Elements of Fiction Writing - Characters & Viewpoint 9780898799279, 0898799279

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CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT BY ORSON SCOTT CARD

WRI TER'S DI GEST BOOKS CI NCI NNATI , OHI O Charact ers and Viewpoint . Copyright ( r) 1988 by Orson Scot t Card. Print ed and bound in t he Unit ed St at es of Am erica. All right s reserved. No part of t his book m ay be reproduced in any form or by any elect ronic or m echanical m eans including inform at ion st orage and ret rieval syst em s wit hout perm ission in writ ing from t he publisher, except by a reviewer, w ho m ay quot e brief passages in a review. Published by Writ er's Digest Books, an im print of F&W Publicat ions, I nc., 1507 Dana Avenue, Cincinnat i, Ohio 45207. ( 800) 2890963. First paperback edit ion 1999. Ot her fine Writ er's Digest Books are available from your local bookst ore or direct from t he publisher. Visit our Web sit e at www.writ ersdigest .com for inform at ion on m ore resources for writ ers. To receive a free weekly E- m ail newslet t er delivering t ips and updat es about writ ing and about Writ er's Digest product s, send an E- m ail wit h t he m essage " Subscribe Newslet t er" t o newslet t er- request @writ ersdigest .com , or regist er direct ly at our Web sit e at www.writ ersdigest .com . Port ions of t his book appeared previously in Writ er's Digest ( Oct ober, Novem ber, and Decem ber 1986) and in Am azing St ories ( " Adolescence and Adult hood in Science Fict ion," Sept em ber 1987) . Library of Congress Cat aloging- in- Publicat ion Dat a Card, Orson Scot t . Charact ers and viewpoint / Orson Scot t Card, p. cm . I ncludes index. I SBN 0- 89879- 927- 9 ( pbk : alk. paper) 1. Fict ion- Technique 2. Charact ers and charact erist ics in lit erat ure. 3. Point of view ( Lit erat ure) I . Tide. PN3383.C4C37 1988 808.3- dc! 9 88- 15532 CI P I llust rat ions by Janice Card To Gert Fram , alias Nancy Alien Black: You never had any t rouble finding an at t it ude or point of view, and as for invent iveness, you wrot e t he book. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I owe t hanks t o t he edit ors at Writ er's Digest and Writ er's Digest Books, especially: Thanks t o Bill Brohaugh, who accept ed m y proposal for a brief art icle on using t he " im plied past " t o help in charact erizat ion- and t hen accept ed what I act ually t urned in, an art icle on m aking charact ers m em orable t hat was so long it had t o run in t hree issues of t he m agazine. Thanks t o Nancy Dibble, who as m y edit or on t his book was bot h pat ient and helpful, far beyond what could fairly have been expect ed. Thanks t o all t hose who delayed t he launch of a m aj or and im port ant publishing proj ect w hile wait ing for Card t o get his act t oget her. And t o t hose out side Cincinnat i who helped, nam ely: Thanks t o m y good friends Clark and Kat hy Kidd for put t ing m e up and put t ing up wit h m e for t w o weeks in February and March 1988 as I finished t he final draft of t his book. Thanks t o t he st udent s in m y writ ing class at t he Cent er for Creat ive Art s in Greensboro, Nort h Carolina, who forgave m e- or kindly pret ended t o forgive m e- for canceling t wo classes so I could finish t his book. Thanks t o all t he ot her writ ing st udent s who have been t he vict im s of m y developing underst anding of fict ion; I learned from t heir successes and failures as m uch as I learned from m y own. I n part icular, I t hank m y t eachers: Frangois Cam oin of t he English Depart m ent at t he Universit y of Ut ah; Clint on F. Larson and Richard Cracroft of t he English Depart m ent and Charles W. Whit m an of t he Theat re Depart m ent at Brigham Young Universit y; I da Huber at Mesa High School in Mesa, Arizona; and Fran Schroeder at Millikin Elem ent ary in Sant a Clara, California. Thanks t o m y sist er Janice for her help wit h art and copying. And, above all, t hanks t o m y wife, Krist ine, for m aking all m y work possible and all m y life j oyful. CONTENTS I NTRODUCTI ON • 1 PART I : I NVENTI NG CHARACTERS • 3 1. WHAT I S A CHARACTER? • 4 2. WHAT MAKES A GOOD FI CTI ONAL CHARACTER? • 14 The Three Quest ions Readers Ask • You Are t he First Audience • I nt errogat ing t he Charact er • From Charact er t o St ory, from St ory t o Charact er 3. WHERE DO CHARACTERS COME FROM? • 25 I deas from Life • I deas from t he St ory • Servant s of t he I dea • Serendipit y 4. MAKI NG DECI SI ONS • 41 Nam es • Keeping a Bible PART I I : CONSTRUCTI NG CHARACTERS • 47 5. WHAT KI ND OF STORY ARE YOU TELLI NG? • 48

The " MI CE" Quot ient • Milieu • I dea • Charact er • Ev ent • The Cont ract w it h t he Reader 6. THE HI ERARCHY • 59 Walk- ons and Placeholders • Minor Charact ers • Maj or Charact ers 7. HOW TO RAI SE THE EMOTI ONAL STAKES • 68' Suffering • Sacrifice 'Jeopardy • Sexual Tension •Signs and Port ent s 8. WHAT SHOULD WE FEEL ABOUT THE CHARACTER? • 75 First I m pressions • Charact ers We Love • Charact ers We Hat e 9. THE HERO AND THE COMMON MAN • 93 10. THE COMI C CHARACTER: CONTROLLED DI SBELI EF • 99 Doing a " Take" • Exaggerat oi n • Downplaying • Oddness 11. THE SERI OUS CHARACTER: MAKE US BELI EVE • 105 Elaborat ion of Mot ive • At t it ude • TheRem em bered Past • The I m plied Past • Just ificat ion 12. TRANSFORMATI ONS • 119 Why People Change 'Just ifying Changes PART I I I : PERFORMI NG CHARACTERS • 125 13. VOI CES • 126 Person • Tense 14. PRESENTATI ON VS. REPRESENTATI ON • 134 15. DRAMATI C VS. NARRATI VE • 140 16. FI RST- PERSON NARRATI VE • 143 Which Person I s First ? • No Fourt h Wall • Unreliable Narrat ors • Dist ance in Tim e • Wit hholding I nform at ion • Lapses 17. THI RD PERSON • 155 Om niscient vs. Lim it ed Point of View • Making Up Your Mind • Levels of Penet rat ion 18. A PRI VATE POPULATI ON EXPLOSI ON • 173 I NDEX• 174 I NTRODUCTI ON Writ ing fict ion is a solit ary art . When an orchest ra perform s a sym phony, it 's a shared effort . Not only are t here m any m usicians playing t heir inst rum ent s, t here's also a conduct or helping t hem sound good t oget her. Yet before any of t hem plays a not e, a com poser has t o writ e t he m usical score. There's even m ore t eam work wit h a play or m ovie. Lot s of act ors, of course; a direct or t o guide, suggest , decide for t he group; designers of set s, cost um es, light ing, and sound; t echnicians t o carry out t hose designs. I n film , add t he vit al work of t he cinem at ographer, cam era operat ors, and edit ors. But before any of t his work can be done, a writ er has t o put t oget her a script .

Script or score, t hose group perform ances exist ed because som ebody had a plan. Som ebody com posed t he m usic before ever a not e was heard; som ebody com posed t he st ory before ever an act or spoke a word. Com posit ion first , t hen perform ance. We who writ e fict ion have no t eam of act ors or m usicians t o do our bidding, so it 's easy t o forget t hat our work, t oo, has a com posit ion st age and a perform ance st age. We are bot h com poser and perform er. Or rat her, we are bot h st oryt eller and writ er. The act ual writ ing of t he st ory, along wit h t he creat ion of t he t ext , t he choice of words, t he dialogue, t he st yle, t he t one, t he point of view- t hat is t he perform ance, t hat is t he part of our work t hat earns us t he t it le " writ er." The invent ion of t he charact ers and sit uat ions and event s, along wit h t he const ruct ion of plot and scene, t he ordering of event s, t he com plicat ions and t wist s, t he set t ing and hist orical background- t hat is t he com posit ion, t he part of our work t hat earns us t he t it le " st oryt eller." There is no clear separat ion of our t wo roles. As we invent and const ruct our fict ion, we will oft en do it wit h language- we j ot down not es, t ell scenes t o our friends, writ e det ailed out lines or synopses. And as we are perform ing our st ories, writ ing t hem out in our m ost effect ive prose, we also invent new det ails or m ot ivat ions, discover new relat ionships 2 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT am ong charact ers, and we revise t he const ruct ion of t he st ory in order t o m ake a scene work bet t er, by adding a new fillip of suspense or horror or sent im ent , or present ing a st art ling new idea t hat only j ust now cam e t o us. There is no " right " way t o arrange t he t wo roles of st oryt eller and writ er. I oft en work for years on a st ory, invent ing, out lining, m apping, const ruct ing, before I feel t hat I 'm ready t o writ e it down. Writ er Larry Niven t ells his st ories aloud t o his friends, let t ing each t ale grow and t ake shape wit h a live audience t o help guide him . I know ot her writ ers who can com pose only while perform ing, like an act or im provising a m onologue- t hey have t o be writ ing t he st ory in order t o bring ideas t o m ind, discovering and shaping t he charact ers and plot as t hey go along. Regardless of how you m ingle t he roles of st oryt eller and writ er, t hough, you m ust do bot h j obs well. I f you don't invent and const ruct well, t hen all your beaut iful prose will be no m ore effect ive t han a singer vocalizing or a clarinet ist warm ing up- very pret t y t echnique, perhaps, but m usic it ain't . And if you don't writ e well, readers will be hard put t o discover t he wonderful st ory you want t o t ell- j ust as bad act ing can ruin a good script , or out - of- t une, clum sy, underrehearsed m usicians can m ake Mozart sound like a m ess. Effect ive charact erizat ion requires careful at t ent ion at every st age in t he writ ing of fict ion. You m ust invent your charact ers carefully, t o avoid cliche and t o provide your st ory wit h rich hum an possibilit ies; as you const ruct t he st ory, you m ust det erm ine exact ly how m uch and what t ype of

charact erizat ion t o use for each charact er. Lat er, as you set out t o writ e t he st ory, you m ust m ake decisions about point of view- which charact er or charact ers will be t he lens t hrough which t he reader sees t he st ory. So I have divided t his book int o t hree part s: I nvent ion, Const ruct ion, and Perform ance. Don't im agine for a m om ent t hat t he act ual process of charact erizat ion will ever be as neat and t idy as t he chapt ers and sect ions of t his book. I doubt t hat you could use t he chapt ers of t his book as a checklist , " charact erizing" m echanically as you go. I nst ead you should bring t he quest ions and ideas in each chapt er t o your ow n work, t he st ories you believe in and care about . See which aspect s of charact erizat ion you already handle well and which you m ight have overlooked; exam ine your handling of point of view t o see whet her you're helping your readers or confusing t hem . You don't im prove your st oryt elling by t urning charact erizat ion int o a m echanical process. You im prove your st oryt elling by discovering and nurt uring t he charact ers, by let t ing t hem grow. I n ot her words, t his book isn't a cupboard full of ingredient s t hat you can pull out , m easure, m ix, and bake int o good fict ional charact ers. This book is a set of t ools: lit erary crowbars, chisels, m allet s, pliers, t ongs, sieves, and drills. Use t hem t o pry, chip, beat , wrench, yank, sift , or punch good charact ers out of t he place where t hey already live: your m em ory, your im aginat ion, your soul. PART I I NVENTI NG CHARACTERS

CHAPTER 1 WHAT I S A CHARACTER? THE CHARACTERS I N YOUR FI CTI ON are people. Hum an beings. Yes, I know you m ake t hem up. But readers want your charact ers t o seem like real people. Whole and alive, believable and wort h caring about . Readers want t o get t o know your charact ers as well as t hey know t heir own friends, t heir own fam ily. As well as t hey know t hem selves. No- bet t er t han t hey know any living person. By t he t im e t hey finish your st ory, readers want t o know your charact ers bet t er t han any hum an being ever knows any ot her hum an being. That 's part of what fict ion is for- t o give a bet t er underst anding of hum an nat ure and hum an behavior t han anyone can ever get in life. So let 's go t hrough t he ways t hat people get t o know each ot her in real life, and see how each m et hod shows up in fict ion. A CHARACTER I S WHAT HE DOES

I f you're at a part y and you see t he sam e guy spill a drink, t alk t oo loudly, and m ake inappropriat e or rude rem arks, t hose act ions will lead you t o m ake a j udgm ent of him . I f you see a m an and a wom an m eet for t he first t im e, and t hen a few m om ent s lat er see him st roking her back or see her wit h her hand rest ing on his chest as t hey engage in int ense close- up conversat ion, you reach conclusions about t hem . I f you t ell a painful secret t o a friend, and wit hin hours t hree ot her people act as if t hey know t hat secret , you have discovered som et hing about your friend. People becom e, in our m inds, what we see t hem do. This is t he st rongest , m ost irresist ible form of charact erizat ion. What did we know about I ndiana Jones at t he beginning of Raiders of t he Lost Ark? He was a t acit urn guy wit h a wry sm ile who t ook an art ifact out of an ancient underground t em ple. When he was left t o die, he figured out a way t o escape. When a huge boulder rolled t oward him , he didn't freeze- he ran like a m adm an t o get away. None of t his required any explanat ion. What I s a Charact er? 5 Wit hin t en m inut es of t he beginning of t he m ovie, we knew t hat I ndiana Jones was resourceful, greedy, clever, brave, int ense; t hat he had a sense of hum or and didn't t ake him self t oo seriously; t hat he was det erm ined t o survive against all odds. Nobody had t o t ell us- we saw it . This is also t he easiest form of charact erizat ion. I f your charact er st eals som et hing, we'll know she's a t hief. I f he hit s his girl friend when he cat ches her wit h anot her guy, we'll know he's violent and j ealous. I f your charact er get s a phone call and goes off t o t each a t hird- grade class, we'll know she's a subst it ut e t eacher. I f he t ells t wo people opposit e versions of t he sam e st ory, we'll know he's a liar or a hypocrit e. I t 's easy- but it 's also shallow. I n som e st ories and wit h som e charact ers, t his will be enough. But in m ost st ories, as in real life, j ust knowing what som eone does while you happen t o be wat ching him or her isn't enough t o let you say you t ruly know t hat person. MOTI VE When you wat ch t he guy at t he part y who spills a drink and t alks loudly and rudely, would you j udge him t he sam e way if you knew t hat he was deliberat ely t rying t o at t ract at t ent ion t o keep people from not icing som et hing else going on in t he room ? Or what if you knew t hat he had been desperat ely hurt by t he host ess only a few m inut es before t he part y, and t his was his way of get t ing even? You m ay not approve of what he's doing, but you won't necessarily j udge him t o be an ignorant boor. What about your friend, t he one who t old your secret t o ot hers? Wouldn't it m ake a difference if you found out t hat she t hought you were in serious t rouble and t old ot hers about it solely in order t o help you solve t he problem ?

You would j udge her very different ly, however, if you were a celebrit y and you discovered t hat she t ells your secret s t o ot her people so t hey'll t hink of her as t he closest friend of a fam ous person. And t he m an and t he wom an who m et and m om ent s lat er were st roking and t ouching each ot her wit h obvious sexual int ent : You'd j udge t hem one way if you knew t hat t he wom an, a governm ent bureaucrat , was lonely and had a t errible self- im age, while t he m an was an at t ract ive flat t erer w ho would do anyt hing t o get t his wom an t o award his com pany a valuable cont ract . You'd j udge t hem very different ly if you knew t hat his wife had j ust left him , and t he wom an was rebounding from a failed affair. The sam e act s would t ake on a com plet ely different m eaning if you knew t hat she was passing governm ent secret s t o him while t hey only pret ended t o be rom ant ically involved. What about a person who t ries t o do som et hing and fails? He aim s a gun at t he governor and pulls t he t rigger, but t he gun doesn't fire. She dives int o a pool t o pull out a drowning m an, but he's t oo heavy for her t o lift . Don't we t hen t hink of him as an assassin and her as a hero, even t hough he didn't act ually kill anyone and she didn't act ually save a life? Mot ive is what gives m oral value t o a charact er's act s. What a charact er does, no m at t er how awful or how good, is never m orally absolut e: 6 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT What seem ed t o be m urder m ay t urn out t o have been self- defense, m adness, or illusion; what seem ed t o be a kiss m ay t urn out t o have been bet rayal, decept ion, or irony. We never fully underst and ot her people's m ot ives in real life. I n fict ion, however, we can help our readers underst and our charact ers' m ot ives wit h clarit y, som et im es even cert aint y. This is one of t he reasons why people read fict ion- t o com e t o som e underst anding of why ot her people act t he way t hey do. A charact er is what he does, yes- but even m ore, a charact er is what he m eans t o do. THE PAST Knowing a person's past revises our underst anding of who he is t oday. I f you're int roduced t o a m an at a dinner, all you know about him is what he does and says at t hat dinner. But what if, before m eet ing him , a friend had whispered t o you t hat t his m an had been a prisoner of war for seven years, finally escaped, and recent ly m ade his way t o safet y by crossing 300 m iles of enem y- cont rolled t errit ory? What if your friend t old you t hat t he m an was t he corporat e raider who had j ust caused t he layoffs of m any of your friends who worked for a com pany he t ried t o t ake over? What if, as you conversed wit h him at dinner, he t old you t hat he was j ust get t ing over t he deat h of his wife and infant boy in an aut om obile accident several m ont hs before?

What if he m ent ioned t hat he's a crit ic for t he local paper, and you realize he's probably t he sam e crit ic who wrot e t hat vicious review of your last book? Wouldn't such bit s of inform at ion about a person's past cause you t o look at him different ly? People are what t hey have done, and what has been done t o t hem . That 's how we const ruct our im age of ourselves. We all carry around in our m em ory our own st ory of what has happened in our past . Som e event s we disregard- oh, yes, I did t hat , but I was such a child t hen- whereas ot hers loom over us all our lives. Our past , however we m ight revise it in our m em ory, is who we believe t hat we are; and when you creat e a fict ional charact er, t elling som et hing of her past will also help your readers underst and who she is at t he t im e of t he st ory. REPUTATI ON I sn't it awful when you're int roduced t o som ebody who says, " Oh, you- I 've heard so m uch about you! " I t 's an unpleasant rem inder t hat people are t alking about you when you aren't t here- and you can be sure t hat not everyt hing t hat get s said is nice. What I s a Charact er? 7 You have a reput at ion. I f enough people t ell st ories about you, we call it fam e; but even if it 's j ust your neighbors, t he people in your workplace, or your relat ives, st ories are being t old about you, shaping ot her people's j udgm ent of you. We all t ake part in t he process of building up or t earing down reput at ions. We do it form ally som et im es, as wit h let t ers of recom m endat ion or em ployee evaluat ions. Most ly, t hough, t he process is inform al. When ot hers do it , we call it gossip. When we do it , we call it conversat ion. " Wasn't it t errible about poor Mrs. Jones get t ing sent t o t he sanit ori- um ? To t hink her son did t hat t o her aft er all t hose years she t ook care of him ." " Did you hear Bill's been hit t ing on JoBet h for a dat e? What a wast e of t im eshe's such a cold fish. She probably bat hes wit h her clot hes on and wat ers down her ginger ale so it doesn't get her t oo high." " Don't bot her asking Jeff t o cont ribut e. He's such a t ight wad I heard he wouldn't even help buy flowers when Donna's husband died." You " know" a lot of t hings about people you've never m et , j ust from what ot hers say about t hem . The sam e process works in fict ion- your readers will form at t it udes and opinions about charact ers t hey haven't " m et " yet , j ust by what ot her charact ers in t he st ory say about t hem . When you finally bring t he charact er int o t he st ory in person, readers t hink t hey already know him ; t hey already have expect at ions about what he'll do. As a st oryt eller, you have t he opt ion of fulfilling t hose expect at ions, or violat ing t hem - but if you violat e t hem , you also have t o show your readers how t he charact er got such an incorrect reput at ion. Maybe he's a con m an who deliberat ely creat ed a posit ive im age. Maybe he was t he vict im of j ealous

gossip, whose perfect ly innocent or well- m eant behavior was m isint erpret ed. Maybe he m ade a serious m ist ake, but can never seem t o live it down. Whet her his reput at ion is deserved or not , however, it m ust be t aken int o account . Part of a charact er's ident it y is what ot hers say about him . STEREOTYPES The m om ent we see a st ranger, we im m ediat ely st art classifying her according t o t he groups we recognize she belongs t o. We also, unconsciously, com pare t he st ranger t o ourselves. I s t he st ranger m ale or fem ale? Old or young? Larger t han m e or sm aller? My race or anot her? My nat ionalit y or anot her? Richer t han m e or poorer? Does he do t he sam e kind of j ob as I do, or a j ob I respect , or a j ob I t hink lit t le of? The m om ent we have ident ified t he st ranger wit h a cert ain group, w e im m ediat ely assum e t hat he has all t he at t ribut es we associat e wit h t hat group. This is t he process we call prej udice or st ereot yping, and it can lead t o em barrassing false assum pt ions, needless fears, even vicious unfairness. We m ay wish t hat we didn't sort people out t his way, t hat we could be color- blind or gender- blind. I ndeed, in our societ y m ost of us regard it as uncivilized t o t reat people different ly because of t hese st ereot ypes, and 8 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT m ost of us t ry t o live up t o t hat st andard. But no one can keep his m ind from going t hrough t hat sort ing process. I t 's built int o our biology. Chim panzees and baboons and ot her prim at es go t hrough exact ly t he sam e process. When a chim p m eet s anot her chim p in t he wild, he im m ediat ely classifies t he st ranger by t ribe, by sex, by age, by relat ive size and st rengt h. From t his classificat ion t he chim p will decide whet her t o at t ack, t o flee, t o at t em pt t o m at e, t o share food, t o groom t he st ranger, or t o ignore him . The difference bet ween us and t he chim p is t hat we t ry t o keep ourselves from act ing on all our im m ediat e j udgm ent s. But m ake t he j udgm ent s we will, whet her we like it or not - it happens at an unconscious level, like breat hing and blinking and swallowing. We can t ake conscious cont rol of t he process, when we t hink about it , but m ost of t he t im e it goes on wit hout our not icing it at all. The m ore like us a st ranger is, t he safer we feel, but also t he less int erest ed; t he m ore unlike, t he m ore w e feel t hreat ened or int rigued. St rangeness is always bot h at t ract ive and repellent . Chim panzees show t he sam e cont radict ion. A st ranger is fright ening at first , yes- but as long as t here is no im m ediat e at t ack, t he chim p st ays close enough t o wat ch t he st ranger. Event ually, as t he st ranger causes no harm , t he chim p's curiosit y overcom es fear, and he approaches. Readers do t he sam e t hing wit h charact ers in fict ion. A charact er who is fam iliar and unsurprising seem s com fort able, believable- but not part icularly int erest ing. A charact er who is unfam iliar and st range is at once at t ract ive and repulsive, m aking t he reader a lit t le curious and a lit t le afraid. We m ay be

drawn int o t he st ory, curious t o learn m ore, yet we will also feel a t ingle of suspense, t hat t ension t hat com es from t he earliest st ages of fear, t he uncert aint y of not knowing what t his person will do, not knowing if we're in danger or not . As readers, we're like chim panzees st udying a st ranger. I f t he st ranger m akes a sudden m ove, we bound away a few st eps, t hen t urn and wat ch again. I f t he st ranger get s involved in doing som et hing, paying no at t ent ion t o us, we com e closer, t ry t o see what he's doing, t ry t o underst and him . Charact ers who fit wit hin a st ereot ype are fam iliar; we t hink we know t hem , and we aren't all t hat int erest ed in knowing t hem bet t er. Charact ers who violat e a st ereot ype are int erest ing; by surprising us, t hey pique our int erest , m ake us want t o explore. As st oryt ellers, we can't st op our readers from m aking st ereot ype j udgm ent s. I n fact , w e count on it . We know of and probably share m ost of t he prej udices and st ereot ypes of t he com m unit y we live in. When we present a charact er, we can use t hose st ereot ypes t o m ake our readers t hink t hey underst and him . The old m an was wearing a suit t hat m ight have been classy t en years ago when it was new, when it was worn by som ebody wit h a body large enough t o fill it . On t his m an it hung so long and loose t hat t he pant s bagged at t he ankle and scuffed along t he sidewalk, and t he sleeves cam e down so low t hat his hands and t he neck of his wine bot t le were invisible. What I s a Charact er? She heard t hem before she saw t hem , laughing and t alking j ive behind her, shout ing because t he ghet t o- blast er was rapping away at t op volum e. Just kids on t he st reet in t he evening, right ? Walking around out side because finally t he air was cooling off enough t hat you could st and t o m ove. One of t hem j ost led her as he passed. Was it t he sam e one who laughed? A few yards on, t hey st opped as if t hey were wait ing for her t o cat ch up wit h t hem . The one wit h t he boom box wat ched her approach, a wide t oot hy grin on his face. She clut ched her purse t ight er under her arm and looked st raight ahead. I f I don't see t hem , she t hought , t hey won't bot her m e. Bot h of t hese descript ions- of t he old m an, of t he cit y kids- rely on st ereot ypes. You im m ediat ely recognized t he old m an as a bum , a wino. And if you're a whit e Am erican in t he 1980s, you probably t hought of t he kids in t he second paragraph as black, even t hough I never act ually said so. I gave you enough sublim inal clues t o awaken t he st ereot ypes in t he cont em porary whit e Am erican m ind: " j ive," " ghet t o- blast er," " rapping," t he cit y set t ing, t he " wide, t oot hy grin," and t he wom an's fear- all of t hese draw on t he count less m ovies and t elevision shows and news st ories t hat have played off of and reinforced racial st ereot ypes. As writ ers, we find st ereot ypes are useful, even essent ial- but I 'll discuss t hat m ore in anot her place. I t 's im port ant t o rem em ber t hat you can also play

against st ereot ypes. For inst ance, what if t he paragraph describing t he old m an were followed by t his passage: " Hey, old m an," Pet e said. " You've lost som e weight ." " I t wasn't t he cancer, Pet e, it was t he cure," he answered. " I 'm glad you're here. Com e on upst airs and help m e finish t his Chablis." Kind of t urns our underst anding of t he old m an around, doesn't it ? That 's part of t he power of st ereot ypes- t hey set up expect at ions so you can surprise your reader. To use st ereot ypes, eit her by working wit h t hem or playing against t hem , you have t o know what t hey are. Keep in m ind t hat while no st ereot ype will be t rue of every m em ber of a group, m ost st ereot ypes grew out of observat ions t hat are t rue as far as t hey go. Jobs: Plum bers generally work wit h plum bing. Doct ors usually wear st et hoscopes when m aking rounds or doing physical exam s. Barbers and hairdressers usually chat t er as t hey work. Most newscast ers t ake elaborat e pains t o m ake sure t hey look good for t he cam era. Sex: Adult wom en generally have developed breast s and fuller hips t han m en; adult m en usually have m ore facial hair, are generally t aller, and, in our societ y, have less elaborat ely coiffed hair. The sexes usually dress different ly. People of opposit e sex oft en j udge each ot her according t o sexual at t ract iveness. Age: Old people are generally m ore frail, m ore likely t o have poor hearing and eyesight , m ore likely t o forget t hings or lose t he t hread of t he conversat ion. Lit t le children are m ore likely t o fidget , t o say em barrassing t hings, t o wander off, t o m isunderst and or ignore inst ruct ions. Fam ily role: Parent s usually t ell t heir children what t o do. Siblings 10 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT usually quarrel wit h each ot her. Teenage children are usually rebellious, or chafing under parent al rule. Racial or physical t ype: Blacks usually have dark skin, full lips, and wide noses, and, in Am erica, have com m only had som e experience wit h racial discrim inat ion; a higher percent age of blacks live in povert y. Orient als usually have st raight black hair and epicant hic folds. Redheads usually freckle and t urn bright red when t hey blush or get angry. Navaho and Hopi I ndians t end t o be heavy- bodied as adult s. Et hnic and regional t rait s: I t alians t end t o gest ure a lot as t hey speak. Orient al Am ericans are disproport ionat ely successful in m at hem at ics and science. To nort herners, sout herners seem t o drawl; t o sout herners, nort herners j abber. West erners speak wit h a t wang. Foreigners usually speak English wit h an accent . All of t hese st ereot ypes have a few- or even m any- except ions. The act ual st ereot ypes a com m unit y believes in will change over t im e, as com m unit y needs and fears and ot her at t it udes change. What doesn't change is t he fact t hat hum ans ident ify people according t o st ereot ypes, what ever t hey happen

t o be, and you will, consciously or not , use st ereot ypes as part of charact erizat ion in every st ory you writ e. However, in fict ion as in life, t he bet t er we com e t o know a charact er t hrough ot her m eans, t he less im port ant t hose init ial st ereot ypes will be. NETWORK When I was growing up, m y m ot her used t o t ell us t hat you never know a m an unt il you see how he t reat s his sist er. The im m ediat e purpose of t his was, of course, t o get us boys t o t reat our sist ers bet t er. But t he deeper t rut h is t hat we are different people in different relat ionships. Children experience t his m ost sharply in t heir t eens, when t hey st art put t ing on a different persona wit h t heir friends. A girl whose friends call her " Rain" and who is cool as can be would rat her die t han let her friends com e hom e, where Mom calls her " Lorraine" and t ells her t hat her room 's a m ess, and where her lit t le sist er st ill want s her t o play dolls som et im es. She's a different person wit h her friends t han she is wit h her fam ily. The sam e is t rue, t o one degree or anot her, of alm ost all of us. We have one personalit y at w ork, anot her on t he phone, anot her wit h t he children, st ill anot her alone wit h our spouse. This can becom e hypocrisy, if we deliberat ely t ry t o deceive som ebody int o t hinking we're som et hing we're not . But usually it isn't hypocrit ical at all. Wit h each set of relat ionships, we have a different hist ory, different in- j okes, different shared experiences. We act wit h different m ot ives. We do different t hings. Our " self," t hen, is a kind of net work, m any t hreads connect ing us t o m any different people, who are always shift ing. We grow wit hin any relat ionship t hat rem ains close; when relat ionships are int errupt ed or fade away, t he self t hat belonged in t hat relat ionship st ays t he sam e. Get t ing t oWhat I s a Charact er? get her wit h old buddies you haven't seen since school, you t end t o becom e t he sam e person you were when you all used t o hang out t oget her. So you m ay t hink you know a person because of frequent cont act s in one set t ing, but in fact t he t acit urn fellow at work m ay be a cut - up at t he bovAm g a\ \ ey; - your t ough- guy " buddy m ay\ > e em barrassingly sent im ent al wit h his kids; your quiet , polit e daught er or son m ay curse like a t ruck driver ( not e t he st ereot ype) wit h friends. I t is also one of t he m ost st art ling and effect ive devices in fict ion t o t ake charact ers out of one set t ing and put t hem in anot her, where different facet s of t heir personalit y com e t o t he fore. The charact er him self m ay be surprised t o realize who he becom es w hen circum st ances change. HABI TS AND PATTERNS A person's habit s and pat t erns of behavior are definit ely a part of who he isespecially if t hose habit s drive you crazy: She always drum s on t he t able wit h her fingers.

He always clips st ories out of t he paper before anyone else has read t hem , and t hen leaves t he clipped st ories lying around in piles, saying he's going t o file t hem som eday. She never replaces t he t oilet paper roll when she finishes it . He always st ops at t he newsst and on t he way hom e and spends fift een m inut es deciding whet her or not t o buy a m agazine. She finds your half- worked crossword puzzle and fills it in, incorrect ly, in ink, because she can't st and t o see em pt y squares. He always insist s on saying grace, loudly, in rest aurant s. Ot her habit s aren't necessarily annoying, but t hey t ell you som et hing about a person: She carries a can of Mace wit h her wherever she goes. He always parks his car on t he dividing line bet ween t wo spaces so it won't get dent ed by ot her car doors. She always t akes t he garbage out on Tuesday night . He always washes a dish or glass as soon as he's t hrough using it . When she writ es a check, she always draws t hree lines aft er t he am ount . Every one of t hese habit s or pat t erns im plies t hings about a person. You m ay not know why or how a habit began, but you com e t o count on t he person always act ing t he sam e way in t he sam e sit uat ion. The habit is part of who he is. I t works j ust t he sam e way wit h charact ers. Habit s not only m ake t he charact er m ore realist ic, but also open up st ory possibilit ies- a change in pat t ern m ight show an im port ant change in t he charact er's life; ot her charact ers m ight t ake advant age of her habit s; curiosit y about or annoyance at a habit m ight lead t o an int erest ing relat ionship bet ween charact ers. 12 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT TALENTS AND ABI LI TI ES A large part of who you are is what you can do. Oft en a person can seem quit e ordinary and unint erest ing- unt il you hear him play t he piano, or get a look at her paint ings, or see him st uff a ball t hrough a hoop, or wat ch her give a dynam it e sales present at ion. I f a person has an ext raordinary abilit y t hat set s him apart from m ost ot her people, t hat abilit y becom es w ho he is, at least t o people who don't ot herwise know him well. Your readers will also perk up when a fict ional charact er t urns out t o be unusually good at som et hing. A cert ain kind of fant asy and science fict ion depends on t he hero who has som e unique gift t hat enables him t o do great t hings. But t alent s don't have t o be ext rem e t o m ake t hem a vit al part of a charact er's ident it y. Superm an can leap t all buildings in a single bound. On t he ot her hand, Robert Parker's series charact er Spenser doesn't st rain credulit y, yet he is very good wit h his fist s. We see him work hard t o st ay good at boxing; we also never see him perform feat s beyond what we'd expect of a t ough m iddle- aged form er cop in Bost on. Aft er reading all of Parker's Spenser

novels, I feel like I know Spenser very well; and when I t hink of him , one of t he first t hings t o com e t o m ind is his abilit y as a fight er. TASTES AND PREFERENCES Anot her t hing about Spenser t hat st icks in m y m ind is his penchant for quot ing poet ry. You don't know Spenser unt il you know his love of lit erat ure. You don't know Rex St out 's great det ect ive Nero Wolfe unt il you know t hat he's a gourm et and t hat he spends cert ain hours every aft ernoon t ending his orchids. Nero Wolfe's t ast es border on obsessiveness, so t hat t hey dom inat e his charact er. But in real life, wit h ordinary people, our t ast es are part of who w e are. I f you happen t o love Woody Alien m ovies, don't you feel an inst ant kinship wit h som ebody who says, " I walk t hrough t he valley of t he shadow of deat h- no, I run t hrough t he valley of t he shadow of deat h." " Love and Deat h," you say, and t hen t he t wo of you t oss favorit e scenes and lines back and fort h for a while. What som ebody likes does not define who t hey are- I m ean, what do you really know about m e when I t ell you t hat m y favorit e m odern play is Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? and t hat m y favorit e m ovies are Far from t he Madding Crowd and The Lion in Wint er? Som ebody could like all t he sam e t hings as you and st ill not be t he kind of person you would allow t o babysit your children. St ill, real people do have preferences, and so should fict ional charact ers. Not only do such t ast es help t he reader feel like he knows t he charact er bet t er, t hey also open up possibilit ies wit hin t he st ory. On a t rivial level, knowing your charact er's devot ion t o wines will give her som et hing t o chat about at dinner; a chance t o show a flippant at What I s a Charact er? 13 t it ude- or resent som eone else's flippancy; a reason t o disdain anot her charact er's lack of t ast e or knowledge. A charact er's t ast es can even be endearing, like Dagwood Bum st ead's m am m ot h m idnigm vsnack sandwiches. On a m ore significant level, a charact er's love of skiing gives you an excuse t o get her int o t he m ount ains in t he wint er; gives her at least a few friends she m et on t he slopes, friends who m ight phone or visit during t he st ory; allow s you t o show her escaping from som eone on skis wit hout t he reader doubt ing for a m om ent t hat she could do it . Skiing is already part of who she is- it 's perfect ly in charact er for her t o ski away from t rouble. BODY I t 's no accident t hat I 've list ed physical appearance last am ong t he ways w e com e t o know ot her people. A person's body is cert ainly an im port ant part of who he is. Physical handicaps can force changes in a person's life. More m inor physical problem s- weakness, t hinness, overweight , lack of beaut y- can have powerful effect s on how a person feels about him self and on how ot hers t reat him . This sort of t hing is vit al for a writ er t o know about his or her charact ers. A charact er wit h art hrit is or a m et al plat e in his leg or a severe case of sinusit is

is going t o behave different ly from one wit h no physical problem s or lim it at ions. Chronic or perm anent physical problem s- or physical st rengt h and beaut y, for t hat m at t er- will shape all t he charact er's act ions and relat ionships t hroughout t he st ory. The reason I list ed t he body last is not because it 's unim port ant , but rat her because far t oo m any writ ers- especially beginners- t hink t hat a physical descript ion of a charact er is charact erizat ion. I f t hey have a wom an st and in front of a m irror and com b her long brown hair wit h t he com b delicat ely balanced in her slender fingers as she looks int o her own flashing brown eyes, such writ ers t hink t hey've done t he j ob. I put t he body last on t he list so it would be clear t hat physical descript ion is only one fact or am ong m any in get t ing t o know a charact er. And such m at t ers as hair color, com plexion, eye color, lengt h of t he fingers, size of t he breast s, or hairiness of t he body- t hose are usually pret t y t rivial, unless t here's som et hing except ional about t hem . I f readers know a charact er's act ions, m ot ives, past , reput at ion, relat ionships, habit s, t alent s, and t ast es, t hey can oft en get t hrough a whole st ory wit hout ever knowing a charact er's eye color, and t hey'll st ill feel as if t hey know t he person. Rem em ber t hat of all t hese different ways of get t ing t o know people- and t herefore get t ing t o know charact ers- t he m ost powerful of t hem , t he ones t hat m ake t he st rongest im pression, are t he first t hree: what t he charact er does in t he st ory, what his m ot ives are, and what he has done in t he past . CHAPTER 2 WHAT MAKES A GOOD FI CTI ONAL CHARACTER? REAL PEOPLE ARE WHO THEY ARE- you love 'em or leave 'em . But fict ional charact ers have a j ob t o do. And if t hey aren't fulfilling t heir purpose, t hey've got t o change unt il t hey do- or anot her charact er has t o be found t o do t he j ob. I f t hey're m aj or charact ers, t hey've got t o be int erest ing and believable enough for people t o want t o read about what t hey do. I f t hey're m inor charact ers, t hey've got t o advance t he st ory line or t wist it or relieve t ension or convey inform at ion- and t hen t hey've got t o get out of t he way. THE THREE QUESTI ONS READERS ASK When readers pick up your st ory or novel, t hey want it t o be good. They want t o care about t he people in your st ory. They w ant t o believe. They're on your side. That honeym oon wit h t he readers last s about t hree paragraphs wit h a short st ory, t wo pages or so wit h a novel. Wit hin t hat t im e you need t o give t he reader som e reason t o read on. You need t o answer t he t hree challenging quest ions t hat all readers unconsciously ask t hroughout every st ory t hey read. When each quest ion is adequat ely answered, readers go on wit h t he st ory. When a quest ion isn't answered w ell enough, doubt s begin t o rise t o t he surface.

Quest ion 1: So What ? Why should I care about what 's going on in t his st ory? Why is t his im port ant ? Why shouldn't I go downst airs and wat ch TV? I 've seen t his kind of t hing happen in st ories a t housand t im es before. I f t his is all t he st ory's about , I 'm t hrough wit h it . Quest ion 2: Oh Yeah? Com e on, I don't believe anybody would do t hat . That isn't t he way t hings work. That was pret t y convenient , wasn't it ? How dum b does t his aut hor 14 What Makes a Good Fict ional Charact er? 15 t hink I am ? Give m e a break. This aut hor doesn't know anyt hing. I 'm t hrough wit h t his st ory. Quest ion 3: Huh? What 's happening? This doesn't m ake any sense. I don't know who's t alk ing or what t hey're t alking about . Where is t his st uff happening? I don't get it . This is j ust a bunch of words, it doesn't am ount t o anyt hing. Eit her I can't read or t his aut hor can't writ e, but eit her way I 'm t hrough wit h t his book. Sounds pret t y host ile, doesn't it ? Well, as long as you do your j ob as a st oryt eller and a writ er, m ost of your readers will find you ready for t hese basic quest ions. Whenever t hey unconsciously ask " So what ?" your st ory will give t hem a reason t o care. Whenever a doubt com es int o t heir m ind and t hey're about t o say " Oh yeah?" your st ory will include a clue or an explanat ion t hat persuades t he reader t o go on t rust ing you. And, of course, you'll m ake sure t here's never a m om ent of confusion or inclarit y in your st ory. On t hose rare but vit al occasions when suspense requires you t o wit hhold a bit of inform at ion, you'll m ake sure your readers know exact ly what t he quest ion is, even if t hey don't know t he answer. Even t he uncert aint ies in your st ory m ust be clear, so readers will know you m eant it t o be t hat way, so t hey'll cont inue t o t rust your com pet ence t o deliver t he st ory you prom ised t hem . Your charact ers m ust deal wit h t hese t hree audience quest ions from t he beginning. Wit h rare except ions, st ories are about people and what t hey do, and, wit h even rarer except ions, a st ory should focus on only a few charact ers. ( As a general rule, t he longer t he st ory, t he m ore charact ers it can deal wit h well.) These m aj or charact ers are t he ones who m ust sat isfy t hose t hree quest ions t he audience is const ant ly, unconsciously, asking. Not every reader will care equally about every charact er. When you've answered t he quest ions well enough t o sat isfy Group 1, t here's st ill Group 2 t hat won't care and Group 3 t hat won't believe, and Group 4 t hat never get s what 's going on at all.

YOU ARE THE FI RST AUDI ENCE A lot of t his book is devot ed t o helping you learn how t o m ake charact ers m ore int erest ing and believable t o your readers. But t he st art ing point , t he m ost im port ant fact or of all, is whet her t hey're int erest ing and believable t o you. You are t he first audience for t he t ale. I f you don't care about a charact er, you can't possibly writ e an int erest ing st ory about him . I f you don't believe in a charact er, t here's no chance t hat you can m ake your readers believe in him eit her. 16 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT This isn't som et hing you decide int ellect ually. I t 's a feeling, a gut - level response. When you t hink of an idea for a charact er ( or for any ot her part of a st ory) , you eit her get int erest ed and excit ed and know t hat you want t o writ e about it , or you don't . And if you don't , if a charact er or st ory idea bores you or sounds silly t o you, you can't possibly writ e a convincing or engaging st oryunless you find som et hing else about t he charact er or st ory idea t hat does int rigue you. Throughout t he rest of t his book, I 'll be m aking suggest ions about ways t o im prove st ory ideas. I 'll oft en give exam ples. Som et im es t hose exam ples will appeal t o you- you'll care about t he scrap of st ory I t ell, you'll believe in it . More oft en, t hough, you'll int ellect ually underst and what I 'm doing, but it won't ring t rue t o you, or it will seem a bit dull. That 's OK. This book can't possibly give you t he exact answer t o every st ory problem you're going t o run int o. All I can give you are t he quest ions you m ust ask of your charact ers, t he dem ands you m ust m ake of your st ory m at erial. Then you m ust keep asking t hose quest ions and m aking t hose dem ands unt il you finally com e up wit h an answer t hat works for you, t hat m akes you hungry t o t ell t he st ory. No t wo aut hors would ever t ell a st ory t he sam e way, because no t wo people ever care about and believe in t he sam e t hings t o exact ly t he sam e degree. Every st ory choice you m ake arises out of who you are, at t he deepest levels of your soul; every st ory you t ell reveals who you are and t he way you conceive t he world around you- reveals m ore about you, in fact , t han you know about yourself. That 's what it m eans when people t ell you t hat you can only writ e t o please yourself. I f you don't care about a st ory, you can't possibly writ e it well. I t 's like writ ing down a long lie t hat doesn't convince even you. But once you have a st ory t hat rings t rue t o you, a st ory t hat feels im port ant and wort h t elling, t hen you don't writ e j ust t o please yourself. At t hat point you m ust use every ounce of skill you have, every t echnique you've learned t hrough experience- and t hrough t his book- t o help your readers discover how im port ant and t rut hful your st ory is, t o help t hem underst and what 's going on, t o bring t hem int o t he world of your st ory and let t he event s unfold before t heir eyes, in t heir im aginat ion, in t heir m em ory.

Som e readers will be so in harm ony wit h you t hat t hey'll receive your st ory no m at t er how clum sy your effort s; for ot her readers you'll never succeed no m at t er how good a writ er you are. But t hat doesn't m ean you should shrug and writ e however you like. You owe it t o ot her people t o give t hem t he best possible chance t o receive t his im port ant , t rut hful st ory. You owe it t o t hem t o m ake it as clear as possible, t o give t hem every possible reason t o care, every possible j ust ificat ion for belief. Belief. Em ot ional involvem ent . Underst andabilit y. I like t o rem em ber t hese principles by paraphrasing St . Paul: Fait h, hope, and clarit y. I don't t hink it even has t o be paraphrased. Because if your st ory really does m at t er, if your m ade- up t ales have any real value at all, t hen it t ruly is an act of charit y, of brot herly love, t o open up t hat st ory t o as m any people as can possibly receive it . What Makes a Good Fict ional Charact er? 17 Som e t echniques I 'll t ell you in t his book can be used m indlessly and m echanically, and t hey'll st ill work, t o a degree. But I hope you won't use t hem t hat way. I hope you'll only use t hem when t hey really belong in your st ory, when t hey won't dam age t he t rut h and power of t he t ale. Our obj ect ive as st oryt ellers and writ ers isn't t o m ake m oney- t here are fast er and easier ways of doing t hat . Our obj ect ive is t o change people by put t ing our st ories in t heir m em ory; t o m ake t he world bet t er by bringing ot her people face t o face wit h realit y, or giving t hem a vision of hope, or what ever ot her form our t rut h t elling m ight t ake. You want t he widest possible audience t o receive t his m essage; when you use your best skills t o open up your st ory t o ot her readers, you aren't " pandering t o t he m asses," you're freely giving your best gift s. I f your st ories happen t o reach a very wide audience t hen yes, m oney will com e. But it isn't t he m oney t hat m akes t he work wort h doing; t oo m any of us m ake t oo lit t le for t hat t o be t he m ot ive t hat pulls us along. The m om ent you use a t echnique t hat doesn't belong in your st ory, solely for t he sake of appealing t o som e im agined reader who want s a bit m ore sex or a t ad m ore sent im ent alit y or som e t ough act ion, at t hat m om ent your st ory dies a lit t le, becom es a lit t le m ore lie and a lit t le less t rut h. For every reader you m ight gain t hat way, you'll lose t he power t o influence a dozen ot hers who will recognize t he falseness in your st ory and rej ect it . I NTERROGATI NG THE CHARACTER I 'll t alk in a m inut e about where ideas for charact ers com e from . But before you go in pursuit of ideas, it 's good t o know what t o do wit h an idea when you find one. You ask quest ions. Causal Quest ions

The quest ions you'll need t o ask are m ost ly about causes and result s. Why would he do such a t hing? What m ade him do it ? I f he does it , what will happen as a result ? Let m e give you an exam ple. I recent ly conduct ed a workshop I call " A Thousand I deas in an Hour." I 've done t his wit h adult s and children, professional writ ers, aspiring writ ers, and people who have no part icular int erest in writ ing. I t 's always an exhilarat ing, creat ive hour. This t im e I was working wit h a group of fourt h- graders in m y son's school. I asked quest ions; t hey cam e up wit h answers. Do you want a st ory about a boy or a girl? - A boy! No, a girl! OK t hen, we won't decide yet . How old is t his person? - Ten! No, t welve! 18 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT Twelve? Why t welve? What happens t o you when you're t welve? - You can st ay up lat er. Oh? What do you do when you st ay up lat er? - Wat ch TV! - The good shows! - Scary shows! What else can you do? - Go places by yourself! Where would you go? - The m all! - Friends'houses! - Wherever I want ! Heck, I 'm t hirt y- seven and I can't do t hat . - When you're t welve you get m ore m oney. How does t hat happen? - Bigger allowance. - Babysit t ing. So t welve- year- olds can babysit . Have any of you ever done any babysit t ing? - My brot hers. - The baby. - I have. What can go wrong when you're babysit t ing? - The house burns down. Yeah, but t hat doesn't happen very oft en. - The kids st art a fire! What do you do t hen? - Put it out ! - Call t he fire depart m ent ! - Get out of t he house!

- Get t he kids out of t he house! - Leave t he one who st art ed t he fire! Oh, you're all heart . A fire would m ake an excit ing st ory, but I don't feel like doing t hat one right now. What else can go wrong when you're babysit t ing? - Messy diapers. That 's j ust part of t he j ob. - The baby crying. OK, t he baby's crying. What do you do? - Change his diaper. T What Makes a Good Fict ional Charact er? 19 You changed t he diaper. He's st ill crying. What do you do? - Feed him . - Burp him . - Tell him t o be quiet . You do all t hat , he's st ill crying. - Maybe he's sick. There's a chance of t hat . What do you do? - Call your m ot her! She isn't hom e. She had a m eet ing t hat night . - Call t he people. The people you're babysit t ing for. They're driving som ewhere and t hey don't have a car phone. - Go next door! You don't know t hose people, and it 's dark and t here are a lot of t rees and t hey aren't hom e anyway. - You're cheat ing! - You won't let us do anyt hing! I t 's no fun if it isn't hard. All t hese t hings you're t elling m e, t hey're part of t he st ory. You t ry everyt hing, and it doesn't work. What do you do now? - Put it t o bed and let it cry. You do t hat , and it scream s louder and louder unt il it st art s choking and coughing and you pick it up again. What next ? - Call t he doct or. His office is closed. - Call t he hospit al! - The em ergency room ! - They never close. You've got m e; I can't weasel out of t hat . They never close. So you call. What happens? They t ell you t o t ry doing all t he st uff you've already t ried. They t ell you t o call all t he people you already t ried t o call. Then what ? - Woooooooo! - Am bulance!

OK, you called an am bulance. I t pulls up, siren going, light s flashing. What happens? - The baby st ops crying. - The parent s com e hom e! Wonderful! The baby st ops crying and t he parent s com e hom e. They see an am bulance at t heir house, t hey com e inside- The baby's sleeping. - Like a baby! 20 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT What do you do? - Tell t hem what happened. - They won't believe you. - They never believe kids. - They yell at you. Maybe t hey do, m aybe t hey don't . But do t hey ever hire you again? - Never! - Nobody does! - They t ell your parent s! - Your m om never let s you babysit again. - You go back and sm ack t he baby! You want t o, anyway. - This isn't a fair st ory! I t wasn't your fault ! j, Right . I t wasn't your fault . So what do you do about it ? - Make your parent s believe you. How do you do t hat ? - Have your m om babysit t he st upid kid. Great idea! Only you don't m ake her do it . Let 's say t hat a couple of m ont hs lat er t he parent s call and ask your m om t o wat ch t he baby for a while. You don't even go downst airs t o see t hem , you're so em barrassed. You j ust sit in your room , st udying, reading, what ever. - List ening t o t apes. - Wat ching TV. What happens? - The baby st art s crying. The baby cries. You can hear it up in your room , you list en, you enj oy. You know your m om 's changing t he diapers, feeding it , all t he st uff you did. Trying t o call t he parent s. She even t ries t o call her m ot her. - She calls an am bulance! Maybe! But I t hink it 's enough if she com es upst airs, opens your door, holding t he baby scream ing it s head off, and says, " OK, kid, you were right . You can babysit again." - Not if it 's t hat baby! Right ! That 's what you t ell her. And t he st ory's over.

Not ice t he process t hat 's going on here. We st art ed out knowing not hing m ore t han t he charact er's age. But t hat gave us enough t hat we could st art asking why and what result . What happens because you're t welve? There were several answers. Any one of t hem would have been useful- in fact , lat er in t hat sam e session we What Makes a Good Fict ional Charact er? 21 went back and got anot her st ory out of t he idea of t welve- year- olds st aying up lat e and wat ching scary m ovies. But I happened t o choose babysit t ing. What can go wrong? This is a fundam ent al st ory quest ion, asking for com plicat ions and difficult ies. But it 's also a what result quest ion- only I slant ed t he quest ion t o get negat ive answers. Aft er all, t here's no st ory if not hing goes wrong. The idea of a fire w as t oo m elodram at ic for m e, t hough of course a wonderful st ory could be t old about saving t he children you're babysit t ing. But it j ust wasn't what I felt like working wit h t hen, so I kept asking t he sam e quest ion t ill I got an answer t hat I liked. Once we had t he idea of t he baby crying, I again asked a what result quest ion. What do you do t o st op t he baby from crying? Each t im e t hey cam e up wit h a possible solut ion t o t he problem , I agreed t hat t he babysit t er would t ry t hat , but kept saying t hat it didn't work. Why? Because t he m inut e som et hing worked t o st op t he crying, t he st ory w ould be over. I f one of t hem had suggest ed t hat t he babysit t er should exam ine t he baby's body, t hen I would have asked what t he babysit t er found. Maybe a bruise, m aybe a horrible bug- who knows what t hey would have com e up wit h? I t m ight have led t o t he babysit t er finding out t he cause of t he crying. But since nobody cam e up wit h any suggest ions except t he obvious and unint erest ing ones, I m ade t hem keep going- I wouldn't let t he baby st op crying. I could have asked m ore sophist icat ed m ot ive quest ions. Why doesn't t he babysit t er j ust put t he kid t o bed, close t he door, and ignore t he scream ing? Then t hey m ight have said such t hings as: The babysit t er was once locked in a dark room when she was lit t le and she can't st and t o leave anybody else alone. Or: She can't st and t o hear babies cry. Or: She's afraid t he baby m ight die. Why would she be afraid of t hat ? - Her lit t le brot her died. - He cried all t he t im e before he died. Do you see how t he answer t o t his sim ple why quest ion opens up new possibilit ies in t he st ory? The version we act ually cam e up wit h was fine. I t would be a cut e, funny st ory. But com ing up wit h a reason why t his crying baby would m ean far m ore t han annoyance t o t he babysit t er adds an elem ent of urgency, of poignancy. Now t he glib ending m ight not be enough. Now t he babysit t er's m ot her m ight underst and why t he babysit t er called an am bulance, m ight explain t o t he baby's parent s. We m ight even want t o have it end wit h t he param edics discovering t hat t here really was som et hing wrong wit h t he

baby. Or we m ight want t o lead up t o t he babysit t er's m ot her driving t hem bot h t o t he lit t le brot her's grave, and t alking about it in a way t hey never had before. But such possibilit ies only em erge when we dem and m ore from t he idea, when we ask m ore why and what result quest ions. I f you st op wit h t he first accept able answer, t he first " good enough" version of t he st ory, you lose t he chance t o m ove from shallowness t o depth, from sim plicit y t o com plexit y, from a m erely fun st ory t o a fun but powerful one. 22 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT Exaggerat ion Not ice also t hat as I kept insist ing t hat not hing would st op t he baby's crying, I was building t he baby up t o m yt hic proport ions. I t had ceased t o be an ordinary baby, one t hat can be com prehended by t he norm al hum an m ind, and had st art ed t o becom e t he archet ypal Baby, t he unfat hom able barbarian who em erged from t he hum an wom b but now rules t he fam ily wit h it s whim sical, unint elligible dem ands; t he Baby as a devil- god no sacrifice will ever sat isfy. A lit t le exaggerat ion helps t urn an ordinary, believable, dull person int o an int erest ing one. A lit t le m ore, and t he person becom es m ore archet ypal, but a bit less believable as an individual. Even m ore exaggerat ion, and a charact er becom es a cart oon, a caricat ure, perhaps useful for laughs or sat ire, but not for poignancy or real belief. Exaggerat e t oo m uch, and t he charact er becom es ut t erly useless: unbelievable, unrecognizable. Do t he Twist I n t he st ory idea t he class and I worked out t oget her, we assum ed t hat t he babysit t er was a responsible hum an being, t rying t o do a good j ob. But what if t he babysit t er has a racket ? What if t he parent s always com e hom e t o find t he baby crying, so t hey'll feel guilt y for t he awful t im e t he babysit t er had and pay ext ra? The m et hod here is t o t ake an assum pt ion about a charact er and give it a good sharp t wist . I was conduct ing a t housand- ideas session at a convent ion in Chat t anooga t hat happened t o be at t ended by Gene Wolfe, t he m ost brilliant writ er of speculat ive fict ion in t he 1980s. The group had invent ed a fant asy charact er- a young king who had t o abst ain from all sexual act ivit y as a kind of sacrifice; if he ever achieved any kind of sexual fulfillm ent , his kingdom would weaken, t he m agic t hat sust ained it would slacken or fade. We had all assum ed t hat t he young king would be rest ive under his obligat ory lim it at ions, yearning for sex and t rying t o find a way t o escape his guardians. But Wolfe said, " No, no, you don't underst and. This young m an t hinks t hey don't rest rict him enough. He's absolut ely t errified t hat he'll accident ally slip int o som e form of sexual release and cause som e dire consequence t o his people. He'd m ake sure t hey wat ch him all t he t im e."

The charact er t he group had invent ed was believable, cert ainly- a lot of t eenagers in real life expend considerable effort t rying t o escape sexual lim it at ions. But Wolfe's t wist led t o a charact er no less believable, but a great deal m ore int erest ing, and from t here we asked a lot of why and what result quest ions t hat m ade for one of t he best st ories ever t o em erge from such a session. The Cliche Shelf Never let an idea pass t hrough your m ind wit hout giving it t he t hird degree. Shine a bright light on it . Dem and t hat it answer your quest ions. What Makes a Good Fict ional Charact er? 23 And let your quest ions, again and again, be Why? What caused t hat ? For what purpose? What 's t he result of t hat ? What would happen t hen? Be brut al. Don't let your idea sit t here wit hout answering. Don't believe t he first answ er t hat com es t o m ind, eit her. Chances are very good t hat t he first answer you com e up wit h will be a cliche. The second one, t oo. Keep asking t he quest ions, t rying for m ore answers- event ually one will com e along t hat really com es alive for you. Or if t he one t hat works best for you is one of t he first ones you t hought of, t hen fine, go back t o it . And t hen, when you t hink t he idea isj ust right , when t he charact er is exact ly what you want her t o be, exaggerat e an aspect of her t hat nobody else has ever t hought of exaggerat ing. Or give t he charact er a lit t le t wist . Or bot h. Everybody- not j ust writ ers- has a lit t le library of cliches, st ock st ory elem ent s. We all pick t hese up from our reading, from j okes and st ories people t ell us. Most of t hese are public cliches- event s and charact ers t hat everybody has seen a lot of over t he years. Som e are privat e cliches, personal quirks or obsessions t hat you aren't even aware of. When you're writ ing along, or out lining a st ory, or sim ply int errogat ing an idea t hat j ust cam e t o you, chances are very good t hat when you ask one of t hese why and what result quest ions, t he first answer t hat pops int o your m ind will be a cliche. I t 's as if, wit hout even looking up, you reach ont o t hat cliche shelf and pull down t he first t hing t hat com es t o hand. And if you aren't paying at t ent ion, you'll set t le for it , and your st ory will be weaker and shallower because you m ade do wit h a cheap and easy answer and didn't keep asking quest ions unt il you cam e up wit h som et hing really good. FROM CHARACTER TO STORY, FROM STORY TO CHARACTER There are som e specific quest ions t hat will help open up possibilit ies in your m ind as you int errogat e your ideas. I n t hat t housand- ideas session, when we j ust had a t welve- year- old kid we didn't have a charact er, really. Once we got a j ob for t he kid, t hen we had a st ereot ype: babysit t er. A sim ple st ereot ype isn't m uch t o build a st ory on. But t hat quest ion I askedWhat could go wrong?- is one of t he basic quest ions you ask t o get a st ory or sit uat ion out of an idea for a charact er.

Oft en you'll find yourself in t he opposit e posit ion. You'll have an idea for a set t ing or sit uat ion for a st ory, and you won't have any idea about who t he charact ers ought t o be. Then t he quest ion you ask is: Who suffers m ost in t his sit uat ion? Your int errogat ion of t he idea will t hen focus on t he person who has t he m ost need t o change t hings- t hat will alm ost always lead you t o t he m ost possibilit ies, and it usually happens t hat t he charact er you find t his way will end up as t he m ain charact er of t he t ale. Act ually, for pract ical reasons t he quest ion should usually be: Who suffers m ost in t his sit uat ion wit hout dying or being incapacit at ed? The 24 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT st ory usually can't be about som ebody who dies at t he beginning, or who is rendered incapable of doing m uch t hroughout t he rest of t he t ale. This whole chapt er has been about quest ions, hasn't it ? There are quest ions t he audience asks: So what ? Oh yeah? Huh? You ask t hose quest ions, t oo, but you ask m any m ore. There are t he causal quest ions: What m ade t his happen What is t he purpose? What is t he result ? Then t here are t he quest ions t hat open up st ory and charact er possibili t ies What can go wrong? Who suffers m ost in t his sit uat ion Finally, t here are t wo processes t hat wring t he last drop from a charact er or st ory idea: Exaggerat ion The Twist There. Now t hat we've got a plan for w hat t o do when we find an idea, let 's go get som e. CHAPTER 3 WHERE DO CHARACTERS COME FROM? To GET I DEAS FOR CHARACTERS, you don't have t o go searching unt il you find t he Holy Grail. There's no m yst ical process involved. All you have t o do is t urn your m ind int o a net for ideas, always cast ing out int o t he wat ers of life and lit erat ure, and gat hering in t he ideas t hat are t here wait ing t o be not iced.

Because, you see, ideas are cheap. They're around you all t he t im e. You can't get t hrough a day wit hout running int o hundreds, even t housands of ideas for charact ers or st ories. Not m e, you say? Yes, you, says m e. I f you don't not ice t hese ideas, it 's because you aren't paying at t ent ion. You let t hem slide on by wit hout ever realizing t hey were ideas at all. So let m e t ake you t hrough som e of t hose sources of ideas, so you can see how an idea net can snag charact ers and get t hem t o where you can int errogat e t hem , whip t hem int o shape- bring t hem t o life. I DEAS FROM LI FE Oh, yes, you know all about m im esis- how art is supposed t o derive from life. But not your life. Not hing happens around you t hat isn't ordinary, dull, unint erest ing. How wrong you are. What seem s ordinary t o you will seem st range t o som eone else. Furt herm ore, som et hing t hat seem s ordinary t o m e will seem st range when you describe it , because you'll see it from a different perspect ive. I t hink im m ediat ely of a couple of fant asy novels I read t hat concern som e ordinary t eenagers in t he hill count ry of Georgia. These t eenagers get involved wit h visit ing elven- folk, or Sidhe, who t hink of Am erica as t he m agical land of Tir- Nan- Og. The effect is som ewhat like t he I liad, wit h godlike beings m anipulat ing hum an affairs for t heir own benefit . Not unt il I read t he second book, however, did I realize t he aut hor didn't seem t o underst and what was really int erest ing about t hese st ories. The aut hor, t o 25 26 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT whom t he Georgia set t ing was ordinary, was fascinat ed wit h t he Sidhe, and in t he second volum e had a lot of t he m ovem ent of t he st ory t ake place in t heir world. But t o m e, t he Sidhe lived in a st ock fant asy Neverland, a place I 've seen so oft en in fant asy fict ion t hat it bores m e silly. What I loved was t he part of t he st ory t hat t ook place in Georgia, showing people who were at once believable and st range. What seem ed like ho- hum st uff t o t he aut hor was fascinat ing t o m e. So when you're looking for charact ers, cast your net first in your own life- t he people you see, t he people you know, t he person you are. Observat ion of St rangers Som e writ ers have resort ed t o carrying a not ebook or t ape recorder wit h t hem t o record observat ions or snat ches of dialogue. You'll be at t he gas st at ion, st anding in line at t he grocery st ore, in a wait ing room before an appoint m ent , and you'll hear som eone t ell a st ory or express an at t it ude or perform som e act t hat st rikes you as funny or annoying or weird- or exact ly t ypical. Such an observat ion can be t he root of a fascinat ing charact er.

For inst ance, I was recent ly at t he local Big St ar superm arket during t he aft erwork rush and needed t o check out quickly. I got in t he short est line, im m ediat ely behind a wom an wit h only a few it em s in her basket , t hinking t hat she wouldn't t ake long. But while we wait ed in line, her husband and t hree children all arrived wit h arm loads of ot her it em s. OK, I 'll t ell t he t rut h: t here was only one kid, and t he fat her and t he kid each had only one or t w o t hings t o add. But t he m inut e I caught on t o what was happening, I st art ed exaggerat ing it in m y own m ind. The idea net was operat ing wit hout m y even realizing it . And a lit t le exaggerat ion sure m ade for a bet t er st ory, didn't it ? Anyway, t he result was a fam ily I 'm going t o use in a st ory som et im e. I 'm not sure of t heir m ot ivat ion yet , but I t hink it has t o do wit h one parent 's obsession wit h avoiding wast ed t im e- or perhaps it 's t he fam ily's cooperat ive answer t o t he problem of doing housework when bot h parent s work and all t he kids are in school. Anyway, t hey divide up t he grocery list on t he way t o t he st ore. Each person get s a sect ion of t he st ore. Mom get s a cart and st ands in line. Each person has t im e for exact ly t wo arm loads of st uff before she get s t o t he checker. I f anybody fails t o get his whole list , he suffers deep em barrassm ent at t he m eal where t hat it em was supposed t o be on t he m enu. This isn't a st ory yet , of course. I t 's j ust a com ic fam ily sit uat ion. But I can im agine using, as m y m ain charact er, one child who is deeply em barrassed about t his whole process. But t hen, m aybe I 'll give it a half- t wist and writ e about t he kid who t hought t his syst em up and believes t he ot hers don't do it half well enough. I m ight have t he fam ily m em bers com pet e wit h each ot her t o see w ho can get t he m ost it em s on t he list - and t hen have m y m ain charact er always win by scanning ot her shoppers' cart s as he scoot s t hrough t he st ore, snat ching it em s he needs fr om t heir cart s inst ead of having t o search t hem out on t he shelves. There are a lot of charact er possibilit ies from t hat one rat her ordinary observat ion. Where Do Charact ers Com e From ? 27 However I end up using t he idea- if I use it at all- it cam e from wat ching people converge on a cart in t he grocery st ore. Rem em ber, t hough, t hat t he words you hear or t he event you observe are rarely usable exact ly as t hey happened. You don't have t o exaggerat e as m uch as I did in t his case, but you do need t o dem and m ore from t he idea t han t he plain fact s. When som ebody says som et hing int riguing, you need t o ask yourself why som ebody m ight say som et hing like t hat , why som eone m ight have t hat at t it ude. Don't set t le for your first guess as t o m ot ive. An int erest ing observat ion is not hing m ore t han local color, a bit of background- unt il you wring from it all it s st ory and charact er pot ent ial. People You Know

I know a lot of aut hors who use t heir friends or fam ily m em bers as m odels for charact ers in t heir st ories. I 've occasionally done it m yself. And why not ? You know t hese people. You know t heir quirky way of t alking, t he odd t hings t hey do, t heir virt ues and weaknesses. Besides, it 's easier t o sim ply describe som eone you know t han t o invent som eone new. All t rue. But let m e give you a few warnings, t oo. There are t wo cat egories of Things That Can Go Wrong. 1. Taking charact ers " from life" can lead t o bad fict ion. You m ay not know t hese people half so well as you t hink you do. Aft er all, you are never inside t heir m em ory, inside t heir soul- you don't really know why t hey do t he t hings t hey do. You know why t hey say t hey do t hem ; you know your own guesses. But when it com es t o writ ing your charact er, you have t o know a lot m ore t han you'll ever know about your friends or fam ily. So it isn't j ust a m at t er of copying. You've st ill got t o do a lot of invent ion before a reallife charact er- even one you know well- is ready t o hold down a j ob in your fict ion. Also, when you use real- life incident s, it 's easy t o forget t hat your readers don't know t hat t he incident really happened t o a friend of yours. I f t he event is part icularly st range or int riguing, your readers are going t o need som e serious j ust ificat ion before t hey believe it . You, however, m ay not realize t his, and so you'll expend no effort t rying t o show how such a t hing could happen, or j ust ifying why your charact er does what she does. The result is t hat at exact ly t he point s where your st ory is m ost fact ual, it will be least believable. Rem em ber t hat believabilit y in fict ion doesn't com e from t he fact s- what act ually happened. I t com es from t he readers' sense of what is plausible- what is likely t o happen. And t he furt her you st ray from t he plausible, t he m ore t im e you have t o spend j ust ifying t he event , piling up det ails t o show t he process, explaining m ot ivat ion and cause and result , so t hat t he reader will believe. " But it really happened like t hat " is no defense in fict ion. 2. Taking charact ers " from life" can lead t o personal problem s. I f your friends or fam ily m em bers recognize t hem selves, you can be in deep t rouble, and not j ust when you do a hat chet j ob on t hem . You m ay even t hink you've t reat ed t hem " nicely" or ( shudder) " fairly." But rem em 28 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT her, all t he t im e you've known t hem , t hey didn't know t hey were being " int erviewed" or " film ed" for inclusion in your fict ion. They m ay have confided t hings in you- hopes and fears, m em ories and m ot ives- t hat were j ust bet ween friends. When you put t hem in t he pages of a st ory or book, t hey have every right t o feel bet rayed. Asking t heir perm ission first can be even worse. Then t hey st art t o feel a propriet ary int erest in t he st ory; t hey call you up wit h new rem iniscences. You'll very soon find yourself having t o say, " I 'm sorry, I 'm only using a few bit s from your life, and I j ust don't need any m ore." Worse, when t he st ory

com es out you'll get t he Phone Call: " I can't believe you showed m e doing t hat . I never would have done t hat ." Very few friendships can st and t he st rain of an aut hor- charact er relat ionship. The whole point of being an aut hor is t hat your charact ers do what you t ell t hem t o do. Your friends and fam ily j ust don't follow t hat pat t ern. The solut ion t o all t his is sim ple. Use your fam ily and friends as t he st art ing point s for charact ers- but t hen use t he full process of int errogat ion t o t ransform t hem from t he people you t hink you know int o t he charact ers you really know. I n ot her words, m ake new people out of t he old ones. Then discard all t he ext raneous det ails. Just because you're m odeling t he charact er on your sist er doesn't m ean t hat t he charact er has t o look like her, or have t he sam e career, or t he sam e t ast e in clot hes, or t he sam e childhood experiences. Jet t ison anyt hing about t he real- life m odel t hat isn't essent ial t o t he new charact er, and disguise everyt hing else t hat you can. Then if vour sist er or fat her or friend lat er asks you, " Was t his charact er supposed t o be m e?" your answer can be, in com plet e honest y, " I 'm glad he seem ed so real t hat you t hought he was like you. But you're m uch nicer ( pret t ier/ m ore sincere/ gut sier) t han t hat charact er." I f you've t aken bit s out of your friend's life t hat can't be fully disguised, you can say, " I m ight have t aken som e bit s out of t he lives of people t hat I know- t hat sort of t hing can't be helped, it happens wit hout a writ er even not icing- but t he charact ers are m eant t o be t hem selves. None of t hem are m odeled on any part icular person." I f you have done t hej ob of fully invent ing your charact ers, t his st at em ent will always be t rue. I learned all t hese lessons t he hard way. When I was in college, I wrot e a play based on m y m ot her's fam ily. My only source was Mot her's own rem iniscences of childhood and adolescence, t old t o her children as we grew up. I loved t he st ories- and besides, I had been t old, t im e and again, " Writ e what you know." The result was a pret t y good lit t le play, given t he st at e of m y skills at t he t im e. But when m y m ot her saw it , she was aghast . She m ade m e prom ise not t o invit e any of her brot hers or sist ers t o see it . Why? There were no villains in t he st ory. Everyone was sym pat het ically port rayed. The problem was t hat m y m ot her knew som et hing I had not t hought of: She and her siblings weren't likely t o rem em ber t hese event s quit e t he sam e way. Even t hough t hese t hings had all happened m ore t han t hirt y years before, feelings would be hurt , quest ions would be Where Do Charact ers Com e From ? 29 raised, and old fam ily t ensions would be revived. And t he funny t hing was t hat t he best t hings about t hese charact ers were not t he elem ent s I t ook from Mom 's st ories. The best t hings were t he m ot ives and m isunderst andings, t he dialogue and t he det ails t hat I had invent ed t o flesh out t he t ales.

That is always t rue. Modeling charact ers on life is not a m et hod, it 's a st art ing point . The charact ers who com e t o life on t he page or on t he st age are t he ones t hat have passed t hrough t he st oryt eller's im aginat ion. Your readers already " know" people as w ell as real people ever know each ot her. They t urn t o fict ion in order t o know people bet t er t han t hey can ever know t hem in real life. I f your st ory t ells t hem not hing m ore about people t han t hey already know, you've let your audience down. By st icking t o t he fact s, you cheat t hem out of t he chance t o learn t he t rut h. Yourself OK, you've never m urdered som ebody, and your charact er is a m urderer. Does t hat m ean you've got t o go int erview people on deat h row in order t o find out how t hey t hink? No. Of course you can int erview t hem , and you m ight get som e int erest ing insight s- t hough all t he warnings about m odeling charact ers on friends and fam ily also apply t o m odeling charact ers on int erview subj ect s. There's an added problem , t oo: I nt erview subj ect s never t ell t he t rut h. Oh, t hey m ay t hink t hey're t elling t he t rut h, but in fact t heir st ories and st at em ent s are alt ered by t he fact t hat t hey're t elling t hem t o som eone else. They want you t o t hink of t hem a cert ain way, and so t hey'll em phasize cert ain t hings and leave out ot hers t hat don't m ake t he right im pression. I f you believe everyt hing you're t old in an int erview, your st ory m ay be less t rue t han if you never int erviewed a soul. At best , an int erview will be a st art ing point - you will st ill go t hrough t he whole process of charact er invent ion. There is one person you can always int erview, however, who will t ell you m uch m 9re of t he t rut h t han ot hers ever will- yourself. You can im agine what it would t ake t o get you t o behave in a cert ain way. So what if you've never m urdered som ebody? Haven't you ever been blindingly angry? Haven't you ever longed for cold revenge? You've felt all t he em ot ions, all t he m ot ives. All you have t o do is im agine t hose feelings and needs being even st ronger, or im agine your inhibit ion against violence being even weaker. Was it a crim e of passion? Then im agine what kind of provocat ion it would t ake for you t o be filled wit h m urderous rage, and t hen find t he sort of provocat ion t hat would get t hat sam e react ion in your charact er. Was it a calculat ed m urder in order t o win som e obj ect ive? Then figure out which of your own at t it udes you'd have t o change before you'd com e t o regard m urdering som ebody as a reasonable way t o get him out of t he w ay in order t o achieve your goal. What if you were right ing for som e desperat ely im port ant cause? What if you had grown up in a sit uat ion where killing was com m onplace? What if you had cause t o t hink ot her people were all beneat h considerat ion? 30 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT

Analogy What if you j ust can't im agine yourself doing som et hing? Then, inst ead of t rying t o t hink of what it would t ake t o get you t o do what your charact er does, t hink of som et hing you act ually have done t hat is like what t he charact er does. For inst ance, Michael Bishop faced t his problem in his brilliant 1988 novel Unicorn Mount ain, in which one charact er, Bo, is a young hom osexual who is dying of AI DS. Bo and anot her charact er are at a m ot el swim m ing pool when t hree m uscular young m en com e t o swim . Bo m ight have had any of several responses: envy at t heir healt h and st rengt h; resent m ent t hat t hese boorish young het erosexual m en don't have t o pay a price like AI DS for t heir sexual act ivit ies. But what Bishop chose t o show was sim ple lust . These t hree young swim m ers had at t ract ive, m uscular bodies. Having AI DS hadn't st opped Bo from being a hom osexual. He st ill looked at t hese young m en wit h desire. I believe t hat Bishop, who is not a hom osexual, based t his scene prim arily on analogy. What is it like t o be a hom osexual wit h AI DS? This quest ion surely cam e up again and again as he worked on Unicorn Mount ain. I t hink it led him t o t his analogy: I t is very m uch like being a het erosexual wit h a fat al disease t hat has cut you off from having sex wit h anyone, but hasn't yet m ade you im pot ent or weakened your desire. Bishop knew what we all know, t hat swim suit s reveal people's bodies a great deal m ore t han business suit s do, and t hat nowadays swim suit s are designed t o em phasize sexual at t ract iveness. I t j ust happened t hat Bo was int erest ed in and aroused by t he m en at t he pool. Yet he was not affect ed t he way a wom an is usually affect ed when wat ching m en in swim suit s. He was affect ed as het erosexual m en are affect ed when t hey wat ch wom en in swim suit s. Com plicat ed? Yes. And yet it led Bishop t o writ e a quiet but st art ling scene t hat rang t rue- wit h m e, at least . I did not realize t hat I had been asking t he quest ion: What is it like t o be a hom osexual? But when Bishop showed m e t his scene, showed his charact er's at t it ude t oward t hese young m en, I realized t he quest ion had been answered, at least in part - and t hat it was an im port ant quest ion, one t hat would m at t er t o m e even aft er t he st ory was over, because it gave m e a new way of looking at and underst anding ot her hum an beings. I n ot her words, Bishop had achieved one of t he prim ary purposes of fict ion. So if you can't im agine doing what your charact er m ust do, t hen com pare t hat act wit h som et hing you have done. I s m y charact er going t o kill som ebody t o get her out of t he way? Then I m ight t hink of a t im e when I carelessly disregarded som eone else's feelings because I was rushing t o get a j ob done. I lost a friendship. I didn't kill anyone, but I did feel t hat sam e single- m inded focus on m y goal t hat left no room for regarding anot her person's needs. I n m y m ind, t hat form er friend had ceased t o be a person. And, rem em bering t hat painful event in m y past , I can t hen, by analogy, show how m y charact er com plet ely disregards t he value of ot her people's lives.

Where Do Charact ers Com e From ? 31 Mem ory I 've com e t o t his last , because t his is a deep well, but one t hat can quickly becom e exhaust ed. Whet her you m ean t o or not , you will const ant ly draw on your own m em ory for incident s and charact ers in your fict ion. I n fact , all t hese ot her sources of charact ers arise out of m em ory- your m em ory of your friends and fam ily, your m em ory of st rangers. All t hese m em ories are dist ort ed by t im e or your own needs and percept ions. No less dist ort ed is your m em ory of yourself- what you did, what you m eant t o do, what caused you t o do t hings, what t he result s of your act ions t urned out t o be. Yet , dist ort ed or not , your m em ory of yourself is t he clearest pict ure you will ever have of what a hum an being is and why people do what t hey do. You are t he only person you will ever know from t he inside, and so, inevit ably, when your fict ion shows ot her charact ers from t he inside, you will reveal yourself. This will happen unconsciously, whet her you plan it or not . Som et im es it will st art le, even em barrass you, when you look back on a st ory you've writ t en and suddenly realize how m uch you have confessed wit hout even m eaning t o. I once handed t he m anuscript of early chapt ers of one of m y novels t o a friend and fellow m agazine edit or. She read it , and when she gave it back, am ong her com m ent s was t his one: " I t 's an int erest ing explorat ion of self- alienat ion. This guy really hat es his own body." I sm iled and nodded, as if t hat had been precisely m y int ent . But t he fact was t hat I had no idea t hat such a t hem e was em erging in t he st ory. Yet I knew at once t hat she was right , t hat wit hout even m eaning t o, I had creat ed a charact er whose sit uat ion exact ly m irrored t he cause of m any of m y deepest inj uries and m uch of m y personal anguish during m y t eenage years. I t m ade it hard t o go on writ ing t he novel, in fact , because I was afraid t hat m y novel was exposing m ore of m e t o m y audience t han I ever int ended. I n fact , it was. But I finished it and published it , and despit e m any flaws, t he book rem ains one of t he t ruest st ories I 've t old. What ever obsessions you have, what ever m em ories are m ost im port ant t o you, eit her negat ively or posit ively, t hey are going t o show up in your work n'o m at t er what you do. However, j ust because your m em ory will be an unconscious source of charact erizat ion doesn't m ean you can't also m ine it consciously. When I needed t o show a child charact er's at t it ude t oward his older brot her and sist er, I rem em bered how I felt t oward m y older brot her and sist er when I was lit t le; I even used incident s t hat showed what t hose relat ionships were like. I n no sense were t he charact ers of t he brot her and sist er based on m y own brot her and sist er- but t he child charact er was based on m y m em ory of what it was like being m yself at t hat age. I know far m ore about m yself t han I 'll ever know

about any ot her hum an being- it only m akes sense t hat m y m ost t rut hful m at erial will usually com e from m y own recollect ions. The danger of delving int o your own m em ory is t hat you've only lived one life. You're going t o keep com ing up wit h t he sam e incident s and at t it udes over and over again, wit hout even realizing it . This is where per32 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT sonal cliches com e from , const ant ly m ining t he sam e spot in m em ory, t he way a child will keep picking at t he sam e sore. You have t o m ake a conscious effort t o keep from rem em bering t he sam e t hings in t he sam e way. I n ot her words, even when you t ake a charact er direct ly out of yourself at som e part icular t im e in your life or in som e part icular sit uat ion, you st ill have t o invent t hat charact er- ask t he causal quest ions, exaggerat e, t wist . Finding "New" Mem ories What I 'm about t o suggest sm acks of self- psychoanalysis, and for all I know it m ay have t herapeut ic value. But I suggest t hat one way for you t o discover good charact ers is t o search random ly t hrough your m em ory, j ust as you m ove random ly t hrough t he world around you, wit h your idea net ext ended. The way you do t his is t o pick som e arbit rary st art ing point . I t m ight be a point in t im e: sevent h grade, for inst ance. What school were you in in sevent h grade? Who was your hom eroom t eacher? Who were your ot her t eachers? I im m ediat ely rem em ber Mr. Arella, t he science t eacher- a m an I haven't t hought of in t went y years, yet his nam e was t here, wait ing t o be dredged up. His was t he last class of t he day for m e, and I recall st aying aft er school t he first few days, t alking t o him , asking quest ions. Part ly it was because I really was int erest ed in science, but m ost ly it was because I was wait ing for m y m om t o pick m e up- I couldn't walk hom e carrying m y t uba. By t he end of t he second day, he st art ed calling m e his " lab assist ant " and t alking about how I 'd st ay aft er school and help him clean t est t ubes and j ars- not at all what I had in m ind. I soon st opped st aying aft er class; but I rem em ber t hat lat er in t he school year, I heard him refer t o som eone else as his lab assist ant , whereupon he affixed m e wit h a st eady gaze for a few m om ent s before m oving on t o t alk about som et hing else. Wit hout m eaning t o, I had apparent ly hurt his feelings or let him down som ehow- t hough he had never asked m e whet her I want ed t o be his lab assist ant . I also rem em ber t hat in t he encyclopedia I happened upon a descript ion of how t o separat e wat er int o hydrogen and oxygen using an elect ric current . I t alked t o Mr. Arella about it , t elling him what I had figured out about how t o conduct t he experim ent . He encouraged m e; I went t o a great deal of t rouble t o find bat t eries, st rips of copper, and a way t o hold everyt hing in place while hydrogen arose from t he wat er t o fill an overt urned j ar. I set up t he experim ent for t he first t im e in front of t he class- it never occurred t o m e t o rehearse in privat e. The experim ent didn't work. I don't know why, and neit her did Mr. Arella, but we never got t hat lit t le puff of an explosion

from a light ed m at ch t hat t ells you isolat ed hydrogen was present . I t was frust rat ing and em barrassing. But t hat was not hing com pared t o t he frust rat ion when, a m ont h or so lat er, he got t o t he elect rolysis sect ion in t he t ext book, opened t he cupboard, and t ook out a com plet e prefabricat ed elect rolysis device. All t he elem ent s were t here, professionally designed, pre- assem bled, and ready t o use. Aft er class I dem anded t o know why he had let m e go t o all t hat t rouWhere Do Charact ers Com e From ? 33 ble when he had t he experim ent already in hand. " I want ed you t o learn from your own experience," he said. A noble t hought . But at t he t im e all I could see was t hat he had let m e wast e a ridiculous am ount of t im e and caused m e m uch public em barrassm ent , when he could have said, " Want t o see elect rolysis work? I 've got t he whole set up right here in t he cupboard." My only consolat ion was t hat his professional set up didn't m ake any m ore hydrogen t han m y am at eurish one did. All t hese m em ories cam e flooding back t he m om ent I t yped t he words " sevent h grade" int o m y com put er. Are any of t hem usable for a st ory? Probably not direct ly. I have no idea how int erest ing t his st ory is, but I suspect your eyes were beginning t o glaze over before I had finished. St ill, if I int errogat e t he charact er of Mr. Arella- or of m yself- I m ay find an int erest ing st ory t here: I didn't do anyt hing t o " get even" wit h Mr. Arella, but what about a st udent charact er who did plot vengeance? Or what if t he t eacher charact er has a different m ot ive for let t ing t he st udent em barrass him self? What if he's get t ing even for t he st udent 's failure t o serve as his lab assist ant ? Or what if I choose a different experim ent , one t hat causes even m ore em barrassm ent t han sim ple failure? Or what if I change t he relat ionship and m ake it a husband and wife? The wife is going int o t he sam e line of work as t he husband; she get s a t errific idea and set s t o work on it . He encourages her, and she goes t o great effort , but fails. Only lat er does she discover t hat he knew exact ly how t o do t he whole j ob, even had key pieces of equipm ent or inform at ion t hat m ight have allowed her t o succeed. When she confront s him , he says, " I figured you'd want t o do it on your own." " I didn't care about doing it on m y own! I cared about doing it right , and you could have helped m e do t hat ! " " What kind of career is it if your husband st eps in and m akes it easy for you?" " I put you t hrough college, you j erk! What kind of educat ion would you have had if I weren't t he kind of wife who st epped in and m ade it easy for you! People in business som et im es help each ot her. Nice people do, anyway. They don't let som ebody drown while t hey've got a life preserver in t heir hands! " " OK, I 'm sorry, I m ade a m ist ake! "

" I t wasn't a m ist ake. You m eant m e t o fail. You want ed m e t o blow it , because if I did it right t hen I 'd be a t hreat t o you! " " Oh, I see, I 'm not j ust a husband who m ade a m ist ake, suddenly I 'm a sym pt om of t he whole m ale conspiracy against wom en. The t rouble is, if I had helped you, t hat would also be part of t he m ale conspiracy against wom en, since I would have been plot t ing t o prove t o you t hat you couldn't succeed wit hout m y help! " And so on. This relat ionship has som e st ory pot ent ial, t hough t he scene it self is far t oo abst ract t o be useful- real people don't st ick t o t he subj ect so relent lessly while t hey argue. This scene would never end up in a st ory, but t hese charact ers, t his relat ionship, m ight . And if such a st ory 34 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT ever com es t o be, who would guess t hat it em erged from t he incident wit h Mr. Arella and t he elect rolysis experim ent , which cam e t o m ind solely because I was random ly exploring t hrough t im es and places in m y m em ory. I DEAS FROM THE STORY As you work on a st ory, it will suggest charact ers t o you- as long as you know how t o look for t hem . Who Must Be There? Let 's say you're t elling t he st ory of a young princess who's being held capt ive in t he t op of a t ow er. I f fairy t ales don't appeal t o you, updat e it : A young girl who has been kidnapped off t he st reet s of New York and is being held capt ive in an abandoned building. Or if m elodram a doesn't appeal t o you, a girl who has t o spend t he sum m er wit h som ebody unpleasant while her parent s are off on a long working vacat ion in Aust ralia. The st ory idea it self will im ply cert ain charact ers. Since t he girl is being held som ewhere against her will, t here has t o be a person who is holding her- a " villain" who has caused her confinem ent . Also, t here m ust be som e people she was kidnapped from . I f she's a princess, by im plicat ion t here m ust be a king or queen- or bot h- who want her back. Or perhaps she feels t hat her parent s want ed t o be rid of her. Eit her way, one or bot h parent s m ust figure int o t he st ory. I f she's st aying wit h relat ives, t hen t hose charact ers m ust be added as well. A bossy aunt ? A boring uncle? Or, m ore sinist erly, an aunt who is always off " shopping," while t he uncle st ays around hom e like a couch pot at o, sleeping in front of t he t elevision; only it t urns out t hat t he uncle is m ixing up hallucinogenic chem icals in t he basem ent all night , while t he aunt m akes drug deliveries during t he day. No, no, you say- you're get t ing m elodram at ic again. All right , t he aunt is always away because she's support ing t he fam ily, and t he uncle is every bit as lazy and dim - wit t ed as he seem s. He's even dum b enough t o t hink t hat his young niece will appreciat e suggest ions for a relat ionship closer t han nepot ism .

Whet her any of t hese ideas int erest ed you, you can see how t he process works. The basic idea of t he st ory requires cert ain people t o be present . Once you know t he st ory roles t hat m ust be filled, you can use t he process we've already t alked about t o creat e int erest ing, well- rounded charact ers for t hose roles. Who Might Be There? Besides t he people who m ust be t here because of t he st ory, t here are also charact ers who m ight be present sim ply because of t he set t ing. Let 's t ake t he girl living wit h her aunt and uncle for t he sum m er. They m ight have children. Younger ones t hat t he girl is required t o t end? Older ones, who exclude her from t heir good t im es or ot herwise m ake her m iserable? One Where Do Charact ers Com e From ? 35 exact ly her age w ho resent s having her t here- or who is horrible and boring and want s t o be wit h her all t he t im e? The aunt and uncle m ust live in a place, of course, so is it a t own? Are t here neighbors? A local 7- 11 st ore, wit h a clerk she befriends, or kids who hang out playing pinball or video gam es t here? Maybe t he aunt and uncle live at t he beach- t here are always people com ing t o t he beach. Could she m eet an int erest ing person who t akes an early m orning walk along t he beach every day? She cam e from som ewhere, so could she be writ ing let t ers t o a friend back hom e? Trying t o carry on a long- dist ance rom ance wit h a boyfriend who is act ually dat ing her best friend now? Could she be at t ending sum m er school? There are t eachers and st udent s t here. Or m aybe she get s a sum m er j ob- proofreading at t he local weekly newspaper? Then t here'll be an edit or, a t ypeset t er who m ight resent all her correct ions, an eccent ric societ y colum nist , m aybe anot her kid w ho doubles as delivery boy and cub report er. Or m aybe t he aunt and uncle live on a farm , and t here are som e m igrant workers who com e for t he m idsum m er cherry picking. Or m aybe t hey live in t he m ount ains, and she m eet s a poacher, or a forest ranger, or som e int erest ing hikers- or som e dangerous ones. This process is a sim ple one, but it 's am azing how m any writ ers forget t o do it . All you have t o do is t ake your eyes off t he m ain charact ers long enough t o see who else is nearby. Most of t he charact ers you discover t his way will rem ain m inor ones, or even background charact ers. St ill, by using t hem you'll enrich t he st ory and m ake it m ore real. These ot her charact ers will also add possibilit ies for conflict or com plicat ion, or sources of help for t he m ain charact ers. And som e of t hem will becom e so int erest ing t hat you'll have t o m ove t hem int o m aj or roles in t he st ory aft er all, even t hough t hey were never part of your original plan. But if you don't look t o see who m ight be t here, you'll never find t hese people, and your st ory will be t he poorer for it .

Who Has Been There? Even t hough your m ain focus will be on t he charact ers who are present in t he st ory, it 's also im port ant t o look int o t he st ory's past t o find t he charact ers who are no longer around, but who st ill helped shape t he charact ers who are present . So oft en we see st ories wit h heroes who seem ed t o com e from nowhere- t hey never rem em ber anybody who isn't present , never m eet anybody t hey knew from long before, never even refer t o parent s or old j obs or anyone else. Yet in real life you are const ant ly rem em bering people who aren't present , bum ping int o old acquaint ances, and responding t o present sit uat ions in ways t hat clearly grow out of old relat ionships. When t he t eenage girl in our st ory becom es friends wit h t he funny- looking clerk at t he 7- 11, does she gradually and uncom plicat edly fall in love wit h him ? Or does he rem ind her of a slick exploit at ive guy she knew at school back hom e? Maybe she's t rying t o st ay fait hful t o her boyfriend 36 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT back hom e, so she has const ant t hought s of her boyfriend even as she get s m ore and m ore at t ract ed t o t he 7- 11 clerk. Those guys from back hom e are never " present " in t he st ory, and yet her relat ionship wit h t hem is very im port ant . Or perhaps as she t ries t o get along wit h her aunt and uncle, she finds t hat t he real difficult y is her long- dead grandm ot her- t he m ot her of her fat her and her uncle, a wom an who always favored t he girl's fat her and disapproved of t he uncle. At first t he girl will agree wit h t he grandm ot her's assessm ent of t he uncle, especially because t he uncle clearly feels a st rong ant ipat hy t oward t he girl. Gradually, t hough, she'll com e t o appreciat e som e aspect s of her uncle's charact er t hat neit her her fat her nor her grandm ot her ever saw. I n fact , t he st ory m ight com e t o focus on t he relat ionship bet ween t he girl and her dead grandm ot her, wit h t he girl becom ing angrier and angrier at a wom an who exist s now only in her m em ory. Finally, she has it out wit h her uncle, in a com plicat ed scene in which she is angry at him for act ing out t he grandm ot her's im age of him . I t m ight end up t ransform ing bot h of t hem . Yet t hat st ory would be im possible t o t ell if we hadn't first wondered about charact ers who m ight have been t here in t he st ory's past , but who are not physically present in t he st ory. SERVANTS OF THE I DEA Oft en a st ory em erges, not from charact ers or event s, but from an idea t hat you want t o put across. Maybe you're concerned about t he danger of pollut ion, t he arm s race, t he escalat ing cost of m edical care, or t he unfairness of Am erican im m igrat ion policy. Maybe you worry about abort ion, wom en's right s, racism , or povert y. Maybe you want t o speak for disarm am ent , m ore hum ane prisons, j ust ice for an oppressed people, or t he right s of int elligent m arine m am m als.

All of t hese are causes t hat m any wise and concerned people find t o be wort hy and im port ant . But t he first t hing you m ust decide is whet her t o writ e a polem ic essay or a st ory. These are not m ut ually exclusive form s. That is, if you decide t o writ e an essay- for a newspaper's op- ed page, a pam phlet , or even a book- lengt h essay- you will find t hat st ories are effect ive t ools in persuading people t o pay at t ent ion. No am ount of philosophizing about t he right s of dolphins will have as m uch effect on readers as a sim ple st ory of t he life of one dolphin- his birt h, upbringing, fam ily life, playfulness, all leading t o his senseless drowning when he is caught in a t una net . One st ory is wort h a t housand abst ract ions or st at ist ics, when it com es t o having an em ot ional im pact on people. And if you decide t o writ e a st ory, t his doesn't m ean you can't also m ake your point . The problem s arise when you forget t hat you're writ ing a st ory, and let t he idea t ake over. Forget about fully invent ing charact ers! I 'm going t o show how bad pollut ion is, so I 'll have all t he pollut ers be evil conspirat ors so eager t o m ake a buck t hat t hey don't care how m any people die be37 Where Do Charact ers Com e From ? cause of t he poisons t hey put in t he ground or in t he wat er. The t rouble is t hat when such a st ory is finished, who will want t o read it ? People who already agree wit h you, who already t hink pollut ing corporat ions are run by inhum an m onst ers, will t hink t he st ory is right on t he m ark; but what about t he people who don't yet agree wit h you, t he ones w ho have never t hought m uch about pollut ion? I f your charact ers are t oo one- dim ensional t o believe in, you won't persuade anybody. Your uncom m it t ed readers will sense t hat t hey're being lied t o. " Nobody's t hat evil," t hey'll say. Few will be convinced. You'll end up preaching t o t he choir. When you have a point t o m ake, an idea t o put across, it is all t he m ore im port ant t o be a good st oryt eller, t o exam ine every charact er and wring from him all possible t rut h. I f you want t o writ e a st ory t hat m akes t he dangers of indust rial pollut ion really com e hom e t o people, you don't m ake t he " bad guys" int o villainous conspirat ors. I nst ead, you focus on a " bad guy" who t hinks of him self as a good guy. His fact ory m akes a product t hat people need, and he's following all t he regulat ions. He's also t rying t o keep cost s down so t he product will be affordable and com pet it ive. When people st art com plaining t hat t he com pany is pollut ing t he com m unit y's wat er, he doesn't oppose t hese people because he's evil, he opposes t hem because he t hinks t hey're wrong. To him , t hey're j ust ext rem ist s who t hink t hat not hing but dist illed wat er should ever be em it t ed by any fact ory; t o him , t hese people would rat her see everybody live in caves t han allow any m odern progress.

And, in fact , som e of t he people at t acking his fact ory are j ust as m indlessly ant i- t echnology as he t hinks t hey are. But t here is one of t hem who m eans m ore t o him t han any of t he st rangers. I t m ight be a neighbor; or perhaps it 's a lab t echnician t hat he hired because he knew her folks years before, but now he has t o fire her because she has leaked t he cont ent s of lab report s t o t he press. He knows t hat he's right t o fire her- she violat ed com pany regulat ionsbut he also worries t hat her report s m ight be right . Aft er all, he knows she isn't crazy, and so he t alks t o her, learns from her, gradually com es t o realize t hat while his fact ory isn't causing t he deat h of civilizat ion as we know it , t he pollut ion problem m ight be real. He works t o solve t he problem from t he inside. Do you recognize t his st ory? You should, at least if you've seen t he m ovie The China Syndrom e, about t he violat ion of safet y regulat ions at a nuclear power plant , leading t o a dangerous near- m elt down. The sit uat ions are not ident ical, but t he basic m ovem ent of t he st ories is sim ilar. The China Syndrom e did set t le for a few t rit e and obvious villains- which weakened t he m ovie- but all t he people we focused on were ordinary and decent , neit her perfect ly good nor perfect ly evil. That m ovie t urned out t o be effect ive persuasive writ ing, precisely because t he charact ers were so believable. Of course, it helped believabilit y when t he nuclear accident happened at Three Mile I sland around t he t im e t he m ovie was released. Polem ic- persuasive writ ing- only works when it doesn't feel like propaganda. The audience m ust feel t hat you're being absolut ely fair t o people on t he ot her side. I f you depict t hem as devils, t he uncom m it t ed m em bers of t he audience will be disgust ed, and you'll convince none of t hem . But if you show all t he charact ers as hum an, you have a good chance 38 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT of bringing m any audience m em bers t o your point of view or increasing t heir com m it m ent t o your cause. The sam e is t rue w hen you are t elling a st ory in order t o put across an idea. This oft en happens in science fict ion, w here t he writ er want s t o show readers a neat gadget or scient ific discovery, and uses charact ers only t o convey inform at ion. The sam e can happen in hist orical fict ion, where cert ain charact ers exist only t o dem onst rat e part icular hist orical at t it udes; or in academ ic/ lit erary fict ion, when a charact er is int roduced solely t o be a sym bol of som et hing, or t o speak key words t hat explicat e t he st ory's t hem e. All of t hese are legit im at e st art ing point s for a charact er- but if you act ually expect your reader t o get em ot ionally involved, t o respond t o your st ory as a st ory, you m ust wring m ore life from t he charact er, so t hat she isn't so obviously being m anipulat ed by t he aut hor t o produce result s t hat have not hing t o do wit h t he event s of t he st ory it self. Of course, t his can be done wrongheadedly. I 've seen m any writ ers " charact erize" by having t heir one- dim ensional cardboard charact er hop int o

bed wit h anot her one- dim ensional cardboard charact er and have t he cardboard equivalent of sex. You don't " flesh out " a charact er whose role is t o put across an idea or point of view by having t he charact er do a lot of t hings t hat have not hing t o do wit h t he st ory. I nst ead, you m ust follow where t he original idea leads. Why does t he charact er care so m uch about t his part icular idea? And don't set t le for t he first answer, eit her. Why does Nora care so m uch about pollut ion? Because her fat her died of pollut ion- caused cancer! No, no. Let 's t wist t hat around. Let 's say inst ead t hat her fat her used t o spray t he defoliant Agent Orange out of his helicopt er in Viet nam . I t never had any ill effect on him , but he has becom e increasingly despondent , knowing how m uch harm he m ight have done. No, no, let 's t wist it again. Nora only found out he sprayed Agent Orange by accident , overhearing him t alk wit h som e war buddies. When she challenged him , he answered wit h host ilit y, swearing t hat t he chem ical was harm less, and all t he people claim ing t o have been dam aged by t he chem ical are j ust t rying t o collect from t he governm ent t o pay for healt h problem s t hat have not hing t o do wit h Viet nam . Now as she fight s indust rial pollut ion, she's really fight ing her fat her- or, perhaps, t rying t o at one for his sin, t hough he refuses t o adm it he did anyt hing wrong. I sn't t he charact er of Nora a lot m ore int erest ing now t han she was when she was ant i- pollut ion because her fat her died from it ? Not t hat t he deat h of a parent isn't good m ot ivat ion. I t 's j ust t oo easy. " My fat her died of it ," said Nora. I t explains everyt hing- it explains not hing. Do all t he children of people who die from pollut ion go out and crusade against it ? No. So we st ill haven't answered t he quest ion of w hy Nora react ed t o her fat her's deat h by devot ing her life t o t he crusade against pollut ion. The sim ple answer is never t he com plet e answer. To creat e effect ive persuasive or educat ional fict ion, you m ust have believable, int erest ing charact ers. That m eans t hat you m ust be even m ore careful t o m ake your charact ers balanced and well- rounded, not less so. I f you're in doubt , go back t o Chapt er 1 and see how m uch you know Where Do Charact ers Com e From " ? 39 about t he charact er in each of t he cat egories list ed t here. Go back t o Chapt er 2 and ask t hose quest ions of t he charact er. The idea m ay be t he source of your charact er, but it bet t er not be t he only source, or your st ory won't be eit her good fict ion or good polem ic. SERENDI PI TY There are m any ot her chance sources of charact er ideas. You aren't necessarily looking for st ories or charact ers, but because your idea net is out , you cat ch t hem anyway. Som e people get ideas from dream s, som e from news st ories, a let t er t o Ann Landers, an anecdot e from a hist ory or biography, t he headline on a superm arket t abloid, a line from a song. Som et im es charact ers seem t o com e out of nowhere- t hey j ust st art t alking inside your head.

I n every case, you'll need t o exam ine t hem carefully, invent t hem fully, help t hem com e t o life. Two I deas from Unrelat ed Sources I t 's im port ant t o rem em ber t hat ideas don't have t o com e at t he sam e t im e for t hem t o belong t oget her. I 've oft en been st ruggling wit h a problem in one st ory, only t o find t he solut ion by rem em bering a charact er or idea from a com plet ely unrelat ed st ory, one I m ay have worked on years and years before. For inst ance, t he basic idea for m y novel Speaker for t he Dead was going nowhere unt il I realized t hat m y t it le charact er had t o be t he m ain charact er from anot her st ory, Ender's Gam e. Suddenly I knew t he charact er's past , knew why he was " speaking for t he dead," and t he st ory unfolded m uch m ore easily. My experience is t hat I have never done well writ ing a st ory from one idea or developing a charact er from one source. Only when I put t oget her t wo previously unrelat ed ideas or charact ers do t hey com e t o life; it is in t he process of connect ing t he unconnect ed t hat m y st ories grow. This m ay be t rue for som e of you, also. Wondering You can help ideas com e " by chance," however, by sim ply keeping your m ind working- by oft en filling your m ind wit h speculat ion. What if? What if I lost m y eyesight ? What would I do t hen? What if I accident ally t hrew away som et hing priceless? Who m ight find it ? How would 7 go about finding it ? What could you possibly t hrow away wit hout realizing it had value? A lot t ery t icket , of course. Anyt hing else? A let t er by som eone fam ous. A priceless book. A j ewel you t hought was fake. An alien from anot her world who happened t o look j ust like a paper clip. What t hen? What if a person w ho had worked in an office all his life suddenly got assigned t o work at hom e on a com put er t erm inal, doing t he sam e j ob wit hout even leaving his house? How would his fam ily respond? Would he 40 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT m iss t he office life? Revel in t he new freedom t o det erm ine his ow n schedule? Would his wife st art expect ing him t o be a househusband while she cont inued going off t o work? Or look at t he landscapes you drive t hrough or live in or rem em ber, or landscapes you've seen in Nat ional Geographic. Wonder about t hem . Who lives here? Who has died here? How did t hey die? What do children do t o play here? Where would t hey find books? What would t hey daydream about ? What are t hey afraid of? Where do t hey refuse t o go aft er dark? What do t hey dare each ot her t o do?

What is likely t o be t he first j ob of a person who grows up around here? What do parent s fear and hope for t heir children? Where do people shop or t rade? What is t he worst t hing t he weat her here does t o people? Where do t heir kinfolk live? What songs do t hey hear com ing t hrough t he window on a hot sum m er night ? What do t hey sm ell? And how do t hey feel about t he sm ells, t he songs, t he weat her, t heir j obs, each ot her, t hem selves? There isn't a landscape on eart h where you can't find wonderful st ories in t he answers t o t hese quest ions. " Wonderful st ories." Exact ly t he right word, wonderful. The st ories t hat fill a reader wit h wonder are t he st ories t hat cam e from a wondering m ind, your m ind, const ant ly speculat ing, exaggerat ing, quest ioning, challenging, t wist ing, searching. Good st ories and charact ers will wander t hrough, by and by. You'll find t hem in your idea net , and you'll breat he on t hem and bring t hem all t o life. CHAPTER 4 MAKI NG DECI SI ONS So FAR, I 'VE BEEN TREATI NG CHARACTERS as if everyt hing about t hem were negot iable. This is t rue, as long as t he st ory st ill exist s only in your head or in out line form . But at som e point you're going t o st art writ ing t he st ory down, and t hen you've got t o m ake som e decisions and st ick t o t hem . NAMES One of t he earliest decisions t o m ake is a charact er's nam e. I have a friend who doesn't nam e his charact ers at all, unt il a st ory or novel is alm ost t hrough. He j ust nam es t hem t hings like XXX and YYY. Then, when he knows t hem bet t er, he decides what t heir nam es should be and uses his word processor's global search- and- replace com m and t o t urn all t he XXXs int o Marions and t he YYYs int o Ednas. That j ust wouldn't work for m e. A nam e is part of w ho a person is. I t 's t he label t hat st ands for everyt hing you've done and everyt hing you are. What a Nam e Means t o t he Charact er A nam e has m any associat ions. Your last nam e links you t o your fam ily. I f your charact er is a m arried adult , did he t ake his wife's nam e; did she t ake her husband's? I f she's divorced, did she keep her husband's nam e or ret urn t o her m aiden nam e? Or perhaps t he charact er's parent s were divorced, his m ot her got cust ody of t he children, and she lat er rem arried. Did he keep his birt h fat her's nam e or t ake his st epfat her's nam e? Surely t hese decisions had repercussions. Your last nam e also suggest s et hnicit y. Wozniak does not have t he sam e associat ions as O'Reilly, Bj ornson, Redfeat her, Goldfarb, Fit zwat er, or Robles. The m om ent you choose a last nam e, you bring t o t he charact er a load of et hnic, nat ional, even racial baggage. You will alm ost cert ainly find t hat t he

nam e opens up all kinds of charact er possibilit ies, invit ing you t o speculat e on t he charact er's upbringing. How m uch did his et hnicit y m ake him who he is? 41 42 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT You m ight be nam ed for som eone, t oo. I s your charact er a j unior or I I ? Nam ed for an uncle, aunt , grandparent ? He's going t o have an at t it ude t oward his own nam e in part based on his at t it ude t oward t he person he's nam ed for. What about a girl growing up as Scarlet t or Meryl, or a boy nam ed Elvis or Lennon? Not only does t he nam e t ell when t he charact er was probably born, it would also have caused a lot of t easing from ot her kids. Maybe t he girl nam ed Scarlet t O'Hara Wat t insist ed t hat her friends call her So Wat t , from her init ials? The nam e is alm ost t oo cut e t o st and- but t hat , t oo, m ay be a part of her charact er. Robert Parker's best - known charact er is nam ed Edm und Spenser. He at once follows his nam e, being a lover of poet ry, and rej ect s it , insist ing t hat people call him Spenser. He insist s on people spelling t he nam e correct ly, wit h a m iddle s inst ead of c; yet having a nam e like Edm und when he was growing up m ay be why he always regarded it as essent ial t hat he be in t op physical condit ion and know how t o fight . I ndeed, m ost of Spenser's m ain charact er at t ribut es seem linked t o his nam e- it 's quit e possible, t hough I have no way of knowing, t hat t he choice of t he nam e Edm und Spenser was how Robert Parker cam e up wit h t he idea for his charact er in t he first place. You Can't Tell t he Players Wit hout a Program There are ot her considerat ions involved in nam ing a charact er, however, besides t he effect on t he charact er him self. The nam e of a charact er is also t he label t he reader uses t o help keep t he charact ers st raight . That 's why it 's always helpful t o give charact ers m em orable- and very different - nam es. One rule I t ry t o follow is t o m ake sure all m y m aj or charact ers' nam es st art wit h a different let t er. I w on't have a Myron in t he sam e st ory wit h a Milt on, unless t here's som e com pelling reason t o violat e t hat rule. I also t ry t o vary lengt hs and sound pat t erns. I t 's hard for t he reader t o rem em ber who is who if all t he nam es follow t he sam e pat t ern. Monosyllables like Bill, Bob, Tom , Jeff, Pet e lead t o boredom and confusion. These part icular exam ples are such com m on- sounding nam es t hat t he reader begins t o feel t hat you gave t hese charact ers t he first nam e t hat cam e t o m ind- it leads t o a sublim inal m essage t hat t he charact ers' ident it ies don't m at t er. However, it also becom es dist ract ing when you choose a lot of flam boyant , bizarre nam es, unless t hat is an im port ant part of a st ory. I f you're writ ing about a st reet gang, you m ight give t hem all odd nicknam es like Mud- eat er, Wall Man, Slim e, and Lick. But you'll lose a lot of belief if all beaut iful wom en in your st ories have phony but euphonious nam es. And m ake sure your charact ers don't all have nam es t hat m ean som et hing, unless you are writ ing

allegory and deliberat ely want t hem t o be t agged wit h sym bolic nam es, like t he charact ers Pat ience, Will, and Angel in an allegorical fant asy I once wrot e. I t 's easy t o fall int o a rut , repeat ing t he sam e pat t erns: Jackson, Wat ers, Deaver, Rudm an. Change t he num ber of syllables: Wat ers t o Wat erm an. Change t he accent posit ion from t he first t o second syllable: Deaver Making Decisions 43 t o Despain. St art one nam e wit h a vowel inst ead of a consonant : Rudm an t o Urdm an. Change one nam e so t hey don't all sound like WASPs: Jackson t o Giaconni or Kabut o. . One Nam e Per Charact er Have you ever read a Russian novel? The Russian pat t ern of nam ing is different from ours- everybody has a first nam e, a fam ily nam e, and a pat ronym ic. Thus I van Denisovit ch is I van t he son of Denis- but t he aut hor m ight also refer t o him by a com plet ely unrelat ed nam e, like Dobrinin, which is his fam ily nam e. The charact er m ight also have a nicknam e- and Russian aut hors feel no qualm s about having charact ers refer t o each ot her by any or all of t he nam es in any com binat ion, or so it seem s. This is oft en hopelessly confusing t o English- speaking readers. Yet m any a writ er does exact ly t he sam e t hing t o his readers, wit h far less reason. Bill heard t he all- st at ions siren and wondered whet her he was going t o get in t rouble t his t im e. Well, t oo lat e t o worry now. Lieut enant Wat erm an would help him if he could, and if he couldn't , well, t hat was t he breaks. He got out of his bert h and put on his clot hes. Johnson walked down t he corridor unt il he got t o t he bridge of t he ship. The execut ive officer w as asking, " How m uch t im e do we have?" The capt ain quickly surveyed t he sit uat ion. " About t hree m inut es, I 'd say. Not enough t im e t o avoid a collision. But we've got t o t ry. Hard port , full speed." Howard im m ediat ely relayed t he com m and t o t he engine room , while his m ent or m ade sure everyone else knew what t o do. OK, folks, guess: How m any charact ers have we j ust seen? There are seven different nam es or t ags here- yet t his passage could j ust as easily refer t o only t wo people. Lieut enant Howard Wat erm an is t he execut ive officer of t he ship; his m ent or is Capt ain Bill Johnson. This is an ext rem e exam ple, but a lot of beginning writ ers ( and som e who should know bet t er) m ake alm ost as bad a m ess of nam ing. The rule of t hum b is t hat t he narrat or of t he st ory will refer t o each charact er t he sam e way every t im e. You int roduce t he charact er by t he nam e he's going t o have m ost of t he t im e t hrough t he st ory. For inst ance, you m ight decide t o always refer t o Capt ain Bill Johnson as Johnson. His j unior officers, of course, will always call him Capt ain or Sir; his wife will call him Bill; his children will call him Dad. But t he alert writ er will m ake sure t hat we are const ant ly

rem inded who we're t alking t o. The first t im e som ebody calls Johnson " Capt ain," m ake sure he calls him " Capt ain Johnson." From t hen on, t he reader can m ake t he connect ion. But " Capt ain Johnson" won't help if t he only nam e we've seen so far is " Bill." I t t akes a lit t le t hought , but your j ob is t o help your reader keep clear who is w ho, and you can't do t hat if you're busy playing m usical chairs wit h t he charact ers' nam es. Som et im es am at eurs play " m usical nam es" because t hey're afraid t hat using t he sam e nam e over and over again will becom e " repet it ive." 44 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT What t hey don't realize is t hat repet it ion is rarely a problem wit h nam es nam es aren't a st ylist ic device, t hey're a signpost t o guide us t hrough t he st ory, t elling us who's doing what . On t hose rare occasions when it really would be awkward t o repeat t he nam e, we already have a solut ion: t he pronoun. Som et im es am at eurs play " m usical nam es" because t hey're t rying t o convey inform at ion wit h t he replacem ent nouns: Johnson went t o t he bridge. The capt ain barked his orders. The Annapolis graduat e wasn't going t o t ake any nonsense from t hese youngst ers. A sixt yyear- old has t o fight t o get respect in t his navy, t hought t he grandfat her of I f it 's vit al for us t o know t hat Johnson is a sixt y- year- old Annapolis graduat e who is capt ain of t he ship and has nine grandchildren, t hen t ell us - but don't do it by using all t hese t aglines inst ead of Johnson's nam e: Johnson went t o t he bridge and barked his orders. He knew t hese youngst ers didn't have m uch respect for a sixt y- year- old like him ; who cared anym ore t hat he graduat ed first in his class from Annapolis? He knew t hat whenever he gave an order, his execut ive officer t hought , " What 's an old coot like him doing as capt ain of a ship? He ought t o be sit t ing on a park bench boring people t o deat h wit h pict ures of his nine grandchildren." The second version t akes a lit t le longer - but t hen, it conveys a lot m ore inform at ion and at t it ude as well, and you always know who Johnson is. Rem em ber, if you lose clarit y, you've lost your reader, and t he consist ent use of nam es is one of your chief t ools in keeping t he reader clear on what 's happening in t he st ory. KEEPI NG A BI BLE Besides nam es, you'll m ake a lot of ot her decisions about your charact ers. Som e you'll m ake before t he st ory begins- a lot of fact s about t he charact er's past , about t hings he's going t o do in t he st ory, and so on. But you'll m ake m any ot her decisions as you go along. And it will help you a great deal if, from t im e t o t im e, you j ot down t hese decisions. For inst ance, when you showed t he charact er get t ing dressed, you had him choose a st riped t ie. No part icular reason- it was j ust a det ail t o give realit y t o his m orning rout ine. Ten pages lat er, t hough, you forgot t hat . You have him pull his shirt off over his head before he goes in swim m ing- but not a word

about loosening or rem oving his t ie. Why did you forget ? Because it isn't all t hat im port ant , and because you wrot e t he first page t hree days ago, and because writ ers forget . We're hum an. Most of your readers are hum an, t oo. But t hey're reading t he st ory all at once, and for t hem page one and page t en are m inut es apart , not days. During t he shoot ing of a m ovie, t here's a person whose whole j ob is Making Decisions 45 m aking sure t hat if an act or's cigaret t e was t wo inches long in t he est ablishing shot , it 's also t wo inches long in all t he close ups and react ion shot s. You don't have anybody t o help wit h t hat . You have t o do it for yourself. The best way is t o keep a bible- a not ebook ( or a separat e com put er file, if your com put er allows you t o open t wo files at once) in which you j ot down each decision you've m ade. I f it 's t oo dist ract ing t o do t his while writ ing, don't int errupt t he flow; you can sim ply wait t ill you're t hrough writ ing for t he day and t ake a few m inut es t o scan t hrough t he day's out put j ot t ing down all t he t hings you've decided. The m et hod I find best for m e is t o begin each day's work by scanning t he work I did t he day before, j ot t ing down t hings I 've decided on papers beside t he com put er. This not only helps m e m aint ain consist ency, it also get s m e back int o t he st ory and m akes m e t hink about each decision, wondering if it was right , seeing if perhaps it m akes m e discover new t hings about t he charact er. f The decisions you m ake aren't all as t rivial as t he color of a charact er's t ie, eit her. When I wasn't creat ing a bible as I went along, I once changed a charact er's nam e bet ween chapt er 5 and chapt er 15. I forgot t hat I m ade him an orphan and had him t elephone his m ot her. I 've changed a m inor charact er's race, I 've changed ot her charact ers' professions, I 've changed m y hero's hair color, age, height , birt hday- it 's easy t o do when a charact er isn't t he focus of t he act ion or when a lot of pages have int ervened. Fort unat ely, edit ors- or m y wife, Krist ine, who reads everyt hing in m anuscript have caught m ost of t hese m ist akes. When t hey have, I 've had t o choose which version is correct . This has forced m e t o ret hink m any decisions t hat I had m ade arbit rarily, on t he spur of t he m om ent , and I 've realized t hat m any of t hese decisions were careless, t hat wit h a bit m ore t hought I could com e up wit h som et hing m uch bet t er. I had reached up and grabbed t he first idea from m y st ock of cliches, when on second t hought I was able t o com e up wit h a bet t er decision t hat enriched t he st ory and t he charact er and brought t hem t o life. Keeping a bible helps m ake you aw are of t he decisions you're m aking. The very fact of j ot t ing down your decision m akes you t hink about it again, allows you a chance t o do som e wondering, som e quest ioning. Whet her you do it right at t he m om ent , at t he end of t he day, or t he next m orning, you have a chance t o im prove on t he decision while t he st ory is st ill fresh, before you have gone t en or fift y or a hundred pages beyond t hat m om ent .

Even a bible, however, won't keep you from t he occasional m ist ake, and for every decision you realize you're m aking, t here are hundreds or t housands of ot hers you'll never even not ice. That 's all right . The idea isn't t o m ake every single aspect of st oryt elling a conscious decision- t hen no one would ever finish writ ing anyt hing. Most of your decisions will rem ain unconscious. But t he ones you are aware of allow you t o open up your st ory wit h m ore invent ion, m ore possibilit ies, m ore space, m ore people for your unconscious m ind t o play wit h. I n fict ion, necessit y isn't t he m ot her of invent ion. I t 's possible t o have a career wit hout invent ing very m uch at all. You don't have t o be invent ive. 46 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT But t he st ories t hat ast onish us, t he charact ers t hat live forever in our m em ories- t hose are t he result of rich im aginat ion, percept ive observat ion, rigorous int errogat ion, and careful decision- m aking. When it com es t o st oryt elling, invent ion is t he m ot her of ast onishm ent , delight , and t rut h.

PART I I CONSTRUCTI NG CHARACTERS CHAPTER 5 WHAT KI ND OF STORY ARE YOU TELLI NG? WHEN YOU I NVENT A CHARACTER, YOU DEPEND on your sense of what is im port ant and t rue t o m ake your decisions. This will cont inue t hroughout your t elling of t he t ale- but once you st art set t ing down words, you also have t o m ake m any decisions based on what is right for t he whole st ory. Now it 's t im e for t hese newly creat ed charact ers t o get t o work. THE " MI CE" QUOTI ENT I t is a m ist ake t o t hink t hat " good charact erizat ion" is t he sam e t hing in every work of fict ion. Different kinds of st ories require different kinds of charact ers. But what are t he different kinds of st ories? Forget about publishing genres for a m om ent - t here isn't one kind of charact erizat ion for academ ic/ lit erary st ories, anot her kind for science fict ion, and st ill ot hers for west erns, m yst eries, t hrillers, and hist oricals. I nst ead we'll look at four basic fact ors t hat are present in every st ory, wit h varying degrees of em phasis. I t is t he balance am ong t hese fact ors t hat det erm ines what sort of charact erizat ion a st ory m ust have, should have, or can have. The four fact ors are m ilieu, idea, charact er, and event : The m ilieu is t he world surrounding t he charact ers- t he landscape, t he int erior spaces, t he surrounding cult ures t he charact ers em erge from and react t o; everyt hing from weat her t o t raffic laws.

The idea is t he inform at ion t hat t he reader is m eant t o discover or learn during t he process of t he st ory. Charact er is t he nat ure of one or m ore of t he people in t he st ory- what t hey do and why t hey do it . I t usually leads t o or arises from a conclusion about hum an nat ure in general. The event s of t he st ory are everyt hing t hat happens and why. These fact ors usually overlap. Charact er A is part of t he m ilieu surrounding charact er B. The idea in t he st ory m ay include inform at ion about t he nat ure of a charact er; t he idea we are m eant t o discover can be som e aspect of t he m ilieu, som e previously m isunderst ood or overlooked 48 What Kind of St ory Are You Telling? 49 event , or t he nat ure of a charact er. The event s of t he st ory are usually perform ed by charact ers or em erge from t he m ilieu, and t he discovery of an idea can also be an event in t he t ale. Each fact or is present in all st ories, t o one degree or anot her. Every fact or has an im plicit st ruct ure; if t hat fact or dom inat es a st ory, it s st ruct ure det erm ines t he overall shape of t he st ory. I t has becom e a figure of speech t o say t hat a st ory " t akes place." But it is quit e t rue: The charact ers m ust have a place in which t o perform t he act s t hat m ake up t he st ory- t he set t ing, t he m ilieu of t he t ale. The m ilieu includes all t he physical locat ions t hat are used- one cit y or m any cit ies, one building or m any buildings, a st reet , a bus, a farm , a clearing in t he woods- wit h all t he sight s, sm ells, and sounds t hat com e wit h t he t errit ory. The m ilieu also includes t he cult ure- t he cust om s, laws, social roles, and public expect at ions t hat lim it and illum inat e all t hat a charact er t hinks and feels and says and does. I n som e st ories t he m ilieu is very sket chy; in ot hers, it is creat ed in loving det ail. I ndeed, t here are som e st ories in which t he m ilieu is t he prim ary focus of at t ent ion. Think of Gulliver's Travels or A Connect icut Yankee in King Art hur's Court : The point of t hese st ories is not t o explore t he soul of a charact er or resolve a t ense and t hrilling plot , but rat her t o explore a world t hat is different from our own, com paring it t o our own cust om s and expect at ions. The st ruct ure of t he pure m ilieu st ory is sim ple: Get a charact er t o t he set t ing t hat t he st ory is about , and t hen devise reasons for her t o m ove t hrough t he world of t he st ory, showing t he reader all t he int erest ing physical and social det ails of t he m ilieu. When you've shown everyt hing you want t he reader t o see, bring t he charact er hom e. I n m ost pure m ilieu st ories, t he m ain charact er is a person from t he writ er's and readers' own t im e and place, so t hat t he charact er will experience t he world wit h t he reader's at t it udes and percept ions.

I n a pure m ilieu st ory, t he less you charact erize t he m ain charact er, t he bet t er. Her j ob is t o st and in t he place of all t he readers. I f you m ake t he charact er t oo m uch of an individual, you draw t he readers' at t ent ion t o her and away from t he m ilieu; inst ead, you want t o keep t he readers' at t ent ion on t he m ilieu. So t he m ain charact er's react ions t o everyt hing t hat happens m ust be as " norm al" as possible ( what t he reader would expect anybody t o do in t hose circum st ances) . The charact er m ight have a wry hum or or a part icular slant t o her observat ions, but t he m ore you call at t ent ion t o t he charact er, t he less t he st ory t ends t o be about t he m ilieu. Few st ories, however, are " pure" m ilieu st ories. Travelogues, Ut opian fict ion, sat ires, and nat ural science t end t o be t he only genres in which t he pure m ilieu st ory can be found. More oft en, st ories em phasize m ilieu but develop ot her st ory fact ors as well. Alt hough t he set t ing m ight be t he prim ary focus, t here is also a st rong st ory line. The reader t hen absorbs 50 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT t he m ilieu indirect ly. I n t hese st ories, t he m aj or charact ers don't have t o com e from t he readers' own t im e; usually, in fact , t hey'll be perm anent resident s of t he st ory's m ilieu. The charact ers' own at t it udes and expect at ions are part of t he cult ural am bience, and t heir very st rangeness and un- fam iliarit y is part of t he readers' experience of t he m ilieu. Such st ories will seem t o have t he st ruct ure of anot her kind of t ale- but t he aut hor will reveal t hat t he m ilieu is a m ain concern by t he close at t ent ion paid t o t he surroundings. The charact ers will be chosen, not j ust for t heir int rinsic int erest , but also because t hey t ypify cert ain kinds or classes of people wit hin t he cult ure. The charact ers are m eant t o fascinat e us, not because we underst and t hem or share t heir desires, but because of t heir st rangeness, and what t hey can t each us about an alien cult ure. This kind of st ory is fairly com m on in science fict ion and fant asy, where t he m ilieu, t he world of t he st ory, is oft en t he m ain at t ract ion. Frank Herbert ( Dune) , and J.R.R. Tolkien ( The Lord of t he Rings) are m ost not ed for works in which t he st ory line is not t ight ly st ruct ured and t he charact ers t end t o be t ypes rat her t han individuals, yet t he m ilieu is carefully, lovingly drawn. I n such m ilieu st ories t he aut hor feels free t o digress from t he m ain st ory line wit h long passages of explanat ion, descript ion, or depict ion of t he cult ure. The reader who isn't int erest ed in t he m ilieu will quickly becom e bored and set t he st ory aside; but t he reader w ho is fascinat ed by t he world of t he st ory will read on, rapt , t hrough pages of songs and poet ry and rit uals and ordinary daily life. How m uch charact erizat ion does a m ilieu st ory need? Not very m uch. Most charact ers need only be st ereot ypes w it hin t he cult ure of t he m ilieu, act ing out exact ly t he role t heir societ y expect s of t hem , wit h perhaps a few eccent ricit ies t hat help m ove t he st ory along. I t is no accident t hat when Tolkien assem bled t he Fellowship of t he Ring in his The Lord of t he Rings t rilogy, t here was only one dwarf and one elf- had t here been m ore, it would have been nearly

im possible t o t ell t hem apart , j ust as few readers can rem em ber t he difference bet ween t he t wo generic hobbit s Merry and Pippin. Because The Lord of t he Rings was not a pure m ilieu st ory, t here are som e heroic m aj or charact ers w ho are m ore t han local st ereot ypes, and som e t hat approach full charact erizat ionbut charact erizat ion sim ply isn't a m aj or fact or in t he appeal of t he book. Besides science fict ion and fant asy, m ilieu st ories oft en crop up in academ ic/ lit erary fict ion ( " This st ory absolut ely is cont em porary suburban life" ) and hist orical fict ion ( t hough m ost hist oricals nowadays focus on t he rom ance rat her t han t he set t ing) , while m ilieu plays an im port ant role in m any t hrillers. Milieu is t he ent ire definit ion of t he west ern. Are you writ ing a m ilieu st ory? I s it m ost ly t he set t ing t hat you work on in loving det ail? That doesn't m ean t hat you can ignore charact er, especially if you're t rying t o t ell a com pelling st ory wit hin t he m ilieu; but it does m ean t hat a lot of fully drawn charact ers aren't really necessary t o your st ory, and m ight even be dist ract ing. What Kind of St ory Are You Telling? The idea st ory has a sim ple st ruct ure. A problem or quest ion is posed at t he beginning of t he st ory, and at t he end of t he t ale t he answer is revealed. Murder m yst eries use t his st ruct ure: Som eone is found m urdered, and t he rest of t he st ory is devot ed t o discovering who did it , why, and how. Caper st ories also follow t he idea st ory st ruct ure: A problem is posed at t he beginning ( a bank t o rob, a rich and dangerous m ark t o con) , t he m ain charact er or charact ers devise a plan, and we read on t o find out if t heir plan is in fact t he " answer" t o t he problem . I nvariably som et hing goes wrong and t he charact ers have t o im provise, but t he st ory is over when t he problem is solved. How m uch charact erizat ion is needed? I n puzzle or locked- room m yst eries, t here is no need for charact erizat ion at all; m ost aut hors use only a few eccent ricit ies t o " sweet en" t he charact ers, part icularly t he det ect ive. I n classic English m yst eries, like t hose of Agat ha Christ ie, charact erizat ion rarely goes beyond t he requirem ent t hat a fairly large group of people m ust have enough of a m ot ive for m urder t hat each can legit im at ely be suspect ed of having com m it t ed t he crim e. The Am erican det ect ive novel t ends t o dem and a lit t le m ore charact erizat ion. The det ect ive him self is usually m ore t han a t ight lit t le bundle of eccent ricit ies; inst ead, he responds t o t he people around him , not as pieces t o be fit t ed int o t he puzzle, but as sad or dangerous or good or pat het ic hum an beings. Such t ales, like t hose of Raym ond Chandler or Ross MacDonald, require t he det ect ive t o be a keen observer of ot her people, and t heir individual nat ures oft en t wist and t urn t he st ory line. However, such charact ers- including t he det ect ive- are rarely changed; t he st ory only reveals who t hey are. I n t hese novels, t he charact ers' t rue nat ures are am ong t he quest ions t hat t he det ect ive- and t he reader- t ries t o answer during t he course of t he st ory.

Caper st ories, on t he ot her hand, generally don't require t hat t heir charact ers be m uch m ore t han charm ing or am using, and only rarely is t here any at t em pt t o show a charact er being t ransform ed by t he event s in t he t ale. I n fact , it is t he very lack of change in t he charact ers in m yst ery, det ect ive, and caper st ories t hat allows writ ers t o use t he sam e charact ers over and over again, t o t he delight of t heir readers. A few writ ers have fairly recent ly t ried t o change t hat , developing and changing t heir det ect ive charact ers from book t o book. But t hat very process of change can end up severely lim it ing t he fut ure possibilit ies of t he charact er. When t he t it le charact er of Gregory Mcdonald's Flet ch series becam e very rich, it m ade it very difficult t o put him in sit uat ions where he act ually needed t o solve a m yst ery; Mcdonald finally resort ed t o writ ing t he pre- quels Flet ch Won and Flet ch, Too, which t ook place before Flet ch got rich, 52 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT and has announced his int ent ion t o st op writ ing Flet ch novels. Robert Parker t ook his charact er Spenser even furt her, showing him wit h ongoing and developing relat ionships, wit h friendships and t ransform at ions t hat begin in one book and are not forgot t en in t he next . The result , however, has been a t endency in recent years t o reach for increasingly far- fet ched plot s or t o repeat st ory lines from t he past . I t 's hard t o do full, rich charact erizat ion in an idea st ory. Don't get m e wrong, t hough- I don't t hink it 's a m ist ake t o at t em pt full charact erizat ion in idea st ories; Flet ch and Spenser are t wo of m y favorit e m yst ery charact ers precisely because of t he richer- t han- norm al charact erizat ion and t he possibilit y of perm anent change. You sim ply need t o recognize t hat if you choose t o do full charact erizat ion in an idea st ory, com plet e wit h charact er t ransform at ion, t here is a price. There are idea st ories in ot her genres, of course. Many a science fict ion st ory follows t he idea st ruct ure perfect ly: Charact ers are faced wit h a problem - a m alfunct ioning spaceship is one of t he favorit es- and, as wit h a caper, t he st ory consist s of finding a plan t o solve t he problem and carrying it out , wit h im provisat ions as needed. Charact erizat ion is not needed, except t o m ake t he charact ers ent ert aining- eccent ricit y is usually enough. Allegory is a form in which t he idea is everyt hing. The aut hor has com posed t he st ory according t o a plan; t he reader's j ob is t o decode t he plan. Charact ers in allegory are rarely m ore t han figures st anding for ideas. While allegory is rarely writ t en t oday, m any writ ers of academ ic/ lit erary fict ion use sym bolism in m uch t he sam e way- charact ers exist prim arily t o st and for an idea, and readers m ust decode t he sym bolic st ruct ure in order t o receive t he st ory. Does all t his m ean t hat idea st ories require " bad" charact erizat ion? Not at all. I t m eans t hat appropriat e charact erizat ion for an idea st ory is not necessarily t he sam e t hing as appropriat e charact erizat ion for anot her kind of st ory.

Charact ers st and for ideas, or exist prim arily t o discover t hem ; a charact er who fulfills her role perfect ly m ay be no m ore t han a st ereot ype or a bundle of eccent ricit ies, and yet she'll be charact erized perfect ly for t hat st ory. CHARACTER The charact er st ory is about a person t rying t o change his role in life. I t begins at t he point when t he m ain charact er finds his present sit uat ion int olerable and set s out t o change; it ends w hen t he charact er eit her finds a new role, willingly ret urns t o t he old one, or despairs of im proving his lot . What is a charact er's " role" ? I t is his net work of relat ionships wit h ot her people and wit h societ y at large. My role in life is fat her t o m y children- wit h a different relat ionship wit h each; husband t o m y wife; son and brot her t o t he fam ily I grew up wit h. I have a com plex relat ionship wit h each of t he lit erary com m unit ies I writ e for, wit h t he full assort m ent of fans and crit ics; I also have a const ant ly shift ing role wit hin m y religious What Kind of St ory Are You Telling? com m unit y, for which I also writ e. Like every ot her hum an being, I have som e int erest s and longings t hat aren't sat isfied wit hin t he present pat t ern of m y life, but in m ost cases I foresee ways of fulfilling t hose desires wit hin t he reasonably near fut ure. All of t hese relat ionships, t oget her, are m y " role in life." I 'm reasonably cont ent wit h m y life; it would be difficult t o writ e a charact er st ory about m e, because st ories about happy people are boring. The charact er st ory em erges when som e part of a charact er's role in life becom es unbearable. A charact er dom inat ed by a vicious, whim sical parent or spouse; an em ployee who has becom e discont ent ed wit h his j ob, wit h growing dist ast e for t he people he works wit h; a m ot her weary of her nurt uring role and longing for respect from adult s; a career crim inal consum ed by fear and longing t o get away; a lover whose part ner has been unfait hful and can't bear t o live wit h t he bet rayal. The im possible sit uat ion m ay have been going on for som e t im e, but t he st ory does not begin unt il t he sit uat ion com es t o a headunt il t he charact er reaches t he point where t he cost of st aying becom es t oo high a price t o pay. Som et im es t he prot agonist of a charact er st ory cut s loose from t he old role very easily, and t he st ory consist s of a search for a new one. Som et im es t he new role is easy t o envision, but breaking away from t he old bonds is very hard t o do. " Cut t ing loose" doesn't always m ean physically leaving- t he m ost com plex and difficult charact er st ories are t he ones about people who t ry t o change a relat ionship wit hout abandoning t he person. Needless t o say, t he charact er st ory is t he one t hat requires t he fullest charact erizat ion. No short cut s are possible. Readers m ust underst and t he charact er in t he original, im possible role, so t hat t hey com prehend and, usually, sym pat hize wit h t he decision t o change. Then t he charact er's changes m ust be j ust ified so t hat t he reader never doubt s t hat t he change is possible; you can't j ust have a worn- out hooker suddenly go t o college wit hout showing

us t hat t he hunger for educat ion and t he int ellect ual abilit y t o pursue it have always been part of her charact er. Rem em ber, t hough, t hat not all t he people in a charact er st ory m ust be fully charact erized. The prot agonist - t he charact er w hose change is t he subj ect of t he st ory- m ust be fully charact erized; so, t oo, m ust each person whose relat ionship wit h t he prot agonist is part of his need for change or his new and sat isfact ory role. But ot her people in t he st ory will be charact erized less fully, j ust as in m any m ilieu, idea, and event st ories. Charact erizat ion is not a virt ue, it is a t echnique; you use it when it will enhance your st ory, and when it won't , you don't . EVENT Every st ory is an event st ory in t he sense t hat from t im e t o t im e som et hing happens t hat has causes and result s. But t he st ory in which t he event s are t he cent ral concern follows a part icular pat t ern: The world is som ehow out of order- call it im balance, inj ust ice, breakdown, evil, decay, dis54 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT ease- and t he st ory is about t he effort t o rest ore t he old order or est ablish a new one. The event st ory st ruct ure is sim ple: I t begins when t he m ain charact ers becom e involved in t he effort t o heal t he world's disease, and ends when t hey eit her accom plish t heir goal or ut t erly fail t o do so. The world's disorder can t ake m any form s. I t can be a crim e unpunished or unavenged: The Count of Mont e Crist o is a prim e exam ple, as is Oedipus Rex. The disorder can be a usurper- Macbet h, for inst ance- who has st olen a place t hat doesn't belong t o him , or a person who has lost his t rue posit ion in t he world, like Prince Edward in The Prince and t he Pauper. The disorder can be an evil force, bent on dest ruct ion, like Sauron in The Lord of t he Rings or Lord Foul in The Chronicles of Thom as Covenant The Unbeliever- t hat is also t he w ay Nazis, Com m unist s, and t errorist s are oft en used in t hrillers. The disorder can be an illicit love t hat cannot be allowed t o endure and yet cannot be denied, as in Wut hering Height s and t he t radit ional st ories of Lancelot and Guinevere or Trist an and I solde. The disorder can be a bet rayal of t rust , as in t he m edieval rom ance Havelok t he Dane- or t he rom ance of Wat ergat e t hat was enact ed in Am erica's newspapers and t elevision news during t he early 1970s. I t hink t hat t he event st ory- t he st ruct ure at t he heart of t he rom ant ic t radit ion for m ore t han t wo t housand years- m ight well be t he reason for t he exist ence of St ory it self. I t arises out of t he hum an need t o m ake sense of t he t hings happening around us; t he event st ory st art s wit h t he assum pt ion t hat som e sort of order should exist in t he world, and our very belief in order in fict ion helps us t o creat e order in realit y. How im port ant is charact erizat ion in t he event st ory? Most of t he t im e, it 's up t o t he aut hor. I t 's possible t o t ell a powerful event st ory in which t he charact ers are not hing m ore t han what t hey do and why t hey do it - we can

com e out of such t ales feeling as if we know t he charact er because we have lived t hrough so m uch wit h her, even t hough we've learned alm ost not hing about t he ot her aspect s of her charact er. ( Alt hough Lancelot , for inst ance, is a m aj or act or in t he Art hurian legends, he's seldom been depict ed as a com plex individual beyond t he sim ple fact s of his relat ionship t o Art hur and t o Guinevere.) Yet it is also possible t o charact erize several people in t he st ory wit hout at all int erfering wit h t he forward m ovem ent of t he t ale. I n fact , t he process of invent ing charact ers oft en int roduces m ore st ory possibilit ies, so t hat event and charact er bot h grow. THE CONTRACT WI TH THE READER Whenever you t ell a st ory, you m ake an im plicit cont ract wit h t he reader. Wit hin t he first few paragraphs or pages, you t ell t he reader im plicit ly what kind of st ory t his is going t o be; t he reader t hen knows what t o expect , and holds t he t hread of t hat st ruct ure t hroughout t he t ale. I f you begin wit h a m urder, for inst ance, and focus on t hose charact ers who have reason t o find out how, why, and by whom t he m urder was com m it t ed, t he reader can reasonably expect t hat t he st ory will cont inue unt il t hose quest ions are answ ered- t he reader expect s an idea st ory. What Kind of St ory Are You Telling? I f, on t he ot her hand, you begin wit h t he m urder vict im 's wife, concent rat ing on how widowhood has caused a sudden, unbearable disrupt ion in t he pat t erns of her life, t he reader can fairly expect t hat t he st ory will use t he charact er st ruct ure, following t he widow unt il she finds an accept able new role for herself. Choosing one st ruct ure does not preclude using anot her. For inst ance, in t he first version of t he st ory, t he m urder m yst ery, you can also follow t he widow's at t em pt s t o find a new role for herself. The reader will gladly follow t hat st ory line as a subplot , and will be delight ed if you resolve it along wit h t he m yst ery. However, t he reader would feel cheat ed if you began t he novel as a m yst ery, but ended it when t he widow falls in love and rem arries- wit hout ever solving t he m yst ery at all! You can do t hat once, perhaps, for effect - but readers w ill feel, right ly, t hat you m isled t hem . On t he ot her hand, if you est ablish at t he beginning of t he st ory t hat it is about t he widow herself and her search for a new role in life, you can also weave t he m yst ery int o t he st ory line as a subplot ; if you do, readers will expect you t o resolve t he m yst ery, but t hey won't regard t hat as t he clim ax of t he st ory. They would right ly be out raged if you ended t he book wit h t he explanat ion of t he m yst ery- and left t he widow st ill in a st at e of flux. The rule of t hum b is t his: Readers will expect a st ory t o end when t he first m aj or source of st ruct ural t ension is resolved. I f t he st ory begins as an idea st ory, t he reader expect s it t o end when t he idea is discovered, t he plan unfolded. I f t he st ory begins as a m ilieu st ory, readers will gladly follow any num ber of st ory lines of every t ype, let t ing t hem be resolved here and t here

as needed, cont inuing t o read in order t o discover m ore of t he m ilieu. A st ory t hat begins wit h a charact er in an int olerable sit uat ion will not feel finished unt il t he charact er is fully cont ent or finally resigned. A st ory t hat begins wit h an unbalanced world will not end unt il t he world is balanced, j ust ified, reordered, healed- or ut t erly dest royed beyond hope of rest orat ion. I t 's as if you begin t he st ory by pushing a boulder off t he t op of a hill. No m at t er what else happens before t he end of t he st ory, t he reader will not be sat isfied unt il t he boulder com es t o rest som ewhere. That is your first cont ract wit h t he reader- you will end what you began. Digressions will be t olerat ed, t o a point ; but digressions will alm ost never be accept ed as a subst it ut e for fulfilling t he original cont ract . You also m ake a second cont ract all t he way t hrough a st ory: Anyt hing you spend m uch t im e on will am ount t o som et hing in t he st ory. I rem em ber seeing one of Bob Hope's and Bing Crosby's road m ovies when I was a child- The Road t o Rio, I t hink. I n it , t he direct or const ant ly int errupt s t he m ain st ory t o show Jerry Colonna, t heir m ust achioed com ic sidekick, leading a t roop of m ount ed soldiers t o rescue our heroes. I n t he end, however, t he st ory is com plet ely resolved wit hout Colonna's cavalry ever arriving. The direct or cut s one last t im e t o Colonna, who pulls his horse t o a st op, looks at t he cam era, and says som et hing like, " I t didn't am ount t o anyt hing, but it was t hrilling, wasn't it ?" I t was very funny- but t he hum or rest ed ent irely on t he fact t hat when a st ory spends t im e on a charact er, an 56 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT event , a quest ion, or a set t ing, t he audience expect s t hat t he m ain t hread of t he st ory will som ehow be affect ed by it . Exam ine your st ory, eit her in your head, in out line, or in draft form . What is it t hat m ost int erest s you? Where are you spending t he m ost t im e and effort ? Are you const ant ly researching or invent ing m ore det ails about t he set t ing? I s it t he det ailed unraveling of t he m yst ery t hat fascinat es you? Do you const ant ly find yourself exploring a charact er? Or is it t he act ual event s t hat you care about m ost ? Your st ory will work best when you use t he st ruct ure dem anded by t he fact or t hat you care m ost about . I f you love t he m yst ery, st ruct ure t he t ale as an idea st ory- begin wit h t he quest ion and devot e t he bulk of your st ory t im e t o answering it . I f you care m ost about t he m ilieu, let t he reader know it from t he st art by beginning wit h a charact er's arrival in t he new world ( how long does it t ake Alice t o get down t he rabbit hole or t hrough t he looking glass int o Wonderland?) or by concent rat ing on t he det ails of t he place and cult ure; t hen spend t he bulk of your t im e discovering t he wonders and curiosit ies of t he m ilieu. I f you care m ost about a charact er, begin wit h his or her dilem m a and spend t he bulk of your t im e on t he effort t oward change. I f you care m ost about t he event s, begin at t he point where t he charact ers becom e involved wit h t he world's

sickness, and spend t he bulk of your t im e in t he st ory on t heir effort s t o rest ore balance. The t echniques and st ruct ures of t he ot her st ory fact ors are always available t o you for subplot s or com plicat ions, but keep t hem in a relat ively subordinat e posit ion. I n The Lord of t he Rings, t here are several event st ories going on wit hin t he overall m ilieu st ory- Aragorn, t he out - of- place king, com ing t o t ake his right ful t hrone; Denet hor, t he st eward who reached for power beyond his abilit y t o cont rol, t hreat ening t he safet y of t he kingdom and t he life of his son unt il Gandalf finally succeeds in st opping him ; Frodo, Sam wise, and Gollum , t he t hree hobbit ringbearers, in t heir t wist ed, braided pat hs t o t he cracks of doom where, by cast ing in t he ring, t hey will be able t o put an end t o t he evil, dest ruct ive power of Sauron. Yet when all t hese st ory lines are resolved, t he reader is not disappoint ed t o find t hat t he st ory goes on. Tolkien begins a com plet ely new st ory line, t he Scouring of t he Shire, which is relat ed t o t he ot her st ories but is barely hint ed at unt il t he hobbit s act ually com e hom e. Even t hen t he t ale is not done- Tolkien st ill has t o show us Frodo sailing west , along wit h t he elves who can no longer live in Middle Eart h, at least not in t heir form er glory. Was t his t he resolut ion of a quest ion raised at t he beginning of t he book? No. Nor was it t he resolut ion of a charact er dilem m aFrodo was quit e cont ent when t he st ory began. And Frodo's and t he elves' presence in Middle Eart h was not , when t he st ory began, a disequilibrium t hat needed t o be resolved. So why are we st ill reading? Because The Lord of t he Rings is a m ilieu st ory. The aut hor est ablishes from t he beginning t hat he is going t o spend large am ount s of t im e sim ply exploring t he world of Middle Eart h. We are going t o have det ailed account s of birt hday part ies, village life, cust om s and habit s of t he people; we will visit wit h Tom Bom badil, who has alm ost not hing t o do wit h t he st ory, but has everyt hing t o do wit h t he unWhat Kind of St ory Are You Telling? 57 derlying m yt hos of Middle Eart h; we linger wit h t he Ent s, we pass t hrough t he Mines of Moria, we visit wit h t he Riders of Rohan, t ravel wit h t he legendary dead; and while Tolkien weaves all t hese places and peoples int o a st ory t hat is generally int erest ing, som et im es creat ing charact ers we care about , t here is no st ory line or charact er t hat becom es our sole reason for reading. I t is t he world it self t hat Tolkien cared m ost about , and so t he audience for t he st ory is going t o be t hose readers who also com e t o love t he w orld of Middle Eart h. So it is no accident t hat t he st ory does not end unt il we see, clearly, t hat Middle Eart h has ceased t o exist as it was- we are ent ering a new age, and t he m ilieu we were exploring is now closed. All t he MI CE fact ors are present in The Lord of t he Rings, but it is t he m ilieu st ruct ure t hat predom inat es, as it should. I t would be absurd t o crit icize The Lord of t he Rings for not having plot unit y and int egrit y, because it is not an

event st ory. Likewise, it would be absurd t o crit icize t he book for it s st ereot yped one- t o- a- race charact ers or for t he m any charact ers about whom we learn lit t le m ore t han what t hey do in t he st ory and why t hey do it , because t his is not a charact er st ory. I n fact , we should probably praise Tolkien for having done such a good j ob of working credit able st ory lines and t he occasional ident ifiable charact er int o a st ory t hat was, aft er all, about Som et hing Else. I 'm dwelling on t hese st ruct ural m at t ers at som e lengt h because t his is a book on charact erizat ion, and for us writ ers t o charact erize well, we m ust charact erize appropriat ely. Charact er st ories really cam e int o t heir own at t he beginning of t he t went iet h cent ury, and bot h t he novelt y and t he ext raordinary brilliance of som e of t he writ ers who worked wit h t his st ory st ruct ure have led m any crit ics and t eachers t o believe t hat only t his kind of st ory can be " good." This m ay be a t ruej udgm ent for m any individuals- t hat is, t he only kind of st ory t hey enj oy is t he charact er st ory- but it is not t rue in t he abst ract , for t he ot her kinds of st ories have long t radit ions, wit h m any exam ples of brilliance along t he way. However, charact er st ories have been so dom inant t hat t hey have forced st oryt ellers in t he ot her t radit ions t o pay m ore at t ent ion t o charact erizat ion. Even t hough a st ory m ay follow t he idea, m ilieu, or event st ruct ure, m any readers expect a deeper level of charact erizat ion. The st ory is not about a t ransform at ion of charact er, but t he readers st ill expect t o get t o know t he charact ers; and even when t hey don't expect it , t hey are willing t o allow t he aut hor t o devot e a cert ain am ount of at t ent ion t o charact er wit hout regarding it as a digression. This is t he fashion of our t im e, and you can't disregard it . But it 's a m ist ake t o t hink t hat deep, det ailed charact erizat ion is an absolut e virt ue in st oryt elling. You have t o look at your own reason for t elling a st ory. I f it 's t he puzzle- t he idea- t hat at t ract s you, t hen t hat will probably be t he fact or in your st ory t hat you handle best ; your nat ural audience will consist of readers w ho also care m ost about t he idea. A cert ain am ount of at t ent ion t o charact erizat ion m ay help broaden your audience and increase your readers' pleasure in t he st ory, but if you go int o charact erizat ion as an unpleasant chore, som et hing you m ust do in order t o be a " good writ er," chances are your charact erizat ion will be m echanical and 58 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT ineffect ive, and inst ead of broadening your audience, it will int erfere wit h your st ory. I f you don't care about or believe in a charact er's deepest drives and t roubled past , neit her will your readers. So if you choose not t o devot e m uch t im e t o charact erizat ion in a part icular st ory, t his won't necessarily m ean you " failed" or " wrot e badly." I t m ay m ean t hat you underst and yourself and your st ory. And because you chose t o t ell one st ory in w hich charact erizat ion played a lesser role doesn't m ean you " can't charact erize." A good underst anding of

charact erizat ion includes knowing when it 's appropriat e t o concent rat e on charact er- and when it isn't . CHAPTER 6 THE HI ERARCHY NOT ALL CHARACTERS ARE CREATED EQUAL. I n earlier chapt ers we've t alked about m aj or and m inor charact ers, wit hout defining t he t erm s. You m ust know- and let your readers know- which charact ers are m ost im port ant t o t he st ory, so t hey'll know which are wort h following and caring about , and which will quickly disappear. I t 's hard t o m easure t he exact im port ance of a charact er- im port ance doesn't com e in quart s or by t he inch. But t here are t hree general levels of im port ance, and t he dist inct ions can be useful. 1. Walk- ons and placeholders. You won't develop t hese charact ers at all; t hey're j ust people in t he background, m eant t o lend realism or perform a sim ple funct ion and t hen disappear, forgot t en. 2. Minor charact ers. These charact ers m ay m ake a difference in t he plot , but we aren't supposed t o get em ot ionally involved wit h t hem , eit her negat ively or posit ively. We don't expect t hem t o keep showing up in t he st ory. Their desires and act ions m ight cause a t wist in t he st ory, but play no role in shaping it s ongoing flow. I n fact , a rule of t hum b is t hat a m inor charact er does one or t wo t hings in t he st ory and t hen disappears. 3. Maj or charact ers. This group includes t he people we care about ; we love t hem or hat e t hem , fear t hem or hope t hey succeed. They show up again and again in t he st ory. The st ory is, t o one degree or anot her, about t hem , and we expect t o find out what happens t o t hem by t he end. Their desires and act ions drive t he st ory forw ard and carry it t hrough all it s t wist s and t urns. Rem em ber, t hough, t hat t here is no wall dividing one level from t he ot hers. I n your st ory, Pet e and Nora m ay be t he m ain charact ers, but t heir friends Morry and Dolores and Pet e's boss Edgar and Nora's brot her Shawn are also fairly m aj or, and we expect t o know m ore about t hem ; and t hen t here's Pet e's secret ary and t he doorm an, who bot h do som e pret t y im port ant t hings in t he st ory, t hough we aren't aw are of deep personal di59 60 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT lem m as in t heir lives; and we cert ainly will rem em ber t he weird t axi driver and t he I ndian cop and . . . So where is t he dividing line bet ween m aj or and m inor? There isn't one. But we know t hat Pet e and Nora are t he m ost im port ant ; Morry, Dolores, Edgar, and Shawn are som ewhat im port ant ; Pet e's secret ary and t he doorm an are som ewhat im port ant but st ill pret t y m inor; and t he weird t axi driver and t he I ndian cop are definit ely m inor but cert ainly not m ere walk- ons. The different levels shade int o each ot her. And as you m ast er t he t echniques appropriat e t o

each level, you'll be able t o creat e each charact er at exact ly t he level of im port ance t he st ory requires. WALK- ONS AND PLACEHOLDERS Unless your st ory t akes place in a herm it age or a desert island, your m ain charact ers are surrounded by m any people who are ut t erly unim port ant in t he st ory. They are background; t hey are part of t he m ilieu. Here are a few sam ples t hat show what I m ean. Nora accident ally gave t he cabby a t went y for a five- dollar ride and t hen was t oo shy t o ask for change. Wit hin a m inut e a skycap had t he rest of her m oney. Pet e checked at t he desk for his m essages. There weren't any, but t he bellm an did have a package for him . People st art ed honking t heir horns before Nora even knew t here was a t raffic j am . Apparent ly som e suspicious neighbor had called t he cops. The uniform who arrest ed him wasn't int erest ed in Pet e's explanat ions, and he soon found him self at t he precinct headquart ers. Not ice how m any people we've " m et " in t hese few sent ences. A cabby, a skycap, a hot el desk clerk, a bellm an, horn- honkers in a t raffic j am , a suspicious neighbor, a uniform ed police officer. Every single one of t hese people is designed t o fulfill a brief role in t he st ory and t hen vanish com plet ely out of sight . Part of t he Scenery How do you m ake people vanish? Any st age direct or knows t he t rick. You have a crowd of people on st age, m ost of t hem walk- ons. They have t o be t here because ot herwise t he set t ing wouldn't be realist ic- but you don't want t hem t o dist ract t he audience's at t ent ion. I n effect , you want t hem t o be like scenery. They really aren't charact ers at all- t hey're m ovable pieces of m ilieu. So you dress t hem in drab or sim ilar clot hing, and m ake your m ain charact ers' cost um es cont rast sharply wit h t he crowd. I f possible, you m ake t he walk- ons hold absolut ely st ill; if t hey have t o m ove, you m ake The Hierarchy t hem m ove as sm oot hly and gent ly as possible. You do not allow t hem t o m ake noise except when you want general crowd noises. You m ake t hem keep t heir at t ent ion rivet ed eit her on t heir own quiet t ask or on t he m ain act ion of t he scene. You t urn t hem so t hey're facing generally upst age. You never let any one walk- on st ay on st age for very long, or t he audience st art s expect ing him t o do som et hing. The surest way for a walk- on t o get him self fired from a play is t o becom e " creat ive" - t o st art fidget ing or doing som e clever bit of st age business t hat dist ract s at t ent ion from t he m ain act ion of t he scene. Unless, of course, t his is

one of t hose rare occasions when t he walk- on's new business is brilliant ly funny- in which case, you m ight even pay him m ore and elevat e t he part . You have t he sam e opt ions in fict ion. I f a charact er who isn't supposed t o m at t er st art s get t ing out of hand, dist ract ing from t he m ain t hread of t he st ory, you eit her cut her out ent irely, or you figure out why you as a writ er were so int erest ed in her t hat you've spent m ore t im e on her t han you m eant t o, and revise t he st ory t o m ake her m at t er m ore. Most of t he t im e, t hough, you want your walk- ons t o disappear. You want t hem t o fade back and be part of t he scenery, part of t he m ilieu. How do you do it in fict ion? . St ereot ypes We t alked about st ereot ypes in Chapt er 1, and I t old you t hen t hat som et im es st ereot yping would be exact ly t he t ool of charact erizat ion you need. This is t he t im e. A st ereot ype is a charact er who is a t ypical m em ber of a group. He does exact ly w hat t he readers expect him t o do. Therefore t hey t ake no not ice of him - he disappears int o t he background. As ordinary hum an beings, we m ay not like a part icular st ereot ype if we happen t o be t he m em ber of a group we t hink is viewed unfairly. But as writ ers, writ ing t o our own com m unit y, we can't help but be aware of and use our com m unit y st ereot ypes in order t o m ake placeholding charact ers behave exact ly according t o expect at ions. I f we t hink t hat a part icular st ereot ype is unfair t o t he group it supposedly explains, t hen we're free t o deliberat ely violat e t he st ereot ype. But t he m om ent we do t hat , we have m ade t he charact er st range, which will m ake him at t ract t he readers' at t ent ion. He will no longer sim ply disappear- he isn't a walk- on anym ore. He has st epped forward out of t he m ilieu and j oined t he st ory. MI NOR CHARACTERS There's not hing wrong wit h a background charact er violat ing st ereot ype and at t ract ing at t ent ion- as long as you realize t hat he isn't part of t he background anym ore. The readers will not ice him , and t hey'll expect his st rangeness t o am ount t o som et hing. 62 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT The audience st ill isn't supposed t o care m uch about him ; he isn't ex pect ed t o play a cont inuing role in t he st ory. He m ight be m om ent arily in volved in t he act ion, but t hen he'll disappear. St ill, his individualit y will set a m ood, add hum or, m ake t he m ilieu m ore int erest ing or com plet e. The way t o m ake such charact ers inst ant ly m em orable wit hout leading t he au dience t o expect t hem t o do m ore is t o m ake t hem eccent ric, exaggerat ed, or obsessive.

Eccent ricit y Rem em ber t he m ovie Beverly Hills Cop? There w ere hundreds of placeholders in t hat film - t hugs who shot at cops, cops who got shot at , people m illing around in t he hot el lobby, people at t he hot el desk. They all act ed exact ly as you would expect t hem t o act . They vanished. Unless you personally knew an act or who played one of t he walk- ons, you don't rem em ber any of t hem . But I 'll bet t hat as you walked out of t he t heat er, you rem em bered Bronson Pinchot . Not by nam e, of course, not t hen. He was t he desk at t endant in t he art gallery. You know, t he one wit h t he effem inat e m anner and t he weird foreign accent . He had absolut ely not hing t o do wit h t he st ory- if he had been a m ere placeholder, you would never have not iced anyt hing was m issing. So why do you rem em ber him ? I t wasn't t hat he had a foreign accent . I n sout hern California, a Spanish accent would m erely have st ereot yped him ; he would have disappeared. I t wasn't his effem inacy. The audience would m erely see him as a st ereot ypical hom osexual. Again, he would disappear. But t he effem inacy and t he accent were com bined- t he " foreigner" st ereot ype and t he " effet e hom osexual" st ereot ype are rarely used t oget her, and so t he audience was surprised. What 's m ore im port ant , t hough, is t hat t he accent was an eccent ric one, com plet ely unexpect ed. Pinchot based his accent on t he speech of an I sraeli he once knew; t he accent was so rare t hat alm ost no one in t he audience recognized it . I t was a genuinely novel way t o speak. He was not j ust a foreigner, he was a st range and effem inat e foreigner. Furt herm ore, Pinchot 's react ions t o Eddie Murphy- t he hint of annoyance, superiorit y, snot t iness in his t one- m ade him even m ore eccent ric. Eccent ric enough t o st ick in our m inds. How m em orable was he? From t hat bit part , he went direct ly int o t he TV series Perfect St rangers. Which goes t o show t hat you can st ill parlay a bit part int o a career. And yet in Beverly Hills Cop, t hough we rem em bered him , we never expect ed his charact er t o be im port ant in t he st ory. He exist ed only for a few laughs and t o m ake Eddie Murphy's Det roit - cop charact er feel even m ore alien in L.A. Pinchot m anaged t o st eal t he scene- t o get his prom ot ion from walk- on- wit hout dist ort ing t he st ory. He was funny, but he m ade no great difference in t he way t he st ory went . He sim ply am used us for a m om ent . Since he was a m inor charact er, t hat was exact ly w hat he needed t o be. Likewise, in your st ories you need t o realize t hat your m inor charact ers The Hierarchy 63 should not be deeply and carefully charact erized. Like flashbulbs, t hey need t o shine once, bright ly, and t hen get t ossed away. Exaggerat ion Anot her way t o m ake a m inor charact er flash. You t ake a norm al hum an t rait , and m ake it j ust a lit t le- or som et im es a lot - m ore ext rem e, like t he charact er

Sweet - Face in But ch Cassidy and t he Sundance Kid. But ch and t he Kid are in a whorehouse; t he Pinkert on det ect ives ride up on t he st reet below. There w e see a pudgy- faced charact er who looks like t he soul of innocence and believabilit y. But ch t ells Sundance a brief st ory about him - t hat wit h Sweet Face covering for t hem , t hey're safe, because everybody believes him . His innocent look is an exaggerat ion, but sure enough, when Sweet - Face point s out of t own, as if t o say " t hey went t hat away," t he Pin- kert ons t ake off in t hat direct ion. A few m om ent s lat er, t he Pinkert ons ride back, confront Sweet - Face again; Sweet - Face panics and point s st raight t oward t he room where But ch and t he Kid are wat ching. His panic and bet rayal are as exaggerat ed as his innocence was before. He st icks in t he m em ory, and yet we never expect ed him t o be im port ant again in t he plot . Obsessiveness Let 's go back t o t he exam ple I gave before, of Nora's cabby, t he one she paid a t went y for a five- dollar ride. The st ereot ypical react ion- " Hey, t hanks, lady" - is so ordinary we can om it it ent irely. But what if t he cab- driver is obsessive?

" What is it , you t rying t o im press m e? Trying t o show m e you're big t im e? Well,don't suck ego out of m e, lady! I only t ake what I earnl" Nora had no t im e for t his. She hurried away from t he cab. To her surprise, hej um ped out and followed her, shout ing at her wit h as m uch out rage as she'd expect if she hadn't paid him at all. " You can't do t his t o m e in Am erica! " he shout ed. " I 'm a Prot est ant , you never heard of t he Prot est ant work et hic?" Finally she st opped. He caught up wit h her, st ill scolding. " You can't do your rich- lady act wit h m e, you hear m e?" " Shut up," she said. " Give m e back t he t went y." He did, and she gave him a five. " There," she said. " Sat isfied?" His m out h hung open; he looked at t he five in ut t er disbelief. " What is t his! " he said. " No t ip?" Now, t hat 's a guy who won't let go. I f you saw t hat scene in a m ovie or even read it in a novel, chances are you'd rem em ber t he cabdriver. Yet you wouldn't expect him t o be im port ant in t he plot . I f he showed up again it would be for m ore com ic relief, not for anyt hing im port ant . For inst ance, when t he st ory is all but over and Nora is com ing hom e wit h Pet e for a well- earned rest , it could be funny if t hey get in a cab and it t urns out t o be t he sam e driver. The audience would rem em ber him well enough for t hat . But t hey would be out raged if t he cabdriver t urned out t o be an assassin or a long- lost cousin. 64 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT

This would not be t rue, however, if t his were t he first scene in t he st ory. At t he beginning of t he st ory, all t he charact ers are equal- we don't know any of t hem at all. So if in fact you want ed t o t ell t he st ory of how Nora got involved wit h t his obsessive- com pulsive cabdriver- or how t he cabdriver m anaged t o get Nora's at t ent ion so he could st art dat ing her- t his would be a pret t y good beginning. The ot her side of t hat coin is t hat if t he cabdriver is in fact supposed t o be m inor, you could not begin t he st ory wit h t his scene. I f t hese w ere t he first five paragraphs of t he st ory, we would nat urally expect t hat t he st ory w as going t o be about Nora and t he cabby, and when Nora goes on t hrough t he st ory wit hout ever seeing or even t hinking of t he cabdriver again, at som e point m any readers are going t o ask, What was t hat business wit h t he cabdriver all about ? This is because m uch of what m akes t he difference bet ween m aj or and m inor charact ers is t he am ount of t im e you spend on t hem . And t he am ount of t im e is not absolut e- it is relat ive t o t he t ot al lengt h of t he st ory. I n a 1,500- word st ory, t his 150- word sect ion would be 10 percent of t he t ot al- and t hat 's a lot . I n an 80,000- word novel, t his 150- word sect ion would be alm ost vanishingly brief. So t he cabby would seem m ore im port ant in a short st ory t han in a novel. However, if t his scene com es at t he beginning of a st ory, so t hat t he reader doesn't know yet what t he st ory is about , t hen t he cabby is present in t he ent ire 150 words of t he st ory's first scene. At t hat point he seem s t o t he reader t o be alm ost as im port ant as Nora- he is dim inished only by t he fact t hat he is not nam ed and Nora is t he point - of- view charact er. The reader has every reason t o expect t hat t he cabby will am ount t o som et hing. This is why it 's a good idea t o int roduce at least a few m aj or charact ers first , so t hat t he first charact ers t he reader m eet s- t he charact ers who occupy 100 percent of t he opening- really will t urn out t o m at t er t o t he st ory. MAJOR CHARACTERS By now it should be obvious t hat t he m aj or charact ers are t he ones who really m at t er, t he ones t he st ory is, t o one degree or anot her, about . Their choices t urn t he st ory, t heir needs drive t he st ory forward. These are also t he charact ers who m ost need t o be charact erized. Because t hey really m at t er t o t he st ory, you can devot e as m uch t im e t o t hem as st rong charact erizat ion m ight require, and t he rest of t his book is devot ed t o showing you exact ly how t o do full charact erizat ion. There are ot her cues you use t o let t he audience know which charact ers are m aj or, besides t he raw am ount of t im e devot ed t o charact erizat ion: Choices I f a charact er is relat ively powerful- powerful enough t o m ake choices t hat change ot her charact ers' lives- t he audience will rem em ber her bet -

The Hierarchy 65 t er and expect her t o am ount t o som et hing m ore in t he st ory. I f t he ot her charact ers all regard a charact er as dangerous or pow erful, t he readers will, t oo. Focus This leads t o one of t he m ost effect ive t heat rical t echniques for m aking t he audience not ice a charact er- have everyone on st age look at him , list en t o him , or t alk about him behind his back. I f you do enough of t his, you never have t o bring t he charact er on st age. We never see t he t it le charact er in Wait ing for Godot , for inst ance, and yet he is arguably t he m ost im port ant charact er in t he play, and his failure t o arrive is t he m ost im port ant " event ." You can use t he sam e t echnique in fict ion t o focus t he readers' at t ent ion on a charact er whet her he's present or not . I n The Lord of t he Rings, t he charact er of Sauron appears in person only once; beyond t hat , he personally int ervenes in t he st ory only a handful of t im es. Yet he is t he engine driving alm ost every plot t hread, t he focus of everyone's at t ent ion far m ore oft en t han any ot her charact er. The result is t hat readers " rem em ber" Sauron as one of t he m ost im port ant charact ers in The Lord of t he Rings- even t hough he alm ost never appears in t he st ory at all. Frequency of Appearance I f a charact er keeps com ing back, even if she's not all t hat excit ing or powerful, we begin t o expect her t o do som et hing im port ant - or else why would t he writ er keep bringing her up? This is why, when m ovie st ars are evaluat ing a script , t hey'll keep t rack of how m any scenes t heir charact er will be in. I f t hey aren't in enough scenes, t hey won't loom large enough in t he audience's m ind- and t herefore t he film won't be a " st ar vehicle." Som et im es a charact er who should rem ain m inor w ill keep com ing back j ust because of her j ob- a bart ender at t he club where t wo m aj or charact ers regularly m eet , for inst ance. Then you need t o reduce her im port ance- have her say very lit t le, or have subst it ut e bart enders show up on her night off, som et hing t o let t he reader know t hat it doesn't m at t er m uch whet her t he bart ender is t here or not . Act ion A charact er doesn't have t o appear all t hat oft en, as long as every t im e he does appear, what he says and does has an im port ant effect on t he plot . On t he ot her hand, a charact er who is oft en present but does alm ost not hing can quickly fade in t he readers' m em ory. I n t he play Rom eo and Juliet , Rom eo spends a lot of t im e wit h his t wo friends, Benvolio and Mercut io. I n fact , as I rem em ber it Benvolio is present in m ore scenes t han Mercut io, including t he first scene in which we see Rom eo him self. Yet Benvolio is com plet ely forget t able, while Mercut io is one of t he m ost m em orable charact ers in t he play. Why? Because Benvolio never does anyt hing but list en t o people and

m ake a few bland com m ent s, while Mercut io is flam boyant and provocat ive and funny and out rageous, and when he is on66 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT st age he eit her incit es or is deeply involved in every act ion. Rule of t hum b: Passive charact ers will not seem as im port ant as act ive charact ers. Sym pat hy I n anot her chapt er I 'll discuss t echniques for m aking charact ers likable or sym pat het ic; for now, it 's enough t o say t hat t he m ore endearing or charm ing a charact er is, t he m ore t he audience com es t o like her as a hum an being, t he m ore im port ant t hat charact er will be t o t he audience, and t he m ore t hey'll expect t o see what becom es of her. Point of View One of t he m ost pot ent devices for m aking a charact er im port ant t o your readers is t o use t he charact er's point of view. The t hird part of t his book is devot ed t o explaining point of view, so t his will be only a brief reference. Rule of t hum b: When a charact er in t he st ory is used as t he narrat or or viewpoint charact er, his im port ance is great ly increased. There are also som e variables t hat are out of your cont rol. A charact er m ight be ext rem ely im port ant t o som e readers because t hey t hink t hey resem ble him , or because t he charact er resem bles som eone t hey love or hat e. Or a charact er you t hink of as im port ant m ay seem unim port ant t o som e readers because t hey have seen t oo m any charact ers like him - t o t hem , t he charact er has becom e a cliche. I n fact , if your st ory is very popular, it is likely t o be im it at ed- and t he fact t hat t he m arket is flooded wit h im it at ions of your best charact er will soon m ake your charact er feel like an im it at ion, t oo, even t hough he's t he original! But since t hese t hings are generally out of your cont rol, you can't very well use t hem t o help you est ablish your hierarchy of charact ers. The t echniques you can cont rol are: Ordinariness vs. st rangeness The am ount of t im e devot ed t o t he charact er The charact er's pot ent ial for m aking m eaningful choices Ot her charact ers' focus on him The charact er's frequency of appearance The charact er's degree of involvem ent in t he act ion Readers' sym pat hy for t he charact er Narrat ion from t he charact er's point of view As you use t hese t echniques t o varying degrees wit h t he m any charact ers in your st ory, an unconscious ranking of t he charact ers will em erge in t he readers' m inds, st art ing wit h t he least im port ant background charact ers, m oving up t hrough t he m inor charact ers, t o t he m aj or charact ers, and finally

t o t wo or t hree m ain charact ers or a single prot agonist - t he people or person t he st ory is m ost ly about . Chances are you won't be fully aware of t he hierarchy of charact ers 67 The Hierarchy

in your own st ory- it 's alm ost im possible for a st oryt eller t o have all t hese t echniques com plet ely under conscious cont rol. But if you find t hat readers seem not t o not ice a charact er you t hink is im port ant , or if a charact er st art s " t aking over" t he st ory when you don't want him t o, you can use t hese t echniques t o adj ust t he charact er's relat ive im port ance. And when t hese t echniques are under your cont rol, you can play your charact ers t he way a harpist plays each st ring on t he harp, a few at a t im e, for exact ly t he right balance and harm ony. CHAPTER 7 HOW TO RAI SE THE EMOTI ONAL STAKES READI NG A STORY is NOT A PASSI VE PROCESS. While a reader m ay seem t o be sit t ing st ill, slowly t urning pages, in his own m ind he is going t hrough a great m any em ot ions. Underlying all of t hem is a st rong t ension. The st ronger it is, t he m ore t he reader concent rat es on finding out what happens next , t he m ore at t ent ion he pays, t he m ore int ensely he feels all t he em ot ions of t he t ale. The am ount of t ension t he reader feels depends part ly on her em ot ional st at e, her im aginat ion, her abilit y as a reader. But t he st rengt h of t he st ory's t ension also depends on choices you m ake. Som e of t hese choices have t o do wit h t he st ory's st ruct ure- hint ed at in Chapt er 5- and ot hers are sim ply out side t he scope of t his book. However, t here are several t hings you can do wit h charact ers t o raise t he readers' em ot ional st ake in t he st ory, m ake t hem m ore em ot ionally involved in what 's happening, m ake t hem care m ore about t he out com e. SUFFERI NG Pain is a sword wit h t wo edges. The charact er who suffers pain and t he charact er who inflict s it are bot h m ade m ore m em orable and m ore im port ant . Pain can be eit her physical or em ot ional. Great grief and great physical agony, well present ed in t he t ale, can great ly increase t he reader's em ot ional involvem ent . Rem em ber, t hough, t hat you aren't using grief t o m ake t he reader grieve any m ore t han you're using physical pain t o m ake t he reader bleed. Readers don't necessarily feel what t he charact ers are feeling- when t he villain cries out in his agony of defeat , t he reader m ay be cheering inside. But t he int ensit y of t he charact ers' feeling, as long as it rem ains believable and bearable, will great ly int ensify t he reader's feelings- what ever t hey are.

Of course, not all pain is alike. A cut finger doesn't m agnify a charact er very m uch. Ghast ly physical t ort ure can becom e unbearable t o im agine, so t hat t he reader refuses t o rem ain engaged wit h t he st ory and you 68 69 How t o Raise t he Em ot ional St akes lose him com plet ely. The m ost powerful uses of physical and em ot ional pain are som ewhere bet ween t he t rivial and t he unbearable. I n St ephen King's The Dead Zone, t he m ain charact er suffers t erribly: A t raffic accident put s him in a com a for m any years; he loses his career, t he wom an he loves, and m any years of his life. Furt herm ore, when he finally recovers, he cont inues t o suffer in body and soul. And wit h each t winge of pain and grief, t he reader's em ot ional involvem ent in t he st ory becom es m ore int ense. Not ice t hat his pain is bot h physical and em ot ional. The loss of a loved one can weigh as heavily in t he m ind of t he audience as t he loss of a lim b. However, physical pain is m uch easier t o use because it doesn't have t o be prepared for. I f a charact er is t ort ured, as in King's novel Misery, t he audience will wince in sym pat het ic agony even if t hey don't know t he charact er very well- even if t hey have never seen t he charact er before. Em ot ional loss does not com e so easily. I n The Dead Zone, King devot ed several pages t o creat ing a warm , valuable love relat ionship bet ween t he m ain charact er and t he wom an he loves. I t is at a vit al m om ent in t heir relat ionship t hat he has his t errible t raffic accident . Now when he discovers t hat she m arried som eone else during his com a, t he readers know how m uch he loved her, and so t he pain of losing her act ually out weighs t he physical pain he suffered. Suffering loses effect iveness wit h repet it ion. The first t im e a charact er is hit in t he head, t he pain raises her im port ance; t he t hird or fourt h t im e, t he charact er becom es com ic, and her pain is a j oke. Likewise, t he first t im e you m ent ion a charact er's grief, it raises his st at ure and m akes t he reader m ore em ot ionally involved. But if you keep harping on t he charact er's suffering, t he reader begins t o feel t hat t he charact er is whining, and t he reader's em ot ional involvem ent decreases. You can see t his wit h audience react ions t o slasher m ovies- t hose horror flicks in which t he special effect s depart m ent keeps com ing up wit h cool new ways t o dism em ber t he charact ers. The hideous m urders in t hese m ovies were originally devised t o j ack up t he audience's em ot ions, higher and higher wit h each deat h. Rat her sooner t han t hey expect ed, however, m any in t he audience st opped being horrified and began t o laugh. This is not really a sign of t he audience's m oral decay or inabilit y t o em pat hize; it 's sim ply t hat an audience reaches a point when fict ional pain is t oo difficult t o bear. When pain or grief becom e unbearable in real life, hum an beings oft en develop fict ions t o cope wit h it - we call it insanit y. When pain or grief becom e unbearable in fict ion,

readers sim ply disengage from t he st ory, and eit her abandon t he t ale or laugh at it . Does t his m ean t hat pain is a sharply lim it ed charact er device? No- it is alm ost unlim it ed in it s pot ent ial. But you m ust rem em ber t hat you increase t he power of suffering, not by describing t he inj ury or loss in great er det ail, but rat her by showing m ore of it s causes and effect . Blood and gore event ually m ake t he audience gag; sobbing and m oaning event ually earn t he audience's laught er or cont em pt . On t he ot her hand, if you m ake us underst and how int ensely t he charact er loved before losing t he loved one or t rust ed before being bet rayed, t hen his grief will have far great er 70 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT power, even if you show it wit h great econom y. I f you show a charact er coping wit h her pain or grief, refusing t o succum b t o it , t hen readers will wince or weep for her. Anot her rule of t hum b: I f your charact ers cry, your readers won't have t o; if your charact ers have good reason t o cry, and don't , your readers w ill do t he weeping. SACRI FI CE Pain or grief also increase a reader's int ensit y in proport ion t o t he charact er's degree of choice. Pet e has broken his leg on a hike, and Nora has t o set it for him . That scene will be painful, and will cert ainly m agnify bot h charact ers as t hey cause and suffer pain. But Pet e's pain will be far m ore powerful if he is alone and has t o set t he leg him self. As he t ies a rope t o his ankle, passes it around a t ree t runk, braces his good leg and pulls on t he end of t he rope, t he agony which he inflict s on him self will m ake t he scene ut t erly unforget t able, even if we never see his face, even if his agony is never described at all. This works wit h em ot ional suffering as well. The clim ax of t he m ovie Broadcast News com es when Holly Hunt er's charact er is forced t o choose bet ween her desperat e passion for William Hurt 's charm ing but shallow charact er and her int egrit y as a j ournalist , which up t o now has been t he foundat ion of her whole life. When we see her give up her lover in order t o preserve her int egrit y, our em ot ions are far m ore int ense t han t hey would have been if she had lost him under circum st ances beyond her cont rol. Self- chosen suffering for t he sake of a great er good- sacrifice, in ot her words- is far m ore int ense t han pain alone. When one charact er willingly inflict s pain on anot her, t he t ort urer becom es as im port ant , in our fear and loat hing, as t he vict im becom es in our sym pat hy. This is t he ot her side of t he coin of sacrifice. I f a charact er is driving a car and accident ally hit s and inj ures a child, it has a powerful effect . But if a charact er deliberat ely chooses t o cause som eone else pain, t he effect is even st ronger. The audience m ay hat e t he charact er, but t he int ensit y of feeling is m uch st ronger t han when t he charact er caused pain wit hout m eaning t o. I t 's no accident t hat t he m ost m em orable charact er in m any st ories is t he sadist ic villain; t he hero oft en seem s bland and forget t able by com parison. JEOPARDY

Jeopardy is ant icipat ed pain or loss. As anyone who has been t o a dent ist knows, t he ant icipat ion of pain is oft en m ore pot ent t han it s act ualit y. When a charact er is t hreat ened wit h som et hing bad, t he audience aut om at ically focuses it s at t ent ion on him . The m ore helpless t he charact er and t he m ore t errible t he danger, t he m ore im port ance t he audience will at t ach t o t he charact er. That is w hy children in danger are such powerful charact ers; so powerful, in fact , t hat som e film s becom e unbearable t o wat ch. The film Polt ergeist was st rong st uff for t hat reason. Som e horror- m ovie buffs How to Raise t he Em ot ional St akes 71 pooh- poohed t he film because " not hing really happened" ; nobody got gruesom ely killed. What t hey didn't realize is t hat a dozen creat ive slashings of t eenage kids in a spat t er m ovie won't equal t he power of a single scene in which children are being dragged t oward t errible deat h while t heir m ot her st ruggles vainly t o t ry t o reach t hem in t im e. The film s Alien and Aliens crossed t he line for m e. The j eopardy sim ply becam e unbearable. I had t o leave t he t heat er. I have since wat ched bot h film s in t heir ent iret y- but never all at once. I could only wat ch t hem in sect ions, flipping cable channels now and t hen t o break t he t ension caused by t he unrelent ing j eopardy. The great er t he j eopardy, t he st ronger t he pain when t he dreaded event act ually occurs. I n t he TV m ovie The Dollm aker, I did not realize how powerfully t he j eopardy had affect ed m e unt il it was t oo lat e. Perhaps before I had children I could have borne it , but I have children now, and when t he m ot her runs scream ing t o t ry t o snat ch up her lit t le girl before her legs are run over by a m oving t rain, t he t ension in m e built t o a point higher t han I have ever experienced in a st ory. When t he wheels finally reach t he girl before her m ot her does, t he girl's pain, com bined wit h t he clim act ic release of t he exquisit e j eopardy, pushed m e over t he edge. The first t im e I saw t he film I had t o t urn off t he t elevision and weep. I couldn't get cont rol of m yself for fift een m inut es. The writ er had set up t his j eopardy t o be as powerful as it could possibly be. The lit t le girl and t he m ot her had already suffered so m uch em ot ional pain in t he film t hat t he audience already cared deeply about t hem bot h. And t he reason t he girl was off by herself was a painful em ot ional confront at ion. So t he audience's st ake in t hese charact ers was already st rong. As t he j eopardy develops, t he girl is absolut ely helpless- she has no idea t he t rain is about t o m ove. The m ot her is powerless t o rescue her- how can she st op a t rain? How can she scream louder t han t he roaring of t he engines? And t he power of t he t rain is like t he fist of God, it is so irresist ible, so uncom prom ising.

As a result , during t he seconds- it feels like half an hour- when t he m ot her is st ruggling t o get int o t he t rain yard, racing t o t ry t o reach her daught er, t he j eopardy m ade t he charact ers m ore im port ant t o m e, in t hose few m om ent s, t han any charact ers have ever been in m y experience of reading and seeing st ories. I could not bear t o wat ch t hat scene again. I don't have t o. I can relive every m om ent of it in m y m em ory. This part icular exam ple is m ore powerful t han m ost j eopardy sit uat ions, of course, but it does show how j eopardy works. Jeopardy m agnifies t he st alker, t he savior, and t he prey, j ust as pain and sacrifice m agnify sufferer and t orm ent or alike. Pain and j eopardy work hand in hand, t oo. I n St ephen King's Misery, t he hero is already in great pain from an aut om obile accident , but he is in danger of even worse suffering from t he insane wom an who holds him incom m unicado and drugged t o t he gills in her rem ot e m ount ain hom e. The danger of great er pain is const ant , as she regulat es him by wit hholding drugs. But t hen com es t he t errible m om ent when she act ually m aim s him , cut t ing off first one part of his body, t hen anot her. I t m akes t he j eop72 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT ardy all t he m ore t errible, t o know absolut ely t hat she m eans t o carry out her t hreat s. I t 's im port ant t o rem em ber t hat j eopardy only w orks t o increase t he audience's t ension if t he audience believes t hat t he dreaded event m ight act ually happen. I n old- fashioned m elodram as, t he j eopardy was oft en grot esque- t he hero was t ied t o a log heading int o t he sawm ill; t he heroine was bound t o t he railroad t racks as t he t rain approached. But t he audience event ually realized t hat t here was no chance ( in t hose days) t hat t he st oryt eller would ever allow t he hero t o be cut t o ribbons by t he saw, or t he heroine t o be spat t ered along t he t racks by t he t rain. Cont em porary st andards of decorum sim ply did not allow such t hings t o be shown in a st ory. Writ ers of m elodram a, aware t hat grot esque j eopardy had finally becom e unbelievable- and t herefore laughable- swit ched t act ics. I nst ead of t rying t o find ever- m ore- horrible t hreat s, t hey used very sim ple t hreat s, but t hey m ade t hem com e t rue. The first t im e a writ er had t he villain j am a burning cigaret t e int o t he heroine's hand, t he audience gasped and a t hreshold was crossed. The villain had proved t hat he not only could cause pain, he would. His next t hreat was credible again, and because t he audience believed, j eopardy was again a powerful t ool for creat ing t ension. SEXUAL TENSI ON Sexual t ension is relat ed t o j eopardy. I n fact , you could call it " j eopardy of sex," except t hat presum ably your charact ers desire sex rat her m ore t han t hey desire pain. Sexual t ension is so vit al t o so m any st ories t hat t he t erm rom ance is now generally used t o refer t o st ories t hat are about sexual t ension. I t crosses all cult ural boundaries. When a m an and wom an m eet in a

st ory, we assum e at least som e degree of sexual possibilit y. I f t he t wo charact ers im m ediat ely becom e im port ant t o each ot her, t he sexual t ension increases- especially if t hey becom e im port ant in a negat ive sense. Rivalry, cont em pt , anger- none of t hem m ake us doubt for a m om ent t hat t he sexual possibilit y is real, and t he m ore int ense t hese negat ive feelings are, t he m ore sexual t ension t here is. However, for sexual t ension t o m ake t wo charact ers m ore im port ant , t he audience m ust recognize t hem as m eet ing t he general social st andards of sexual at t ract iveness. When Clark Gable and Claudet t e Colbert m et in I t Happened One Night , t he audience inst ant ly recognized t hem as suit able sex obj ect s. This does not m ean t hat all part icipant s in sexual t ension have t o be physically beaut iful, t hough t hat is cert ainly t he easiest way. I f you have m ade an unbeaut iful charact er im port ant t o us for ot her reasons, we will regard him as sexually at t ract ive despit e a lack of physical beaut y, and sexual t ension will work for him . John Merrick's devot ion t o t he act ress played by Anne Bancroft in The Elephant Man was charged wit h sexual energy, even t hough act or John Hurt 's m akeup was repulsive. On a m ilder level, t he t elevision series L. A. Law brought off a sim ilar effect bet ween t he charact ers played by Jill Eikenberry and Michael TuckHow to Raise t he Em ot ional St akes 73 er. Tucker is short and pudgy, wit h a receding hairline, playing m eek t ax lawyer St uart Markowit z; Eikenberry is a t all, at t ract ive, com pelling wom an playing high- powered t rial lawyer Ann Kelsey. The audience did not see any sexual possibilit y bet ween t hem . I n fact , when a drunken Kelsey proposed a night of unwedded bliss t o Markowit z at a part y, it was com ic because it was so unexpect ed- so odd. Gradually, however, t he sexual t ension grew as our sym pat hy wit h Markowit z grew. We recognized t hat he was a good m an; we ident ified wit h him and his at t ract ion t o Kelsey; and finally we felt a st rong desire t o bring t hem t oget her. Sexual t ension int ensifies t he audience's involvem ent wit h all charact ers involved. However, as several TV series have discovered t o t heir sorrow, t ension dissipat es when charact ers com e t oget her in sexual harm ony. I t isn't like violence, which est ablishes t he villain's credibilit y and m akes t he next round of j eopardy even m ore powerful. I nst ead, sexual fulfillm ent has t he sam e effect on sexual t ension t hat t he deat h of t he vict im has on j eopardy. For t hat charact er, at least , t he t ension is over. The writ ers of Cheers quickly realized t heir m ist ake and split Sam and Diane; t he writ ers of Moonlight ing never gave David and Maddie a m om ent t o enj oy sexual harm ony before put t ing t hem back in hopeless, hilarious conflict - and t he sexual t ension rem ained high, at least for a while. SI GNS AND PORTENTS

Anot her way t o increase t he readers' int ensit y is t o connect a charact er w it h t he world around her, so t hat her fat e is seen t o have m uch wider consequences t han her privat e loss or gain. King Lear's clim act ic m om ent is linked wit h a st orm , and t hough we t ake his at t em pt t o com m and t he wind ( " Blow, winds! Crack your cheeks! " ) as a sign of m adness, t he fact is t hat t he wind is blowing, t he st orm is raging, and we receive t he sublim inal m essage t hat what happens t o Lear has cosm ic im plicat ions. His daught ers' bet rayal of t heir oat hs t o him , t heir plot t ed pat ricide, is m ore t han a privat e t ragedy- it is a disorder in t he world, which m ust be resolved before t he universe can again be at peace. I n t ragedy and high rom ance, t he connect ion bet ween a charact er and t he world around him can be quit e open. The ark of t he covenant in Raiders of t he Lost Ark is m ore t han a secret weapon- it s opening represent s t he unleashing of t he power of God. When t he villain opens it , t he st oryt eller m akes sure w e underst and t hat it isn't a m ere boobyt rap t hat kills him . The ark isn't opened unt il it is brought t o a special holy place, and when t he lid com es off, we see spirit s spiraling around, t errible winds and fire, finally culm inat ing in a whirlwind t hat dist urbs t he very heavens. Likewise, Oedipus's sins cause a fam ine, which doesn't end unt il he pays t he price; st orm s rage across t he m oors in Wut heringHeight s exact ly w hen t he m ood of t he charact ers is m ost t urbulent . Even when you're t rying for m ore subt let y, however, signs and port ent s are st ill vit al t ools in drawing your reader m ore int ensely int o t he t ale. You sim ply disguise t he cosm ic connect ions a lit t le bet t er. The great st orm becom es a gent le drizzle; t he flam ing sky becom es a swelt ering day; 74 CHARACTERS AND t he roll of t hunder becom es a dist ant siren in t he cit y; t he fam ine becom es t he wilt ing of a flower in t he window. The connect ion bet ween charact er and cosm os w ill st ill be t here, and, oft en wit hout consciously not icing t he port ent s, t he audience will becom e m ore int ensely involved wit h what t he charact er does. You can't cont rol everyt hing t he reader feels, and no t wo m em bers of your audience will ever be em ot ionally involved in your st ory exact ly t o t he sam e degree. St ill, t here are som e t hings you can cont rol, and if you use t hem deft ly, wit hout let t ing t hem get out of hand, you can lead m ost of your audience t o int ense em ot ional involvem ent wit h your charact ers. The audience won't necessarily like t he charact ers, but t hey cert ainly won't be indifferent t o t hem .

CHAPTER 8 WHAT SHOULD WE FEEL ABOUT THE CHARACTER? ANY TI ME YOU SHOW CONFLI CT BETWEEN CHARACTERS, you want your audience t o care about t he out com e. Perhaps t hey'll have an int ellect ual int erest , if t he conflict is over som e idea or principle t hey happen t o care about - but t heir feelings will run far deeper if t hey have great sym pat hy for one or m ore of t he charact ers in conflict . Som et im es you'll want your readers t o t ake sides- t o be root ing for one charact er and hoping t he ot her will fail. You'll want t hem t o sym pat hize wit h t he charact er who st ands for what you believe in- t he charact er you conceive of as represent ing Good. I n fact , your readers will respond t his way even if you don't plan it . Let 's say your m ain charact er is Howard East m an, a m uch- decorat ed Viet nam vet eran who has gone int o governm ent service. There he becom es deeply com m it t ed t o t he cause of a group of freedom fight ers in a Cent ral Am erican count ry. When Congress vot es t o cut funding for t hese freedom fight ers, East m an det erm ines t o find ways t o keep t hem alive and fight ing. So at great risk- t o him self and t he adm inist rat ion- he circum vent s Congress and finds various sem i- legal ways of get t ing Am erican m oney and weapons t o his brave Cent ral Am erican friends. I f you have m ade East m an sym pat het ic t o your audience, t hey w ill assum e t hat you approve of what he's doing, especially if you m ake his opponent s unlikable. I f you have creat ed East m an's charact er well and cont inue t o m ake him sym pat het ic t hroughout t he book, m ost readers will go along wit h you, liking East m an and hoping he'll win. But what if you want t hem t o disapprove of East m an's corrupt ion of governm ent process for t he sake of a cause? What if you want t he audience t o reach t he conclusion t hat East m an was wrong? The easiest course is t o m ake East m an t he villain from t he beginning, so t he audience never likes him . Then your hero will be t he Am erican governm ent official w ho unm asks or defeat s him , or perhaps t he Cent ral Am erican com m ander opposing him on t he field. Considerably harder is t o st art out wit h a very likable, sym pat het ic East m an, and t hen t hrough t he course of t he book gradually and delicat ely bring t he audience t o lose sym pat hy wit h him . Again, however, t his is 75

76 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT m uch easier if you have anot her hero- perhaps one who seem ed t o be a " bad guy" at first - who can replace East m an in t he audience's sym pat hy. The m ost daring course, yet t he one m ost likely t o t ransform your audience, is t o keep East m an sym pat het ic t hroughout , while facing him wit h an opponent who is also sym pat het ic t hroughout t he st ory. The audience will like bot h charact ers- a lot - and as East m an and his opponent com e int o deadly conflict , your readers will be em ot ionally t orn. This is anguish, perhaps t he st rongest of em ot ions you can m ake your audience experience direct ly ( as opposed t o sym pat het ically m irroring what your charact ers feel) . Neit her charact er is at all confused about what he want s t o have happen, yet your audience, em ot ionally involved wit h bot h of t hem , cannot bear t o have eit her charact er lose. The em ot ional st akes are raised t o m uch great er int ensit y, and yet t he m oral issues will again be rem oved from a m at t er of m ere sym pat hy; in having t o choose bet ween charact ers t hey love, t he readers will be forced t o decide on t he basis of t he m oral issues bet ween t hem . Who really should prevail? This last st rat egy, of course, is far m ore dangerous, far less clear t han t he ot hers. When you separat e sym pat hy from m oral decisions- exact ly what a j udge and j ury m ust t ry t o do in a t rial- you can't be sure t hat your audience will reach t he " right " conclusions; you can't be sure t hat t hey'll agree wit h you. But you can be sure t hat t hey'll care far m ore t han t hey ever would from reading art icles and essays on t he issue. I n any event , all t hese st rat egies depend on t he aut hor's knowing how t o get t he audience t o feel sym pat hy or ant ipat hy t oward a charact er. There's anot her pract ical reason for knowing how t o get your audience t o like or dislike a charact er. Most readers of m ost t ypes of fict ion want t o read about charact ers t hey like. And why shouldn't t hey? I f you were going t o t ake a t hree- day bus ride, wouldn't you hope t o have a seat - m at e whose com pany you enj oyed? Your readers are invest ing considerable t im e in your st ory; if t hey dislike your m ain charact er, it 's going t o be a lot harder t o persuade t hem t o st ay along for t he whole ride. At t im es, of course, you'll want t o violat e t hat general principle and t ell a st ory whose m ain charact er is pret t y repulsive. Even t hen, however, wit h alm ost no except ions, t he writ er who brings off such a st ory successfully is really not m aking t he m ain charact er com plet ely unlikable. I nst ead, t he charact er is given several m aj or negat ive t rait s early in t he st ory, and t he t rait s rem ain prom inent t hroughout , so t hat readers don't not ice t hat t he writ er is using t hree dozen ot her t echniques t o creat e sym pat hy for t he " unsym pat het ic" hero. The t rue " ant i- hero" is rare in fict ion. Most seem ing ant i- heroes are really heroes who need, m et aphorically speaking, a bat h. One way or anot her, t hen, you're going t o need t o know how t o arouse audience sym pat hy or ant ipat hy t oward a charact er. I 've found in t eaching writ ing classes t hat when beginning writ ers creat e an obnoxious m ain

charact er, oft en it isn't because t hey had som e not ion of creat ing an ant i- hero. I nst ead, t hese writ ers sim ply didn't realize t hat t heir hero was becom ing obnoxious. They weren't in cont rol.

What Should We Feel About t he Charact er? FI RST I MPRESSI ONS Charact ers, like people, m ake good or bad first im pressions. When charact ers first show up in a st ory, we st art t o like t hem - or dislike t hem - right away. We Like What 's Like Us The word like has a lovely double m eaning: The m ost im port ant ingredient in how m uch we like a st ranger when we first encount er him is how m uch he seem s t o be like us. Wit h im port ant except ions, we t end t o feel m ost com fort able wit h and personally at t ract ed t o people who belong t o t he com m unit ies t hat are im port ant t o us, and people who are like us in ways t hat we are proud of. All else being equal, we feel m ore at ease in approaching a st ranger who is our age t han one who is older or younger; t he sam e applies t o econom ic class, st yle of dress, and so on. Likewise, when we find out t hat som eone belongs t o t he sam e church or plans t o vot e for t he sam e candidat e or has t he sam e at t it ude t oward t he President or served in t he sam e branch of t he m ilit ary or loves our favorit e book or m ovie, our t ension relaxes and w e get som e of t hat com fort able feeling of kinship- we " hit it off from t he st art . I t 's as if we recognize t hem , even t hough we've never seen t hem before. We t end t o feel som ewhat t ense around people who don't seem very sim ilar t o us- people speaking a foreign language or wearing nonst an- dard cost um es, or people who form a closed group t o which we clearly don't belong. We know t hat we're not part of t heir com m unit y. And we get a definit e bad im pression of people who don't behave in ways t hat we have com e t o t hink of as " norm al" : people wearing t he wrong clot hes for t he occasion, or t alking t oo loudly, or using inappropriat e language ( t oo elevat ed or t oo low) ; people wit h bad personal hygiene; people who accost st rangers on t he st reet ; people, in ot her words, who are not behaving in ways t hat we would behave. We t end t o look past t hem , sidest ep t hem , avoid t hem , shun t hem openly. They are not like us, and t herefore we dist rust or dislike t hem . The t hings t hat m ake us inst ant ly like or dislike people we m eet in real life are pret t y m uch t he sam e t hings t hat m ake us inst ant ly like or dislike t he people we m eet in fict ion. We will im m ediat ely feel com fort able wit h a fict ional charact er who rem inds us of t hings we like about ourselves. We " recognize" t he charact er. On t he ot her hand, if we first see a charact er doing som et hing physically gross or socially inept , or if we are shown a charact er who is foreign, alien, st range, t hen we t end t o feel repelled, or at least not at t ract ed.

St ill, t here's a kernel of t rut h in t he adage " opposit es at t ract ." There are ot her, m uch st ronger forces t han m ere sim ilarit y working t o draw people t oget her. We've all had t he experience of learning t o det est som eone who seem ed com fort ably at t ract ive at first ; likewise, get t ing t o know som ebody bet t er can help us overcom e t he im m ediat e dist ance and suspi78 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT cion t hat cam e from st rangeness. And t hat 's a good t hing for us as writ ers, because t he one t hing we can't possibly cont rol in our fict ion is how m uch our readers are going t o feel t hem selves sim ilar t o our charact ers. Wouldn't it be horrible if t he only readers who could possibly sym pat hize wit h a charact er were t he ones who were j ust like him ? How large an audience would t here ever have been for Am adeus? There are so few of us who would qualify as a m usical genius wit h an obnoxious m ocking at t it ude. Or One Flew Over t he Cuckoo's Nest - I 've really never faced t he choice of going t o j ail or being com m it t ed t o a m ent al inst it ut ion, have you? Bot h t hose plays ( and film s) depend absolut ely on t he audience developing enorm ous sym pat hy- no, love- for t he m ain charact er. Yet in neit her case did t he aut hor have t he slight est hope of filling t heat ers wit h people who liked t he charact er because he m ade a good first im pression. The liking t hat com es from a good first im pression is im m ediat e- and shallow. The dislike t hat com es from a bad first im pression can be deeper; t hat 's what m akes bigot ry such a powerful negat ive force. But bot h can be overcom e by st oryt ellers who have even st ronger t ools at hand. Edit orial Resist ance Alas, you are cert ain t o run int o edit ors or producers who don't know t hat t here are ot her ways t o arouse sym pat hy. For inst ance, how m any writ ers have been t old, " The audience for books is m ost ly wom en, so you need a st rong wom an charact er in t his book" ? Too m any- especially considering t hat it isn't com plet ely t rue. What is t rue is t hat if you use a m ale prot agonist in a book whose audience will be prim arily wom en, you won't get inst ant ident ificat ion. You have t o work a lot harder t o m ake t he charact er sym pat het ic. You have t o be a bet t er writ er. You also have t o have an edit or who act ually underst ands how st ory- t elling works. These are relat ively rare; m ost will rej ect your st ory or book because " wom en won't like it ." And because st ories wit h m ale prot agonist s probably won't get published for a fem ale m arket ( like rom ance novels or w om en's m agazines) , t he edit ors can " prove" t heir m axim by saying, " Look- t he only t hing t hat sells is st ories about wom en." There are plent y of exam ples besides wom en's fict ion. When a producer opt ioned t he film right s t o m y novel Ender's Gam e back in 1986, t he first t hing he decided ( aft er t he cont ract was signed) was, " Of course, t he charact er of Ender has got t o be sixt een." Since t he ent ire st ory depends on Ender being an innocent , t rust ing child, I balked. " Look," said t he producer, " t he only way t o

have a hit sci- fi m ovie is t o get t he t een audience. And t o get t he t een audience, you've got t o have a t eenage hero." " What about £.T.?" said I . " What about Polt ergeist ? What about Alien? What about - " " Those are except ions," he said. Hi- ho, as Kurt Vonnegut would say. I t t ook producer Michael Douglas years of work t o get One Flew Over t he Cuckoo's Nest produced; t here was t rem endous resist ance, in large part What Should We Feel About t he Charact er? 79 due t o t he " unlikable" m ain charact er. Now t hat we know t hat t he film was a m ast erpiece, now t hat it won all t hose Academ y Awards, it 's easy t o crit icize t hose who doubt ed t he st ory would work. They were wrong- about t hat st ory. But t he general principle has a foundat ion in t rut h: Making a weird or unpleasant charact er likable is very hard. So we shouldn't be t oo crit ical of edit ors or producers who t ell us t hat it can't be done- t hey've seen so m any m anuscript s and screenplays t hat t ried t o do it and failed m iserably. So if you know you're writ ing for an audience of wom en or t eenagers or bluecollar workers or college graduat es, it 's a lot easier t o win t heir sym pat hy if you m ake your m ain charact er, t he one you want t hem t o like, a wom an or a t eenager or a blue- collar worker or a college graduat e. Unless t here's a com pelling reason in t he st ory t o do ot herwise, why borrow t rouble? Sym pat hy vs. Curiosit y While we t end t o like charact ers t hat are like us, we also t end t o be a lit t le bored wit h t hem . I t 's st rangeness, not fam iliarit y, t hat excit es our curiosit y. I t 's hard t o im agine a blander charact er t han one who is exact ly t ypical of a cert ain group. So even if you decide, for sim plicit y's sake, t o use a m ain charact er- Nora- who is a m em ber of t he sam e com m unit y as your int ended audience, you m ust also find ways t o m ake Nora different and int riguing. Giving her a few at t ribut es in com m on wit h t he t arget audience st art s you on t he road t oward sym pat hy- but doesn't get you very far along t hat road. Since no t wo wom en or t eenagers or blue- collar workers or college graduat es are exact ly alike, you couldn't possibly m ake Nora sim ilar enough t o everybody t o at t ract t he whole group anyway. The first im pression t hat Nora gives t he audience really has t o accom plish no m ore t han get t ing t heir at t ent ion. No m at t er whet her t he first im pression was negat ive or posit ive, you will always end up relying on som e of t he ot her t ools for creat ing last ing sym pat hy or ant ipat hy. CHARACTERS WE LOVE Here are t he devices t hat will m ake an audience t end t oward last ing sym pat hy wit h a charact er. Physical At t ract iveness One t ool t hat m akes act ors int o m ovie st ars and ordinary film s int o sm ash hit s sim ply isn't available t o t hose of us who work in print , not wit h anyt hing like

t he sam e power. A film m aker has only t o put Robert Redfbrd or Kat hleen Turner or Tom Cruise or Kelly McGillis or Harrison Ford on t he screen ( wit h good m akeup, light ing and cam era work, of course) , and at least half t he audience will have great sym pat hy for t he charact ers t hey port ray. 80 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT I n print , we don't have t hat opt ion. Oh, we can describe charact ers in t erm s t hat suggest physical at t ract iveness, we can show ot hers being at t ract ed t o t hem - but we can never com e close t o t he im m ediat e im pact of seeing an int riguing face or an at t ract ive body on t he screen or st age. We can never hear t he exact t im bre of t he voice, can never cat ch t hat lit t le sm ile or st art led look t hat suggest s a com binat ion of hum or and t im idit y and courage t hat is so endearing t o t he audience. Don't you have t o describe your charact er? Not necessarily. When I t urned in t he m anuscript of m y novel Saint s, bot h m y agent and m y edit or com plained t hat I never described Dinah Kirkham , t he m ain charact er. " You never t ell us her hair color," t hey said, " or t he color of her eyes, or even how t all she is." True enough, said I , but didn't you have a m ent al pict ure of her anyway? They bot h agreed t hat t hey had. Then, when I asked each of t hem what her im age of Dinah was, you won't be surprised t o learn t hat each described herself. I had used ot her devices t o creat e sym pat hy, and by avoiding physical descript ion, I allowed m y fem ale readers t o put t hem selves int o Dinah's st ory far m ore deeply t han if I had com pelled t hem t o see her anot her way. ( I f only I could have kept publishers from put t ing a paint ing of Dinah on t he cover, t he t echnique would have worked perfect ly.) You usually can't get away wit h neglect ing t o give any physical descript ion of your m ain charact ers. My point is not t hat descript ion of charact ers is bad- j ust t hat in print , at least , it isn't anywhere near as effect ive as ot her t echniques for winning audience sym pat hy. Describe when you m ust , but don't im agine for a m om ent t hat saying your hero has " a firm j aw, a Fine, st raight nose, and a t um ble of light brown hair over his forehead" will win t he undying devot ion of your readers. I t can act ually m ake som e readers resent your charact er. " Anot her incredibly good- looking wom an," t hey'll sigh, hoping she eat s five cheesecakes and gains six inches around t he hips. " Anot her m an who can press 300 pounds but st ill looks good in a suit ," t hey'll m urm ur, while secret ly hoping he get s pim ples. List ing all t he feat ures t hat m ake a charact er look t errific is not t he sam e t hing as seeing a t errific- looking person on t he screen or in person. When you see t he real person, his or her beaut y can overwhelm you; when you get only t he list of beaut iful feat ures, you're m ore likely t o see, not undeniable beaut y, but

all t he people who got m ore dat es t han you in high school. Good- bye sym pat hy. Alt ruism : Vict im , Savior, Sacrifice Som e of t he devices we use t o raise t he em ot ional st akes- suffering, sacrifice, and j eopardy- also have a rat her com plicat ed role in creat ing sym pat hy. Vict im When Nora is t he vict im of suffering and j eopardy, t he audience will pit y her; t hey'll hope for her deliverance. But t here's a price: Nora will seem What Should We Feel About t he Charact er? 81 weak, and along wit h pit y t here'll be at least a t race of cont em pt . ( This is m uch of t he reason why fem inist s obj ect t o having wom en in fict ion always be rescued by m en- even t hough t he audience sym pat hizes wit h t he fem ale vict im , t hey also disdain her.) You can com pensat e for t his weakening of t he vict im by devot ing som e t im e t o showing, in det ail, t hat Nora had no choice but t o put herself in t he power of her t orm ent or. Or you can show how courageous Nora is for refusing t o despair. This is act ually easier t o do w hen t he suffering is physical; if Nora is t he vict im of em ot ional or psychological suffering, you have t o work harder t o m ake readers underst and why she doesn't j ust leave t he sit uat ion. Savior The audience will like Pet e when he act s as a rescuer, st epping in t o st op Nora's suffering or save her from j eopardy. Pet e's courage is adm irable, of course, but even m ore t he audience adm ires his sense of responsibilit y for ot her people. They'll adm ire Pet e even if t he rescue fails. However, t here's always a danger of having a rescuer look like a fool for plunging in wit hout enough t hought - what if Nora was dealing wit h t he problem and Pet e's " rescue" ends up m aking everyt hing worse? Pet e will st ill get credit for courage and responsibilit y, but he'll also get t agged as j ust a lit t le on t he dum b side. When t he vict im 's suffering is em ot ional or psychological, t he rescuer runs a great risk of looking like a m eddler. I f Pet e finds Nora lonely and suffering from t he cruel dom inat ion of her parent s, t he audience won't approve if he im m ediat ely st art s t aking over, insist ing on rescuing her. They'll wondercorrect ly- if Pet e is really saving Nora, or dom inat ing her in place of her parent s. I f you want t he audience t o sym pat hize wit h Pet e in his rescue at t em pt , you need t o show his reluct ance t o int rude and t he urgency of Nora's sit uat ion. I t also helps if Nora gives som e signal t hat she want s t o be rescued. Sacrifice When Nora chooses t o sacrifice herself, it will feel im port ant t o t he audiencebut it won't necessarily win sym pat hy. There'll be pit y for her suffering, of course, but before t he audience will adm ire Nora for her sacrifice, t hey m ust feel t hat t he cause she is willing t o suffer or die for is im port ant and right . They m ust also feel t hat Nora has no ot her decent choice or t hat her sacrifice

will act ually m ake a difference in helping ot her people. Above all, t he audience will have no sym pat hy for Nora if she chooses m art yrdom for no good reason but t he desire t o have a noble and glorious deat h or t o m ake ot her people like her m ore. I f Nora has a decent alt ernat ive t o being sacrificed, t he audience will insist t hat she choose it , or t he sacrifice will be seen as a st upid wast e rat her t han a noble act . Plan and Purpose, Hunger and Dream s Beginning writ ers oft en m ake t he m ist ake of having t heir hero always react t o t he event s of t he st ory. The hero's react ions m ay all be perfect ly rea82 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT sonable, but t he result is a charact er who seem s t o have no init iat ive- a puppet being pushed around on t he end of a st ick. You know t he kind of st ory I m ean: Nora was doing not hing in part icular t hat m orning- - j ust enj oying t he sun shine- when t he car squealed around t he corner and cam e t o a halt in front of her. ... ......... Yeah, right . How oft en are you out side doing not hing in part icular? Nora would be m uch m ore int erest ing if she were out side for a reason, t rying t o accom plish som et hing. Then when t he event s of t he st ory change her life, we have a sense t hat she act ually had a life t o be changed! I f Nora was hurrying t o a m eet ing wit h her daught er's t eacher, or rushing t o t he library t o do research for a client , or worrying about possible result s of t he m edical t est s t he doct or j ust gave her, she will st ill t ry t o deal wit h her child's school problem s or t he client 's deadline or t he m edical t est result s. I t will increase t he pressure on her- and increase t he audience's sym pat hy for her. Besides specific plans, your charact ers will have cont inuing needs, hungers, hopes, and dream s. I f t he audience has t he sam e needs, t hen t hey'll sym pat hize wit h your charact er and hope t hose needs are sat isfied. For inst ance, everybody underst ands t he need for m oney- but you can m ake t he audience sym pat hize wit h Nora even m ore by let t ing us know what she needs t he m oney for and how long and hard she's been working t o get it . As a general rule, audience sym pat hy increases wit h t he im port ance of t he charact er's dream and t he am ount of effort t he charact er has already expended t o t ry t o fulfill it . You need t o beware of cliches and over- sent im ent alit y- only a naive reader is going t o get worked up over a lit t le boy who yearns for a puppy, unless you show why t his kid needs a dog. St ill, you can alm ost always get an audience t o sym pat hize wit h your charact er's needs, even when t hey seem bizarre: Pet e's obsession wit h owning as m any expensive new cars as possible will m ake him seem st range and greedy- unt il we know t hat as he was growing up, his fat her had t o st ruggle t o keep t heir old, beat - up car in running order. The one t im e Pet e's dad bought a new car, it ended up being repossessed under hum iliat ing

circum st ances right aft er t he layoffs at t he plant . Now t he audience will realize t hat Pet e's obsession wit h cars is a response t o his fat her's suffering. I nst ead of t his hunger m aking him st range and unlikable, it will m ake him underst andable and sym pat het ic. When t he st ory is about t he charact er's plan- a quest or caper st ory- or when t he st ory is about t he charact er's need- as all charact er st ories are- t hen t his t ool m akes t he charact er alm ost irresist ibly sym pat het ic. That 's why audiences find t hem selves root ing for heroes t o succeed at t he m ost appalling t hingsrobberies, assassinat ions, m arriage- wrecking love affairs. Once we're caught up in a charact er's plans and dream s, we're on her side alm ost wit hout lim it . What Should We Feel About t he Charact er? Courage and Fair Play The audience will like Nora bet t er when t hey see her t ake physical, social, or financial risks t o do what she believes is right or necessary. When Nora has t he gut s t o risk losing her j ob rat her t han keep silent about a bribery scandal, we adm ire her- and fear for her. Along wit h courage t here m ust be a sense of fair play, howeverwhen Nora finally wins and t he boss is forced t o pay her dam ages and back salary, she can never gloat . Nor can she ever do anyt hing underhanded or sneaky t o win- if she cheat s, she loses sym pat hy. This is t he sam e rule t hat m ade it so t he good guy in a west ern always had t o wait for t he bad guy t o draw first ; t he good guy in a swashbuckler always let t he bad guy pick up his sword aft er disarm ing him ; and t he good girl in a rom ance never uses cheap sex t o keep her m an. Tim es have changed, of course, and writ ers don't always hold t heircharact ers t o t hose st andards. What hasn't changed, however, is t he fact t hat readers st ill respond warm ly t o a charact er who is brave and plays fair, and t hey lose sym pat hy for a charact er who is cowardly and cheat s. This doesn't m ean you can't or shouldn't writ e about charact ers who aren't always brave and gallant - but it does m ean you will forfeit som e audience sym pat hy. At t it ude A charact er's at t it ude t oward ot her people, t oward him self, and t oward t he event s of t he st ory can do a lot t o win sym pat hy. When t hings go wrong, Pet e doesn't whine or com plain about it or blam e everybody but him self- he t akes responsibilit y for his own m ist akes, refers t o his problem s wit h wry hum or, and t ries t o solve t hem . Nora never brags about t he good deeds she does- it em barrasses her when ot hers praise her. When som eone crit icizes her, she never argues t o defend herself. But when som eone else is being crit icized unfairly, Nora speaks up for him . Pet e always has sym pat hy for ot her people's suffering, always t ries t o see t hings from t heir point of view. Nora m ay get angry, but she'll always list en t o

t he ot her person's explanat ions, and she's willing t o t rust people- even when t hey've proved before t hat t hey really aren't very t rust wort hy. Ot her charact ers m ay fail t o recognize what good people Pet e and Nora arebut t heir very m odest y and self- deprecat ing hum or and refusal t o defend t hem selves m ake t he audience love t hem all t he m ore. Draft ee or Volunt eer I f Nora is faced wit h a t ask t hat requires great courage, and it won't bring her m uch glory- no one will ever know she did it - t he audience will sym pat hize wit h her m ost if she volunt eers. I t will dim inish her if she has t o be forced int o act ing. On t he ot her hand, if t he t ask at hand is one t hat will 84 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT bring fam e or fort une, t hen t he audience will have m uch m ore sym pat hy for Nora if she doesn't put herself forward, but m odest ly wait s t o be called on. I t 's t his sim ple. I f som ebody says, " I 've got a m iserable, nast y j ob here t hat has t o be done," t hen a charact er gains sym pat hy by volunt eering. I f som ebody says, " I f you succeed in t his t ask, your nam e will be rem em bered for t en t housand years," t hen a charact er gains sym pat hy by m odest ly wait ing t o be draft ed. This is why Tolkien m ade sure t hat Frodo never volunt eered t o be t he ringbearer in The Lord of t he Rings; rat her Frodo t ried t o give t he ring t o som eone else unt il it becam e absolut ely clear t hat he was t he only one who could carry it . I f Frodo had want ed t o carry t he ring, t he audience wouldn't have felt anywhere near as m uch sym pat hy for him - all his t roubles from t hen on would have been t he result of his own hubris in t hinking he could m easure up t o t he t ask. This is also why polit ical candidat es always prefer t o have it appear t hat t hey are reluct ant t o run for office- t heir audience, t oo, has great er adm irat ion for t hose who have great ness t hrust upon t hem . Dependabilit y When a good guy says he'll do som et hing, he keeps his word com e hell or high wat er. I f he breaks his word, he'd bet t er have a good reason for it - and he'd bet t er t ry t o m ake up for it lat er. I don't m ean t hat sym pat het ic charact ers don't lie. A lie is a st ory t old about t he past , and dependabilit y has t o do wit h prom ises- st ories t he charact er t ells about what she will do in t he fut ure. How does t his work? Pet e st ubbornly insist s on t rying t o keep t he fam ily farm , even t hough it 's losing m oney. We know he's going t o fail, and if he sold it , he could pay for a college educat ion for his younger brot her, who hat es t he farm and hat es Pet e for m aking him st ay t here. The audience won't have m uch sym pat hy for st ubborn, self- willed Pet e.

But what if Pet e is holding ont o t he farm because of a prom ise he m ade t o his dying fat her? Now t he audience will like him for his dependabilit y. I n fact , t hey'd lose sym pat hy for him if he wasn't st ubborn. They'll hope som et hing happens t o let t he younger brot her get away and go t o college; t hey m ight even hope t hat Pet e loses t he farm despit e his best effort s, knowing t hat everybody's life will be bet t er wit hout t he farm . But t hey won't want Pet e t o break his word, and if he finally does give in t o t hese pressures, t hey'll expect him t o feel deep rem orse. Don't underest im at e t he im port ance of a prom ise in fict ion. The pledge, kept or broken, is one of t he st rongest m ot ifs running t hrough all of t he world's st ory t elling. I t 's one of t he deadliest accusat ions you can level against an enem y: He doesn't keep his word. And if your m ain charact er casually breaks a prom ise, it will leave such a sour t ast e in your reader's m out h t hat you'll never fully win back t he reader's sym pat hy. What Should We Feel About t he Charact er? Cleverness

85

Not ice t hat I don't use t he word int elligence. That 's because in our societ y wit h it s egalit arian ideals, any obvious display of int elligence or erudit ion suggest s elit ism , snobbery, arrogance. Yet we love a charact er who is clever enough t o t hink of solut ions t o knot t y problem s. Does t his seem cont radict ory? I t is cont radict ory. You have t o walk a fine line, m aking Nora very clever wit hout ever let t ing her be clever enough t o not ice how clever she is. Nora can have enorm ous self- confidence - but she can never t hink of herself as superior t o som eone else because she is sm art and t he ot her person is dum b. I f she t hinks of a brilliant plan and it works, it surprises her m ore t han anybody. A perfect exam ple of t his is Harrison Ford's charact er in Raiders of t he Lost Ark and I ndiana Jones and t he Tem ple of Doom . I ndiana Jones is a professor of archaeology - but we never wat ch him being int ellect ually incisive. The one t im e we see him in t he classroom , lect uring, he is rat her bum bling and confused - dist ract ed by a coed who has writ t en a com e- on m essage on her eyelids. Yet whenever t hings go wrong, I ndiana Jones com es up wit h a brilliant - or dum b- lucky - solut ion. He's sm art , but he isn't int elligent . The audience loves a charact er who solves problem s and knows exact ly t he right fact s when he needs t hem - but t hey don't like a charact er who flaunt s his superior knowledge or act s as if he knows how clever he is. Endearing I m perfect ions: The Lovable Rogue Now t hat we have a list of t rait s, act ions, and at t it udes t hat will persuade your audience t o love a charact er, here's t he rub: I f Pet e is t oo perfect , your audience will st op believing in him . We're back t o t hat balancing act bet ween caring and belief.

The answer t o t his problem is t o give Pet e som e endearing im perfect ions. While using m ost of t he sym pat hy t ool kit t o m ake t he audience like him , deliberat ely give Pet e som e sm all, underst andable foibles t o m ake us believe in him . Again, a Harrison Ford charact er is a perfect exam ple. I n t he St ar Wars m ovies, Han Solo keeps his word, com es t o t he rescue, is physically at t ract ive, brave, and clever, and has a great sense of hum or - but he is also boast ful Han Solo: " I t hink you j ust can't bear t o let a gorgeous guy like m e out of your sight ." Princess Leia: " I don't know where you get your delusions, laser- brain." And lat er - Princess Leia: " I love you! " Han Solo: " I know." and all his plans seem t o be m ot ivat ed by greed and self- int erest . He also doesn't pay his bills. The result ? He's t he best - liked charact er in one of t he best - loved m ovies of all t im e. Hercule Poirot 's lit t le vanit ies; Nero Wolfe's obsessive- com pulsive behavior and his weight - a m ere sevent h of a t on; Sherlock Holm es's 86 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT rudeness and his cocaine habit ; Scarlet t O'Hara's rom ant ic delusions and brut ally pragm at ic act ions; Rhet t But ler's shady past and m ocking at t it ude: All of t hese t rait s norm ally don't m ake us like people, but com bined wit h all t he t rait s t hat do arouse sym pat hy, t he flaws only m ake us love t he charact ers m ore. CHARACTERS WE HATE Get t ing your audience t o hat e a charact er is m uch easier t han t rying t o win t heir sym pat hy. Have a charact er do som et hing wonderful, and it 'll fade in our m em ory if he fails t o m easure up. Have a charact er do som et hing loat hesom e, and we'll never forget . Sadist or Bully To m ake us dislike som ebody, sim ply show her deliberat ely causing som eone else t o suffer in body or m ind. I f she enj oys causing t he pain, we'll hat e her all t he m ore. Rem em ber t he sadist ic villain in William Goldm an's Marat hon Man, using a dent ist 's drill, wit hout anest het ic, t o t ort ure t he hero int o t elling inform at ion t hat he didn't have. Rem em ber Elizabet h Bar- ret t 's fat her in TheBarret t s ofWim pole St reet , whose whim sical and arbit rary com m ands m ade him im possible t o please, so t hat everyone around him was const ant ly t ort ured by guilt or t errified of punishm ent . Rem em ber t he queen alien in Aliens, who did not kill her hum an vict im s, but inst ead kept t hem alive, cocooned and in hideous agony, so t hat her young could feed on t hem when t hey hat ched. Rem em ber Nurse Rat ched in One Flew Over t he Cuckoo's Nest , who kept up a cheerful, perky dem eanor while deliberat ely subj ect ing her pat ient s t o degradat ion, m aking t hem less and less hum an. We hardly knew anyt hing about t hese charact ers beyond t heir hunger for ot her people's suffering- yet it m ade each of t hem t he m ost m em orable charact er in t he st ory. They becam e t he em bodim ent of pure evil.

Predict ably enough, t he very power of t his t ool guarant ees t hat it will be overused. How m any t im es have you seen t his scene: Good guy Pet e is com plet ely in villain Nora's power- only inst ead of t aking a .357 Magnum and blowing him away, Nora spends t en m inut es sm earing him wit h flam m able j elly, pouring gasoline over his head, and st rapping but ane light ers t o his body- t alking all t he t im e about how she'll love wat ching him go off like a rom an candle. At t he end of t hose t en m inut es, when t he audience is so on edge t hey're st art ing t o say, " So light t he m at ch already! " t he police arrive in t he nick of t im e and save Pet e. I f Nora hadn't been such a sadist , Pet e would have been t oast . The Jam es Bond m ovies m ade t his cliche int o an art form . Bond is forever get t ing capt ured, but inst ead of killing him , t he bad guys always put him in a sit uat ion t hat will lead t o cert ain deat h- and t hen walk away. Whereupon Bond cleverly escapes and lives t o fight anot her day. Never m ind t hat t he sadist ic villain has been overused and m isused. You j ust have t o be careful t o m ake your villain's sadism believable. What Should We Feel About t he Charact er? 87 I t helps t o keep in m ind t hat t he root of sadism is not t he love of pain- it is t he love of power, t he sense of cont rol over som eone else's body, som eone else's life. Thus it doesn't have t o be physical t ort ure. The effect is t he sam e whenever one charact er forces his vict im t o recognize t hat t he vict im has no cont rol over her own life. Nurse Rat ched in Cuckoo's Nest and Mr. Barret t in Wim pole St reet never resort ed t o physical t ort ure; it m ade t heir sadism all t he m ore horrible- and believable. They were bullies; t hey used t heir power t o t orm ent t he lit t le guy. That 's t he worst t hing a charact er can do in fict ion- t he unpardonable sin. Assassin or Avenger? By com parison, m ere m urder is nowhere near as powerful in m aking t he audience dislike a charact er. Where bullying can never be j ust ified enough t o m ake t he sadist sym pat het ic, m urder and ot her crim es can. They are not surefire devices for creat ing ant ipat hy. For inst ance, a charact er w ho is t rying t o assassinat e Hit ler or St alin or I di Am in is likely t o have our sym pat hy right from t he st art - if t he int ended vict im is m ade evil enough, t he would- be assassin becom es a hero. The audience is never fully com fort able wit h t he idea of cold, calculat ed m urder- but t he assassin can st ill be a hero. When The Godfat her first played in Am erican t heat ers, t he scenes of m urder at t he end of t he m ovie brought cheers and applause from t he audience. Why? Because every vict im of Michael Corleone's hit m en had earned our hat red by bet raying a t rust or by m aking a cynical, cowardly at t ack on a charact er we liked. But The Godfat her: Part I I carefully did j ust t he opposit e- it showed t hat t he Corleones used m urder, not for t he sake of j ust ice, but t o increase t heir own power. When Michael orders t he m urder of his own brot her, a weak, pat het ic figure, we underst and why, but it 's st ill a m onst rous act .

A rule of t hum b: Murder and ot her crim es will only m ake a charact er int o a villain if he com m it s t he crim e for selfish reasons, and if t he crim e harm s people who don't deserve t o be hurt . But if your charact er is com m it t ing a crim e in order t o save ot hers from suffering, or if t he vict im of t he crim e richly deserves t o suffer or die, t hen t he crim e will act ually m ake your charact er sym pat het ic. I n t he classic caper m ovie The St ing, t he charact ers played by Paul Newm an and Robert Redford perpet rat e an elaborat e hoax in order t o bilk t he villain, played by Robert Shaw, out of a large am ount of m oney. The m ot ive for t he con, however, was not t he m oney- it was vengeance for t he villain's casual m urder of a friend of t heirs. Shaw, on t he ot her hand, was drawn int o t he con by his greed and by his desire t o bring ot her people under his cont rol. The villain's crim es m ade us hat e him . The heroes' crim es m ade us love t hem . Redford and Newm an played crooks- but in t his con t heir m ot ives were unselfish, and com pared t o Shaw's charact er, t hey were saint s. Mot ive m akes all t he difference in assigning a charact er's relat ive place wit hin t he m oral spect rum a given work of fict ion shows t o be possible. A con m an is an honest m an, com pared t o a cold- blooded killer. What Should We Feel About t he Charact er? 89 Wind, by Jerom e Lawrence and Robert E. Lee. Mat t hew Harrison Brady is com plet ely discredit ed by t he fact t hat he has appoint ed him self as at t orney for t he prosecut ion and as an expert on t he Bible. His final collapse begins wit h his adm ission of t he ult im at e hubris. " God t ells m e t o oppose t he evil t eachings of t hat m an," he says, t hereby confessing t hat he im agines t hat his words are God's words. I t leads t o his opponent , Henry Drum - m ond, ridiculing him unm ercifully. " The gospel according t o Brady! " cries Drum m ond, and he bows down before his opponent in m ockery, crying, " Brady, Brady, Brady alm ight y! " Ordinarily, Drum m ond's bullying of Brady would have lost Drum m ond all audience sym pat hy- but Brady's usurpat ion of aut horit y is so audacious t hat Drum m ond's ridicule is not seen as bullying at all. I t is t he rest orat ion of t he j ust order of t hings- exposing Brady and bringing him down from t he high posit ion t o which he appoint ed him self. How long does our resent m ent of or annoyance wit h a self- appoint ed int erloper last ? Unt il he wins an invit at ion. Even aft er Pet e has m ade us dislike him by forcing him self int o a place where he wasn't want ed, our ant ipat hy isn't perm anent . I f he lat er proves t hat he deserves his new place, if he earns t he respect of ot hers, t hen he ceases t o be an int erloper. He belongs. This is, in fact , t he subj ect of count less st ories- probably because at som e t im e in our lives pract ically all of us have felt like int erlopers, and we long for reassurance t hat we will event ually win accept ance in t hat new sit uat ion. The only t hing t hat can save an int erloper is vindicat ion- but t hen he isn't an int erloper at all. Oat hbreaker

Nora grim ly agrees t o Pet e's harsh t erm s. " All right ," she says. " I f you prom ise not t o t ell anyone about m y involvem ent wit h Hiram Doakes, I 'll t ell you where he get s his funding. But m y nam e can't com e int o it - it 'll ruin m y fat her's business and dest roy m y m arriage." " You have m y word," says Pet e. " I won't let t his t ouch you at all." Nora t ells all, and leaves. Pet e im m ediat ely picks up t he phone and has his secret ary place a call t o t he edit or of t he Tribune. " I 've got t he goods on Hiram Doakes," he says. " I f you want t he st ory, you've got it . My source? His lover for t he past t hree years. Nora Sim m s. N- O- R- A, S- I - M- M- S. Her fat her owns Sim m s Const ruct ion. Of course you can use her nam e- j ust don't t ell anybody you got it from m e." From t hat m om ent on, t he audience knows t hat Pet e is slim e. When a charact er breaks a prom ise or bet rays a t rust , t he audience t akes t hat bet rayal personally- Pet e has achieved villain st at us, and readers will be longing for his downfall. I nt ellect I t 's no accident t hat so m any bad guys speak in very form al, precise language. " Look, buddy, you can't get away wit h t his," says t he hero. " Do you t hink not ?" says t he villain, raising an eyebrow. " Do you fan90 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT cy you can t errify m e - wit h your absurd t hreat s?" " There's t oo m any people already on t o you," says t he hero. " Do you m ean t he police? Those pat het ic bum blers?" I t isn't j ust t he villain's vanit y t hat m akes us dislike him . I t 's t he fact t hat he t alks in an educat ed m anner, using big words. You can alm ost hear him dropping r's as he speaks. No doubt he at t ended Harvard- if not Oxford. This isn't t rue in every cult ure, but cert ainly t he Am erican audience resent s any charact er who is sm art er and bet t er educat ed t han ot her people. Robert Parker can only get away w it h having his det ect ive, Spenser, quot e poet ry because he works so hard t o est ablish Spenser as a t ough guy. For every line of poet ry, Spenser has t o work out half an hour in t he gym t o win our forgiveness for his erudit ion. We're afraid of and resent ful of people who know m ore t han we do, and when t hey act as if t hey t hink it m akes t hem superior t o us, we hat e t hem . I nsanit y We are t errified of people who don't live in t he sam e realit y we do, who don't have t he sam e definit ion of rat ional behavior. You can't t alk t o t hem , you can't reason wit h t hem ; t here is no com m on ground. However m uch m ent al healt h professionals m ight deplore it , t he fact is t hat when t he public is convinced som eone is dangerously insane, all considerat ions go out t he window except one: st opping t his crazy person. Unless t he st oryt eller w orks very hard t o win sym pat hy for t he insane charact er, t he audience has no qualm s about seeing

him brut ally subdued or killed. The world isn't safe as long as t he m adm an has any chance of escaping. And if, like Charles Manson and his " fam ily" or Adolf Hit ler and t he Nazi part y, t he m adm an has succeeded in convincing ot hers t hat his version of realit y is t he t rut h, t he audience's fear and loat hing is all t he great er. I n film and on st age, insanit y is easy t o depict - a wide- eyed st are or dart ing eyes, nervous t ics. But t he best act ors don't resort t o such easy t ricks, and neit her do t he best writ ers. I t is far m ore effect ive t o convince t he audience t hat a charact er is insane by let t ing us see her st range percept ions of realit yher paranoia or delusions. " Do you t hink I don't know what you're doing?" asked Nora soft ly. " I know why you brought m e here." " Yeah," said Pet e, a lit t le confused. " I brought you here for dinner." " You j ust want t o im press all your friends," she said. " You j ust want t hem t o see m e wit h you. But it won't work. I 'm in disguise. That 's why I wore t his red scarf. Nobody ever recognizes m e when I wear t his red scarf." She leaned forward and whispered a secret . " I t ook it from m y m ot her's coffin before t hey buried her." Oh good, t hought Pet e. Not only is t his t he m ost expensive blind dat e I 've ever gone on, not only did St eve and Gracie back out at t he last m inut e so I had t o go alone, but also t his Nora t urns out t o be crazy. I f she isn't at least OK in bed, St eve will not live t o see anot her day. " Don't eat any of t he shrim p sauce," Nora said. " I t 's poisoned." There is no chance t hat t he audience will be hoping for Pet e and Nora t o What Should We Feel About t he Charact er? 91 end up wit h a long- t erm relat ionship. They will have no sym pat hy for Nora's charact er- unless t he aut hor goes t o ext raordinary lengt hs t o m ake her sym pat het ic, eit her by showing t he cause of her insanit y or by convincing us, som ehow, t hat she isn't insane at all. This is what was done in t he brilliant film A Wom an Under t he I nfluence. The m ain charact er has j ust ret urned from a m ent al hospit al, and her fam ily t reat s her very gingerly; neit her she nor t hey are fully convinced t hat she is cured. But as t he film goes on, we gradually realize t hat while it was t he m ain charact er who at t em pt ed suicide, she isn't crazy- it 's her husband who's t ruly evil and insane, even t hough nobody else realizes it , and he m akes her life so unbearable t hat suicide seem s like t he only possible escape. She is saved from her husband's pat hological rage only by t he heroic effort s of her lit t le children. By t he end of t he film our sym pat hy wit h t he wom an is com plet e- but by t hen we also don't t hink of her as an insane person. I t 's her husband who's insane, and t rue t o t he rule, our only feeling for him t hen is loat hing and fear. The only t im e insanit y can work/ or a charact er is when it 's kept wit hin safe bounds- m inor eccent ricit ies t hat can even be rat her charm ing. And even t hen, an insane charact er is alm ost never viable as t he m ain charact er in t he st ory.

The audience is rarely com fort able enough wit h insane charact ers t o want t o spend any lengt h of t im e wit h t hem . At t it ude The bad guy's at t it ude t oward him self and ot hers is t he m irror im age of t he good guy's. To m ake us dislike Pet e, m ake him hum orless, com plet ely unable t o laugh at him self. When t hings go wrong, have him whine and com plain and blam e everyone but him self. When t hings go right , have him t ake all t he credit and boast about his accom plishm ent . Make sure Pet e never shows regard for ot her people's feelings, j udges people wit hout list ening t o t heir explanat ions, and never t rust s or believes anybody. Pet e always t reat s rich and influent ial people bet t er t han he t reat s t he poor and powerless, and he has no qualm s about being a flam ing hypocrit e. I n short , he t reat s ot her people as if t hey exist only t o serve his purposes. You can be sure t he audience will det est him . Redeem ing Virt ues: The Underst andable Villain While readers will event ually get sick of a hero who's t oo good t o be t rue, t hey alm ost never refuse t o believe in a villain. Unless you deliberat ely m ake t he villain com ic, t here is alm ost no lim it t o t he audience's willingness t o hat e and fear- t he seem ingly endless series of Friday t he 13t h sequels m akes t hat plain enough. That doesn't m ean, however, t hat you should creat e com plet ely evil villains. While m any st ories- perhaps m ost - draw clear dist inct ions bet ween good guys and bad guys, t here are also quit e a few st ories t hat don't . At t he beginning of t his chapt er I m ent ioned m y fondness for st ories in which all t he charact ers are at least som ew hat sym pat het ic, so t hat t he audience is never given a clear list of people t o love and people t o hat e. 92 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT Even if you don't go t hat far, however, you can st ill im prove your st ory by m aking sure t hat your negat ive charact ers are as honest ly depict ed as your heroes. What you m ust rem em ber is t hat everybody is t he hero of his own st ory. Even if a charact er is com plet ely evil, he will no doubt have his own int ernal st or y t hat depict s him as noble. Perhaps he fancies him self a benefact or, an alt ruist . Perhaps he feels t hat his innat e superiorit y gives him t he right t o exploit ot her people t he way people exploit lower anim als. Perhaps he feels t hat ill t reat m ent he has suffered in t he past j ust ifies any harm he causes now. Perhaps he believes t hat everybody act s t he way he act s- t hey j ust pret end t o be nice. The bad guy doesn't necessarily believe his own version of event s- or at least not all t he t im e- but one way or anot her, t he bad guy has found a way t o j ust ify his act ions t o him self, and if you're going t o depict him honest ly, you have t o let your readers know his version of event s. You can soft en your " bad guys" even furt her by part ially j ust ifying t heir act ions. Just as you can m ake a hero m ore believable by giving him endearing im perfect ions, you can m ake a villain m ore believable by giving her

com pensat ing virt ues. Show t hat t here is som eone she loves or respect s; show t hat she does keep som e prom ises; show t hat she really was deeply wronged at som e t im e, so t hat her hat e and rage is part ially j ust ified. You m ay never act ually persuade your readers t o like her, but you can win t heir respect . I n fact , by giving your villain som e ennobling qualit ies you act ually m ake her a wort hier opponent for your hero. What you can't do, however, is m ake a sadist or a bully or a m adm an or a usurper int o a com plet ely sym pat het ic charact er. Any st ory t hat seem s t o do so always does it by showing t he reader, at som e point in t he narrat ive, t hat in fact t he charact er is not a sadist or a bully or a m adm an or a usurper, t hat when you t hought he was, it was an illusion or a m ispercept ion; he was only pret ending t o be a bully in order t o accom plish som e noble purpose; he was under t he influence of drugs or hypnosis and so it wasn't really " him self doing all t hose bad t hings; his children were being held host age and t he person he killed wit h his package bom b really deserved t o die anyway; his act ions were fully j ust ified if only people knew t he t rue st ory; he really was t he right ful heir t o t he t hrone and not a usurper at all; and so on. The st oryt eller's st rongest t ools for provoking t he readers' ant ipat hy cannot be overwhelm ed by t he t ools for arousing sym pat hy. As long as t hey rem ain t rue wit hin t he st ory- as long as you don't deny t hat Nora did t he t errible t hings you showed her doing, as long as you don't deny t hat t he t hings she did were t errible, and as long as you show t hat Nora is st ill t he sam e person who did t hose bad t hings- t hen t he audience will never be on Nora's side. The m ost you can do is soft en t heir hat red for her, show t hat she is m ore t o be pit ied t han t o be hat ed or feared. Even if t he readers com e t o feel great pit y for Nora, at no point will t hey want her t o em erge vict orious. Nobody want s Oedipus t o st ay m arried t o his m ot her. Nobody is root ing for Macbet h t o win. CHAPTER 9 THE HERO AND THE COMMON MAN WHEN THE ANCI ENT GREEKS AND ROMANS t old a serious st ory, t he charact ers were kings and queens, great warriors and heroes, t he sort of people who expect ed t o receive visit at ions from t he gods - heck, t he gods were oft en t heir aunt s and cousins anyway. But when t he Greeks and Rom ans set out t o t ell a st ory about com m on, everyday people, t he result was com edy, in which t he charact ers were lewd and foolish and corrupt . I t was long believed t hat great poet ry could never be writ t en about low charact ers - m agnificent art dem anded m agnificent subj ect m at t er. The rules have changed since t hen. The invent ion of t he novel - wit h such landm arks in English as Pam ela, Tom Jones, Robinson Crusoe, and Trist ram Shandy proved t hat wonderful st ories could t ake com m on people seriously. Oddly enough, however, st oryt elling keeps drift ing t oward ext raordinary heroes, so t hat t he com m on people have t o be rediscovered every few

decades or so. Not ed crit ic Nort hrop Frye exam ined t his pat t ern and cam e up wit h t he idea t hat our preference in fict ional heroes swings back and fort h like a pendulum . Frye used t he words Realist ic and Rom ant ic in a special way, as t he t wo ends of a descript ive spect rum . Rom ant ic, in t his cont ext , doesn't have anyt hing t o do wit h whet her or not a charact er is in love. At first heroes becom e m ore and m ore Rom ant ic ( idealized, ext raordinary, exot ic, m agnificent ) unt il finally t hey becom e so overblown and so cliched t hat we cease t o believe in or care about t hem . I n react ion, t he pendulum swings back t he ot her way, and our fict ional heroes becom e Realist ic - com m on, plain people, living lives t hat are well wit hin t he experience of t he readers. However, t hese Realist ic heroes quickly becom e boring, because people who live lives no different from our own are not t erribly int erest ing t o read about or t o writ e about . So st oryt ellers alm ost im m ediat ely begin m aking t heir heroes j ust a lit t le out of t he ordinary, so t hat readers will again be fascinat ed - unt il t he Rom ant ic hero is in t he saddle again. I n creat ing charact ers, we don't have t o worry about pendulum s. What concerns us is t hat our m ain charact ers m ust be at once believable and int erest ing - sim ult aneously Realist ic and Rom ant ic. Each of us, how93 94 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT ever, finds a different balance bet ween t he t wo. How ext raordinary or exot ic or " elevat ed" do charact ers need t o be for you t o want t o read or writ e about t hem ? How m uch det ail, how m uch com m onness, how m uch fam iliarit y m ust charact ers have before you believe in t hem ? Your answer will be different from m ine and from every ot her writ er's; your audience will consist of readers who agree wit h your answer. Look at t he fict ion m arket t oday, and you'll see what I m ean. Do you want Rom ant ic charact ers? Thrillers deal wit h people who are on t he cut t ing edge of power in t he world- spies, diplom at s, heads of st at e- and t heir lives are never ordinary; even shopping for groceries, t hey have t o wat ch out for t he enem y. Hist orical rom ances deal wit h charact ers in exot ic t im es and places, and usually people of high st at ion in an era when class dist inct ions m eant all t he difference in t he world. Glit t er rom ances deal wit h t he very rich, j et t ing bet ween assignat ions in Rio, Paris, and Singapore. Myst eries offer us t he det ect ive as avenging angel, t racking down t he guilt y despit e t heir best effort s t o escape ret ribut ion. Fant asy, t he t rue heir of t he great Rom ant ic t radit ion, st ill shows us kings and queens wielding t he power of m agic. Science fict ion t akes us t o worlds t hat have never been, t o show us new kinds of m agic, new kinds of nobilit y, new kinds of hum anit y. Yet every single one of t hese genres includes st ories t hat rebel against Rom ant ic excess, t hat insist on realism . John LeCarre's spy t hrillers achieved great not e in large part because his charact ers were not Rom ant ic, Jam es Bond- like heroes, but inst ead ordinary people who got sick, confused, t ired,

old; people who m ade m ist akes and had t o bear t he consequences. Yet is George Sm iley really ordinary? Of course not . He is only one of t he " com m on people" by com parison wit h t he ext ravagance t hat went before. We st ill look at George Sm iley wit h adm irat ion and awe; we st ill expect him t o achieve great t hings. He st ill m oves t hrough an exot ic world. He is st ill a t rue Hero, no m at t er how m uch shine has been t aken off his arm or. The sam e pat t ern can be found am ong m yst ery novels. John Mort im er's wonderful hero Rum pole is an English barrist er who will never achieve recognit ion, who isn't t erribly successful and loses a lot of cases, and who cert ainly isn't rich. His hom e life is deplorable, as he endures a t est y relat ionship wit h his shrewish wife whom he calls " She- who- m ust - be- obeyed." His very ordinariness is endearing- we read of him and feel t hat he is One Of Us. Yet Rum pole is really not ordinary at all, or we wouldn't like reading about him . Aft er t he realism has won our belief, we st ill see him solving cases t hrough rem arkable persist ence and clever insight s, and we com e t o believe t hat in fact he deserves great recognit ion and a place on t he bench. Ot hers m ay t hink he's ordinary, but we know he's a t ruly rem arkable, adm irable m an. The sam e pat t ern is followed by ot her " ordinary" m yst ery heroes- Rut h Rendell's I nspect or Wexford, Robert Parker's Spenser, and of course all t he heroes of t he Am erican hard- boiled det ect ive t radit ion. Just when t he fant asy genre seem ed likely t o lose it s last connect ion wit h realit y, St ephen R. Donaldson m ade a bit t er- heart ed leper nam ed Thom as Covenant t he reluct ant hero of his st ories; m ore recent ly, Megan The Hero and t he Com m on Man 95 Lindholm 's Wizard of t he Pigeons found m agic in a Viet nam vet eran living am ong t he st reet people of Seat t le. A large part of St ephen King's appeal as a writ er of horror, fant asy, and science fict ion has been his insist ence on using heroes from t he Am erican m iddle class, living in t he fam iliar world of fast food, shopping m alls, and t elevision. Yet even as we recognize people and det ails from t he real life around us, all t hese st ories would have been point less had t heir heroes not been ext raordinary in one way or anot her, t hough t heir uniqueness was hidden even from t hem selves. As I point ed out in Chapt er 8, readers t end t o like a charact er who is at least superficially like t hem selves. But t hey quickly lose int erest unless t his part icular charact er is som ehow out of t he ordinary. The charact er m ay wear t he m ask of t he com m on m an, but underneat h his t rue face m ust always be t he face of t he hero. Why? Because we don't read st ories t o duplicat e real life. I n our own diaries and j ournals we t end t o writ e down only what was out of t he ordinary, skipping t he dull part s of t he day. Why should we read t he dull part s in t he life of a m ade- up charact er? We read st ories t o get experiences we've never known first hand, or t o gain a clearer underst anding of experiences we have had. I n t he process, we follow

one or m ore charact ers t he way we follow our " self" in our dream s; we assim ilat e t he st ory as if what happened t o t he m ain charact ers had happened t o us. We ident ify wit h heroes. As t hey m ove t hrough t he st ory, what happens t o t hem happens t o us. I n com edy, heroes go t hrough all t he t errible t hings t hat we fear or face in our own lives- but t hey t each us t o look at disast er wit h enough dist ance t hat we can laugh at it . I n non- com ic fict ion, t he hero shows us what m at t ers, what has value, what has m eaning am ong t he random and m eaningless event s of life. I n all st ories, t he hero is our t eacher- by- exam ple, and if we are t o be t hat hero's disciple for t he durat ion of t he t ale, we m ust have awe: We m ust know t hat t he hero has som e insight , som e knowledge t hat we ourselves do not underst and, som e value or power t hat we do not yet have. This is t rue even in t hat great bast ion of ext rem e realism , t he academ ic/ lit erary genre ( t hose who refer t o t heir genre as " serious lit erat ure" as if t he rest of us are j ust kidding) . One reason why t he academ ic/ lit erary genre usually reaches such a sm all fragm ent of t he reading public is because in t heir pursuit of seriousness, t hey have beat en down t he Rom ant ic im pulse wherever it rears it s head. But t he Rom ant ic im pulse is st ill t here. Even in t he endless st ories about college professors or advert ising writ ers or housewives ent ering m idlife crises and t rying t o m ake sense of t heir senseless lives, t he heroes always seem t o face som e uncom m on problem s, always seem t o be ext raordinarily cont em plat ive and percept ive, always seem t o reach a m om ent of epiphany in which t hey pass along a key insight t o t he reader. Despit e t heir seem ing ordinariness, t hese heroes always t urn out t o be ext raordinary, once we t ruly underst and t hem . Art hur Miller m ay have m eant Willy Lom an t o be a non- heroic hero in Deat h of a Salesm an- he was nam ed " low m an" t o m ake sure w e got t he point - but by t he end Miller has shown us t hat Lom an dream ed of great 96 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT ness for him self and his children and his failure t o achieve it dest royed him . The fact t hat Lom an reached such a point of despair t hat he killed him self m oves him out of t he ordinary- but what really m akes Lom an a figure of awe is t hat he expect ed him self and his sons t o be great , t hat he m easured him self against such high st andards t hat , by t rying t o m eet t hem , he becam e exact ly t he Rom ant ic hero t hat Art hur Miller was t rying t o avoid. He was one of t he knight s of t he round t able who failed t o find t he Holy Grail- but he was nobly searching for it nonet heless. The writ ers in t he Realist ic t radit ion- for inst ance, Updike, Bellow, and Fowlesst ill give t heir charact ers heroic proport ion; only it 's m ore rest rained, used less boldly, bet t er disguised. By t he end of Bellow's novel Hum boldt 's Gift , Hum boldt is definit ely bigger t han life; he is, in his own way, as rom ant ically " enlarged" as Capt ain Blood or Rhet t But ler. The difference is t hat Capt ain Blood was involved in j eopardy on page one and bigger t han life by page

t hirt y, while Hum boldt didn't really becom e recognizably heroic in size unt il near t he end of t he book. Wit hout giving t he audience som e reason t o feel awe t oward t he hero, t here would be no st ory. Elim inat e t he usual sources of awe, t he usual ways of m aking a charact er larger t han life, and t he st oryt eller will eit her find anot her or lose int erest in t he t ale. More recent ly, m any academ ic/ lit erary writ ers have st riven t o avoid " naive ident ificat ion" by creat ing " aest het ic dist ance" - but t hese writ ers have m erely replaced t he charact er- hero wit h t he aut hor- as- hero, so t hat t he adm irat ion t hat used t o be direct ed t oward a charact er is now direct ed t oward t he art ist who creat ed t he exquisit e, ext raordinary t ext . I f t here is no awe, t here is no audience. I n every successful st ory- every st ory t hat is loved and adm ired by at least one reader who is not a close friend or blood relat ive of t he aut hor- t he aut hor has creat ed charact ers who som ehow inspire enough adm irat ion, respect , or awe t hat readers are willing t o ident ify wit h t hem , t o becom e t heir disciples for t he durat ion of t he t ale. I 'm not for a m om ent advocat ing t hat you art ificially j uice up your charact ers t o m ake t hem m ore Rom ant ic. That 's no m ore likely t o result in good charact erizat ion t han overwhelm ing your heroes wit h hum drum det ails. You'll do m uch bet t er if you t rust your own inst inct s t o choose t he balance bet ween Rom ance and Realism t hat 's right for you and for your nat ural audience. What you need is not a specific recipe but rat her a general awareness: I t 's vit al t hat along wit h m aking Nora seem excit ing and wonderful, you also help your readers underst and and believe in her, so t hey can connect her wit h t heir own lives. Along wit h m aking Pet e seem underst andable and believable, you should also show your readers why he is im port ant enough and adm irable enough t o deserve a place in t heir m em ories, t o be a wort hy exem plar of t he m eanings of life. Oft en when you find yourself blocked- when you can't bring yourself t o st art or cont inue a st ory- t he reason is t hat you have forgot t en or have not yet discovered what is ext raordinary about your m ain charact er. Go back over your not es, over t he part of t he st ory you've already t old, and ask yourself: What 's so special about t his wom an t hat people should The Hero and t he Com m on Man 97 hear t he st ory of her life? Or, m ore t o t he point , ask yourself: Why does her st ory m at t er t o m e? You've got a st ory going. Pet e's j ust an ordinary t went y- t hree- year- old m an, j ust finishing college aft er a t hree- year st int in t he arm y. Degree in business adm inist rat ion wit h good- enough but not spect acular grades, a few failed rom ances j ust like everybody else's failed rom ances. He's hired by a m aj or corporat ion and put in charge of a depart m ent . Aft er a year on t he j ob, ot hers are get t ing prom ot ed- but not him . He j ust isn't doing all t hat good a j ob. He keeps get t ing dist ract ed.

Then you don't know what t o do. You sit down t o writ e, and what you say doesn't seem t o m ake any difference, it 's all lousy. You're blocked. So you t ake a look at Pet e's charact er. There's no reason t o not ice him , not hing obviously special about him . You realize t hat unt il you find- or invent som et hing ext raordinary about him , you've got no st ory. So you look for what it is t hat m akes him not j ust different , but bet t er or m ore adm irable t han t he ot hers. Why isn't he succeeding? What is it about t he ot hers t hat get s t hem prom ot ed? You search t hrough what you've writ t en so far and you haven't answered t hat quest ion. You did a great j ob of m aking him ordinary and com m on. But t here is som et hing different about him : He isn't get t ing prom ot ed on t he norm al t rack. Why? I t 's not t hat he's unam bit ious- he read lacocca j ust like everybody else in t he M.B.A. program , and he dream s of seven- figure salaries and m illion- dollar bonuses, of heading a com pany wit h a budget larger t han Brazil's. So m aybe his " lack" is t hat he can't bring him self t o have t he at t it ude t oward his underlings t hat m ost ot her m anagers in his com pany seem t o have. He doesn't regard t hem as m achines t hat m ust run at m axim um efficiency or be replaced; he can't bring him self t o j udge t heir wort h according t o t he bot t om line. Pet e j ust can't st op caring about t hem as hum an beings. I f t his is what m akes Pet e special, how does t hat affect your st ory? You've already got a charact er, an office m anager nam ed Nora. I n t he present draft you had Pet e t ry t o j oke wit h her, but she t ook it as flirt ing and shut him down fast wit h a nast y lit t le speech about sexual harassm ent . You never m eant t hat relat ionship t o go anywhere- you were j ust using Nora as a m inor charact er t o show Pet e m aking an ordinary dum b m ist ake. But now t hat you have keyed in on Pet e's ext raordinary t endency t o care about people even when it 's bad for his com pany and his career, why not use Nora t o develop t hat t rait ? Pet e has good reason t o t hink she's a j erk- if he could fire anybody, he could surely fire her, right ? So when Nora st art s having problem s, t he solut ion is obvious: Get rid of her. She's inat t ent ive. She m akes m ist akes. She isn't assigning work t o her st affone of her t ypist s has even gone around asking for work because Nora hasn't assigned her anyt hing in a week. Som e of your ot her people are beginning t o com plain t hat Nora's office is slow in ret urning paperwork. Nora has been snapping at anyone who dares t o ask about lat e or m issing work, and m orale in her office is awful. But Pet e can't j ust fire her. For one t hing, he's afraid t hat she'll t hink he's firing her because she rej ect ed his " sexual advances," even t hough he 98 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT didn't t hink his j oking had any sexual overt ones. For anot her t o do t errific work- som et hing m ust be wrong. So he calls her t hat Nora is having a t errible t im e wit h her six- year- old in t hree- year- old's day- care sit uat ion is awful; her ex- husband

t hing, she used in and finds out school and her is t rying t o get

cust ody, and t he school and day- care problem s play right int o his hands. I n ot her words, her life's a m ess- and t he very worst t hing t hat could happen right now is t o lose her j ob. He t alks about Nora t o a friend from school who has a m anagerial j ob in t he sam e cit y. The friend t ells him t o fire her- she isn't doing t he work, and Pet e doesn't have t he right t o t urn t he com pany int o a charit able organizat ion for people wit h screwed- up lives. He was hired as a m anager, not a clergym an. But Pet e can't bring him self t o fire her. I nst ead he works lat e, going over Nora's workload and finding ways t o redist ribut e it , t o t ake up t he slack- in essence, he ends up doing her j ob. I f t his were a love st ory, you'd develop a rom ance bet ween Pet e and Nora. But t hat idea bores you. So you have Nora react nast ily t o Pet e's " int rusions" int o her office dom ain, not realizing t hat he's saving her bacon; she even com plains about Pet e t o t he people above him . He can't even t ell t hem what he's doing- t hey'd be appalled if t hey knew he had done her j ob for her inst ead of st aying in t he role of a m anager. Aft er five m ont hs of Nora sniping at Pet e while he covers for her, she finally get s her kids' problem s st raight ened out , her husband off her back, and her life back in gear. Nat urally, Pet e reassigns t o Nora all t he work he had rem oved from her during her hard t im es. Nora, however, is out raged at a sudden doubling of her workload wit h no com m ensurat e rise in salary. She quit s- aft er writ ing nast y let t ers com plaining about Pet e t o t he people over him . Maybe t hat 's t he end of your st ory; m aybe it 's j ust one incident along t he way, wit h ot her plot t hreads weaving t hrough t he st ory. What m at t ers is t hat it est ablishes t hat , while Pet e is definit ely a com m on m an, t here is also som et hing uncom m on about him - even heroic. He is able t o em pat hize even wit h people who aren't nice t o him . He is, in fact , a noble figure. Sure, he get s so furious at Nora t hat he writ es out her dism issal not ice a halfdozen t im es before she finally quit s. When she's gone, aft er doing real dam age t o his career when his only " crim e" was helping hold her life t oget her, he vow s t hat he'll never be such a sucker again. These are all com m on, nat ural, ordinary react ions. But t he audience knows t hat when it com es right down t o it , Pet e will do it again, over and over. He w on't have a Lee I acocca career- but t he audience is in awe of him for a virt ue he doesn't even value him self. Searching for t he ext raordinary in your charact ers can help you writ e your st ory. More im port ant , t hough, it will help your readers find w hat t hey're looking for in fict ion. You won't please everybody. Som e readers will rej ect your st ory because your hero isn't heroic enough for t hem t o bot her wit h; ot hers because you m ade him t oo heroic for t hem t o believe. That will always happen, and t here's not hing you can do about it . What you can do is search for what is " larger t han life" in your charact ers and t hen m ake sure t hat your st ory reveals t heir nobilit y, t heir grandeur, however subt le and well- disguised it m ay be am id realist ic and com m on det ails.

CHAPTER 10 The COMI C CHARACTER: CONTROLLED DI SBELI EF LAST NI GHT I WATCHED REX REED'S REVI EW of Rob Reiner's film The Princess Bride. I usually disagree wit h everyt hing Reed says, which is half t he fun of wat ching him . One com m ent he m ade in t his review was wort h rem em bering. He said t hat Reiner's idea of creat ing a com ic charact er was t o give him a funny accent - and for Reed, t hat j ust wasn't enough. A wizard who t alks like a New York Jew? Who can believe t hat ? Reed was right in principle. Using t he wrong accent can dest roy t he believabilit y of a charact er. I t hink im m ediat ely of t he m ovie Tess, in which an ot herwise powerful perform ance by Nast assia Kinski was deeply m arred by an accent t hat m ade it im possible for m e t o believe her as a Wessex girl. I n ot her film s her accent hasn't been a problem , but Tess was an adapt at ion from Hardy's Tess of t he d'Urbervilles, and in Hardy's works t he Wessex m ilieu is so im port ant t hat t o be false t o it is t o be false t o t he st ory. To m e it was a serious flaw in a m ovie t hat reached for great ness. I f Kinski's accent had been right for Wessex, I would not have not iced her speech at all. Because her accent was wrong, it weakened m y belief and m arred t he m ovie. But in The Princess Bride, I t hought Miracle Max's New York Jewish accent , dead wrong for t he Rom ant ic m edieval m ilieu, was wonderfully funny. What 's t he difference? Com ic charact ers cannot be believable in t he sam e way t hat ot her charact ers are. They can't be unbelievable, eit her. But com edy alm ost always deals wit h pain, and com ic charact ers alm ost always suffer. I f we believed in t hem wit h t he sam e int ensit y we bring t o st raight charact ers, t heir pain would be unbearable. I nst ead, t he aut hor gives t he audience clues t hat t he charact er is not t o be t aken seriously. Som et hing is m ade deliberat ely " wrong" about t he charact er, so t hat we know we aren't supposed t o react wit h sym pat hy. I nst ead we're supposed t o laugh. That 's what Miracle Max's accent helps t o do. There's no way he could have a New York Jewish accent . We inst ant ly recognize t hat he's wrong, out of place in t he st ory. Yet he is exact ly what w e need: The hero of t he st ory has j ust been killed, and we're hungry for relief. Max lift s up t he hero's arm , let s it drop lim ply t o t he t able, and says, in his im possible 99 100 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT accent , " I 've seen worse." We laugh because of t he wrongness of his response. At t he sam e t im e, because t his is a Rom ance, we hope t hat Miracle Max's nam e is for real. We want him t o be able t o resurrect t he hero. Max's m agical powers are not a j oke- t hey are im port ant , and wit hin t he cont ext of t he st ory,

t hey are believable. Max's Jewish accent , being false, m akes him com ic; his m agical power m akes him im port ant . The problem is t hat t he audience st ill has t o believe in and care about com ic charact ers. The goal of t he com edy writ er isn't doubt , but rat her cont rolled disbelief. Charact ers m ust be believable enough t hat t he audience will say, " Yes! I sn't t hat t he t rut h! I sn't t hat what always happens! I 've known people like t hat ! That 's exact ly what always happens t o m e! " Yet t he sam e charact ers m ust be unbelievable enough t hat t he audience doesn't feel obliged t o em pat hize wit h t hem . The charact ers m ust const ant ly give t he audience perm ission t o laugh at t heir m isfort unes. That 's why com edy is so m uch harder t o writ e well t han st raight fict ion. The com edy writ er always walks a delicat e line bet ween being t oo believable, and t herefore not funny, and being t oo unbelievable, and t herefore losing t he audience's int erest . Rem em ber t hat com ic charact ers appear even in t he m ost serious works, and t hat even t he m ost serious charact ers have com ic m om ent s. And when you int roduce a com ic charact er int o a st ory t hat m ust be ut t erly believable, t he fragile balance of cont rolled disbelief becom es even m ore im port ant . Here are som e of t he devices we use t o signal t he audience t hat it 's all right t o laugh: DOI NG A " TAKE" The sim plest way of signaling com ic unbelievabilit y is t o t alk direct ly t o t he audience. I n non- com ic fict ion it has long been out of fashion t o writ e passages direct ly t o t he " dear reader," and in non- com ic film and t elevision, while we accept t he convent ion of an occasional narrat or who speaks t o t he audience, we don't expect a charact er t o do so. Com edy, however, const ant ly breaks t hat convent ion. Woody Alien has his com ic charact ers speak t o t he audience in film aft er film , using bot h voice- over narrat ion and on- screen com m ent s. On TV, Dobie Gillis spoke t o t he audience- but only w hen he was alone on screen. I n t he act ion com edy Moonlight ing, every episode has at least one m om ent when one charact er rem inds anot her of t he fact t hat t hey're on a t elevision show wit h an audience wat ching ( " Why are we st opping here?" " I t 's t im e for a com m ercial." ) For m e, t his device is t oo heavy- handed- it has crossed t he line so far t hat it m akes it hard for m e t o t ake t he serious aspect s of t he show seriously; for m any ot her viewers, however, it 's t he highlight of t he show. You can have direct cont act wit h t he audience wit hout act ually speaking t o t hem . At one point in Beverly Hills Cop- an act ion m ovie t hat depends on our t aking pain and j eopardy very seriously at t im es- t here is a m om ent when Eddie Murphy is t old som et hing t hat st rikes him as out raThe Com ic Charact er: Cont rolled Disbelief 101 geous, whereupon he t urns and looks st raight int o t he cam era wit h no expression at all on his face. He holds t hat connect ion for a single beat , not

even a second, and t hen goes on. But t he audience laughs in delight . Murphy's m om ent ary awareness of t he cam era is not enough t o dest roy t he audience's belief in t he st ory, but it is a good com ic signal not t o t ake everyt hing t oo seriously. This is called a " t ake," a st raight - t o- t he- audience react ion. The lat e com edian Jack Benny was t he m ast er of t he t ake. Som et im es it seem ed like he could st ret ch a t ake forever, earning laugh aft er laugh wit hout saying a word. How did it work? Anot her charact er would say som et hing out rageous, som et hing t hat was eit her so dum b or so wrong or so rude t hat it would t ake a t housand words t o answer. But Benny said not hing at all. I nst ead, he folded his arm s and looked at t he audience- a long, lingering look, wit h a disgust ed expression on his face. Finally he t urned back t o look at t he person who said t he out rageous t hing- but st ill couldn't answer. So again he would look at t he audience. Som et im es, in despair, he would say, " Well." The audience would roar wit h laught er again and again during t he t ake. I never saw it fail. But Jack Benny was doing it in front of a live audience. How does a fict ion writ er do a t ake? One way is t o insert com m ent s t o t he reader. Kurt Vonnegut used t o do it all t he t im e. He'd pick a phrase like " so it goes" or " hi ho" and int erj ect it repeat edly aft er som et hing awful happened in t he st ory. I t provided exact ly t he sam e degree of cont rolled disbelief as Jack Benny folding his arm s and looking at t he audience or Eddie Murphy doing his deadpan t ake and t hen t urning back t o t he act ion. You can do it less flam boyant ly t han Vonnegut , of course. I t can be done wit h a fillip of at t it ude: I yelled at t he cat , kicked at it - finally it dropped t he squirrel and t ook refuge on t he neighbor's porch. The baby squirrel j ust lay t here, t rem bling, but it didn't seem t o be hurt . No blood, anyway, and as I reached down it t ook a few st eps, so not hing was broken. I picked it up and carried it back t o t he t ree, feeling like a hero for saving it s life. Of course it bit m y hand. The paragraph ends wit h t he narrat or in pain. But t he " of course" is a t ake- t he narrat or is looking at t he audience wit h a m ixt ure of disgust and resignat ion. You m ight as well give up on grat it ude cause you ain't gonna get it , says t hat of course. I t 's a way of put t ing som e dist ance bet ween t he audience and t he pain. We can do t he sam e t hing wit hout a word. 1 yelled at t he cat , kicked at it - finally it dropped t he squirrel and t ook refuge on t he neighbor's porch. The baby squirrel j ust lay t here, t rem bling, but it didn't seem t o be hurt . No blood, anyway, and as I reached down it t ook a few st eps, so not hing was broken. I picked it up and carried it back t o t he t ree, feeling like a hero for saving it s life. I t bit m y hand. The paragraph break em phasizes t he next sent ence, calls at t ent ion t o it , m akes you pause j ust a beat t o digest it . I t 's a t ake. 102

CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT EXAGGERATI ON Let 's cont inue t he st ory: ... I picked it up and carried it back t o t he t ree, feeling like a hero for saving it s life. I t bit m y hand. I put a bandage on t he wound, but it got infect ed anyway. When m y hand t urned brown and got t o t he size of a boxing glove, I went t o t he doct or. He inj ect ed a quart of penicillin int o m y backside even t hough we bot h agreed t hat t he problem was in m y hand. As I left , he gave m e several brochures about various brands of art ificial arm . " You m ight want t o look t hese over and decide which you like best ," he said, " j ust in case you don't get lockj aw and die hideously." I prom ised him t hat next t im e I 'd t ake anim al bit es m ore seriously. I also m ade a firm resolut ion t o look for every opport unit y t o feed baby squirrels t o cat s. I t is t rue t hat leaving an anim al bit e unt reat ed could lead t o gangrene, t et anus, or even rabies. But as you read t his passage, you didn't for a m om ent believe t hat t he narrat or was really on t he verge of losing his hand. Nor did you believe t hat his hand was really t he size of a boxing glove, or t hat t he narrat or would act ually cat ch baby squirrels and feed t hem t o cat s. The rem ark about squirrels was an exaggerat ion of his chagrin at how his kindness t o anim als t urned out . Not e, t hough, t hat in t his version t he narrat or does not do a t ake, or give any ot her sign t o t he reader t hat he t hinks t his passage is funny. A vit al principle of com ic writ ing is not t o laugh at your own hum or- not t o give a sign t hat eit her t he aut hor or t he charact ers are am used at t heir own clever wit . I t would have been deadly if t he doct or's exaggerat ions, inst ead of being delivered deadpan, had been report ed like t his: " You m ight want t o look t hese over and decide which you like best ," he j oked, " j ust in case you don't get lockj aw and die hideously." He giggled insanely as I left . Now, I can't be sure t hat you t hought t he first version was part icularly am using, but I do know t hat t his version is considerably less funny. This t im e t he narrat or t ells us t he doct or was j oking, which spoils t he fun of figuring out t hat t he narrat or is exaggerat ing. And t he line about giggling insanely carries exaggerat ion t oo far. The writ er is t rying t oo hard, t he disbelief is out of cont rol, and bot h t he hum or and t he st ory are dead in t he wat er. DOWNPLAYI NG The reverse of exaggerat ion is for a charact er t o downplay t he im port ance of her problem s. I m agine a com ic charact er being held at knifepoint by a vicious enem y- not usually a funny sit uat ion. I f your st rat egy were exaggerat ion, you could have t he heroine irn-

The Com ic Charact er: Cont rolled Disbelief 103 m ediat ely begin t o plead for her life in a com ically exaggerat ed way. She would st art t o cry, fall t o her knees, grovel, whine, and if you carry it j ust far enough, t he audience will laugh. But you could also have her downplay her fear. She could plead for her life wit h com ic nonchalance: " I t hink we've got a lit t le m isunderst anding here. I don't know how you ever got t he im pression t hat I didn't like you. Act ually I look up t o you. I want t o be j ust like you. Where did you buy t hat great knife?" That sam e exaggerat ed nonchalance, t hat com ic coolness, can show up in t he narrat ion. His ex- wife left him wit h so lit t le t hat when his apart m ent got burglarized it t ook him an hour t o not ice it . He t ook a shower, fixed dinner, and read t he paper; only when he went t o t urn on t he TV did he realize it was gone. A m ild exaggerat ion; a m ild am ount of hum or. But now we'll m ake it first person and exaggerat e his nonchalant at t it ude a lit t le m ore. I got hom e, saw t he drawers dum ped out , t he couch ripped open, all t he books off t he shelves, and t he TV m issing. At first I figured m y ex- wife had sent her lawyers over for anot her round. I only realized it was burglars when I saw t hat t here wasn't a m essage in lipst ick on t he m irror. Usually she wrot e t hings like " Die, capit alist pig" or " Helt er- Skelt er." Not for a m om ent do you believe t hat t he narrat or t hought any such t hing. He's j ust being nonchalant about t he burglary- and exaggerat ing his ex- wife's behavior, t oo. We aren't expect ed t o believe his nonchalance. He is going t hrough t hings t hat would m ake a norm al person angry and afraid; but by downplaying his response t o t hem , t he narrat or m akes it am using inst ead of infuriat ing. ODDNESS When eccent ricit y is t aken t o ext rem es it becom es less believable, event ually leading t o farce or m elodram a. Oddness is t he prim e t ool of t he com ic st oryt eller. The use of a Jewish accent for Miracle Max is an exam ple of sim ple oddness. The m isplacem ent of a st ereot ype m akes us laugh, m akes us t ake all t hat t he charact er does a bit less seriously. But st ereot ypes can only t ake you so far. The sam e t hing is oft en done wit h t he way a charact er dresses. Cost um e is a st ereot ype- a const ruct ion worker dresses a cert ain way, a ballet dancer anot her. Put t ing a charact er in inappropriat e dress can also m ake us laugh. That 's why we have seen so m any com edies wit h m en in drag. Show a charact er wearing whit e socks wit h brown shoes and a blue suit , and we know he's a geek. Shakespeare m akes Malvolio in Twelft h Night appear on st age com ically dressed and cross- gart ered as t he result of a pract ical j oke, and we laugh. I t m akes him funny- but it doesn't m ake us care. 104

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Malvolio is m ade ridiculous by his absurd apparel; he is m ade im port ant by t he reasons for his st range clot hing. The clot hing, by it self, would be a t rivial effect . The t rouble is t hat oddness is a t ool you norm ally use for m inor charact ers. Oddness, by it self, can't m ake a charact er m aj or. I t can even dim inish a charact er. I f you have a m aj or com ic charact er, you'll use all t he Rom ant ic and Realist ic t echniques of charact erizat ion. So what m akes him com ic? I t 's a m at t er of t im ing. Very early in our acquaint ance wit h t he charact er, before t he ot her t echniques have had a chance t o win t he audience's firm belief, you undercut t hose ot her t echniques by m aking t he charact er j ust a lit t le t oo odd or ext rem e t o believe com plet ely. I t 's hard t o im agine a serious play t hat couldn't be t urned int o a farce using t his t echnique. King Lear could be hilarious wit h Bob Newhart in t he lead. I m agine John Candy as Macbet h or Howie Mandel as Oedipus. I f you recognize t hese com edians' nam es, you already know som et hing about t heir eccent ricit ies- Bob Newhart 's resent ful m eekness, John Candy's cheerful but brut al insensit ivit y, Howie Mandel's m anic indecision. I f you saw t hem in t hese plays, t heir eccent ricit y would assert it self long before t he ot her t echniques of charact erizat ion cam e int o play. Pict ure t hese m om ent s: Bob Newhart , looking slight ly peeved and int oning, " Blow, winds! Crack your cheeks! " Howie Mandel nervously rej ect ing several brooches unt il he finds j ust t he right ones t o j ab out his eyes wit h. John Candy's blust ering confidence in him self as he t ries t o deal wit h t he wit ches, while Gilda Radner, as Lady Macbet h, pushes him out of t heir room t o go kill Duncan. You would not believe any of t hese perform ers in t he roles, not if t hey used t heir com ic personas. But it is precisely t heir cont rolled disbelief t hat would m ake t heir perform ances hilariously funny. Along t hese lines, it 's wort h point ing out t hat eccent ricit y, if carried t o ext rem es in a m aj or charact er, event ually becom es t he subj ect of t he com edy. Ben Jonson called it com edy of hum ors- com edy arising from a charact er being com plet ely dom inat ed by only one desire or t em peram ent . Misers, hypochondriacs, hypocrit es, cowards have t rait s t hat all hum ans share t o som e degree. Exaggerat e t he t rait enough, and t he charact ers are unbelievable enough t o be funny. Exaggerat e t he t rait out of all proport ion, and t hey becom e eit her m onst rous or ut t erly unbelievable. Com edy of hum ors carries exaggerat ion right t o t he edge of unbelievabil- it y or m onst rosit y. Your st ory can st ill be funny, but it also reduces your abilit y t o m ove your audience. The Three St ooges and t he Marx Brot hers m ade people laugh, but t hey never really m ade people care. CHAPTER

11

THE SERI OUS CHARACTER: MAKE US BELI EVE Do YOU WANT YOUR READERS TO BELI EVE in your charact ers? The one t hing you can never do is appeal t o t he fact s. I n a news st ory you quot e sources; in hist ory you cit e docum ent s. But in fict ion you have no such recourse- t he single worst defense of an unbelievable event or charact er is t o say, " But t hat really happened once." Fict ion doesn't deal wit h what happened once. Fict ion deals wit h what happens. Your j ob is not t o creat e charact ers w ho exact ly m at ch realit y. Your j ob is t o creat e charact ers w ho seem real, who are plausible t o t he audience. This chapt er present s t he t ools of realism , t he t echniques t hat will earn your readers' t rust . These m et hods won't m ake your st ory " t rut hful" - t he t rut h of your t ale arises from your unconscious choices, from your beliefs t hat are so ingrained t hat you m ay not even know you believe t hem , because it doesn't occur t o you t hat t hey m ight not be t rue. What t hese t ools provide is t he illusion of t rut h. Cont radict ory as t hat sounds, it 's a vit al part of st oryt elling. You m ust provide your audience wit h det ails t hat seem fam iliar and appropriat e, so t hat t hey are const ant ly saying t o t hem selves, " Yes, t hat 's right , t hat 's t rue, t hat 's j ust t he way it would be, people do t hat ." Wit h each " yes" t he audience becom es m ore convinced t hat you are a st oryt eller who knows som et hing. They let down t heir barriers of skept icism and let you lead t hem t hrough t he world of your st ory, absorbing t he people and event s int o t heir m em ories, ident ifying wit h your heroes, m aking t heir st ories a part of t hem selves in a way t hat fact ual st ories never can. St rike a false not e, and barriers go back up; your readers pull out of t he st ory a lit t le, each t im e a lit t le m ore, unt il you've lost t hem and your st ory has no m ore power over t hem . I could m ake t his chapt er very short by t elling you in a single word how t o m ake your charact ers m ore believable: det ails. The m ore inform at ion about a charact er, t he m ore t he audience will believe in him . I t isn't really t hat sim ple, t hough. You don't want j ust any det ails, you want relevant , appropriat e det ails. Nor do you want t he det ails t o st op 105 106 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT t he m ovem ent of t he st ory any m ore t han necessary. So t he t ools of realism are designed t o present det ails about a charact er appropriat ely and effect ively. ELABORATI ON OF MOTI VE The m ost im port ant t ool t hat will help your audience believe in your charact ers is elaborat ion of m ot ive. I f you don't t ell your audience what a charact er's m ot ives are, t he audience will assum e t he obvious m ot ive: a sim ple, single m ot ive, a naked archet ype or a cliche. To m ake charact ers m ore believable,

m ore real, we give t hem m ore com plex, even cont radict ory m ot ives, and we j ust ify t hem bet t er. I n t he heroic fant asy film Conan t he Barbarian, young Conan's m ot her is killed before his eyes. He spends t he rest of t he film searching for t he m urderer. I t isn't hard for t he audience t o grasp t he idea t hat he's looking for revenge. Let 's suppose t hat you want ed t o st art wit h t he sam e sit uat ion, but you want ed Conan t o be a m ore believable hum an being. His relent less obsession wit h revenge is not enough t o sust ain a realist ic novel. The easiest st ep is t o diversify- give him ot her m ot ives, ot her int erest s, purposes, and loyalt ies. There would be m any t im es when he did not t hink of revenge. A m ore daring st ep is t o m ake him even m ore com plex: He is searching for t he m urderer, not t o kill him , but t o serve him . I n Conan's m ind t he m an's cruelt y has been t ransform ed int o j ust ice- he killed m y m ot her, t hinks Conan, because she was weak and sm all. I will be st rong and large, and he will find m e wort hy. This kind of m ot ivat ion is borderline pat hological- but it is also int riguing and believable, not at all t he predict able revenge cliche. Let 's go back t o Eddie Murphy's charact er in Beverly Hills Cop. Like Conan, he is given t he sim plest of m ot ives- revenge for t he deat h of a friend. Since it is an alm ost purely Rom ant ic st ory, and a com ic one at t hat , no m ore realism is needed; t he audience found his charact er believable enough for t he needs of t he film . But what if we want ed t o m ake his charact er m ore real? We'd t hen have t o invent a richer set of m ot ives. What if his m urdered friend was som eone t hat Murphy had t reat ed, not well, but badly, so t hat Murphy's desire for revenge is prom pt ed not j ust by love but also by guilt . And let 's say Murphy's t enacit y in t he case is not j ust because he's com pet it ive and doesn't like t o lose, but also because he's afraid t hat he's not very good as a cop, and if he doesn't succeed in t his hard and dangerous case he won't be able t o believe in him self. Add t o t his a bit of arrogance- t here are t im es when he believes he can't fail, t hat he can't even die. And m aybe he needs t o show off a lit t le, t oo. One of t he advant ages of prose fict ion is t hat you can bring all of a charact er's m ot ives int o t he open. Because we can som et im es see int o t he charact ers' m inds, t heir t hought s and feelings, t heir plans and react ions, we can also wat ch t hem shift from one m ot ive t o anot her. We can go one The Serious Charact er: Make Us Believe 107 layer deeper, and discover m ot ives t hat t he charact ers don't even know t hey have. Since m ot ive is t he charact er's purpose or int ent when he t akes an act ion, it is not som et hing you can add t o a charact er and t hen leave t he rest of t he st ory unchanged. The pursuit of ever- deeper m ot ives is not a t rivial gam e played on t he surface of t he st ory. Mot ive is at t he st ory's heart . I t is t he m ost pot ent

form of causal connect ion. So every revision of m ot ive is a revision of t he st ory. Nora t ells Pet e t hat t he m an who was in her apart m ent was j ust a salesm an. Pet e react s by saying cruel, vicious t hings t o her, breaking a lam p, and st orm ing out of her apart m ent . What does t hat scene m ean? At first glance, we m ight suppose Pet e is insanely j ealous. But what if we t hen learn t hat Pet e knows t he m an- knows t hat he is a drug dealer and a form er pim p? Now we underst and t hat his rage doesn't com e from a desire t o cont rol Nora, but rat her from real concern for her welfare. Nora's lie is a silent wit ness t o him t hat she is som ehow involved wit h t his m an- in one way or anot her. Aft er a while, Nora confesses t o Pet e t hat t he m an in her apart m ent was her brot her, but she hat es him and doesn't want anyone she cares about t o know t hat he has any connect ion wit h her. Now Pet e underst ands her m ot ive for lying. He's relieved. St ill lat er, t he reader is shown a scene t hat m akes it clear t hat t he visit or was not her brot her at all- he has been Nora's husband for t en years, and t hey have never been divorced. Now Nora's real m ot ives are a m yst ery again. Each new revelat ion of a m ain charact er's m ot ive is not a sim ple m at t er of adding m ore inform at ion- it revises all t he inform at ion t hat has gone before. Event s t hat we t hought m eant one t hing now m ean anot her. The present const ant ly revises t he m eaning of t he past . Revelat ion of t he past const ant ly revises t he m eaning of t he present . This is t he prim ary device of det ect ive fict ion ( and psychoanalysis) , but all ot her genres use t he t echnique as well. There is a cost . The discovery of m ot ive alw ays requires exam inat ion of a charact er's t hought s, eit her t hrough her dialogue wit h ot her charact ers, t hrough direct t elling of t hose t hought s, or by im plicat ion as new fact s are revealed. All t hese exam inat ions of m ot ive com e at t he expense of act ion. A charact er who endlessly t ries t o underst and her ow n m ot ives event ually becom es a bore. ATTI TUDE One of t he surest signs of an am at eur st ory is when st range or im port ant event s happen around t he narrat or or point - of- view charact er, and he doesn't have an at t it ude t oward t hem . At t it ude is t he ot her side of t he coin of causat ion. Mot ive t ells why he act s as he does; at t it ude is t he way he react s t o out side event s. 108 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT Packer t alked serious business on t he phone, but when he walked int o t he rest aurant I knew it was all bluff. His suit was shiny and t oo sm all, t oo short in t he sleeves; his t ie didn't com e wit hin six inches of his belt . I t hought of asking him t he nam e of his t ailor, but he m ight be sm art enough t o know he was being insult ed, and on t he off chance he was an eccent ric m illionaire whose m ot her never t aught him how t o dress, I decided t o hold off provoking him unt il aft er he paid for lunch.

This paragraph t ells you som et hing about Packer, of course- t hat he dresses awkwardly. You see Packer t hrough t he narrat or's eyes, and t his will always color your percept ion of him . The narrat or feels cont em pt uous; so w ill you. At t he sam e t im e, his at t it ude also t ells you about t he narrat or. He j udges people by t heir clot hing- whet her t hey're wort h t aking seriously, whet her he even t hinks t hey're sm art . Furt herm ore, he decides t o t reat t his m an civilly only because of a chance t hat he m ight act ually have m oney. This can be a com plicat ed gam e. Push t he narrat or's cont em pt for Packer far enough, and we'll com e t o dislike t he narrat or and sym pat hize wit h Packer. I f t hat 's what you want , t hen it 's working. But if you want t he reader t o like t he narrat or, you have t o m ake sure his at t it ude doesn't get t oo flippant , t hat he never descends int o m eanness. Jacob was early for his appoint m ent wit h Ryan's t eacher; he st ood by his car for a m inut e, looking at t he place where Ryan spent his days. The Guilford Middle School looked bleak- long flat - roofed buildings of red brick, bare windows, lot s of gravel and concret e. An inst it ut ion. Going inside, Jacob hit his head on t he door's low- hanging hinge assem bly, a nast y bum p t hat m ade him st op and close his eyes for a m om ent . When he opened t hem , it was as if t he blow had m ade him color- blind. The corridor looked black and whit e. No, black and grey- not hing was clean enough t o be called whit e. Bare fluorescent light s, blank walls int errupt ed only by doors wit h paint ed- over windows. Now Jacob underst ood why t he only t hing t hat ever seem ed t o go on at t his place was discipline. I t was a prison. The t eacher was a warden, and poor Ryan had six m ont hs t o go on his sent ence. Where does t he at t it ude com e from ? At first only a few words: " bleak," " inst it ut ion." But t hese words, which represent Jacob's at t it ude t oward t he school, are enough t o set t he t one. Aft er t hat , t he reader knows t o int erpret all t he descript ion as negat ive. Wit hout t he at t it ude, t hough, t here w ould be no point in describing t he school. I f Jacob weren't seeing it as a bleak inst it ut ion, a dirt y grey prison, t he descript ion would sound pret t y m uch like every Am erican school built since 1950. Might as well go st raight t o t he scene wit h t he t eacher and not wast e t he reader's t im e visualizing t he school at all. At t it ude can provide t he t ension in t he scene. Here's t he sam e scene t wice, first wit hout m uch at t it ude, t hen wit h m ore: An at t ract ive- looking m an cam e up t o Nora's desk, glanced at her nam eplat e, and sm iled at her. " Hi, Nora. Want som e lunch?" The Serious Charact er: Make Us Believe 109 " No t hanks," she answered. " I 'll buy it som ewhere else." 4 ^ g- j * - / ',v- He looked confused. " Aren't you t he sandwich m an? The last place I worked, t hey had a m an who cam e around t aking sandwich orders."

Now let 's t ry t he sam e opening, wit h at t it ude, and t hen go on, seeing how t he scene develops. He had a sharp, clean look about him , he was t hin and wore clot hes well, but Nora didn't like t he confident way he looked down at her. As if he had a right t o decide t hings for her. She had had bosses wit h t hat look, and t hey always ended up t alking about her clot hing and how she ought t o bright en up t he office by wearing som et hing a lit t le lower in t he neckline. His gaze dropped t o t he nam eplat e on her desk, j ust for a m om ent . Then he looked her in t he eye again. " Hi, Nora. Want som e lunch?" he said. That 's right , don't ask if I want lunch wit h you, j ust ask if I want lunch. I f I say no, does t hat m ean I have t o sit at m y desk anoj . go hungry? " No t hanks," she answered. " I 'll buy it som ewhere else." He looked confused. She enj oyed t hat . " Aren't you t he sandwich m an?" she asked. " The last place I worked, t hey had a m an who cam e around t aking sandwich orders." He wasn't st upid- he knew he was being put down. " I was t oo cocky, right ?" " Not at all. I t hink you were j ust cocky enough." That was a m ist ake. She was bant ering wit h him now, and he was t he kind who t hought bant er was a com e- on. He st art ed int o som e silly st ory about how a guy get s nervous when he sees a beaut iful wom an, his genes t ake over and he st art s t o sw agger and preen. " Preen?" " Like peacocks and grouses. Put on a display. But t hat 's not m e. I 'm really a sensit ive guy. I m ake Phil Donahue look like a t ruck driver." Tim e t o put a st op t o t his. " You don't want t o have lunch wit h m e. I have seven children at hom e and t hree different social diseases. I also lead m en on and t hen yell rape when t hey get t oo close. I am every night m are you ever had about a dom ineering career wom an. I t hink a m an like you w ould call a wom an like m e a cast rat ing bit ch." He didn't answer right away. Just looked at her, his sm ile gone cold. " No," he finally said. " That 's what m y m ot her would call you." He st ood up. " You're new here. I asked you t o lunch. My m ist ake, sorry." He walked on past her desk and out t he door. That 's right , act hurt . You werej ust being friendly, and I j um ped all over you. But I know bet t er t han t hat . I 've seen t hat sm ile on t oo m any faces not t o know what lies behind it and where it leads. The m an I 'll go t o lunch wit h is t he one who doesn't speak t o m e unt il t he norm al course of w ork brings us t oget her, and he won't ask m e t o lunch unt il he knows m y nam e wit hout looking at t he nam eplat e on m y desk. Not ice how t he scene shift s, increasing t he t ension every t im e. At first , Nora's at t it ude disposes us t o see t he m an as an overconfident wom anizer. She st ereot ypes him , and we share her percept ion. The m om ent he adm it s t he st ereot ype, t hough, by saying, " Too cocky?" our sym pat hy changes a lit t le. We begin t o t hink he m ight be decent aft er all- at least

110 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT he's sm art enough t o know he's being put down. Then, when she doesn't pay at t ent ion t o t he next t hing he says ( we know she didn't pay at t ent ion because his dialogue isn't given in full) , we begin t o wonder if she isn't losing a rom ant ic opport unit y. ( I n reading fict ion, we're always looking for rom ant ic opport unit ies, and t here is sexual t ension in t his scene, beginning from t he m om ent she not iced t hat he was sharp- looking, t hin, and wore clot hes well.) Her speech about seven children and t hree social diseases is way t oo st rongwe really lose sym pat hy wit h her. I n writ ing t his, m y first off- t he- shelf follow- up was t o have her reflect t he audience percept ion at t hat point , and feel regret for having t reat ed him so badly. Since t hat was m y first response, t hough, I quest ioned it , and inst ead let her recognize t he effect t hat his " hurt " at t it ude was designed t o have, and t hen count er it by reflect ing on what she would respond favorably t o. This put her at t it ude in perspect ive, and inst ead of our t hinking t hat t he m an wasn't so bad aft er all, we are now m easuring him against her st andard. We are fully on her side again, and t hough a rom ant ic relat ionship wit h t his guy is st ill a st ory possibilit y, we won't be disappoint ed if she finds som ebody else. Also, it w as because I was giving her at t it ude t hat I cam e up wit h t he conflict in t he first place. I f I had writ t en t he whole scene t he way t he first version began, I would never have invent ed t he relat ionship t hat em erged. She would have had no reason t o t urn him down. She would st ill have been a st ranger t o m e, and so she would rem ain a st ranger t o t he audience. Wasn't it because of her at t it ude t hat you t ook int erest in her at all? Not ice t hat it is prim arily t hrough at t it udes t hat we est ablish t he m eaning of relat ionships bet ween people. At t it ude t ells us what people not ice about each ot her, and what value t hey assign t o what t hey see. Look at t hese brief scenes, all from Pet e's point of view, all giving his at t it ude: " What a day," she said. Yeah, right . Poor dear, couldn't she find a single dress t hat fit right ? " What a day," she said. She could say anyt hing right now, and it would be m usic. He didn't realize how m uch he m issed her unt il she cam e back. " What a day," she said. She would t ell him about it . They'd have dinner, wat ch TV, go t o bed; if she didn't t alk about how t ired she was, t hey'd have sex. I t w as Tuesday. Moonlight ing. So t hey'd definit ely have sex, unless it was a rerun. " What a day," she said. He looked at her sharply. Did she guess where he had been t oday? What he had done? No. She was t oo dull for t hat . An int elligent idea, even if one cam e along, would never get past her faded blue housedress. You get t he idea. The part icular way your charact er responds t o event s let s t he reader know w ho he is. I t also helps you discover your charact er,

The Serious Charact er: Make Us Believe 111 since each bit of at t it ude you com e up wit h will help you decide what your charact er will do next . At t it ude and m ot ive t hus becom e inext ricably in t ert wined. The charact er's response t o event X will provide his m ot ive for doing Y and Z. THE REMEMBERED PAST One of t he t hings I not iced as I st art ed working wit h science fict ion was t hat so m any of t he m ain charact ers seem ed t o com e out of nowhere. They had no fam ilies; t hey all seem ed t o be loners and drift ers who had no root s. This is fine, wit hin t he rom ant ic t radit ion; does Dirt y Harry have a m ot her? Does Aragorn? Darcy? Nat t y Bum ppo? Rhet t But ler? There's not m uch evidence for it . But it doesn't m at t er, in rom ance, because t he st ory becom es t he charact er's past . That is, by t he end of t he st ory, you know all t he t hings t he charact er did earlier in t he st ory, so t hat now he does have connect ions wit h ot her people. To fully realize a charact er, however, you m ust give him a whole life. He has a past , an elaborat e set of m eaningful connect ions t o ot her people: fam ily, friends, enem ies, t eachers, em ployers. The m ost obvious way t o t ell a charact er's whole life is, of course, t o begin t he st ory wit h her birt h. This is, however, t he rom ant ic t radit ion again. Aft er all, no m at t er whet her you're writ ing rom ance or realism , you have t o begin t he st ory at exact ly t he point where t he m ain charact er becom es int erest ing and unique. I f you st art at her birt h, t hen she m ust be bigger t han life from t he cradle. John I rving m ade t he t it le charact er of The World According t o Garp ext raordinary from t he m om ent of concept ion, when his very odd m ot her, a nurse in a hospit al, im pregnat ed herself using t he body of a servicem an wit h t erm inal brain dam age. But you can't always begin your st ories wit h such bizarre event s. I nst ead, you will probably begin your st ory when your m ain charact ers are already nearly adult s, wit h a wealt h of experience behind t hem . How can you give a sense of t he past ? Flashback The m ost obvious t echnique- and t he least effect ive and m ost overused- is t he flashback. The present act ion st ops for a while as t he charact er ( or, worse yet , t he narrat or) rem em bers som e key event from days of yore. The problem wit h t his t echnique is exact ly t hat : The act ion st ops for t he flashback. Tim e aft er t im e I have seen st udent st ories or st ories subm it t ed t o m e as an edit or t hat began like t his: Nora peered t hrough her windshield, t rying t o see t hrough t he heavy snowfall. " I can't be lat e," she m urm ured. I t t ook all her concent rat ion j ust t o st ay at fort y m iles per hour. Yet t he event s of t he last few weeks kept int ruding, t aking her m ind off t he road. She t hought back t o her last quarrel wit h Pet e.

Here we get a fift een- paragraph sum m ary of all t he st uff t hat happened up t o yest erday.] 112 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT Her m ind ret urned t o t he snowy road before her. There was her house. She pulled int o t he driveway and went inside. She at e dinner and wat ched TV, unable t o concent rat e, wait ing for Pet e's phone call. When he hadn't called by m idnight , she went t o bed. The next m orning ... Cringe along wit h m e, please. What ever is in t hat flashback wouldn't really give Nora a past , because she has no present . The flashback won't provide us wit h addit ional inform at ion about t he charact er- it will provide us wit h our only inform at ion. Not hing happens on t hat snowy road except t he flashback. The charact er has not yet been m ade im port ant in t he present m om ent - she is m erely a st ereot yped im age, and a singularly dull one at t hat : a wom an driving in t he snow. By t he t im e t he flashback is over, t he reader will have forgot t en about t he snow- t here's not hing t o rem em ber anyway. We have no anchor in t he present m om ent , so we are soon hopelessly adrift in m em ory. A rule of t hum b: I f you feel a need t o have a flashback on t he first or second page of your st ory, eit her your st ory should begin wit h t he event s of t he flashback, or you should get us involved wit h som e com pelling present charact ers and event s before flashing back. I usually prefer t he form er choice- beginning t he st ory wit h t he first event s t hat m at t er. However, som et im es, m any pages int o a st ory, t here's a real need for t he charact er t o rem em ber som e key event . I f we're well root ed in t he st ory, if we know enough and care enough about t he charact er for t he flashback t o be im port ant t o us, t hen it can work very well. But it st ill has a serious cost . I t st ops t he present act ion. The longer t he flashback t akes, t he harder it is for t he audience t o rem em ber what was happening j ust before t he flashback began. So flashbacks should be rare, t hey should be brief, and t hey should t ake place only aft er you have anchored t he st ory in t he present act ion. Mem ory as a Present Event Slight ly m ore effect ive is having one charact er t ell anot her a st ory out of t he past . I f you set it up properly, t he t elling of t he st ory, besides conveying past inform at ion, can also be present act ion. Take, for exam ple, t he hiding- behindt apest ries scene in Jam es Goldm an's The Lion in Wint er. Each of King Henry's t hree sons has com e t o King Philip of France, t rying t o m ake a deal wit h him t o dest roy all t he ot hers. Now Henry him self com es, and his sons hide behind t apest ries as t he t wo kings confront each ot her. Provoked beyond endurance, Philip t ells Henry a st ory about his childhood. But t he st ory he t ells does not st op t he act ion- it is t he act ion. Philip t ells how he was hom osexually seduced by Henry's son Richard, and how he went along wit h t he act , t hough he loat hed it , in order t o be able t o t ell Henry about it now.

Wit h t he pain t hat t his revelat ion causes Henry- not t o m ent ion Richard, behind t he curt ain- t he st ory is doing double dut y. I t gives us som e of t he past of Richard and Philip, fleshing t hem out as charact ers; it The Serious Charact er: Make Us Believe 113 also causes t errible em ot ional pain in t he present , which st rengt hens Henry and Richard as vict im s and Philip as t orm ent or. Not ice, t hough, t hat t he st ory is not j ust any st ory. I t is about pain in t he past , Philip's pain. I t isn't enough j ust t o t ell random st ories from a charact er's past . They have t o be st ories t hat are im port ant . Flashbacks can also follow t his rule, and becom e part of a present event . I f, for inst ance, a charact er's m em ory of a past event causes him t o m ake a key decision, or t ake an act ion he would ot herwise not have t aken, t hen t he m em ory is part of t he present act ion, not really an int errupt ion at all. However, convenient m em ories can st rain t he reader's credulit y. I f it 's a m em ory t he charact er could have called t o m ind at any point , having her t hink of it j ust in t im e t o m ake a key decision m ay seem like an im plausible coincidence, as if t he aut hor is cont rolling event s t oo t ight ly. I f t he m em ory is going t o prom pt a present decision, t hen t he m em ory in t urn m ust have been prom pt ed by a recent event . Bet t er yet , it should be a m em ory of som et hing t hat t he charact er never underst ood; new inform at ion or a new experience has changed t he m eaning of t hat event in her m ind, so she isn't j ust rem em bering, she's also revising. Then t he m em ory isn't passive, it 's an act ive part of t he st ory. Quick References I t 's possible t o drop in m em ories wit h only a slight pause in t he forw ard m ovem ent of t he st ory: I st ood on t he edge and saw how far down t he bay was and suddenly rem em bered t he cat I t hrew off t he roof when I was a kid, how it t wist ed and snapped and clawed at t he air. Never did find anyt hing t o hold ont o t ill it hit t he ground, and aft er t hat it didn't snap or claw or t wist or breat he or anyt hing. Took m e fift een m inut es t o crawl down t he ladder off t he roof aft er wat ching t he cat fall. I was sure wishing for a ladder now. She pret ended t o be int erest ed in his st ories, but he knew t hat glazed look she got , her eyes not quit e focused as she m urm ured occasionally t o m ake him t hink she was list ening. He used t o m urm ur j ust like t hat during all t hose excruciat ing breakfast s when Nora insist ed on t elling him her dream s from t he night before. I t always felt t o him like her dream s last ed longer t han she slept . But it had never occurred t o him t hat he could bore som ebody else t hat badly. I f t hese quick references t o t he past are pert inent t o t he present event s in t he st ory, t hey won't feel like t hey're m uch of a break in t he act ion, even if t hey don't m ake a significant change in t he event s of t he st ory.

A rule of t hum b: The short er t he m em ory, t he less im port ant it needs t o be in order t o j ust ify st opping t he st ory for it . I f m em ories are short enough, t hey can be com plet ely irrelevant : I don't recom m end t he rest aurant . Worst food I ever had since I at e six live cricket s on a t wo- dollar bet . 114 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT The six live cricket s have not hing t o do wit h t he st ory. And it doesn't really t ell you m uch specific inform at ion about t he charact er. You cert ainly don't expect t his inform at ion t o m ake a difference in t he st ory. But t his brief m em ory st ill enriches t he audience's concept of t he charact er by im plying som e st rangeness in his past ; t he audience will assum e t hat t here are plent y of ot her st ories he could t ell if he had t he t im e. Wit hout saying very m uch, you give t he audience t he im pression t hat t hey know t his charact er very well. THE I MPLI ED PAST I t 's possible t o add t o your charact er's past wit hout st opping t he act ion or even overt ly m ent ioning her past at all, by giving her an im plied past . You give readers a sense t hat t he charact er has already lived a full life wit hout t elling t hem exact ly what t hat past was. Expect at ion What a charact er expect s will happen in t he present t ells us inst ant ly what has happened before in his past . Suppose Pet e st eps t oward a young girl, sm iling, and ext ends his hand t o give her a doughnut . To his surprise, she cringes away as if afraid she'll be st ruck. The audience knows at once- wit hout t he narrat or having t o say it - t hat t he child has been beat en oft en enough t hat she expect s a beat ing. Wit hout slowing down t he act ion at all, you have given a sense of t he charact er's past and t old us som et hing of her pain. Each of t he following passages im plies t hings about a charact er's past : The clerk repeat ed, " Cash or charge?" Nora looked helplessly at Pet e. He spread his hands as if t o show he wasn't holding a Gold Card. " You're t he one doing t he shopping," he said. " 7 can't afford t his st uff." St ill she m ade no m ove t o pay. Finally he gave up and opened her purse for her. I t was st uffed full of cash. He peeled t wo hundreds off an inch- t hick st ack and gave t hem t o t he clerk. Then he put t he change and t he receipt int o t he purse and snapped it shut . " You ought t o use som e of t hat t o hire a bodyguard," he said. " The j unkie who m ugs you could o.d. and die, and t hen his fam ily would sue you." She sm iled and shrugged a lit t le. As t hey left , Pet e heard t he clerk t elling som ebody, " And it was all hundreds! The whole purse! " Pet e wat ched for a gap in t he speeding cars and st epped out int o t he road. I m m ediat ely drivers began swerving and slam m ing on t heir brakes. I f

everybody had kept going sm oot hly, he would have m ade it across t he road easily; as it was, he barely m ade it back t o t he curb alive. How can people ever cross st reet s in Am erica, he t hought , if drivers go crazy every t im e t hey see a pedest rian? The Serious Charact er: Make Us Believe 115 As soon as Pet e got in t he door Nora began t o cry. " I didn't m ean t o do it ," she said over and over again. " I 'm sorry, I 'm sorry." I t t ook fift een m inut es before she'd believe him when he said it was no big deal. " But it 's com plet ely sm ashed," she said. Hadn't she ever heard of insurance? Pet e not iced t hat Nora kept sliding t he bills bet ween her t hum b and Fingers. Finally he realized she was count ing t hem , again and again, as if she had t o m ake sure t hey were all t here. Nora was finally calm enough t hat she could t alk t o Pet e again, but when she went int o t he living room , t here he was, st raight ening t he m agazines, dust ing, arranging t he pillows, t rying t o m ake her feel guilt y for being such a slob. I t m ade her so angry t hat t here was no way she could t ake part in a reasonable discussion. She rushed out of t he apart m ent , ignoring him when he called her nam e. " Nora! Nora! " His wheedling t one rem inded her of t he way brat t y children say m om m y. " Maw- m ee! Naw- rah! " As she wait ed for t he elevat or, she im agined Pet e calling out t o his m ot her in j ust t he sam e t one he had used wit h her. Then she rem em bered her m ot herin- law's im m aculat e house, and realized t hat Pet e's housecleaning rout ine was probably what he had done as a child t o placat e t he old bit ch when she was angry at him . Aft er t hese bit t er, t errible argum ent s, did you really t hink t hat cleaning t he house would m ake everyt hing all right again? I 'll never kill you, Pet e, no m at t er how angry you m ake m e- but I m ight j ust kill your m ot her. Every one of t hese vignet t es reveals a charact er's expect at ions, im plying a st ory from his or her past . Yet not one of t hem slows t he act ion very m uch. They add dept h t o t he charact erizat ion wit hout subt ract ing m om ent um from t he forward m ovem ent of t he st ory. Habit s Everyone alive has habit s, som e of t hem m eaningless, but m any of t hem t he result of t he pat t erns of our lives. I f a charact er paces or drum s his fingers on t he t able, you know t hat he's t ense and t his is t he way he shows it . But your charact ers should also have specific habit s t hat t ell som et hing about t heir lives: " Where are you going?" Pet e asked. " I didn't say t o t urn t here." " I 'm sorry," Nora said, flust ered. " This is t he way I always t ake Ryan t o school. I wasn't t hinking."

Pet e was back in an hour wit h t he groceries and t he change. He count ed it out backward int o her hand. " Sevent een sixt y- t wo, sixt y- five, sevent y- five, eight een, ninet een, and t went y." Nora laughed. Only t hen did he realize what he had done. He laughed ruefully. "Twent y years since I worked in Dad's st ore, and I 'm st ill count ing change like a clerk." 116 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT Nora looked carefully t o t he left and st epped out int o t he st reet . A t axi slam m ed on it s brakes and swerved t o avoid hit t ing her- from t he right . Oh yes, t hought Nora. They drive on t he wrong side of t he road here. My pedest rian survival t raining from New York won't be m uch help in London. Pet e left a 6: 30 wake- up order wit h t he hot el operat or, t urned off t he t elevision, and clim bed int o bed. He slept on t he left side, of course, even t hough Nora hadn't been t here t o sleep on t he right side since t hey separat ed four years before. Nora not iced t hat every t im e Pet e wrot e a check, he drew t hree horizont al lines in every space bet ween t he words and num bers. " Do you really t hink t he grocery st ore people are going t o alt er your check t o say one m illion and t hirt yt hree dollars and fort y- four cent s?" " I t 's like fast ening your seat belt or locking your car," said Pet e. " Do it even when it doesn't m at t er, and you won't forget t o do it when it does." Too m any habit s, of course, and your charact ers will seem obsessivecom pulsive. But anybody who's been alive for any lengt h of t im e has som e habit s, and it helps us believe in and underst and your charact ers when we see what t heir habit s are. Net works Anyone who has been alive for any lengt h of t im e has also m ade m any connect ions wit h ot her people. Unless a charact er has been t orn from his or her norm al m ilieu, t hose connect ions are going t o show up. Pet e not iced t he way people in t he st ore looked at Nora. Quick, furt ive glances. He couldn't see anyt hing wrong wit h her- no run in her st ocking, no underwear showing. He didn't cat ch on unt il he realized t hat t he st ore det ect ive was shadowing t hem . Apparent ly Nora was known here, and not as a big spender. Nora knew t hat Pet e was not t he m an of her dream s when t he m ot el clerk t ook his check wit hout asking for I D. She t hought it m ight be classy t o be recognized at t he Hilt on, but not at a m ot el t hat rent s a room for t en dollars an hour. St ill, a m an who pays by check is probably t elling t he t rut h when he says he isn't m arried. Everybody Pet e and Nora ran int o did t he sam e t hing. Just as t hey were about t o ask her a quest ion, t hey'd glance at Pet e and t hen sm ile and say som et hing noncom m it t al. Nora and Pet e st opped for lunch at a diner called t he Whit e

Trash Saloon. I t t ook a few m inut es before Nora realized t hat t he used- up looking wait ress w as Suzy Parker from high school. The last t en years hadn't been good t o her. Suzy recognized Nora t oo and finally asked t he quest ion t he ot hers had sidest epped: " How's Joe Bob?" Nora sm iled icily back. " He's hom e t aking care of our seven children while Pet e and I have a m adcap, whirlwind affair." The wait ress t hought about t his for a m om ent . " You don't have no seven children," she finally said. " Too dam n t hin." The Serious Charact er: Make Us Believe 117 Nora couldn't help not icing t hat all t he unopened let t ers on t he kit chen t able had t ransparent windows, and a lot of t hem said FI NAL NOTI CE. Even t hrough t he closed door, she could hear Pet e shout ing int o t he t elephone. " I 'll m ake paym ent s on t hat piece of j unk any m ont h t hat it runs! And if you send som ebody t o pick it up, I 'll blast t heir head off! " A m inut e lat er he cam e back in, grinning. " An old girlfriend," he said. Som et im es t he relat ionships t hat your charact er has wit h ot her people around him will be im port ant t o t he st ory, but oft en t hey'll be t here m erely t o give a sense t hat he has a full life, or t o add an occasional com ic t ouch. No m at t er how you use t hese m ini- relat ionships in your st ory, t hough, t he m ain benefit is t hat your charact ers won't seem t o be puppet s, alive only when t hey're on st age and som eone is pulling t he st rings. They'll seem t o have a real life out side t he st ory as well, a net work of relat ionships reaching far and wide. Though only a sm all part of t hat net work is explored in your st ory, t he reader senses t hat t he rest of t he net work is t here. JUSTI FI CATI ON There is not hing so out re, so off- t he- wall, so im possible or bizarre or out rageous t hat you cannot m ake it believable wit hin a st ory. I t all depends on how hard you want t o work at j ust ifying it . Nora st ood on t he roof. She was only nine st ories up, but it m ight as well be nine m iles. There was no escape. Pet e cam e t oward her, t he long knife glim m ering in t he m oonlight . Nora t rem bled, but she knew what she had t o do. So she reached out , slapped t he knife out of his hand, picked him up over her head and t hrew him off t he roof. All t hose years of lift ing weight s and t aking j udo classes had paid off at last . I f t hat last sent ence is t he first t im e Nora's weight lift ing has ever been m ent ioned in t he st ory, t he audience will be out raged by t his scene. Here t hey've been so w orried about Pet e and his knife, and all along Nora was apparent ly built like an orangut an. Does t hat m ean you can't have Nora t hrow Pet e off t he roof? Of course not . All you have t o do is t ell us about her weight lift ing and j udo classes m uch earlier in t he st ory, so we already know t hat she's st rong and well t rained long before she gives Pet e t he heave- ho. Furt herm ore, you have t o m ake Nora t he kind of

wom an who would defy sexual st ereot ypes and go int o heavy weight lift ing. Why would she do t hat ? I s it t o get a m uscular, healt hy body? To be st ronger t han t he m an who once raped her? A react ion t o her fear of her breast cancer recurring? Or did a close friend get her involved in body building j ust for sociabilit y, and she discovered she liked it ? What ever reason you invent , she will have t o becom e a different person in order t o j ust ify her being able t o pick Pet e up and t hrow him off t he roof. Of course, if we knew all t hat about her, we wouldn't have t he sam e sense of j eopardy as Pet e chased her- we'd know t hat Nora was a wom an 118 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT who could t ake care of herself. But t hat doesn't m ean t he scene would be wit hout t ension. There are several st rat egies available: 1. Give Pet e a gun, so we'll fear t hat her st rengt h will be useless against him . Then you'll have t o figure out a way t o deal wit h t he gun- but you'll have t he t ension of j eopardy back again. 2. Change t he source of t he t ension. I nst ead of fearing t hat Pet e will kill her, she ( and t he audience) fears t hat she will have t o kill Pet e, and she could not bear t o do so. She warns him , but he behaves as if he want s t o die. Merely hurt ing him has not st opped him in t he past . I f she kills him , t errible t hings will happen. The audience fears t hat she m ight not kill him , yet knows t hat she will also suffer t erribly if she does. 3. Make her feat less out landish. I nst ead of having her slap away t he knife, pick him up, and t hrow him off t he building, have her sidest ep t he knife and use Pet e's m om ent um t o push him off. That doesn't require her t o be anywhere near as st rong; you could have her j ust beginning her j udo lessons and can skip t he whole weight lift ing idea alt oget her. This st ill requires som e preparat ion, and it requires m ore det ail during t he fight on t he roof, but it will work. 4. Make t he conclusion a believable accident . Pet e act ually st abs her. She nearly faint s from t he pain, st um bles, lurches int o Pet e. He loses his balance; she falls, but grabs at his legs, pleading wit h him not t o st ab her again. Wit h her holding his feet , he can't recover his balance. He falls off t he building. I f you show t his process in great det ail, it will be believable; best of all, it requires no preparat ion at all, since it 's well wit hin a norm al person's abilit y. I f you decide t o spend a lot of t im e m aking Nora believable as a weight lift er, you have t o be careful not t o get carried away. I f t he weight lift ing only affect s t he st ory by allowing Nora t o t hrow Pet e off t he roof, t hen you should int roduce t he weight lift ing early, but not keep harping on it , not show her doing not hing but weight lift ing. I f it becom es t oo dom inant in t he st ory, t he reader will expect it t o am ount t o m uch m ore t han j ust a way for her t o save her life. " Nora goes t hrough all t hat weight lift ing," t he reader will say, " j ust so she can t oss t his guy? Will she st op weight lift ing now?" The am ount of

j ust ificat ion m ust be in proport ion t o t he event being j ust ified, or it leads t he reader t o expect t hings t hat you aren't going t o deliver. As a general rule, t he m ore bizarre and unbelievable t he charact er's behavior and t he m ore im port ant it is t o t he st ory, t he earlier in t he st ory you have t o begin j ust ifying it and t he m ore t im e you'll need t o spend t o m ake it believable. CHAPTER 12 TRANSFORMATI ONS REAL PEOPLE SEEM TO CHANGE. There are physical changes: The lit t le kid next door is suddenly great - looking- or a hoodlum . Your friends from yout h get old; your fat friend suddenly loses w eight ; your husband grows a m ust ache; your wife changes her hair st yle and st art s wearing a whole new st yle of clot hes. There are changes in people's roles: The rich m an goes bankrupt ; t he farm er sells his land and opens a fast food out let in anot her st at e; t he int ense young girl becom es a wife and m ot her; t he wife and m ot her st ays a m ot her but no longer is a wife; new m anagem ent com es in and t he fort y- eight - year- old execut ive is suddenly unem ployed. All t hese changes can be pret t y surprising, even j arring. But what really dist urbs us is when people's basic nat ure seem s t o change. Som ebody you t rust ed doesn't keep his word and doesn't even act sorry about it . Som ebody you loved is suddenly cruel t o you, and you can't t hink why, what you did t o deserve it . Som eone who was always boring suddenly becom es fascinat ing. Som eone who never did anyt hing well, who seem ed like a com plet e failure, unexpect edly does som et hing adm irable and fine. WHY PEOPLE CHANGE I n real life we never fully underst and why people do t hese t hings. We have nam es for som e of t he changes- m id- life crisis, growing up, going t hrough a phase, nervous breakdown, finding herself, a selfish st reak, showing his t rue colors, born again, going off t he deep end- but t hese labels are at best an at t em pt t o reassure ourselves. Because t here's already a nam e for t he way we see som ebody changing, we don't have t o be quit e so fright ened by t he change. But we st ill know not hing, or alm ost not hing, about t he cause. We st ill know not hing, really, about what 's going on inside ot her people's heads. We t ry t o bind people int o t heir roles so t hat we can be sure of t hem . Slavery, serfdom , fealt y, oat hs of office, cont ract s, unions, corporat ions, laws, m arriage, going st eady, flat t ery, hypocrisy- all are st rat egies for 119 120 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT cont rolling and predict ing what t he people around us are going t o do. Yet st ill t hese people surprise us wit h escape, revolut ion, bet rayal, lawsuit s, st rikes,

sellout s, crim e, divorce, fait hlessness, gossip, confession, and we have t o revise again our underst anding of t he world. One of t he reasons fict ion exist s at all is t o deal wit h t hat fear of inexplicable change, t hat uncert ain dread t hat lurks in t he background of all our hum an relat ionships. Because fict ion let s us see people's m ot ives, t he causes of t heir behavior, t hese st ories about m ade- up people help us guess at t he m ot ives and causes of real people's behavior. This doesn't m ean t hat your fict ional charact ers have t o change. One of t he com m on t hem es in fict ion is t hat people's fundam ent al nat ures don't change, no m at t er how m uch you wish t hey m ight . Macbet h's desire t o rise t o high office seduces him int o believing t he wit ches' prophecy and agreeing t o his wife's plan; t hat hunger for a loft y st at ion is st ill wit h him at t he end, m aking him seek deat h rat her t han endure t he hum iliat ion of public display in his defeat . The m essage of such st ories is t hat once you t ruly know people, you can count on t hem st aying t he sam e. I f t hey ever seem t o change, it 's because you didn't really underst and t hem in t he first place. You Can't Change Your fict ion can develop t his t hem e in t hree ways: 1. You can t ell st ories in which charact ers are who t hey are from beginning t o end, working out t heir dest inies along t he sam e relent less lines. Som e m ight crit icize your st ories because your charact ers never change, but m any reader s will be grat eful t o live in your fict ional world, where som e people, at least , can be count ed on t o st and firm . I n Wut hering Height s, Heat hcliff and Cat hy t ry t o resist t heir passionat e childhood at t achm ent t o each ot her, but all t he changes are fut ile, for t hey keep ret urning t o be t heir t rue selves, wild children living like beaut iful anim als am ong t he m oors. 2. You can t ell st ories about people who seem t o change, but t hen reveal t hat t his was t heir t rue nat ure all along. They were only pret ending t o be what you t hought t hey were; or perhaps t hey sim ply hadn't had t he power or opport unit y t o reveal t hem selves. I t w asn't unt il Macbet h had a vict ory under his belt , a new t it le aft er his nam e, and King Duncan asleep in a bedroom in his cast le t hat he was able t o reveal his t rue charact er as a m urderer- but m aybe he was a m urderer all along. Anot her exam ple: Oedipus was born t o kill his m ot her and fat her. His parent s can't st op him from fulfilling his nat ure even by t rying t o kill him ; he can't st op him self from being him self even by fleeing what he t hinks is his hom eland. He was born t o com m it pat ricide and incest , and all his at t em pt s t o pret end t o be anot her kind of m an com e t o not hing. 3. Tell st ories about people who want t o change, but can't unt il t hey discover t heir own t rue nat ure; t hen, when t hey change t he out ward pat t ern of t heir lives, t hey are only becom ing t rue t o t heir newfound self. Ayn Transform at ions 121

Rand's sym pat het ic charact ers in The Fount ainhead and At las Shrugged do not m ake t hem selves int o geniuses, t hey don't develop great ness. Only when t hey break free of t he shackles of societ y and discard t he m yt hs about what t hey ought t o be do t hey discover t he great ness t hat lay wit hin t hem all along, and finally rise t o fulfill t heir heroic role. I n all t hese st ories, t he charact ers are not t ransform ed, t hey are unm asked. Ot her Things Change You Anot her great t hem e in fict ion is t hat people do change, but for causes be yond t heir cont rol: 1. The cause of change in people m ight be t he drives and hungers born in t heir genes. D.H. Lawrence t old st ories- The Rainbow, Lady Chat - t erly's Lover- in which charact ers did not really act because of t heir m ot ives at all. They m ight t hink t hey had a part icular purpose in m ind, but in fact t heir choices alw ays cam e down t o t he needs of t heir bodies. This view of people as anim als pret ending t o be hum an shows up as oft en in t he bleak hard- boiled det ect ive novels of Raym ond Chandler and Ross Mac- donald as in t he t ragicom ic I rish novels of Jam es Joyce. This is not a m essage of despair- t hese writ ers all show a kind of nobilit y in t heir charact ers' st ruggle t o t ranscend t heir nat ure. 2. The cause of change in people m ight be t he way t hey're t reat ed by ot hers. George Bernard Shaw's Pygm alion assert s t he idea t hat a flower girl can becom e a lady, in soul as well as appearance, if only she is t rained and educat ed properly. Robert Parker's Spenser novels oft en show people shaped by t he pressures of t he world around t hem ; if t he person is not t oo far gone, t hen by changing t he environm ent , you can change t he person. I n one of his best novels, Parker has Spenser t ake a t roubled young boy up t o an isolat ed cabin in t he woods, and t hrough hard work and a whole new set of expect at ions, t he boy becom es a new person and has a life com plet ely different from t he one he seem ed dest ined t o live out . You Change Yourself A t hird fict ional t hem e dealing wit h hum an change is t hat we can change our own nat ure by an act of will. Never m ind t he argum ent t hat t he will t o change m ust have been part of a person's nat ure all along, so t hat by changing he is in fact rem aining t he sam e- t hat 's a quibble com pared t o t he im port ant not ion of becom ing what you want rat her t han what you were born t o be or w hat ot hers force you t o becom e. George Bernard Shaw's assert ions and t heories not wit hst anding, before Eliza Dolit t le in Pygm alion begins t he t raining and educat ion t hat t ransform her from a flower girl t o a lady, she has t he hunger t o change- it 's because of t he force of her own will t hat she persuades Henry Higgins t o t each her, and by t he force of her ow n will t hat she succeeds. Shaw t alked a lot about how 122

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people are shaped by t heir environm ent , but in play aft er play, a st rongwilled hero chooses t o t ranscend heredit y and environm ent alike, and succeeds in becom ing som eone new; t hat 's t he t hem e his st ories dem on st rat e, whet her he m eant it t hat way or not . No m at t er what t heories of hu m an behavior you t hink you believe, t he causes you show for your charac t er's change will reveal what you really believe. But you m ust show som e cause for t he t ransform at ion. JUSTI FYI NG CHANGES When your charact ers undergo physical changes or changes of role, you wouldn't dream of let t ing t he change pass wit hout explanat ion. A charact er who was m ale for t en chapt ers can't suddenly t urn up as a fem ale wit hout som e kind of explanat ion- or your reader would t hrow your book against t he wall in disgust . And if a charact er goes t hrough a change of social role, you always show bot h t he causes and t he result s of t he change. I t would be unt hinkable t o have charact ers change j obs, m arit al st at us, or relat ive wealt h wit hout som e explanat ion and som e change in t he pat t erns of t heir lives. The sam e is t rue of your charact ers' pat t erns of behavior. I f Pet e is a quiet , shy fellow , reluct ant t o put him self forward, he doesn't suddenly walk up t o a gorgeous m odel and hit her up for a dat e- not unless you show us t hat t his m odel is different from all ot her wom en, or show us t hat Pet e has been t aking assert iveness t raining t o cure his shyness, or let us see t hat t he recent deat h of Pet e's fat her has loosed som e of Pet e's inner rest raint - or som e ot her plausible cause for his change. You don't necessarily have t o show us t he cause of his change before he changes, or even at t he sam e t im e. But if you don't show t he cause, you need t o signal your reader t hat you're aware t hat Pet e is behaving st rangely, so t hat t he reader knows t hat t he cause of his change is a m yst ery t hat will be resolved som et im e before t he end of t he st ory. For inst ance, you m ight have one of Pet e's friends wit h him when he walks up t o t he m odel and asks her out ; t he friend could t hen react wit h t he sam e ast onishm ent t hat t he reader would feel, a clear signal t o t he reader t hat t he aut hor hasn't gone crazy and can be t rust ed t o explain Pet e's change. There is no " right " way t o j ust ify changes in charact er, but you should keep in m ind t hat t he m ore im port ant t he charact er and t he great er t he change, t he m ore t im e you will have t o devot e t o explaining t he t ransform at ion. I f Nora st ops sm oking in t he process of your st ory, t he m ot ivat ion for t he change won't need m uch j ust ificat ion- m ost sm okers say t hey want t o st op, and m ost reasons for st opping are w ell known. But if Nora is a m aj or charact er w ho's involved in a lot of t he cont inuing act ion of t he st ory, you'll have t o deal wit h why she chose t o st op now, and show how her behavior changes during t he st ruggle.

Make sure you know what t he change in t he charact er really is. I f Nora has t ried t o give up sm oking dozens of t im es before and always failed aft er a single day, you'll have t o explain what was different about Transform at ions 123

t his t im e, why she found t he st rengt h t o succeed. Maybe she got pregnant ; m aybe she is involved wit h a m an who hat es cigaret t es; m aybe her com pany has gone sm oke- free; m aybe she had a cancer scare during her lat est checkup. Because her pat t ern of behavior was t o t ry t o give up sm oking and t hen fail, what you have t o j ust ify is not t he desire t o give up sm oking, but t he fact t hat t his t im e she succeeded. The real change is t hat she is now able t o quit , not t hat she is willing t o m ake t he at t em pt . There is an except ion t o t he rule t hat you m ust explain why charact ers change. A fourt h fict ional t hem e is t hat changes in hum an beings are random , absurd, uncaused; t hat all st ories about why people do what t hey do are pure fict ion. I n t his view, people do t hings because t hey do t hem , for no reason at all. Only when som eone else not ices what t hey're doing is t here any at t em pt t o explain, and all t he explanat ions are pleasant lies. And if, perhaps, t here is som e real cause for hum an change, t hese st ories assert t hat we'll never know t he cause, so t here m ight as well not be one. The works of exist ent ial writ ers like Franz Kafka and Jean- Paul Sart re and t he absurdist plays of Sam uel Becket t and Harold Pint er develop t his idea. I f absurdism is your bent , however, don't im agine t hat t his m eans you can t hen change your charact ers however and whenever you want , wit hout explanat ion. So deeply ingrained is t he hum an need t o find causes for hum an change t hat if a st ory denies t hat t here is any kind of discoverable cause, t hat denial becom es t he m ost im port ant issue in t he st ory. Usually, you m ust est ablish from t he beginning t hat people will change random ly, wit hout explanat ion, so t hat your readers realize t hey're visit ing an absurd universe and st op expect ing explanat ion. I f, on t he ot her hand, your st ory seem s t o be set in a " norm al" universe in which t here's always a reason when people change, t hen when a charact er goes t hrough a shocking, inexplicable change, your st ory will have t o be about t he very in- explicabilit y of t hat charact er's t ransform at ion. Oh, you can have a m aj or inexplicable change and have no one in t he st ory rem ark on it , but you can't blam e your readers for concluding t hat you're an incom pet ent writ er and t hat t he unj ust ified change was a m ist ake. Worse st ill, your readers m ight conclude t hat t he unj ust ified change was a pract ical j oke you were playing on t he t hem , as if you were saying, " Oh, were you st art ing t o care about t hese charact ers? Were you st art ing t o t ake t his st ory seriously? Well, here, I 'll show you t hat it 's all silly and I can do

anyt hing." Of course you can do anyt hing. But your im plicit cont ract wit h your readers says you won't do j ust anyt hing- t hat your st ory- will m ean som et hing, even if t he m eaning is t hat t here is no m eaning. The great absurdist writ ers keep t hat cont ract . Even com edy is not an except ion. However, w hen a charact er changes in a com edy, t he j ust ificat ion for t he change can be som ewhat less believable t han in non- com ic fict ion. The zanier t he farce, t he sillier t he reason you can offer for a charact er's change- but t here m ust st ill be som e reason, or you lose t he audience's t rust . PART I I I PERFORMI NG CHARACTERS

CHAPTER 13 VOI CES WHO I S TELLI NG YOUR STORY? You are, of course. You choose what st ory t o t ell, which incident s m at t er, which scenes t o show, which event s t o t ell about . I t is out of your m ind t hat all t he invent ion com es, all t he charact ers, all t he background det ails, all t he ideas. But when it com es t im e t o speak t he words of t he st ory, whose voice will t he reader hear? I t is never exact ly your own voice. The very fact t hat you're writ ing down t he words rat her t han speaking t hem will m ake t he st yle m ore form al. The fact t hat you writ e m ore slowly t han you speak, t hat you can see your words as you put t hem down, changes t he way you produce and cont rol your language. I t 's anot her voice. Also, t he fact t hat you can't see t he audience's response requires you t o be m ore precise and calculat ing in your writ t en language- in speech, when you can look at your audience and j udge whet her or not t hey underst and you, such precision isn't necessary. Even if you " writ e" by dict at ing int o a t ape recorder, it will not be your norm al speech pat t erns, but rat her your m ore regulat ed " dict at ion dialect ." You've m ade t his dist inct ion m any t im es- you inst ant ly recognize t he difference bet ween nat ural ext em poraneous speech, m em orized speech, and speech t hat is being read. I t isn't j ust t he difference bet ween writ ing and speaking, t hough. You have m any voices. You have one voice you use wit h your parent s; anot her you use wit h your siblings. You m ight have a com pany voice. Most people have a separat e t elephone voice- professional secret aries and recept ionist s alm ost always do. I f you have children, you doubt less have not one but t wo, probably t hree voices- t he st ern reproving voice, t he affect ionat e approving voice, and t he baby t alk you used when t hey were lit t le, which st ill drift s back when

t hey're hurt and you're com fort ing t hem . You have a voice for service people and clerks, and anot her voice for public speaking. Of course, your larynx produces t he sound for all t hese oral voices. But t he sound is only a sm all part of a " voice" - at least t he kind of voice I 'm t alking about . Each of your voices has it s own vocabulary. They over726 Voices 127 lap, but less t han you m ight suppose. Each has it s own sent ence st ruct ure, it s own level of dict ion. One m ight be slangy, anot her form al, anot her relaxed; in one voice you m ight have som e blue language available, while anot her voice never produces t hose words. This cam e hom e t o m e when I was a t eenager. One sum m er I worked as an act or in a sum m er t heat er, where t he language am ong t he com pany could have m ade sailors blush; I was as colorful as any of t hem . Yet I lived at hom e, where such language sim ply wasn't used. So clear was t he difference in t he t wo voices t hat I didn't even have t o t hink about not using cert ain words where m y parent s could hear t hem . I never caught m yself about t o use t he wrong words at hom e, because t hose words j ust weren't available in m y " hom e" voice. Does t hat sound like a split personalit y? Perhaps t he funct ion of our brain t hat let s us develop t hese different " voices" is t he very funct ion t hat drives m ult iple personalit ies- it seem s likely enough. But t he t rut h is t hat norm al people all have at least a few different voices t hey can t urn on at will. Most of t he t im e you aren't aware of t he difference- you use t hese voices by habit . When ot hers change voices, you probably hear only t he sound differences- a whining child, perhaps, or a friend t rying t o sweet - t alk you, or a would- be dat e t urning you down gent ly. At such t im es it 's hard t o be analyt ical- but if you don't already know what I m ean by " voices," list en t o ot her people m ove from relat ionship t o relat ionship during t he day, and not ice how t heir vocabulary and synt ax change for different t asks. They becom e slight ly different in m ost cases, radically different in som e. You don't t hink about t hese differences when you use a different voice. You j ust change m indset - usually unconsciously- and slip int o t he pat t ern of speech habit ual for t hat relat ionship. I grew up out west , but now live in t he Sout h- in t he Piedm ont region of Nort h Carolina, where t he sout hern accent is fairly m ild. St ill, when I 'm wit h sout herners wit h good, solid accent s, I cat ch m yself t alking t he way t hey donot j ust m aking m y vowels like t heirs, but also using t heir figures of speech, even m aking up sout hern- st yle m et aphors and sim iles from t im e t o t im e. " I 'm as depressed as a chipm unk in a cat 's m out h." " He went hom e so fast he slam m ed t he door before he opened it ." " I t was raining so hard t hat if you looked up wit h a sm ile, you'd drown." I don't t hink about it - I get busy t alking and m y brain j ust kicks in w it h t he right voice.

When it com es t o t elling a st ory, far m ore choices open up t o you. You can use voices in writ ing t hat you never use in speech. I 'm not j ust t alking about regional dialect s, eit her, t hough t he cadences of Brooklyn, Bost on, Philadelphia, Chicago, Houst on, New Orleans, or t he San Fernando Valley can bring color and life t o t he t elling of a st ory. There's also at t it ude- cynical, flippant , wondering, cold, nost algic. And level- crude, slangy, inform al, form al, elevat ed, m agist erial. I n fact , t here are so m any possibilit ies t hat I find t hat when I 'm at t he keyboard t elling a st ory, it 's alm ost as if I 'm act ing. I 'm " in charact er," im provising t he perform ance of m y st ory using words and synt ax t hat one of 128 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT t he charact ers in m y t ale m ight use. This m akes sense when I 'm using a first - person narrat or. The narrat ive voice has t o sound like t he first - person narrat or; if it doesn't , it 's a flaw in t he aut hor's t echnique. But I find m yself writ ing " in charact er" even when I 'm using t hird person, even when t he narrat or isn't a specific person at all. I usually writ e in a voice sim ilar t o t he voice of t he viewpoint charact er, even t hough t hat charact er is not t he narrat or. I n reading ot her w rit ers' work, I find t hat , as oft en as not , t hey do t he sam e t hing. The only clear except ions are t hose aut hors who have a pronounced habit ual st yle, so t hey use t he sam e voice in all t heir st ories. To a degree, of course, every aut hor will have st ylist ic pat t erns t hat show up in every t ale. The charact ers will always have som e overt ones of t he aut hor's own st yle of speech. We can't escape com plet ely from our own underlying voices even when we t ry. But usually t he narrat ive voice is not exact ly ident ical t o t he aut hor's nat ural speech- we always put on a voice of one sort or anot her when we t ell a t ale. The underlying voice t hat repeat s from one st ory t o t he next is your nat ural st yle. This book isn't about st yle. So I 'm only going t o deal wit h aspect s of voice t hat change from charact er t o charact er, from book t o book. When you act ually set out t o writ e down your st ory, you have a lot of choices t o m ake- narrat or, point - of- view charact er, t ense, level of penet rat ion, rhet orical st ance. I n t he next few chapt ers I 'll deal wit h t he st rengt hs and weaknesses of all t hese choices, so you can decide which one is best for each st ory you writ e, and how t o carry out t he choice you m ade. PERSON So now we com e back t o t he quest ion: Whose voice will t he reader hear? You probably already know t he difference bet ween first person and t hird person, but j ust in case you got short changed in high school, I 'm going t o review all t he " persons" here wit h a sim ple chart : Singular Plural First Person I go We go

Second Person Third Person

You go ( t hou goest ) He goes, she goes

You go ( y'all go) They go

I f t his feels like a gram m ar lesson, t hat 's because it is. However, m ost st ories you read- alm ost all of t hem , in fact , including news st ories, hist ory, and science- will be writ t en in eit her first person or t hird person. First person is used for t he eyewit ness account , t he st ory in which I t ell you what I saw and did, what happened t o m e: I gave up t rying t o figure out what Deena was up t o and concent rat ed on get t ing drunk. Deep drunk, as fast as possible. Aft er all, I had a long drive hom e, Voices

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and if I wasn't drunk I 'd probably get so bored I 'd fall asleep at t he wheel. But som ewhere along in t here t he bart ender got m y car keys and t he next m orning I woke up in m y apart m ent wit h a hangover, a not e t elling m e where m y keys were, and nobody in bed beside m e. Third person is when t he narrat or was not present as a charact er; inst ead, t he narrat or t ells you what happened t o ot her people Pet e finally gave up t rying t o figure out what Deena was up t o and concent rat ed on get t ing drunk. Deep drunk, as fast as possible. The way he figured, he had a long drive hom e, and if he wasn't drunk he'd probably get so bored he'd fall asleep at t he wheel. But t he bart ender was earning his m oney t hat night . He got Pet e's car keys, t ook a t went y out of his wallet , and sent him hom e in a cab. I n exchange for t he t went y, t he driver hauled Pet e up t he st airs and left him a not e on his pillow t o t ell him which bar his car keys were in. Pet e woke up next m orning wit h his arm reaching out for Deena. He found t he not e inst ead. Not ice t hat t he t wo paragraphs bot h t ell essent ially t he sam e st ory. But as I got int o writ ing t he second version, a sim ple t ranslat ion of t he first - person account j ust wouldn't do t he j ob. I n first person you can only writ e what t he narrat or saw when he was t here; in Pet e's case, t hat m eans when he was t here and conscious. I n t he t hird- person narrat ion, t he narrat or could go on observing even when Pet e wasn't t oo alert . Also, I allowed t he t hird- person narrat or t o express an at t it ude: " The bart ender was earning his m oney t hat night ." Now, you m ight t ake t hat as expressing Pet e's at t it ude, or you m ight not . But in t he first - person narrat ion, Pet e's is t he only possible at t it ude. Your decision whet her t o use first person or t hird person is not so m uch a gram m at ical choice as a narrat ive st rat egy. I f you want t he narrat or t o be a charact er who t akes part in t he event s of t he st ory, you'll use first person. I f

you eit her want t he narrat or t o be a charact er who did not t ake part in t he event s, or want t he narrat or not t o be ident ified as a charact er at all, you'll use t hird person. Even t hough you've chosen one overall " person" for t he t ale, you'll st ill have bit s in m any ot her " persons." For inst ance, in a t hird- person narrat ion, one charact er m ight t ell a st ory t o anot her, and t hat t ale- wit hin- a- t ale could be in first person: " I j ust went t o t he st ore," she said. " At night . Lat e. I was j uggling t he car keys and t he grocery bag and t his guy cam e up. Really weird. He didn't do anyt hing, but he scared m e t o deat h." Or, in a first - person narrat ion, t he narrat or m ight t ell about som et hing t hat som eone else did: She t old m e t he st ory, but I couldn't figure out why she was st ill so upset . She said she went t o t he st ore t hat night and t his st ranger got t o her as she was fum bling wit h t he car keys and a heavy bag of groceries. Didn't do anyt hing t o her, but he was weird, and she was scared t o deat h. But why was it st ill bot hering her a week lat er? 130 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT I n each case, som eone wit hin your t ale is t elling anot her st ory, and t hat st ory does not have t o be in t he sam e " person" as t he overall t ale, as long as it 's a " person" t hat m akes sense. What about second person, or t hird- person plural, or ot her possible narrat ive voices? Well, t here's not hing t o st op you from t rying. A st udent of m ine once wrot e a very effect ive short - short st ory in t hird- person plural, in which t he m em bers of a group of soldiers were never individuat ed, and only group feelings and responses were explained. I t was st range but powerful; but t hen, t he st ory was about t he fact t hat t he group was so t ight ly bonded t hey m ight as well have been a single individual. Second- person singular is used only occasionally in fict ion- but in ot her set t ings, you've read it a lot . Every recipe you ever followed was writ t en in second person, using im perat ive m ood, in which t he word you is underst ood but not said: " ( You) fold t wo eggs int o bat t er, beat for t wo m inut es or 200 st rokes...." Second person also shows up in a few ot her places, like t he Ten Com m andm ent s: " Thou shall not kill." These bot h t ell norm at ive st ories- st ories t hat you are int ended t o acl out in order t o bring t hem t o life. Rem em ber, t hough, t hat t he " person" of a st ory is t he consist ent pat t ern of t he narrat ion, t he way t hat t he m ain charact ers are referred t o by t he narrat or. Just because t he aut hor addresses his readers as " you" doesn't m ake t he st ory a second- person narrat ive. As long as t he reader is t reat ed as t he reader, and not as a charact er in t he st ory, direct address t o t he reader has not hing t o do wit h t he narrat ive voice: You t hink you know all about crim e, don't you? You feel sm ug, you say " I 'd be calm " or " I 'd beat t he crap out of him " - but it all falls apart , I prom ise you.

When I felt t he gun barrel in m y back, all I could t hink was Please don't kill m e I 'm not done wit h living yet . I n ot her words, I st art ed t o whine inside. I st art ed t o wish I had m ore m oney t o give him , t housands of dollars, j ust t o reward him for let t ing m e live. That passage was a first - person narrat ive. The direct address t o t he reader t old a lit t le hypot het ical second- person t ale about t he reader's supposed at t it udes, but t he st ory it self was a first - person account . Most of t he t im e, t hough, you'll use eit her first person or t hird person, and t hose are t he only t wo narrat ive voices we'll exam ine at lengt h. TENSE Alm ost every st ory you'll ever read or hear is in past t ense. Newspapers, broadcast news, hist ory, science, gossip, and fict ion- t he overwhelm ing m aj orit y of t hese st oryt elling form s use t he past t ense. I t 's what m ost audiences expect w hen t hey pick up a work of fict ion. There are occasions when present t ense is t he nat ural m ode. For in- st ance, m ost of t his book is in present t ense. I 'm not writ ing fict ion, of course; inst ead I 'm t rying t o t ell you som et hing about t he way fict ion Voices works, t he ongoing process. I 'm not t elling you what happened once, I 'm t elling you what happens repeat edly, and so present t ense is m andat ory. Howt o books, philosophy, and scient ific t heories ( as opposed t o scient ific report s on experim ent al result s) are writ t en in t he present . All dram at ic lit erat ure is writ t en in present t ense. There are also fict ional uses for present t ense. I n t he academ ic/ lit erary genre, present t ense narrat ive has passed from being a daring experim ent t o being t he preferred t ense for short st ories- or at least t he m ost com m on. There are ot her, m uch st ranger possibilit ies. I can im agine a st ory in im perat ive m ood, for inst ance, as if t he readers were receiving direct ions from som eone speaking t hrough radio receivers im plant ed in t heir ears. ( Not e t hat , as wit h a recipe, t he im perat ive m ood in a st ory requires t he second person) : Go up t he st airs. Pay no at t ent ion t o t he child shivering in t he dark corner on t he first landing. St ep over t he vom it and don't put any weight on t he railing. Your key fit s half t he doors in t his building; t he ot her half don't lock. Open t he door wit h t he num ber 77 on it . Don't bot her reading t he obscenit y scrawled under t he num ber- it isn't in English anyway, and you didn't do very well in high school Spanish. You don't even rem em ber Spanish well enough t o t ell if t he graffit o is in Spanish. There are a lot of Hait ians around here; it m ight be French. Open t he door and go inside. Breat he t hrough your m out h. This guy's been dead for a few days, and t hese room s get kind of st uffy in t he sum m er. Open a window. No, forget t hat - t hey're probably st uck shut , and you don't have m uch t im e. You're not t he m aid here, anyway. Let t he police clean it up, aft er you call t hem . But not yet . You've got a wallet t o look for. Hold your breat h

and t ry not t o look at what 's happening t o his skin. Don't t ry t o figure out what he looked like before he got all bloat ed up. I t doesn't m ake any difference if you ever saw t his guy alive or not . Just go t hrough t he pocket s, t hat 's right . Put your hands int o t he pocket s, deep, all t he way in, even t hough t he fabric of t he pocket lining is so t hin, even t hough his skin under t he pocket is soft and t aut , like left over corn m eal m ush in t he fridge, j iggly, holding t oget her but ready t o fall apart if you push t oo hard. Take everyt hing out of t he pocket s, every pocket . You can wash lat er. You can shower again and again. You can scrub your hands unt il t hey bleed before you finally feel clean enough t o sleep t onight . Got it all? Then get out of t here. Weird but int erest ing, right ? St ill, I don't t hink I could put up wit h a very long st ory writ t en t his way, and for m e, at least , t here'd have t o be som e reason wit hin t he st ory for it t o be writ t en in im perat ive m ood. Maybe t he st ory is an accusat ion or a speculat ion; m aybe t he st ory is a running m onologue, t he narrat or t alking t o him self. There'd have t o be som e j ust ificat ion wit hin t he st ory, som e reason why t his st range approach was needed, or I 'd feel as if t he aut hor put m e t o a lot of ext ra workj ust so he could dazzle m e wit h a linguist ic special effect . As long as we're doing special effect s, what about fut ure t ense? A st ory t old by a fort une- t eller: 732 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT You will m eet a t all handsom e st ranger. Oh? You t hink t hat 's a cliche? Too vague for you? Too anonym ous? Then let 's see how you like t he det ailed version. A t all handsom e st ranger, but you will pay no at t ent ion t o him . He will keep following you around. You will wonder if he plans som e sexual or violent act . He will give you no sign of it . I will not t ell you, eit her. I f you want him t o go away, you will have t o give him t he sm all red folder. You don't have t hat folder yet - it will be given t o you by som eone you t hought was dead. Perhaps it will be given t o you by som eone who really is dead. I f you give him t hat folder, he will go away. Or at least I t hink he'll go away. The vision isn't clear. Again, it 's easy t o im agine writ ing in an odd t ense, but very hard work t o do it - and hard work t o read it , t oo. I n reading t hese t wo exam ples, you w ere const ant ly aware t hat t here was som et hing st range about t he narrat ion. St rangeness always at t ract s t he audience's at t ent ion, in t he st ory or in it s perform ance; but st rangeness in t he writ ing calls at t ent ion away from t he event s of t he st ory. That alone is usually enough t o m ake a st oryt eller rej ect a st range t ense. I gave you t hese exam ples j ust t o point out t hat t here really are a lot of opt ions- but alm ost every t im e, your st ory and your audience will be best served by t he t ense t hat is so universally used t hat audiences don't not ice it : t he past . Because past t ense and first or t hird person are t he convent ional choices, t hey are invisible. The audience doesn't not ice t hem . Therefore t hey

becom e a channel bet ween t he st ory and t he audience. I f t he audience does not ice t he t ense or " person," it is a barrier. There are m any young writ ers, part icularly t hose wit h t raining in college lit erat ure classes, who believe t hat good writ ing m ust be unconvent ional, challenging, st range. This is a nat ural m isconcept ion. I n lit erat ure courses w e st udy m any st ories t hat were writ t en for anot her t im e and place. The language has changed, as have t he lit erary convent ions and expect at ions of t he audience. Also, t he m ost com m on m et hod of lit erat ure classes is dissect ioncut t ing a st ory t o bit s t o analyze sym bols and discover sources. We also hear som e writ ers praised because t hey were revolut ionary or experim ent al, violat ing t he convent ions and expect at ions of t heir t im e. So it 's no surprise if m any young st oryt ellers reach t he conclusion t hat great writ ing is writ ing t hat has t o be st udied, decoded, and analyzed, t hat if a st ory can be clearly and easily underst ood, it m ust be som ehow childish, inconsequent ial, or t rit e. This is far from t he t rut h. Most great writ ers followed all but a few of t he convent ions of t heir t im e. Most wrot e very clearly, in t he com m on language of t heir t im e; t heir goal was t o be underst ood. I ndeed, Dant e and Chaucer were each t he st art ing point of a nat ional lit erat ure precisely because t hey refused t o writ e in an arcane language t hat nobody underst ood, and inst ead wrot e in t he vernacular, so t hat people could receive t heir st ories and poet ry in words t hey used every day. I n a way, every st ory you t ell is experim ent al- you have never t old t hat st ory before, and your audience has never heard you t ell it . There are plent y of challenges for t he audience in t he process of get t ing used t o your voice, t o t he kind of event s and charact ers you writ e about . Even when you 133 Voices

writ e as clearly as you can, m any readers will m isunderst and you or rej ect your vision of t he world. So why would you want t o m ake t he st ory even m ore difficult , so t hat even readers who would ot herwise underst and and believe in and care about your st ory are driven away? Of course, if your purpose in writ ing is t o be adm ired, t o im press people w it h your cleverness or skill, t hen t he st ory it self is only a secondary concern t o you, and your writ ing will be designed t o dazzle your readers m ore t han t o enlight en t hem . But if your purpose in writ ing is t o t ransform your audience, t o give t hem a clear m em ory and underst anding of t rut hful and im port ant t ales, your writ ing will be not an end in it self, but a t ool. Som et im es, t o t ell t he t ale as it m ust be t old, you w ill have t o violat e convent ions or t ry out new t echniques; som et im es t his will m ake your st ory m ore difficult or challenging t o read. But I believe t he great writ ers will always be t he ones who have

passionat e, t rut hful st ories t o t ell, and who do all t hey can t o help t heir readers receive t hem . A rule of t hum b: Choose t he sim plest , clearest , least not iceable t echnique t hat will st ill accom plish what t he st ory requires. CHAPTER 14 PRESENTATI ON VS. REPRESENTATI ON THERE ARE TWO WAYS OF RELATI NG t o t he audience during t he perform ance of a st ory. The difference is clearest in t heat er. I n a represent at ional play, t he act ors all act as if t here were a fourt h wall bet ween t hem and t he audience. I f t hey look in t he direct ion of t he audience, t hey give no sign of seeing t hat anyone is out t here looking at t hem . I nst ead, t hey pret end t hat t hey're seeing only what would be t here if t he play were real- anot her wall of t he drawing room , or t he rest of t he Forest of Arden. This t echnique helps t he audience m aint ain t he illusion of realit y ( or, as it is com m only called, t he willing suspension of disbelief. Though of course t he audience knows t hey are wat ching a play, t he act ors do as lit t le as possible t o rem ind t hem of it . Of course, no play is ever perfect ly represent at ional. For inst ance, if t he act ors sit down at dinner, t he m aj or charact ers- or at least t he t aller ones- t end t o group t hem selves on t he upst age side of t he t able, t he side fart her from t he audience, so t hey will face t he audience. Furt herm ore, t he script generally has people speaking in coherent language, oft en wit h com plet e sent ences, which real people rarely do. I f you know what t o look for, you'll see t he act ors, t he direct or, t he light ing t echnician, t he m akeup art ist , t he playwright , and everybody else working very hard t o sust ain t he illusion of realit y. All t his is in t he effort t o deal wit h t he audience's const ant query: " Oh yeah?" And despit e t he players' best effort t o be " real" David Belas- co, a nat uralist ic producer at t he t urn of t he cent ury, once t ransplant ed an act ual apart m ent , st ained wallpaper and all, t o t he st age) , t he fact is t hat even t he m ost represent at ional t heat er is st ill being present ed t o an audience, wit h realit y dist ort ed in a t housand ways in order t o help t he audience receive it . Present at ional t heat er, on t he ot her hand, t ears down t hat im aginary fourt h wall. The act ors don't j ust adm it t he audience is t here, t hey m ake const ant cont act wit h t he audience. This st yle is at it s ext rem e in t he art of st and- up com edy, where t he act or even t alks t o t he audience about t he audience's response. ( Com edians are act ors playing a role, of course- you don't t hink Johnny Carson or Rodney Dangerfield or Howie Mandel 134 Present at ion vs. Represent at ion 135 or Elayne Boosler are really like t heir com edic personas, do you?) The act ors and t he audience are engaged in cont inuous conversat ion.

Som ewhere bet ween t he t wo ext rem es are t he plays where t he act ors don't usually speak right t o t he audience, but st ill don't at t em pt t o recreat e realit y in full. Shakespeare's plays were originally perform ed on a nearly bare st age. I f you needed t he Forest of Arden, an act or would say, in effect , " Here we are in t he Forest of Arden." I f t hey were at a cast le, som ebody would say, " For t hree days we have wait ed here at Caernarvon Cast le," and t his t old t he audience all t hey needed t o know; t heir im aginat ion would supply t he t rees. We aren't t alking about t he difference bet ween rom ance and realism here. We're t alking about t he st oryt ellers' relat ionship wit h t he audience. I n fict ion, t he represent at ional writ er never addresses her audience. The narrat or never expresses a personal opinion. All t he focus is on t he event s, and everyt hing is expressed t hrough t he point of view of a charact er in t he st ory. I n a represent at ional first - person account , t he narrat or has clearly in m ind who it is she's t alking t o, and it isn't t he reading audience. Think of John Mersey's The Wall, where he carefully m aint ains t he illusion t hat t he novel is act ually a j ournal writ t en by a part icipant in t he uprising of t he Warsaw Ghet t o during World War I I . When I read t he book at t he naive age of sevent een, I was com plet ely t aken in; it t ook several days of baffling searches t hrough t he library for m ore inform at ion before I finally realized t hat t he book was fict ion. I rem em ber very well t he dept h of t he illusion and how m uch m ore power it lent t o t he st ory; when I lat er wrot e m y hist orical novel Saint s, I very carefully fram ed it as an absolut ely represent at ional docum ent , com plet e wit h a " hist orian" as t he narrat or and phony acknowledgm ent s t o people who are eit her disguised or never exist ed at all. On t he ot her hand, fict ion can be highly present at ional. Kurt Von- negut is a prim e exam ple. He speaks direct ly t o t he audience; he refers t o him self; t he aut hor's hand is so obvious in t he st ory t hat t he reader never forget s t hat he is reading fict ion. Som et im es t he boundary bet ween represent at ional and present at ional becom es hopelessly m uddied. William Goldm an's classic The Princess Bride is bot h at once. The rom ance it self is plainly present at ional- t he supposed aut hor, " Morgenst ern," m akes com m ent s and asides t o his audience. But Morgenst ern's st ory is " fram ed" by a present - day st ory narrat ed by a sort of pseudo- William Goldm an as a m odern screenwrit er who is rediscovering t he Morgenst ern classic he adored as a child. The present - day " Goldm an" const ant ly int errupt s t he flow of t he rom ance t o com m ent on Morgenst ern or on his ow n react ion t o t he st ory. Yet t he fram e st ory it self, about Goldm an's experiences as a screenwrit er in Hollywood, is absolut ely represent at ional. Goldm an sust ains t he illusion t hat , while t he rom ance by Morgenst ern is fict ion, it really is by Morgenst ern. I t is, in ot her words, a present at ional st ory wit hin a represent at ional one, and if t hat sounds hopelessly confusing t o you, I assure you t hat it isn't . Goldm an m anipulat es t he com plex st ruct ure so flawlessly t hat I used t he book as a basic t ext in m y freshm an com posit ion and

lit erat ure class t he year I t aught at Not re Dam e. Aft er underst anding t he st ruct ure of The Princess 136 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT Bride, m y st udent s were quit e ready t o deal wit h som et hing as relat ively sim ple as King Lear. What does t his have t o do wit h you? You m ust decide where your st ory will be on t he cont inuum bet ween present at ional and represent at ional st oryt elling. Eit her approach has it s drawbacks and it s advant ages. You m ust decide what your st ory needs- and what you're good at - and t hen use t hat approach consist ent ly. Whichever way you choose t o writ e, you m ust let t he audience know im m ediat ely what t o expect . Not hing is m ore cruelly j arring t han t o get fift y pages int o a represent at ional novel and have t he narrat or suddenly spring a " dear reader" on us. Not t hat it isn't possible t o swit ch from one t o anot her in m idst ream . I wrot e a novel which seem ed t o be represent at ional except , perhaps, for a cert ain archness of t one- a " t oldness" about t he t ale- and only gradually dropped hint s t hat t he book was being writ t en by one of t he charact ers in t he book, who w as writ ing it in order t o persuade anot her charact er not t o kill t he prot agonist . My edit or and I finally agreed, t hough, t hat I had been t oo subt le. I ended up going back and m aking it plain from t he beginning t hat t he book was being writ t en t o one of t he charact ers in order t o persuade him t o a course of act ion. The only puzzle I left in place was t hat I didn't reveal unt il t he end of t he book which charact er was writ ing it . I could have left it t he ot her way, but it wasn't wort h t he cost t o t he audience. The gradual shift in t he first version brought no great benefit , and st ood a good chance of seriously dim inishing t he readers' em ot ional involvem ent in t he book. Here are a couple of st ory openings, j ust t o show you t he difference. The first is ext rem ely represent at ional- it is m eant t o feel like a real docum ent a charact er m ight have produced. The second is ext rem ely present at ional- it is m eant t o sound like a writ er who is keenly aware of his cont em porary audience. Yet , oddly enough, t hey bot h are narrat ed by a self- conscious narrat or, who is sensit ive t o t he fact t hat he is writ ing som et hing he m eans som eone t o read: My nam e is Macon Anderson and I pray God will guide m y pen. I also pray he'll find som e way t o keep t hese scraps of paper from get t ing found and going up in flam es or down t he t oilet along wit h m y hope of freedom ; I also pray t hat he'll find som e way t o get it out of here and int o som eone else's hands. But what are m y prayers? Why should you care? You wit h your house paym ent s and day- care cost s, you wit h your chance of a prom ot ion and your plans for a vacat ion at Disney World, what do you ever pray for, if you pray at all? To hell wit h ^ you, anyway. Paper is t oo precious, t his pencil is t oo short for m e t o wast e m ore of it on you. You aren't real, anyway. Real people are t he ones

whose st ink I sm ell in t he m orning, whose hands snag on t he rough bark of t rees and m ingle t heir blood wit h m ine, whose eyes look longingly at m y scrap of bread and t hen st udy m y body, wondering how m y st rengt h is holding up, and whet her I 'm weak enough now t hat it 's safe t o st art t rying t o st eal food from m e. I 'm st ill t oo st rong for t hem - t his is how I know t hat God lives and answers prayers. List en t ight , boys and girls, t his is what you st ayed up so lat e t o read. Your m om m y and daddy have gone t o bed, you've got t he flashlight on under t he Present at ion vs. Represent at ion 137 covers, and now I 'm going t o t ell you t he st ory of Mike and Bet t y Meekly, who got fed up and shot t heir parent s in t he head one day. Your folks don't want you t o read t his book because t hey're afraid you'll get ideas. Hell, t hey got not hing t o worry about . Aft er years of wat ching t elevision, you wouldn't know an idea if it cam e up and spit in your face. Rem em ber t hat I m ade up t his st ory. I t 's all lies. So even if you happen t o have heard som e news st ory about som e girl who figured her daddy had poked around in her underwear- for t he last t im e- or about som e boy who figured his folks had hit him wit h a garden t ool- for t he last t im e- even if you saw pict ures of t hat kid get t ing out of court on a six- m ont h suspended sent ence, I don't want you t o st art get t ing t he idea t hat t his st ory is t rue. OK? Because I don't want som e fruit cake suing m e for having led him int o killing his parent s because m y novel t old him it was a j ust ifiable kind of hom icide. I want t o go on record right now as saying t hat even if your parent s are t he m ost unconscionable swine who ever produced accident al, unwant ed, and m ist reat ed offspring, I don't t hink you should kill t hem . I officially encourage you t o avoid even t hinking about m urder. I 'm j ust a fict ion writ er, t elling ent ert aining fibs for people who haven't got enough im aginat ion t o invent t heir own daydream s of bloody vengeance. Bot h narrat ors address t heir audience direct ly. But t he first st ory is m eant t o be received as an act ual j ournal scribbled by a prisoner on scraps of paper, chronicling his life in a concent rat ion cam p, while t he second one is m eant t o be received as a work of fict ion, const ant ly m aking t he reader aware of t he aut hor's not - so- hidden agenda. So t he first st ory's direct address t o t he " audience" is represent at ional- it enhances t he illusion t hat t he st ory being t old is t rue. While t he second st ory is present at ional- it m akes it im possible t o forget t hat t he st ory is fict ion. Two m ore exam ples, now, bot h in t hird person: Mart in volunt eered t o do t he shopping j ust so he could get out of t he house. The house was t oo sm all t hese days, t oo crowded now t hat he had no j ob t o get t o, now t hat he could sleep as lat e as he want ed. He could hear ever y noise t hat Deanne m ade, m ucking around in t he kit chen; and she could hear every sound t he t elevision m ade, as he dozed t hrough his daily pilgrim age t hrough Jeopardy! , Wheel of Fort une, Superior Court , and The Love Connect ion. Mart in knew t hat every t hem e song was a rem inder t o Deanne

t hat he wasn't out looking for work. Every t im e she spoke t o him it felt t o him like a reproof, even t hough he knew t hat her words were innocent , t hat she was walking on eggshells t rying t o keep him from get t ing m ad at her again. So he went and did t he shopping, even t hough it always m ade him feel even worse because he ran out of m oney so m uch sooner t han he ran out of grocery list . Sary's j ob at The Daily Record was t o go t hrough all t he report ers' st ories and put in t ypographical errors. Now t hat t he paper was set direct ly from t he com put er files t hat t he report ers t yped in, t here was no t ypeset t ing st age in which errors could be creat ed. Papers m ight act ually st art com ing out errorfree. Managem ent was deeply worried about t his during t he lockout when t hey got rid of t he dam ned t ypeset t ers union once and for all. Typos were a part of newspaper life. I f t hey didn't get a hundred let t ers a week com plaining about bad gram m ar or m isspellings, how would t hey know anybody was paying at t ent ion? I f t hey never had a dum b headline or a screwed- up classified ad, how could t hey 138 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT ever get a m ent ion in t hose lit t le end- of- colum n clippings in The New Yorker? So t hey creat ed t he posit ion of t ypographical edit or, hired Sary, and set her t o work t urning/ rom int o/ orm , t here int o t heir, t aking single lines of t ext out of one colum n and put t ing t hem in anot her, and occasionally get t ing creat ive and insert ing m eaningless t hings like " XxxxxX75 Pet unia. There t hey gSSSgp" int o t he m iddle of an art icle on som e poor geek's president ial cam paign. Sary was good at her j ob, and t ook pride in it . The paper got t wo quot es in The New Yorker t he first year she w as on t he j ob, had t o m ake seven " Our Mist ake" correct ions because of public com plaint s, and all in all she was wort h her weight in gold. I f it weren't for hem orrhoids her life would be perfect . Not t hat she had hem orrhoids- she didn't even have a sem i- cancerous polyp or anyt hing. Her boss's hem orrhoids, t hat 's what m ade life less t han perfect for Sary. Why is t he first exam ple represent at ional, and t he second exam ple present at ional? I n t he first st ory, everyt hing is seen from Mart in's point of view . There is no sense of t he narrat or int ruding wit h his own evaluat ion of t hings, or even of t he narrat or supplying any inform at ion t hat Mart in couldn't know. Even Deanne's at t it udes are obviously Mart in's assum pt ion of what her at t it ude m ust be. The narrat or is alm ost invisible. I n t he second exam ple, however, Sary is being t alked about . We aren't get t ing her percept ions of anyt hing. I nst ead, we're get t ing t he narrat or's snide t one and whim sical invent ion. The reader can't even be sure yet whet her Sary'sj ob really is what t he narrat or says it is, or if in fact she's a copyedit or who happens t o get at t ent ion only when a t ypo slips past her, in which case she get s blam ed as if she had deliberat ely put it t here. No m at t er what t urns out t o be t rue, t he narrat or has insert ed him self bet ween t he audience and Sary.

We're going t o see her from a dist ance, t hrough t he narrat or's skewed and som ewhat wry percept ions. I t is m uch easier for readers t o get em ot ionally involved in a represent at ional st ory. Wit h t heir " oh yeah?" response const ant ly dealt wit h, t hey can forget t hey're reading fict ion and becom e com plet ely absorbed in what happens. But t he represent at ional writ er denies him self t he chance t o engage his reader direct ly; t he t echnique of represent at ional writ ing forbids t he writ er t o point t hings out direct ly, or t o m ake com m ent s on t he scenes he show s. I nst ead, if t he writ er insist s on m aking t hose point s, he m ust work out a way for a charact er t o say t he t hings he want s said, or see t hings t he way he want s t hem seen, and t here's not hing t o st op t he reader from m issing t he point ent irely. On t he ot her hand, it is m uch easier t o present clear ideas in a pre- sent at ional st ory; sat ire and com edy, because t hey require less em ot ional involvem ent , suffer least from t he disrupt ions caused by present at ional writ ing. I n fact , you m ight be able t o m ake a good case for t he idea t hat present at ional writ ing can only be funny t hese days. A gent eel " dear reader" int errupt ion is sim ply not am ong t he current prot ocols of serious st oryt elling, whereas gonzo com ic writ ing alm ost dem ands t hat t he narrat or rem ind her audience const ant ly t hat fict ion is what 's going on here. As long as your st ory is not one t hat depends on your audience feeling a deep em ot ional involvem ent wit h t he charact ers, you can use a present at ional voice wit h lit t le risk. 139 Present at ion vs. Represent at ion One t hing m ust be underst ood. The m ore you rely on t he narrat or's voice t o carry t he st ory inst ead of t he event s t hem selves, t he bet t er your writ ing has t o be. Because when t he audience's at t ent ion is drawn away from t he st ory, it goes som ewhere. They're st aring at your st yle close up, and if your voice happens not t o be very ent ert aining, you've lost t hem . Anot her way of put t ing it is t his: I n a good represent at ional st ory, t he audience will forgive a cert ain clum siness of writ ing because t hey care so m uch about t he charact ers and event s. I n a good present at ional st ory, t he audience will forgive a cert ain shallowness of st ory because t hey so en j oy t he writ er's st yle and at t it ude. So you not only have t o know what 's good for your st ory, you also have t o know what t ype of st ory your part icular t alent s are best suit ed for.

CHAPTER 15 DRAMATI C VS. NARRATI VE

YOU'VE NO DOUBT HEARD THE SLOGAN " Show, don't t ell." Under som e circum st ances, t hat advice is good; under ot hers, it 's exact ly w rong. St oryt ellers const ant ly have t o choose bet ween showing, t elling, and ignoring. Of t hese, showing is what you do least oft en; but since showing is also what t akes up t he m ost space, it deceives m any crit ics int o saying " The good writ ers show m uch m ore t han t hey t ell." Crit ics say t his because t hey exam ine only t he t ext ; we writ ers know bet t er, because we deal wit h t he st ory. The very t erm s are m isleading. How can you show anyt hing in fict ion? The st ory alw ays has a narrat or. On t he ot her hand, in t heat er and m ovies you show alm ost everyt hing. That 's because plays and film s are dram at ic in form . The act ion unfolds in " real t im e" while t he audience wat ches. Fict ion has a narrat or, a st oryt eller. I nst ead of t he audience seeing event s direct ly, t hey are unavoidably filt ered t hrough t he percept ions of t he narrat or. Yet film is not com plet ely dram at ic- it only seem s t hat way t o t he audience. I n fact t he screenwrit er carefully chooses which inform at ion t o present as a scene, and which inform at ion t o have som eone on- screen t ell about , as an offscreen event . I f you t hink about it , film s would be deadly if t hey showed everyt hing. Take Three Days of t he Condor, a Robert Redford vehicle in t he 1970s. ( The book was Six Days of t he Condor- t hey st art ed com pressing right from t he st art .) I f t he film m akers act ually showed us everyt hing, it would t ake t hree days t o see t he film . They left out a lot of st uff. We didn't need t o see every bit e he at e, every t im e he went t o t he bat hroom , every st ep he t ook. To suggest a j ourney, t hey only had t o show him st art ing out and t hen arriving. To suggest a night 's sleep, t hey only had t o show him going t o bed in darkness. I f we t hen see him walking around in daylight , we assum e it 's t he next day. We fill in t he t rivial inform at ion. We don't need t o be t old it , because it has not hing im port ant t o do wit h t he st ory. This is t he st uff t hat get s ignored- and fict ion writ ers m ake t he sam e kinds of choices all t he t im e. A lot of inform at ion t hat is im port ant t o t he st ory is st ill not im por140 Dram at ic vs. Narrat ive 141 t ant enough t o be wort h a whole scene. For inst ance, if charact ers are searching for vit al inform at ion, and it t akes a day of poring over files and books, we need only a m ont age of short clips of m ount ains of books, arm loads of files, w eary- looking act ors get t ing bleary- eyed from reading- t hirt y seconds of film t im e. This is t he film ic equivalent of " t elling." I n fict ion, you would have covered t he event s of t he search even m ore econom ically, by saying, " They went t hrough ninet een file drawers, paper by paper. They cracked open books t hat had t en years of dust on t hem . Even aft er all t hat searching, t hey alm ost m issed t he answer when t hey found it ." There it is- a day com pressed int o t hree sent ences.

I t would be ridiculous t o show all t hat searching inst ead of t elling it . While t he fact t hat t hey worked hard t o get t he inform at ion is im port ant t o t he st ory, it isn't im port ant t hat t he reader act ually experience it . I nst ead, t he st oryt eller gives t hem enough inform at ion t o let t hem know t hat t he search happened, t hat it wasn't easy. Then t he st oryt eller relies on t he audience's m em ory of sim ilar hard research in t heir lives, or t heir im aginat ion of how hard it m ust be or how boring it would be t o do all t hat reading. I n t his case t he right advice is " Tell, don't show." That is t he narrat ive t echnique, t o t ell what happened wit hout t aking m uch t im e. The im port ant scenes, t he ones t hat m ust be present ed dram at ically, are relat ively rare- but t hey end up t aking t he bulk of t he screen or st age t im e because " showing" is so t erribly t im e- consum ing. What you show as a scene will st ick in t he audience's m em ory far m ore t han t hings t hat are only t old about . To t he audience, what seem s t o happen in a film is all t he neat scenes, all t he t ense m om ent s. But t he st oryt eller knows t hat m ost t hings t hat happen in a film are only t old about , hint ed at , glossed over, j ust as m ost t hings t hat happen in fict ion are given in brief narrat ive form . What is t he difference bet ween dram at ic and narrat ive, bet ween showing and t elling in fict ion? For sixt een years I put up wit h his const ant whining. His st udent s were st upid. He was never given any good courses t o t each. They always assigned him t he m ost wort hless graduat e st udent s t o advise. He was sure t hey would never renew his cont ract . When t hey renewed it , he was equally sure t hey'd never give him t enure. By t he t im e t he decision was m ade, I was praying he was right . Unfort unat ely, he got t enure- and a raise every year, his own personal com put er, and several good convent ion t rips a year, and all t he t im e I had t o list en t o his whining in facult y m eet ings, t he facult y lounge, t he corridors; even in m y office I could hear him whining clear dow n t he hall. I t was t oo m uch t o hope t hat anot her universit y would hire him , t hough I praised him t o every depart m ent chairm an I m et , hoping t hey'd t ry t o lure him away. I began t o dream of ways he m ight die. A fall in t he snow. Get t ing run over by a t ruck. His bookshelves t um bling over on him . Accident ally t aking an overdose of Serut an. I im agined him arriving at t he em ergency room , whim pering at t he doct ors and saying, " I know you're j ust going t o let m e die." I im agined t he doct ors saying, " Dam n st raight ." But I didn't kill him . He cam e int o m y office wit hout knocking, som et hing even m y wife doesn't do. " I don't know why I put up wit h t his," he said. 142 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT Oddly enough, exact ly t he sam e sent ence was running t hrough m y m ind. " This new rule about doing our own phot ocopying is obviously aim ed at m e," he said. " They're t rying t o harass m e int o leaving."

" I f you'd have your st udent s buy t ext books inst ead of copying ent ire books for t hem - " " There is no single book t hat is suit ed t o m y classes. But I should have guessed you'd act like t his. You probably suggest ed t hat t hey cut off m y phot ocopying privileges." " There's a cut back. We lost t wo st udent aides. I t has not hing t o do wit h you." " So you're one of t hem . Fine. I don't need you. I can get a j ob anywhere." I f I had t hought t here was a chance he'd act ually quit his j ob, I would . have said som et hing snide. However, I knew perfect ly well t hat his whining would event ually lead t he chairm an or t he dean or som ebody t o assign a st udent aide t o him personally Just t o do his phot ocopying- and if I said anyt hing ': nast y t o him in t he process, he'd whine about t hat , t oo, and I 'd end up sit t ing t t hrough m eet ings wit h t he dean about m y inabilit y t o be support ive of ot her • " facult y m em bers. : So I didn't say anyt hing. I j ust looked him in t he eye and sm iled, hoping all t he while t hat he would die. I t was a deep, sincere desire, one t hat I had of> t en felt before. But I didn't kill him . The sam e t wo charact ers; pret t y m uch t he sam e inform at ion. We learn t hat t here is t ension bet ween t hem , and t he narrat or believes t hat t he conflict arises ent irely from t he ot her t eacher's whining. But t he first version is m erely t old, not shown. What difference does it m ake? Not ice t hat t he second version, t he scene, t akes longer, t hough it get s t hrough far less overall inform at ion and covers far less t im e t han t he narrat ive version. At t he sam e t im e, t he pure narrat ive seem s like a m ere prelude. I t is leading up t o t he st ory. We expect it t o be followed by a scene. Aft er reading t he narrat ive paragraph, we st ill feel t hat not hing has yet happened. But at t he end of t he scene, we feel t hat som et hing has happened. The scene m akes t he t ension bet ween charact ers m ore im m ediat e and real. But t he narrat ive m akes it seem as if it has gone on longer, so t hat t he annoyance isn't t riggered by a single incident , but rat her by a cum ulat ive list of offenses. Which one of t hese is t he " right " choice? Eit her one could be right ; eit her could be wrong. Fact ors like rhyt hm , pace, and t one com e int o play- t hese are out side t he scope of t his book. However, if t he aut hor want ed t he reader t o get a feel for t he m urder vict im , t o rem em ber him as a charact er inst ead of sim ply get t ing t he narrat or's at t it ude t oward him , t his or som e ot her scene would be essent ial. Charact ers are m ade m ore real t hrough scenes t han t hrough narrat ive. CHAPTER 16 FI RST- PERSON NARRATI VE

WHEN YOU USE A FI RST- PERSON NARRATOR, you are alm ost required t o t ell t he st ory in som eone else's voice- t he voice of t he charact er t elling t he t ale. A careless writ er will have all her first - person narrat ors t alk am azingly like herself, but if you t ake charact erizat ion seriously, t he use of first person will lead you t o discover a new voice for each st ory t old by a different narrat or. One m ist ake m any writ ers have m ade- part icularly ninet eent h- cent ury hum orist s like Art em is Ward- is t o m ake t he first - person narrat or's voice so eccent ric or heavily accent ed t hat t he st ory becom es alm ost unreadable. I n fairness, I should point out t hat in Ward's own t im e, st ories t ended t o be read aloud; t he heavily accent ed writ ing did not slow down t he pace, since reading aloud is already slow; and it also provided t he reader wit h a guide t o pronouncing t he com ical accent s. But by and large you should at t em pt t o creat e t he narrat or's voice t hrough his at t it ude and im plied past , let t ing t he speech reflect his educat ional level and regional accent only in synt ax and word choice, not in odd spellings or endless pronunciat ion guides. Not hing is m ore deadly t han t rying t o read sent ence aft er sent ence writ t en like t his: " Ah niver did fig- gah out whah in hivven's nam e a good ol' boah lahk 'at wen' crazy an' st aht ed in killin' folks." Furt herm ore, t he narrat or doesn't hear his own accent anyway, and so would never writ e it t hat way. The narrat or would writ e: " I never did figure out why in heaven's nam e a good old boy like t hat went crazy and st art ed in killing folks." That 's what he t hinks he said, and it 's only because you have a different accent t hat you t hink his words should be spelled anot her way. Cheapest of all is when writ ers t ry t o show som eone is uneducat ed by using apost rophes willy- nilly: " I 'm goin' t ' t h' st ore, Nell. We're runnin' out o' beer." I n t he first place, m ost people, even educat ed people, drop let t ers in norm al, inform al speech. Anyone who never does is a hopeless prig. I n t he second place, t he dropped g in ing endings is act ually older t han t he pronounced g, and t herefore is arguably m ore correct ; cert ainly it is a nat ural survival of t he ancient spoken t ongue, and doesn't really denot e an uneducat ed personexcept t o som eone who is uneducat ed. I t al143 144 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT m ost invariably com es across as a w ay for t he aut hor t o show t hat he sneers at t he person who speaks t hat way, and only rarely is t his t he conclusion you'll want t he audience t o reach about your first - person narrat or. WHI CH PERSON I S FI RST? The m ain lim it at ion on t he first - person narrat ive is t hat your narrat or has t o be present at t he key scenes. A first - person narrat or who m erely hears about t he m aj or event s of t he st ory is no good t o you at all. So you have t o work your narrat or int o t he act ion so t ight ly t hat he is present whenever you need him t o observe som et hing.

The easiest way is t o m ake t he narrat or t he prot agonist ( or vice versa- m ake your prot agonist t he narrat or) . The t rouble here is t hat t he prot agonist is t he charact er wit h whom t he audience sym pat hizes. She is likely t o do int erest ing and im port ant t hings during t he course of t he st ory, or suffer t errible loss or pain; how well will her voice serve t o t ell about t hese t hings? For inst ance, if one of t he key event s is t he deat h of t he prot agonist 's beloved child, how coherent ly is she going t o be able t o writ e about t he event s leading up t o it ? I f she is t oo em ot ional, it will becom e m elodram at ic; if t oo graphic, it will becom e unbearably int ense. Yet if you ret reat , and her narrat ion becom es clear and cool, you run t he risk of having t he audience regard her as cold and heart less. This is not t o say it can't be done- it j ust requires a careful balance. The t im id writ er, of course, w ill decide not t o show t hat key event at all, or will use t elling rat her t han showing: We finally got Johnny int o a decent school, Bill's j ob was set t ling down, and I could forget about t hose people and t heir t errible phone calls for hours at a t im e, I t hought everyt hing was going t o be all right , unt il I heard som eone scream ing and pounding on m y door one day. I knew at once t hat t hose people hadn't forgot t en m e, t hat t hey had done som et hing t errible, j ust like t hey said. I opened t he door. I t was m y neighbor, Rainie. " He j ust drove off! " she cried. " Mail's calling t he am bulance- " There's no point in m e t elling you about t he next few days. I f you have a child of your own, you already know; if you don't , you can't possibly underst and. They didn't t ry t o cont act m e unt il we got hom e from Johnny's burial. Maybe it was a sense of decency- presum ably t hey have children, t oo. More likely t hey were wait ing unt il t hey t hought I was calm ed down enough t o be rat ional. To list en. I list ened. I st ill had a husband and t wo ot her children. The narrat or isn't out on t he st reet wat ching when her child is killed. No horrifying m om ent as she realizes t hat t he t ruck is going t o j um p t he sidewalk and hit her son. No descript ions of a crum pled body on t he st reet . For a first person narrat or t o describe such t hings at all m ight seem ghoulish. To adequat ely express t he em ot ions m ight be im possible. To describe it all coldly would be t oo clinical. Yet t o skip over t he event s, as in t he exam ple, is rat her coy. , First - Person Narrat ive 145 Choose one. Maybe coyness is in charact er; m aybe t he charact er is clinical. Maybe you're a good enough writ er t o t ell t he im m ediat e feelings of a m ot her who wat ched her child die- wit hout get t ing m audlin or grot esque. These choices are all available. But t here are several ot her choices t o keep in m ind. You can decide t o use a different narrat or. Why not t he neighbor wom an, Rainie? Make her t he prot agonist 's close confidant e, so she can be closely involved in t his wom an's

st ruggle. She can act ually see t he accident wit h t he less passionat e horror of a byst ander, avoiding t he m uch st ronger em ot ions of a parent . She has enough dist ance t o be a clear, direct narrat or; enough closeness t o wit ness everyt hing. Or you can use a t hird- person narrat or- wit h all t he drawbacks and benefit s t hat ent ails. We'll discuss t hose lat er. Art hur Conan Doyle chose well in deciding not t o have Sherlock Holm es narrat e his own st ories. Using Wat son as narrat or allowed Doyle t o wit hhold inform at ion from t he audience wit hout being unfair. Holm es knew cert ain inform at ion, but Wat son didn't , so Wat son could t ell us all t hat he knew in t he order he found it out , wit hout spoiling t he surprise. Since Wat son never knows as m uch as Holm es, neit her do we. There is anot her benefit , t hough. I m agine if we had t o list en t o Holm es's int ellect ual, arrogant t one t hrough every word of t he st ory. I nst ead of adm iring his godlike m ind from below, we would find him insufferably conceit ed. He m ight even be ridiculous. This is t he choice Agat ha Christ ie m ade wit h Hercule Poirot - but Poirot was never worshipped as audiences have worshipped Sherlock Holm es. The narrat or's voice is your great est asset - and your great est drawback. Your first - person narrat or can't be a bore, or your st ory will be boring. She can't describe herself perform ing noble act s, or she will seem vain for having t old t he t ale at all. Yet you can t ell us m uch about your narrat or by showing him do a brave, heroic act wit hout him giving us a sign t hat he realizes t he act was heroic at all. Or he can do som et hing t errible, all t he while explaining exact ly why his crim e was not a crim e at all, but a necessary act - while we list en in horror. She wouldn't be quiet , even when I t ried t o t ell her how im port ant it was for her not t o say t hose t hings. There's som e t hings a m an j ust doesn't have t o put up wit h from a wom an. You list en t o t hem blab on all t he t im e about t heir girl friends and going shopping and what t he kids did, and you figure t hat 's j ust what wom en's heads are full of. But when she st art s get t ing down on a m an for doing what m en do, well, t hat 's over t he line, t hat 's m ore t han a m an has t o put up wit h. What she's really doing, she's j ust t rying t o get you t o prove t o her t hat you really are a m an, m aybe som et im es j ust because you've been t oo t ired som et im es, or t oo nice about it in bed, so you hear her t alking like t hat , you don't put your hands in your pocket s. You knock her around, you let her know t hat you st ill got t he power in your arm , you st ill got t he st rengt h t o be t he m an she needs you t o be. I t hurt s her, of course, but it hurt s her sweet , t hat 's what m y dad always said, she get s a bloody lip but it t ast es sweet t o her because she knows she's got a real m an. Only t his t im e shej ust wouldn't quiet down, she j ust kept yelling at m e and saying crap t hat I don't have t o put up wit h, and t hen she 146

Charact ers And Viewpoint

kept t rying t o go out ont o t he st reet and spread all our fam ily business all over t he neighborhood, and I couldn't let her do t hat , could I ? You wouldn't eit her, m an, and don't t ell m e you never hit your wom an a lit t le bit harder t han you m eant t o, what wit h her m out hing off. We m ay not love t his charact er, but we know him bet t er from hearing his version of his act ions t han we ever would by hearing t hem described by som eone else. This passage ost ensibly defends t he narrat or's m ist reat m ent of his wife, but in fact it reveals very clearly his m onst rous m isconcept ion of t he way ot her people t hink and feel. That 's one of t he best reasons t o use first person- t o let us live for a w hile in a st range or t wist ed world, t o see t he world as som eone else sees it . Yet because t he narrat or is not t he aut hor, but rat her a charact er, t he readers know t hat t he aut hor doesn't necessarily agree wit h t he narrat or. I n fact , in t his passage, if I handled t he irony properly, it should be clear t o a lat e- t went iet h- cent ury reader t hat t he aut hor is com plet ely out of sym pat hy wit h t he narrat or. NO FOURTH WALL A t hird- person narrat or flit s like an invisible bird from place t o place- readers don't usually spend m uch t im e worrying about how she happens t o know all t his st uff, or why she's writ ing it down. The narrat or is a st oryt eller, plain and sim ple; we ignore her, and list en t o t he t ale. But t he first - person narrat or is physically t aking part in t he st ory. Therefore, he m ust have som e reason for t elling t he st ory. By im plicat ion, he m ust also have som e idea of who his audience is. Even t hough you, t he aut hor, m ay be m aint aining a fourt h wall bet ween your charact ers and your readers, he, t he narrat or, is not keeping t hat fourt h wall bet ween him self and t he audience he t hinks he's t elling t he st ory t o. The m ost com m on way of dealing wit h t his problem has always been t he fram e st ory. Several people gat her, conversing; one t hing leads t o anot her, unt il one begins t o ent ert ain or inform all t he ot hers by t elling t he m ain st ory. No one expect s anyt hing significant t o happen in t he fram e- it 's j ust an excuse for t he first - person narrat or t o t ell his st ory t o an audience t hat is not t he reader of t he book. The fram e is t old in t hird person; only t he t ale- wit hin- at ale is t old in first person. You know of m any exam ples, I 'm sure. Rudyard Kipling used t he device oft en; H. G. Wells's The Tim e Machine has a fram e st ory, as do count less t ales- t oldin- a- bar. One drawback is t hat such st ories are oral, and so you deny yourself t he use of form al writ t en language. Anot her problem is t hat since t he st ory opens wit h t he fram e, if t he fram e is dull t he audience m ay never get t o t he st ory you really care about . The fram e is not t he only way t o deal wit h t he fact t hat t he charact er is narrat ing a st ory. Som e first - person st ories are t old as epist olaries, let t ers from one person t o anot her ( The Color Purple, for inst ance) . Som e are cast as speeches, diary ent ries, essays, explanat ions t o aj udge, confessions t o an

analyst ( rem em ber t he punchline at t he end of Port noy's Com plaint ?) The narrat or's purpose in writ ing m ay be t o t ell a curious t ale, t o persuade First - Person Narrat ive 147 t he presum ed audience t o a course of act ion, t o excuse t he narrat or for som e crim e. Or t he narrat or m ay be explaining why he adm ires his friend, who is t he prot agonist of t he st ory- which is presum ably t he reason why Wat son set down his t ales of Sherlock Holm es and Archie Goodwin t old us of t he exploit s of Nero Wolfe. I n choosing a first - person narrat or you should have in m ind what his reason is for t elling t he t ale; t ale- t elling is part of his charact er. Whet her you explain her purpose or not , knowing it yourself will help you shape and cont rol t he present at ion of t he st ory; it will help est ablish which event s t he charact er would t ell and which she would leave out , which she would lie about and which she would t ell st raight . UNRELI ABLE NARRATORS What ? Your first - person narrat or m ight lie? Of course. But if you m ean him t o be a liar, you m ust find ways t o let your audience know t hat he is unreliable. The easiest way is t o have him get caught in one lie and adm it it - t he audience im m ediat ely begins t o suspect him of lying about ot her t hings, t oo. Even t hen, your audience has a right t o expect t hat you, t he aut hor, will let t hem know which of t he narrat or's st at em ent s t o believe and which are lies. One way t o clue in t he audience is t o est ablish anot her charact er, not t he narrat or, whose word we t rust , and let her corroborat e t he key event s t hat really happened. Usually t his corroborat ion t akes place in scenes wit hin t he st ory, but som e st oryt ellers go t o t he ext rem e of let t ing t his m ore reliable narrat or t ake over t he first - person narrat ion part of t he w ay t hrough. Swit ching first - person narrat ors in m id- st ory is usually ineffect ive and always difficult , because it violat es t he illusion t hat t he charact er is " really" t elling t he t ale. But if you find you m ust change narrat ors, it helps t o give your readers som e clue. For inst ance, if t he first eight chapt ers are narrat ed by Nora, you m ight put in a division page t hat says, " Part I : Nora." When Pet e t akes over as narrat or, again you put in a page t hat is blank except for t he words " Part I I : Pet e." Or you could est ablish m ult iple narrat ors in a fram e- bot h charact ers are present in t he bar or t he court room , and we expect bot h t o t ell t heir part s of t he st ory. More difficult t han changing t o a m ore- reliable narrat or is t he t echnique of let t ing us know t he t rut h of t he st ory by im plicat ion. The narrat or is lying about t he t hings t hat m at t er t o him ; you m ust t herefore carefully let us know his m ot ive for lying so t hat we'll know which part s of his st ory would need t o be faked t o accom plish his purpose. I s he concealing t he fact s about his own crim es? Then you can lead us t o doubt his words concerning his own alibi or his own react ion t o t he crim e. I s t he st ory a let t er in which t he narrat or is t rying t o persuade anot her charact er of his fait hful love for her? Then

obviously we will doubt his st ory about what act ually went on when he was alone in t he room wit h her rival. 148 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT The use of an unreliable narrat or can add a delicious elem ent of uncert aint y t o a st ory, w it h occasional revisions of t he readers' underst anding of all t hat went before. But used badly, or t o excess, t he unreliable narrat or leaves t he reader wondering why he's bot hering t o read t he st ory, or furious t hat t he aut hor never let him know what " really" happened. I t 's a dangerous t hing t o at t em pt , and only occasionally wort h doing. One except ion, j ust t o show you what it 's like when it 's done well, is Thom as Gavin's brilliant novel The Last Film of Em ile Vico. The first - person narrat or is a 1930s m ovie cam eram an, writ ing t he book as a m em oir of his relat ionship wit h Vico, who has recent ly disappeared under m yst erious circum st ances. But we soon realize t hat t he narrat or, Griswold Parley, suspect s him self of m urdering Vico- or rat her suspect s t he ot her personalit y t hat occasionally dom inat es him , a figure he calls Spyhawk. He suspect s Spyhawk because Spyhawk seem s t o know m ore about t he event s surrounding Vico's disappearance t han Parley him self knows. However, Far- ley can't be sure- in t he past , Spyhawk has caused Parley t o feel guilt for wrongs t hat he didn't com m it . Thus Parley him self knows t hat his own m em ories are not reliable; nor can he t rust t he feelings Spyhawk gives him . The result is t hat t he ent ire novel is st ruct ured as an idea st ory- Far- ley and t he reader are t rying t o discover t he t rut h about t he m yst ery of Vico's disappearance and Parley's involvem ent in it . Anot her reason t o st udy Gavin's book is t hat he handles t he first - person point of view so expert ly. The narrat or const ant ly sees everyt hing from a cam era'seye view, as if he observes even his own life t hrough a lens; indeed, his alt ernat e personalit y is exact ly t he kind of " spy" t hat a cam eram an represent s. This m ot if shows up t hroughout t he narrat ive, so t hat it 's part of t he narrat or's self; aft er a short t im e, t he reader is no longer consciously aware of it , yet cont inues t o see t he st ory as if fram ed in a cam era's shot . At t he beginning of chapt er eight , as Parley launches int o a flashback, he swit ches t o present t ense, because he is writ ing t his part of his m em oir as if it were a m ovie script . I nst ead of being an odd, inappropriat e choice, present t ense has purpose and m eaning wit hin t he st ory; it is exact ly appropriat e for what narrat or Parley and aut hor Gavin are t rying t o accom plish. DI STANCE I N TI ME One t hing Gavin is wrest ling wit h in The Last Film of Em ile Vico is a problem t hat com es wit h all first - person narrat ors: t he problem of t im e. The narrat or, as a part icipant in t he event s, is t elling about what happened in t he past . He is looking backward. He is dist ant in t im e from t he st ory it self. Cont rast t his wit h t he t hird- person narrat or. Even t hough m ost t hird- person account s are t old in past t ense, t hey feel quit e im m ediat e. There is not

necessarily any sense of t he narrat or rem em bering t he event s. They are recount ed as t hey are experienced. There is no dist ance in t im e. However, wit h t hird person t here is dist ance in space. That is, t he narrat or, t hough she can dip int o one or m ore m inds, is never a person First - Person Narrat ive 149 who is act ually t here. She is always an invisible observer, always at som e dist ance. So first person is dist ant in t im e, t hird person in space. Consciously or not , st oryt ellers st ruggle t o break down bot h barriers and achieve im m ediacy. The use of present t ense and st ream of consciousness were at t em pt s t o bridge t he first - person t im e barrier- wit h lit t le success, I m ight add, since bot h t echniques t end t o drive away t he vast m aj orit y of t he pot ent ial audience. The use of deep penet rat ion in t he lim it ed t hird person is an at t em pt t o break down t he barrier of space in t hat narrat ive voice, and it works very well; t hus it has becom e t he m ost widely used narrat ive approach. ( I 'll explain " deep penet rat ion" when I deal wit h t hird person in Chapt er 17.) One way t o m inim ize t he dist ance in t im e is t o have t he first - person narrat or t ell t he st ory in chunks, writ ing it as t he st ory goes along. Gavin does t his in Em ile Vico. The m em oir is begun in a hot el room , where t he narrat or is in hiding, afraid t hat a relent less- seem ing police det ect ive is going t o find evidence linking him t o Vice's disappearance. At t he t im e t he early chapt ers are writ t en, t he narrat or him self does not know how t hings will com e out . He does not know t he end from t he beginning, because t he first part , at least , is writ t en before t he st ory has ended- solving anot her problem wit h first - person narrat ion t hat I 'll deal wit h m ore in a m om ent . Anot her exam ple of solving t he t im e- dist ance problem is Gene Wolfe's hist orical novel Soldier of t he Mist . The narrat or is a form er soldier, apparent ly a survivor of t he invading Persian arm y at t he t im e of Therm opylae. A woundor a curse from t he gods- has st olen from him his abilit y t o ret ain long- t erm m em ory. He wakes up each m orning rem em bering not hing from t he night before. So t he novel is writ t en as t he j ournal he keeps t o rem ind him self of his ent ire life- t he book becom es his m em ory. Each day he begins by reading all of t he book t o dat e, unt il it becom es t oo long; his friends or fellow t ravelers even have t o rem ind him t o read t he book, because he forget s t hat he has writ t en it . Therefore t here are gaps during t he t im es when he forgot t he book exist ed, and what happened during t hose lost sect ions can never be recovered except for t he few scraps of inform at ion t hat ot hers can give him about him self. Cert ainly t his book has defeat ed t he first - person t im e- dist ance problem - but , alas, at a high price, since we are forced t o put up wit h som e of t he repet it ions and irrelevancies t hat such an art less charact er would include in a book he is writ ing, not t o ent ert ain, but t o inform him self. I n short , t he very t rut hfulness of t he charact erizat ion m akes it harder t o m aint ain t he int ensit y of em ot ional involvem ent , since reading it self becom es hard work under t hat circum st ance.

I n t he art of st ory t elling, every good t hing has it s price. I n t he case of Wolfe's and Gavin's books, t he price is well wort h paying- in m y opinion. Ot her readers, t hough, m ay not agree. Each aut hor has t reat ed his first - person narrat or m ore realist ically, which opens his book t o one group of readers; but in t he process, t he book has also been closed t o anot her pot ent ial audience. That 's what happens wit h every choice you m ake. 150 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT WI THHOLDI NG I NFORMATI ON One t echnical problem wit h m ost first - person st ories, arising out of dist ance in t im e, is t hat t he narrat or knows t he end of t he st ory. There's really not hing t o st op him from announcing it from t he st art . I m agine a book t hat begins t his way: I n t he Case of t he Vanishing Hit chhiker, we found out by t he end t hat t he hit chhiker was really t he long- lost daught er of t he m an who picked her up, t raveling in disguise, and he never knew it unt il long aft er he killed her and '• t hrew her body int o t he newly poured cem ent foundat ion of his new office building. Aft er t hat sent ence, t here isn't m uch of t he m yst ery left t o wonder about t hrough t he rest of t he book. Yet pot ent ially t he first - person narrat or could give us such inform at ion at t he beginning of m ost st ories. Telling t he end at t he beginning is a fat al error only wit h idea st ories; m any a charact er or m ilieu or event st ory t hrives on t he dram at ic irony t hat com es from knowing t he end from t he beginning. St ill, t he fact t hat t he first - person narrat or doesn't t ell us t he ending is a const ant , unconscious rem inder of art ifice. She is deliberat ely leaving us in suspense. So unless t he narrat or is supposed t o be a m yst ery writ er, leaving us in suspense is probably out of charact er for her. This is not t he problem it m ight be, because t he cont em porary com m unit y of writ ers and readers has developed a convent ion for dealing fairly wit h t he reader in first - person st ories. Readers allow t he first - person narrat or t o wit hhold t he ending, as long as he t ells us at each st age in t he st ory all t hat t he charact er knew at t hat point in t im e. I f t he narrat or is a det ect ive, he t ells us everyt hing t hat t he barm aid t old him aft er he gave her a sawbuck t ip. He doesn't say, " She t old m e m ore, t oo, but I didn't realize how im port ant it was t ill lat er," and t hen hold back t he inform at ion unt il t he end of t he st ory- if he does m ore t han a few t im es, we st art t o get annoyed, and properly so. The aut hor is diddling wit h us. She is creat ing m ore dist ance bet ween us and t he st ory by m aking t he narrat or an art ificer, our enem y in t he quest for inform at ion inst ead of our ally. The aut hor who does t his usually t hinks she's increasing t he suspense. I n fact , she's weakening t he suspense by decreasing t he readers' involvem ent wit h and t rust in t he narrat or.

That was only a m ild exam ple. You've seen worse- and if you'll t hink back t o your response at t he t im e, you'll realize how annoying it was, how very ineffect ive and dist ancing. For inst ance, inst ead of saying " She t old m e m ore, t oo" at t he t im e of t he int erview, som e aut hors don't even say t hat m uch- t hey j ust have t he charact er rem em ber at som e key m om ent lat er on, " I t hought back and rem em bered som et hing else t he barm aid said, som et hing t hat didn't seem im port ant t o m e at t he t im e." Now, if what he rem em bers is som et hing he t old us she said at t he t im e, t hat 's perfect ly fair; but if t his is new inform at ion t o t he reader, we have a right t o feel t hat we've been im properly deceived.

First - Person Narrat ive s 151 The worst case is when t he first - person narrat or refuses t o t ell us som et hing t hat he him self did. Som e of t he best writ ers have done t his, of course, but t hat doesn't m ake it any less fault y. Here's a passage near t he end of a m yst ery novel: Everyt hing was clear in m y m ind now. Only a few t hings rem ained t o be done, t o set t hings up properly. I called Jim and asked him t o m ake a couple of phone calls, and I st opped at t he Seven- Eleven t o buy a sim ple household art icle. Then I drove t o Maynard's m ansion and rang t he doorbell. Everyone would be t here t hat night , I knew. Unt il now t he narrat or has been t elling us everyt hing he did at t he t im e he did it . Now, t hough, he is deliberat ely wit hholding inform at ion about what he didwho it was t hat he asked Jim t o call and what sim ple household art icle he bought . Now, if it has been est ablished t hat t he narrat or is consciously writ ing a m yst ery st ory ( as wit h Archie Goodwin in Rex St out 's m yst eries) , t hen t he charact er is perfect ly j ust ified in violat ing t he convent ion of t elling what t he narrat or knew at t he t im e he knew it . But if t he narrat or has not been est ablished as a m yst ery writ er, t his t echnique will violat e his charact er and int roduce falseness int o t he t ale. The fact t hat t he narrat or is t elling t he st ory at all m akes it obvious t hat what ever risks she went t hrough in t he course of t he st ory, she lived convincing. There are ot her kinds of j eopardy, t hough, t hat can st ill work fine. While t he first - person narrat or can't die, t hat doesn't m ean t hat t errible, irrevocable t hings can't happen t o her. I n St ephen King's Misery, one of t he horrors of t he book is t hat t he narrat or, t hough he obviously survived, st ill lost lim bs and ot her appendages t o his m ad capt or's blade. When his capt or t hreat ened t o do awful t hings t o him , we knew t hat t hose awful t hings could act ually happen; t he j eopardy was quit e convincing. LAPSES All t hese drawbacks t o first - person narrat ive are problem s t hat arise when you handle first person well. Alack, I 'm forced t o t ell you t he sad t rut h t hat first person is very difficult . Though first person is usually t he first choice of t he

novice st oryt eller, since it seem s so sim ple and nat ural, it is considerably harder t o handle well t han t hird person, so t hat t he novice usually bet rays him self. Where do t he m ist akes com e? Most com m only, t he novice writ er inadvert ent ly confesses in t he first page t hat t he first - person narrat or is a fraud, t hat he is m erely a m ask behind which an incom pet ent writ er is t rying t o hide: I wat ched Nora from across t he room , t he way her hands danced in t he air like m ad ballerinas, graceful and yet far t oo busy. She was upset , worried about t he upcom ing deal. The people who t ried t o converse wit h her were all so boring, t heir t alk so pet t y; yet she t ried t o act as if she were int erest ed, even excit ed 152 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT about t he subj ect at hand, so t hat t hey would never guess how t ense she was. She t hought back t o how t hings began, back in Rot t erdam in t he last years before she m et Pet e and her life dissolved in ruins . . . I don't need t o go on, do I ? There is no way in t he world t hat t he first - person narrat or can possibly know what is worrying Nora, or her m ot ives as she converses wit h ot her people. St ill, he m ight be m erely guessing at her t hought s or m ot ives- unt il we get t o t he last sent ence, where he get s inside her head for a flashback. This is sim ply im possible- it is a t echnique of t hird- person narrat ive, one which is com plet ely unavailable t o first - person narrat ors unless t hey happen t o have supernat ural powers. Yet you would be am azed how m any young writ ers m ake t his m ist ake. The first - person flaws in t his next exam ple are m ore subt le: I awoke wit h a brut al headache. My hand brushed a paper off m y pillow as I reached across t he bed. I opened m y eyes and winced against t he pain of t he sunlight st ream ing t hrough t he window . I was overcom e wit h a sense of t errible loss; grief st ream ed t hrough m e again. I got up and st aggered t o t he bat hroom , each st ep like a knife t hrough m y head. I t ook t he aspirin bot t le off t he shelf, t urned it upside down. I t urned on t he wat er and got int o t he shower. I t beat down on m y head, st ream ed down m y face, rivulet s pouring down m y body, cleansing m e. I t oweled m yself roughly, t hen dressed in t he sam e clot hes I had dropped on t he bat hroom floor. Grief was all I could t hink of, grief so deep I felt nauseat ed. There was not hing t o eat in t he kit chen except peanut but t er, graham crackers, and baking soda. I put a t easpoon full of baking soda in a glass of wat er and drank it down. The flaw here isn't t hat t he passage is cold and m elodram at ic by t urns- t hough of course it is. The flaw is t hat t he first - person narrat or is wat ching him self as if from a dist ance, not seeing inside his own head at all. He sees w hat he does, but never why. We wat ch him as if t hrough a cam era- but since he is t he narrat or, he wouldn't wat ch him self do t hese t hings, he would rem em ber t hem from t he inside.

He didn't observe t hese act ions when t hey were going on, he perform ed t hem . Yet we are given no clue about what any of his act ions m ean. He m ight be hung over, but he m ight also be sick. And why are we t old so m uch about t he shower? What does t he shower m ran? Why does it m at t er? I t seem s like any ot her shower. We all get wet in t he shower. We all have t he wat er beat on our heads and st ream down our faces; t he whole point of showers is for t hem t o cleanse us. There is no reason for us t o be shown t his part icular shower, because it is no different from any ot her shower, and t he narrat or has given us no reason t o t hink it m eans m ore t han usual. I n fact , if a friend of yours were t elling you a st ory, and he got off ont o a t angent about his shower- " t he wat er felt so good beat ing down on m y head, st ream ing down m y body, cleansing m e" - wouldn't you t ell him t o forget about t he st upid shower and get on wit h t he st ory? Of course you would. So why should t he reader, who is not your friend ( and unlikely t o becom e one, if you writ e like t his) , put up wit h such irrelevant nonsense? The only seem ing except ions are t he t wo m elodram at ic sent ences First - Person Narrat ive 153 about st rong em ot ion: " I was overcom e . . ." and " Grief was all I could t hink of. . ." Yet even here, we are not t old what he is grieving about . So t his barely qualifies as being inside t he narrat or's head. I nst ead we are given abst ract labels for em ot ions, not t he experience of t hose em ot ions, or t he reasons why t he narrat or feels t hem . I f t here is any point t o using a first - person narrat or, it is in order t o experience everyt hing t hrough his percept ions, colored by his at t it udes, driven by his m ot ives- yet we got not hing of t hat in t his sam ple. This supposedly first - person account is as im personal as a phone book. I t is also exact ly what a m aj orit y of novices do when writ ing first - person account s. Here is t he sam e passage t old m ore as a real person m ight t ell of it : I woke t hat m orning wit h a brut al headache. I reached out for Nora, as usual, but t he bed was em pt y. Just a piece of paper, which I brushed off m y pillow, not caring t o know what t he not e said. I t wasn't from her. She hadn't been here for days. Mont hs. When would I st op reaching for her? On m y deat hbed would I expect t o find her t here, and once again be disappoint ed? No, m aybe on m y deat hbed she'd be t here, wat ching m e so she could enj oy t he process, t he bit ch. I opened m y eyes and regret t ed it at once- sunlight st ream ing t hrough t he window is never kind t o a m an wit h a hangover like t he one I had. I got up and st aggered t o t he bat hroom , each st ep like a knife t hrough m y head. The shower was t oo cold, t hen t oo hot , and t hey don't m ake a brand of soap t hat could have m ade m e feel clean. The aspirin bot t le was em pt y, of course, but it didn't m at t er- t here weren't enough aspirin in t he world t o deal wit h a headache like m ine.

I t oweled m yself roughly, punishing m yself for being t he kind of j erk who has t o wake up alone. Then I got dressed. I wasn't com plet ely uncivilized- I t hought of put t ing on clean clot hes. But it wasn't wort h t he effort . I put on t he sam e clot hes I had dropped on t he bat hroom floor. There was not hing t o eat in t he kit chen except peanut but t er, graham crackers, and baking soda. The peanut but t er and graham crackers m ade m e want t o puke. I put a t easpoon full of baking soda in a glass of wat er and drank it down. Turned out even worse t han I expect ed. I went back int o t he bat hroom and t hrew up. Oh what a beaut iful m orning. This version, while it st ill doesn't t ell us why Nora left , at least gives us m ore reason t o care about what 's going on. We aren't seeing t he narrat or from t he out side, we're wat ching him from t he inside- which is exact ly what first - person narrat ion is supposed t o do. Not e t hat we get charact erizat ion t his t im e, which was alm ost ent irely m issing from t he first version of t his passage. We know why his hand brushes t he pillow; we know why he doesn't pick up t he not e. We know how he feels about Nora- not j ust nebulous and m elodram at ic feelings of grief, but clear, specific at t it udes and em ot ions. He doesn't describe t he shower, he responds t o it - an at t it ude, not a phot ograph. We know why he decides t o wear t he dirt y clot hes from t he day before. Your first - person narrat or m ight be t he kind of person who doesn't easily confess his m ot ives or his feelings. Of course, in t hat case one wonders why he would writ e t he st ory at all, or why t he aut hor w ould be so self- dest ruct ive as t o at t em pt t o writ e a first - person st ory t old by a t acit urn charact er. I f for som e reason you do want t o writ e a st ory t old by such a 154 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT charact er, even he would not writ e t he first version of t his passage. I f he is not in t he m ood for confession, he would not describe his m orning. I n part icular, he would not confess t o such t hings as put t ing on dirt y clot hes; nor would he describe som et hing as privat e as a shower. I f t he first - person narrat or doesn't want t o confess anyt hing personal, t hat is also an at t it ude, and will show up in his writ ing: Everyt hing t hat happened t o m e t his m orning? All right , I woke up hung over and t here wasn't any aspirin in t he cabinet . I t ried t o set t le m y st om ach wit h baking soda and ended up puking. I put on dirt y clot hes and went out side and spent t he rest of t he m orning yelling obscenit ies at passing drivers and kicking dogs and lit t le children. I at e lunch at McDonald's and didn't t hrow away m y t rash or st ack m y t ray. That t ook m e up t ill noon. I s t hat what you want ed t o know? First - person narrat ion m ust reveal t he narrat or's charact er or it isn't wort h doing. The narrat or m ust be t he kind of person who would t ell t he t ale, and her m ot ives and at t it udes m ust show up in t he st ory. I f you find t hat you can't do t his, t hen you have t hree choices: You can adm it t hat first - person narrat ive

isn't going t o work in t his st ory, and swit ch t o t hird person; invent your first person charact er and creat e her voice by discovering her at t it udes, m ot ives, expect at ions, and past ; or experim ent wit h ot her first - person narrat ors unt il you find one whose charact er you can creat e.

CHAPTER 1 7 THI RD PERSON MOST WRI TERS DON'T ACTUALLY THI NK OF THEMSELVES as God. We are m uch t oo hum ble for t hat . But wit hin t he world of our st ory, we do have nearly absolut e power. Our charact ers live and die by our decisions; t heir fam ilies and friendships, locat ion and livelihood depend on our whim s. They go t hrough t he m ost t errible suffering because w e t hought it would be m ore int erest ing if t hey did, and j ust when t hey finally set t le down t o live a norm al life again, we close t he book and snuff t hem out . Unfort unat ely, all t hat godlike power is usually used in privat e. We m ay be m anipulat ing our charact ers like t orm ent ed puppet s t hrough t he landscape of our own dem ent ed m inds, but we conceal all t hat from our readers. All our art ist ry as perform ers of fict ion is designed t o give t he audience t he illusion t hat our charact ers do what t hey do for t heir own reasons, t hat our st ory is a nat ural, believable series of event s. The only t im e we can act out our godlike role in front of t he audience is when we writ e using t he t hird- person om niscient point of view. OMNI SCI ENT VS. LI MI TED POI NT OF VI EW As an om niscient narrat or, you float over t he landscape wherever you want , m oving from place t o place in t he t winkling of an eye. You pull t he reader along wit h you like Superm an t aking Lois Lane out for a flight , and whenever you see som et hing int erest ing, you explain t o t he reader exact ly what 's going on. You can show t he reader every charact er's t hought s, dream s, m em ories, and desires; you can let t he reader see any m om ent of t he past or fut ure. The lim it ed t hird- person narrat or, on t he ot her hand, doesn't fly freely over t he landscape. I nst ead, t he lim it ed narrat or is led t hrough t he st ory by one charact er, seeing only what t hat charact er sees; aware of what t hat charact er ( t he " viewpoint charact er" ) t hinks and want s and rem em bers, but unable t o do m ore t han guess at any ot her charact er's inner life. You can swit ch viewpoint charact ers from t im e t o t im e, but t rading viewpoint s requires a clear division- a chapt er break or a line space. The lim it ed t hird- person narrat or can never change viewpoint s in m id- scene. 756 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT What Om niscient Narrat ors Do Best Only t he om niscient narrat or can writ e passages like t his:

I t t ook Pet e t wo m ont hs t o work up t he courage t o ask Nora out . She was so delicat e- looking, so frail- boned, her skin t ranslucent , her st raw- brown hair wisp- ing off int o golden sparks around her face. How could a beer- and- foot ball guy like Pet e ever im press Nora Danzer? So he st udied t he kinds of t hings t hat fragile beaut ies are im pressed wit h- t he current exhibit at t he Met ropolit an Museum , t he art of cinem a; he drew t he line at opera. When he was ready at last , he wrot e his invit at ion on a whim sical Sandra Boynt on card and left it on her desk wit h a single daffodil. He didn't leave his office, didn't dare t o pass her desk unt il eleven o'clock. The single flower was in a slender vase. She looked up at him and sm iled t hat gent le sm ile and said, " I 've never been asked so sweet ly. Of course I 'll go." Taking her out was like t aking a final exam . Pet e knew he was failing, but he couldn't figure out why. He kept bum bling along, t rying t o im press Nora wit h his sensit ivit y, never guessing t hat Nora was m uch m ore com fort able wit h beer- and- foot ball t ypes. She had grown up wit h brot hers who t hought t hat " fun" was any out door gam e t hat left scabs. She had oft en t old her friends t hat all but six of her delicat e, fragile bones had been broken during childhoodat least she could hardly rem em ber a t im e when she didn't have a cast on som e part of her body. She liked rowdiness, laught er, crude hum or and general silliness; she had t hought Pet e was like t hat , from t he way he bant ered and j oked wit h t he ot hers at t he office. So all Pet e's t alk about t he relat ive m erit s of t he com ic visions of Woody Alien and Groucho Marx only confused and int im idat ed her. She was sure t hat if she t ried t o change t he subj ect t o t hings she cared about - t he 'Skins' chances of get t ing a t hird Super Bowl vict ory in t he 80s, for inst ance- he would gaze at her wit h surprise and cont em pt , and t ake her hom e. She didn't want t o go hom e. She want ed t o be at an easy, com fort able bar som ewhere, get t ing slight ly drunk and laughing wit h Pet e's buddies. So did Pet e. Aft er all, Pet e was t he guy who had run t he lengt h of t he bar at Hokey's, naked, because Walt er Payt on didn't score a t ouchdown in Super Bowl XX. Why did he t hink he belonged wit h som eone as refined as Nora? He was sure she saw t hrough his disguise and knew he was j ust anot her form er high school j ock- t hat 's why her eyes were glazing over w hile he t alked. They sipped t heir t ast eless Perrier, at e as if t hree asparagus spears and a dim e- sized m edallion of flounder m ade a m eal, and pret ended t hey were deeply int erest ed in Polanski's post - Am erican m ovies. I f only each had known t hat t he ot her slept t hrough m ost of Tess. I n t his st ory fragm ent , I t ried t o show t he om niscient point of view at it s best . Because t he narrat or can see int o bot h Pet e's and Nora's m inds, swit ching back and fort h at will, we know t hings t hat neit her charact er knows; t he pleasure of t his scene is t hat neit her charact er's point of view is accurat e, but ours is. No ot her point of view but om niscient would allow a narrat or t o say t hat last sent ence: " I f only each had known t hat t he ot her slept t hrough m ost of Tess."

I f eit her Pet e or Nora were a first - person narrat or, we would have Third Person / 57 seen t hat scene from only one point of view. We would have shared in t hat charact er's m isunderst anding of t he ot her. Lat er, of course, t here could be a scene in which t hey confess t he t rut h t o each ot her; at t hat point we would t hink back t o t heir horrible first dat e and realize t hat it was all a ridiculous m ist ake. But we would not have t he pleasure or t he t ension of knowing it was a m ist ake while t he scene was act ually happening. ( Unless, of course, t he first - person narrat or violat ed t he t im e- flow of t he st ory and closed t he scene by saying, " Lat er I found out t hat Nora had slept t hrough m ost of Tess. I t was one m ore t hing we had in com m on." But such a rem inder t hat all t hese event s happened long ago would usually be a gross m ist ake in a first - person account because it would dist ance t he reader from t he im m ediacy of t he st ory.) A lim it ed t hird- person narrat or would also be forced t o show us t he scene from only one charact er's point of view at a t im e. But lim it ed t hird- person offers a few m ore opt ions t han first person. We could st ill have t hat lat er confession scene- in fact , a scene of unm asking is m andat ory in a st ory t hat hinges on charact ers m isunderst anding each ot her's t rue nat ure. Changing Viewpoint Charact ers The lim it ed narrat or can also change viewpoint charact ers. Not in m id- scene or even m id- paragraph, as t he om niscient narrat or does, but from one scene t o anot her, as long as t here is a clear t ransit ional break. The m ost obvious t ransit ional break, and t herefore t he one t hat works best , is t he chapt er break. I f chapt er one is from Pet e's point of view- wit h his worries about asking Nora out for a dat e, his preparat ion for t he " final exam ," and so on- t hen chapt er t wo can be from Nora's point of view. We'll rem em ber how anxious Pet e was t o keep " delicat e" Nora from guessing t hat he was really a beer- drinking j ock, so as we see t he dat e from Nora's point of view, wit h her m em ories of her brot hers playing roughly in t he yard, her longing t o t alk foot ball and drink beer in a bar, we'll get m ost of t he delicious irony of knowing t he t rut h about t wo charact ers who are deceiving each ot her t oo well. But what if you want t o writ e a short st ory, not a book? Can't you swit ch viewpoint charact ers wit hout having t o resort t o a chapt er st ruct ure? Yes. The next - clearest t ransit ional device in fict ion is t he " line space" - a double- double space if you work on a t ypewrit er, t wo hard carriage ret urns if you work on a word processor. I t looks like t his: I n your m anuscript , however, you m ust m ark a line space so t he t ypeset t ing and layout will know t hat it 's a deliberat e space t hat should appear in t he finished book. Usually a line space is m arked in m anuscript wit h t hree ast erisks, like t his: * * *

The ast erisks will usually appear in t he finished book or m agazine only if t he line space falls at a page break. The rest of t he t im e t hey'll be delet ed, leaving only a blank line. 158 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT The first part of our st ory, using Pet e as t he viewpoint charact er, ends wit h t he line space. Readers are t rained t o recognize a line space as a signal t hat a m aj or change is t aking place in t he st ory- a change of locat ion, a long passage of t im e, or a change in view point charact er. However, you m ust be careful t hat you est ablish what t he change is im m ediat ely aft er t he line space. The first sent ence should use Nora's nam e and m ake it clear t hat t he narrat or is now following her point of view. The first paragraph should also let us know, direct ly or by im plicat ion, where she is and how long it has been since t he event s j ust before t he line space. A change of viewpoint charact er is t he m ost difficult t ransit ion for readers t o m ake. ( All right , a j um p of 900 years and a change of planet m ight be harder, but usually t im e and place changes are a m at t er of a few days and a few m iles.) I t 's a lot easier for readers t o adapt t o t he viewpoint change if t hey have already m et t he new viewpoint charact er, and it 's even easier if t he new viewpoint charact er is already very im port ant in t he st ory. I n t his case, because t he sect ion from Pet e's viewpoint is focused on his feelings and plans for Nora, we won't have any confusion at all when t he sect ion im m ediat ely aft er t he line space begins: Nora had never seen nouvelle cuisine before. To her t he half- em pt y plat e looked like som eone in t he kit chen had decided t o put her on a diet . Had Pet e called ahead t o t ell t hem she was t oo fat or som et hing? Since t he sect ion before focused on Pet e's upcom ing dat e wit h Nora, readers will rem em ber easily who Nora is, and will have lit t le t rouble guessing from t his opening t hat Nora is now out on t he dat e wit h Pet e. Just as im port ant is t he fact t hat t his paragraph im m ediat ely est ablishes Nora's point of view . I n t he last sect ion, we would have becom e used t o seeing everyt hing from Pet e's perspect ive, get t ing his t hought s and at t it udes and m em ories. The first sent ence aft er t he line break gives us inform at ion about Nora t hat Pet e would not know- her unfam iliarit y wit h nouvelle cuisine. His point of view has been clearly violat ed; hers is being clearly est ablished. The second sent ence gives her at t it ude- her hum orously paranoid guess about t he chefs m ot ive for put t ing such a sm all am ount of food on a plat e. And t o com plet e t he viewpoint shift , t he t hird sent ence st art s showing us Pet e, our previous viewpoint charact er, only t his t im e from her point of view- her uncert aint y about how he is j udging her. Since Pet e's viewpoint sect ion would have shown us how he pract ically worshipped Nora and t hought she was t he m ost fragile, beaut iful wom an he'd ever known, having Nora speculat e t hat Pet e m ight t hink she was t oo fat let s us know t hat Nora's self- im age is wildly

different from Pet e's im age of her. The viewpoint shift is com plet e in t hree sent ences, and readers will set t le in com fort ably wit h Nora's point of view. Because we've had experience wit h Pet e's point of view, t he lim it ed t hirdperson version of t he dinner scene would have m ost of t he irony we had in t he om niscient version. Presum ably t he previous sect ion, from Pet e's point of view, would have t old us about his buck- naked run along t he bar at Hokey's aft er losing a foot ball bet , so when Nora st art s wishing she could t alk about foot ball during dinner, we'll rem em ber Pet e's foot Third Person 159 ball fanat icism and realize t hat if Pet e would j ust st op pret ending t o be what he t hinks Nora is, t he real Nora would cert ainly enj oy t he real Pet e. The irony is working. We don't have t o wait for a lat er confession scene, as we would in first person. By changing viewpoint charact ers, a lim it ed t hird- person narrat or can get m ost of t he sam e kind of narrat ive effect s as an om niscient narrat or. What t he lim it ed t hird- person narrat or can't do is m at ch t he om niscient narrat or's brevit y. The om niscient passage was six paragraphs long. The lim it ed t hird- person version would have t o be far longer. Pet e's viewpoint sect ion, t o feel com plet e, would have t o be far longer t han t he t wo- and- a- half paragraphs he get s in t he om niscient passage. To develop his point of view effect ively, we'd have t o go int o m uch m ore det ail about his preparat ions for asking Nora out . Perhaps we'd est ablish his net work of relat ionships at work, show him t rying t o find out m ore about her, show him t rying t o change his im age t o fit what he t hinks she'll want . By t he t im e we are ready t o change viewpoint charact ers, we have t o know Pet e well enough t hat his view of t he world- and especially of him self and Nora- will st ay in our m em ory t hroughout t he sect ion from Nora's point of view. The om niscient narrat or can t ell m ore st ory and reveal m ore charact er in less t im e t han it t akes t he lim it ed t hird- person narrat or. That 's t he great est advant age of t he om niscient narrat or. The Lim it ed Narrat or's Advant age I f t he lim it ed narrat or t akes so m uch longer t o do t he sam e j ob as t he om niscient narrat or, why do we need t he lim it ed t hird- person narrat or at all? Why, for heaven's sake, is lim it ed t hird- person t he overwhelm ingly dom inant narrat ive voice in Am erican fict ion t oday? I t 's a m at t er of dist ance. As t he om niscient narrat or slips in and out of different charact ers' m inds, he keeps t he reader from fully engaging wit h any of t he charact ers. The om niscient passage quot ed above is far m ore present at ional t han represent at ional- we're const ant ly being rem inded t hat t he narrat or is t elling us a st ory about Pet e and Nora. We never get deeply enough involved wit h eit her of t hem t o fully ident ify wit h t hem , t o begin t o feel what t hey're feeling. I nst ead of sharing Nora's frust rat ion or Pet e's bafflem ent , we are forced t o t ake a dist ant , ironic, am used st ance, wat ching what t hey do but not experiencing it .

The lim it ed t hird- person st rat egy is t o t rade t im e for dist ance. Sure, we spend m ore t im e get t ing t hrough t he sam e am ount of st ory, but in ret urn we get a m uch deeper, m ore int ense involvem ent wit h t he lives of t he viewpoint charact ers. The om niscient narrat or is always t here, t ugging at our hands, pulling us from place t o place. We see everyt hing and everybody as t he narrat or sees t hem , not as t he charact ers see t hem . We are always out side looking in. For inst ance, whose point of view are we get t ing in t his sent ence? " He kept bum bling along, t rying t o im press Nora wit h his sensit ivit y, never guessing t hat Nora was m uch m ore com fort able wit h beer- and- foot ball t ypes." Perhaps Pet e sees him self as " bum bling along," and cert ainly we 160 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT are seeing inside his head as we see him " t rying t o im press Nora wit h his sensit ivit y" - but would he act ually use t hose words t o describe him self? I s he really so cynical t hat he t hinks of him self as faking sensit ivit y? Or does he t hink t hat he's act ually t rying t o becom e, not " sensit ive," but wort hy of her? We're get t ing an at t it ude here, but it isn't really Pet e's at t it ude- it 's t he narrat or's. The narrat or sees Pet e as bum bling and t rying t o fake sensit ivit y. Likewise, when we are t old t hat Nora " had oft en t old her friends t hat all but six of her delicat e, fragile bones had been broken during childhood," who is act ually using t he words " delicat e" and " fragile" ? Not Pet e- he doesn't know what Nora has t old her friends. And not Nora- she doesn't see herself as delicat e and fragile, it 's Pet e who does. The phrase " delicat e, fragile bones" is a direct echo of Pet e's assessm ent of Nora as " delicat e- looking, frail- boned" in t he first paragraph, yet it is insert ed ironically int o Nora's m em ory of her ow n childhood. Again, t he narrat or is openly int ruding int o t he st ory, nudging t he reader int o seeing t he hum or of t he sit uat ion. " She liked rowdiness, laught er, crude hum or, and general silliness," says t he narrat or. But t hat isn't t he way Nora would t hink of it . I f t hat sent ence were writ t en from her point of view, it would be m ore like t his: She liked guys who knew how t o have a good t im e, get a lit t le rowdy, have som e laughs. She t hought of t elling him t he j oke about Mickey Mouse and Minnie Mouse get t ing a divorce, but she knew a guy like Pet e would never appreciat e a punchline wit h t he / - word in it . To let us know, from Nora's point of view, t hat she likes crude hum or, we have t o see a sam ple of t he hum or she likes- if she is not t he over- lit erat e t ype Pet e t hinks she is, she is also unlikely t o t hink of her own t ast e in hum or as " crude." These t wo sent ences from Nora's viewpoint t ake longer t han t he om niscient narrat or's nine- word clause- but t hey also get us m ore deeply involved in Nora's charact er, give us a m uch clearer and m ore pow erful view of t he w orld as she sees it . The om niscient narrat or sees t he world t hrough t he wrong end of t he binoculars- readers can see everyt hing, but it all looks very sm all and far

away. The lim it ed t hird- person narrat or can't let readers see as m any different t hings in as short a period of t im e, but what t he readers do see, t hey see " up close and personal." Think of t he lim it ed t hird- person narrat or as a com binat ion of t he m ost im port ant represent at ional feat ures of t he om niscient and first - person narrat ors. The lim it ed narrat or get s m uch closer t o t he viewpoint charact ers t han t he om niscient narrat or can, giving readers t he experience of living in t he charact er's world- m uch t he way t he first - person narrat or gives readers an int im at e look at t he world t hrough t he narrat or's eyes. At t he sam e t im e, wit h lim it ed t hird- person narrat ion t he viewpoint charact er isn't act ually t elling t he st ory, const ant ly rem inding us t hat he is showing us him self, t hat he's looking back on t hese event s from som e point in t he st ory's fut ure. Look at t he way first - person and lim it ed t hird- person narrat ors Third Person 161 would deal wit h t he event cont ained in t his sent ence from t he om niscient narrat ion: " When he was ready at last , he wrot e his invit at ion on a whim sical Sandra Boynt on card and left it on her desk wit h a single daffodil." Here's a possible lim it ed t hird- person version: Pet e got t o work at seven- fift een so he could leave t he flower and t he card for Nora wit hout anybody wat ching. He filled t he bud vase wit h wat er from t he drinking fount ain, put t he daffodil in it , set t he vase on Nora's desk, and leaned t he envelope against it . I t looked t oo form al, like a proposal of m arriage or an apology or som et hing. So he t ook t he card out of t he envelope. That was bet t er. But t he vase st ill bot hered him - it would put t oo m uch pressure on her. I f she t urned him down, she could j ust t hrow away a flower, but she m ight feel like she had t o ret urn t he vase. So he t ook t he daffodil out of t he vase and laid it on her desk. I t got w at er all over her blot t er. He grabbed a handful of her t issues and dabbed up t he wat er and dried t he st em of t he flower. He laid down t he card so it m ost ly covered t he wat er spot s and put t he daffodil at an angle across t he card. Then he wrapped t he vase in t he wet t issues, carried it t o his office, and put it in t he wast ebasket . We're get t ing an experience here t hat t he om niscient version didn't providewe're living t hrough Pet e's indecision and nervousness st ep by st ep, m om ent by m om ent . Even t hough it 's in past t ense, it feels like t he present . We're ident ifying wit h Pet e as w e live t hrough all t he agonizing, t rivial, yet vit al st rat egic decisions in his cam paign t o give Nora exact ly t he right im pression. Would t his work as well in first person? Try it and see: I got t o work at seven- fift een so I could leave t he flower and t he card for Nora wit hout anybody wat ching. I filled t he bud vase wit h wat er from t he drinking fount ain, put t he daffodil in it , set t he vase on Nora's desk, and leaned t he envelope against it . I t looked t oo form al, like a proposal of m arriage or an apology or som et hing. So I t ook t he card out of t he envelope. That was bet t er. But t he vase st ill bot hered m e- it would put t oo m uch pressure on her. I f she

t urned m e down, she could j ust t hrow away a flower, but she m ight feel like she had t o ret urn t he vase. So I t ook t he daffodil out of t he vase and laid it on her desk. I t got wat er all over her blot t er. I grabbed a handful of her t issues and dabbed up t he wat er and dried t he st em of t he flower. I laid down t he card so it m ost ly covered t he wat er spot s and put t he daffodil at an angle across t he card. Then I wrapped t he vase in t he wet t issues, carried it t o m y office, and put it in t he wast ebasket . At first glance, it m ight seem t o be exact ly t he sam e. But t he effect is different in at least one im port ant way. The lim it ed t hird- person version is t old st raight . You are clearly m eant t o em pat hize wit h Pet e's indecision, t o worry about whet her Nora will accept t he invit at ion, t o care about what she t hinks. You are living t hrough t he experience wit h Pet e as he lives it . But in t he first - person version, t here is an unconscious assum pt ion about why Pet e- t he- narrat or is t elling t his event in such det ail. Even t hough t he narrat or m akes no com m ent s like " I was such a fool in t hose days," t he t im e- dist ance effect is st ill operat ing. Pet e- t he- narrat or obviously does not st ill feel t he sam e uncert aint y and anxiet y t hat Pet e- in- t he162 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT st ory felt , yet for som e reason Pet e- t he- narrat or has chosen t o t ell t his incident . Since it shows Pet e- in- t he- st ory in such a vulnerable posit ion, it would be unt hinkable for Pet e- t he- narrat or t o recount it unless he t hought it was am using, unless he had clearly wised up som ehow since t hen and could look back on his old self wit h com ic dist ance. Wit hout being conscious of it , readers w ill st ill adj ust t o t his com ic dist ance. Furt herm ore, in a first - person narrat ive we would know t hat Nora m ust have som e long- t erm im port ance t o Pet e, because he's t elling about it ; we know t he first dat e m ust have worked out well or else her t urndown was so spect acular it scarred Pet e for life. I n t he lim it ed t hird- person version, it 's possible t hat t he incident wit h Nora m ay end up being com plet ely t rivial t o Pet e- but vit ally im port ant t o Nora. The t hird- person lim it ed narrat ion allows m ore st ory line opt ions. Of course, t he differences bet ween first - person and lim it ed t hird- person narrat ors m ay seem very subt le in t his exam ple, because t he t wo versions are ident ical except for changing " he" and " him " t o " I " and " m e." I f I had act ually been writ ing t his incident in first person from t he st art , t he differences would have been m uch great er, because t he writ ing would have been shaped by Pet e's own voice. MAKI NG UP YOUR MI ND Which t ype of narrat or should you use? By now it should be clear t hat none is int rinsically, absolut ely " bet t er" t han t he ot hers. All have been used by excellent writ ers t o t ell wonderful t ales. But it st ill m at t ers very m uch which one you choose. Here are som e t hings t o keep in m ind.

1. First - person and om niscient narrat ions are by nat ure m ore pre- sensat ional t han lim it ed t hird- person- readers will not ice t he narrat or m ore. I f your goal is t o get your readers em ot ionally involved wit h your m ain charact ers, wit h m inim al dist ract ion from t heir belief in t he st ory, t hen t he lim it ed t hird- person narrat or is your best choice. 2. I f you're writ ing hum or, however, first - person or om niscient narrat ion can help you creat e com ic dist ance. These int rusive narrat ors can m ake wry com m ent s or writ e wit h t he kind of wit t hat calls at t ent ion t o it self, wit hout j arring or surprising a reader who is deeply involved wit h t he charact ers. 3. I f you want brevit y, covering great spans of t im e and space or m any charact ers wit hout writ ing hundreds or t housands of pages t o do it , t he om niscient narrat or m ay be your best choice. 4. I f you want t he sense of t rut h t hat com es from an eyewit ness account , first person usually feels less fict ional, m ore fact ual. 5. I f you're uncert ain of your abilit y as a writ er, while you're quit e confident of t he st rengt h of t he st ory, t he lim it ed t hird- person narrat ion invit es a clean, unobt rusive writ ing st yle- a plain t ale plainly t old. You can st ill writ e beaut ifully using t he lim it ed t hird person, but your writ ing is Third Person 163

m ore likely t o be ignored- t hus covering a m ult it ude of sins. However, if you know you can writ e dazzling prose but t he st ory it self is oft en your weakness, t he om niscient and t he first person invit e you t o play wit h language even if it dist ract s a bit from t he t ale it self. I n lim it ed t hird person you can't have t hose lovely digressions t hat m ake Vonnegut , for inst ance, such a delight t o read. I t 's no accident t hat t he overwhelm ing m aj orit y of fict ion published t oday uses t he lim it ed t hird- person narrat or. Most readers read for t he sake of t he st ory. They want t o im m erse t hem selves in t he lives of t he charact ers, and for t hat purpose, t he lim it ed t hird person is t he best . I t com bines t he flexibilit y of om niscience wit h t he int ensit y of t he first person. I t 's also an easier choice for a beginning writ er, part ly because it doesn't require t he sam e level of m ast ery of t he language, and part ly because it will sim ply be m ore fam iliar and t herefore feel m ore " nat ural" t o writ ers who have grown up in a lit erary com m unit y where lim it ed t hird- person predom inat es. ( This is also t he best reason for avoiding present t ense; except for t he academ ic/ lit erary genre, present t ense is very uncom m on and so feels surprising, dist ract ing, and " unnat ural" ; t he m ore com m on past t ense feels nat ural and invisible. I ronically, t his m akes past t ense feel m ore im m ediat e while present t ense feels m ore dist ant ; m ost readers are m ore likely t o feel t hat a past - t ense st ory is happening " now" t han a present - t ense st ory.)

Even t hough lim it ed t hird person is current ly t he m ore com m on and " nat ural" narrat ive choice, if t he st ory you're t elling needs om niscience or t he first person, don't hesit at e a m om ent t o use t he narrat ive st rat egy t hat 's right for t he st ory. Bot h om niscience and first person are st ill com m on enough t hat your audience won't be st art led or put off by t he choice ( t hough first person is far m ore com m on t han om niscience) . I f you use t hem , readers won't t hink you're showing off as t hey would if you were t o writ e in som e bizarre narrat ive voice, like second- person im perat ive m ood or t hird- person plural fut ure t ense. Just be aware of t he lim it at ions of each narrat ive st rat egy, so you can com pensat e for t hem . I 've already m ent ioned Thom as Gavin's The Last Film ofEm ile Vico, which uses first person t o brilliant effect . Likewise, Michael Bishop's Unicorn Mount ain uses t he om niscient viewpoint t o excellent effect . Bot h writ ers pay a price for t heir choice, but it would be hard t o im agine Em ile Vico wit hout t he unique vision t hat com es from having a cinem at ographer as a narrat or, and t he m arvelous feeling of t ribal unit y t hat com es at t he end of Unicorn Mount ain would be im possible if we had not seen alm ost every m om ent of t he st ory from t he viewpoint of pract ically every m aj or charact er who was present . LEVELS OF PENETRATI ON Once you've decided t o writ e a lim it ed t hird- person narrat ion, you st ill have a choice t o m ake: how deeply t o penet rat e t he viewpoint charact er's m ind.

164 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT Look at Figure 1, which represent s t he om niscient point of view. The cam era is looking down on t he scene- it can see everyt hing. The dot t ed lines represent t he narrat or's abilit y t o also show us everyt hing going on inside every charact er's head- but we always see t he scene as a whole from t he narrat or's point of view, and t he narrat or is not in t he scene. We are never inside t he scene; we are always wat ching from a dist ance. Figure 1 Tlie om niscient narrat or Figure 2 represent s t he first - person narrat ion. Now we see inside only one charact er's head, t he narrat or- in- t he- st ory, and we see only what t he narrat or saw, experiencing t he world as he experienced it - but we st ill wat ch from a dist ance, because it is all t old from t he perspect ive of t he Third Person 165

Figure 2 The first - person narrat or

present narrat or recount ing event s in his past . Even t hough t he present narrat or and t he narrat or- in- t he- st ory are t he " sam e" person, t here is st ill a gulf bet ween t hem . The lim it ed t hird- person narrat ion is like first person in t hat we see only t he scenes t hat t he viewpoint charact er is in, and see only t he viewpoint charact er's m ind; it 's like om niscience in t hat we see t he act ion of t he st ory unfolding now inst ead of rem em bering it lat er. We are not far separat ed from t he act ion in eit her space or t im e. But how deeply have we penet rat ed t he viewpoint charact er's m ind? Figure 3 is light penet rat ion; we can see inside t he viewpoint charact er's m ind, we observe only scenes where t he viewpoint charact er is present - but we don't act ually experience t he scenes as if we were seeing t hem t hrough t he viewpoint charact er's eyes. The narrat or t ells w hat happens

166 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT

Third Person 167 in t he scene in a neut ral voice, only giving us t he viewpoint charact er's at t it udes when t he narrat or t urns away from t he scene and dips int o t he viewpoint charact er's m ind: Pet e wait ed fift een m inut es before Nora showed up wearing a vivid blue dress t hat Pet e had never seen before. " Do you like it ?" asked Nora. I t looks out rageous, t hought Pet e, like neon w oven int o clot h. " Terrific," he said, sm iling. Nora st udied Pet e's face for a m om ent , t hen glared. " You always want m e t o be frowsy and boring," she said. Figure 4 shows deep penet rat ion, in which we do experience t he scenes as if we were seeing t hem t hrough t he viewpoint charact er's eyes. We don't see t hings as t hey really happen, we see t hem only as Pet e t hinks t hey happen. We are so closely involved wit h t he viewpoint charact er's t hought s t hat w e don't have t o dip int o his m ind; we never really leave:

Pet e wasn't surprised t hat Nora was fift een m inut es lat e, and of course she showed up wearing a new dress. A blue dress. No, not j ust blue. Vivid blue, like neon woven int o clot h. " Do you like it ?" asked Nora. Pet e forced him self t o sm ile. " Terrific." As usual, she could read his m ind despit e his best effort s t o be a cheerful, easy- t o- get - along- wit h hypocrit e. She glared at him . " You always want m e t o be frowsy and boring." I n t he deep- penet rat ion version, we never need a t ag like " Pet e t hought ," because we're get t ing his t hought s all along. The phrase " of course" in t he first sent ence is not t he narrat or's com m ent , it 's Pet e's. The passage " A blue dress. No, not j ust blue. Vivid blue .. ." is not t he narrat or com m ent ing on t he dressit 's Pet e who's j udging what Nora wears. When Pet e says " t errific" and sm iles, t he light - penet rat ion version sees his sm ile from t he out side; t he deep- penet rat ion version is m ore like first person, t elling us som et hing about t he m ot ivat ion behind t he sm ile: Pet e has t o force him self t o sm ile. Where t he light - penet rat ion version t ells us t hat Nora st udied Pet e's face before she realized he was lying, t he deep- penet rat ion passage says t hat Nora could read Pet e's m ind. We know, of course, t hat Nora can't really read Pet e's m ind; t hat 's j ust t he way it feels t o Pet e. Wit h deep penet rat ion, t he viewpoint charact er's at t it ude colors everyt hing t hat happens. Unlike first person, however, we're get t ing t he viewpoint charact er's at t it ude at t he t im e of t he event s, not his m em ory of t hat at t it ude or his at t it ude as he looks back on t he event . Figure 5 shows anot her alt ernat ive: t he cinem at ic point of view. I n t his version of lim it ed t hird person, we only see w hat t he viewpoint charact er is present t o see- but we never see inside his or anyone else's head. I t is as if t he narrat or were a m ovie cam era looking over t he viewpoint charact er's shoulder, going where he goes, t urning when he t urns, not icing what he not ices- but never showing anyt hing but what t he eye can see, never hearing anyt hing but what t he ear can hear: 168 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT

Figure 5 Lim it ed t hird- person: t he cinem at ic view

170 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT When Pet e arrived, Nora wasn't t here. He sighed and im m ediat ely sat down t o wait . Fift een m inut es lat er Nora showed up. She was wearing a vivid blue dress, and she t urned around once, showing it off. " Do you like it ?" Pet e looked at t he dress for a m om ent wit hout expression. Then he gave a weak lit t le sm ile. " Terrific." Nora st udied Pet e's face for a m om ent , t hen glared. " You always want m e t o be frowsy and boring." The cinem at ic narrat ion gives no at t it ude, except as it is revealed by facial expressions, gest ures, pauses, words. We learn t hat Pet e is used t o Nora's lat eness only because he im m ediat ely sit s down t o wait inst ead of looking for her or calling t o see where she is. We learn t hat Nora's dress is new only by im plicat ion, when she t urns around once and asks if he likes it . The cinem at ic narrat or can't t ell us t hat Pet e t hinks t he dress looks like blue neon, nor are we t old t hat Pet e feels like Nora can read his m ind. The dividing lines bet ween cinem at ic, light - penet rat ion, and deep- penet rat ion narrat ives are not firm . You can drift along wit h light penet rat ion, t hen slip int o deep penet rat ion or a cinem at ic view wit hout any kind of t ransit ion, and readers usually won't not ice t he process. They'll not ice t he result , however. Deep penet rat ion is int ense, " hot " narrat ion; no ot her narrat ive st rat egy keeps t he reader so closely involved wit h t he charact er and t he st ory. But t he viewpoint charact er's at t it ude is so pervasive t hat it can becom e annoying or exhaust ing if carried t oo far, and t he narrat ive isn't t erribly reliable, since t he viewpoint charact er m ay be m isunderst anding or m isj udging everyone he m eet s and everyt hing t hat happens. Cinem at ic narrat ion is cool and dist ant , but it shares som e of t he virt ues of t he cam era- you can believe what you see, and if you m isint erpret t he gest ures and expressions and words of t he charact ers, t hat 's your problem - t he narrat or never lies. The com plet e lack of at t it ude, however, can becom e frust rat ing. The real cam era shows real faces and scenes, and even t he m ost explicit and det ailed cinem at ic narrat ion can't com e close t o t he com plet eness and det ail and vigor of act ion unfolding on a screen. I 've found t hat t he best result s com e when you find a com fort able m iddle ground and t hen let t he needs of t he st ory det erm ine how deeply you penet rat e t he viewpoint charact er's m ind. I n som e scenes you'll get " hot " and penet rat e deeply, let t ing t he audience feel t hat t hey've becom e t he viewpoint charact er. I n som e scenes you'll " cool off," let t he audience ret reat from t he charact er and wat ch t hings passively for a while. I n bet ween, you'll use light penet rat ion t o keep us aware of t he const ant possibilit y of seeing int o t he viewpoint charact er's t hought s, so we aren't st art led when t hings get hot again. You've got t o be aware, t hough, of t he full range of possibilit ies. I 've seen m any st udent st ories- and m ore t han a few published st ories as well- in which

t he writ er unconsciously got int o a rut and st ayed cool when t he st ory cried out for her t o get hot , or st ayed hot when t he act ion wasn't int ense enough t o need deep penet rat ion. I 've seen m any ot her st ories in w hich t he writ er kept using he- t hought / she- t hought t ags when we Third Person 171 were so deeply int o t he charact er t hat even such t iny int rusions by t he narrat or were dist ract ing and unnecessary. No one level of penet rat ion is likely t o be right for a whole st ory. The use of cinem at ic narrat ion as a consist ent st rat egy for ent ire st ories has been in vogue in recent years, in t he m ist aken not ion t hat fict ion can be im proved by im it at ing film . The result ing fict ion is alm ost always lam e, since t here isn't a writ er alive whose prose is so good it can replace a cam era at what a cam era does best : t aking in an ent ire m om ent at a glance. I t t akes a writ er t oo m any words t o t ry t o creat e t hat m om ent - aft er t hree paragraphs it isn't a m om ent anym ore. The ironic t hing is t hat cinem at ographers and film direct ors have st ruggled for years t o t ry t o m ake up for t heir inabilit y t o do what fict ion does so easily: t ell us what 's going on inside a charact er's m ind. How t hey st ruggle wit h cam era angles and shadows! How t he act ors st ruggle wit h words and pauses, wit h t he gent lest changes in expression, t he slight est of gest ures- all t o convey t o t he audience what t he fict ion writ er can express easily in a sent ence or a phrase of deep penet rat ion int o t he viewpoint charact er's m ind. I suspect , however, t hat one reason som e writ ers resort - oft en inadvert ent ly- t o t he cinem at ic view point is t hat t hey don't know t heir viewpoint charact er well enough t o show his at t it ude t oward anyt hing. They st art writ ing wit hout first invent ing t heir charact ers, and inst ead of invent ing and exploring t hem as t hey go along, t hey avoid t heir charact ers ent irely, showing us only t he m ost superficial of gest ures, t elling us only t he words t he charact ers say. The result is writ ing like t his: She sat down beside him . " I 'm so nervous," she said. " Not hing t o be nervous about ," he answered soot hingly. " You'll do fine. You've been rehearsing your dance rout ines for m ont hs, and in j ust a few m ore m inut es you'll go on st age and do j ust what I know you can do. Didn't I t each you everyt hing I know?" he said j okingly. " I t 's easy for you t o be confident , sit t ing down here," she said, gulping nervously at her drink. He laid his hand on her arm . " St eady, girl," he said. " You don't want t he alcohol t o get up and dance for you." She j erked her arm away. " I 've been sober for m ont hs! " she snapped. " I can have a lit t le drink t o st eady m y nerves if I want ! You don't have t o be m y nursem aid anym ore." Talk t alk t alk. The dialogue is being used for narrat ive purposes- t o t ell us t hat she's a dancer who's going on st age for an im port ant perform ance aft er m ont hs of rehearsal, and t hat she has had a drinking problem in t he past and

he had som e kind of caret aker role in her recovery from previous bout s of drunkenness. At t it ude is being shown t hrough t he dialogue, t oo, by having t he charact ers blurt out all t heir feelings- and in case we don't get it , t he aut hor adds words like soot hingly and j okingly and snapped. The result ? Melodram a. We're being forced t o wat ch t wo com plet e st rangers showing powerful em ot ions and t alking about personal affairs t hat m ean not hing t o us. I t would be em barrassing t o wat ch in real life, and it 's em barrassing and off- put t ing t o read. But wit h penet rat ion som ewhere bet ween light and deep, we get a 772 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT m uch m ore rest rained, believable scene, and we end up knowing t he charact ers far bet t er: Pet e could t ell Nora was nervous even before she sat down beside him - she was j it t ery and her sm ile disappeared alm ost inst ant ly. She st ared off int o space for a m om ent . Pet e wondered if she w as going over her rout ine againshe had done t hat a lot during t he last few m ont hs, doing t he st eps and t urns and kicks and leaps over and over in her m ind, t errified t hat she'd forget som et hing, m ake som e m ist ake and get lost and st and t here looking like an idiot t he way she did t wo years ago in Phoenix. No m at t er how m any t im es Pet e reassured her t hat it was t he alcohol t hat m ade her forget , she always answered by saying, " All t he dead brain cells are st ill dead." Hell, m aybe she was right . Maybe her m em ory wasn't what it used t o be. But she st ill had t he m oves, she st ill had t he body, and when she got on st age t he m usicians m ight as well pack up and go hom e, nobody would not ice what t hey played, nobody would care, it was Nora in t hat pool of light on st age, doing t hings so daring and so dangerous and so sweet t hat you couldn't breat he for wat ching her. She reached out and put her hand around Pet e's drink. He laid his hand gent ly on her arm . " I j ust want ed t o see what you were drinking," she said. " Whiskey." He didn't m ove his hand. She shrugged in annoyance and pulled her arm away. Go ahead and be pissed off at m e, kid, but no way is alcohol going up on t hat st age wit h you t o dance. I n t his version t here are only t wo lines of spoken dialogue and nobody get s em barrassingly angry in public. Furt herm ore, you know bot h Pet e and Nora far bet t er t han before, because you've seen Pet e's m em ories of Nora's st ruggle wit h alcohol filt ered t hrough his own st rong love for her- or at least for her dancing. We also know m ore about Nora's at t it ude t oward herself; t he " dead brain cells" line t ells us t hat she t hinks of herself as perm anent ly dam aged, so t hat she is t errified of dancing again. The scene st ill isn't perfect , but it 's a lot bet t er now because we were able t o get inside Pet e's m ind and see Nora t hrough his eyes, wit h his at t it ude t oward her, his knowledge of t heir shared past .

Yet t he second scene wasn't all deep penet rat ion. While Pet e's m em ories were deep and hot , t he incident wit h t he drink is cinem at ic and cool. We aren't t old why Pet e lays his hand gent ly on her arm - we already know about her drinking problem and we can guess. Nor do we need t o be t old t hat she's lying when she says " I j ust want ed t o see what you were drinking," or what he's feeling when he answers wit h a single word and refuses t o m ove his hand. We already know enough about t heir relat ionship t hat we supply our own heat for t he scene. And yet we can drop back int o deep penet rat ion wit h t he last paragraph, wit hout even needing " he t hought " t o t ell us we're back inside Pet e's head. Mast ery of different levels of penet rat ion is a vit al part of bringing your charact ers t o life. This is w here you have t he m ost cont rol over your readers' experience, where you have t he best chance t o det erm ine how well readers will know your charact ers and how m uch t hey'll care. CHAPTER 18 A PRI VATE POPULATI ON EXPLOSI ON WE'VE COME A LONG WAY THROUGH THI S BOOK, from invent ion of your charact ers t o analysis of t heir role in t he st ory, from m aking your charact ers sym pat het ic t o let t ing your readers see inside your charact ers' m inds. Good charact erizat ion isn't a sim ple recipe t o follow- t here are t oo m any possibilit ies, t oo m any variables for any writ er ever t o put down a st ory and say, " There. The charact erizat ion is finished." As long as your m ind is alert t o possibilit ies, your charact ers will grow and develop and deepen and change wit h every out line you m ake and every draft you writ e. And as you becom e m ore aware of what 's possible in charact erizat ion, t he m ore experience you get in st oryt elling as a whole, t he bet t er t he decisions you'll m ake and t he fuller and m ore believable your charact ers will be. I f you're serious about st oryt elling, you'll writ e m any st ories and people t hem wit h hundreds of different charact ers. Even t hough all t he charact ers are creat ed by your own im aginat ion, you st ill com e t o know t hem j ust as your readers do, except t hat you'll know t hem bet t er and care about t hem even m ore. Som et im es, looking back on som et hing you wrot e years before, you'll find one of your charact ers doing or saying som et hing t hat will ast onish you. How did I know she'd say t hat ? you'll wonder. How did I ever know t hat t hat was who she was? You'll realize t hen what your readers already know: t hat t he people in your fict ional world are wort h knowing. Because you t ook t he t im e and t rouble t o discover t hem , develop t hem , and present t hem skillfully, your readers will

know t hose fict ional people of yours far bet t er t han t hey'll ever underst and t he people of flesh and blood around t hem . I f your fict ional vision was a good and t rut hful one, your charact ers will help your readers underst and t heir fam ilies, t heir friends, t heir enem ies, and t he count less m yst erious and dangerous st rangers who will t ouch t heir lives, powerfully and irresist ibly. And you, looking back, will j oin t hem in saying a resounding Yes t o t he people in your t ales. Yes. I know you, I believe in you, you're im port ant t o m e. Yes. 173 174 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT I NDEX

Abilit ies, 12 Absurdism , 123 Academ ic- lit erary fict ion, 38, 48, 50, 52,95,96, 131, 163 Accent , 10, 99; I sraeli, 62; New York Jewish, 99, 100, 103; regional, 143; sout hern, 127 Account : eyewit ness, 128, 162; first person, 153, 157; t hird person, 148, 149 Act ion, 65, 107 Act ive charact ers, 66 " Aest het ic dist ance," 96 Agent Orange, 38 Agony: of defeat , 68; physical, 68 Alice ( in Wonderland) , 56 Alien, 71,78, 86 Aliens, 71 Allegory, 42, 52 Alien, Woody, 12, 100, 156 Alt ernat e personalit y, 148 Alt ruism , 80 Am adeus, 78 Am at eur, 43, 107 Analogy, 30 Anderson, Macon, 136 Anguish, 76 Ant ipat hy, 36, 76, 79, 87, 89, 92 Archet ypal, 22, 106 Art of st oryt elling, 149 Art ifice, 159 Ast erisks, 157 At las Shrugged, 121 At t it ude( s) , 7, 10, 27, 29, 30, 31, 38, 42, 44, 49, 50, 78, 83, 85, 86, 91,97, 101, 107- 111, 127, 130, 138, 142, 153, 154, 158, 160, 167, 170 Audience: first , 15; nat ural, 57, 59 Aut hor- as- hero, 96 Aw e, 96, 98 B Baby squirrel, 101, 102 Babysit t ing, 17- 22 Background, 1, 27, 61, 66 " Bad guys," 37, 76, 86, 91,92 Balance, 48, 55, 67, 93, 144 Balancing act , 85 Barret t s of Wim pole St reet , 86, 87 Barrier, 132, 149 Behavior: causes of, 129; changes of, 122; m isint erpret ing, 7; pat t erns

of, 122, 123 Bellow, Saul, 96 Benny, Jack, 101 Bet rayal, 6, 28, 53, 54, 63, 69, 87, 89, 151 Beverly Hills Cop, 62, 100, 106 Bible, 44, 45, 89 Bishop, Michael, 30, 163 Blind ( color/ gender) , 7 Body, 13 Bond, Jam es, 86, 94 Boredom , 42, 50, 145 Break: chapt er, 157; line, 158; page, 157; t ransit ional, 157 Broadcast News, 70 Bully, 86, 87, 89, 92 Bum st ead, Dagwood, 13 But ch Cassidy fcf t he Sundance Kid, 63 But ler, Rhet t , 86, 96, 111 Cabdriver, 60, 63, 64 Caernarvon Cast le, 135 Cam era's eye- view, 148 Candy, John, 104 Caper st ories, 51, 52, 82 Capt ain Blood, 96 Caricat ure, 22 Causal quest ions, 17- 21, 24, 32 Cause: beyond cont rol, 121; of change, 121- 123; and result , 17, 27 Chandler, Raym ond, 121 Change, 119, 120, 122, 129; at t it ude, 29; cause of, 121- 123; charact ers, 23, 51, 157, 159; environm ent , 121; inexplicable, 120; j ust ifying, 122, 123; perm anent , 52; viewpoint s, 155, 158 Chapt er break, 157 Charact er( s) , 48, 52, 53, 56; act ive, 66; " ant i- hero," 76; assassin, 5, 63, 175 I ndex

87, 88; avenger, 87; " bad guy," 76, 91, 92; balanced, 38; behavior, 4, 6; bring t o life, 172; bully, 86, 89; com ic, 99, 100, 102, 104; com m on m an, 93, 95, 98; dangerous, 65; flesh out , 38; frequency of appearance, 65; from nowhere, 39, 111; get t ing t o know, 4- 8; habit s, 11; hero, 5, 12, 35, 70- 72, 76, 86, 87, 91, 92, 94, 95, 98, 102; hierarchy of, 66; ideas for, 17, 25; int errogat ing, 17- 21; lovable rogue, 85; m adm an, 90, 92; m ain, 23, 26, 35, 39, 49, 51, 52, 62, 63, 66, 69, 75, 76, 78, 79, 88,91,95,96, 107, 111, 130, 162; m aj or, 14, 15, 35, 50, 59, 60, 64, 65, 66, 104, 122, 163; m em orable, 65, 70; m inor, 14, 35, 59- 62, 64- 66, 97, 104; negat ive, 92; oat hbreaker, 89; one- t o- a- race, 57; point of view, 66, 67; powerful, 70; quest ions t o ask of,

16; ranking of, 66; sadist , 86, 87; savior, 71, 80, 81; self- appoint ed, 88, 89; self- serving, 88, 89; split - personalit y, 127; st anding for ideas, 52; st ory, 52, 53; suggest ed by st ory, 34; sym pat het ic, 66, 173; t it le, 39, 65; unbelievable, 105; unfam iliar, 8; we hat e, 86; we love, 79; what he m eans t o do, 6; viewpoint , 128, 155, 158, 160, 167, 170, 171; you really know, 28 Charact erizat ion, 2, 5, 13, 48, 51, 52, 53,54,57,58,61,63, 104, 115, 149, 153; full, 52, 53, 64; richer- t han- norm al, 52; st ereot ypes, 10 Charit y, act of, 16 Cheers, 73 China Syndrom e, The, 37 Choice, degree of, 70 Chronicles of Thom as Covenant t he Unbeliever, 54 Cinem at ic: narrat ion, 170- 172; point of view, 167; view , 170, 171 Cinem at ographer, 1, 163, 171 Classifying, 7, 8 Cleverness, 85 Cliche, 2, 22, 23, 32, 45, 66, 82, 93, 106, 132 Clim ax, 55, 70 Clinical, 144, 145 Clues, 99 Colonna, Jerry, 55 Color Purple, The, 146 Com edians, 104, 134 Com edic personas, 135 Com edy, 93, 99, 104, 123; of hum ors, 104; st and- up, 134; writ er, 100 Com ic, 91, 100, 103, 104, 106, 156; charact ers, 69, 99; coolness, 103; dist ance, 162; sidekick, 55; sit uat ion, 26; writ ing, 102 Com m on: m an, 93, 95; people, 93 Com pare, 7, 30 Com plicat ions, 1, 21, 35, 56 Com pulsive, 64, 85, 116 Conan t he Barbarian, 106 Confession scene, 159 Conflict , 35, 75, 76 Confusion, 15, 42, 43 " Connect ing t he Unconnect ed," 39 Connect ions. See Relat ionships Consist ency, m aint ain, 45 Cont ract wit h t he reader, 54, 55 Cont radict ion, 8 Cont rol, 67, 74, 76, 102, 126, 172 Cont rolled disbelief, 99, 100, 104 Convent ional choices, 132 Convent ions, lit erary, 132, 133, 151 Cool ( Cinem at ic) , 170, 172 " Cool off," 170 Corroborat e, 147 Cosm ic connect ions, 73 Cost um e, 1, 103 Count of Mont e Cnst o, The, 54 Courage, 83 Cowards, 104 Crazy. See I nsanit y Crim e, 87 176 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT Cult ure, 49, 50, 56, 72 Curiosit y, 8, 11, 79 Daffodil, 156, 161 Dead Zone, The, 69 " Dear Reader," 136, 138 Deat h of a Salesm an, 95 Deceive, 10, 150, 157 Decisions, 41, 44, 45, 48; present , 113;

t o change, 53 Deep penet rat ion, 149, 167, 170- 172 Degree of choice, 70 Dependabilit y, 84 Descript ion. See Physical Det ails, 1, 27, 28, 29, 44, 105, 106 Det ect ive, 51,94, 116, 149, 150 ! Det ect ive novels, 51, 107 Device( s) , 11 Dialect : dict at ion, 126; regional, 127 Dialogue, record, 26 Digression( s) , 55, 57 Dilem m a, 56, 59, 60 Direct address, 130, 135 , Direct or( s) , 1, 55, 60, 171 Dirt y Harry, 111 Disbelief, suspension of, 134 Discover charact ers, 45 Discrim inat ion, racial, 10 Disguise, 28, 135 Disorder, 54, 73 Dissect ion, 132 Dist ance, 159: com ic, 162; in space, 148, 149; in t im e, 148- 150; t im e- dist ance effect , 161; wat ch from a, 164 Dist ract ing, 42, 45, 50, 60, 61, 162, 171 Doing a " Take," 100, 101, 102 Dollm aker, The, 71 Donaldson, St ephen R., 94 Downplaying, 102, 103 Doyle, Art hur Conan, 145 Draft ee, 83 Drag, m en in, 103 Dram at ic, 140, 141; irony, 150; lit erat ure, 131; vs. narrat ive, 140 Dream ( s) , 39, 82, 95, 97 E.T., 78 Eccent ricit ies, 51, 52, 62, 104 Eccent ricit y, 62, 103, 104 Edit orial resist ance, 78 Educat ed, 143 Educat ional fict ion, 38 Elephant Man, 72 Elven- folk, 25, 56 Em ot ion( s) , 29, 68, 69, 70, 76, 144, 145, 153, 171 Em ot ional, 144; involvem ent , 16, 38, 59, 74, 76, 138, 149, 162; pain, 68, 69, 81; st akes, 68 Em pat hize, 69, 100 Ender's Gam e, 39, 78 Enlight en, dazzle vs., 133 Environm ent , 121, 122 Epiphany, 95 Epist olaries, 146 Et hnic t rait s, 19 Event s( s) , 48, 49, 53, 54, 56, 107, 110, 113, 126, 129, 135, 139, 140, 141, 147, 148, 155; im port ant ,

65; key, 111; m aj or, 144; past , 28; recent , 113; st ory, 53; unbelievable, 105 Evil: force, 54; pure, 86 Exaggerat ion, 22- 24, 27, 32, 40, 62, 63, 65, 102- 104 Exam inat ion, 107 Exist ent ial writ ers, 123 Exot ic, 94 Expect at ion( s) , 7, 9, 49, 50, 114, 115, 121, 132, 154 Experim ent al, 132 Explain, why charact ers change, 123 Ext rem e( s) ,'12, 95, 134, 135 Eyewit ness account , 128, 162 Fair: being, 37; play, courage and, 83 " Fait h, hope and clarit y," 16 False, 99 Falseness, 17 Fam iliar, 8 Fam ily role, 9, 10 Fant asy, 12, 22, 25, 26, 42, 50, 94, 95, 106 Far From t he Madding Crowd, 12 Farce, 103, 123 Fict ion, 130; bad, 27; hist orical, 38, 50; non- com ic, 100; prose, 106; science, 12, 38, 48, 50, 52, 94, 111; st raight , 100 Fict ional charact er, 14 Film , 100, 106 First im pressions, 77 First person, 103, 130, 132, 146, 161; charact er, 154, 160; narrat ive, 130, 143, 154, 162, 164; narrat or, 103, 128, 144, 146- 149, 152, 154, 156, 160, 163; st ory, 150, 153, 161 Flashback, 111- 113, 148 Flet ch, 51, 52 Flet ch, Too, 51 Flet ch Won, 51 Focus, 15, 23, 30, 37, 45, 49, 50, 54, I ndex 177

65, 66, 135, 158 Forest of Arden, 134, 135 Fount ainhead, 121 Fourt h wall, 134, 146 Fowles, John, 96 Fram e st ory, 135, 146, 147 Friday t he 13t h, 91 Frequency of appearance, 65, 66 Frye, Nort hrop, 93

Fut ure t ense, 131 Gavin, Thom as, 148, 149, 163 General rule, 15,82, 118 Genre( s) , 94, 95, 107, 131; academ ic- lit erary fict ion, 38, 48, 50, 52, 95, 131, 163; caper st ories, 51, 52, 82; com edy, 93, 99, 104, 123; det ect ive novels, '94; fant asy, 94, 95; glit t er rom ances, 94; hist orical fict ion, 38, 48, 50; horror, 69, 70, 95, 151; m yst eries, 48, 51, 94, 151; - • • - . publishing, 48; rom ances, 93; Russian novels, 43; science fict ion, 12, 38, 48, 50, 52, 95; slasher, 67, 71; t hrillers, 48, 50, 54, 94; west erns, 48, 50 Get t ing t o know a charact er, 4- 8 Ghoulish, 144 Gillis, Dobie, 100 Glit t er rom ances, 94 Godfat her, The, 87 Godfat her: Part I I , The, 87 Godot , 65 Goldm an, Jam es, 112 Goldm an, William , 86, 135 " Good guys," 37, 86, 91 Goodwin, Archie, 147, 151 Gossip, 7, 130 Greeks, ancient , 93 Grief, 68- 70, 153 Grot esque, 144 Gulliver's Travels, 49 Gut - level response, 16 H Habit s, 11, 13,56, 115, 116, 127 Haig, Alexander, 88 Half- t wist , 26 Hardy, Thom as, 99 Harm ony, 16, 67, 73 Hat chet j ob, 27 Havelok t he Dane, 54 Herbert , Frank, 50 Hero, 5, 12, 70, 71, 72, 86, 87, 91, 94, 95, 98, 102; ant i- hero, 76; aut hor- ashero, 96; and com m on m an, 93; " good guys," 86, 91, 92; ident ify wit h, 95, 105; non- heroic, 95; realist ic, 93; reluct ant , 94; rom ant ic, 93, 96; savior, 71, 80, 81 Heroic, 145; proport ion, 96; role, 121 Hersey.John, 135 Hist orical fict ion, 38, 48, 50, 94

Hist ory, 10, 39, 128, 130 Holm es, Sherlock, 85, 145, 147 Horror, 69, 70, 95, 151 Hot narrat ion, 170 How- t o books, 131 " Huh?," 15,24 Hum boldt 's Gift , 96 Hum or, 55, 56, 62, 102, 156, 160 Hypochondriacs, 104 Hypocrit e, 5, 104 Hypocrisy, 10 Hypot het ical, 130 I dea( s) , 17, 21, 37- 39, 45, 48, 51, 52, A 57; by chance, 39; for charact ers, 25; from life, 25; from st ory, 34- 36; from unrelat ed source, 39; int errogat ing an, 22, 23, 25; net , 25, 32, 39, 40; servant s of, 36- 39; st ory, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 150 I dent it y, 7, 12, 42 I liad, 26 I llusion, 6, 135; of t rut h, 105, 155; of realit y, 134 I m aginat ion 2, 16, 29 I m m ediacy, 149 I m perat ive m ood, 130, 131 I m perfect ions, endearing, 85 I m plausible coincidence, 113 I m plit at ion( s) , 147, 158 " I n charact er," 127, 128 I ndiana Junes and I he Tem ple of Doom , 85 I ndividualit y, 62 I nherit t he Wind, 88, 89 I nsanit y, 69, 90, 91 I nt ellect , 89 I nt errogat ing; t he charact er, 17, 33; an idea, 22, 23, 25 I nt erview, 28, 29 I nt rusive narrat ors, 162, 171 I nvent , 1, 2, 27, 32, 39, 48; charact er, 48, 54, 154 I nvent ion, 2, 45, 46, 171; of charact er( s) , 1, 28, 29, 173 I nvolvem ent , em ot ional, 68, 69, 138, 159, 162 I rony, 6, 157- 159, 160, 163, 191; dram at ic, 150 I rving, John, 111 I solde, 54 I t Happened One Night , 72 178 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT Jeopardy, 70- 72, 80, 96, 100, 117, 118, 151 Jobs, 9 Jonson, Ben, 104 Journal, 135, 137, 149 Journey, 140 Joyce, Jam es, 121 Judgm ent s, 8

Just ificat ion, 16, 27, 55, 117, 118, 122, 131 Just ify, 53, 92, 122, 123, 151 Just ifying, 27, 117 Kafka, Franz, 123 Key: decision, 113; event s, 111, 112, 144, 147; m om ent , 150; scenes, 141, 144 King Lear, 73, 104, 136 King, St ephen, 69, 71, 95, 151 Kinski, Nast assia, 99 L.A. Law, 72, 73 Label( s) , 41, 42, 153 Lady Chat t erly's Lover, 121 Lancelot , 54 Landers, Ann, 39 Language 1, 126, 132, 146, 163; arcane, 132; calculat ing, 126; precise, 126 Lapses, 151- 154 Larger t han life, 98 Last Film of Em ile Vico, The, 148, 149, 163 Lawrence, D. H., 121 Lawrence, Jerom e, 89 LeCarre, John, 94 Lee, Robert E., 89 Let t ers, 39, 146 Level of penet rat ion, 128, 163, 164, 172 Liar, 5, 147 Lie( s) , 17, 37, 84, 123, 147 Light penet rat ion, 167, 170, 171 Lim it ed point - ofview, 159- 161 Lim it ed t hird person, 149, 155, 157, 158, 161- 163, 165, 167 Lindholm , Megan, 94, 95 Line break, 158 Line space, 157, 158 Linguist ic special effect s, 131 Lion in Wint er, The, 12, 112 Lit erary convent ions, 132 Lit erat ure, dram at ic, 131 Lord of t he Rings, The, 50, 54, 56, 57, 65,84, 111 Love and Deat h, 12 Love Connect ion, The, 137 M Macbet h, 54, 88, 92, 104, 120 Macdonald, Ross, 121 Magic, 95 Magical powers, 100 Mandel, Howie, 104, 134 Marat hon Man, 86 Marx Brot hers, 104 Marx, Groucho, 156 Mask, 95 Maudlin, 144 McCullers, Carson, 88

Mcdonald, Gregory, 51 : Melodram a( s) , 34, 72, 103, 152, 171 Melodram at ic, 21, 144, 153 Mem ber of t he Wedding, The 88 Mem oir, 148, 149 Mem ories, 28, 31- 33, 157, 158, 172 Mem ory, 2, 6, 16, 17, 27, 31, 32, 36, 63, 105, 112- 114, 133, 141, 149, 160, 167 Met aphors, 127 MI CE quot ient , 48, 57 Milieu, 48, 49, 50, 53, 55- 57, 60- 62, 99 Miller, Art hur, 95, 96 Mim esis, 25 Mind: m aking up your, 162; net for ideas, 25; sort ing process, 8; viewpoint charact er, 165, 171 Miracle Max, 99, 100, 103 Misconcept ion, 132 Miser, 104 Misery, 69, 71, 151 Models, 27- 29 Monologue, 2, 131 Monosyllable, 42 Mood, 62, 130 Moonlight ing, 73, 100 Moral: issues, 76, value, 5 Morgenst ern, 135 Mot ive( s) , 5, 10, 13, 17, 21, 28, 29, 51, 87, 106, 107, 111, 120, 121, 147, 154 Mouse, Mickey and Minnie, 160 Mozart , Wolfgang Am adeus, 2 Mr. Arella, 3234 Murder, 87 Murphy, Eddie, 62, 100, 101, 106 Musical nam es, 43, 44 Myst eries, 48, 94; classic English, 51; locked room , 51; m urder, 51; puzzle, 51; Rex St out , 151 Myst ery, 52, 54, 94, 150; charact ers, 12, 42, 52, 56; novel, 151; writ er, 150, 151 N Naive ident ificat ion, 96 Nam es, 41- 43; m usical, 43, 44 Narrat ion, 66, 103, 132, 144, 149; I ndex

cinem at ic, 170, 171; first person, 129, 147; " hot ," 170; pat t erns, 130 Narrat ive, 141, 142, 148, 171; dram at ic vs. narrat ive, 140, 141; first person, 130, 143; present t ense, 131; second person, 130; st rat egy, 129; voice( s) , 130, 149 Narrat or, 43, 66, 100, 101, 102, 107, 111, 114, 128, 129, 131, 135, 138, 139, 140, 142, 144, 145, 156, 159, 163- 165; first person, 128, 143, 144, 146- 148, 150,

151, 162; in- t he- st ory, 164, 165; lim it ed t hird person, 155, 162, 163; om niscient , 155, 162, 163; Pet e- t he- narrat or, 161, 162; self- conscious, 136; t hird person, 145, 146 Narrat ors, 162; int rusive, 162, 171 m ult iple, 147; reliable, 147unreliable, 147, 148 Narrat or's eyes, 108 Nat ional Geographic, 40 Nat ural, 119- 121, 163; audience, 57, 96; st yle, 128 Nat ure, t rue, 157 Net work( s) , 10, 116, 117; of relat ionships, 52, 117, 159 Neut ral voice, 167 " New" m em ories, 32 News: broadcast , 130; papers, 130; st ories, 39, 128 Niven, Larry, 2 Nobilit y, 98' Nonchalance, 103 Non- com ic fict ion, 100 Norm at ive st ories, 130 O Oat hbreaker, 89 Obj ect ive( s) , 17, 29 Observat ion( s) , 9, 26 Obsessiveness, 12, 62- 64, 85, 116 Oddness, 103, 104 Oedipus, 54, 73, 92, 104, 120 " Oh Yeah?," 14, 24, 134 Om niscient : vs. lim it ed point - of- view, 155, 156; narrat or, 155- 163, 165; t hird person point - of- view, 155 One Flew Over t he Cuckoo's Nest , 78, 79, 86,87 Opinions, 7 Ordinariness, 66 Ordinary, 25, 66 Oversent im ent alit y, 82 Pace, 142, 143 Page break, 157 Pain, 68- 70, 99, 101, 114, 118, 144; em ot ional, 68, 69; physical, 68 Pam ela, 93 Parker, Robert , 12, 42, 52, 90, 94, 121 Passionat e st ories, 133 Passive: charact er, 66; m em ory, 113; process, 68 Past , 6, 13, 58, 111, 148; discovering, 154; im plied, 114, 115; rem em bered, 111; revelat ion of, 107; t ense, 130, 161, 163 Pat ronym ic, 43 Pat t erns, 11, 42, 43, 53, 55, 94; of behavior, 122, 123; of lives, 115, 120, 122; of narrat ion, 130; of speech,126, 127 Pendulum , 93 Penet rat ed, 165 Penet rat ion: deep, 149, 167, 171, 172;

level of, 128, 163, 164, 171, 172; light , 167, 171 People: com m on, 94; everyday, 93; you know , 27 Person, 128- 130, 132; first , 128- 130, 132, 135, 146, 148, 150, 167; first . . . narrat ive, 143; first . . . narrat or, 129, 143, 144, 146, 147, 152; lim it ed t hird . . . narrat or, 159; second, 128, 130, 131, 163; second . . . singular, 130; t hird, 128- 130, 132, 137, 146, 149, 151, 161- 163; t hird . . . narrat or, 129, 130, 145, 146, 148, 152, 160; t hird . . . om niscient point - of- view, 155, 156, 164; t hird . . . plural, 130 Personal: opinion, 135; problem s, 27 Personalit y: alt ernat e, 148; different facet s of, 11; split , 127 Persuasive fict ion, 38 Philosophy, 131 Physical: appearance, 13; at t ract iveness, 79, 80, 85; beaut y, 13, 72; changes, 119; descript ion, 13, 80; handicaps, 13; locat ions, 49; pain, 68, 69; problem s, 13; st rengt h, 13; suffering, 81; t ort ure, 68, 86, 87 Pinchot , Bronson, 62 Pint er, Harold, 123 Placeholders, 59, 60, 62 Plausible, 27 Play, 1,65,73, 122, 134 Plays, 12, 54, 65, 66, 73, 89, 121- 123, 135, 140 Plot , 1, 2,49, 52, 59, 63, 65 Point - of- view, 1, 2, 38, 66, 83, 138, 148, 155- 157, 159, 160; cinem at ic, 167; charact er, 107, 128, 135, 156, 157; t hird person 180 CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT om niscient , 163 Poirot , Hercule, 85, 145 Polem ic, 36, 37, 39 Pollut ion, 36, 37, 39 Polt ergeist , 70, 78 Port noi's Com plaint , 146 Preference( s) , 12 Prej udice, 78; Present : act ion, 112, 113; anchor in t he, 112; event , 112, 113; m eaning of, 107; t ense, 148, 149, 161, 163 Present at ion, 134- 137, 147, 159; vs. represent at ion, 134- 137, 159 Present at ional, 138, 139, 162; t heat re, 134

Prince and t he Pauper, The, 54 Princess Bnde, The, 99, 135, 136 Prom ise, 84, 89, 92 A Proport ion, heroic, 96 Prose fict ion, 106 Prot agonist , 53, 56, 136, 144, 145, 147 Psychological suffering, 81 Puppet s, 117, 155 Pygm alion, 121 Quest ions: and answers, 17- 20; ask charact ers, 16; m ot ive, 21; readers ask, 14; recent , 21 160; play, 134; t heat re, 134; writ e, 135, 138 Reput at ion, 6, 7, 13 Respect , 96 Response, gut - level, 16 Result ( s) , 17- 21; quest ion, 20, 21, 22, 23 Reveal self, 16 Revelat ion, 107 Revise( s) , 2, 6, 107, 120 Revolut ionary, 132 Rhet orical st ance, 128 Rhyt hm , 142 Road t o Rw, 55 Robinson Crusoe, 93 Role( s) , 1, 38, 52, 53, 55, 60, 62, 80, 173; changes in, 119, 122; heroic, 121; m aj or, 35; st ory, 34 Rom ance, 72, 73, 111, 135 Rom ans, ancient , 93 Rom ant ic, 93, 94, 104; charact ers, 94; excess, 94; hero, 96; im pulse, 95; opport unit y, 110; t radit ion, 54, 94, 111 Rom eo and Juliet , 65 Rule of t hum b, 43, 55, 59, 66, 70, 87, 112, 113, 133 Rum pole, 94 Russian novel, 43 Rut , 42 Racial, 10,41 Radner, Gilda, 104 Raiders of t he Lost Ark, 4, 73, 85 Rainbow, The, 121 Rand, Ayn, 121 Reader( s) , 8, 12, 13, 14- 16; cont ract wit h, 54- 58 Reagan, Ronald, 88 Real- life, 5, 29, 69, 95, 119, 171; charact ers, 27; incident s, 27 " Realt im e," 140 Realism , 95, 106, 111, 135 Realist ic, 93, 98, 104; t radit ion, 96 Realit y, 17,44, 135

Redeem ing virt ues, 91 Redford, Robert , 79, 87, 140 Reed, Rex, 99 Regional t rait s, 10 Relat ionship( s) , 1, 10, 13, 31, 33, 34, 36,52,53,69,91, 117, 127, 135, 148; am ong charact ers, 2, 11, 110, 120; aut hor- charact er, 28; change, 33; connect ions, 10, 116; different , 10; m ini- , 117 Rem em bered past , 111 Rendell, Rut h, 94 Represent at ion, 134 Represent at ional, 134- 139, 150, 159, Sacrifice, 70, 80 Sadism , 86 Sadist , 86, 87, 92 Saint s, 80, 135 Sart re, Jean- Paul, 123 Savior, 71, 80, 81 Scene, confession, 159 Scenes, key, 141, 144 Science, 128, 130 Science fict ion, 12, 38, 48, 50, 52 Scient ific t heories, 131 Screen, on and off, 140 Screenwrit er, 135, 140 Second person, 128, 130, 131 Second person im perat ive m ood, 163 Self: - alienat ion, 31; - appoint ed, 88, 89; - psychoanalysis, 32; - serving, 88 Sense of past , 111 Serendipit y, 39 Serious charact er, 105 " Serious lit erat ure," 95 Set t ing, 1,9, 11, 23, 34, 49, 50, 60 Sevent h grade, 32, 33 Sex, 9, 30, 38, 72 Sexual: at t ract iveness, 30, 38, 72; harm ony, 73; st ereot ypes, 9, 117; t ension, 72, 73 I ndex

Shakespeare, William , 88, 103, 135 Shallow, 5, 21, 23, 70, 139 Shaw, George Bernard, 121 Shaw, Robert , 87 Show, 140- 142

Sidhe, 25, 26 Signal: com ic, 101; your reader, 122, 158 Signs and port ent s, 73, 74 Sim iles, 127 Sim plicit y vs. com plexit y, 21 Six Days of t he Condor, 140 Slasher m ovies, 69, 71 Sm iley, George, 94 " So What ?," 14,24 Soldier of t he Mist , 149 Sort ing process, 8 Sout herners, 10, 127 Space, 165; barrier of, 149; deliberat e, 157; dist ance in, 148, 149; line space, 157, 158 Speak, t o t he audience, 135 Speaker for t he Dead, 39 Speaking vs. writ ing, 126 Special effect s, linguist ic. 131 Speculat ion, 39, 40, 131 Speech, 126, 143; st yle of, 128 Spenser, Edm und, 12, 42, 52, 90, 94, 121 Split personalit y, 127 St alker, 71 St and- up com edy, 134 St ar Wars series, 85 St art ing point , 28, 29, 32, 38 St ereot ype( s) , 7- 11, 23, 50, 52, 61, 62, 63, 109, 112; age, 9; com m unit y, 64; conscious use of, 10; cost um e, 103; et hnic, 10; except ions t o, 10; fam ily role, 9, 10; foreigners, 10; ident ifying according t o, 7; j ob, 9; nort herners, 10; Orient al- Am ericans, 10; physical, 10, 13; power of, 9; racial, 9, 10, 57; sex, 9; sexual, 117; sout herners, 10; west erners, 10 St ereot ying, 7, 8, 9, 61 St m g, The, 87 St ory, 14- 16, 21, 23, 34, 51- 57, 112, 113, 128, 130, 132, 133, 139, 150, 157; charact er, 52, 53, 57, 150; choice, 16; event , 54, 150; det ect ive, 51, 107; hist ory, 128; idea, 51; ideas from , 34- 36; m ilieu, 54, 150; news, 128; norm at ive, 130; passionat e and t rut hful, 133; possibilit ies, 11, 12, 21,24, 33; powerful, 21; present at ional, 139;

represent at ional, 139; science, 128; short , 14, 157; wonderful, 40 St oryline, 50- 52, 54- 57, 162 St oryt eller, 1, 2, 7, 8, 15, 37, 57, 93, 96, 103, 141, 149 St oryt elling, 17, 45, 46, 57, 67, 72, 73, 136, 138, 149 St out , Rex, 12, 151 St raight fict ion, 100 St range, st rangeness, 8, 25, 31, 37, 50, 62, 66, 77, 107, 114, 122, 132, 173 St ranger( s) , 8, 25, 31,37, 173 St rong- willed, 149 St ruct ure, 49- 55, 57, 68, 135 St yle: nat ural, 128; of speech, 128; writ er's, 139 St ylist ic pat t erns, 128 Sublim inal clues, 9, 42 Subplot , 55, 56 Suffer, 99, 144 Suffering, 68- 70, 80, 81, 83 Superior Court , 137 Superm an, 12, 155 Suspense, 8, 15, 150 Suspension of disbelief, 134 Sym bol( s) , 38, 132 Sym bolic, 42, 52 Sym bolism , 52 Sym pat hize, 28, 53, 75, 81, 82, 108, 144 Sym pat hy, 66, 70, 75, 76, 78- 80, 82, 83- 88,90- 92,99, 109, 110, 144, 146; vs. curiosit y, 79 Synt ax, 127 Tagged, 42 Taglines, 44 Tags, 43, 170 Tale- wit hin- a- t ale, 129, 130, 146 Talent s, 12, 13 Tales- t old- in- a- bar, 146 Tast es, 12, 13, 28 Teacher- by- exam ple, 95 " Tell, Don't Show," 141, 142 Ten com m andm ent s, 130 Tense, 128, 130, 132; fut ure, 131; past , 130, 132, 163; present , 130, 131, 148, 149, 163; st range, 132 Tension, 55, 68, 72, 73, 108, 142, 157; form s early st ages of fear, 8; j eopardy, 118; sexual, 72, 73, 110 Tess, 99, 156, 157 Tess of t he d'Urberuilles, 99 Them e( s) , fict ional, 31, 38, 120- 123 Third person, 128- 130, 132, 137, 146, 182

CHARACTERS AND VI EWPOI NT 149, 151, 152, 155; lim it ed . . . narrat or, 158, 159, 161; narrat or, 145, 148; om niscient point - of- view, 155, 156, 164; plural fut ure t ense, 163 " Thousand I deas in an Hour, A," 17- 23 Three Days of t he Condor, 140 Three St ooges, The, 104 Thrillers, 48, 50, 54, 94 Tim e, 148, 159, 165; barrier, 149; - dist ance effect , 161; dist ance in, 148- 150; film , 151; flow, 157; passage of, 158; real, 140 Tim e Machine, 146 Tim ing, 104 Tir- Nan- Og, 25 " Toldness," 136 Tom Jones, 93 Tone, 1, 142 Torm ent or, 71 Tragedy, 73 Tragi- com ic, 121 Trait s, 10, 76, 85, 97, 104; et hnic, 10; regional, 10 Transform , 28, 121, 133 Transform at ion( s) , 52, 119, 121- 123; charact er, 52 Transit ion, 158, 170 Transit ional; break, 157; device, 157 Trist an, 54 Trist ram Shandy, 93 Trut h, illusion of, 105 Trut hful st ories, 133 Twelft h Night , 103 Twist ( s) , 1, 14, 22- 24, 32, 38, 40, 51 Type( s) , 50 U Unbelievable, 105 Uncert aint ies, 15 Uncert aint y, 8 Unconscious level, 8 Unconvent ional, 132 Underlying voice, 128 Underst andabilit y, 16 Uneducat ed, 143 Unfam iliar, 8, 50 Unicorn Mount ain, 30, 163 Uniqueness, 95 Unm asked, 121 Unm asking, 157 Unreliable narrat ors, 147, 148 Updike, John, 96 Usurper( s) , 54, 88, 89, 92 Ut opia, 49 Vernacular, 132 Vico, Em ile, 148 Vict im , 70, 80, 81, 86, 87 Viet nam , 38, 75, 95 Viewpoint charact er, 66, 128, 155, 158- 160, 165, 167, 170, 171 Viewpoint s, t rading, 155 Villain( s) , 28, 34, 68, 70, 73, 86, 87, 89; underst andable, 91, 92 Vindicat ion, 89 Violence, 29

Vision: of hope, 17; of t he w orld, 133 Vocabulary, 126, 127 Voice( s) , 126- 28, 132, 139, 143, 145, 149; narrat ive, 130; nat ural st yle, 128; neut ral, 167; present at ional, 138; underlying, 128 Volunt eer, 83, 84 Vonnegut , Kurt , 78, 101, 135, 163 : Wait ing for Godot , 65 Walk- ons, 59- 62 Wall, The, 135 Ward, Art em is, 143 Wat ergat e, 54 Wells, H. G., 146 West erns, 48, 50 Wexford, I nspect or, 94 " What I f?," 39 Wheel of Fort une, 137 " Whole Life," 111 Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, 12 Wiggin, Ender, 78 Will: act of, 121; own, 121; t o change, 121 Willing suspension of disbelief, 134 Wit ches, 88, 104, 120 Wit hholding inform at ion, 150 Wizard of t he Pigeons, 95 Wolfe, Gene, 22, 149 Wolfe, Nero, 12, 85, 147 Wom an Under t he I nfluence, A, 91 " Wonderful St ories," 40 Wondering, 39, 40 World According t o Garp, The, 111 Writ er( s) : at t it ude, 139; com pet ence of, 15; earn t he t it le of, 1; m yst ery, 150; obj ect ive of, 17; represent at ional, 135, 138; screen, 135, 140; st yle, 139 Writ ing: good, 132; persuasive, 37; present at ional, 138, 139; represent at ional, 138, 139 Wut henng Height s, 54, 73, 120 XYZ Yourself, ideas from , 29 ABOUT THE AUTHOR No one had ever won bot h t he Hugo and t he Nebula Award for best science fict ion novel t wo years in a row - unt il 1987, when Speaker for t he Dead won t he sam e awards given t o Ender's Gam e. He has since com plet ed t hat t rilogy wit h t he novel Xenocide, and he's hard at work on his Hom e- com ing series. But Orson Scot t Card's experience is not lim it ed t o one genre or form of st oryt elling. A dozen of his plays have been produced in regional t heat re; his m ainst ream novel Lost Boys enj oyed great success; his hist orical novel, Saint s

( alias Wom an of Dest iny) , has been an underground hit for several years; and Card has writ t en hundreds of audio plays and a dozen script s for anim at ed videoplays for t he fam ily m arket . He has also edit ed books, m agazines, and ant hologies; he writ es a regular review colum n for The Magazine of Fant asy and Science Fict ion; he publishes Short Form , a j ournal of short - fict ion crit icism ; he even reviews com put er gam es for Com put e! Along t he way, Card earned a m ast er's degree in lit erat ure and has an abiding love for Chaucer, Shakespeare, Boccaccio, and t he Medieval Rom ance. He has t aught writ ing courses at several universit ies and at such workshops as Ant ioch, Clarion, Clarion West , and t he Cape Cod Writ ers Workshop. I t is fair t o say t hat Orson Scot t Card has exam ined st oryt elling from every angle. Born in Richland, Washingt on, Card grew up in California, Arizona, and Ut ah. He lived in Brazil for t wo years as an unpaid m issionary for t he Morm on Church and received degrees from Brigham Young Universit y and t he Universit y of Ut ah. He current ly lives in Greensboro, Nort h Carolina, wit h his wife, Krist ine, and t heir t hree children, Geoffrey, Em ily, and Charles ( nam ed for Chaucer, Bront e, and Dickens) .