and heartburning may be endured in the social adjustment of claims and exaltation of what is approved of them into rights, till the individuat has learned the dithcult lesson of finding more pleasure in following the right than he loses from the sucrilice of his desires.” Idealisin vt. Realisin.—The expected issue between idealistic and realistic ethics is, however, clearly raised by G. E. Moore? where he asks Whether when we judge (either truly or falsely) that an action is a duty or a state of things good, all that we are thinking about the action or the state of things in question is simply and solely that (1) we ourselves or (2) others have or tend to have a certain feeling towards it when we contemplate or think of it.” This question he inclines to answer negatively, on the grounds that (1) where two people differ in a moral judgment we cannot think both are right, and (2) in making a moral judgment we do not mean to assert that others agree to it. 2 Author of The Elements of Fihics (1910), in his article ‘ Ethics ”

in the Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. 5 (London, 1912). 3 Moral Thecry (1921). 4 Space, Time, and Deity (1920). “The last essay of his Philosophical Studies (1922).

1030

ETHICS

Elsewhere the same writer, after expanding this view, argues that what makes an action right is its consequences. LHe does not make clear whether he would consider there would bea difference of conseauences if by my act an exactly similar satisfaction could be produced either in a stranger er in one to whom I was unde some obligation. To the question of freedom he suggests the answer that we are free to do an act if we could do it if we willed it; but he is not decided whether it is ever true that we can will or not will an act.

II, A. Prichard? points out that nearly all moral philosophers from Plato downwards have taken for their function to prove that we ought to do what we take to be our duties (or what they take to be our duties) as against a reflective scepticism arising from our disinclination the obligation either of amended in their own either (1) to argue with duties were really our

to doit. They have tried to demonstrate current morality or of some version of it sense. The only ways of doing this were the hedonists of all types that such alleged interest—which after all does not prove

them our duty; or (2) to argue with Sidgwick and Rashdall that the alleged duties were really duties because they led to some end rationally judged to be good; but this cannot always be shown of an

act of secret (and therefore not exemplary) justice; or(3)to base the obligation to the alleged duties on the goocliess of the act itself, But in this last attempt “ good ” either means (a) right, and then we are only told that an act is right because it is right; or (b) moral, t.e., done from a sense of duty, and then we are told that acts are right which are done because they are thought right; or (c) virtuous, z.e., done from a good desire, and then we are told that acts are right if they spring from right desires; but to havea desire is not in our power. It would appear that there can be no such thing as moral philosophy if that means a proof of our immediate moral apprehensions. If these are subsequently questioned (on any ground other than ignorance of matters of fact) the only remedy is to replace oneself imaginatively in the situation and perform the moral judgment again. The only proper

sphere of moral philosophy is to justify the immediacy of our moral judgments and so to defend them against the scepticism which may arise from the failure to find demonstration. Influence of Croce.—Lerhaps the strongest idealistic influence of an original character has been that of Benedetto Croce.? Unlike Rashdall, Croce would deny that the rightness of an act depends upon its being directed to an end rationally judged to be good. For him a good is merely the object of a desire. All rules of conduct are merely empirical generalisations from past moral acts. Every act has its utilitarian or, as he calls it, “‘ economic ” side; in order to be willed at all its doing must have satisfied the doer. Moral acts have this economic side; they satisfy the agent; but they, and they only, have also another side which he de-

scribes as “ universal.”

They satisfy not merely the individual

nature of the doer, but that universal spirit in which as an individual spirit he shares. To the question of freedom, whether it is in our power to choose to satisfy either the empirical individual self only or the universal spirit, Croce’s answer is obscure. He denies determinism as being “‘ the introduction of the methods of physical science into philosophy,” but he also denies

what he calls “arbitrary choice.” On the whole, his view of freedom would appear similar to that of H. Bergson, whom he quotes with approval.t Fhe Pratica, though brilliant in criticism, is too cursory and contemptuous in its treatment of difficult problems to be satisfactory. For instance, it is not clear whether the acts which are said to satisfy the universal spirit are right acts (perhaps not known to be so by the individual) or moral acts—1i.e., acts done because thought (perhaps falsely) to be right by the individual. In spite of this, and of their very different starting-points, there are some remarkable points of agreement between Croce and Prichard, which, just because of that difference, may well be symptoms of the general trend of contemporary thought. t Fthics (1912). 2 Mind (Jan. 1912) “ Does Moral Philosophy Rest on a Mistake?” 3 Filosofia della Pratica, written in 1908 and translated into English in 1913. 4 Les Données Immédiates de la Conscience (1889).

They agree (1) that, as against Kant, we cannot think an act right unless we think it will originate some satisfaction; but vet (2) that, as against Sidgwick and Rashdall, the rightness of one of alternative acts cannot be determined by the greater satisfaction or greater good which it will originate; and indeed (3) that rightness cannot be determined by reference to any concept other than rightness itself. Further, consequently, they agree (4) that “the formula of means and end is irrelevant in morality ” and (5) that what is called “ proving the rightness of an act 7” is either (a) giving fuller information about the situation, or (b) giving fuller information about the act itself, 7.c., what we are originating. Croce’s “universal act’ or satisfaction of the universal self would perhaps be described by Prichard as originating the satisfactions which we ought to originate or which we think we ought to originate. (The ambiguity is Croce’s.) Pragmatist Theortes.—Theories of morality in a pragmatist sense have been mainly developed in America by J. Dewey and others. Much that is here insisted on would be accepted by moralists of other schools: that right conduct depends in part on a scientihe knowledge of the results of action; that all action has social effects; that there is no one ascertainable “ end of man ”’ to which all right actions are directed as means; that rules of morality are only generalisations from the judgments passed on particular acts in definite situations. But some of the conclusions would be regarded as paradoxical by moralists of any school outside hedonism. Tor instance, along with other “ends” dismissed as fictitious, Dewey classes the principle of “ obedience to rational consciousness of duty.” “ A remote goal of perfection, ideals that are contrary in a wholesale way to what is actual, a free will of arbitrary choice—all of these conceptions band themselves together with that of a non-empirical authority of Right and a non-empirical conscience which acknowledges it... . Why indeed acknowledge the authority of Right? That many persons do not acknowledge it in fact, in action, and that all persons ignore it at times, is assumed by the argument. Just what is the significance of an alleged recognition of a supremacy which is continually denied in fact? How much would be Jost if it were dropped out and we were left face to face with actual facts? ... We live in a world where other persons live too. Our acts affect them. They perceive these effects and react upon us in consequence. . . . They approve and condemn, not in abstract theory but in what they do to us. The answer to the question, ‘ Why not put your hand in the fire?’ is the answer of fact. If you do, your hand will be burnt. The answer to the question, ‘ Why acknowledge the right?’ is of the same sort . . . it signifies the totality of social pressures exercised upon us.” The conclusion appears to be that the only meaning for “ thinking an act right ” is the doing it, from fear of punishment. The most interesting endeavour to demonstrate the rightness of some particular kind of conduct from philosophical principles is made by ¥. Solovyof.* It is the most interesting both because the emphasis on asceticism is somewhat strange to the Western conscience and because of the psychological views involved. The basis of morality is said to be self-regarding, not social; it consists in the sense of shame, primarily sexual shame, peculiar to humanity, which is implicitly a sense of the duty to free ourselves from the dominion of “ the body ” and of its instinctive demands for racial or individual preservation. Closely connected with the shame of sex (or of subjection to racial preservation) 1s

shame of fear (or of subjection to selfish preservation). Shame is developed by reason into conscience, which gradually extends its sphere of criticism from the self-regarding duties of chastity and courage (subjection of bodily impulses) to the social duty of pity for those similar but inferior to us and the religious duty of reverence for what is superior to us. These two duties are developed, unlike shame, from impulses natural to animals as well as men, since they begin in parental and filial affection. From these three impulses the writer develops an elaborate system of personal, political and religious ethics. 5 Creative Intelligence (1917) and by J. Dewey in Reconstruction in Philosophy (1921) and Human Nature and Conduct (1922). | 6 The Justification of the Good, translated from the Russian in 1918.

ETHYL

CHLORIDE— EUGENICS

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Fhe following are among the more

interesting

relevant hooks of the period in addition to those cited above: L Dealing mainly with Ethics: J. Ward, Fhe Realm of Ends (Cambridge, 1911); R. Eucken, Present Day Ethics, translated by M. von Legdewitz (1913); E. B. Holt, Fhe Freudian Wisk and Its Place ia Ethics (1915); W. G. Everett, Aforal Vulues (1920); F. Adler, Ax Ethical Philosophy of Life (1918); B. Bosanquct, Some Suggestions in Fthics (1918); W. B. Hocking, Human Nature and Its Remaking (1918); W. R. Sorley, Moral Values and ihe Idea of God (Cambridge, t918); A. K. Rogers, The Theory of Ethics (1922); W. MeDougall, Athics and Some Modern World Problems (1924). I. Dealing with Ethics as incidental to a philosophic system: B. Bosanquet, Phe Principle of Individuality and Value (1912), The Value and Destiny of the Individual (1913). (Ea Pees)

ETHYL

CHLORIDE

(C.IT;Cl)

(see 9.851),

prepared

from

hydrochloric acid and ethyl alcohol, is a gas at room temperature, but is stored and sold under pressure in glass bottles fitted with trigger-controlled spray nozzles, as a colourless, mobile liquid with a characteristic ethereal smell and sweet, burning taste, which boils at r2:5°C. The vapour burns with a green flame. Chloryl and Kelene are trade names. Anestile is a mixture of ethyl and methyl chlorides. Uses.—It is used (a) as a local anaesthetic for small incisions,

tooth extractions and needle punctures, by spraying it on the surface of the skin or mucous membrane in a fine stream. Its rapid evaporation causes local freezing (— 35°C. can be obtained). This method is unsatisfactory for many reasons. Only a very small area can be frozen at one time, it is difficult to puncture or cut the hard-frozen tissues, the freezing is very transitory, the thawing afterward is exceedingly painful, the frozen zone is so superficial that the smallest incision penetrates beyond it and is felt by the patient, and lastly it is not good treatment to produce acute frost-bite in living tissues. (b) As a general anaesthetic, it is usually given in doses of 3-5 cubic centimetres inaclosed inhaler. Anordinary ether inhaler will do perfectly well. As regards safety it is probably intermediate between nitrous oxide and ether. At one dental hospital it has been given nearly 100,000 times without mishap. Short administrations produce an anaesthesia similar in type to that of nitrous oxide with an equally rapid loss of consciousness, a quick recovery and slight after-effects. Like gas, it can be safely givenin the sitting position. It is more convenient than gas, as the apparatus required is less bulky; it is more powerful and more reliable, gives a longer period of anaesthesia for dental work (go seconds instead of 30), and docs not cause cyanosis. Muscular relaxation cannot be guaranteed, especially in adult males, but it is as a rule more satisfactory than with gas. Longer administrations approximate more to the ether type of anaesthesia, ethyl chloride being, like chloroform and ether and unlike gas, a lipoid solvent. For cases lasting more than a few minutes ether is preferable and cheaper. Ethyl chloride may also be used to precede ether anaesthesia by the open or closed methods and is more humane as quicker, less irritating with a less unpleasant smell. Clinically its effect on the circulatory and respiratory systems is slightly stimulating, causing flushing of the face, acceleration of the pulse rate by 10-20 beats per minute and arise in systolic blood pressure of ro to 20 millimetres, together with deeper and more rapid breathing. (See ANAESTHETICS.) (W.S. S.) ETHYLENE (sce 9.851), when inhaled is a general anaesthetic and was first used as such by Luckhardt and Carter in 10923. It is still in the experimental stage, however. Like nitrous oxide it isnot a hpoid solvent. It is given with oxygen, of which 7-12°% is needed. Caution is necessary because of the explosive nature of the mixture. Its efliciency is between that of gas oxygen and ether. Ether may have to be used with it to deepen the anaes-

thesia. (See ANAESTHETICS.)

(W. S. S.)

EUGENICS (see 9.885), 4 name for any plan to improve the inborn qualities of the human races. The idea that such improvement might be made by deliberate selection of parents in accordance with the practices of animal husbandry, has doubtless often occurred to man from the earliest times to the present. The earliest extant expression of it in Hterature is probably found in Plato’s Republic, written about 375 B.c. Plato recom-

1031

mended that, for the improvement of the quality of the citizens, matings should be arranged by the magistrates between the best of both sexes. Toward the close of the roth century Sir Frances Galton, from studies described in Naturel Inheritance (1889) and

Hereditary

Genius (1869) concluded that improvement of the human stock was not only conceivable but practicable. At his death he arranged for the continued study of the subject at the University of London, where Karl Pearson has since directed the work of the Galton Laboratory of National Eugenics. An important

series of its publications

deals with

human

heredity.

(See

Herepity.) Interest in that subject was further stimulated in 1900 by the rediscovery of Menclel’s laws (see MENDELISM), now rezarded as the fundamental laws of heredity in animals and plants as well as in man, though the laws were unknown to Galton himself, who formulated a different generalised law of heredity (Galton’s law), a less accurate generalisation than Mendel’s, as is now recognised. Eugenics Record Office.—In the United States, the Eugenics Record Office was founded in 1910 by Dr. C. B. Davenport, at Cold Spring Harbour, N. Y., for collecting for study all data obtainable about family histories, with special reference to the inheritance of traits physical or mental. The public is invited to deposit at the Eugenics Record Office family records, whose privacy is guaranteed. By co-operation with the authorities, family histories are also obtained relating to the patients or inmates of institutions for the insane, epileptic and feeble-minded. Based on the study of such data, bulletins are from time to time published concerning the inheritance of traits such as insanity, epilepsy, feeble-mindedness, hair-colour, skin-colour, stature, body-build and hair-form. Since the rediscovery of Mendelism occasioned the founding of the Eugenics Record Office, it is natural that results coming from this institution should have been formulated as far as possible in terms of Mendel’s laws. Thus in certain of its early bulletins feeble-mindedness, insanity and epilepsy are described as recessive characters, while Huntington’s chorea, fragility of bones associated with blue choroid of the eye, and violent temper are described as dominant characters. Possibly some of these and other results published by the Eugenics Record Office have been put into too simple and too rigid categories, and a strictly Mendelian statement of results has been adopted oftener than is justified by present knowledge of genetics. Karl Pearson and his associates of the Galton Laboratory in London have gone to an opposite extreme in ignoring Mendelism in the interpretation of heredity. Both schools agree that insanity, for example, occurs oftener in some families than in others, and that the differences are too great to be due to chance. A predisposition to insanity must accordingly be an inherited character, but its manifestations in successive generations are

too varied and erratic to be described as a case of simple Mendelian inheritance. Developments in Various Countries—The study of human heredity is being actively pursued at present in most countries where the genetics of other animals and of plants are being investigated. Britain, Germany, Sweden, Holland and the United States have journals, devoted to a greater or less extent, to publishing the results of studies of human heredity. A considerable portion of the published material is probably of small value, since it is uncontrolled by experiment and is based largely on uncritical data; nevertheless substantial progress is being made in our knowledge of human heredity. There is an inherited basis for differences between individuals, families, and races, as regards (a) colour of skin, hair and eyes; (b) stature; and (c) head-form; what a geneticist would call multiple factor differences, dependent upon more than one inheritance unit, as the results of racial crosses show. Cases of inheritance due to onc-factor differences (simple Mendelian cases) are limited chiefly to physical abnormalities or peculiarities such as albinism, night-blindness, brachydactyly, syndactyly, and other digital malformations, colour-blindness, spontaneous bleeding or haemophilia, and alkaptonuria. Few of these are seriously

1032

EUGENIE—-EUPEN AND MALMEDY

harmful characters or recur with alarming frequency in a normally exogamous population. Mental Traits—It is generally believed that differences in intelligence are inherited, that the children of highly intelligent parents are more intelligent than the children of low-grade parents. But as the intellectual capacity of the child is determined only in part by inheritance and in part by the environment, it is difficult to devise intelligence tests (¢.v.) which will discriminate between effects of the two agencies. Also not all the children of highly intelligent parents are of the same character. Nor are all children of exceptional intelligence born of highly intelligent parents. | Clearly then, neither high intelligence nor mediocre intelligence breeds true. While this will be generally admitted, some hold that the lowest grades of human intelligence do breed true, in the sense that feeble-minded parents have only feeble-minded offspring. Such in general is the finding of H. H. Goddard, who made a study of the families of pupils in the Vineland, N.J., Training School for the Feeble-Minded. To this it has been objected that the class feeble-minded cannot be clearly defined, since there are all grades of human intelligence between the lowest and the highest. Individuals of the very lowest grade (idiots) do not become parents, and it is only the “ feeble-minded ” of a fair amount of intelligence (comparable with that of anthropoid apes) who do leave offspring. Whether, when both parents are feeble-minded, the children are all as low in intelligence as their parents cannot be stated with any certainty until more reliable tests of intelligence have been devised than now exist. Effect of Infection—Another element of uncertainty is the part played by infection, especially with syphilis, in the production of feeble-mindedness and other nervous disorders. Admittedly it is considerable; its exact extent is unknown. A true-breeding feeble-minded strain may in some cases be only a fully infected syphilitic strain. A great majority of the feebleminded are produced by matings in which one or both parents are not feeble minded, and a certain percentage of these cases are admittedly non-genetic, being due to accidents or infections occurring before, at, or subsequent to birth. But when more than one case occurs in the same family history, a genctic agency is at once suspected, though perhaps quite unjustly. Since, in the case of the higher grades and of average grades of intelligence, it is evident that differences, when genetic, are due to multiple factors, it is doubtful whether a low grade of intelligence is in general inherited as a unit-character cither dominant or recessive, though in a particular isolated and inbred family group, this may well be true. Heredity and Eugenics —uman heredity forms the only rational basis of a programme of eugenics. Such programmes have been outlined and are being advocated by national societies in England, Germany, France, Italy, Sweden, Norway, the United States and several other countries. Two international congresses on eugenics have been held, the frst in London, the second in New York in 1921. A permanent international committee on eugenics has been formed. A state-supported eugenic institute has been established in Sweden. The Foundations—The philosophy or logical foundation on which eugenic programmes explicitly or implicitly rest may be stated as follows:— 1. The present stratification of society is in part due to differences in ability between its constituent strata. The abier individuals rise to positions of influence and authority, enter the learned or professional classes, or become captains of industry and acquire wealth. The less able work with their hands rather than their heads, since the latter are inferior, and must content themsclves with lesser economic rewards. 2. Each grade of ability has a tendency to breed true, though there are numerous exceptions. Thus the average ability of children produced by the professional classes and wealthier industrial ant business classes 1s greater than the average for children of the poor on and labouring classes. 3. In all civilised countries at the present time the professional and wealthy classes are producing fewer children per family than the poor and the labouring classes (see BIRTH CONTROL). (This differential fertility of the classes appears to be a modern development; e.g., in Britain it only originated shortly before 1850.)

4. Asa consequence of 2 and 3 the average gracle of intelligence of the populations in all civilised countries is at present declining, and this decline will continue until the differential character of the birthrate is abolished or reversed. 5. In addition, it has been maintained that physical and mental

defects are increasing in all classes.

Measures Proposed—The practical measures proposed by eugenists to correct the supposed declining quality of the population are of two sorts. t. Measures designed to discourage, decrease or prevent reproduction by the inferior elements of the population—negalive eugenics. 2. Measures designed to encourage or increase reproduction by the superior elements of the population—positive eugenics. Negative eugenic measures include (1) the dissemination of information (popular education) concerning the racial conscquences of unfit matings, which will result in voluntary abstention from marriage, or birth control, on the part of those likely to transmit bad physical or mental traits; (2) legal prohibition

of marriage to persons unfit to be parents—for example, members of families with a hereditary taint of insanity, epilepsy, feeble-mindedness or the like; (3) segregation during the reproductive period, or sterilisation of mentally defective or otherwise seriously unfit persons. Measures of the first-mentioned sort are the aim in part of publications such as The Eugenics Review (London), Engenical News (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.) and of the published proceedings of congresses and conferences on eugenics. Laws which fall into classes (2) and (3) have been enacted in certain of the United States, but most of these have been rendered ineffective by court decisions. In support of positive eugenics, proposals have been made to offer economic inducements to fit parents to have large families, but the practical difficulty of determining who are “ fit” or of putting into effect class legislation for their benefit has hitherto prevented such suggestions from taking concrete form. Criticisms.—Those who decry or look with disfavour on the modern eugenic movement suggest that the philosophy of eugenics is faulty, in that (a) the basic assumption that social status is in any degree due to inborn qualities of the individual, not to accidents of environment or opportunity, requires proof; (b) that the supposed greater average ability of the children of the professional and wealihier industrial classes is another unproved assumption, and that their superior attainments, if real, my be due to superior advantages made possible by greater economic resources or by the smaller number of children in the family; that (c) unless both assumptions (a) and (b) are established, there is no reason to think that the differential birth-rate is dvsgenic; and (d) that such negative eugenic measures as refusing a marriage license to a person on the basis of his pedigrec, or subjecting him to bodily mutilation against his will, are unwarranted interferences with his liberty and personal rights; that (e) the eugenists are wrong not only in the basic assumptions of their philosophy but also in their general conclusion that the human race is declining in ability, since at no time within the histeric period has mankind been progressing faster than within

the past century in physical, mental and moral achievements. Brpriocraruy.—P.

B. Pepenoe

and

R. H. Johnson

Applied

Exeenics (N.Y., 1918); E. Baur, E. Fischer and F. Lenz, Crundriss der menschlichen Erèlichkeitslehre ete., (Munich, 1921), “ Eugenics, Genetics and the Family ” in the scientific papers of the Second International Eugenics Congress (Baitimore, 1923); R. R. Gates, Tleredity and Eugenics (1923); S. J}. Holmes,

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EUROPE been adopted when the Great Powers of Europe had recognised the new independence of Rumania and Serbia. The Principal Allied Powers.—These political and territorial changes had radically altered the political balance of the continent. For the last 100 years, by common consent, the five—later six-—-Great Powers had exercised a general control and supervision over all European matters, and had in particular claimed the right of intervening when any important territorial change was proposed. This system, which at the best had only worked intermittently and had often failed owing to dissensions among the Great Powers, had now broken down. The three eastern

monarchies were eliminated, and there remained only Great Britain, France and Italy. It was these three states, who, together with the United States of America and Japan, acting as the Principal Allied and Associated Powers, had determined the conditions of peace, and there naturally fell to them the responsibility of enforcing their observance. The United States, by their refusal to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, fell out. In regard to European matters, Japan had no direct interest and claimed none; on these the three European Powers in effect acted alone; to them fell also, as the only organised centre of authority in Europe, a general prerogative of control. It soon appeared, however, that their real powers were very limited. Notwithstanding the victory which they had achieved in the War, they were so exhausted by the effort that they had not the effective military power nor the financial resources to impose their will throughout the great expanse of Central or Eastern

Europe. Their position was very different from that of the allied monarchs who, after 1814, were in military occupation of large

parts of the Continent and were able, almost without resistance, to carry into effect any resolution on which they jointly agreed. In ro1g the Allies found difficulty in exercising any effective control over the steps by which the new states, such as Poland and Czechoslovakia, came into existence, and they encountered serious obstacles when they attempted to supervise and limit the large extensions of territory demanded by Poland, Yugoslavia and Rumania. None the less, it was necessary for them to set up machinery for dealing with the very numerous and sometimes important

problems arising out of the treaties which could be dealt with by them alone. Almost every chapter of the treaties left important points, including the right of interpretation, to the Principal Allied and Associated Powers. Some of these, e.g., reparation and the control of the occupied areas in Germany, were referred

to special commissions.

Matters of outstanding importance

were dealt with by periodical meetings of the allied statesmen who continued, under the title of the Supreme Council, the work done by the Council of Fourat Paris. These meetings varied from long and formal conferences, such as those of Spa in July 1920 or of London in Feb. 1921, to brief and transitory conversations between the Prime Ministers of Great Britain and France, hastily summoned to deal with some special point or special emergency. They were similar in character and object to the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle and other conferences which followed on the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars. Matters of less importance were referred to the Conference of Ambassadors, a body created in 1920, which sat in Paris. To it there reported, for instance, the territorial commissions which had been set up to mark the new frontiers; it had to frame the decisions arrived at after the various plebiscites ordained by the Peace treaties, had been held. Much of the work which came before it was of an extremely subordinate character. It is a mistake, which is not uncommon, to speak of the Conference of Ambassadors as a body with its own independent rights and duties. In itself it had no power or authority; it was merely a clearing house established to avoid the long delay involved in dealing with questions by the ordinary diplomatic channels. The members of the conference were each directly responsible to the Government by which he was appointed. Its functions were also strictly limited to questions which arose out of the execution or interpretation of the treaties; there does not seem any case in which it transcended them. As the years went on, the points

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referred to it, which at first had been very numerous and sometimes of considerable importance, naturally diminished. The League of Nations —Of greater importance was the institution of the League of Nations. This differed fundamentally from the older system of meetings of the Great Powers and, in fact was something quite new in the machinery of dealing with international affairs. The first point to be noted in its organisation was that it was a permanent body with a standing secretariat and regular meetings. By this alone it showed a great advance. Matters of a political nature could be referred to it and dealt with immediately before they had had time to become politically dangerous. When any local dispute arose, it was no longer necessary to create special machinery for dealing with it or to resort to the cumbrous method of calling a special conference; the machinery was there ready and able to get te work without delay. Moreover, it was found that an appreciable advantage was gained by transferring discussions from the more electric atmosphere prevailing in cities such as Paris, London or Rome, to the more neutral and impartial surroundings of Geneva. Almost as important as the creation of the League itself was that of the Court of International Justice, which was set up in the year 1920-1 at The Hague; the settlement of international disputes was much facilitated by the existence of a permanent organ to which all questions of a judicial nature were automatically referred. Again, in the constitution of the League there was found a solution of a long-standing difficulty. The dominance of the Great Powers had during the 19th century been pushed so far as seriously to threaten the sovereignty and independence of the smaller states. In the Assembly of the League, however, every European State, except Germany and Russia, had a seat, and | in the Council (which was for most purposes the executive organ) side by side with the permanent members, the Great Powers, there was an actual majority of elected representatives of the other states. All this gave to the smaller states an influence and importance of which they had long been deprived. Of this opportunity they were quick to avail themselves. Many of the representatives, for instance Mr. Branting of Sweden, M. Hymans of Belgium, M. Beneš of Czechoslovakia, M. Politis of Greece, M. Quinones of Spain, quickly won a high position in public esteem; they showed eloquence in debate and wisdom in counsel. It soon became apparent that in dealing with political matters one of the chief weapons of the League was publicity. The open discussion in the Assembly and the Council had a great effect in creating a general public opinion which no state could

afford to ignore.

|

Naturally time was required before the League could undertake its political duties. It was fortunate that the major questions which were agitating Europe at this time, especially the continued conflicts between the Allies and Germany, did not fall within its sphere. They, like all other questions concerning the interpretation and enforcement of the treaties, had in the first place to be dealt with by the Allies. It was an important stage when, owing to continued differences of opinion in the Conference of Ambassadors as to the partition of Upper Silesia after the plebiscite, this question was referred to the League for decision. They were asked to adjudicate on the difference of opinion between Great Britain, France and Italy, all three Powers, having agreed beforehand to accept their verdict. The decision when given was at once adopted and enforced, and though the

justice of it has often been criticised, the very fact that a decision was obtained in this manner was a good omen for the future. Other matters arising out of the treaties were by them definitely referred to the League and not to the Allies, as for

instance the control of the Saar Valley, the adjudication between Poland and Danzig of disputed points which arose in great number owing to the anomalous position in which the free city of Danzig had been placed. These, and the working of the Minority Treaties, which also belonged to the League, gave valuable experience and materially helped to solidify the new institution. In some cases it was not so successful. The League failed, as did the Allies, to bring about a satisfactory solution of the controversy which arose between Poland

1004

EUROPE

and Lithuania after the lawless seizure of Vilna by General Zeligowski. When a similar problem arose out of a raid by the Lithuanians on the town of Memel, outstanding points were eventually referred to the League by the Conference of Ambassadors; here again a solution was arrived at, though in this case the terms of settlement were such that grave apprehension might be felt as to the feasibility of enforcing them. The most marked success which the League achieved was the settlement in June 1921 of the dispute between Sweden and Finland regarding the ownership of the Aaland Islands. But they also intervened effectively to determine awkward fronticr questions between Albania and Yugoslavia, and they averted what would probably have been an outbreak of war between Greece and Bulgaria in 1925 over a serious frontier incident. In another sphere the League proved itself of great use, when its assistance was called upon to create a scheme for the financial rehabilitation of Austria, and, this having been done, in a similar way to bring about an international agreement for the restoration of Hungarian finances. Great Britain and France—Ultimately the peaceful progress of the Continent depended upon the mutual relations between the three Great Powers, Great Britain, France and Italy, and particularly on those between Great Britain and France. Not only in the more informal diplomatic discussions, but in the meetings of the Supreme Council, the Conference of Ambassadors, the Reparation Commission, and also the Council of the League of Nations, no satisfactory conclusion could be obtained unless an agreement had been arrived al between France and Great Britain. This agreement was often difficult. Even during the War there was constant evidence that the close understanding which had been temporarily brought about owing to the insistent pressure of the German danger, was fragile and uncertain. From the moment that this danger was over, divergence of policy began. It was present throughout all the discussions in Paris and increased after the peace treatics had been signed. There were many matters on which the two states were by their interests and traditions disposed to take conflicting views. The French Govt. and people, naturally intent on future security desired to protect themselves by a new system of defensive alliances, in which the military superiority of the Allies should be made permanent. Great Britain, owing to her worldwide interests and the fact that her representatives had to speak not only for these islands but also for the Dominions, was forced to take a more detached view of purely European problems, and in particular, public opinion was very averse from any formal commitments which might force her on some future occasion to take part in a new European war. While the French aimed at a common guarantce for the maintenance of the new system among the states adjacent to Germany, especially with Poland and Czechoslovakia, the British wished to pursue a policy rather of reconciliation, and were very opposed to anything that would bind them to a formal guarantee of the new frontiers in the East of Europe. Throughout the long negotiations with Germany on military control, on reparation, on the occupation of the Rhineland, the British representatives always tended to take a more lenient view than the French; these differences led to something like an open conflict of policies, especially during the period when M. Poincaré held office as French Minister President. There was, for instance, definite British opposition to the occupation of the Ruhr and to the French attitude towards the Separatist movement in the Palatinate and the Rhine provinces. The diplomatic situation created was cften difficult, for however great the difference of opinion might be, no one could doubt the supreme importance of maintaining the closest

touch between the two countries. Any definite severance or diplomatic opposition would necessarily have had the gravest consequences. Europe was full of inflammable material; there were many places where at any moment a conflagration might break out. If in any of these questions, as for instance the attempts of the Emperor Charles to recover his throne and the consequent mobilisation of the forces of the Little Entente, the constant causes of friction between Yugoslavia on the one

hand, Italy, Greece and Bulgaria on the other, the two Great Powers, instead of using their common influence to damp down the growing excitement and enmity, had taken sides, each supporting one of the antagonists, there would have been, instead of a brief and unimportant local controversy, a formal division of interests which would have affected the whole Continent. This period of strained relations came to an end in the spring of 1924, when the fall of M. Poincaré followed shortly after the establishment of the Labour Ministry in this country. From this time there took place a remarkable change in French policy. They had, as we have seen, concentrated their endeavours on procuring by alliances a permanent military superiority on the Continent; they now became keenly interested in the rival policy of producing security by disarmament. French representatives took a leading part in the drafting of the treaty for mutual security and also in advocating the adoption of the Geneva Protocol. In both matters the British Gevt. was less accommodating. There was a curious change of position. The English representatives now found that they were quickly losing the position which they had hitherto occupied, of being the principal supporters of the methods of avoiding war, with which the League was especially associated. Asa result it seemed for the time that the French

would step into this position, and there is no doubt that thereby they would greatly increase the influence, alwavs important, which they had exercised at Geneva. Ttaly.—In this association of the Allies during the first years after the War, Italy, under successive weak and embarrassed Govts., hampered as she was by internal dissensions, took no permanent part and pursued on the whole a pacifist rôle. A great change ensued when in Oct. 1922, after the march on Rome, Signor Mussolini, with a firm hand, took over the control. There was some apprehension that as a consequence of the strong nationalist element in the Fascist movement, the Government might adopt an ambitious and aggressive policy. Support for this was given by the very vigorous action of Mussolini when, in consequence of the murder of Italian officers occupied in the delimitation of the Greco-Albanian frontiers, an Italian fleet was sent to Corfu and attacked and occupied the town. Confronted, however, by the strong expression of opinion at a meeting of the League of Nations, the Italian Govt. accepted the intervention

and agreed to abide by the decisions of the Conference of Ambassadors, and what seemed for a moment a dangerous episode passed over (sce Corru; LEAGUE oF Nations). In other matters, as for instance the settlement of the prolonged Fiume con-

troversy and the general amelioration of relations with Yugoslavia, the new Italian Govt., while effectively protecting the interests of its own country, showed a considerable amount of diplomatic skill and discretion. The Little Entente—In no part of Europe did it seem that the

danger of continued unrest, both political and social, and then the outbreak of a fresh war, was so imminent as in the southeast. The disappearance of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy had brought about a state of things which is often referred to as the Balkanisation of Europe. Instead of one of the Great Powers, which with all its faults and internal weaknesses, had maintained for many centuries settled order, there were a number of small states of which some had to start the work of government from the very beginning. It was feared by many that they would be unequal to the task, that they would [fail in maintaining internal order and cohesion, and that consequently fresh wars might break out between them. :

It was under these circumstances that the ‘‘ Succession States ”’ arranged with one another a network of defensive alliances. This new system, commonly known as the Little Entente is undoubtedly one of the most remarkable diplomatic and political developments in Europe since the War. Among other things it shows a determination on the part of these states boldly and vigorously to take their place in Europe; they refused to accept a position, which perhaps some had anticipated they would hold, as clients to the Great Powers; they appear indeed to have acted without consulting, and perhaps to some extent contrary to the wishes of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers. It

EUROPE was a significant and not unwholesome reminder that the smaller states of Europe preposed to make the fullest use of the posilion which they had won, and it was the fitting outcome of a war in

which the cause of small nations played so large a part. A German victory would certainly have implied complete German predominance over the whole of Central Europe; the Allied victory had brought into existence new states of the second rank, but these were animated by the strongest assertion of their sovereign rights and influenced by a keen sense of national independence. In this the lead throughout was taken by Dr. Beneš, the Forcign Secretary of the Czechoslovak Republic. The beginning of this system (see LITTLE ENTENTE) is to be found in a treaty between Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia of Aug. 1920; this is in form a defensive alliance against an unprovoked attack from Hungary. In April 1921 a similar treaty was concluded between Czechoslovakia and Rumania: this, unlike the first, provided for a separate military convention to be eventually concluded. In June 1921r an identical treaty was signed between Rumania and Yugoslavia. It was the alliances between these three states by which the nucleus of the Little Entente was formed, and the basis of the alliance was mutual protection against the possibility of attack by Hungary. The reason of this is obvious; the territories of each of these states included large areas which had formerly belonged to Hungary, part of which were inhabited by a considerable Magyar population. The Hungarians, though they had been forced to sign the Treaty of Trianon, consistently refused to recognise the moral justice of the new frontiers, and it was the policy of the national parties to work for the restoration, at any rate of large parts of the territory which they had lost. Subsequently on March 3 1g2t Poland concluded a treaty with Rumania in which, for obvious reasons, there was no specific mention of Hungary. It is an alliance for the defence of their existing frontiers. It becomes, therefore, a defensive alliance against Russia. In Dec. of the same year a treaty by which the two states mutually guaranteed each other’s territories, was concluded between Czechoslovakia and Austria. This is of importance because it is the first case in which one of the states defeated in the War entered into a treaty of this nature with one of the victors, and thereby the Austrians formally gave up the claim which

they had made

in rọrọ

to those parts of

Czechoslovakia in which there was a predominantly German population. While the British Govt., though maintaining the most friendly relations with the different states concerned, and particularly with Czechoslovakia, held aloof from these arrangements, the French Govt., without any formal treaty, kept in close touch with the Government of Czechoslovakia and throughout assisted them by advice and the maintenance of a military mission, in building up their new army. With Poland, in Feb. 1921, they entered into a treaty by which the two Governments bound themselves to discuss together all questions of foreign policy in which they were mutually interested, and agreed, if necessary, to take steps for the mutual defence of their territory and the safeguarding of their legitimate interests. By an exchange of notes in 1921 the Italian and Czechoslovak Ministers declared that there was a complete identity between the views and aims of the two countries in the sphere of international politics, especi-

ally as regards the application of the treatics of peace and the policy to be followed towards the Successor States of the AustroHungarian Monarchy. By the end of 1921, therefore, the new group of states had come into effective existence, and it was cemented by repeated meetings on each other’s territory of the leading ministers. It acquired additional strength in 1924, when the prolonged difhculties between Italy and Yugoslavia, arising out of the Fiume question, had at length been settled, and in consequence a treaty of alliance was signed at Rome on Jan. 27 1924. In the same year a formal treaty of alliance was made by Czechoslovakia with both Italy and France. It must be noted that in all these treaties it is expressly stated that they were in accordance with the Covenant of the League of Nations, and were, of course, as required by the Covenant, published and deposited at Geneva.

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In this way they differ from previous systems, such as that of the Triple Alliance, which were to a large extent secret. This, however, does not apply to the military conventions by which some of the treaties were accompanied. Politically the general result of these treaties seems to have been to maintain peace and security. Hungary, disarmed as she was and with her greatly reduced territory, was not in a position to take the offensive.

That the treaties were effective and that

action would be taken in accordance with them was shown on more than one occasion, especially when the ex-Emperor Charles, in Oct. 192r suddenly appeared in Hungary with the object of

regaining the throne which he had lost. On this occasion the Czechoslovak Army was mobilised and it was probably only the intervention of the Great Powers which prevented the occupation of Hungarian territory. The problems and difficulties caused by the peace settlemen! were, however, not only political. The economic and financial results were equally important. The Empire had formed a unit, with a common railway system and common customs frontier, (Austria and Hungary, though technically distinct, had entered into a customs agreement) the financial centre being placed in Vienna, which was the headquarters of the great banks by which capital was distributed throughout the territories. From the moment of clissolution each of the successor states claimed and exercised the right to complete control of its own economic and

financial policy. Animated by an intense spirit of nationality, they were above all anxious to assert their full sovereignty, and refused to consent to efforts which were made during 191g to maintain in some form or another financial, if not political unity. They were just as frightened of the maintenance of the economic superiority of Vienna as they were of its political control. Each of these states was animated by the desire to make itself economically sufficient, and with this object, set to work to impose very high tariffs in order to foster its own industries. The result was a sudden and complete severance of long standing commercial ties. Trade and industry were disorganised; moreover, pending the liquidation of the great railway companies and rail. way material, the whole system of communication was thrown out of joint, as was the trade on the Danube, which was in the hands of several competing states, who created new impediments to its commercial use. The results were especially disastrous for the city of Vienna, which had largely depended on the trade in articles of luxurv to the less highly developed parts of the Empire, and also to the Balkans, but it seriously interfered with the prosperity of all the countries concerned. Under these circumstances many still maintained the hope of restoring in some form the old economic unity. Immediately after the War there were indications that some similar system of mutual guarantee between the smaller states might be formed among the countries bordering on the Baltic, in particular, among the states which had been separated from Russia. It was perhaps hoped that the three Scandinavian states would be willing to lend their support to such an alliance. If so, the hopes were disappointed. Sweden, Norway and Denmark, which had established and maintained during the War co-operation on matters of common interest, preferred, when the immediate danger was over, to revert to their older condition of isolation. They were prepared to rest their security on the general guarantee given by the League of Nations. In the summer of 1921 a Conference was held at Warsaw, which was attended by representatives of Finland and the three Baltic states, with a view to a defensive alliance, which in effect would have been one against Russia. The people of Finland, however, were not unnaturally alarmed by the prospect of being entangled in a war with Russia arising out of questions connected with the Polish frontier. At that time the relations between Russia and Poland were still very strained. In consequence, Holsti, the Prime Minister, finding that he could not get support for his policy, had to resign, and from this time these larger schemes fell to the ground. All, therefore, that was achieved was an alliance between the two small states of Latvia and Estonia, the political and commercial interests of which were almost identical. From

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this alliance, Lithuania, chiefly occupied by her perennial struggle with Poland, and therefore to some extent tending to depend on Russian support, held aloof. Guarantee Treaties —It was the strength, but also the weakness of the Leaguc of Nations, that as its members were recruited from all continents, so also in its formal constitution it gave no recognition of, or method of dealing with, those matters which concerned peculiarly the continent of Europe. This was shown by the treatment of the whole question of disarmament in connection especially with the different schemes for treaties of mutual guarantee and disarmament, and for the further proposals contained in the Geneva Protocol of 1924. Quite apart from the fact that by the preamble to the disarmament clauses of the treaty, the Allies had formally bound themselves to the principle of disarmament, there was a general agreement that a great reduction of armaments was essential to the future peace and progress of the Continent. Whatever view might be held about the particular degree of responsibility for the War of r914 which attached to each Power or each group of Powers, on one matter all were agreed—that the chief predisposing cause of the outbreak of war was the intense rivalry of armaments which had continued and increased ever since the war of 1870. It was a natural deduction that if this rivalry in armaments was to continue, it would at some future period almost inevitably result ina new outbreak. It could probably be foreseen that whatever the terms of the treaty were, it would not be possible permanently to maintain the system by which Germany was compelled to almost complete disarmament if, after she had become a member of the League of Nations, other nations of Europe, by which she was surrounded, especially France and Poland, recognised no restriction of the preparations which they might make for war. There was also ground for legitimate apprehension that if the newly constituted states of southeastern Europe devoted a large part of their energies and other resources to the building up of general armaments, sooner or later temptation might become irresistible to use these armies, not necessarily against their old enemies, Hungary and Bulgaria, but in some quarrel between themselves. There were, for instance, causes of friction between Yugoslavia on the one side, Italy and Greece on the other. It was obviously very undesirable that in a time of general financial depression and economic embarrassment, the countries of Europe should squander an undue part of their resources in military preparation. For this reason, various schemes were projected, the general object of which was to work out a system in which the nations should mutually bind themselves each to reduce its army and navy to a specified strength, while at the same time, by a general mutual guarantee, they should undertake to protect one another against aggression. As soon, however, as any attempt was made to reduce these schemes to a precise form, difficulties arose from the fact that if they were to be made generally binding on all the states, members of the League of Nations, the mutual guarantee would apply both to European, and to Asiatic and American States. This affected more particularly the British Dominions, which, while they acted as independent members of the League, were united in their refusal to enter into any binding engagement again to intervene in matters of purely local European

importance.

In truth, the problem of disarmament

as it existed in Europe, owing to historical reasons, did not apply elsewhere. In South America there was no such great military tradition. In the Pacific the rivalry of armaments was naval rather than military, and it therefore was quite properly dealt with, not at Geneva, but al a special conference summoned for this purpose at Washington in Nov. 1921, a conference which was attended only by Great Britain and France among the European States, and in which a major part was taken by the United States of America, Japan and Great Britain, in her capacity as a Power specially interested in the affairs of the Far East. What was wanted, however, was some special arrangement between the European States themselves; as M. Briand said:

“ Pour assurer la paix, C’est ’Europe qu’il s’agit d’organiser.’’! This became more evident in the discussions on the Treaty of t Journal officiel, Feb. 27 1926.

Mutual Assurance and the Geneva Protocol.

It could not be

expected that the South American Republics would be ready to co-operate in enforcing sanctions arising out of a purely European conflict. This point of view was also expressed by the British Dominions; everything seemed to point to the necessity for some arrangement for special treatment of the affairs of each continent, but the more the matter was investigated, the clearer did it become that the European problem was too varied and too complex to allow the whole of it to be dealt with in a single instrument. This was the view put forward authoritatively by Mr. Austen Chamberlain when expounding the reasons why Great Britain was unable to accept the proposals of the Geneva Protocol; as he explained, it would be wiser to approach the question not from a general, but from a local, agreement. On the continent of Europe there were three areas from which danger could be anticipated:—the Rhineland, which had so often

been the cause of war between France and Germany during the last thousand years; the Eastern frontiers of Germany, where, as we have seen, the Germans refused to accept as a permanent solution the frontiers laid down in the Treaty of Versailles; and the southeast of Europe. Of these at the moment the FrancoGerman problem presented the smallest difficulty. No one really anticipated that the Germans, if they attempted at any future {ime to recover by force the position which they had lost, would begin upon the Rhine; there, they knew, the opposition theywould have to meet would be strongest; the French Army was the largest in Europe, and though the draft treaties of mutual assurance

by which Great Britain and the United States had in rorg offered their help to France against a renewed war of aggression from Germany, had not come into force, the Germans would still fear that anything in the nature of an unprovoked attack on France

would recreate the coalition by which they had been defeated. They were not likely in the future to hazard a new war against the combination of France and England. Locarno —From 1922 onwards constant discussions and negotiations had taken place with the object of bringing into existence some new treaty by which the security of France against invasion would be guaranteed. None of the proposals made had been successful. The chief reason for this was that the French now asked, what they had not asked in rọrọ, that any such treaty should apply not only to the western, but to all the frontiers of Germany. This the British Govt. was unable to accept. There was, moreover, a strong feeling in this country against continental commitments in general, and particularly against any treaty which would seem designed to perpetuate the division of Europe

into victors and vanquished.

But a solution was eventually

found in a proposal which, in March 1925 was put forward by the German Govt.; they suggested a mutual pact of non-aggression between Germany on the one side, France, Belgium and Great Britain on the other. This was a very notable proposal because in effect it implied that Germany would voluntarily bind herself not to attempt by arms to recover Alsace-Lorraine. She relinquished the idea of a war of revenge. It was first made confidentially to the British Govt., and afterwards embodied in a formal note to France, and was made the basis of discussions

which took place at Locarno during the month of Oct. r925. The agreement arrived at was embodied in a series of treaties, all of which were signed in London on Dec. 1, of that year. The essential points in these treaties were that Germany on the one side, France and Belgium on the other, agreed mutually to refrain from any act of aggression, to respect and keep invio-

late the frontiers arranged in rọrọ: and, in addition to this, to submit all causes of dispute which might arise, to arbitration. These basic agreements were supplemented in the main treaty of Locarno by a mutual guarantee, in which Great Britain and Italy also joined. The result was that every cause of dispute was to be submitted to arbitration, and that if any one of the states violated this undertaking, all the other signatory Powers, including this country, would be compelled, if necessary, to come to the help in arms of the state whose territory had been attacked. It was a condition, moreover, that Germany should immediately apply for admission to the League of Nations. After some delay,

EVANS—EVEREST, MOUNT owing to the internal weakness of the German Govt., formal permission was given by the Reichstag, and the application was presented at Geneva on Feb. 11 1926. In addition to the treaties dealing with the western frontier of Germany, general arbitration treaties were concluded between Germany on the one side, Poland and Czechoslovakia on the other, and by a separate instrument France undertook in this case a unilateral obligation to Poland and Czechoslovakia to guarantee this treaty. . As soon as the treaties had been signed, the Allies, in accordance with the promise already made, hastened to carry out the evacuation of the northern part of the occupied Rhenish area which, by the Treaty of Versailles, was to have been concluded in Jan. 1925, and numerous other concessions were made to Germany in regard both to the number of troops maintained in the occupied area, and the exceptional measures introduced at the time of the occupation of the Ruhr were withdrawn. Outstanding points concerning the disarmament of Germany, and in particular aerial control, were also settled. These two events mean that Germany signed the treaties of Locarno as an equal Power, on the same status as the Allies. By the fact that the British guarantee was given equally to her and to France, and by her prospective admission to the League of Nations, she regained her position as an equal member of the European family of nations. It was an act similar to that by which, at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, France was welcomed into the Concert of Europe, which hitherto had been an association -of the Allies against France. On the other hand, on some points the change was not complete. Germany was, and would remain, in an inferior position so long as part of her territory was still occupied by Allicd troops, and so long as, in respect of her naval, military and aerial forces, she was subject to restrictions which did not apply to the other European states. Morcover, at the last moment an unexpected difficulty prevented the final conclusion of the arrangements made at Locarno. It was an essential part of the settlement that Germany should apply for and be admitted to the League of Nations, and should on admission to the League be granted the status of a permanent member of the Council, the position held by all the other Great Powers. In March 1926 a special meeting of the Council and Assembly was summoned; unfortunately proposals were put forward that the opportunity should be used for far-reaching changes in the

constitution of the Council, and in particular that Poland, Spain

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on individual European states: FRANCE; GERMANY; GREAT BRITAIN; IraLy; Russta; etc.; also LEAGUE OF NATIONS, and the special

articles on the subjects referred to in the second part of that article on the work of the League during the first six years of its existence.

EVANS, SIR ARTHUR JOHN (1851), British archaeologist was born at Nash Mills, Herts, July 8 1851, the eldest son of Sir John Evans, K.C.B. (see 10.2). Educated at Harrow, Brasenose College, Oxford and Gottingen, he was elected fellow of Brasenose, and in 1884 keeper of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, holding this post till 1908. He travelled in Finland and Lapland in 1873-4, and in 1875 made a special study of archaeology and ethnology in the Balkan States. In 1893 he began his investigations in Crete, which have resulted in discoveries of the utmost importance concerning the early history of Greece and the eastern Mediterranean (see 1.246, 7.421 and ARCHAEOLOGY: CRETE). In 1911 he was knighted. His chief publications are: Cretan Pictographs and Prae-Phoenician Script (1896); Further Discoveries of Cretan and Aegean Script (1898); The Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult (1901); Scripta Minoa (1909); Palace of Minos I. (1922); and reports on the excavations at Knossos, He also edited, E. A. Freeman’s History of Sicily, vol. iv.

EVEREST, MOUNT (see 10.7).—A description of the attempts to climb Mount Everest, the highest known summit in the world, may be divided under three headings, the reconnaissance expedition of 1921, the first attempt to ascend the mountain in 1922 and the second attempt in 1924. Previous attempts had been made to obtain permission to travel in that part of Tibet and to explore and attempt to climb Mount Everest, but only the expeditions of 1921, 1922 and 1924 are dealt with here. The extraordinary advance in the relations between Tibet and the outside world were such that it was possible in 1920 to approach the Tibetan Govt. with every hope of success in obtaining from them permission to approach the mountain and explore its surroundings. As a preliminary, Col. HowardBury, in 1920, visited Phari Dzong. His negotiations were successful, and in the winter of that year the first expedition was organised to reconnoitre and explore all the approaches to the great group and to make preliminary climbs on the mountain to ascertain the conditions and favourable points of attack. THE RECONNAISSANCE EXPEDITION OF 1921 This preliminary expedition carried out their work in the most complete manner the following summer. Roads and approaches to the Everest district, which are contained in the district of

and Brazil should, at the same time as Germany,.one or all of

Shekar

them, be made permanent members.

mapped. The approaches to Mount Everest on all its northern faces were thoroughly examined. Relations were established with all the local authorities. This expedition was excellently constituted for the work in hand. Under the leadership of Lt.-Col. C. K. Howard-Bury, D.S.O., the climbing party consisted of Mr. C. H. Bullock, Dr. A. M. Kellas, Mr. G. L. Mallory and Mr. Harold Raeburn. Maj. H. T. Morshead, D.S.O., and Maj. O. E. Wheeler, M.C., went as surveyors and Dr. A. M. Heron as geologist. Mr. A. F. Wollaston was doctor, naturalist and botanist. Among them was one mountaineer and scientist whose name stands out pre-eminently in the exploration of the East Central Himalaya—Dr. Kellas. Unfortunately Dr. Kellas died during the progress of the expedition’s march through Tibet, and now lies buried under the fort of Khampa Dzong. The expedition was

Even more unfortunately

it was publicly suggested that some step of this kind would be a protection to Europe against German influence. Inevitably, therefore, the German Govt. let it be known that she could not enter the League if any changes in the constitution of the Council were made prior to her admission. Before and after the mecting of the Assembly, prolonged negotiations took place; it ap-

peared that they had reached a satisfactory conclusion, but eventually Brazil intimated that unless a permanent seat was accorded to her, she would refuse to vote for Germany’s admission. As unanimity was required among members of the Council, her single veto would be effective. There was nothing left to be done but to postpone the consideration of the matter until the next regular meeting of the Assembly in Sept. 1926. The result was most unsatisfactory. Germany was condemned to wait for nearly a year before she could be admitted to the League, and it was quite natural that in order to strengthen her own political position she should enter into a fresh treaty with the Soviet Govt. which in political inportance went very far beyond the Treaty of Rapallo. The text of the treaty raised serious questions of interpretation which might be used to prevent her admission to the League. In the spring of 1926 the whole situation was therefore most obscure and unsatisfactory. See A. J. Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs 1920-3, and 1924 (1925-6). Issued by Oxford Univ. Press under the auspices of the British Institute of International Affairs. ‘‘ Post-War Political Alignments "’in World Peace Foundation Pamphlet. League of Nations vol. vi. No. 2. (World Peace Foundation 1923). See also the articles

and

Kharta

Sheka,

were

thoroughly

explored

and

accompanied by two oflicers of the Indian Survey in Maj. Morshead and Maj. Wheeler, as well as by Dr. Heron, a representative of the Geological Survey of India. The Rongbuk Valley—The first object was to explore the Rongbuk Valley beyond the great Rongbuk monastery. From there the mountaincering party pushed up the west Rongbuk glacier, which descends directly from the northern faces of Mount Everest, but failed to find the true approach to the mountain up the narrow mouth of the east Rongbuk glacier. This glacier was later on in the year surveyed by Wheeler and the true over to Kharta From

approach was established. Later, the expedition crossed the low-lying country to the east of Mount Everest at Sheka. | there a pass was found named the Lhakpa La, 22,000 ft.,

1068

EVEREST, MOUNT

which led to the head of the east Rongbuk glacier. From this point the mountaineering members of the party were able to trace the most likely line of attack on the mountain and actually mounted by difficult snow and ice slopes to a col on the main north ridge descending from Everest, which they named the Chang La or North Col. By this time the season was late, the weather was breaking and no more work could be effected. The reconnaissance expedition had collected an immense amount of information and had mapped the country to the north of Everest. THE ATTEMPT OF 1922 On the information and experience of the reconnaissance expedition, the second expedition to Everest was organised, which was to complete the exploration of the group and to carry out the ascent of the great mountain. Brig.-Gen. the Hon. C. G. Bruce, C.B., M.V.O., was in command, with Col. E. L. Strutt as second-in-command. The climbing party consisted of Mr. G. L. Mallory, Maj. E. F. Norton, D.S.O., R.A., Dr. T. H. Somervell, Dr. A. W. Wakefield and Capt. G. I. Finch, who was oxygen officer to this pariy. Dr. T. G. Longstaff was doctor and naturalist. Mr. C. G. Crawford, Capt. J. G. Bruce, M.C., and Capt. C. J. Morris were the transport officers. Maj. H. T. Morshead, D.S.O., as surveyor and Capt. J. B. L. Noel as photographer completed the party forming the second expedition. Choice of Season.—It had been found necessary to make the attempt early in the year, as giving a better chance of good weather and of finding the snow conditions on the mountain more favourable-to an assault; but this early start also carried with it a great deal more exposure and, naturally, fatigue on the journey from Darjecling to Everest; for on this route not only are the passes which cut off the southern Himalaya from the north to be crossed, but on the way a large number of high and exposed ridges have also to be negotiated. Naturally, too, the outfit was much greater; and for the first time in the exploration of the mountains experiments were to be made in the artificial administration of

oxygen as an assistance in counteracting the effects of low atmospheric pressure. By the end of April 1922 the expedition was collected in the Rongbuk valley and the base camp established within two miles of the snout of the west Rongbuk glacier. An immense amount of stores of all descriptions had been transported to this spot, employing some 350 transport animals. The Transport Problem.—lIt is necessary at this point to explain how great is the problem of attacking such a mountain as Everest. It differs immensely from an ordinary mountaineering expedition, and besides the pure mountaineering technique which is required, many of the methods necessary for polar exploration must be put in force. Besides, a large number of first-class porters are required owing to the immense amount of stores which must be moved to great altitudes. For them special clothing and food are necessary, which greatly adds to the difficulties of equipment. The expedition drew its porters mainly from subjects’ of Nepal, belonging to a tribe known as Sherpas. They are true Tibetans, who in the course of generations have settled on the southern slope of the Himalaya. They live in a steeper and slightly less elevated country than Tibet, and are thoroughly suitable for the work; but among them there were also certain true Tibetans of Tibet. These men have proved through all

the expeditions a great success. Importance of the Monsoon.—But the real problem is the race with the monsoon. This pcriod of time, from May 1 to early June, is the only suitable time for the attack on the mountain, and even this is dominated by the approach of the monsoon. Up to the arrival of the south-west monsoon the whole northern slopes of the Himalaya are swept by an intensely dry and cold wind. While these conditions continue, the mountains are safe if human beings can stand the terrible cold, immense fatigue and the dominating factor of low atmospheric pressure. When once the humid and warm southwest monsoon is established, the mountains are unapproachable, snows thaw, avalanches fall and progress is impossible. Hence the great difficulty is an immense exertion to be undertaken in a short time.

Camps Established.—Up the east Rongbuk glacier camps were

established, from the base camp at 16,500 ft. above sea level to camp 3, four stages higher up, which was placed near the foot of the slopes leading to the Chang La or North Col. At camp 3 the advanced base of the expedition was established, at a height of 21,000 ft., and here were accumulated stores of every description for the attack on the mountain, with food supplies sufficient to last 12 Europeans and 50 natives for one month. From here a high camp was pushed on up to the North Col, which was successfully established in good weather. From this camp the first attempt without the assistance of oxygen was made. First Assault on the Afountain —The four members of the party who were chosen for this effort, Maj. Norton, Dr. Somervell, Mallory and Morshead, set out from the North Col. With great difficulty they established a camp at about 25,000 ft. on the sheltered side of the great north ridge which descends from Everest. This camp was carried up for them and pitched by the special Sherpa porters. It is worthy of note that until this expedi-

tion only once in the whole history of mountain exploration has a camp been pitched as high as 23,000 ft., the height of the Chang La, and that was only for one night.

The camp referred to was

that of Mr. Meade’s expedition on Kamet in Garhwal. This camp at 25,000 ft. was occupied on May rọ. The following morning three of the climbers, Somervell, Norton and Mallory, continued their attempt on Everest, Morshead having to be left behind as he was suffering from frost-bite and exhaustion. The climbing party pushed on under trying conditions of wind and weather until they attained the height of 26,985 ft., the highest point yet reached by human beings. At this point their strength was so far exhausted as to make further progress unsafe, and a retreat was made. Their descent was most toilsome and slow, but finally the camp at 25,000 ft. was reached, and Morshead had to be conducted back from this point in bad weather to the North Col. In traversing back from the gîte on the face of the mountain,.an accident as nearly as possible occurred from a slip; but after a dramatic and exciting incident their laborious descent was continued, and finally, completely worn out, they reached the camp on the North Col at midnight. Morshead was badly frost-bitten, and each of the other members of the party in a lesser degree. First Attempt with Oxygen.—Later, on May 25, a second at-

tempt was made by Finch and J. G. Bruce, using the oxygen apparatus from as low down as camp 3. They were accompanied by Naik Tejbir Bura, a young Gurkha non-commissioned officer who belonged to Capt. Bruce’s regiment, the 6th Gurkha Rifles. This party followed on the footsteps of the previous one, camping, however, some soo ft. higher, at a height of 25,500 ft. on the main ridge itself, their porters thus surpassing the efforts of the previous party. The porters returned to the North Col, but the climbing party were caught that night in a furious hurricane and were camp-bound for two nights and a day. Their experiences were most trying, and it is lucky that they ever survived that terrible exposure. The morning of the second day, the weather having calmed, they set out, using the full oxygen apparatus and employing the Gurkha non-commissioned officer to carry spare oxygen bottles. On reaching the height of 26,000 ft. this young man could proceed no farther. The two mountainecrs continued alone from this point, and before being completely exhausted reached a height of some 27,300 feet. Their return journey, still using oxygen and picking up reserve oxygen supplies on the way down, was in great contrast to

the experiences of the first party. They not only descended the mountain at good speed but continued from the North Col or Chang La directly down to the advanced base camp at camp 3. The expedition then returned to the base camp for rest, all members of the party being greatly exhausted. From this camp certain members of the expedition, including Morshead, were obliged to return to India. Third Assault.—aA third attempt was organised, and the party left on June 3, consisting of Finch, Mallory, Somervell, Crawford and Wakefield. Finch shortly returned and joined the homing

party. The remainder again pitched their camp at the advanced

EVOLUTION base, and on the morning of June 7 attempted to reach the North Col; but unfortunately they had been overtaken the previous three days by bad weather and heavy snow, and following the formerly used route to the North Col they were obliged to traverse the snow slopes rendered extremely dangerous by the accumulation of fresh snow. They were caught in a great avalanche which swept down the face of the mountain side and carried down the whole of the party of 17 ropecd-in groups of four and five. Two of these groups, one of four and one of five men, were swept over an ice cliff some

60 ft. high, and only two out of the nine men thus carried away were saved. The leading rope, consisting of three climbers, Crawford, Mallory and Somervell, was carried down for some 150 ft. by the avalanche and stopped well above the danger point without iniury to the climbers. This third attempt ended the expedition of 1922, which then, as a body, returned to India, having added immensely to the knowledge of the possibilities of further acclimatisation at high altitudes.

THE ATTEMPT OF 1924 The 1924 expedition consisted of Brig.-Gen. the Hon. C. G. Bruce, C.B., M.V.O., in command, and of Lt.-Col. E. F. Norton, D.S.0., R.A., second-in-command. The climbing party consisted of Mr. Bentley Beetham, Capt. J. G. Bruce, M.C., Mr. J.de V. Hazard, Mr. A. C. Irvine, Mr. G. L. Mallory, Mr. N. E. Odell and Dr. T. H. Somervell. Mr. E. O. Shebbeare was transport officer, Dr. R. W. J. Hingston, doctor and naturalist, and Capt. J. B. L. Noel was again photographer. This expedition was able to profit in a great number of ways by the experience of the two previous expeditions. Leaving Darjeeling at about the same time as before, it arrived a few days earlier at the same base camp at Rongbuk. Its transport had been improved and increased. Unfortunately, during the march up, Gen. Bruce had

been obliged to return to India owing to illness, and his place was filled by Norton. Bad Weather at Base Camp.—On

arrival at the base camp, every effort was made to establish a line of intermediary camps between the base camp and camp 3 with the greatest possible rapidity; but the expedition was overtaken by hurricane after hurricane during the month of May, at a time when fair weather is ordinarily to be expected. The temperatures experienced were very much lower than in 1922, and it was very soon discovered that a low temperature, high wind, hard work and a low atmospheric pressure together are enough to wear out the very strongest constitution in a very short period. So for some three weeks the expedition struggled in a continuous battle to establish not only the camps on the line of communication but also the Alpine base on the summit of the North Col. This terrible fight against the elements, occasioning several returns for recuperation to the base camp, not only delayed the expedition very much indeed but reduced their strength and that reserve of power which is necessary for the final great assault the great test of all; nor at high altitudes can that lost strength be ever adequately regained. New Route to North Col—The route that it was necessary to utilise between camp 3 at 21,000 ft. and the North Col camp at 23,000 ft. was far steeper and more difficult than that of 1922; but it had the advantage of being safe from the avalanches, which render the easier slopes of the 1922 route most dangerous after such weather as was experienced in this season. But it was on this route that another accident almost occurred. After the new difficult route to the North Col had been forced by Norton, Hazard led the first party of porters and established the camp on May 22. On the following day, on his descent from the North Col camp to camp 3 In bad weather, it was discovered that four porters had remained actually on the North Col itself. A hurricane that night and the following day prevented communication with them, but on the day succeeding, Norton, Somervell and Mallory formed a rescue party to extricate these men from their awkward position. This they successfully accomplished after a most dramatic incident, two of the porters, when crossing a dangerous face,

1069

slipping down and being brought up at the edge of an ice cliff. From this position they were rescued after a very severe struggle. All members of the party were at this time terribly worn by exposure to the low temperatures and gales, the temperatures registered even at camp 3 being as low as — 23°F. After this, the expedition retired to the base camp for a complete rest. The members of the party and porters were all completely worn out. Norton led his party down to the monastery at the mouth of the Rongbuk valley, presided over by a remarkable Lama or Buddhistic priest, aman in whom every Buddhist member of the party placed absolute faith. Here a service was held, the Lama blessed and encouraged the men, and then, when morale was established, Norton, reorganising his party, led the whole expedition back again to the advanced base camp 3. Hopes were now raised by the splendour of the weather. With reorganised plans, on June 1 camp 4 was re-established on a greater basis than ever, and from this camp the climbing party started the real assault on the mountain. There were few porters left who were fit to make such an immense effort as was required of them, and therefore several attempts were made by parties of two climbers, assisted by whatever porters were available. Mallory and J. G. Bruce pitched camp 5 at 25,000 ft., but owing to the exhaustion of their porters were obliged to return. They were followed on June 3 by Norton and Somervell, who, passing through them, actually pitched a camp at 26,800 ft. elevation, men having been found fit enough to carry loads without the assistance of oxygen to this great height. From this point, with the greatest pain and trouble, Somervell and Norton reached a height on the following day of 28,200 ft.; they again descended to the North Col. Somervell had been working under disadvantageous conditions, suffering terribly from a high altitude throat. So dry and parched does one’s throat become in this intensely cold and dry air that it forms more than an inconvenience, even a danger. Norton had been fit and well, but the following morning awoke absolutely sightless from snow blindness. An unforgettable episode occurred the following morning when Norton, stone blind, was taken down that steep and difficult descent by Hingston and Hazard. The Last Attempi.—There was still one more attempt to be made by Mallory and Irvine. There had been defects in the oxygen apparatus and but little oxygen was now available. They were assisted by a supporting party consisting of Odell and Hazard, who accompanied them to the 25,000 ft. camp. This point, on June 6, they left with porters, who again carried loads for them to 27,000 feet. On June 8 they left camp 6, the highest camp, for their attempt. Odell on that morning arrived, according to arrangements previously made with Mallory, at this highest camp, to watch their progress and report on it and to take such steps for their comfort as were considered necessary. He caught a glimpse of the climbers high up on the mountain side for a short space of time; the mists blew across and he saw them no more. Returning to camp 4 he awaited their return, but on the following morning, sceing no signs of them, he searched with signal and magnesium flare the whole hillside without effect. On June tro, for the third time, he mounted the slopes to 27,000 ft.—in itself an unprecedented effort—but could find no signs of Mallory and Irvine, and, communicating with Norton, evacuated the mountain. Thus stands the battle with Everest up to 1926. Unfortunately, the expedition also lost one young Gurkha non-commissioned officer from over-exposure, and one Tibetan follower from frostbite and pneumonia. At the base camp stands a monument to those who gave their lives in this great attempt. BIBLIOGR: oe >l G. Bruce, The Assault on Mount Everest, 7922 (1923);E Norton, The Fight for Everest, 1924 (1925). See also The 27;pine a (1922-5) and The Geogra phical Journal, incl. Prec. Roy. Geog. Soc. (1924-5). (C. G. B.*)

EVOLUTION

(see 10.22).—The topic of evolution is a very

wide one. In its broadest sense ual change, as is Indicated by transformisme, In a somewhat orderly change, while certain

it denotes little more than gradthe common French equivalent more restricted sense it implies authors wish to combine it with

EVOLUTION

1070

orderly and progressive change. The two fields, however, in which it is most often applied are those of cosmic and of organic evolution, the former dealing with the development of stars and stellar systems, the latter with the changes undergone by life

upon this planet. be discussed.

Here, only the topic of organic evolution will

I. GENERAL Organic

FEvolutton—There

are

SURVEY three

quite

distinct

angles

from which the subject can be treated. In the first place, there is the question of the fact of evolution: has organic evolution occurred or has it not occurred? Secondly, there is the method of evolution: by what mechanism has evolution been brought about? And thirdly, there is the course of evolution: granted that it has occurred, what were the main results of the process? THE

EVIDENCE

The evidences on the first point are well known. They are chiefly drawn from the facts of comparative anatomy, of embryology, of geographical distribution and of palaeontology. Palaeontology.—The last, or the history of life as revealed by actual fossil remains of organisms in the sedimentary rocks, affords the most direct evidence, since we find that many past organisms are now extinct, and that there are frequently to be traced long evolutionary chains, leading up from primitive extinct forms to specialised modern types. Embryology.—That of embryology is, however, equally important. The majority of animals run through, in the course of their development, stages which resemble other organisms. The fact that a fowl or a man passes through a stage in which its organisation is essentially like that of a fish is meaningless, save on the assumption that land vertebrates originally evolved from fishlike, aquatic ancestors. Distribution of Animals.—The distribution of animals and

plants over the earth’s surface is, further, such that it cannot be explained except by assuming that evolution has occurred.

If

certain types have had their origins in certain areas, and have then spread thence, the facts are intelligible, but not otherwise. In the same way, the fact that oceanic islands contain but a very limited fauna and flora, and that, in oceanic archipelagoes, the types of animal life are often represented by different species on each different island, is readily explicable on the idea of chance spreading, followed by isolation and consequent evolutionary divergence. Comparative Anatomy.—The evidence from comparative anatomy, though perhaps the most indirect, is equally strong, and was historically the first to attract attention. When we examine a series of, say, vertebrates, we soon perceive that a common general plan runs through them all, in spite of great differences

in their various modes of life. The same is true for each particular organ. The hand and arm of man, the foreleg of a dog, the wing of a bird, the flipper of a whale—all these, and indeed the fore-limbs of all terrestrial vertebrates, show the same essential plan, though often much modified to suit the exigencies of the

animal’s particular mode of life. It must not be supposed that no other general ground-plan can exist: far from it. The insect or the crustacean is built on a wholly different general plan, and the special plan of its limbs is entirely different from that of the

vertebrate limb.

It is very difficult to explain these ner

except

on the theory of evolution. Vestigial Organs.—The conclusion is strengthened by the existence of vestigial organs (often called rudimentary organs),

which are useless to their possessor, although corresponding (homologous) organs in other species are of service. The vestigjal hair on the surface of the human body affords one excellent example, while another is provided by the wholly useless remnants of limbs in various snakes. Often vestigial organs are recapitulatory as well, being better developed in the embryo or young than in the adult (hair and tail of man, teeth of certain whales, etc.). Natural Selection—The evidences for evolution having taken place were first cogently marshalled by Charles Darwin in the

Origin of Species (18509). No satisfactory alternative explanation of the data he adduced

has ever been advanced, and the fact

of evolution has passed beyond the realm of discussion. Darwin, however, accomplished much more than this. He also advanced a theory as to the method of evolution, and one so reasonable that it could be and is still widely held by scientific men. This was the theory of natural selection. He assumed as a fact the existence of variation, showed the universal presence of a struggle for existence due to the invariable birth of more young than can come to maturity, and then pointed out that this would inevitably lead on the average to the survival of those that were best fitted to survive and so to evolutionary change and progress. By so doing at one stroke he cut the ground from under the feet of those who, like Paley, argued that organic adaptations were evidences of conscious design. Sexual Selection.—He also advanced the subsidiary hypothesis of sexual selection to account for the development of special sexual adornments employed in courtship or display. Here the underlying idea of the automatic selection of some types and the failure of others remains the same, but the selective agency is now the mind of the opposite sex; and, further, the sclection may be between rival males as concerning success in mating only, and the characters selected may not only have no utility in relation to the ordinary business of survival, but in extreme cases may handicap their possessor in the struggle for individual existence. However, the biological advantage gained by being selected as the father of offspring, especially in polygamous species, may be so great as to compensate for disadvantage in other directions. This theory has been much criticised, but has now, in somewhat modified form, been shown to rest on a firm basis. Darwin also, in part, adopted the second main theory of the method of evolution, that of Lamarck, by assigning some weight to the direct effect of the environment and to the effects of use and disuse. Three other main types of hypothesis to account for evolutionary change have also been advanced. The first has been styled Orthogenesis. It is frequently observed by palacontologists that evolutionary trends in particular directions can be traced in series of fossils. The theory of orthogenesis assumes that the straight course pursued by such evolving types is due not to moulding, direct or indirect, from without, but to inner necessity, the hereditary constitution of the race unfolding and changing according to predetermined laws. Next, there is what may be

called the crude theory of mutation, according to which species may enter upon a mutating period, and rapidly throw off a number of new and markedly distinct types, which may often be merely new without being better or worse suited to the environment. Finally, there is the view urged by Lotsy, that new types

arise by recombination of characters after crossing.

We know

that when very distinct types are crossed and are fertile, there is (as demanded by the Mendelian theory) great diversity among

their offspring from the second generation onward. Lotsy imagines that very wide crosses may occur, with enormous resultant variation, and that this variation is the sole raw material of

evolutionary change. We may call this the recombination hypothesis, since it supposes that evolutionary novelty is due to new combinations of old characteristics. The last three theories emphasise the force of inner variation as against that of outer environment. The mutation and the recombination theories think of the process as occasional and random, that of orthogenesis as continuous and directional. The other two lay greater stress upon the environment. But whereas the Lamarckian theory assumes a direct effect of the environment, the hereditary constitution responding like wax to outer changes, the effect in Darwin’s theory of natural selection is only indirect. The source of variation is here in the hereditary constitution and it occurs in all directions; the environment is exerting a constant pressure and ensuring that only the “ right ” variations shall survive. It cannot be said that the problem is yet by any means solved. In particular, the first origin of variations remains one of the great problems of biology. It would appear, however, that all

EVOLUTION theories can contribute something of value, although an adjustment of the theory of natural selection to a modified mutation theory will probably account for the majority of the facts. Heredity in the Light of Mendclism—We must remember in any case that any accurate knowledge of the processes of heredity was denied to Darwin. Not until the rediscovery of Menclel’s work in 1900 was it possible to push forward along this path. We now know that the great majority of inherited characteristics are dependent upon the presence of definite units (factors or genes) present in the hereditary constitution; and that these are lodged in a definite proportion and definite arrangement in the chromosomes which are transmitted from parent to offspring in the gametes (see CyroLoGy; GENETICS; MENDELISM). Normally, these units remain constant, and resist change with extraordinary resistance. Occasionally, however, they have been found to change apparently spontaneously (though this, of course, only means that we have not yet ascertained the cause), and, once changed, to remain constant in their changed form. Such changes are now generally known by the name of mutations. It is important to note that mutations of this type may be of any extent, some causing marked, others very slight, changes and the generally accepted view now is that mutations of slight extent afford the major part of the raw material of variation; natural selection may then act. It is a curious fact that the “ mutations ’’ of the evening primrose adduced by De Vries, in the earliest presentation of the pure mutation theory, have turned out to be, some of them, not mutations at all, others mutations of a different and rarer type (due to subtraction or addition of whole chromosomes). ; There is further evidence that in some apparently rare cases mutations may be caused directly by changes in external conditions; so that in respect of these, a modified Lamarckian theory will hold. Melanism in Moihs—The latest and most satisfactory evidence on this matter, the production of melanism in moths by treatment with the metallic salts found deposited by smoke in industrial areas (J. W. H. Harrison and F. C. Garrett, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1926) indicates that the induced hereditary change is not directly adaptive, and, once produced, remains constant and is inherited according to Mendel’s laws—in other words, that such changes are induced Mendelian mutations. On the other hand, there is as yet no evidence which has satisfied the majority of biologists that the effects of use and disuse are ever directly inheritable. As regards orthogenesis, there is no doubt that beautiful series of fossil forms, each tending in a particular direction towards specialisation for one particular mode of life, may be found. But there is no evidence whatever that these are to be accounted for by some inner necessity for determinate variation in a particular direction, and not rather by gradual improvement at the hand of natural selection. In addition, however, to such series (which obviously run counter to Lotsy’s theory of recombination) detailed studies of variation among existing species bring to light numerous characters which appear to be of no biological advantage or the reverse to their possessors, and are most readily to be accounted for as due to random mutations. Finally, in some cases, especially among plants (as roses, willows, etc.) enormous variability

is found combined with evidences of hybridity. Here it appears almost certain that evolution by hybridisation and recombination has been effective. The most plausible view as to the mechanism of organic change (although it must again be emphasised that there is as vet no unanimity on the matter) is therefore somewhat as follows:— A Mechanism of Organic Change The raw material of evolution is provided chiefly by variations in the form of factorial or point mutations. Some of these may be directly caused by changes in the outer world; but even when this is the case, there is no reason that they should be adaptive—sometimes they may be, sometimes they may not. Others, probably the majority, are not as yet to be traced to definite external causes; they are “ spontaneous ”’ (as in another field of science are the disintegration

changes suffered by the radioactive elements).

Some of these

107I

come under the action of natural selection: the biologically favourable benefit their possessors and are preserved, the biologically unfavourable are weeded out. Still others appear to be neither favourable nor unfavourable; and their survival is a matter of accident. It is further clear that if an organic type possesses a hereditary constitution of a chemically definite nature, this will restrict the possible changes which it may undergo— in other words, will make variation, within certain wide limits, determinate. To this limited extent the principle of orthogenesis will be at work. Finally, we obtain evolution by recombination in the comparatively rare cases in which two or more distinct races or species can cross and produce normally fertile offspring. One thing at least can be stated to-day with assurance, and that is that the mechanism of evolution is not simple, and that no single one of the various theories previously advanced will by itself prove to be sufficient. Creative Evolution and Climatic Changes.—In considering the evidence bearing upon orthogenesis, biologists have been forced to take account of the geological evidence bearing upon past climates. Asa result, opinion is inclining more and more to the view that the marked bursts of “ creative ” evolution, when new types are rapidly and abundantly produced, as with the mammals at the very beginning of the Caenozoic epoch, are to be correlated with pronounced changes in climatic conditions. When a single pond dries up, the species inhabiting it simply become dispersed to other neighbouring ponds. But when a whole area of the world’s surface becomes progressively drier or colder, the life which inhabits it must either change or die. The detailed working out of this difficult subject of past climates will be of great importance for a study of evolution. We now come to the third main heading under which we can study evolution. Taking for granted both the fact of its occurrence, and the existence of some sufficient mechanism, we can seck to discover what has actually happened, and whether any gencral principles or laws can be traced in the process. The Fossil Record

—We are at the outset placed under a grave

handicap, in that our most trustworthy and direct source of evidence—that from fossils—is only available for a limited part of evolutionary history. The earlier fossil-bearing rocks have in part been denuded away (to be carried down to the sea and deposited once more as rocks of a later age), or else so much altered by the heat and the pressure to which they have been subjected in the course of geological time, that they are completely metamorphosed, and their fossil record obliterated. Opinions differ as to the proportion of the geological record which has thus been destroyed, but at a very conservative estimate it comprises at least half the time during which life has existed upon the earth. As a result, when the earliest richly fossiliferous rocks are examined, they are found already to contain representatives of most of the main groups of animals. With regard to the vertebrates, however, this is luckily not the case. They evolved late; and the rocks provide us with an excellent record of the evolution of their main groups (see PALAEONTOLOGY). In addition, however, the indirect evidences of comparative anatomy and embryology do permit us to draw a number of broad conclusions concerning the other groups with a reasonable degree of certitude. When we assemble and analyse the evidences drawn from every possible source we find that we can obtain from them a body of important general principles concerning the direction which evolution has actually pursued. These principles appear to hold good equally well for all the main groups of animals in which they can be checked and not only for vertebrates. Lower and Higher Types.—In the first place, when a higher type evolves from a lower, it is usually found that this does not involve the total disappearance of the lower type. Commonly, representatives of the lower type survive, but the total number of its species is reduced, and the survivors are often smaller in size and lead less conspicuous lives than when the type was in its prime. The classical example is afforded by the reptiles and the mammals. The farmer with their “ cold blood ” and absence of placenta and of milk are definitely of lower organisation than the latter. In the Mesozoic epoch, they became the dominant

1072

EVOLUTION

group of vertebrates, and branched out into various striking types—gigantic herbivores, carnivores of corresponding bulk, flying forms, marine fishlike types and so forth. By the onset of the Caenozoic period, the mammals had become dominant; the reptiles still survive but only in the shape of crocodiles, tortoises and turtles, snakes and lizards. Similar survival of ‘‘ lower’ types, but in reed numbers and reduced variety, alongside of “ higher ” types is also seen

when we look at the evolution of human inventions, an obvious example being afforded by the survival of pack transport and horse-drawn wheeled vehicles after the introduction of mechanically-propelled vehicles. A consideration of the causes operating to produce such effects with human inventions often clarifies the causes of similar survivals in biological evolution. Directional Change.—As a result, we find that at any given moment the organic world provides us with a selection, not merely of the latest-evolved types, but of most of the main types which have ever come into being. When, on the other hand, we consider the latest types only—in other words, the upper level reached by life instead of its whole range—we are enabled to trace a definite directional change in evolution. There has been a tendency to produce types which can respond with greater precision to changes in the environment, which have greater control over external objects, are increasingly independent of the environment, and more self-regulatory. These tendencies are revealed in various concrete ways. The efficiency of the various organs of animals has become greater. Sense organs come to have greater range and greater accuracy; one has only to compare the nervous system—brain, spinal cord. and nerves—of a mammal with the nerve-net of a jelly-fish and this with the nervelessness and almost total absence of co-ordination in a sponge to have the advance as regards conduction and co-ordination very forcibly brought home; and equally striking examples could be drawn from other systems, such as the locomotor, the skeletal, the blood-circulatory or the digestive. A very striking step was that taken by the birds and mammals alone among all organisms—the acquisition of special machinery permitting the body temperature to remain constant (‘‘ warm blood ”’); this permits the general activity of the organism to remain at the same level in spite of great changes in outer temperature, whereas that of all other organisms rises and falls with the temperature like an ordinary chemical reaction. General and Special Organisation.—Efficiency of machinery for control and self-regulation may be improved in two main ways—in relation to the organisation as a whole, or in relation to a particular mode of life. For example, the general organisation of the mammalian type is an improvement upon the reptilian. On the other hand, the organisation of the horse is an improvement upon that of the early mammals when considered in relation to a cursorial and vegetarian existence, that of a whale in relation to a marine existence. But it cannot be said that in general organisation either horse or whale is superior to the other. This latter type of improvement we speak of as specialisation, the former as improvement of general organisation, or more succinctly as biological progress. Biological progress involves allround advance; but specialisation, which is by definition specialisation in regard to one particular direction and mode of life, invariably involves a sacrifice of possibilities in other directions and for other modes of life. The horse, by the very fact of being adapted to grass-cating, is cut off from all carnivorous diets; the whale, through being so thoroughly adapted to life in water, is debarred from the possibility of life on land or in the air. Sometimes the adaptation is such a limited mode of life that the sacrifices appear to outnumber the gains. We then speak of degenerative evolution. This is best seen in animals which have exchanged a free-swimming for a sessile existence, or those which have taken to parasitism. It should not, however, be forgotten that degeneration is always a form of specialisation. Even the most “ degenerate ” parasite is beautifully adapted to its mode of life in its mechanisms for passage from host to host and in its arrangements for maintaining itself unharmed within a particular part of its host’s body.

Specialisation.—Further, the evidence seems clear on one important point—no highly-specialised form appears to retain the possibility of giving rise to types specialised in some quite other direction, or to a type which shows a general advance in organisation. It was among the most generalised fishes that the ancestors of land animals took their rise; and the ancestors of man

are not to be sought among any of the specialised groups of mammals like ungulates, carnivores or the like, but in the humble and generalised insectivora. In other words, the sacrifice involved by specialisation is not only a morphological one; the special improvement involves also a sacrifice of general evolutionary possibility. As each new type comes into being we find in general the following series of events. There is first a considerable period during which the new type is not fully perfected; its representatives remain small in size, few in numbers and in kinds, and of little importance as compared with the dominant type from among whose more primitive members they have sprung. Then, comparatively suddenly, the new type ousts the old from its position of dominance. This is well exemplified by the early mammals which existed during the Age of Reptiles and their sudden rise to supremacy at the close of the secondary period; or by the long period during which primitive man existed at a low stage of attainment, prior to his quick rise to biological dominance in the lust 10,000 or 20,000 years, or—to utilise our example from human inventions once more—by the early decades in the history of the motor-car, when it was regarded as either a joke ora nuisance, before its sudden rise into general use. Once the new type becomes well established, it usually evolves intoa number of specialised branches, together with other branches which remain relatively primitive and generalised. This specialisation of a group into a number of adaptive lines is usually known by Osborn’s term of adaptive radiation. It is beautifully illustrated in the fossil history both of the reptiles and of the mammals (and again in the origin of numerous divergent types of motor vehicle as soon as the motor type came into favour). Progress from Lower to Higher-—It remains to ask whether one type can

legitimately be called ‘‘ higher”

than another,

whether the term “ progress ” can legitimately be used for any purely biological process, since such terms involve the idea of value. Types undoubtedly differ in regard to their degree of efficiency, self-regulative capacity, etc.; and thercis also undoubtedly a general directional trend to be traced in the evolutionary history of life as a whole. It is further found, however, that this trend is in the general direction of producing qualities and characteristics which are regarded as valuable by us (control, efliciency, independence, etc.), and that the difference between what are customarily called lower and higher organisms does again correspond with a difference in regard to qualities which

do seem valuable to us. In other words, the terms high and low as applied to organisms, and biological progress as applied to a certain direction of evolution are perfectly legitimate. Coneluston.—In conclusion, it should be remembered that the fact of biological progress, of a steady trend of the upper level of life in an upward direction, by no means implies, as is sometimes stated, the existence of an internal “urge,” or of a non-natural guiding force; nor need we assume any purpose in the process. ‘The matter is on a par with the question of purpose in tegard to specific adaptations, which were taken by Paley as definite proofs of purposeful design by a personal designer. Darwin, however, pointed out that the purpose here was only apparent, and that adaptations could be satisfactorily accounted for by the non-purposeful automatic working of natural forces. Precisely the same is true of the apparent purposefulness revealed in biological progress. On reflection, it, too, is seen to receive a satisfactory explanation on the same Darwinian principles. The struggle for existence being as keen as it is,any advance, whether specialisation along a restricted linc, or progress in general organisation, will be a biological advantage. Purpose is a purely psychological category, and the term should only be used when other explanations can be excluded. It is, however, important to notice that, with man, purpose has

EVOLUTION come to have evolutionary significance. Any future progressive evolution of the human species (see EUGENICS) or of human institutions must inevitably depend, in greater or lesser degree, upon true purpose; and this itself is a biological advance, for purposive planning is both more direct and less wasteful than the pseudoteleological methods of natural selection. (J.S. H.)

II. EVOLUTION

AND

COMPARATIVE

ANATOMY

The science which is concerned with the resemblances and differences which exist between the bodily structures of animals, was cultivated by the zoologists of the 19th century with such success that by 1870 the structure of representative members of all the greater groups of vertebrates was known, and even the invertebrate groups were well understood. The body of facts so brought together forms the foundation of the theory of organic

evolution. It established that the whole series of living animals, some 2,000,000 in number, resembled one another in such a way that their organisation could be referred to a small number of fundamental types, sharply marked off from one another, and not connected by any animals of intermediate structure. The more important of these groups are the Protozoa, Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelmia, Chaetopoda, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Polyzoa and Chordata, whose characters and mutual relationships are well explained in the zoological articles of the Encyclopedia (see 28.1033 esp.). The gencral acceptance of the truth of the doctrine of evolution led to a great deal of work on comparative anatomy, with the intention of displaying the steps by which the structure of the higher animals had arisen from that of lower forms. It was soon realised that a continuation of this work resulted merely in the accumulation of details, which although sometimes interesting, could not bring about any important changes in the conclusions which had already been reached. Two lines of research appeared open to the morphologists of 1870; they could add the investigations of function to that study of pure form which was their selected field, or they could determine the actual mode in which the structures they described came into existence during the embryological development of an animal. Study of Embryology.—The problems raised by an attempt to relate the structure of an animal to the functions performed by its organs are, except in specially simple cases, of great difficulty, requiring resources of physics and chemistry which were not available in 1870; thus it was to the study of embryology (q.z.) that the majority of morphologists turned. Their work soon led to results which revolutionised the whole subject, placing many homologies between the parts of different animals, which had previously been disputed, on a firm foundation and introducing the element of succession of events in time. But embryology in its turn has reached a stage in which the new work ts concerned solely with detail, and no fundamental new facts are likely to be discovered by the old methods. There is however another way in which the time element can be brought into morphology; study of the remains of fossil animals has, of late, solved some outstanding problems amongst vertebrates and has revived interest

in the whole subject. Experimental Work.—The most promising mode of attack is, however, through experiment. It is possible to interfere with the development of an animal: by altering the rate at which it proceeds, by cooling or by chemical means; by the removal of the primordium of one of its organs; by transplanting a developing eye or ear into a new region of the body, or even by grafting halves of two different species together. Work of this kind is being very actively carried on, especially in the Unites States of America, and it has already revolutionised our outlook on morphology. The study of evolution, and of the causes which have brought it about, is not now fashionable. All zoologists regard the truth of the doctrine as established more by the patent incredibility of other explanations than by direct evidence; indeed only the study of palaeontology (q.v.) leads to a vivid realisation of its truth and of the details of the process. Thus zoologists, being no longer compelled to concern themselves with the truth of a fun-

1073

damental principle, have been free to devote their attention to those problems which gave promise of rapid solution. At present it is difficult to design and carry out experiments whose direct object is the establishment of the factors which bring about evolutionary changes, because the whole subject is overlain by a mass of theoretical conclusions based entirely on the examination of observed facts, whilst many aspects of the subject which are quite fundamental have never yet been adequately explored by an experimental method under controlled conditions. Mendelism (q.v.).—The rediscovery in 1900 of Mendel’s Principles of Heredity showed that the assumptions made by the earlier naturalists, and even the conclusions reached by statistical methods of investigation, might have no validity so far as the individual was concerned, and emphasised the necessity of a renewed and rigorous investigation of that heredity to which every animal owes its morphology. But this work, as it has been carried on, especially by the school of Morgan, is itself morphological, it relates the structure of an adult animal to that of the chromosomes contained in the nucleus of the zygote from which it arises. The problem which now confronts morphologists is to discover the mode in which the “ genes ” function, that is, the nature of the factors which so control development as to determine the final structure attained by the animal. This problem is being attacked by the methods of experimental embryology, which are leading to a better understanding of the meaning of the facts of comparative anatomy. Thus, by their early work, comparative anatomists established the prima facie case on which our belief in the reality of evolution rests, whilst by the work that they are now carrying on they hope in the end to come to an understanding of those forces which underlie the phenomenon of evolution. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—W.

Bateson, Material for the Study of Variation

(1893); J. W. Jenkinson, Experimental Embryology (1909); D'Arcy W. Thompson, Growth and Form (1907); E. S. Russell, Form and

Funetien

(1916).

(D. M. S. W.)

Ill. THE PALAEONTOLOGICAL ASPECT The law of evolution, especially as applied to human origin, has again been challenged in the United States by adherents of religious bodies who are described as Fundamentalists as distinguished from Modernists (see FUNDAMENTALISM). The movement is based on a revival of the literal interpretation of Creation as described in the book of Genesis, largely under the eloquent leadership of the national politician, William Jennings Bryan. Evolution is characterised as an unfounded hypothesis, unsupported by evidence, subversive of youthful morals, and, therefore, a menace not only to religion but to the state. Bryan and other lay and clerical opponents of evolution sustained their course by direct citations from Dr. William Bateson’s Toronto address to the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1921), ‘ Evolutionary Faith and Modern Doubts,” which supported the law of evolution and, while completely negative as to the causes of the origin of species, served to clear the biologic atmosphere and to intensify research for veritable causes. © PALAEONTOLOGIC

ASPECTS OF THE EVOLUTION

THEORY

OF

ORGANIC

Zoological researches on variation, selection and the origin of species, up to the year 1926, have ended in a series of negative conclusions and opened the way to consider the new light thrown on the problem of adaptation by palaeontologic research. In such research we may sharply distinguish between the illumination of the law of evolution as a universal principle of plant and animal descent and the light which palacontology throws upon the causes of evolution and, consequently, on the older theories of causation. (1) Palaeontology substantiates natural selection in its larger meaning but deprives it of its creative or originative power. (2) Palaeontology gives an equally strong negation to Lamarckism in its creative sense of immediate inheritance in course of present time. (3) Palaeontology presents an equally strong front against discontinuity and mutation, or sudden sal-

EVOLUTION

1074

tations in mechanical characters, and substitutes an absolute, unbroken continuity in secular evolution as in growth. Material Observed.—In palaeontology, however, the field of observation is chielly limited to the adaptations of the hard parts preserved in a fossil state, to the relations of function and form, to the adaptation and development of new proportions (allome-

trons) in mechanical structures—adaptations which are primarily biomechanical. Thus while palaeontology negatives both selection and Lamarckism in biomechanical evolution, it has its strict limitations, it throws no light on the possibility of discontinuity or mutation in biochemical or biophysical evolution. There are grounds for believing that saltation, mutation and other forms of discontinuity, such as may frequently occur in adaptations primarily biophysical and biochemical, immunity and nonimmunity, fertility and non-fertility and interbreeding, physical reactions to temperature, atmospheric pressure, etc.

As the unique result of palaeontological research we perceive evolution as a secular phenomenon, a process of the ages which, measure either by geology or by the radium content of the rocks, is infinitely slower than either Lamarck or Darwin conceived. Lamarckism in part holds true as a cause of secular evolution, just as Darwinism (7.c., survival of the fittest) holds true as a potent cause of secular evolution. On the other hand, palaeontology denies absolutely the origin of species according to the original conceptions and literal interpretations of either Lamarck or Darwin. In claiming that all that is acquired is transmitted, Lamarck was over-confident, as Darwin was overconfident in claiming that every variation, however slight, may favour the chance of survival. The second unique result of palaeontological research is to transfer from the field of reason, imagination and speculation to the field of direct observation the whole question of the modes and methods of evolution and the whole problem of the manner in which new specific adaptations originate and of the details by which new biomechanical species are constantly created. We refer to such biomechanical adaptations as the elongated neck of the giraffe, the classic case cited by Lamarck and Darwin, the highly complicated mechanical evolution of the teeth, the origin and development of horns and of defensive armature. The Record of the Rocks.—In the 60 years since 1865 some palaeontologists have been speculating, while others were quietly devoting themselves to gathering harvest after harvest of facts about the modes and methods of the origin of species. The palaeozoic rocks of eastern America afforded Hyatt (1866) opportunities similar to those enjoyed in Europe by Waagen (1860) and Neumayr (1871) of observing in closely successive and continuous stages (mutations of Waagen) that the old barriers between “species”? as conceived by Lamarck and Darwin are entirely broken down and one specific stage merges into the next without a break; in this respect evolution appears exactly like growth. In vertebrate palaeontology finely successive fossil horizons in the arid western states of America yielded Osborn and others closely continuous stages in all the hard parts of many lines of mammalian descent, especially horses, rhinoceroses and titanotheres. ; THE

CREATIVE ORIGIN OF SPECIES

Thus between 1859 and r926 the “ origin of species ”? has þecome an entirely different problem from that conceived of by Darwin or, in fact, by any other zoologist, because our knowledge of what constitutes a species is entirely different. As palaeontologists we are observing the initial and terminal phases of a confinuous creative evolution and aduptalion of ihe germ plasm, because palaeontology forces upon us this new ereational definition and conception of evolution, namely, of a continuous creative unfolding of life fitted to a continuously changing environment. It is remarkable that through palaeontological research the

original Latin word ‘ evolution ” becomes inadequate and the old Sanskrit word V kur reasserts itself, CREATE cd

(Lat. creafus, make, create, akin to Gr. xpafvew, com-

plete, Skt. kar, make.) r. Trans. To bring into being; cause to exist. 2. Intrans. To originate; engage in originative action.

This new creative definition of evolution expresses the two new principles of evolution discovered in palaeontology, namely, the principle of continuity and the principle of rectigradation, the one a denial of mutation in biomechanical evolution, the

other a denial of fortuitv in biomechanical evolution. Species and Adaptations —It appears through the study of continuous series of invertebrate and vertebrate fossils that “species ” and “‘ adaptations ” are synonymous terms, as may

be clearly seen in the history of these two terms, from Aristotle to Linnaeus.) The origin of species and the origin of adaptations are phenomena of the same significance, for every “‘ species ” is an ensemble of countless “ adaptations ’? in various stages of rise and decline. What Aristotle (300 B.c.) called an adaptation, Linnaeus in 1758 called a species. When Aristotle in his //istory of Antmals and his Physics debated the natural causes of adaptations he had in mind the same structures and functions as those which Linnaeus used in defining his species.

For example,

the celebrated “ survival of the fittest ’? passage in Aristotle’s Physics (Taylor’s translation) :— | What, then, hinders but that the parts in nature may also thus arise?

For instance, that the teeth should arise from necessity, the front teeth sharp and adapted to divide the food, the grinders broad and adapted to breaking the food into pieces. . . . It is argued that

where all things happened as if they were made for some purpose,

being aptly united by chance, these were preserved, but such as were not aptly made, these were lost and still perish, according to what Empedocles says concerning the bull species with human heads. . Nature produces those things which, being continually moved by a certain principle contained in themselves, arrive at a certain

end.

For example, again, Linnaeus (1758) defines the anthropoid ape known as the orang:— SIMIA:

Dentes

Lanrarii solitarii, IV., approximati. Molares obtusi. Cauda nulla: Simiae veterum.

Primores

longiores hinc remoti.

SEVEN PRINCIPLES OF ORIGIN

Baldwin thus defines the word “ principle ” in its bearing on science in general:— PRINCIPLE

(Lat.

principium,

commencement,

beginning:

trans. of Gr. éexf, beginning, authority): Ger. Princip; Fr. Principe; Ital. principio. Scientifically, it is the law through which a diversity of facts, otherwise unrelated and unexplained, are classified and interpreted: opposed to datum, brute fact or “ mere ” fact. Greek philosophy began with the search after the principle in the literal sense: that original reality (a) from which other things are derived, and (b) out of which they consist. In the sense («) it was implicitly or explicitly dynamic, a force, a causal power; in the sense

(b) it was static, an element of subsistence.

The first meaning led

up to Aristotle’s form eos as a principle; the second to his matter UA.

The Seven Principles —Briefly, the first of these subsidiary principles discovered and formulated in zoology as confirmed and amplified in palaeontology are fiye in number: First, the principle of individual adaptation or reaction to changes of motion or function which invariably precede changes of form, as frst observed by Aristotle and finally confirmed by the experimental observations of Arbuthnot Lane and Felix Regnault; second, the Aristotle-Lamarck principle of development through use, of degeneration through disuse, of balance through unchanged or static function. These two principles were understood and expressed by Goethe in the pre-Lamarckian year 1784 when as a brilliant novitiate in human and comparative anatomy he was on the very threshold of evolution :— Thus by the animal’s form is its manner of living determined; Likewise the manner of life affecteth every creature, Moulding its form.

Third, the ontogenetic principle by von Baer in embryology and Hyatt in palaeontology, of Acceleration or the hurrying forward of characters in development and in evolution, and of Retardation or the slowing down of characters, according to juvenile or adult needs in the struggle for existence; fourth, the Empedocles-Darwin principle of individual and racial struggle for existence and individual and racial survival of the fittest; fifth, the 1There are, however, many specific characters to which no adaptive significance can yet be assigned.—Eb. E.B,

EVOLUTION Lamarck-Darwin

principle of ébranchement, of divergence, the

adaptive radiation of Osborn, which permeates the diversity of the plant and animal world. These five pioneer or zoologic principles, all alike discovered in zoology, have been confirmed and ratified in palaeontology as the principles of progression and of retrogression, manifested first only in the individual and finally in the race. They are the coefficients both of individual development and of racial evolution or phylogeny, as set forth in what Osborn has termed “ tetraplasy ?” in ontogeny and “ tetrakinesis ’ in phylogeny. To cite Baldwin again :— COEFFICIENT. a. Co-operating; acting in union to the same end. n, That which unites in action with something else to produce a given effect; that which unites its action with the action of another. The two remaining principles are palaeontologic, namely (VT.) Continuity and (VIL.) Rectigradation. To the zoologist every minute mechanical part of every animal is still and dead; to the palaeontologist every detail is alive and moving, slowly unfolding in the original sense of the Latin evolvere (evolutio}; to the vision of the embryologist, individual development is an unfolding of the potency of the germ. In this creative movement the palaeontologist discovers his two new principles, a sixth and a seventh, namely the principle of continuity, of continuous and unbroken advance or recession of each character from invisibility into visibility, and, closely connected therewith, the principle cf rectigradation, of the con-

tinuous orthogenetic rise of each new organ out of heredity, passing through stages of increasing mechanical perfection, then perhaps gradually subsiding again into the germplasm until it finally disappears. These seven principles which govern the origin of species in mechanical adaptation also concern an enlarged heredity, for only through palacontology can we broaden and clarify our vision of heredity and distinguish the ripples of “ saltation ” or “ mutation’ (De Vries) from the waves of “ evolution,” the local currents and vortices of ‘‘ variation ”’ from the rise and fall of the tide of great characters (cf. Scott, 1894). The minute fossilised tissues of the ivory tusks of the mastodon and the stupendous “‘ thunder-saurian ” Brontosaurus are alike mirrors and “ phenotypes ”? of the evolving germ-plasm out of which they once developed. The stages in the evolution of the horse, camel, mastodon and elephant, in the largest and in the minutest detail, are mirrors of the evolution of the germ-plasm. PALAEONTOLOGY

AGAINST VITALISM OR “ ENTELECHY”

The principles of rectigradation, that is, of the direct adaptive origin of new specific characters from the germ, presents the greatest theoretic difficulties; certain new specific characters arise adaptively, without antecedent use or function, and are therefore unexplainable on the original Lamarckian principles (Lamarck, Spencer, Cope). Nor is the cause of these orthogenetic characters traceable to an “ entelechy ” or internal perfecting principle, or to an évolution créatrice in Bergson’s sense. New organs chiefly appear as secular reactions to new conditions of life. Entirely inexplicable as the reaction process is, all of the numerous rectigradations which have been closely observed in many lines of descent are responses to secular changes in environment or in habit. In this secular sense the Lamarckian principle of new needs of the organism inducing a change of function and the change of function inducing change of structure acquires anew significance. For example, the browsing horse ( H ypohippus), remaining in a forested environment, retains an arrested dental mechanism, whereas the plains-living horse {Hipparion),

finally contending with the grasses of an extremely arid environment, shows the most highly progressive and intricate dental structure; the browsing Pleistocene proboscidean (Mastodon) retains the same kind of grinder as its Oligocene ancestor (Palaeomasiodon); the grazing mammoth (E. primigenius) rapidly evolves a grass-eating mechanism. Such facts as these, however, do not justify a revival of Lamarckian confidence, because, taking biomechanical evolution as a whole as revealed in palaeolontogy, it is like a two-edged |

I075

sword, equally damaging to the original Darwin and the original Lamarck hypotheses. It substitutes a firm and undeviating order in biomechanical adaptation, of which we have at present no conceivable explanation as to causes.} Bipttocrapuy.—H. I’. Osborn, Vhe Origin and Evolution of Life (1917-25); The Origin of Species as Revealed by Vertebrate Palaeon-

tology (1925); The Origin of Species II. (1925) and The Origin of Species, 1850-1925 (1925). The definitions of “ principle ” and “ coefficient ’ are taken from Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology: that of “ create”

from The Century Dictionary.

IV.

THEORY

OF

H. F. O.)

( i

ORGANIC

EVOLUTION

Two important advances in the study of evolution have taken place since 1859, when Darwin published his Origin of Species. The first of these was Mendel’s discovery of the fundamental laws of heredity, announced in 1865 but lost sight of until 1900. The second advance was the discovery of the importance of discontinuous germinal variation, whose value in relation to evolu-

tion was foreshadowed by W. Bateson’s work on Materials for the Study of Variation (1894), and brought prominently forward by H. de Vries in his Mutation Theory (1901). Even before Darwin’s time it was known that new types, departing widely from the parent type, occasionally appear and that their characters may be inherited. The more extreme variations of this kind had been called sports. It was not realised, however, that many of the minute differences in individuals arise in the same way. The writings of August Weismann between 1885-93, more especially his essays on The Continuity of the Germ-plasm as the Foundation of a Theory of Heredity (1885), The Significance of Sexual Reproduction im the Theory of Natural Selection (1886) and The Germ Plasm (1889) had shown that variations originate

in changes that first take place in the germinal material. His discussion of the problem of variation gave a new trend to all later studies on variability. Twenty-four years later the penetrating analysis of W. Johannsen (1909), based on experimentally obtained data, furnished a secure basis for all later discussion relating to selection. These advances have furnished material for a scientific discussion of the evolution theory. The phylogenetic generalities formerly indulged in when questions of variation and heredity were discussed have to-day little more than historical interest; for it has become apparent that those discussions were lacking in a precise knowledge of the facts with which they dealt. A more detailed and systematic statement concerning those matters referred to above may now be made. MENDELIAN

THEORY

OF

HEREDITY

Mendel (see MENDELISM, 18.115) has shown that when two plants belonging to races with contrasted characters, such as peas with green seeds and peas with vellow seeds, are crossed the hybrid offspring may be like one of the parents with respect to the pair of characters involved in the cross. If the hybrids are next bred to each other (or when monoecious, self-fertilised} the next generation consists of the two kinds of individuals in the ratio of 3:1. Mendel explained this ratio by assuming that one of the original races carried an element for yellow seed, the other race an element for green. When these elements are brought together in the hybrid the influence of one dominates the influence of the other. If, at the time when the egg-cells and the pollen grains of the hybrid reach maturity, the elements separate so that half of the germ-cells come to contain the element for yellow and half the other element for green, then chance fertilisition of any egg by any pollen grain will give a three to one ratio.

For when yellow meets yellow a pure yellow individual will result; when vellow meets green a yellow individual will be produced (yellow dominating); similarly when green mects yellow a yellow individual will result; and when green meets green a pure green individual will be formed. The outcome is three yellow to one 1[t is important to recall that the study of palaeontology cannot in the nature of things give information as to the kind of hereditary processes occurring in evolution. The important fact of gradual evolutionary change established by palaeontology could be quite well accounted for by the accumulation by selection of small mutations.—ED. #.B

1076 green.

EVOLUTION Of these three kinds one is pure for yellow and breeds

true to that character; one is pure for green and breeds true to green; while two are hybrids, and, if selfed, will give again three yellow to one green. Mendel also discovered that when two pairs of contrasted characters enter a cross, ¢.g., when a tall plant with coloured flowers is crossed to a short plant with white flowers, each pair behaves as above, and independently of the other, giving in conse-

quence in the second generation four kinds of individuals in the ratio of 9:3:3:1. Two of these kinds are like the two original grandparents; the other two present new recombinations of

their characters. The same independent assortment of pairs of characters is supposed to hold for any number of pairs, but later results have shown that this is true only to a certain point. Thus the inheritance of characters can be explained by the theory that there are independent elements in the germinal materials (eggs and sperm-cells) to which, in a sense (see below), the differentials that distinguish individuals may be referred. Equally important is the demonstration that these elements do not fuse or blend when brought together ‘in the hybrid, but separate there cleanly from each other, and half of the gametes come to contain one member of a pair and half the other member. When Mendel wrote, no mechanism was known to which an appeal could be made to account for this separation (technically called segregation) of the elements in the hybrid, but, later, the extensive work carried out on the ripening of the germ-cells made it evident that the chromosomes furnish a mechanism that fulfils all the requirements of Mendel’s principles both for one pair and for more than one pair of elements. In the examples that Mendel chose to illustrate the fundamental laws of heredity, one character completely dominates the other; but, while this often happens, in many other cases the hybrid character is more or less intermediate between those of the parents. Thus when a white-flowered four o’clock is crossed to a red-flowered plant, the flowers of the hybrid are pink. Nevertheless, the results in the next generation (namely, 1 red; 2 pink; 1 white) show that the hereditary elements have not blended in the hybrid but separate as cleanly as do the clements for yellow and green peas. It is true that when a given character in one race differs from the contrasted character of the other race in many elements (as height, e.g., tall v. short in man) the results are not simple but even here there is every reason to suppose that Mendel’s laws also hold for the character pairs taken separately. Each individual contains in every cell of its body as well as in the germ-cells two elements of each kind, one of which has come from the father, the other from the mother. In other words, it is not a characteristic of the hybrid alone to have pairs of elements, but all ordinary animals and plants also are “ double ” or duplex. When the germ-cells mature the members of all these pairs separate and each ripe cell comes to contain half of the entire number. At the time of fertilisation of the egg by the sperm the full number of elements is again restored. The postulated elements in the germ-cells, now usually called genes, are not to be confused with the characters of the individuals for which, in a sense, they are responsible. Each character is not supposed to be the direct product of one particular gene. On the contrary, characters or organs, as realised, are complex in origin—the product of a great many genes—but a difference that distinguishes one kind of individual from another may be due to a difference in only one pair of genes that act, so to speak, as differentials. Moreover, there is much evidence to show that these differentials cause not only a single main difference but a great many other minor differences in all parts of the body. What is called a Mendelian “ character’ therefore 1s only the most conspicuous amongst these several effects, al] of which, however, accompany one or the other differentiating gene. Whenever dominance is complete the measure of a given character in the hybrid cannot serve as a measure either of the past history of the individual or of its potential progeny. For example, if a grey house mouse is bred to a tame white or albino mouse the hybrid is grey and ts undistinguishable in colour from the house mouse, whose ancestry may never have contained a white mouse

and whose offspring by other house mice would be always grey; while half of the gametes of the grey hybrid that has had one white parent will contain an element for white. Failure to recognise these simple facts made all the earlier work on heredity extremely difficult and inaccurate when applied to individual cases. In this respect Mendel’s discovery has made possible a more accurate interpretation of heredity, and consequently hasan important bearing on theories of evolution. Since the elements in the gametes of the hybrid come out as they went in, the character of the individual is shown not to have any influence whatsoever on the elements in the germ-cells. It follows that Lamarck’s theory of the inheritance of acquired characters is erroneous. That theory postulates that the character of the individual has a direct effect on the germ-cells, so that the offspring show the influence of the characters of the body of the parents. If this were true there could be no reappearance of clean-cut elements in the gametes of a hybrid as Mendel’s law postulates and as the facts demonstrate. Since this law has been shown to hold, wherever tested, it follows that there is no influence of the sort postulated by Lamarck’s hypothesis, although evidence is at hand to show that external agencies may, in rare cases, alter the gene, the alteration being then inherited in Mendelian fashion. APPLICATIONS OF MENDELISM

It thus follows that a theory of organic evolution must be in conformity with Mendel’s principles, quite irrespective of the way in which the elements in the germ-material may be supposed to have arisen. There may be some dispute as to whether this or that character shown by domesticated animals and plants has arisen in the same way as have the contrasted characters in the wild forms from which they have been derived, but there can be no doubt that the elements or genes in both are inherited in precisely the same way. Af utation T heory.—The mutation theory, as it is called to-day, postulates that new types arise by sudden changes in the constitution of the germinal material. The new type, if sufficiently equipped to survive, shows the same degree of stability as the original type, t.e., it breeds true to its new characteristics. The mutation may involve one striking change or many changes of small or large degree. Whether the new mutant type is or is not to be called a new species is in part a question of definition, for it is true that new mutant types do not show for the most part, when bred to the parent stock, a peculiarity that has often been found to distinguish wild species when crossed, namely crossinfertility or sterility of the hybrids when such are produced. lf this distinction is held as essential to the definition of new species, then it must be positively stated that most mutant types differing from the original type do not show this relation to the original type or to each other. There is, nevertheless, something further to be said before admitting this argument as the crucial test of the origin of types by mutation or by any other process. The doctrine of the origin of new types by mutation owes its vogue to-day mainly to the work of Hugo de Vries, and to a large extent to his observations on an escaped variety of evening primrose (Oenothera Lamarckiana). He found that this plant produces in each generation a small percentage of new types that breed true to their kind. These new types he called elementary species. They cross freely with the parent and with each other. It has been objected many times, especially by the opponents of the mutation theory, that the appearance of the new types in this evening primrose is due to its hybrid origin, and in support of their contention they point out that O. Lamarckiana is not known to exist as a wild species. These who relied on this-evidence failed to appreciate that the appearance of its mutants does not conform to the ordinary rules of hybrid splitting, and their arguments were rudely shaken by the fact that other wild species of Oenothera behave in this respect in the same way as does Lamarck’s evening primrose. More recent discoveries have shown, 1t 1s crue, that a few of the more striking mutants of this plant owe their origin to processes some of which at least can scarcely be admitted as repre-

EVOLUTION senting, in general, the way in which wild species arise. An example of this may be cited here: one mutant type, O. gigas, is due to a doubling of the number of chromosomes; several others to the addition of an extra chromosome to the chromosome group, and the latter process is one that can hardly be supposed to be a method by which new species arise. There remain still a few other types whose appearance is not yet clear, but some of them at least can be accounted for on the assumption of what is known as balanced lethal factors. Without attempting to discuss this technical question it may be said that the appearance of this last kind of new type does not represent the original act of mutating but rather the liberation of genes from their lethal connection. These genes may have arisen earlier by what is now known as point mutation. If so, some of De Vries’ results fall into line with the results of more recent work on mutation. This work has shown that new characters arise

from time to time as a result of a single change (point mutation) of an element of a germ-cell. ‘The new element gives with the one from which it arose a contrasted pair of Mendelian units (called allelomorphs). If the new type is crossed to the parent type, the new and the old elements segregate in the hybrid as a characteristic pair of Mendelian differentials. The new mutant type breeds true to its kind as dues the parent type. The only serious question that may arise is whether these mutant types furnish materials for evolution, or whether they represent no more than the materials from which many of our domesticated types of animals and plants have originated. There can be no doubt that a large number of domesticated types have arisen in this way, nevertheless it might still be true that the origin of such types has

nothing in common with the process by which wild types and species originated. A further consideration of the situation may help to show which way probability lies. 1. Some of the mutant types are characterised by the loss of characters or parts present in the old type. The albino, for example, has no pigment in the eye, hair or skin. But evolution may be at times in the direction of simplification as with the eyes of many cave-dwelling forms. 2. New mutant types are often abnormal or defective. Because of their small chance of survival such new types cannot, of course, be supposed to contribute materials for evolution, unless the origin of variations has some mystical relation to their fitness—-a supposition not uncommon in the latter part of the 19th century. But

nothing in the theory of evolution requires that all new variations

shall be in the direction of fitness. For the theory of evolution it is only necessary that some sorts of variations appear that have a chance for survival in the old or in a new environment, 3. Some of the new mutant types are less resistant (weaker) or are less fertile than the original type from which they arose. These under natural conditions would die out. In fact, many observations go to show that animals and plants under natural conditions are kept up to their top level of strength and fertility by the constant elimination of the less viable variations, Wild types have already been brought as near the upper-limits as their particular organisation is capable of, and it is not to be expected, therefore, that any particular departures from this type will be an improvement. The situation would not be very different if a change could be “‘ purposely ” brought about, for, as stated, the adjustment of most organisms to the varied conditions under which they live—an adjustment that has been reached after an immense interval of time—may be as nearly perfect as the materials of its organisation and the varying condition of its environment permit. In a new environment or in a new relation to its present surroundings the chance for a change in

an adaptive direction may seem greater.

The relation of domesti-

cated types to human needs or fancy supplies such a novel situation; but human intelligence as an agent in evolution, while it may speed up the process or increase the chances of survival of a particular type, bears the same relation to variability which makes evolution possible as does any other environmental agency.

If the preceding discussion appears to weaken rather than enhance the value of mutant types as material for evolution, this is equally true for any other kind of material, unless there

were kinds in which the response of the organism to a possible need takes place. Carefully controlled observations have discovered no adequate evidence of this latter sort of variation. The extravagant claims and speculations that have been advanced in support of such views rest on confused thinking or unwarranted assumptions or false deductions from insufficient evidence. |

1077

More specifically in support of the mutational origin of new types the following facts carry considerable weight: (1) The dif-

ferences that distinguish wild variations and even wild species have been shown in a number of cases to depend on genetic elements that behave toward each as do Mendelian elements.

(2)

Genetic elements that modify common characters, making them a little more or a little less developed, are well known. They conform in every way to the laws regulating larger changes. Many of the individual differences that make organisms a little better or a little less well adapted depend on these modifying elements. Any theory of evolution based on observed facts, and not on imaginary suppositions, must appeal to these genctic elements as material out of which to construct a theory of evolution or descent through gradual modifications. As already stated, it does not follow that these modifying factors, which can generally be found when looked for, have arisen by mutations even though they obey Mendel’s laws, but until some other origin can be discovered it seems better to construct a working hypothesis on this assumption than on one that appeals to purely fictitious agencies. (3) Darwin argued that since all degrees of infertility between types and all degrees of fertility of hybrids are known to exist, there is no need to suppose that these differences have had any origin than other kinds of differences. In fact, if evolution has taken place, we might expect to find just such an inconstant relation. Later work supports Darwin’s contention. The attempt to set up artificial distinctions between the frequently observed infertility between wild “ species ’’? and the complete fertility of nearly all domesticated and mutant types does not appear to-day as a real difficulty in the path of the mutation theory of evolution. | Modern experimental research has brought to light an important distinction in relation to those individual dilferences that are always found to be present in any group (variety or species} of individuals. The individual differences, that are often called fluctuating variations, are due sometimes to environmental effects produced on the individual during its development. These are not transmitted to the offspring and can take, therefore, no part in evolution. Other individus] differences are genetic differences due to elements or genes in the germinal materials. These differences are inherited according to Mendel's laws and may take part in evolution. At the time when Darwin wrote the Origin of Species (1859) these distinctions were not clearly understood, although, of course, it had been known long before that time that while some individual differences are transmitted others are not. Darwin’s theory of natural selection was based on the occurrence of individual variations, which, under selection, furnish the materials by which progressive evolution takes place. It was, however, not then sufficiently realised that selection of individual differences, even of those that are inherited, can not bring about an advance in the direction of selection to an indefinite extent. The changes due to selection come abruptly to a standstill unless new mutation occurs. The explanation of this is well understood to-day, owing more especially to the thor-

ough examination of the problem by a Danish botanist, W. Johannsen. The first advance that takes place under selection is due to the sorting out of the genetic differences present that modify this or that organ in one or another direction. When selection has brought together those genetic clements that modify a particular character in the direction of selection, further advance ceases. The selected type will still vary, it is true, due to the environmental influence acting on each individual during its development; but, since these are not inherited, no further ad-

vance in the selected group of individuals as a whole takes place. Only by the appearance of a new mutation or of some other sort of change is any further progress possible. The rather widespread popular fallacy that selection can go on changing a group as long as the process continues is now known to be erroneous. The sclective process does not furnish a new base from which further progress may be made, but acts only in so far as genctic dilferences are already present and then comes to an end, or unless new differences arise by mutation. It is a creative process only in so far as it sorts out what is already given. On the other hand

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EVOLUTION

if mutations are constantly arising, selection will guide the resultant evolution. Darwin’s ideas concerning the nature of variation and the power of natural selection could not have been as precise as the ideas of the present time based on accurate experimental work, and there is nowhere to be found any statement in his writings to the effect that selection itself creates the possibility of further advance in the direction of selection. It could not have been as clear to him as tous that the power of selection to bring about a progressive change in a given material is extremely limited. Nevertheless, he took for granted that new variations are constantly occurring, and in all directions. If this were strictly true, selection would cause progress indefinitely. We realise that gecnetic variability is by no means such a common event as Darwin supposed. On the contrary, all the evidence indicates that it is a rather remarkably rare event in proportion to the individual environmental changes that are ever present. Compensating for the rarity of new genetic variations is the fact that when they do appear they are constant and not necessarily lost by the swamping effects of intercrossing. Thus what the theory of natural selection lost in one direction it gained in another, and the probability that evolution has taken place by the selection of chance variations is as great as at the time when Darwin advanced his theory of natural selection.

stages which the individual of one species passes through during its growth from the egg to the adult condition, with the adult stages of other species. Darwin relied mainly on the first category of evidence. He showed that those who contended for the fixity and independent creation of cach species, nevertheless divided many species into Jocal races which in their view had arisen through the modification of different portions of the mother species by exposure to different types of external conditions, but that in practice no sharp line could be drawn between such races and species which graded into each other. Huxley, however, relied chiefly on the second category of evidence, for at the time of his great fight for Darwin, series of closely related fossils deposited in immediately succeeding beds had been discovered, in Shick to his mind there was exhibited a veritable record of evolutionary change, the fossils in the lower beds being the remains of the ancestors of the animals preserved in the younger and succeeding beds. The comparison of the embryonic stages in the life history of one animal with the adult stages of another was brought into prominence by Haeckel, who interpreted the life history of the individual as a recapitulation of the history of the race: this interpretation is of course a great assumption: its validity has to be first established by arguments drawn from categorics I and 2; but once its general truth is admitted it furnishes a splendid means of unravelling the actual course which evolution has pursued.

Present Position.—The present position of affairs may be summarised as follows: by arguments belonging to all three categories mentioned above, the educated mass of mankind have been convinced that evolution has actually taken place; that as time has flowed on a species has gradually changed its character and that one mother species has split up into local races which, by Bris_LioGrRApny.—Gregor Mendel, “ Versuche über Pflanzenhydiverging more and more from one another, have gradually briden, ?” Verhandi. d. Natur-Vereins in Brunn, vol. r0 (1865); A. Weismann, Essays on Heredity, 2 vol. (Oxford, 1889); The Germchanged into distinct daughter species. But how this has been Plasm (1893); W. Bateson, Materials for the Study of Variation brought about is an extremely disputed question, for the con(1894); W. Johannsen, Uber Erblichkeit in Populationen und in reinen stancy of specific characters within the span of observation Linten (Jena, 1903); A. Weismann, The Evolution Theory (1904); H. afforded by a human life is the most familiar of all the facts of de Vries, Species and Varieties; Their Origin by Mutation (1905); R. H. Lock, Variation, Heredity and Evolution (1910); H. de Vries, natural history. The Mutation Theory (1910-1); A. D. Darbishire, Breeding and the Main Hypotheses —Three main hypotheses as to how evoluMendelian Discovery (1911); W. Bateson, Afendel’s Principles of tionary change has been produced have been put forward, the Heredity (1913); W. Johannsen, Elemente der exakten ErblichkettsLamarckian, the Darwinian and de Vriesian respectively. lehre, 2nd ed. (Jena, 1913); H. de Vries, Gruppenweise Artbildung (1913); W. Bateson, Presidential address to Brit. Assn. Meeting Lamarck’s hypothesis in its original form was that the direct held in Australia (1914); RK. R. Gates, The Mutation Factor in cause of evolution is a change in the environment. Animals Evolution (1915); T. H. Morgan, The Physical Basis of Heredity exposed to new conditions experience new needs, and the effort (Philadelphia, 1919); R. C. Punnett, Mendelism, 5th ed. (1919); to satisfy these needs leads them to make greater use of certain E. Baur, Einführung in die experimentelle Vererbungslehre, 5th and 6th ed. (1922); T. H. Morgan, A. H. Sturtevant, H. J. Müller and organs and less use of others; greater use leads to greater growth C. B. Bridges, The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity, rev. ed. and lesser use to diminished growth; and these tendencies to (1923); W. E. Castle, Genetics and Eugenics (1924); T. H. Morgan, greater or less growth are transmitted by heredity to offspring. Evolution and Genetics, (Princeton, 1925); E. B. Wilson, The Cell Darwinian Hypothesis ——The Darwinian view is that change in Development and Heredity, 3rd. ed. (1925). (T. H. M.) of conditions induces a tendency in animals to vary slightly in V. EVOLUTION AND RESPONSE TO all directions; that many of these variations are inheritable, and ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE that those that happen to suit the new environment are preserved The word evolution, literally translated, means unfolding and affect the character of subsequent generations, whilst the or unrolling, and in Latin signified the opening up of the bud individuals which exhibit harmful variations are wiped out by into the perfect flower or leaf-shoot. Its meaning was extended natural selection. Darwin implicitly assumed that the descendlater by metaphor to denote the growth of an institution or a ants of each individual exhibiting a favourable variation might people. In the 18th century it was introduced into biology to be expected to vary again in the same way as did their progenitor, denote one particular theory of the development of the individ- and that so the character of the stock would be gradually modiual. According to this theory all development was a mere un- fied in a given favourable direction. ; folding or unrolling: the perfect individual complete in all its Mutation Theory.— The theory of de Vries is founded on his parts already existed in miniature in the germ; growth consisted experiments with the evening primrose Oenothera lamarckiana. in separating out and making evident what had been previously He found that when thousands of this plant were cultivated in wrapped up together. the botanical gardens at Amsterdam, in each generation a small number of individuals were produced which exhibited marked History of the Term.—The geologist, Lyell, employed it to denote divergences in structure from the type, divergences which at the the moulding of the earth by natural forces. Darwin, in 1859, did not employ the word evolution at all in his celebrated book on the same time affected roots, leaves, stem, flowers and seeds. In Origin of Species. When Herbert Spencer, in his famous First nearly every case the divergent individual, when fertilised with Principles, attempted to show that the same process which had conits own pollen, transmitted its peculiarities to its offspring; so densed nebulae into suns and planets had also produced life from life- that new species were being produced from the mother species in less matter and modern animals and plants from the first simple each generation complete in all their characters. living things, he gave to this hypothetical process the name “‘evoluThe causes of this production of new species, however, were tion’; but his term ‘‘ evolution ’’ has come into general use to denote the Darwinian theory that the inexhaustible variety of living quite mysterious, and de Vries suggested that species underwent plants and animals have arisen by descent from a few or, perhaps, fits of variation. To very similar conclusions Morgan was led only one stock of simple ancestors. by his cultures of the fruit ly Drosophila melanogaster, of which Nature of Evidence.—Now since evolution is ex hypothesi, a process he has bred several hundred thousand individuals. Here, too, which required for its accomplishment millions of years, direct evidence of its occurrence is of course unobtainable, and the indirect small numbers of individuals, differing definitely, though to evidence in its favour may be grouped under three heads, viz.: (1) varying extents from the type, were encountered, and each such deductions from the comparison of allied species with each other, individual, when mated with its like, transmitted its peculiarities (2) deductions from the comparison of fossil species with one another and with living species, (3) deductions from the comparison of the to its offspring. Morgan believed that in these aberrant individ-

EVOLUTION

1079

Evolution of the Horse——In the succession of fossil remains, which convinced Huxley of the truth of evolution, this slow concomitant change of structure and function is the salient fact which impresses itself on the observer. Thus, in the series which is apparently the record of the evolution of the horse, we start with animals with four toes on each foot. As we proceed upwards in the series the outer toe, corresponding to the human little toe, gradually diminishes in size and disappears first on the hind foot and then on the fore foot. The second and fourth toes then begin to diminish slowly and are ultimately reduced to mere vestiges concealed under the skin, in which condition they remain in the modern horse, leaving only the third toe active and functional. Whilst the toes are shortening the teeth are undergoing changes also. In the earlier four-toed forms the grinding teeth are studchose the bean-plant, in which the flowers can be fertilised with ded with cusps—-but as we ascend in the series the cusps become their own pollen; Agar worked on the little crustacean Simoce- connected by ridges, and the valleys between the ridges become phalus, in which the eggs develop parthenogenetically, that is, filled with cement and the crown is at the same time greatly inwithout fertilisation; and Jennings chose the protist Paramecium, creased in height. The changes both in teeth and feet are clearly commonly known as the slipper animalcule, for his investigations. related to the gradual changes of swampy plains into dry steppes, This animal is equivalent to a single cell and multiplies by divi- and the resultant modification of succulent soft marsh plants sion into two. In all three cases it was found that the progeny into dry harsh grasses. Eimbryological Fvidence.-—But the study of comparative emvaried considerably amongst themselves, but that if a divergent individual were selected to carry on the strain, the progeny of bryology leads also to the conclusion that evolution results from such an individual were exactly like those of a typical individual changes in habits. Whenever in an order, where the type of and that the possibility imagined by Darwin of continuously structure is fairly constant, one genus is met with which exhibits increasing or diminishing the size of an organ by continually an aberrant type of structure, this aberrant genus, when young, selecting in each generation for continued propagation those in- almost invariably exhibits the structure characteristic of the dividuals which exhibited the largest or smallest developments other members of the order. The cat-fish, widely distributed over Europe and Asia, (see DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS) are freshof an organ did not in fact exist. Difficulties and Criticisms of the Mutation Theory —The ob- water fish devoid of scales and with darkly pigmented skins. jections to the mutation theory are of a different character. They have broad mouths adorned with long barbels, which have While “ mutations ” do appear suddenly and are in most cases been fancifully compared to the whiskers of a cat. There is a inheritable, most of the mutations described by Morgan and the cat-fish, however, which is a denizen of small ponds and tanks “ sports ?” used to propagate fancy races in other species, differ in India, belonging to the genus Carias, which has learned to strongly in their character from the diagnostic marks which dis- breathe air. This fish, when young, is exactly hke other cat-fish, tinguish allied species from one another. On this subject the but as it grows a sac-like extension of the opercular cavity is judgment of leading systematic zoologists is decisive. Most mu- formed above the gills and into this cavity peculiar tree-like tations are as Haecker has recently expressed it: “‘ inhibitions of organs extend. ‘These organs are adapted to absorb oxygen from development ” and correlated with diminished vital energy. the air; they arise as little buds from the uppermost sections of As they never fail to make their appearance when plants are the gill arches, and as they grow the fish begins to make excurcultivated or animals bred in confinement there must be what sions out of the tanks on to the swampy meadow and gardens Baur terms ‘ idiokinetic factors”? in environments of this kind round them in pursuit of earthworms. It is difficult to take seriwhich alter the hereditary tendencies. The nature of these fac- ously the suggestion that “ accidental ” mutations led to the tors has been investigated by Tornier in the case of goldfish. No production of the trees in fish which remained in the water and domesticated race of animals exhibits such aberrant types as that then these aberrances enabled their happy possessors to the goldfish; but all the divergences of structure from the normal extend their hunting grounds, whilst other simultaneous mutaare the secondary results of what Tornier calls ‘ plasma-weak- tions inspired them with the instinct to do so. ness ” or the diminished vital energy of the protoplasmic part Zoological Evidence. The study of closely allied species or deof the egg, in consequence of which this portion became crushed tailed systematic zoology has led Dr. Tate Regan, to exactly and distorted by the swelling yolky portion. This weakness the same conclusion. Change of habits, he avers, has preceded is due to the deprivation of the egg of sufficient oxygen during and determined change of structure and so caused evolution. the critical period of its development immediately succeeding So in the case of the viviparous blenny Zoarces, which retains fertilisation; but once acquired, this weakness is transmitted the young in the maternal body till they have acquired the strucfrom one generation to another and produces similar results in ture of the parent and are ready to assume the parental habits, each. If Tornier’s conclusions are accepted, “ mutants ” can small colonies of this fish in different localities differ from one have played no part in the process of evolution, for owing to another slightly in the shape of the body. Those that live in the their relatively feeble constitution they would be the first to be quict headwaters of the Danish fjords have shorter and deeper bodies with a reduced number of vertebrae, while those that lead eliminated by natural selection. Lamarckian Hypothesis.—As to Lamarck’s principle of “ re- a more active life in the open sea have longer and more slender sponse to the environment ” as the cause of evolution: that ani- bodies with an increased number of vertebrae. Activities— mals do respond to changes in the environment by slight changes habits—are here, as Lamarck phrased it, called forth by the dein habits and consequent modifications of structure is admitted mands of the situation in which the fish find themselves and beby all, so far as the life of the individual is concerned. The point come crystallised into changes of structure. Transmission of Acquired or Adoptive Charactcrs.—Most palaein dispute and one that is vital for the evolution theory is whether such modifications can be transmitted in any degree to subse- ontologists are supporters of the Lamarckian view, but so far quent generations. Thus, children who run about with bare legs the evidence adduced in favour of the Lamarckian view has been acquire an abundant growth of hair on these members, profes- indirect; the question now arises: can we induce animals to adopt sional singers acquire enlarged chests and prize-fighters enor- different habits from those to which they have been accustomed, mous muscles in their arms. It is obvious that if these changes and show that these changed habits and the modifications reaffect the children of such people the changes in structure will sulting therefrom are transmitted to- their descendants? Weiskeep pace with changes in habits, or, as it is usually phrased, mann, who on theoretical grounds was strongly opposed to the theory of the inheritability of the effects of habit, endeavoured structure will change with function.

uals he had discovered the raw material of evolution, and is usually known as the “ mutation theory.” Pure Lines.--The reason that the mutation theory has gained in favour whilst the pure Darwinian theory is less widely accepted than formerly is to be found in the results of what are called the pure-line experiments. Galton and Weldon had shown that if the individuals of species are measured with respect to the development of a single character, they did exhibit variations on both sides of the mean of approximately the same extent and with very nearly equivalent frequency, but the question remained to be answered whether these variations were inheritable or not. This question was attacked by Johannsen, Agar and Jennings, each of whom investigated inheritance in a pure hne— that is, amongst the offspring of a single parent. Johannsen

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EVOLUTION

to give a negative answer to this question. Ie cut off the tails of mice and bred these mutilated specimens together and showed that their progeny were born with normal tails. These experiments, which betray ignorance on the part of the experimenter of what the Lamarckian doctrine was or what was meant by an

“acquired character,” have been cited for a generation as conclusive evidence against this doctrine. Recent Experiments ——Of recent years, however, a series of carefully planned experiments have been carried out which give positive answers to the question. Thus, Kammerer took specimens of the common European Fire-salamander, (Sulamandra maculosa) and reared them in cages the walls of which were coloured yellow or black. The skins of these animals are black diversified with patches of yellow pigment. This yellow pigment, however, only makes its appearance at the time of the metamorphosis of the gilled larva into the Jand-living adult. It varies in extent in different individuals. During larval life Kammerer kept his specimens in surroundings of a neutral grey tint; after metamorphosis he placed relatively black specimens in yellow cages and yellower specimens in black cages. In these cages they lived and grew till they reached maturity, a process which occupied between four and five years. At the end of this time the specimens in the yellow cages had amalgamated their yellow spots into two broad longitudinal dorsal bands; in those in the black cages, on the contrary, the spots had diminished to minute dots. When two yellowed specimens were mated together and their offspring reared to maturity in yellow boxes, the yellow increased so much in extent as almost to exclude the black pigment altogether: when on the contrary, these offspring were reared in black boxes the yellow pigment still increased in quantity for the first year of their life owing to the influence of parenfal conditions; then, and then only, did the black environment begin to exert its effect and the yellow pigment was ultimately reduced to small spots. Durkhen enclosed the caterpillars of the common white butterfly (Piertsbrassicae) in boxes covered with lids of orange-coloured glass. In these boxes they pupated, and from the pupae the butterflies emerged and were used to propagate a second generation. The orange-coloured light inhibits the formation of the pigments (chalky white and minute dots of black) in the skin of the pupa and allows the green blood to shine through. In ordinary light about 4% of the pupae are green: of those reared in orange light 65% were green. When a second generation were reared under similar conditions 95% were green, and when this generation was exposed to the influence of ordinary daylight 34° were still green owing to the influences to which their parents were exposed. MacBride once endeavoured to force the stick insect (Ceraxsius morosus) to feed on leaves of the common ivy plant. The insects disliked this plant very much and took to it with reluctance—those that survived produced few eggs, but these eggs produced larvae which took to ivy with avidity when opportunity offered. Time Factor —Lamarck had expressly asserted that the influence of conditions in modifying structure only begins to be evident “aftera long time,’ and all the evidence derivable from palaeontelogy bears out this conclusion. Pigmentation, however, Is the most recently acquired and variable character which animals possess; and it was therefore to be expected that it would be this character which would yield results to experiments conducted over a relatively limited period of time. The objection sometimes raised that the changes induced in these experiments might not be permanent is due to a confusion of thought. The objector tacitly assumes that a change in hereditary tendency, once produced, should persist, whatever the nature of the subsequent environment may be. But if hereditary potences are of such a nature that they can be deflected from their course by environmental change, a transference of the organism back to typical conditions must work in the opposed sense to the previous environmental change. The utmost that we could expect in such cases would be (1) an intensification of the effect when the environmental change is

prolonged for several generations; (2) a trace of the effect, especially in earlier stages of life, when the organism in the second generation is removed to normal surroundings; these expectations are fulfilled by the results of Kammerer and Durkhen.

It appears therefore that the whole constitution of an animal can be expressed as a superposed series of adaptations or habits. This, indeed, has always been the basal assumption underlying comparative anatomy—and that these habits have produced corresponding structural modifications. Those most recently acquired are assumed to be most quickly affected by changes in conditions—long established habits acquire a kind of inertia, or are, so to say, more “‘ deeply engrained ” and only yield slowly to new stimull. Two a priert theoretical objections have been made to the Lamarckian doctrine by its opponents. These are: (1) that there are structures, such as the peculiar features of neuter insects and the phenomena of mimicry in Insects, which could not have been evolved by the handing on to posterity of the results of changes of habits, and (2) that there is no conceivable mechanism by which changes in the body of the adult organism could be transmitted to the egg-cell. The first objection may be at once countered by the reflection that in many cases where the evolutionary history has been clearly deciphered the dependence of change of structure or change of habit is obvious. If in these difficult cases alluded to above we knew the evolutionary history, the same explanation would be seen to apply to them. Elsewhere (see BIBLIOGRAPHY) suggestions have been made as to how these exceptional cases might be explained, but it is waste of time to discuss them until we know more of their history. The Afechanism.—To the second objection we may reply that whether we can conceive it or not some means of transmitting the effects of changes in bodily structure to the egg must exist. Guyer and Smith made an emulsion of the lens of the eye of a rabbit in Ringer’s solution and injected it into the blood of a fowl. After an interval of three weeks the scrum of the fowl’s blood had acquired the power of attacking and dissolving the lens of the rabbit’s eye. If now this serum were injected into the veins of a pregnant rabbit some of the embryos were born with minute defective lenses. If these young were allowed to breed the defect could be transmitted through six generations without any further administration of serum, and was, moreover, transmitted through the male, so that any explanation of the transmission by a supposititious infection of the embryos of each generation through the placenta of the mother was excluded. Guyer was driven to the conclusion that the germ-cells of the rabbits originally injected had acquired the power of forming a “ cytolysm ” which destroyed the lens, and that this power was transmitted by heredity.

But it is really idle to raise the objection that there is no “mechanism ” by which the properties of the body can be transmitted to the egg. No “ mechanism ”’ is yet discovered by which the growth of the adult body from the egg can be explained. Evolution of Planis——Does evolution as a result of the transmission of the effects of habit apply to plants also? As there is astrong fundamental similarity in the characters and reactions of living substance in both animals and plants, it is to be expected that plants, like animals, will inherit acquired qualities. But the life of the plant and all its reactions are much slower than those of an animal, and the period of a human life would probably be too short to demonstrate this inheritance. Some evidence, however, exists. In the 17th century the peach tree was introduced by the French. colonists into the Island of Reunion. In France the peach is a deciduous tree, but those planted at sea-level in Reunion became evergreens, whilst those on the summits of the mountains remained deciduous. If now the seed of a tree living at sea-level is planted at a higher elevation, it remains an evergreen, so that this acquired habit has become hereditary. To sum up, there is in every organism something which feels, reacts by striving, learns, remembers and transmits its memories to its posterity. Striving and memory are fundamental properties of life and give the only satisfactory explanation of evolution.

EVOLUTION BIBLIOGRAPHY. —G. H. T. Eimer, Die Entstehung der Arten (18881901); E. D. Cope, The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution (1896); G. B. Lamarck, Zoological Philosophy, trans. H. Elliot (1914); P. Kammerer, The Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics (1924); E. W. MacBride, Introduction to the Study of Heredity (1924); and article

‘ Zoology,” in Evolution in the Light of Modern Knowledge (1925); Eugenio Rignano, Biological Memory: A New Theory of Life, English translation and introduction by E. W. MacBride (1926). (E. W. MacB.)

VI. EVOLUTION

AND

MIND

The word “ evolution ” has been used in many senses.

Some

of them may now be regarded as obsolete. But there is still diversity of usage. Traced to its source this is not merely a matter of verbal definition. It depends on the place that is assigned to mind in, or in relation to, the course of events. In what may be called an unrestricted usage of the word “ evolution,” mind is the outcome of the progressive differentiation and integration of world-events. In a specially restricted usage those worldevents which are distinctive of organisms are the outcome of the directive activity of mind. This divergence of usage is based on the acceptance of this or that speculative hypothesis. On one hypothesis mind is the evolutionary terminus ad quem: on the other hypothesis mind is the creative ferminus a quo. But the biologist within his province may reject both these hypotheses. For him evolution is neither more nor less than a doctrine of descent. Take first the unrestricted use of the word. The noun stands for a concept of very wide range, and needs adjectival qualification or referential completion to focus its meaning. Thus we read of cosmic evolution, of mental evolution, of social evolution; of the evolution of the atom, of the solar system, of scenery and so forth. Those who accept this unrestricted usage must be prepared to state that which is common to each several instances of the use of the noun, when they talk, for example, now of geological and now of mental evolution, or turn from the evolution of a crystal to that of trial by jury. Herbert Spencer, who rendered current the unrestricted use of the word, enunciated a “ law of evolution ” stating certain criteria which he regarded as salient. But his formulation is rarely quoted now save by those who seek to show the inadequacy of the concept he sought to express with such emphasis on redistribution of matter and motion as seemed to leave mental and social evolution interpretable only on a basis of questionable analogy. Those who still use the word in an unrestricted sense mean by it something comprehensible though necessarily expressible only in very comprehensive form. They mean something like this: any set of events or state of affairs, physical or mental, which exemplifies evolution is a passing phase in an orderly sequence; and it comes into existence in such wise that its place in the sequence, and its relations to precedent and consequent phases,

are interpretable under the accredited methods of scientific procedure. Otherwise stated: Evolution implies a determinate plan of advance to which any given instance of advance may be referred, and as thus referred is susceptible of interpretation, such

interpretation is commonly spoken of as natural.

But it is com-

monly held that there are some phases of events or some states

of affairs of which no natural interpretation, evolutionary or other, can be given. These are said to be supernatural. If we wish to understand why so many people regard evolution as a live issue we cannot disregard this antithesis between natural and supernatural. But though it is preserved in much controversial discussion, nay more, is widely regarded as essential, it has for long been subjected to criticism. Many urge, rightly or wrongly, that it is a relic of primitive mythology. There are those who believe that some world-events demand supernatural intervention in order that the direction they take may be explained, whereas other world-events do not. Hence one must ask: which do and which do not? But many eminent thinkers believe that the concept of supernatural intervention, here, there or elsewhere, as directive of the current course of world-events, should be ruled out as invalid. The supernatural, they urge, is omnipresent. If they be right, the antithesis between “ some ” events and “ others ”’ lapses. The question then

LOSI

is: Are all world-events not only natural but in some valid sense supernatural also? We are not here concerned with this philosophical question. But we must not prejudge the issue. Hence we must be content to say: There are at any rate some events

which occur in enchained sequence of which it may be affirmed that to all these events the concept of evolution in an unrestricted sense is applicable. A further question then arises. Does every enchained sequence of natural events furnish an instance of evolutionary advance? Of course there is temporal sequence; and this may be called “advance in time.” But this means only that in any sequence of phases, sav /, mw, n, 2 precedes mz, which is succeeded by ». It tells nothing of the character of the group of events /, m orn. If there be evolution some change of character is implied. Now it was one of Herbert Spencer’s noteworthy contributions to the discussion of enchained natural sequence that he sought to distinguish groups of events or states of affairs as in some sense “lower” and “higher.” Progress is from lower to higher; regress is from higher to lower. Evolution is always progressive. Regressive change is not evolution but “ dissolution.” The difficulty still remains how to characterise in some way “ higher ” and “lower.” It may be that at present we can best deal with the question departmentally and say that # is higher

(or lower) than m, as an organism, as a mind, as a social institution and so on. But to justify the concept of unrestricted evolution there must be some character or characters, which may be taken as distinctive of all instances of what we are to call “ higher.” Perhaps there is as yet no common agreement as to the criteria on which reliance can be placed. It has, however, been suggested that complexity in the constituents of any /, m or n, and comprehensiveness in their plan of going together as an integral whole may serve to distinguish higher from lower in any context of natural events. So far we have taken the sequence of events, say }, m, n, as susceptible of observation or infcrable from observation duly recorded. Let us assume that /, # and n, are integral entities whercin certain natural events as constituents go together in substantial unity in accordance with some determinate plan, as in an atom, a molecule, a crystal, an organism. Then m may be (1) a stage in progressive evolution, or it may be (2) a stage in regressive “ dissolution.” Let m be an atom of lead. It is admittedly in being. We seem to have evidence of its becoming or natural origin, in isotope form, by regressive dissolution of the uranium or the thorium atom. But we have as yet no evidence of its origin through progressive evolution. If, however, m be a molecule, say of water, there may be evidence of its origin (1) in this instance by evolution or (2) in that instance by dissolution. And if # be an organism its status in being may have been reached either by evolutionary progress from an organism which was lower than it is, or by regressive dissolution (degradation) from one which was higher than it is. Here we take it for granted that 2, m and # are affiliated organisms. It may then be said that, since there is no affiliation in atoms or molecules or crystals, the words evolution or “ dissolution ” (in the biological sense of regressive degradation) are inapplicable. Furthermore, in Liology, adaptation means changing attunement to changing external conditions and of such progressive or regressive adaptation there is no evidence in the inorganic world. We thus pass from the unrestricted usage to one that is restricted to that province of inquiry in which é, m or n are living organisms. And here yet a further restriction is customary— namely, to that which is otherwise spoken of as the “ doctrine of descent,” where /, #2 and 2 are affiliated organisms, reserving the word ‘ development ” for the branch of inquiry which deals with 7, # and z as stages in the life-history of the individual. The question then arises: In what way is the story of the individual development (ontogeny) connected with the story of racial or linear evolution (phylogeny)? Now it is part of the business of the biologist to describe (1) the intrinsic nature of this or that organism, and (2) its extrinsic relations to the world in which it lives—its environment. In

order that it may continue in being (survive) there must be

1082

EVOLUTION

adaptation to surrounding circumstances. The evidence of such adaptation must primarily be sought in the story of development in the course of individual life. But the story of }, of m and of 2, as affiliated individuals, may have much in common in respect of their intrinsic nature and of their adaptation to environing conditions. In any evolutionary hypothesis, that which is common to the affiliated organisms /, m and 7, is discussed under heredity (see HEREDITY). Apart from a doctrine of heredity there can be no doctrine of descent. And this applies to the intrinsic nature of the individuals, and to the adaptation of these individuals to their environment. Such in brief—apart from contributory matters—is the concept of evolution in a restricted sense. It needs emphasis, however, that under intrinsic nature and adaptation there are commonly included such mental characters as may be attributed to the organism on presumptive evidence. This provides for mental evolution on a doctrine of descent. We may now ask on what grounds one usage or the other is accepted. They may broadly be distinguished as practical and speculative. There seems to be a hierarchy of modes of being. And this hierarchy may be reducible to the three modes of being, physico-chemical, vital and mental. The unrestricted theory is that these three exemplify the evolutionary sequence /, m and x and are interpretable as successive stages of world-progress in one order of nature. The vital m has certain distinctive characters, such as hereditary adaptation, which are absent in /; the mental x has characters which are absent in #—let us say endeavour to reach a foreseen end. The presence of n implies that the stage m has already been reached; the presence of m implies that the stage / has already been reached. It does not necessarily follow that m can be interpreted in terms of /, or that 2 can be interpreted in terms of m. Nay rather it seems, on the evidence, that in passing from / to m, and from m to 2, there is something really new. For this the word “ emergent ” has been suggested. Emergence labels the concept which may thus be expressed: When certain constituents with distinctive characterising properties go together in accordance with some determinate

plan so as to form an integral whole, the properties of that whole are not the algebraical sum of the properties of the constituents as they exist (a) independently or (b) within some other and different whole. There are new properties which are said to be emergent. Whether there be in nature instances of emergence in this sense is a matter of evidence. 1f so they may be found only in /—in the physico-chemical realm, or they may be found also in m and in z. Wherever they be found, we must loyally accept this finding, which implies that in these cases—not necessarily in all cases —evolutionary advance is by emergent steps with continuity of direction towards higher modes of being. Acceptance of some such evolutionary scheme for the interpretation of life and mind is admittedly on speculative grounds. On practical grounds botanists and zoologists of the older school may say: We keep to known facts and work within our province. Of an enchained series of steps from the not-living to the living there is at present no evidence which carries conviction. We start, therefore, with organisms in being. We adduce evidence in favour of evolution, by which we mean a doctrine of descent. We adduce evidence from which we infer that, accompanying certain organic events, the physiological nature of which we seek to characterise, there is in some organisms, but not in all, and even in man in some but not all of his behaviour, conscious guidance which contributes to fuller life and to nicer and more delicate adaptation. This “ mind” we accept where the evidence justilies its acceptance, just as we “ accept ”’ life on the evidence.

We find it in being at a describable stage of individual development. It is then a factor in further development and on this wise, under heredity, a factor in organic evolution. It is not within our province to ask: Whence does life arise? or Whence does mind arise? When once they are in being (through what mode of becoming, sudden or gradual, is unknown) we trace their evolution under our doctrine of descent. We submit that all this is based on sound scientific method.

Let us grant that it is based on sound biological method, and that the botanist or zoologist is wise to keep within his own province. But there are border-land sub-provinces in which other specialists are busily at work, and the interconnection of provinces (physico-chemical, organic and mental) is itself worthy of serious discussion. We must set no barriers to scientific inquiry. Unrestricted evolution 1s unquestionably speculative in the sense that it is a hypothesis to be accepted or rejected on evidential grounds. It includes in its purview the origin of living beings and the origin of conscious endeavour to attain foreseen ends. Under restricted evolution biologists of the older school exclude these questions of origin (that of life and of mind) either (1) as beyond the scope of their special inquiry, or (2) as one with which science has no concern. But in either case they commonly urge that conscious endeavour as distinctive of mind, comes into elfective existence quite late in the developmental history of the individual and quite late in evolution under their doctrine of descent. And when it does come, so as to be a new factor in adaptation to environing circumstances, they commonly accept as an unexplained fact that it in some way ‘‘ accompanies ”’ certain highly differentiated physiological events the story of which falls within their province. There is, however, a newer school of biologists, and among them the logically consistent extremists say: not late in the course of development or of evolution does mind appear, but at the very outset of life, which from first to last is but the organic expression of mind as endeavour to accomplish its ends in development and evolution. For them evolution assumes a radically different meaning. It is still restricted to the realm or order of life and mind as definitely contrasted with the utterly diverse order of matter and energy. Here only is endeavour in being, but here always. Even in the plant, even in the fertilised ovum, even in processes of cell-division, that endeavour which is distinctive of mind, and which is absent in the inorganic realm, intervenes as directive of the course of events. The word “ supernatural ”? may not be used, but sufficient emphasis can be laid on the analogous concept—“ wholly other than naturalistic or deterministic.” Endeavour belongs to a disparate order of being, that of the mind which animates the organism and uses the material provided by nature as a means to the accomplishment of its ends. However stereotyped the development of oak from acorn may be, it is none the less the expression of life which is one with mind and is utterly different from the forces concerned in any mechanical occurrence. It betokens a persistent and consistent aim directed to, and directive of the fulfilment of ‘‘ oakly ” being. It is this that is spoken of as endeavour; this that demands a concept which is inapplicable to atoms or molecules or crystals or the solar system. Such a form of restricted evolution is a speculative hypothesis to be accepted or rejected on evidential grounds. What is the evidence in support of the cardinal concept? That is the crucial question which must here be left sub Judice. In view of the rival claims of this special form of restricted evolution on the one hand, and of unrestricted evolution on the other hand, controversy, often embittered, arises, and there jis talk of “ obsession ” by this or that “ dogma.” The issue is at the bottom the place and the status of mind in its relation to matter.

Dr. Broad has recently discussed no less than seventeen logically possible solutions of this vexed problem under certain definitions. They lie beyond our purview here. Much has been written—much remains to be written—on evolution. The careful reader should ask: Which of at least three different usages of the word is implied in this or that statement, in this context or that? BIBLIOGRAPHY.——Fvolution in the Light of Modern Knowledge, a collective work (1925); as presenting the restricted view J. Arthur Thomson, Concerning Evolution (1925); for unrestricted treatment, C. Lloyd Morgan, Life, Mind and Spirit (1925); for a critical discussion of underlying principles, without special reference to evolution, but with much emphasis on emergence, C. D. Broad, The Mind and Its Place in Nature (1925). (C. LI. M.)

;

EXAMINATIONS EXAMINATIONS (sce 10.41; also INTELLIGENCE, HUMAN}.— As far as Great Britain is concerned progress since 1911 has been made in three directions:— (1) It is suggested that the following criteria applicable to physical tests should be applied as far as possible to examination tests: (a) The test of a given characteristic should demonstrably yiell a suitable measure of that characteristic; (b) in cases where the whole material under investigation cannot be tested, it should be shown that the sample tested is an average sample of the whole; (c) the test should be trustworthy, ?.e., when repeated a number of times by the same observer, or when repeated by different observers, it should yield approximately the same

results;

(d) the application

of the test should

not

sensibly affect the characteristic tested, or injuriously affect the material as a whole; (e) the characteristic tested should be demonstrably of a permanent or semi-permanent nature.! (2) The British Govt. has taken action with a view to the improvement of the most difficult civil service examinations in the country and of secondary school examinations. ‘The report of the Treasury Committee on Civil Service, Class I. Examinations (1917), has led to important reforms in that examination, of which the chief are the introduction ofa viva-voce examination and the modification of the examination in “ English ” so as to make it a real “ capacity-test ’ of “ the understanding of English and the workmanlike use of words. ” ‘The test in this subject has now a definite purpose and Is designed to meet that purpose; and the whole tendency of the examinations in other subjects is also to test capacity rather than mere memory. The Secondary Schools Examination Council set up by the Board of Education in 1917 1s making, with the help of expert investigators in each subject, periodical investigations of examinations and scripts with a view to correlating the standards of public examinations at the ages of 16 and 18 (approximately), conducted by universities and other public bodies, while avoiding the introduction of an educational dead-level which would block progress. This “ continuous audit ” of examinations is valuable, and probably the first of its kind. In regard to one point there has been no visible advance—the statistical investigation of the marking by different examiners, in which Edgeworth’s important researches remain almost isolated. Starch and Elliott, in 1913, showed that the marks allotted independently to a single script by 115 mathematical teachers varied from 28 to 92, confirming Edgeworth’s results.2, Further investigation of this point is essential. In regard to “ interview ” and viva-voce examinations, there appears to be far greater uniformity of valuation.’ (3) The development of intclligence tests has introduced a new element into examinations. In the marking (or ‘ scoring ’’) of these tests, differences between different examiners are eliminated: the tests are ‘‘ trustworthy ”’ as defined under (1) above. Ballard (Joc. cit.) points out that most ordinary examinations are incidentally tests of English composition, which is difficult to mark; whereas in “‘ intelligence ”’ tests writing is reduced to a minimum, the answer being often given by a mark or a number instead of by words. But much of the old difficulty remains as

to the precise significance of the examination results in their bearing on the purpose of the examination. The fact remains that in the emergency of the War the ‘‘ group-tests,’? which are rapid, were successfully applied in 1917-8 in the United States of America to nearly 2,000,000 men with the object of separating them into various classes for military employment or registering them as unemployable (see Jon ANAtysts).* Ballard, who has extended the new methods to such school subjects as history and geography, claims that there is a high degree of correlation between the results and the estimates of teachers based on long 1P, J. Hartog, Examinations and Their Relation to Culture and Efficiency (1918). 2See P. B. Ballard, The New Examiner, p. 182 (1924). 3 Cf. Sir Stanley Leathes on ‘' The Qualifications . . . of Public Servants,” Jour. of Public Administration, 1, p. 356 (1923). 4C.S. Yoakum

Army

(1920).

and

R. M. Yerkes, Mental Tests tn the American

experience.

1083 The Consultative Committee of the English Board

of Education in their important Report on Psychological Tests of Educable Capacity, etc. (1924), state that “though in the present state of development of ‘ intelligence’ tests it is hardly possible to explain simply

what

is measured

tested by them, it is tolerably well established that these tests .

or

have shown themselyes capable of giving a useful common measurement of what teachers generally call capacity or intelligence.”

The committee think the new tests will probably exert an important

influence on examinations

of the ordinary

type, and

recommend especially that further research should be instituted into the use of individual “ intelligence ” tests in connection with oral examinations for all ages or types. Although progress has been made, there is still much room for the improvement of examinations, it being especially necessary to define the exact purpose of each examination, and to ascertain by investigation how far it fulfils that purpose. BrBLroGRapity.—In addition to sources quoted, Circular 906 of May 25 1917, of the Board of Education, London, re the Secondary Schools Examination

Council;

Publications

of that Council; chap-

ters on ‘f Examinations " in the Calcuita University Commttsston Report, vol. 2, chap. 18; vol. 5, chap. 40; vol. 7, App. 18 59 H.) Tue

UNITED

STATES

Examinations in subject matter in school and college have been undergoing a very radical change during the period 1910~26. This chanze may be characterized as a turning away from the oldtype question, which asked the candidate to “ describe,” “ state” or “ explain ”’ in essay form a certain topic, to the new-type ques-

tion, which calls for a specific response to an item, this response being made by underlining, checking or writing a word or at most a phrase. In an old-type examination® the candidate might be asked to write an essay in answer to the question, ‘‘ Describe the secretion of gastric juice.’ In the new-type examination his knowledge about gastric juice would be tested by his responses to many short items. Such items may take several forms, as will be illustrated by items from different subjects:— Analogy: Gastric juice is to the stomach as (saliva, adrenin, fears, bile) is to the lachrymal glands.

Completion: The part of a circle included between two—and an —is called a sector. ; Recognition: Planets move around the sun in orbits that are circular, elliptical, hyperbolic, cylindrical. True-False: T. F. The chief crop in Ohio ts tobacco.

There are many different varieties and combinations of such forms, and those quoted above must be considered only as samples. The reasons for this change from old- to new-type examinations may be ascribed to the unreliability of the old-type and the development of the new-type item in intelligence testing. The oldtype question is difficult to score accurately and it fails to cover the whole field of the subject examined. The development of group intelligence tests led the way to a study of the technique of constructing the questions, arranging them in sub-tests and in standardising the whole test. The methods of scoring were also developed through the group intelligence test. The construction of an examination in a school subject for nation-wide use (generally called a standardised educational test) is now quite a technical matter. There are such standardised subject-matter examinations or tests for practically every subject taught in the elementary and high schools of the country. In addition to these standardised tests made by experts, teachcrs are everywhere using the new-type examinations in their class room work. Wood” describes such examinations at the university level and Russell® shows in detail how school teachers can construct such examinations in all subjects in the elementary school. He goes further and suggests how they may be used as effective teaching devices. None of these authorities advises the absolute ‘Examples taken from D. G. Paterson, Preparation and Use of New-T ype examinations. Yonkers, 1925. 6W. A. McCall, How to Measure in Education (New York, 1922). 7B. D. Wood, Measurement in Higher Education (Yonkers, 1923). 8C. Russell, Classroom Tests (Boston, 1926).

EXCESS

1084.

PROFITS

abandonment of the old-type essay examination, but all of them believe it to be insuflicient for the accurate examination of the pupil. All of them emphasise the necessity for a careful construction of the new-type examination, and they maintain that it can be made to measure the pupil’s ability to reason. They deny that it merely tests the memory of the pupil. These new type examinations are now being used by such examining bodies as the College Entrance Examination Board and the Board of Examiners of the New York City Board of Education, and by many civil service commissions, both state and municipal. In Public Personnel Studies, a journal issued by the Bureau of Public Personnel Administration, Institute for Government Research at Washington, suggested examinations for a great many civil service positions have been published. Almost all of these examinations are of the new type. (R. Pr.) EXCESS PROFITS DUTY.—This describes a tax on the excess of the actual profit of an accounting period over astandardof profit.

I. IN

THE

UNITED

KINGDOM

Immediately after the outbreak of War in rgr4 it was apparent, from the movement of the monthly index numbers of the wholesale prices of commodities, that profits of businesses, especlally of those concerns whose products would immediately be in increased demand, would move upwards at a rate even greater than that shown by the index number. For instance, the Sauerbeck-Statist index number for July 1914 was 82-4, by Dec. it was 91:6 and in July rors it had reached 106-4, or an increase of over 25% in 12 months. When the results shown by accounts of trading concerns embracing part of the War period became available to the authorities, the figures which emerged more than confirmed this anticipation, and so the excess profits duty was born. It was imposed by Part 3 of the Finance (No. 2) Act 1915, which passed into law on Dec. 23 of that year. Scope of the Duty.—The excess profits duty was a duty, where a chargeable amount of profit existed, on the profit of trades and businesses carried on in the United Kingdom, or owned or carried on in any other place by persons ordinarily resident in the United Kingdom. The duty did not extend to the profit derived from husbandry in the United Kingdom, or from the exercise of a profession or from offices or employments—though in certain cases the remuneration of directors and other persons concerned in the management of a business was indirectly made subject to the duty. The duty was imposed upon the profit of a business concern as an entity, and not by reference to the profit or income of individuals as such. A chargeable amount of profit was the excess of the actual profit of an accounting period over a standard of profit increased by certain free allowances. An accounting period was in general the period for which the accounts of the business are made up; it might cover any period not exceeding 12 months. Both for the accounting period and for purposes of the standard, profit was determined, subject to the modifications set out in the statutes, on the same principles which determined profits under the Income Tax Acts. It was limited to the profit inuring to the proprietors of the business, exclusive (with certain exceptions) of interest received on investments. Interest paid upon loans and other charges upon the business was therefore deducted in arriving at profit. — Standard of Prefit—The standard of profit was represented in the normal case of a business which had been carried on for some years prior to the outbreak of War by either: (a) a profits standard, or (b) a percentage standard. A profits standard was normally the average profit of any two of the three years to the end of the last accounting period ended before the outbreak of War. In exceptional cases the profit of a different period of preWar trading was adopted. A percentage standard was normally a statutory percentage (in the case of companies 6% and in other cases 7% for accounting periods ended on or before Dec. 31 1916, and 8% thereafter) on the amount of capital employed in the business at the end of the last accounting period ended before the outbreak of War. Provision was made

for the increase of these percentages in the case of classes of

DUTY

trade or business which proved that the capital employed in the class of trade or business was subject to special circumstances (e.g., special risk, etc.).. Applications for any such increase of the statutory percentage was dealt with by a board of referees appointed for the purpose by the Treasury. A large number of such applications was made to that board, embracing many trading activities carried on abroad by British concerns, e.g., mining, teaplanting, etc., and numerous awards were issued by the board increasing the statutory percentage. Since the scheme of the duty involved a comparison of the profit of the accounting period with the standard of profit (the excess of the former over the standard being the amount on which the duty was charged), it was necessary that the basis of computation should be similar and comparable in both cases. Provision was therefore made for a reduction or increase of the profit of the accounting period, by reference to a statutory percentage upon the additional or reduced amount of capital employed in the accounting period as compared with the capital employed during the period or at the date to which the standard related. The statutory percentage here referred to was for cases where there was a decrease in the amount of capital employed, 6°% in the case of companies and 7% in the case of other persons since the imposition of the duty. Where there had been an increase In the amount of capital the statutory percentage was at. different times: in the case of companies, 6, 9 and 11%; in the case of other persons, 7, 11 and 13%. Capital as computed for the purpose of the duty represented the proprictors’ trading capital, and borrowed money was, therefore, excluded from the computation of capital. In general, capital of a business consisted of money; assets acquired by purchase at the price paid, subject to any deductions for wear and tear or replacement; debts due to the business and assets not acquired by purchase taken at their value when they became assets of the business. Accumulated profits employed in the business were treated as capital; any capital (the income of which was not taken into account in computing profits for the purposes of duty) and any borrowed moncy or debts were to be deducted in computing the capital. Assets paid for otherwise than in cash were to be taken at the value of the consideration when the asset was acquired, but if the business had been converted into a company so that the shares therein were held by the late owner, no value was to be attached to those shares so far as they were represented by good-will or otherwise than by material assets. For this purpose patents and secret processes were deemed material assets. The free allowance was in general £200 for an accounting period of a year. In certain cases of exsoldier, etc., proprietors of businesses it was {500. Relief under the Original Act-—Special provisions affording relief from the full weight of the duty were introduced as from Jan. 1917 in the case of small businesses. The relief was given either by reference to the deficiency of the profit of the accounting period below a prescribed sum (at first a sum of £2,000 for an accounting period of a year and subsequently £4,000), or by reference (as from Jan. 1 1920) to a substituted standard dependent upon the number of working proprietors and the capital employed during the period or at the date to which the original standard related. A special and novel feature of the duty was found in a provision

under which in the normal case a percentage—equal to the percentage rate of duty in force for the period concerned —of any deficiency of profit of a business below the standard in any accounting period was set off against the amount of duty applicable to an excess of profit over the standard in another period. Special provisions were included in the statutes as regards businesses where there had been only two pre-War years or only one or part of one pre-War year, or where the business had been commenced since the outbreak of the War; as regards depreciation and obsolescence of assets, unremunerative capital, remuneration of directors, etc.; the businesses of local authorities,

industrial and provident so-

cictics and of shipping; and other matters of detail. In the case of an accounting period which commenced before and ended after any of the times stated, the excess profits were apportioned on a time basis between the relative parts of the accounting period and the apportioned parts of the profits were charged at the several appropriate rates of duty.

EXCESS

PROFITS

The duties imposed are shown in the following table:— Rates of Duty on the amount by which the profits fram any trade or business to which the law applied, in any accounting period which ended after Aug. 4 1914, exceeded by more than {200 the pre-War standard of profits

Excess profits arising:—

5

(a) Within a year from accounting period! .

the commencement . : ‘ ;

of the first i i . 50

(b) After the end of the period mentioned in (a) but before

Jan. 1 1917} . ; (c) During the calendar (d) During the calendar (e) On and after Jan. determined : À 1! In the case of trades

: : i i ; : 4 . 60 years 1917 and 1918 ; . . 80 year 1919 ? i . . 40 1 1920, until Parliament otherwise : . 60 or businesses commencing after Aug. 4

1914, the rate was 50 vo, Hf the accounting period ended on or before Aug. 4 1915, and 60% if it ended thereafter. Munitions Levy.—For a time there existed side by side with the excess profits duty another duty known as munitions levy, or munitions Exchequer payments, which was imposed by the Munitions of War Act 1915. It applied only to certain concerns or parts of concerns engaged in the manufacture of munitions or War materials which the Minister of Munitions ‘ controlled ’’ under the provisions of that Act.

The Act limited the profits of controlled establishments, as from

the date of control, to a retainable amount, ascertained in accordance with the statute and rules made thereunder. Any excess of net profits of the establishment over such retainable amount was payable to the Exchequer in the form of munitions levy. gone retainable amount of profits was, broadly speaking, made up of :—(a) The standard amount of profits, (6) One-fifth of that standard,

(c) Special allowances for increased output or for increased capital, and (d) Special allowances for exceptional services by the controlled owner or other exceptional circumstances. Controlled establishments liable to the munitions levy were liable also, like other trades and businesses, to the general excess-profits duty, but under Section 48 of the Finance Act 1916, it was provided

in effect that the concern should be liable to pay for any period an amount equivalent to the higher of the two charges, but not both. The operation of the munitions levy was terminated as from Dec. 31 1916 by the Finance Act 1917 (section 24). The ground for the repeal of the levy as from Dec. 31 1916, is to be found in the fact that as from that date the rate of excess-profits duty was increased to 80%. At that rate the duty became, practically without exception, the heavier charge, and the munitions levy would, if it had been continued, have been inoperative in its result. Repeal of the Duty.—{Excess-profits duty was abolished by the Finance Act 1921. As different businesses had become first subject to the duty at different dates, provision was made for them to cease to be liable to the duty at different dates in such a manner as to result in every business which had commenced before the outbreak of War being subject to the duty for an aggregate period of seven years and no longer. Businesses which had commenced after the outbreak of War had their liability terminated at a fixed date of Dec, 31 1920, Refund of Relief. —It was a general principle that against the duty chargeable upon the excess profits of any accounting period there might be set off the duty applicable to any deficiency of profits sustained in another accounting period. The various changes which were enacted in the rate of duty made it possible for a taxpayer to be required to pay an amount of duty in excess of his aggregate net excess profits over the whole period for which the duty was in force. To obviate this anomalous result, provision was made that in such cases the excess should be remitted or repaid, In calculating the duty to be compared with the net aggregate excess profits, payments of munitions levy were to be counted as payments of excess-profits duty to the extent that duty would have been payable if munitions levy had not existed. Part of the productivity of the duty was due to the continuous rise of the price level, and as carly as 1917 the trading community, anticipating that at some time this period of high prices might be succeeded by a heavy fall in prices, urged upon the Government the necessity of providing relief from excess-profits duty, in any cases in which losses were incurred shortly after the duty came to an end, in

consequence of such a fall in value. Complex provisions to this end were contained in the Finance Act 1921, granting three reliefs in connection with trading stocks, two of which were alternative to one another. A maximum period of four years from Aug. 31 1921, within which relief could operate, was allowed. During the four years from 1921 to I924, inclusive, £184,000,000 of excess-profits duty and munitions levy were repaid, and a large part of this

repayment is to be ascribed to these reliefs. That the fears of the trading community as respects the price level were justified, is shown by the movement of the Sauerbeck-Statist index number from its peak of 266-1 for April 1920 to 134°8 in April 1922,

DUTY

1085

The net amount of duty collected and retained in the Exchequer from the inception of the tax to March 31 1926 was £1,280,000,000. Even at that date a considerable volume of arrears was still outstanding, although the authorities anticipated that little more benefit to the Exchequer could be expected. In order to expedite the clearing up of arrears, steps were taken in 1922 to charge simple interest at the rate of 4} % per annum without deduction for income tax on excess-profits duty outstanding as from the date at which the debt became payable, or, if it had become payable on or before Jan. 1 1922, as from that date. In the earlier years of the debt the number of assessments made was about 50,000, but when prices were at their peak the number of concerns liable to the duty was round about 70,000. Yield.—The approximate true excess profits arising in accounting periods classified in financial years were officially estimated to be as follows:—— Approximate True Excess Accounting Periods Ended Profits in the Period or Year í Aug. § r914 to March 31 1915. . 50,000,000 Year to March 31 1916 . . . 200,000,000 Year to March 31 1917 . . 350,000,000 Year to March 31 1918 . 430,000,000 Year to March 31 1919 . 500,000,000 Year to March 31 1920 . 600,000,000! Year to March 31 1921 . 200,000,000!

! Subject to revision in the light of assessments still being made for accounting periods ended in the year 1919-20, and 1920-1. The estimate for the latter year does not allow for the reduction in value of trading stocks arising after the end of the final accounting period

under the relief provisions.

(W. H. C.)

H. THE UNITED STATES Although during the American Civil War the State of Georgia had adopted (1863) a tax on business profits in excess of 8% on the capital stock, at rates varying from 5% to 25% according to the amount of such excess profits, the first federal excessprofits tax was adopted in the Act of March 3 1917, for the purpose of creating a “special preparedness fund.” After the United States entered the World War, this tax, at higher rates and in more complex form, was continued in the Acts of Oct. 3 1917, Feb. 24 rọrọ and Nov. 23 r921. In all these Acts, less use was made of pre-War profits as a base than in the British. Acts. The American tax was aimed at ‘supernormal profits ” ~—profits in excess of normal profits—rather than profits in excess of pre-War profits. The decision to subordinate pre-War profits was made deliberately by the framers of the law on the ground that a deduction based upon invested capital was simpler, better designed to serve as the basis of a permanent tax, and more equitable in that it prevented tax-payers from escaping the tax merely because they had been unusually prosperous before the World War. Under the American tax a business which had been unusually profitable before the War and merely maintained the former rate of profits during the War, was still subject to a heavy excess-profits tax. However, minor recognition of the War-profits idea was incorporated in the Act of Oct. 3 1917; and for the one year rọ18 a dual or alternative tax was imposed, the taxpayer in effect paying an 80% War-profits tax or an excess-profits tax at progressive rates

of 30% and 65%, whichever tax was larger. During the years 1919-21 only the excess profits tax was retained. Provistons.—The 1917 law applied to all trades and businesses, including professions and occupations, but beginning with 1918 the tax was confined to corporations, excluding ‘‘ personal-service corporations.” The normal exemption or ‘ excess-profits credit ”’ consisted of a specific exemption of $3,000 plus 8% of the invested capital. Income in excess of this credit but not in excess of 20° of the invested capital was 20%, and the remaining upper rate for the year Under the Act of Oct. 3

taxed (after the year 1918) income, if any, at the rate 1917 rose to 60° and for 1917 the specific exemption

at the rate of of 40%. The I918 to 65%. to individuals

and partnerships was $6,000; but to corporations only, $3,000. ¥Yield.—Judged by the standard of productivity—the most important quality of a War tax—the excess-profits tax was conspicuously successful during the World War. The yield of the tax was as shown on following page. The figures for 1918 represent possibly the largest annual amount ever produced in one country by a single tax. During the years 1917-9 the excess-profits tax produced more than 25% of the total ordinary receipts, But despite the high rates, the tax was collected

EXCHANGES, FOREIGN

1086

without crippling industry, owing to the high level of profits and to the protective effect of the normal exemption, the relief provisions, and the large degree of administrative discretion authorised in the law. Excess-Profits Tax Returned for Calendar Year 1917 Individuals, ete. SLOT,249,781 Partnerships 103,887,984 Corporations . 1,633,747,740

1918 Igtg 1920

IQ2?2I

Total .

,

:

$1,843,885,505 :

2,505,565,939 1,$31,805,690 988,726,351 335,131,511

In accordance with the promises of both political parties, the tax was repealed, after stubborn opposition, as on Dec. 31 1921. The termination of the tax gave rise to no special problems such as arose in Great Britain, because under the American tax the liability of the taxpayer for any one year was not dependent in any important way upon his income for other years. The repeal of the tax was due mainly to the sharp decline in its productivity under peace conditions; its discrimination in favour of overcapitalised concerns and against conservatively financed corporations; the general belief that it was passed on, loaded with additions, to the general body of consumers; its capricious inequalities; and its great complexity. The complexity of the tax, which, in the words of one secretary of the Treasury, threatened to cause an administrative breakdown, is illustrated

by the fact that the tax liability for the year 1917 of many of the large corporate consolidations had not been finally determined at the close of the year 1925.

BriBLioGRAPpuy.—R, H. Montgomery, Excess Profits Tax Procedure (1920); R. M. Haig, Taxation of Excess Profits tu Great Britain, American Economic Review, vol. X., No. 4 Suppl. (1920); Treasury Department, Regulations 45 (1920); Commerce Clearing House War Tax Service (1921); G. E. Holmes, Federal Income Taxes (1923); Prentice-Hall, Federal Tax Service anuak 4.)

‘

EXCHANGES, FOREIGN (see 10.50).—The main reason why we pay anything for a foreign currency is of course that this currency represents in the foreign country a purchasing power which can be used for acquiring the goods or for paying for the services of that country. Thus, it is clear that the amount we can pay for the unit of the foreign currency must, broadly speaking, be in direct proportion to the internal purchasing power of that currency, t.e., in inverse proportion to the country’s general level of prices. On the other hand, it is clear that we can afford to pay more in our own currency the more abundant this currency is, 7.e., the lower its internal purchasing power, and the higher the general level of home prices. This is easily seen if we reflect on the fact that the price paid for a foreign currency is ultimately a price for foreign commodities, a price which must stand in a certain relation to the prices of commodities on the home market. Thus we arrive at the conclusion that the rate of exchange between two currencies must depend essentially on the quotient of the internal purchasing powers of these currencies. Again, the internal purchasing power of a currency must essentially depend upon the supply of means of payment in that currency. By unlimited supply any price could be paid for goods and a currency could have no definite purchasing power. A certain restriction of the supply of means of payment is therefore necessary, and the scarcity of this supply determines the purchasing power of the currency. Thus the rate of exchange between two currencies is ultimately dependent upon the limitation of the supply of means of payment in both countries. The fact that the rate of exchange is determined by the quotient of the purchasing powers of the currencies is most obvious in the case of independent paper standards, where no other basis can be found for the determination of the exchange. But the principle applies equally well to the exchange between gold standards. The essential reason why the pound sterling before the War was worth about 25 fr. in French currency was that the internal purchasing power of the pound was about 25 times as large as that of the French franc. It is true that the existence of a gold standard in both countries determines a certain gold parity. But it would be impossible to keep up the gold standard if the purchasing powers of the currencies were not maintained at a corresponding level and if the supply of means of payment

in both countries were not regulated to that end.

If, however, we wish to apply our principle to exact calculations we are faced with the difficulty that the absolute purchasing power of a currency cannot strictly be compared with that of another currency. Of course, if all prices in the country B are ro times as high as those in the country A, it is obvious that the purchasing power of the B currency is one tenth of that of the A currency. If some prices in B are somewhat more and some prices somewhat less than ro times the corresponding prices in A, we may still say that the purchasing power of the B currency is, broadly speaking, one tenth of the A currency. But this formula will no longer be exact. Now this is precisely the case with which we always have to dealin making international comparisons. For an international exchange of goods can only exist if the constellation of relative prices in one country is different from that in the other country. In the simple case of only two countries, A and B, exchanging goods with one another, their international trade will come to an equilibrium at a certain rate of exchange determined by the condition that there must be equality in value between A’s imports from B and exports to B. This equilibrium rate is determined essentially by the internal purchasing powers of the two currencies and, in the second instance, by the constellation of relative prices in each country and by the conditions prevailing for the interchange of goods between them. Assuming the latter factors to be given, the equilibrium rate of exchange will be determined exclusively by the quotient of the internal purchasing powers of the currencies. If the internal purchasing power of one currency is doubled and that of the other remains constant, the value in exchange of the former currency will likewise be doubled. In order to emphasise this dominating influence of the internal purchasing power in fixing the equilibrium rate of exchange, we call this rate, as here defined, the purchasing power parity between the two currencies.

It is always possible to find such a rate of establish equilibrium in the international trade. can never be excluded from international trade capped with regard to costs of production.

exchange as will Thus a country by being handiHigh prices will always be counteracted by a sufficiently low valuation of the country’s currency, and the rate of exchange will always stabilise itself at a point where all disadvantages are counterbalanced and where, therefore, the country is able to export Just as much as it imports. This observation is sufficient to show the usefulness of the purchasing power parity theory for a clear exposition of the theory of international trade. The internal purchasing power of the two currencies contemplated determines only the equilibrium of the rate of exchange. The actual rate generally shows deviations from this equilibrium. When more is paid for a foreign currency than would correspond to its purchasing power parity, the currency is said to be over-valued. Again, when less is paid, the currency is under-valued. Ifa currency is over-valued, foreign currencies

are under-valued in that currency. The result is that the export trade of the country is handicapped and that the import trade receives an artificial stimulus. In the case of an under-valued currency, the effect is of course the reverse. After the outbreak of the World War, radical revolutions took place in the internal purchasing powers of all the currencies of the world. These revolutions were reflected in corresponding revolutions in the exchanges, which could naturally be explained only by a theory giving the internal purchasing power of the different currencies its due place as the fundamental factor in the formation of exchanges. In fact, the history of exchanges after 1914 affords the most complete illustration to the paramount rôle of the purchasing power parity in the determination of exchanges as well as to the deviations of actual exchanges from this equilibrium and the causes and effects of such deviations. In order to finance the War, the belligerent countries had recourse to a creation of purchasing power by the aid of noteprinting and book credits with central banks. Neutral countries soon followed suit, partly in order to finance extraordinary expenses in connection with the War, and partly in order to grant extensive credits to the belligerents. As nothing was produced to

EXCHANGES, be set up against this extra purchasing power, the result was a rise in prices. At the higher level of prices a correspondingly greater supply of means of payment was required and was therefore retained by the public. The creation of fresh purchasing power, however, was continually repeated, and the result was a continual rise in prices and an equally continual increase in the amount of means of payment in use. These two quantities grew in proportion to one another, but the ultimate cause of this movement was the continual creation of fresh purchasing power. We call such a movement “inflation.”” Thus inflation isa rise in the general level of prices caused by creation of artificial purchasing power in the form of a superabundant supply of means of payment. A country may of course sce its supply of commodities reduced and its general level of prices raised in consequence of such a scarcity of commodities. But if the supply of commodities is reduced, say to three-fourths—which means a very serious deprivation indeed—the corresponding rise in prices is only as 3 to 4, and this is not very much in comparison with the tremendous rise in prices which has taken place in so many countries since 1914. The essential cause of rising prices has, therefore, always been an inflation. Further, from a more rigorous point of view, we must say that a country which sees its supply of commodities diminishing, ought to reduce its supply of means of payment in the same proportion. If this is done, the scarcity of commodities can cause no general rise in prices and the price level will remain intact. Therefore, strictly speaking, every rise in the general level of prices is a result of a too abundant supply of means of payment and may consequently be described as an ‘‘ inflation ” in a wider sense. The most conspicuous case of inflation was that of Germany.

The inflation in that country began on a small scale in the beginning of the War, and as it proceeded meant a continual deterioration of the German mark. This deterioration was, of course, according to the purchasing power parity theory, reflected in a corresponding fall of the German exchange in the international market. However, people in Germany were very reluctant to acknowledge that a real deterioration of their own currency had taken place, and they resorted to all sorts of more popular explanations of the fall of the exchange. Particularly, it was held that the extraordinary difficulties of Germany’s foreign trade were a suflicient explanation of the unfavourable development of the rate of exchange. In this case, however, later events were to prove the complete incapacity of the popular market-theory of exchanges to explain alterations in the exchanges brought about by a raclical alteration of the internal value of the currency. German inflation, under the influence of the revolution and under the pressure of the treaty and particularly of the Ruhr occupation, surpassed all limits and ultimately brought down the value of the German mark to a millionth of a millionth of its pre-War value. ‘This catastrophe opened the eyes of even the blindest, and people began to realise both that the tnternal value of the mark had been deteriorated and that the external value as expressed in the exchanges essentially only reflected this internal deterioration. What was truth in the case of Germany had gradually to be acknowledged as truth also with regard to other countries. In fact, inflation has taken place in all countries, although not to such a fantastic extent as in Germany. Generally people have been extremely unwilling to admit the existence of a deterioration of their own currency. But statistical figures put the fact beyond all doubt. For most countries the maximum of inflation was reached in rt920, when such price index figures were attained as 366 for Sweden, 588 for France and 67o for Italy. In the United States the price level reached its highest point in May 1920 with 264 and in the same month the British price index reached its maximum with 336. The two last figures are those given by the Federal Reserve Board of the United States, which calculates index numbers particularly for purposes of international comparison. It is important to observe that inflation did not reach its maximum before 1920, whereas the War came to an end in Nov. 1918. This shows that the enhancement of prices and the

FOREIGN

1087

disturbances of the exchanges which took place during the War were not, as many people had believed, merely a result of the conditions of the War. Inflation went on as long as the false methods of finance and the unsound monetary policy originated during the War were continued. In most countries a deflation has since taken place and substantially lowered the general level of prices. Nevertheless, in all countries the general level of prices remains considerably above the pre-War level. This is so even where the pre-War gold standard has been restored, the price indexes of the United States and England being, for instance, for June 1925, 163 and 164 respectively. Thus value of gold in 1925 was only about 60°% of the pre-War value. What, now, has been the effect on the exchanges of all these revolutions of the internal values of the currencies? We may calculate the new equilibrium of the exchange between two currencies, if we start from their pre-War purchasing power parity and multiply it by the quotient of the degrecs of inflation of both currencies. We thus arrive at a new purchasing power parity which represents the new equilibrium of the exchange. If, e.g., inflation has brought the gencral level of prices in A up to six times the pre-War height, but in B only to four times that height, the new purchasing power parity between the A currency and the B currency will be two-thirds of the pre-War purchasing power parity, and therefore the equilibrium rate of exchange of the A cur-

rency as expressed in the B currency will be two-thirds of the normal rate of pre-War time. Strictly speaking, this new equilibrium can be expected to establish itself only when normal conditions of international commerce similar to those which existed before the War have been restored. However, experience seems to show that this requirement is in most cases already beginning to be fulfilled in a measure sufficient to make the application of the principle here enunciated possible, at least in a broad sense, The calculation is most reliable in the case of England and the United States. In May 1920, when, as mentioned above, the price level of these countries reached their maximum with 336 and 264 respectively, the purchasing power parity between them could be calculated by multiplying the pre-War parity, $4.87 for {1 with the quotient of 264 and 336. We thus arrive at the result that in May 1920 the purchasing power parity of the pound sterling was $3.83. The mean actual rate of exchange for the month was almost exactly the same ($3.85). Consequently, at that time the depression of the Sterling-Dollar exchange was exclusively a result of alterations in the internal purchasing power of the currencies concerned. In June 1925, when the price indexes of both countries were practically equal, the exchange had also returned to practically the pre-War par. Of course the actual exchanges do not always so closely coincide with the purchasing power parities. In the present case a particularly noteworthy deviation was caused during the War by the so-called “ pegging” of the Sterling-Dollar exchange. This meant that the pound sterling was by a deliberate policy kept very nearly to its pre-War par, namely, at the constant value of about $4.76, and this result was obtained during a period when inflation in England had gone so much further than in the United States that the purchasing power parity of the pound was considerably lower. The possibility of stabilising an exchange at such an artificial height is explained by the fact that not only were the immense financial resources of the United States placed at disposal for the purpose in the form of almost unlimited credits to the British Govt. but also private trade between the countries was severely restricted. After the Armistice, it was soon found impossible to continue such a policy and the exchange was ‘“ unpegged ” in March ro1g, with the result that there was a considerable fall in the rate which for April roro showed a mean figure of $4.66. Since that time, the actual exchange has oscillated round the purchasing power parity. The deviations

have

seldom

exceeded

10°% and have usually been

much smaller; for the whole period after March 191g the mean deviation of the actual exchange from the purchasing power parity has been almost nil. A closer study of the deviations, however, is of considerable interest. It reveals the fact that the main cause of such devia-

EXCHANGES, FOREIGN

1088

tions has been the movement of capital between the countries. When dollar credits have been granted on a large scale and when the rate of interest in New York has been lower than that

A

PSs

* iA

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1914

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1918

199

1920

192}

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1925

high rate of interest has prevailed in the United States, a certain scarcity of dollars has made itself felt in Europe, resulting in an

over-valuation of the dollar. After the Dawes Scheme for the reorganisation of the German currency and for the payment of reparations had been finally adopted and the Dawes loan had been floated in the autumn of 1924, America displaved her restored confidence in Europe by a very considerably increased grant of credits, resulting in an under-valuation of the dollar, which lasted for the first four months of 1925. This under-valuation, which may also be regarded as an overvaluation of the pound sterling in terms of dollars, was strengthened by the expectation of an early restoration of the gold standard in England, which of course would mean the raising of the pound to the old parity with the dollar. In fact, this restoration of the gold standard was carried through on April 29 1925, when the large gold resources of the Bank of England and huge dollar credits in the United States were placed at disposal for stabilising the Sterling-Dollar exchange in the neighbourhood of the old parity, $4.87. When this was done, however, the English currency was not yet in full parity with gold in regard to internal purchasing power. The dollar exchange, therefore, meant an over-valuation of the pound. Naturally, the gold standard could not be founded on such an over-valuation, but had to be built on the more solid basis of a raising of the internal purchasing power of the pound to the official parity with the dollar. This meant that prices in England had to be forced down by 4 or 5 %. This was in fact what was done. During a time when the American price level stood nearly constant at 163, the English price level was brought down from 171 in April to 166 in May, and to 164 in June. Thus the internal purchasing power of the English currency had practically been brought to a level with that of the dollar. In this case it seems clear enough that the artificial raising oí the external value of the pound, which was accomplished by the restoration of the gold standard, has to some extent drawn the internal value of the pound with it. Clearly, the artificial depression of the exchange value of the dollar cheapened imports and had some depressing influence on the pricesof British exports, and in both these ways helped to bring down the general level of prices in England. Such a process, however, is of an extraordinary nature, and is only possible when vast resources are at disposal for raising the currency’s external value which is normally determined by the internal purchasing power. In the long run, an increase of this purchasing power is possible only when supported by a suitable restriction of the supply of means of payment. As a preliminary measure for the restoration of the gold standard, the Bank of England in fact raised its rate from 4 to 5% on March 5 1925. The effect showed itself immediately. The British price level, which had been rising from Sept. 1924 and which had attained a maximum

Year

Fic. 1. The changes in the rates of exchange of the currencies of certain selected countries from 1913 to 1925, as compared with the dollar, are here shown as percentages above or below parity. The rate for each year is the daily average of cable transfer rates in New York: the rate in 1925 is therefore the average for the year, not the rate on December 31 1925. No figures are available for Belgium from 1914 to 1918 owing to the occupation of the country by the Germans: the average rate for 1914 1s thercfore linked up with that for 1919 by a straight line in order to make a continuous graph. Figures are not available for Germany and Austria for 1918, and the rates for 1917 and 1919 aresimilarly linked up. The most striking features are the appreciation of the currencies of Sweden, the Netherlands and Argentina during the war period, and the startling collapse of the Austrian and German currencies after the War. The rates for these two countries during 1925 are not shown, as new currencies, which remained practically at par during the year, were introduced. The chart is based on figures in ‘‘ The Review of Economic Statistics ” (Statistical Record 1924 Supplement) of the Harvard Economic Service, and in the United States Department of Commerce Survey of Current Statistics (Semiannual number, Feb. 1926).

Se

in London, this has created an abundance of dollars in England, which has exerted some pressure on the value of the dollar in terms of sterling. At such periods we can observe a clear under-

valuation of the dollar. Again, in periods when America has restricted its credit-giving to Europe and when a comparatively

of 178 for Jan. and Feb. 1925,

was in March pressed down to 175, and, as has already been mentioned, right down to 164 for July. How far this fall in prices is to be ascribed to the raising of the international value of the pound and how far to the pressure of the higher rate of discount, it is hardly possible exactly to decide. The artificial over-valuation of the pound, which was a result of the restoration of the gold standard in April, meant of course a handicap to British producers who had to face foreign competition without being able immediately to reduce their sterling costs of production in proportion to the increase in the international value of the pound. Some authors laid great stress on this disadvantage, and on that account not only opposed the restoration of the gold standard, but also, after the reform had been carricd out, made it responsible for the prevailing unemployment and other economic difficulties. This argument was doubtless much exaggerated. The over-valuation of the pound caused by the restoration of the gold standard was, as our figures show, not very considerable, and, at any rate, as it disappeared as early as in July, it cannot reasonably be made responsible for more permanent economic difficulties. In cases of continued inflation the deviations of exchanges from

their purchasing power parities have been much greater. When,

EXHIBITION e.g., the internal purchasing power of the German currency, in consequence of continued inflation, showed a regular fall, month after month, this fall was discounted on the international market, which generally paid a price considerably below the purchasing power parity of the German currency, but still a price corresponding to the internal purchasing power which that currency was to possess some months later. This under-valuation of the German currency made it possible for foreigners to buy goods in Germany at an unreasonably low price, or, what Is the same, for German producers to sell their goods on foreign markets at prices ruinous for their foreign competitors. Both consequences called forth counteracting measures. In Germany exports were prohibited except under licence, and every endeavour was made to force foreigners to pay more for German goods than the Germans did themselves. Of course, such measures diminished the value of the German mark for foreigners and the under-valuation grew still worse. In other countries the cheap German exports were regarded as a form of “ dumping,” and efforts were made to safeguard industries against competition from countries having a depreciated currency. Such measures, again, tended further to accentuate the under-valuation of the German currency, as its employment for the import of German goods was made more difficult. Thus, again, German competition was strengthened. It should also be observed that the exports of a country are artificially stimulated only by the under-valuation of its currency. The mere fact that the currency is depreciated gives no advantage to the exporter, provided the exchange value of the currency corresponds to its internal purchasing power. A considerable over-valuation of a currency has sometimes taken place when it has been believed that the internal value of the currency was to be raised from a depreciated level to a pre-War gold parity. This was particularly the case with the Danish and Norwegian currencies during the second half of 1925. The over-valuation which in these cases has been supported by a strong international speculation has of course been a great drawback to the export trade of the countries concerned, and has also contributed to a general fall in prices within those countries and to a consequent serious economic depression. The only way out of all these difficulties is, of course, to stabilise the internal values of the currencies and to bring back such normal conditions as will make exchanges correspond to these internal values. After the violent disturbances of its monetary systems which the world had witnessed the only practical possibility of attaining general stabilisation of currencies and a corresponding stability of exchanges was without doubt a return to the gold standard. Currencies which were very near to their pre-War gold parity could be restored to that parity, but for other currencies a new lower gold par had to be chosen, in conformity with the already existent purchasing power parity. A series of currencies have already been stabilised on this principle, and it seems certain that other countries which have hitherto been hesitating with regard to the ultimate aim of their monetary policy will soon come to a decision in favour of a similar stabilisation. The adoption of the gold standard has the effect of compelling the purchasing power of the currency to be kept in a definite relation to that of gold and, therefore, the purchasing power parity between two gold standard currencies will always remain in the neighbourhood of the gold par. Still, smaller deviations of exchanges from the purchasing power parities are possible on account of fluctuations in the market. Such deviations, however, will always call forth an adjustment in the demand and supply of the currencies concerned, tending to restore the equilibrium of the market. The main factor in this adjustment is the movement of capital, which is made profitable by the abnormal rate of exchange. Of course, an over-valuation of the currency of a country also calls forth an increase in the imports to that country and hampers its exports. But these movements are much slower than the corresponding movements of securities and the transfers of short-term credits, and are, therefore, under normal conditions, of only secondary importance for the adjustment of

the exchanges

1089 to their purchasing

power

parities.

See also

CURRENCY.

a .—H. T. Easton, Money Exchanges and Banking (1907); Withers, Money Changing (1913); W. F. Spalding, Foreign Pea: and Foreign Bilis (1915); A. C. Whitaker, Foreign Exchange (r919); C. Clare, A.B.C. of Foreign Exchanges (1921); T. Gregory, Foreign Exchange (1921); G. Cassel, Money and Foreign Exchange after 1914 (1922); H.S. Jev ons, Future of Exchange and the Indian Currency (1922); I. B. Cross, Domestic and Foreign Exchange, Theory and

eee

(1923): G. W. Edwards, International

Trade Finance (1924). See also Proceedings of the Brussels Conference, 5 vol. (1921); in vol. 5 is included G. Cassel’s ‘‘ Memorandum on the World's Monetary Problems.” (G. C.)

EXHIBITION (see 10.67).—Following on the great exhibition of London, under the influence of Ruskin and Morris, the frst tendencies towards the emancipation of decorative art made themselves evident. The movement took root in France, and led in 1863 to the creation of the Union Centrale des Arts Décoratifs, which was in time to achieve the formation, modelled on the South Kensington Museum, of the Musée des Arts Décoratifs. In the end the decorative artists won the right of citation in the artistic salons, in 1892 and 1895. They participated in the two great exhibitions of 1889 and 1900. In ceramics, in jewellery, in metal working, the creations of a Chapelet, a Lalique, a Brateau, and a Gallé met with the highest esteem. The manufacture of furniture, characterised by the description “modern style,” stirred the lively hostility of the public. This modern style was in its wav a protest against the copying of the antique, and marked the break with all the secular traditions which had been the glory of furniture; and it created a fashion in reaction and in contrast rather than a style truly representative of contemporary life. Opposed by lovers of the antique, treated as suspect by the mass of the public, its vogue was brief. The effort pursued since 1900 rests on a more solid basis and on more durable ideas. It strives to associate in one common work both the artist, the creator of models, and the commercial firm, the former contributing his original conception, the latter his capital, equipment and clientéle. This alliance, which was achieved in Germany by the foundation of the Werkbund in 1907, required more laborious efforts for its realisation in France. It is in a way the charter of modern decorative art. It was the guiding principle of the Paris exhibition of 1925. The exhibitions which took place after 1900 in different capitals reserved space, restricted, no doubt, but still very significant, for modern decorators. They had their salon at Turin in 1902, at St. Louis in rgo4, at Liége in 1905, at Milan in 1906, London in 1908, at Copenhagen in 1909, at Brussels in roto, and at Turin in 1911, where the Union Centrale des Arts Décoratifs showed in its pavilion all the advances made up to then. Important Exhibitions —The Turin exhibition was to have been the overtureof the Exposition des Arts Décoratifs Modernes. But the War delayed its realisation for rọ years. Various exhibitions in the interval called attention to the advances made in certain special branches. The Anglo-Latin exhibition in London in 1912 gave hospitality notably to France, Italy and the South American republics. The Ghent exhibition of 1913 renewed and surpassed the results already achieved at Liége and Brussels. Three groups were devoted to Letters, to Science and to Art, in a vast palace which covered an area of 20,000 sq. métres. The urban exhibition at Lyon in 1914 covered the vast and complex problems which, in our day, are raised by the systematic expansion, and the life itself, of urban agglomerations: vital statistics, protection of childhood, home and school hygiene, organisation of labour, water supply, thoroughfares, transport and town amenities. All these aspects of life were set out, along a great avenue lined with 60 pavilions. Leipzig, in the same year, offered an exhibition of the advances made in the graphic arts and the book industry. In 1915, in the midst of war-time activities, France, Belgium and Italy accepted the invitation of the United States, which was then organising an exhibition at San Francisco to celebrate the opening of the Panama Canal. The French pavilion there reproduced the Palace of the Legion of Honour.

EXHIBITION,

1090

BRITISH

Post War Exhibitions—The return of peace allowed the revival of regular exhibitions, national and international. Among the first may be mentioned the exhibition at Strasbourg in 1919, intended to re-establish the necessary contact between France and the restored provinces. In 1922, an international exhibition in celebration of the centenary of Brazilian independence was held at Rio de Janciro. Two great Colonial exhibitions, French and British, took place in 1922 and 1924 respectively. The Marseilles exhibition made a survey of French colonial expansion. From 1870, onward it drew up, as it were, an economic inventory of France’s overseas Empire. It paid tribute to the colonising methods of France, and to the attachment of the native races, who, in the course of the War, had sacrificed their lives in the common cause. The exhibition held at Wembley in 1924, and revived in 1925, was evidence of the vast extent and the great resources of the British Empire in all regions of the globe. In 1923 Italy inaugurated at the Monza Palace, the Versailles of Milan, an exhibition devoted to the art of housing. Made a biennial function, it was renewed with equal success, its scheme comprising furniture, bronzes, ironwork, jewellery, ceramics, glass and textiles. Every region of Italy had contributed to this effort of modern art, and a French section also took part. In the same year a similar display was organised at Barcelona, on the Hill of Montjuich, destined to become the site of permanent palaces to house specialised exhibitions covering successively various aspects of modern life. The first was devoted to furnishing and interior decoration, and comprised three sections, one retrospective, the second for modern interiors, the third for special furnishings for offices, schools and public services. In 1925 France could show two great exhibitions. At Grenoble was held the exhibition of electric power and of touring facilities. One palace was reserved for the applied uses of electricity and the means of its conveyance. A dwelling-house was equipped to show its application to domestic life, and a farm exhibited its possibilities in rural communities. The touring section had two palaces, the first devoted to administrative organisations, the Office du Tourisme, the Touring Club, the local information bureaux, while the second displayed advances in the industries

connected with the influx of tourists. The capital of the French Alps was thus combining in one exhibition the advance in the transportation of energy and its uses in modern life. The Paris Exhibition.At the same time Paris was exhibiting

on both banks of the Seine, on the Champs-Elysées and on the Esplanade des Invalides, the creations of modern decorative art. This long-awaited exhibition, delayed for ro years by the World War, covered all the ensemble of the background of our life. Architecture, furnishings, clothing, theatre, street and garden, education—the works displayed were all to be exclusively modern. No retrospective work was admitted. For the first

time modern art was offered by itself to public judgment. The experiment was favourable and its success was fulfilled, and even

surpassed

visitors

what

thronged

was

hoped for.

enthusiastically

the

More

than

magical

16,000,c00

spectacle,

to

which a special character, at once alluring and impressive, was given by the waters of the Seine and the lighting effects. Objects were presented as much as possible in their proper settings. Special settings were designed so as to reproduce the actual conditions of life. Pavilions, separate rooms, shops and stores, rivalled each other in their realism. A great advance was achieved in the art of presentation. And the exhibition marked also, in a final manner, the alliance of art and industry in practice, an alliance adumbrated in 1900 towards which the movement had been working ever since. This exhibition was international and specialised. It had not the vast extent of the old great exhibitions, but it was shown to be more sharply instructive in effect within the scope assigned to it. Specialisation tends to show itself, not only in restriction of programmes, but in that of geographical range also. All countries are returning to the old-fashioned formula of city fairs, annual or biennial. Paris, Lyon and Dijon in France have adopted these regular demonstrations. They take place likewise

EMPIRE

in London, Milan, Riga, Leipzig, Nijni Novgorod and many other cities, in various forms and under varying conditions, It seems as if here, as elsewhere, progress sometimes returns to old conceptions, modified to the ideas of our generation. An annual exhibition of national scope is the Canadian National Exhibition held each autumn on permanently equipped premises at Toronto, Canada.

International Co-operatiotn.—The need for assuring a certain unity among institutions of such varied characters brought about the meeting at Berlin, in 1912, of a diplomatic conference in which 16 states took part. The conference defined and classified the various sorts of general or specialised exhibitions, official or private, national or international. It fixed the rules governing the participation of states and limiting the number of exhi-

bitions and their duration, the modes of issuing invitations, the procedures for adjudicating bodies, the scale of awards. This work is continued by the international federation of the permanent committees of exhibitions. Thus these great institutions have their regular place in the lives of the peoples. If they have lost the vastness and allembracing range of former times, the limitation of their scope seems, on the other hand, to make for their increased efiicacy, and for their becoming a permanent instrument of economic expansion and social progress. (See DECORATIVE ART.) BiIBLioGRAPHY.—~-Board of Trade Report on the Participation of Great Britain in Great International Exhibitions, Cd. 3772 (1907), Report of the Royal Commissioners for the International Exhibitions at Brussels, Rome and Turin in roro—-iz, Cd. 6607 (1911); Jbid (1912); Sir W. Joynson-Hicks, Report on British Empire Exhibition, Cd. 1799 (1923). See also L’Hlustration, Exposition des Arts Décoratifs (June 1925). (P. LN.)

EXHIBITION, BRITISH EMPIRE.—The British Empire Exhibition, held at Wembley, Middlesex, in 1924 and 1925, was the largest exhibition of its kind ever held in Great Britain. The site chosen lies about ro m. west-north-west of the city, and is served by the Metropolitan, L.N.E. and L.M.S. railways. The construction of the exhibition was begun in January 1922, and the exhibition was opened by the King on April 23 1924. The first season lasted till Nov. © 1924; and at a banquet held at the Guildhall on Nov. 1o the Prime Minister indicated

the intention of the Govt. to re-open the exhibition the following year. A second season was accordingly undertaken. This lasted from May 9 1925 to Oct. 31; and the buildings and other paraphernalia of the exhibition were shortly afterwards put in the hands of liquidators for sale. The aims and objects of the exhibition, as set out in early exhibition literature, were as follows:— To find in the development and utilisation of the raw materials of the empire new sources of imperial wealth. To foster intra-imperial trade and open fresh world markets for Dominion and home products. To make the different races of the British Empire better known to each other and to demonstrate to the people of Britain the almost illimitable possibilities of the Dominions, Colonies and Dependencies

overseas. In the 1924 season Imperial exhibits came from Australia, Bermuda, British Guiana, Burmah, Canada, Ceylon, Cyprus, East Africa (Nyasaland, Seychelles and Zanzibar), Fiji, Hong Kong, India, Malaya, Malta, Newfoundland, New Zealand, Palestine, Sarawak, South Africa, West Africa (Nigeria, Gold Coast and Sierra Leone), West Indian and Atlantic group (Barbados, British Honduras, Falkland Is., Jamaica, Leeward Is., Saint Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago). In addition to these exhibits, in each of which were displayed as far as possible the main characteristics of the life and potentialities of the dominion or dependency in question, there were various industrial and commercial exhibits of importance, such as the Palace of Industry, the Palace of Arts, and the Palace of Engineering, the last being changed in 1925 to the Palace of Housing and Transport. The Pavilion of H. M. Govt. was an enterprise without precedent. In addition to its function of presenting some account of the nation’s public services, its purpose was to illuminate and epitomise the imperial idea. The Pavilion was British civ-

EXPLORATION

109]

ilisation in microcosm. To that civilisation each of the countries brought its share and the function of the Pavilion was to illustrate the broad result. Defence was represented by the navy, army and air force; health by the exhibits of the Tropical Health and Hygiene Committee, and the Ministry of Health; public services by such departments as the Post Office, Royal Mint, Dept. of Overseas

nating wetter and drier phases, but he thinks that successive wet phases have meant less and less moisture for the land (see CLIMATE; GEOLOGY). His opinions have been attacked by several explorers, who have pointed out the caprice of rivers in a dry region with loose soil, and the consequent liability to accident from which irrigation systems may have suffered in the past. There is at least much reason to suppose that decay of irrigation

Trade, Committee of Overseas Settlement, Ministry of Agriculture, Stationery Office, ete. The following statistical records will be of interest:— Total area . 220 acres

systems from both physical and human causes may account for many ruined cities of Central Asia, quite apart from possible increase of drought. Stein has advanced the very probable view that even after the passing away of the great Ice age large stores of water remained locked up as ice on the central Asiatic mountain ranges, and their melting gave supplies of moisture to the lowlands. The drought, in his view, would have become intensified when these supplies suflered marked reduction at some period not far removed from the beginning of the Christian era. From these references it will be seen that attention is turning increasingly toward investigation of the environment of man, though this type of work has long accompanied that of topographical surveying. Besides Stein’s and Sven Hedin’s works, we may mention among recent contributions, A. D. Carruthers’ writings on Mongolia and Dzungaria, Baddeley’s book on Russia, Mongolia and China, Dr. Legendre’s work on the upper Yalung in Western China, Kingdon Ward's From China to Hkamti Long and among many others J. W. Gregory and Teichman on Eastern Tibet. Behind all these lies the great work of von Richthofen on China, which opened up to modern science many problems of Central and Eastern Asia. Younghusband’s entry into Tibet must also be mentioned. The Filippi expedition, as well as that of Stein, contributed fresh data concerning races and peoples in the regions visited and our knowledge of Central Asia is growing in all directions. The geological exploration of China, begun by von Richthofen, has been pursued under the aegis of the Japanese Geological Survey, and it seems likely that, with the growing discussion of new views of the history of the earth’s surface, much re-examination of geological facts of Central Asia will be undertaken in the next generation. Expeditions are at work in Mongolia on both geological and ecological problems, and are also hunting for traces of

Cost of construction nearly £3,000,000 Total attendance, 1924 17,403,119 Total attendance, 1925 9,699,231 Cash paid for admission, 1924 £991,000 Cash paid for admission, 1925 . {428,000 Labour employed on construction (in man w eeks) . 444,800 Approximate number of people employed daily, 1924 24,200 Approximate number of people employed daily, 1925 21,000

On Monday, Dec. 1 1925 the auditors to the British Empire Exhibition issued a statement of accounts and an interim certificate. According to their figures, it was estimated that the financial loss on the exhibition for the two seasons would be £1,581,905. The various guarantors, of whom the British Govt. was by far the largest, were on Dec. 5 1925 officially called upon to pay as an immediate call 15s. in the £ on the amount of their guarantees, the liquidators reserving the right to fix later the ultimate and final liability of the guarantors. (J. H. T.) EXPLORATION.—The explorers of previous centuries had the poles to reach, great blank spaces on the maps to fillin, the source of the Nile to trace and other major topographical facts to determine. The progress of exploration has brought the accomplishment of one after another of these primary tasks, but has opened up many more, involving more intensive work. Detailed topographical surveys are still needed for many regions, even if the major lines of mountain and valley and ocean abyss are known. And from topography the explorer proceeds to structure and physiography on the one hand, to climate and ecology of plants, animals and man on the other. The progress of exploration is involving a gradual change of emphasis in geographical research from topographical work to an understanding of the earth as the scene of man’s activities (see HUMAN GEOGRAPHY). Polar Regions —Some of the primary tasks relating to polar regions are still far from being achieved, and we need only remark that the exploration of the atmosphere in the polar regions is leading to valuable conclusions promoting a more satisfactory knowledge of the world’s climates in general. The exploration of sub-polar regions has been pursued with some vigour, partly for economic reasons. The coal and other possibilities of Spitsbergen have received attention, and Stefansson has emphasised stock-raising potentialities of the prairies of Arctic America for reindeer and musk-ox, while he also claims to have shown the possibility of entrusting oneself to the sea-ice of the frozen seas (see ARCTIC REGIONS; POLAR EXPLORATION). Asia.—The immense interior of Asia, though known in a broad sense, has large areas which lacked even topographical investigation until the present century, when explorations of these regions have been numerous. Stein’s many-sided work has included much mapping, and Sven Hedin has also published a great deal, chicfly for Southern Tibet. The courses of the great rivers from Eastern Tibet toward China, Further India and Assam, have been investigated and general lines on our maps are replaced by far more accurate ones, especially as regards the Tsang-po and its continuation, the Brahmaputra. Structure and physiography in this region have received much attention from the same explorers, as well as from Dainelli, who, in the reports of the Filippi expedition to the Himalaya, Karakorum, etc., brings forward important evidence for a series of extended glaciations of those mountain ranges analogous with several of those of the Alps. Inner Asia,—The ecology and climate of Inner Asia have been the subject of much discussion. Huntington has advanced

the view that the climate has long varied cyclically with alter-

early man. (See MONGOLIA, PALAEONTOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES IN.) Western Asia.—The area between the Caspian Sea and the Sahara has long interested students as a home of ancient civilisation, and great military and political interest has turned scientific attention to it in the 20th century. Surveys and mapping in Mesopotamia have progressed a great deal, and numerous details have been gleaned concerning Arabia. H. St. J. Philby’s

Heart of Arabia is one of the most important books on the region since A. G. Doughty’s Arabia Deserta, and it gives both direct knowledge of the oasis fortress towns of Central Arabia and information gleaned about the great southern desert. Besides this, there has been great activity in exploration of ancient sites at Susa, Kish, Ur of the Chaldees, in Palestine, and as always, in Egypt, resulting in new knowledge, especially of the develop-

mental background

of ancient Egypt and Babylonia.

(See

ARCHAEOLOGY.) Our knowledge of ancient Hittite civilisation has grown through explorations in Asia Minor and near the Upper Euphrates, and the beginnings of decipherment of Ilittite writing show that it had Indo-European links, which had probably come into it from the Russian steppe via Thrace and the Bosporus. This idea of movements of influence from Europe to Asia in remote times is a rather new one. The site of Anau, some distance from the southeastern corner of the Caspian Sea, has also yielded valued indications of very early settlement, and students of the finds have urged that probably nomad herdsmen of the great grasslands and deserts of Inner Asia are less the descendants of ancient nomad hunters than people who gradually cut adrift from a humble settled life as they acquired power over the herds of those grasslands. In Egypt, the exploration of ancient cultures in some of the oases and the opening of new tombs in the Valley of the Kings, leading to the rich finds in the tomb of Tutankhamun, have been

the greatest achievements

in this field.

The long-continued

1092

EXPLORATION

discussion of the origins of elements of civilisation has by no means closed. On the whole, of late years, the view that Egypt originated civilisation has been heavily attacked, and evidence has come forward pointing to the importance of the fertile crescent from Syria round via Palmyra to Mesopotamia in the earliest

stages. The region of ancient civilisations has been seized upon by modern man with the idea of re-creating its ancient wealth. Mesopotamia has been explored by irrigation engineers with a view to cotton planting, and schemes of the same kind are going forward in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (see IRRIGATION ENGINEERING). Explorations for oil have been made and widely discussed, and routes for motor-cars between Syria and Mesopotamia have been planned and established. Europe.—The construction of detailed topographical maps in Europe is of too old standing for any notable addition to have been made in this respect yet. Explorations have been of more intensive kind for scientific, economic or social purposes. The re-examination of the Alps by Argand and Staub and their colleagues had led to the formulation of a new view of the origin of the chain (see GEOGRAPHY), and if these fresh theories are maintained there will be need to re-explore several other mountain lands of Europe. Engineering surveys have been conducted in several lands, and notably in Norway and Sweden, south Germany, Switzerland, north Italy and southeast France, to find and utilise sources of hydroelectric power (see HYDROELECTRIC ENGINEERING). North Italy, with its glacier-fed streams giving a good steady power supply in summer and its juxtaposed city sites on the plain, gains greatly from this combination of physical advantages with the possession of an able and industrious population in old, established cities. Early Man in Europe-—There has been much exploration of Europe for traces of ancient man and the beginnings of our civilisation. The French caves have continued to yield traces of art of the Old Stone age, and the wealth of Spain in this respect has been further demonstrated, while the rock-drawings of eastern Spain have been shown to relate to another early culture of African origin. The evidences of the importance of Spain when metal was first coming into use have been explored, especially by Bosch-Gimpera and Obermaier. The re-exploration of Stonehenge has shown that the “ foreign stones ” which form a part of that monument were brought in prehistoric times from Pembrokeshire, probably by sea rather than by land, and this 1s one of many indications pointing to an antiquity of sea faring along the western shores of Europe much greater than had previously been supposed; this form of activity in our region is now thought to go back to 2,000 B.C. or earlier. The exploration of the lake village at Glastonbury has brought much knowledge of the early Iron age in Britain; and caves in the Mendips, especially Aveline’s Hole, have given information about life in Britain not long after the end of the great Ice age. The finding of the Piltdown skull and of the skull under the new Lloyd’s building in the City of London has shown that variant types existed already in very early periods, and skeletons found at Predmost tin Czechoslovakia and near the Caucasus as well as in Galilee seem likely to give indications of the evolution of modern types of man. (See MAN, EVOLUTION OF.) Sir Arthur Evans continued the publication of his famous researches on ancient Crete, and intervals in war duties led officers to begin explorations in Macedonia, which were subsequently continued.

Beginnings of promising re-explorations of ancient sites in the Danube basin and Transylvania are noteworthy. North Afi ica.—In North Africa a number of detailed explorations have been made in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, and the site of ancient Carthage, for example, has been studied, but the less-known desert behind has been the scene of most important work. Augieras has described the intensely desert character of the western Sahara, with few oases save on the periphery and with extremes of temperature, because the land lies low and the dunes lose heat quickly. Tilho has explored Tibesti, Borkou and Ennedi. The first, as a belt of highland between Tunis and Darfur, probably plaved a great part in southward spreads of fauna

and flora in Miocene and Pliocene times.

Mrs. Rosita Forbes

travelled across from the Cyrenaica to Kufara oasis, the Senuss headquarters; and Hassanein Bey gathered valuable geological, cartographical and other data for all this region and the desert toward Darfur. His accounts of two oases connected with a route from south-west Egypt inte Darfur aroused much interest. In the west of the Sahara, experiments have been made towards the establishment of motor transport with caterpillar attachments to overcome the sand.

Central and South Africa —Though equatorial and southern Africa have witnessed less of the primary type of exploration, that of major topographical features, in the last generation a great deal of more intensive work was done. It has been shown that there have been changes of level of Victoria and Albert Nyanza, changes concordant with the variations of sunspots. There have been numerous surveys of race-types and studies of native society. Explorers have examined parts of Africa for cotton soils and mineral products tn several regions, and Uganda promises to yield a good cotton crop. The controversics concerning Natives, Indians and Whites in East Africa, especially in Kenya, led to inquiries culminating, officially, in a report of the East Africa Commission to the Colonial Office. Farther south, MacIver claimed that the famous Zimbabwe ruins are essentially African and not more than 400 years old. (See ARCHAEOLOGY: AFRICA, SOUTIL AND CENTRAL). The finding of a very interesting skull of ancient type but possibly of relatively recent date at Broken Hill, Rhodesia, opened up a large problem.

North America.—-Explorations in North America accompanied the delimitation of the boundary between Canada and Alaska, and there have been studies of geomorphology in Central America, contributing to establish the theory of the eastward folding of the Cordillera and to bring out its relation to the Antillean arcs. Of more general interest were Stefansson’s explorations in Arctic Canada, leading to topographical mapping around the difficult ice-bound coasts and to arguments on his part in favour of using the Arctic for herds of reindeer and musk-ox. British Columbia has been explored for economic purposes, and especlally for sources of hydroelectric power.

South Amertca.—In South America there was exploration attendant upon the delimitation of Bolivia’s frontiers ror1-3, and at about the same time some detailed studies were made in southern Peru and the Cordilleran fringe of Argentina. Topographical maps, geological and physiographical conclusions, and social studies have resulted from this work. Rice mapped in detail the unique Cassequaire stream which conducts water from the Upper Orinoco to the Rio Negro, a northern affluent of the Amazon. Koch Grünberg studied the same district. In economic exploration an important step was taken in the appointment of a British committee, which reported in 1920 upon the reserves of

the dependencies of the Falkland Is., such as South Georgia and South Shetland. Oceanta.—In the Pacific, the mystery of Easter I. has been examined afresh by Mr. and Mrs. Routledge, and Galapagos has

been studied by William Beebe. Haddon has added to his many explorations by examining Papuan peoples and their cultures and Wollaston and Chinnery have also contributed to knowledge of this part of the world, while both Dutch and British have made progress toward a better understanding of the corrugations of the sea-floor in the East Indies. The work of scientific exploration of the sea, which owes so much to the initiative and the help of the late Prince of Monaco, has been continued; and much work has been done in European waters by Fisheries Commissions (see OCEANOGRAPHY). This brief survey of some of the better known work of the early part of the 20th century illustrates the point that surveying for major topographical features has largely given place to detailed work, with increasing attention and application of scientific methods to economic and social exploration. The increased de-

pendence of the industrial areas of the world upon tropical products has made the latter types of work very important, and more and more effort is likely to be concentrated in this direction. Along with this goes medical exploration, such as that leading

to delimitation of ily-belts and te the combating of fly-borne dis-

EXPLOSIVES eases, especially in Africa. The success of medical efforts during the cutting of the Panama Canal altered estimates of the white man’s adaptability to the tropics, but it is generally admitted

that the problem remains a scrious one, even if parasitic discases are conquered by medical science (sce PARASITOLOGY; TROPICAL MEDICINE). BIBLIOGRAPHY.—F. von Richthofen, China, 5 vol. (1877-1912); D. R. Maclver, Medieval Rhodesia (1906); E, Huntington, The Pulse of Asta (1907); R. Pumpelly, Explorations in Turkestun, 1004 (1908); Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (1911); A. D. M. Carruthers, Unknown Mongolia, A Record of Travel and Exploration in Mongolia and Dzungaria, 2 vol. (1913); I. Bowman, The Andes of Southern Peru (1916); Sven Hedin, Southern Thibet, 10 vol. text, 3 vol. maps (1917-22); Capt. Augieras, Le Sahara Occidental (1919); J. F. Baddeley, Russia, Mongolia, and China (1919); K. Routledge, The Afystery of Easter Island (1919); R. N. Rudmose Brown, Spitzbergen (1920); Sir A. J. Evans, The Palace of Minos (1921); F. Nansen,

Spitzbergen

(1921);

M. W.

H. Simpson,

The Hiil-Folk

of has been guaranteed. It will thus be seen that the exporter gets both assistance in his finance, since the guaranteed bills can be discounted or used as collateral security for a bank advance, and a measure of insurance against loss, since the department, in only taking partial recourse upon him, makes itself responsible for part of any loss which may arise. This ts the broad outline of the scheme; there are variants in the actual facilities offered which need not be set out in detail.

The total amount of business done up to Dec. 1925 was about {1,750,000 under the advances scheme, and rather less than £6,000,c00 under the guarantee scheme. As the limit fixed by the original Act was £26,000,000 it is clear that the scheme has not been taken advantage of to the extent expected. This may be due to various causes. The scheme probably has not been very widely known; business men have been perhaps sceptical about the handling of such matters by a government department; there may have been complications and rigidities of practice such as would discourage applicants. Published figures, however, show that very much larger amounts of credits have been sanctioned than have actually been taken up—presumably because the applicant eventually failed to secure the business for which the credit was required, or perhaps was ultimately able to finance

1096 it without assistance from the department.

EYE On the whole, the | Trades Facilities and Loans Guarantee Act r922, Session 2 (13 Geo. 5

figures indicate that the scheme has been helpful to trade at a

Ch. Continuance Act 1923 Gco. 5 ha4); Expiring arde Pe Laws eedd oa adin a (13 E CRanda 14ar

difficult juncture.

statements of applications sanctioned and credits and guarantees

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Overseas Trade (Credits and Insurance) Act 1920 | taken, published in The Board of Trade Journal, London. a a (10 and rr Geo. 5 Ch. 29), Do. Do. Amendment Act 1921 (41 and 12 (W. CL.) Geo. 5 Ch. 26)! Trade Facilities Act 1921 (11 and 12 Geo. 5 Ch. 65); EYE: see OPHTHALMOLOGY,

END OF TWENTY-NINTH VOLUME PRINTED IN U.S.A.