Empowering Public Speaking [1 ed.] 1516525329

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•• Deanna L. Fassett

Keith Nainby

EMPOWERING PUBLIC SPEAKING

EMPOWERING PUBLIC SPEAKING

Deanna L. Fassett San Jos~ Stace Universiiy

cognella SAN DIEGO

I

Keith Nainby California Stare University, Stanislaus

B.r.s1m Harru!deh, CEO and Publ,sher Todd R. Annstrong. PubllSher

TOf'b' Paese. Proiect Editor Abbey Hastlngli, Associate Production Edl(Or JeS"S. tltrella, Senior Graphit Delgner Alexa Lucdo. Llcen~ng M.lnager

Natal,e Ptccom. Otrector of Marketing Kass,e Graves, V,ce President of Editor ,al

Jamie G•gantl, o,reaor cl Academe Publishing Copyngl"t IO 2021 by Deatina L Fa~tt arid Keith Nainby Al I rights l'l!S..!Wd No part of this pubhcanon may be repnnted, reproduced. transmitted. or u:1tized rn any form or by art/ electronic, me

char.cal o, other means, now known or hereafter nvented. 1ncludJng photocopying mcrohlm,ng. and recotdlngor,nar'!}I lnfi:imlatlcn retrleva sysrem~thout the 'M'ltten perm1sson cl Cognella. Inc For lnquln~ regarding perrrmlcrn, traisla110ns, ror~n nghts.aud,o rights, and 311'/ other forms or

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lrmge CoP)'rlght 1'.' 2019 lstockphoto l..P/RawpotentlOOii 1n How They Create Soda! Reality 146

Pubhc Speaking Is a Distinct Fonn of Communicar,on 147 What Chncterlt.es a T~ of Comn>un1cation as Publ,c. Speal56 T~e Are Beneht3 ard Drawbacks to Fully Memonzed Speeches and Spealcmg From aManuscnpc 157 lmpromr,l.llSpeaklngHelps No111ce Spea~ers Improve PublitSpe/Jk ng 159

Don't Let Ptbhc Speaking Anxiety Stop You From Your Best

Deivery

161

The Speaker's V~ce and Body Ate Important Elements of Oel1very 162 Tyson Elfedi..ely llies His Vo,ce to Communicate 164 The Speaker's Body May Meanngfully Complement Their Message 164 Tyson Effect111ety uses~ Body to Communicate 165 Rehearsal Is an E.ssenoal Element of a Speaker'sSuccess 166 "Hew Much Would You Pay for the Ullverse?" 167 Concepts 168 TOWilfd Pra,us 168 Discussion Questions 169

CIU fE

Y

Public Speaking Is Impassioned

170

Public Speakers ActiVely Construct Social Reafities When They Speak

173

Public Speakers Frame the Speak1re.S1urat10n Through Their Use or Language 175 Ur,:lerg_ar,d ll-e RhetorJcal Frame 175 Know lhe Differences Between Oenot.1t1Vl" and Connocan11e Meaning 176 Language Is Poetic 177 Use Rhetoncal Tropes 178 use Wrxd Patterns In Rhetorbl Schemes '79 Lan~e Is Nuanced 180 Nuanced and lrclu51ve Langi.iage IS SlgrtilCilntfor Pt.blc Speakers 181

Public Speakers Advocate Through Their Uses of Larw-iage 182 Assess the Rhetoncal Strategies U.ed 1n de Blas,_o's Speech 183 De Blasio's Speech Uses lrclusi'VI? Language 185 "It's All Our Problem-and Anyone Who E!elleves m the Values of ThlS Country Should Feel Called co Acoon Right Now" 187 Conce ptS 188 Toward Ptalds 188 DtSCUS5100 Quest:Jol'\S

189

CHAPTER Iv

Public Speaking Is Accountable

190

Speakers Have a Respo11S1btlity to Use ReasonngAppropnately

192

Efft>cove Speakers and l.lsteners Must Underst.ind and £valuate Different Forms of Reasoning 194 darlf'yl111 Reas0111ng Can Enhanc.l! an Argument 195 Deduct1Ye Reasonng 1-lelps Speakers Draw Condus10ns From E'lidence With Certanty 196 Avoid Fallacies When Using Dedl.JCtlYI! Reasorilng 197 1nductt11e Reasoning Helps Speakers Draw Probable or U~ely Conduslqns 1~ lnductr,e Reasornng Can Be Based 0fl Large GrClUps of Instances 196 lndl.nJYe Reasoning Cai Be Based o, a Shared Relationship Between lnstances 199 Speakers Should Be Cill'eful to Avoid Fallacies When using Inductive

log,c

202

Ca.&11Log,c_ Can Offe1 Solutions to Problems, If Well Supported 203 Dtstingush Necessary. Sufficient, and C:Ontnbutory Causes 205 Strongly Defined Cause-Effect Relallonshlps Can 1-lelp Speakers Avad Fallactes 206 Speakers M.ry Also Rea$01'1 by Making Me.w11ngfuf Comparisons Called Analogies 206

Ethical. fnckis1ve Speakers Attend to S.tualedReason1ng 209 "We Must Account fer That Inheritance" 211 ConceptS 212 Toward Praxis 212 Discussion Questions 213 1:B.APTER 11

Public Speaking Is Evolving

214

Communicat10n Is Mediated-Often 1n Ways We Don't Notice 216 CMC Is Mean1rgfully Different 218 0.IC Is Relevant for Public Speakers 220 CMC Can Enh.-,ce !lie Reach and Impact of Public Messages 220 Trad1t1onal Public Speaking Ccnceprs Both Deepen and Adapt In

Mediated Contexts 223 CMC Ch.lriges tre Impact d a Speech Related to Space and Tln>e 223 ComrnmlcatlOn Expectations ke EvolW1g 225 Effective Speake~ Communicate 1n Wa"yS That Grve Rise to Lasting

Change

n,

"It's About Keeping It Roa1ng Once You Go Home"

229

Concepts 230 Tow;ird Pr.oos

230

OiscusSIOn Quesoons :r31 r:H..l.PTP' I '

Public Speaking Is Empowering Through Pl.lbhc Speal.ng. We May Empa.ver Ourselves and Each Other 234 Empowering Pl.bite Speakers Practice and Encourage Reflexivity Pract1c,ng Refle"lvtty Pm-Ides Benefits 238 What Does Becoming Reflexive Mean? 2:39 Empowering Pl.bhc Speakers Pracnce Advocacy 240 Practice M'IOG/Ci Through ReflexlVlty 241 Practice ArNoc:ac.y rt-rough Dialogue 242 Pract1c.e Aclvoat:y Through Cntlcal llter.1cy 243 Practice A ~ Through Alliance BuOd,ng 244 "But I Am Hopeful I Am Inspired" 244

ConceptS 246 Toward Prax,s 246 D1scusS10n Questions

Glossa,y References Quotation Credits

Image Credits

Index

-"

247

232 217

Preface

B

ooks addressing public speaking often focus either on (1) a collection of skills that a prospectiVe spealcer can develop, keep In reserve as part of a communication repertoire, and then choose to apply, as they see fit,. to a given opportunity established

by a speaking context;. or (2) a set of exemplary speakers and their accomplishments that

can guide us, thr~gh study, to better understand effective speaking as an art. However, we, the authors of this book, find that what makes public speaking a compelling topic for us is a bit different We are Interested in how public speaking Is a process that creates and sustalns communiaes. We are most Interested in the immediate, unpredictable, ever-evolving impact of public speaking on our lives as people who live in communities with others-communities that often demand intentional, difficult negotiations about how we should relate to one another and how we should share resources. Consider Greta Thunberg. who is perhaps an unlikely candidate as a world-transforming' speaker given that she Is a teenager as of this writing. that she was diagnosed with Asperger's syndrome at age 12, and that a primary focus of her activism (the "Fridays for Future" movement) involves urging other school-aged children to skip school). Yet she has "become the face of climate-change activism" and served as an inVited speaker at a2018 United Nations climate change conference, hvo distinctive accomplishments that attest to her persuasive power (Woodward and De Luce), Greta's example In dicates that effective public speaking depends on speakers engaging others from their unique subject

positions, In situated relation to particular communities, using the communication resources avallable to them, in response to shared perceptions of community needs.' As an explicitly social-Justice oriented Introductory public speaking text, this book rep-

resents an important departure from conventional approaches. This departure stems from our central goal to foster reade~ development as engaged speakers who appreciate the power of publfc speak! ng from two interrelated perspectives:

1 We frame core dimensions of public speaking-such as audience and sltuati011, ropic selecrion, research, organizacion, supporting materials and delivery--as parts of widely established communication codes. This frame supports students' practice of effect1Ve public speaking by f0Olls

Persuasive Speeches Depend on a Future Community Relationship of Possible Actions In contrast, a persuasive speaker relates to an audience as a fellow changing. growing member of a community. The speaker's primary orientation 1s to wa';/S their ideas about

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EMPOWERING PUBLIC SPEAKING

change and growth in the community malce the speaker similar to their listeners, despite all the other ways they may be different from one another. An effective perStJaSive speaker focuses attention on acrlons;these actions will, if audience members take them, make them who they should be In the future. Persuasive speakers are common in our everyday lives; they Include spokespeople and agents in sales and advertising situations. On-air reporters are sometimes considered Informative speakers, but media studies scholars are Increasingly attentive to the ways that such public speakers have carefully selected information and chosen language so that viewers and listeners have their understanding of news events shaped In certain ways. We think this distinction between the two primary types of speeches, Informative and persuasive, is Interesting because most writers emphasize these types as stemming from a different purpose (prl manly to inform; primarily to persuade). Remember that In this book, we are treal'lng public speaking as an act of communication, something quite a bit like other acts we all have plenty of experience doing in conversations, writing. and so on. We Instead suggest that a better reason to carefully distinguish between the informative speech type and the persuasive speech type is because they involve meaningfully different relationships to listeners, as we just described, If speakers know what type of speech they will deliver, they have sharpened their focus beyond occasion and purpose because they have begun to consider how they relate to tlieir audience.

Aspeech offered at a rearemern: party ,s an example oi a ceremonial speech. In these ipeeches, listeners reflect on ...ti at they ~now vid feel about the pmon who is retiring. In addition, these speeches wourage listenen to show appreciation for the contrlbutJon the person , et,nng has made to an orgarnzat,on Thus, these spe«hes havr a way of both 1nform1ng and Jlersuadlng 11!.teners.

CHAPTER 4

I

PUBLIC SPEAKING IS SPECIFIC TO TIME, PLACE, AND PURPOSE

j

67

Ceremonlal Speeches Depend on a Past Community Relationship of Esteemed Values Focusing on your relationship with your audience also helps us explain a third type of speech that writers commonly name: the ceremonial speech. Notice that when you are speaking in a ceremonial setting. like a wedding. a memorial service, an award ceremony. a retirement party, and so on, you are in some ways both Informing and persuading listeners. In these speeches, you are encouraging listeners to reRect on what they know about a particular person Of group of people, and sometimes adding to what they know, In addition, in ceremonial speeches you are encouraging listeners to ta_ke a specific action of appreciating someone, encouraging listeners to accept the truthfulness of what you say about that person or group of people. Is a ceremonial speech a cross between Informative and persuasive speech, then ? One way to understand why ceremonial speeches merit their own special category Is that these speeches Involve a third kind of relationship between speaker and audience, rooted this time in the past. In ceremonial speeches, a speaker relates to the audience as a fellow member of a community that has already established-and Ilved by-a shared set of values. Ceremonies, and the speeches that happen within them, are usually ways of nonoring the established successes of these past values-especially the successes of the person or group of people bemg honored. To summarize, Informative speeches depend on a present community relationship of knowledge levels; persuasive speeches depend on a future community relationship of possible actions; and ceremonral speeches depend on a past community relationship of esteemed values.

Demonstration Speech Involves a Changed Relationship The fourth and final type of speech we discuss here Is the demonstration speech. As you might expect, these speeches, in which the speaker helps audience members grasp the steps needed to accomplish a specific task, are quite a bit like Informative speeches. In one way, they are also like persuasive speeches: Oemonstrac1on spe,e ches always implicitly suggest that audience members can and should accomplish the cask being demonstrated. These speeches, whne similar co the other types of speeches we've discussed, differ because they Involve another changed relationship. In the case of demonstra0 on speech, the speaker's relationship to the audience ls not grounded in time (past, present, or future common links) but to place. A demonstration speech 1s only successful in particular spaces in which the speaker can identify a cask, with a set of required materials, that 1s m.eaningful and feasible to r.sceners. A speaker addressing an audience in a cold, northern climate would face senous challenges if they attempted to demonstrate how to recogm.z e ripe garden tomatoes and picl< them from the vine at just the right moment in their life cycle without tearing their skins. How could such a speaker succeed' If the community has access to technologies like small electric greenho·u ses and the

68

EMPOWERING PUBLIC SPEAKING

The d,fference between de1T10nstrat1on and lnformauve speech Is that demonstration speech always 1rnpl1c1tly suggests Lhat aud1ern:e members can and should accomplish the ta!;f betng demonstrated Whether speak~ ..-e demonstrating cooierience they know well or understand fully- with one that is new to them or questt00able for them.

206

EMPOWERING PUBLIC SPEAKING

Early In his speech Corney uses an analogy to draw a conclusion. He offers this:

As a society, we can choose to live our rNeryday lives. ra,sing our famlhes and going to work. hoping that someone, somewhere, WIii do something to ease the tensK>n-to smooth over the confl,a. We can roll up our car windows, tum up the radio and

dnve around these problems, or we can choose to have an open and honest discussion about what our relat10nsh1p ,s today-what

,t should be, what it could be, and what ,t needs to be-1f we took more ome to better understand one another

(Corney, 2015)

Corney us~ the analogy of drMng around w,th wnaows roRed up to help I steners understand w~ they are metaphorically doing when they a\/Old difficult topics and COl'lflict Does this seem like an effecb.e anal~ to yoo>

Here, Corney expects that enough of- his audience members are famillar with dnvmg a car that they will reflect on both the actions they can choose in that situation-"ro11," ''tum up;" "drive•·-and the sensory and emotional memories of what flows from those actions He implies that when we drive a car, we often put ourselves into a place of isolation, cut off from the sounds and smell5 of-the environment and the people in it, and that when we do so

CHAPTER 10

PUBLIC SPEAKING IS ACCOUNTABLE

I

207

it is a way of taking a stance, of adopting a position about that environment and chose people, He wanes his audience to recall these driving experiences and associate chis position and Its feelings to the position and feefings of a person who expects the tension and conflict between law enforcement and local communities co simply dissolve or be handled by someone else. The authors consider this a highly effective analogy not only because Corney chooses a common eXperience that is a good fit for his conclusion, reminding us of the distinctive, aloof weys we position Speakers often use analogies to make meaningful ourselves in the community when we drive compansol'\$. For example, the analogy of leam,ng to generally, but also because the common ride a b,ke Is often Ued to hCMI we 1Jnde1'5tand and experience itself-drMng with windows up· don't forget concept5 that have beccrne so in.grained {like bike ndlng) How might this irt;llogy be different and musk shutting out other sounds-ts for someone who aoesn·t know how to tide a b,kel closely related to Corney's chosen subject matter, After all, we the authors have ourselves made these exact choices before-the closed windows and the muskal barrier-when driving In areas of great poverty visible on surface streets. Have you done thls as a driver? What do you think it means? Do you consider this an effective analogy? Why or why not? Like Inductive reason! ng.analogical reasoning Is somethl ng we do often in everyday life. We have common phrases in our culture like, "It's like leamlng to ride a bike: you'll never forget" or "they ran the class like a drlll sergeant." When we develop an analogy, we expect our audience to be familiar with a complex process. something chat often Involves multiple parts or extended personal experience to understand well. We are ,encouraging our listeners to reflect on their experiences and judge our association of that experience with a new or questionable idea, This Is also why an effective analogy, one that will encourage your audience co embrace your conclusion, depends on your choice of an eicperience that audience members widely share and on which they can reflect at length to the benefit of your conclusion Analogies can be powerful as reasoning processes, because they connect with direct experience grounded not just In thought but in past, embodied actions that your listeners wlll recall In profound weys. But analogies, given this same quality, can also be weak forms of reasoning that are weakened tr,, social hierarchies and privilege if you use them unreflectively. Consider our two examples abOve: One of the authors learned co ride a bike as a thirty-something adult yet was asked to appreciate the "ride a bike" analogy as something they had done during childhood. Neither of our authors has a history of military service, If you were in our position, writfng this

208

EMPOWERlNG PUBLIC SPEAKING

book, would these two analogies be useful In rTicjking an argument? Which readers might find them compelling? Which readers find them unclear or even demeaning, something that leads not to profound, embodied reflection but to negative feelings of exdusfon? You can be accountable to your audience when usmg an analogy ff you consider the fitness of the analogy for audience members whose experiences, histories, and rel;itionships mlght differ from your own. This is another example of how public speaking itself, a:s a communicative act, creates community by embracing connections among speakers and listeners, and another example of why a public speaker who ls anentive to these connections and treats them with respect can speak effectlvely. As you strive to use analogies effectively, you must consider, as we have discussed. two questions: How widely shared in this particular community ls the process or experience you expect your audience to already know? How strong ls the fit, the span of common features, between that known experience and the new, questionable one you want your audience to better grasp along with you? If you consider both of these questions you can avoid a fallacy known as a false analogy, which results from poor fitness between the two items you bring together by association.

Ethical, Inclusive Speakers Attend to Situated Reasoning Each of the approaches co reasoning that we have e~plored so far in this chapter share a view of ''good reasons" consonant with values about human life, relationships, and nature most common, historically, In ma,instream Western Institutions. These approaches to reasoning typically organize themselves around rules, or principles, of logical organization (Hicks & Langsdon, 2011). In this section, we consider an approach to reasoning that depends on relationships rather than rules. Such an approach can be characterized by the phrase situated re.asoning. This term helps identify one central feature, common to several forms of reasoning marginalized In Europe, Canada. and the United States, that distinguishes those forms from the dominant forms: They embrace reasons grounded In particular times and places. They derive their force (and thus the strength of their conclusions, when spe fully blossomed a:. you

were Intended.·

244

"But I Am Hopeful. I Am Inspired." Your communication matters. Jt makes some idea or action (more) real for you and for your listeners. Kaepemlck's choice to take a knee-and his subsequent framing of this action-drew attention to the role of police violence against people and communities of cola!'. His actions inspired some, but also drew scrutmy and critlasm from others, creating space f,or dialogue and dissent with respect to free speech in the United States. While our sp!!ech may be free m that we may speak our own truths, our speech is not free from consequences,

EMPOWERING PUBLIC SPEAKING

Colin Kaapern1ck's choice to take a knee-and h~ S1Jbsequent framing of this act1on-dtew attentton to the role of po~ce "'olence against people and c.omrrunltles of color H,s acuons inspired many, l,ke these female college basketball players at Rutger, to also take a knee and conttnue to spread awareness of the t56ues of police voo!ence 1n the Afncan American comrrl.ll'llty By lcneel1ng and plaong a hand on on~ another\ st,oul ders, these players demonstrate sol,danty w,ch one another .r,d ;;,th their comm.m~y While our wotds are sign fl cant In mOV1ng Msteners, our non..erbal gestures-iind our s,lenc6-are powerful means of communication

and that matters too. When we allow others to genumely challenge our thinking. our ideas are stronger as a result. We also, m such moments of struggle, leat'n resilience. Resilience is a quality we often associate with flexibility and the ability to bounce back; rt Is a sklll that public speakers can practice as they reflexively advocate change with others. We hope this responsibility leaves you feeling Inspired: What Issues will you spceak Into? And with whom? What do you hope to achieve? What will you do next?

CHAPTER 12

PUBLIC SPEAKING 1S EMPOWERING

245

Concepts allian ce 244

nihilism 241

critical literacy 243

privilege 238

cynicism i,i,

reflexivity 237

Toward Praxis 1

Reflection: In what aspects of your identity do you experience marginalization or stig•

ma? In what aspects of your identity do you experience unearned privilege? What do you make of these tenslons/par.idoxes? 2 Discussion: When and how have you allied with others? What have yoo accomplished?

In what ways did/do you struggle? What are the qualities of a mea,ningful alliance? 3 Action: Explicitly and intentionally trace the power lines associated with an upcoming speech you are preparing. Who benefits by the arguments and sources you advocate? With whom do you advocate? Whose voices are missing or marginali:zed? With what consequence?

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EMPOWERING PUBLIC SPEAKING

Discussion Questions 1 What do yw do to stay motivated when you're feelfng exhausted and overwhelmed? What do you say to others to help them stay resilient?

2 In what ways have you felt transformed- for better or worse- as a speaker or listener?

3 How might your speeches open up spaces for dialogue and transformation In your community?

CHAPTER 12

I

PUBLIC SPEAKING 1S EMPOWERING

247

Glossary A Abstract: The Idea that a given word or gesture IS noc the

thort

Itself, but rather represents the ltffl1 Idea, or expenenre. One cannot drink the word coffee. nor ,s the word ,v, the act ofrunnl,._ Academic Integrity One's efforts as a le¥1'er to eng.ige 1n ethc:al rese.rd\ from c»ra collect10n and iNlysls to how they sNre ther ,ns,gt,ts w11h others aloud er In pnnt, Ad Poputum Fallacy A fallacy wh,ch somethmg ,s

,n

assetted simply because many ocher people asse"t the same thfrg Advantage~ lsaclvantage An organizatlooal pattem char sets cwo (or more) ideas against one another such

that all the COfflp¥150"S and Coro-astS inllOllle an

assessment of what Is wotthy or userul about eoch •de.a 1n comparison or conuast to the nexL Adwcacy Entals spealong lllongsde less P'""~ged groups so as 10 amp(fy ther v01Ces. An effort to speak on behalf of a position or cause suc:h t~ others Jom one ,n thlll efforL Affirming • N epiv• PremiM A fabcy In which the unovenal statement Is negx,ve but the conctus,on, a faulty one, 1s pos,ave. For uample. "I never teach class 1n ~orts. today I am Wf!arlng ~acks, therefore, I am 1eachi"8" Agency Rtfers to a person's abl,cy to feel as thoo&i' they can take acaon In the world that IS meaningful The upac,ty to transform oneself, learn. grow, and effect cha'l!f In one's own llfe and In the world Allanusc Theaa of buld rf!COllnectJonswth others ...+,o share expenences. v.,lues, and object~ Ambiguou•· The idea that a word or gesture one might express may not be whac another 1mag1nes. tho,ch there w1ll lkely be some OYertap The word coffee, for e~e, can ewke, variously, the type of roast, a hot

or told dnnk. something blner that you may not Ike,

Antkhesis: Involves closely posioonng two oppOS>ll! ideas to frame how their opposition lnc.udes more than JUSl

their definitional chstlnction bot add~,onal elemenis as wtll ror example, '1 p;r; poker he it's fun. but I play bladqad< he it's.senou~ APA. A specific s~e gu,~ managed by the American Psycholosjcal ASSllClltion.

Appeal to N al..e: A f'alacy In whch a universal truth is asserted merely because of given qual1t1es that are taken for sranted but not~ well understood. Appeal to Tr.acition Af.abcy ,n whch a untversal tnah IS asserted mm,ly because IOf11.eslabhhed llehavlOf'S er ar1ifaru exemplfy "Arbitrary The Idea tNt ~ecould,g,ven a wordorges• ture, choose a differ- word or gesture to represent the same thr,g oc concept for eer of Ideas that are comeaed to one b,g, central idea.

C CalRng: The Idea of bemg motivated to speak into a given Issue or concern. Sometimes people d,m:ribe this as

listening to a higher power, and sometimes people describe ttvs as delving deeply Inward to acJrnowledge and pursue their own best quafities. Care: Usmg phrases that stablish a caring relatlonshlp to the audience while speaking by engat agitated profe5$0r was new to campus and reaching their Om dass. Cha.racter. Using phrase-s that highlight a shared relatron• shlp to the audience and the wider community to l>e effective in a public speaking situation. Chronologlcaly: Oescnblr,i ideas arranged as they devel, oped over tlme. Citation· The process of aclcnowledging others' work.

250

EMPOWERING PUBLIC SPEAKING

Clincher A fina~ memorable closing remark to a. speech. Communication Anxiety. A feeling of aversion to engag• 1ng rn commun,caoon with olhers;for rnaoy people. this feelr1g ol aversion is specific to a certain typ.c of com• muriGltion, such as speaking in public to an assembled audience Communication as Representation· A model or way of thinkmg that rl)Vites people to _see words as symbols or representauons for things in the world. such as the Word coffee sbnding in for the drink one may be holding In their hand. Communication Is Constitutive To argue thilt communl• cation shapes and e-ren creates our social reality, In this model our words do not smply reprcSl!nr indMduals, organizations; and cultures. Instead our words maJce those lndMdU31s, organizations, 311d cultures. Communication Mode The manner or style In which one addresses others (for example, by !iharrng words in wrmng or oraUy; by using we l.inguage.1 languagc, or yau la"""3e When stuing ldeas; by using an "'1lr)' or

a silly voice), Comp•e--Contrast An orgarvlllOQnal pattern !hat sets two (usudy; occas10nally there are more than two) disona ideas ag;unst one another, ·allowing the speaker to besUUustrale ill1d complicate eact, ldea by showing which elementsane Idea has in common with the other and which elements make one Idea meaningfuly differ• eot from the other. Compassion. Entalls empathy and acl:nowiedgment of why someone has chosen to spe.iln....th b-yMaureen (CC BY 2.0) at hups# common,;.w,~lmedlaorg/wlkVl')le:Dal;,i_Lama..aL

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PabloDamonce. Fig. 3,.4tx Source. httpsifwww.goodfreephotos.c~ unlted•state1/wl5cooslrymadlson/w'isconsln-mac5son:-graduation•blllboard jpgphp. Fig 3-S Source: https;Qarchiv~.defens,:.gov/news,,\leW$;,rtl• cle.aspx?id~50402.. Ag. 3.6< CopYngh( .t'> 2013 Oepositphotc,j/aJblJld Ag 3.73•Copyright t> (CC BY-'SA4-o) at https,,f myosf.usfca.edu/student-lWe~nterculturaJ-center/ d1eck-~r-prlvilege. Fig,3-;,b: Copyright IP t.,, (CC BY-SA 4-0) at hnps:J myusfusfcaedUfstudent-life,ioterculturakenter/ check-your-privilege Fig 3-Ba, Copyright © 2017 IStockphoto LP/aslsee1t. Fig 3.8b; Copyright C> 2014 ;$tocl:photo l.13/Joel CarllleL Fi& 3.9< Copyright © 2019 Depos1tphooos/flzkes. Fig.3-10, Source, https.Qwwwfllckr.conyphoto~ obamawhitehoillej8390810:!96flryphotol15t-dH)SeDdM(6z3•fN62sm-dC'r1Yo-eil2mgj•dUZsrB-dH38Uly_GagLSklltnorelP& Fig 4.6: Copyright 2011 Depositphotos/

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268

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Index

A Abstract, 9 - 10 Abu~ of power; 9, 215,221- 222, 241 Aeaclemic Integrity, 128, 129 Academic Sea~h Prcmie~,74- 75 Accoootable pub~c spealmg. 190- 213 Action, in Monroe's motivated sequence, 115 Adele, 35 Ad populum fallacy, 197 A6,,anmge-disadvancage, 115 Ad-,ocacy, 240-244 .l~ance buidngand, 244 critial iteracy and, 243-:244 defin~ 18•19 dialogue and, 242 empowerment and, 240-244 ethic of care and, 46-47 persuasion as, 45- 41> pubnc spe3king as. 42, 43- 47 re.flexivity and, 2.11 social £1gn,ricant, 16, 19 throul!$> use of language, 18l-186 voices amplified by. 18-19 Aestheuc performance, 145-147, 161 Affirming a negative premise, 197 Agency denned, '17 power and, 48

problem-pc,gng approaches. 30

Agenda, set by pi.bijc speakers, ln-83 ARtanee, n9. 244

Ambiguous, 10 Analogical reasoning. 206-209 Anecdotal ev,dence, 131 Antithesis. 18o, 185 Am:lldua, Gloria, 2'14 APA. 7, f3] Appeal to nature, ''Tl Appeal to tradJtion, 197 Arbitrary, 9 ArglM11enmtive thesis statement, 75 Argi.ment, clarifying re~oning to enhance. 195-196 Aristotle, 13• 14, 15, 43, 45,61, 63, 72an speaking occasions, 6Hi4, 72

penuasive appeals ldentlfred by, 14-15-45 rhetonc defined by, 13· '4• 43, 45 Rl,etoricwntten by, 13 Artlculat10n, 162-163 Artistic appeals, 14 Artistic proofa, 14, 45. seea/so Persuasive appeals

Asynchronous communication, 119 _Attention getter, 95, 100

Attentbn,gettmg strategies, 9l"'IOO, Sa. a/foChange the frame ask a question, 96. different communkarlon mode, 98 dramabze key idea or theme, 97- 98 humor. 98- 99 IUustrate key idea or theme, 96-1>7 Audience. SC'eAudlenci? Malysls change the frame for, 94-95 commumcabon and, ,s,. ,52 credobmty and, 89 gi\'ing llmejt.-iking time-al1