Empowered or Left Behind: Use of Technology During COVID-19 [1 ed.] 1032334983, 9781032334981

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Empowered or Left Behind Focused on the United States, this book summarizes the secondary impacts of COVID-19 due to the increased use of technology. Establishing the global response of social distancing, mandates for non-essential business, and working from home, the book centers on the disparate guidance provided domestically at the state and local l­evels. Marginalized populations are highlighted to identify areas where technology facilitated access and reach or contributed to difficulties catapulted by digital literacy or digital access issues. To explain how people may have been empowered or left behind due to new and unique reliance on technology, this book is structured based on the social determinants of health domains. Specifically, this book explains how technology was an umbrella domain that impacted every aspect of life during the pandemic, including access, use, adoption, and digital literacy, and digital equity, as well as privacy and security concerns. Given this book’s focus on the impacts to marginalized populations, there is a thread throughout the book related to the use of technology to perpetuate hate, discrimination, racism, and xenophobic behaviors that emerged as a twin pandemic during COVID-19. Part I explains the defining differences between primary and secondary impacts, as well as the unique guidelines adopted in each state. Part II of the book is focused on specific domains, where each chapter is dedicated to topics including economic stability through employment, education, healthcare, and the social/community context through access to services. Part III focuses on unique technological considerations related to COVID-19, such as mobile health-related apps and privacy or security issues that may have posed barriers to the adoption and use of technology. Finally, the book ends with a conclusion chapter, which explicitly explains the advantages and disadvantages of technology adoption during COVID-19. These exposed benefits and challenges will have implications for policies, disaster management practices, and interdisciplinary research.

Empowered or Left Behind Use of Technology During COVID-19

DeeDee M. Bennett Gayle Xiaojun (Jenny) Yuan

Designed cover image: Shutterstock Images

First edition published 2024 by CRC Press 2385 Executive Center Drive, Suite 320, Boca Raton, FL 33431 and by CRC Press 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2024 DeeDee M. Bennett Gayle and Xiaojun ( Jenny) Yuan

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.ss

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www. copyright.com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact [email protected] Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Names: Gayle, DeeDee Bennett, author. | Yuan, Xiaojun ( Jenny), author. Title: Empowered or left behind : use of technology during COVID-19 / DeeDee Bennett Gayle, Xiaojun ( Jenny) Yuan. Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2022062073 (print) | LCCN 2022062074 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032334981 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032335001 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003319894 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: COVID-19 Pandemic, 2020---Influence. | COVID-19 Pandemic, 2020---Social aspects. | Computer literacy--Social aspects. Classification: LCC RA644.C67 G395 2023 (print) | LCC RA644.C67 (ebook) | DDC 362.1962/4144--dc23/eng/20230420 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022062073 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022062074 ISBN: 978-1-032-33498-1 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-33500-1 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-31989-4 (ebk) DOI: 10.1201/9781003319894

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Contents ix

Acknowledgment About

the

xi

Authors

Part I Government Response C h ap t e r 1

and Impacts

I n t r o d u c t i o n : P r i m a ry a n d S e c o n d a ry E f f e c t s o f COVID-19

1.1 1.2 1.3

Primary and Secondary Impacts of COVID-19 Vulnerability Literature and Theories Technology as a “Super” Social Determinant of Health 1.4 Digital Divide and Digital Equity 1.5 Overview of This Book Note References C h ap t e r 2

3 5 6 9 10 11 14 14

21 Public Health Guidance 21 2.1.1 Social Distancing 22 2.1.2 State Actions to Mitigate the Spread of COVID-19 23 Messaging During COVID-19 25 Technology Used to Disseminate Messages 26 2.3.1 Health Literacy, Digital Literacy, and Trust 27 2.3.2 Broadband Infrastructure 29

COVID-19 US R e s p o n s e

2.1

2.2 2.3

v

vi

C o n t en t s

2.4

Impacts of Guidance across the Health Domains 29 2.4.1 Education 31 2.4.2 Employment 32 2.4.3 Daily Activities 33 2.5 Summary 33 References 33

Part II Technology Use Health Domains C h ap t e r 3

across the

a n d S e l f -E m p l oy m e n t 41 Technological Impact on Businesses 42 3.1.1 E-Commerce Activities 43 3.2 Small and Medium Businesses Activities 44 3.3 Self-Employed Workers 45 3.4 Summary 47 References 47

Businesses

3.1

C h ap t e r 4

d u r i n g COVID-19 51 New Classification of Workers 53 4.1.1 Essential Workers 53 4.1.1.1 Healthcare 54 4.1.1.2 Law Enforcement 54 4.1.1.3 Service Industry 54 4.1.2 Non-Essential Workers 55 4.1.2.1 Education 56 4.1.2.2 Service Industry 56 4.1.2.3 Unemployment 57 4.1.2.4 Working from Home 58 4.2 Summary 59 References 59

E m p l oy m e n t

4.1

C h ap t e r 5

E d u c at i o n D u r i n g COVID-19

5.1 5.2 5.3

Educational Guidance Digital Divide in Education Educational Impacts During COVID-19 5.3.1 Childcare 5.3.2 Pre-K to 12th Grade 5.3.2.1 Impacts on Learning 5.3.2.2 Impacts on Teachers 5.3.2.3 Access to Other Resources 5.3.3 Colleges and Universities 5.3.3.1 Students 5.3.3.2 Professors 5.3.3.3 Access to Resources

63 64 65 66 66 68 68 68 69 69 69 70 70

vii

C o n t en t s

5.4

Challenges across Academic Levels 71 5.4.1 Technology-associated Systemic Inequities 71 5.4.2 Digital and Technical Literacy 71 5.4.3 Course Type 72 5.5 Summary 72 Note 73 References 73 to Services and Resources 77 6.1 Mitigating the Virus 78 6.2 Emergency Management 80 6.3 Law Enforcement 81 6.4 Driving Licensure 81 6.5 Legal Matters 82 6.6 Pandemic Matrimonies 83 6.7 Personal Activities 84 6.8 Religious Activities 86 6.9 Human and Social Services 87 6.10 Summary 89 References 89

C h ap t e r 6

Access

C h ap t e r 7

H e a lt h c a r e a n d M e n ta l H e a lt h D u r i n g  COVID-19

97 Factors Affecting Healthcare 97 7.1.1 Technology Shift for Healthcare 98 7.1.2 Digital Health During COVID-19 99 7.2 Mental Health Impacts 101 7.2.1 Increased Racism Impact on Mental Health 103 7.3 Digital Health for Mental Health 105 7.4 Summary 108 References 108 7.1

Part III Unique COVID-19 Considerations the Future Forward C h ap t e r 8

and

119 Contact Tracing 120 8.1.1 Contact Tracing Mobile Apps 120 8.1.2 Private Sector – Google Apple Exposure Notification (GAEN) System 123 8.1.3 Evaluation of Contact Tracing Apps 124 8.2 Proof of Vaccination Apps 125 8.2.1 Vaccination Hesitancy 126 8.3 Summary 127 References 127 COVID-19 M o b i l e A pp l i c at i o n s

8.1

viii C h ap t e r 9

C o n t en t s and Security 131 Technology Adoption and Acceptance: Review of Select Models 132 9.1.1 Considerations for Future Theories 133 9.1.2 Privacy and Security Concerns Across Domains 134 9.1.3 Education 135 9.1.4 Employment 135 9.1.5 Healthcare 136 9.1.6 COVID-19 Mobile Apps 136 9.1.7 Government 137 9.2 Summary 137 References 138

P r i va c y

9.1

141 Opportunities for Empowerment 143 Barriers to Use 144 10.2.1 Barriers across the SDH Domains 145 10.2.2 Barriers Related to the Twin Pandemics 146 10.2.3 Mental Health 147 10.3 Going Forward: Practice, Policy, and Research 147 10.3.1 Considerations for Practice 148 10.3.2 Considerations for Policy 149 10.3.3 Considerations for Research 150 References150

C h ap t e r 10 C o n c l u s i o n

10.1 10.2

Index 

157

Acknowledgment The premise of this work started in 2020 during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic and amid the many changes undertaken to minimize the spread of the virus. We secured a workgroup award to examine the technological innovations during COVID-19 from the Natural Hazards Center in Colorado as part of the larger National Science Foundation’s CONVERGE initiative. Following this workgroup award, the authors received modest COVID-related grants from SUNY (State University of New York) and the University at Albany, SUNY President’s Initiative on Minority Health Disparities Seed funding. The support of these awards allowed us to see the impact of technology during COVID more broadly. This also challenged us to consider the implications for reverting to our preCOVID normal and deliberate about technology use post-COVID. Since we both study vulnerable populations, we wanted to expose how they are empowered or not in their use of technology during the lengthiest disaster in our lifetime. We are thankful for the support that each of the research awards provided us. We also received assistance from several research assistants and want to thank Natasha Edwards, Yvonne Dadson, Sean Li, Erin Li, and Austin Grattan.

ix

x

Ac k n o w l ed g m en t

Finally, without our families’ love, support, and encouragement this manuscript would not have come to fruition. Special thank you to our spouses, Richard Gayle and Ming Li, and our children (some of whom served as research assistants), Sean Li, Erin Li, and Kingston Gayle. And a special thank you to Marie Bennett for her support and to our extended families.

About the Authors DeeDee M. Bennett Gayle is Associate Professor and Director of the Extreme Events, Social Equity, and Technology (E2SET) Lab in the College of Emergency Preparedness, Homeland Security, and Cybersecurity at the University at Albany, State University of New York. Her interdisciplinary research focuses on the individual and household disaster impacts for vulnerable populations and how technologies may be leveraged to increase resilience. She has secured research grants and contracts, including from the National Science Foundation, Federal Emergency Management Agency, and the Department of Homeland Security. With over 50 publications, her work is published in various journals, and she has presented at several conferences related to communications, disasters, disability, diversity, wireless technology, and future studies. She is co-editor of an edited book volume on information behavior. Dr. Bennett Gayle received her PhD from Oklahoma State University in Fire and Emergency Management. She has a unique academic background having received both her MS in Public Policy and BS in Electrical Engineering from the Georgia Institute of Technology. Xiaojun ( Jenny) Yuan is an Associate Professor in the College of Emergency Preparedness, Homeland Security, and Cybersecurity at the University at Albany, State University of New York. Her research interests include both Human Computer Interaction and Information Retrieval, xi

x ii

A b o u t t he Au t h o rs

with the focus on user interface design and evaluation and human information behavior. Dr. Yuan has secured research grants and contracts from the Institute of Museum and Library Services, Department of Education in New York State and University at Albany. She published extensively in journals in information retrieval and human computer interaction, and conferences in computer science and information science, and is co-editor of the edited book volume Social Vulnerability to COVID-19: Impacts of Technology Adoption and Information Behavior with Springer Nature Publishing. She serves an Editorial Board member of Aslib Journal of Information Management (AJIM) and Annual Review of Information Science and Technology (ARIST), and a Board member of the International Chinese Association of Human Computer Interaction. Dr. Yuan received her PhD from Rutgers University at the School of Communication and Information and PhD from the Chinese Academy of Sciences in the Institute of Computing Technology. She received her MS in Statistics from Rutgers University and ME and BE in Computer Application from Xi’an University of Science & Technology in China.

PART I

Government Response a n d I m pa c t s

1 I ntroduction Primary and Secondary Effects of COVID-19

“This pandemic has magnified every existing inequality in our society – like systemic racism, gender inequality, and poverty.” Melinda Gates (2020) Beginning in late 2019, the virus SARS-CoV2 spread throughout the world and caused respiratory distress similar to the flu but with a significantly higher mortality rate. The virus was commonly known as COVID-19. This virus strain initially seemed to have the most damaging effects on older adults and individuals with preexisting conditions. Across the world, over six million people have died after contracting this disease as of 2022 (CSSE at JHU, 2022). Nearly 465 million cases of infection were reported in the first two years. In March of 2022, the global rate of new cases averaged nearly two million every 24 hours. Within the United States (U.S.), there were nearly one million deaths and 79 million cases (as of March 2022), making it the country with the most cases and deaths in the world (Connor, 2020). However, the rates of infection and mortality were not a steady, continuous climb; instead, there were ebbs and flows (or periods when infections skyrocketed and other times when infection rates were low). The protracted length of the pandemic and the waves of heightened alert about increasing infection provided ample time for people to become lax in their use of personal protective gear, such as masks. It was not uncommon in the U.S. to see mask mandates implemented and then removed, only to be implemented again. Initially, older adults and those with preexisting conditions were thought to be most at risk of infection; however, as the virus spread, it became more evident that racial and ethnic minorities were also at higher risk. These populations collectively comprised over a third of the U.S. population in 2019 and were more prone to be infected by this virus, with more DOI: 10.1201/9781003319894-2

3

4

EM P O W ERED O R L EF T BEHIN D

Table 1.1  Estimated Number and Percentage of Older Adults (65 Years or Older) and Racial Minorities under 65 Years Old in the U.S. (2019) TOTAL US POPULATION (2019)a = 328,239,523

DEMOGRAPHICSa Older Adults in the U.S. (>65 years) African American or Black (